WDF Classification

WRAP A CLASSIFICATION SCHEME TO DEFINE THE QUALITY OF WASTE DERIVED FUELS October 2012
A CLASSIFICATION SCHEME
TO DEFINE THE QUALITY OF
WASTE DERIVED FUELS
Home
Developing a scheme Development and nature Classification Appendices References
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Executive Summary Acknowledgements

This classification scheme aims to provide unambiguous and clear classification of We would like to express our gratitude to the TAG members for their assistance
waste derived fuel (WDF) properties for use by energy from waste (EfW) facilities. The in developing this classification scheme and their assistance in the collection of
system is designed to help fuel users define the fuel parameters of WDF they need industry data. The TAG played a significant role in defining the fuel parameters
to power their facilities, by the use of a system of Classes. The system will also help included within this scheme and represents the numerous industries producing and
fuel producers to classify their WDF in terms of the same Classes and therefore the using waste derived fuel.
potential end user is able to analyse the data to determine whether they can accept
the WDF within their facility. This will enable direct and efficient trading of WDF and The TAG consisted of the following members:
facilitate a good understanding between the seller and the buyer. The scheme is not Philip Cozens, Progressive Energy Ltd;
intended to define end of waste criteria for waste derived fuels Liam Oldershaw, Systems 4 Recycling;
The system classifies the fuel properties of WDF against 3 main criteria: economic, Will Spurr, Waste Recycling Group;
technical and environmental, within each of which are the key factors in need of Claire Downey, Indaver Ireland Ltd;
determination: David Lawrence, Lawrence Recycling; and
Economic attributes: characteristics that will affect the economics of Simon Little, Powerday.
the fuels usage:
|| calorific value;
|| biomass* content; and
|| moisture content.
These determine the value of the fuel and any potential incentive payments.
Technical attributes: characteristics that will affect the performance of the
combustion facility:
|| chlorine (Cl) content which causes corrosion and fouling;
|| ash content which affects melting and sintering temperatures; and
|| bulk content which affects transport/space and infeed levels.
The facility will need to be designed to handle WDF with these qualities.
Environmental attributes: characteristics that will influence emissions to the
environment:
* For the scope of this report, the term biomass is used to mean biogenic content of contemporary origin, but
|| mercury (Hg); biomass has been used as this is the more recognised industry-wide term. The more technically correct term
|| cadmium (Cd); and biogenic refers to the proportion of carbon present within the material which can be defined as the carbon isotope
|| other heavy metals. C-14 (new carbon which was absorbed from the atmosphere) as opposed to the somewhat decayed over time C-12
(fossil carbon which has been stored in the earths crust for a minimum of 6,000 years). C-14 is sourced from wood,
Failure to manage the environmental attributes may result in harmful emissions if paper, cardboard and energy crops, and C-12 is sourced from coal, oil and gas (and their derivatives).
not properly abated.
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1.0 Developing a
1.1 Background
1.2 Introduction
Classification 1.3 What is waste derived fuel?
Scheme for waste 1.4 Scope of the classification scheme
derived fuel

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1.1 Background 1.2 Introduction

Recovering energy from waste (EfW) is playing an increasing role in generating low The classification scheme for WDF aims to help fuel producers and users to
carbon energy and will support achievement of the UKs target of 15% of its energy identify the appropriate specification to use when characterising the quality
from renewable sources by 2020. This project is part of WRAPs EfW programme, the of WDF. This scheme can assist businesses and organisations operating and
objective of which is to address market failures relating to a lack of information. One supplying gasification, pyrolysis, incineration and co-incineration plants in defining
of the current unknowns in the sector is the quality and variability of waste derived the minimum quality of the WDF required for their process. This classification
fuels (WDF). As this is a relatively immature sector unfamiliar fuels could create a scheme has been developed following extensive research into existing standards,
level of uncertainty and a lack of confidence amongst users, leading to limited market specifications and quality criteria for WDF including publicly available specifications.
development and poor market confidence. This project seeks to address the barriers A list of the current standards available for solid recovered fuel (SRF), refuse derived
by defining a system of classification for WDF which clarifies the quality required for fuel (RDF) and biofuels is shown in the reference section.
different end uses or the quality of the fuel actually produced. This system would
assist in a number of ways by: The existing European standards (CEN 343) define the quality criteria for a wide
range of WDF. Although these standards can be used to define the fuel quality of
producing a common understanding between producers and buyers; WDF, they do not guarantee market confidence in the use of WDF to generate energy
providing a measure/definition of fuel quality; in smaller scale facilities. For example, the European standard BS EN 15359: 2011[9]
defining a simple language to be used when describing the fuel; and which defines the quality criteria for SRF was developed using data from large
industrial WDF users such as cement kilns and coal fired power plants, therefore
ensuring the fuel is fit for purpose for use with the technology in place or
some of the classes are not appropriate for smaller scale EfW facilities which have
planned.
tighter fuel requirements to ensure they are economically viable and to ensure
The scheme is specifically aimed to help SMEs that either produce WDF, plan to permitting regulations are not breached.
utilise it for energy production or supply it to a third party fuel user. The TAG indicated
This was confirmed by the Technical Advisory Group TAG and the scheme as shown in
that industry recognises that a formal classification scheme is necessary for
Section 3.0 was developed to address that.
supporting the use of WDF and to establish and maintain market confidence.
Classifying WDF could help businesses to assess the benefits of substituting fossil
fuels in industrial plants, and will enable its quality to be compared with other WDF
and virgin fuels based on a number of parameters.
The development of this classification scheme was made possible by the

creation of a Technical Advisory Group (TAG) which was put together to ensure
all recommendations and decisions were taken in the wider interests of industry
representatives. It consisted of members of WDF producers, WDF users, energy
from waste (EfW) industry experts and technology providers. The project has relied
upon their significant experience and knowledge of the industry and the scheme was
developed with the knowledge of, and agreement from, all members of the TAG.

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1.3 What is waste derived fuel? 1.4 Scope of the classification scheme
For the purpose of this projects classification scheme, WDF is defined as A The wastes listed below are considered to be outside the scope of this scheme:
heterogeneous group of non-hazardous wastes that do not cease to be such by virtue Products from anaerobic digestion (AD) the markets for biogas and digestate
of their being used to generate energy without a greater negative environmental are normally readily available and accessible. Work in this area is covered by a
impact than landfill disposal. separate programme within WRAP.
To improve the marketability of WDF, the industry adopted the term solid recovered Untreated municipal solid waste (MSW) -treatment of MSW increases the
fuel (SRF) for waste fuels that meet a tighter quality specification. recovery rates of certain materials and therefore only post-treatment residual
MSW is considered within the scope of this scheme.
The term refuse derived fuel (RDF) is generally used to define unspecified waste Hazardous wastes (other than waste oil) - defined in the Environment Agency
after basic processing to increase the calorific value (CV) of municipal solid waste document Hazardous Waste: Interpretation of definition and classification of
(MSW), commercial or industrial waste materials. hazardous waste (2nd edition v2.3).
Wastes that currently fall outside the scope of Waste Framework Directive
(2008/98/EC): - These are:
a. gaseous effluents emitted into the atmosphere; and
b. where they are already covered by other legislation;
i. radioactive waste;
ii. animal carcasses, faecal matter and other natural, non-dangerous
substances used in farming; and
iii. decommissioned explosives.
iv. Any waste material which is subject to an end of waste criteria under the
waste protocols project. The development of this scheme is not in any way
attempting to define end of waste

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2.0 The development

2.1 Introduction
2.2 End users considered within this classification scheme
and nature of the

classification
sCHEME
Development and nature Home

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2.1 Introduction 2.2 E

nd users considered within this
This system has been designed to assist WDF producers and users to define the classification scheme
variables which will classify their WDF. This system identifies existing European
Quality Standards and defines a classification system for WDF that can be applied The main end users considered as appropriate to use this scheme are:
to fuel for smaller scale EfW facilities. Where appropriate the existing European fluidised bed and moving grate combustion plants;
Standards should be applied (see Figure 1 for decision tree to help highlight which advanced thermal treatment users (mostly, but not exclusively, gasification and
system to use). pyrolysis)
In addition to this classification system, the British Standards and specifications also cement kilns; and
considered are: coal-fired power plants.
British Standard for SRF - BS EN 15359: 2011; and More detail is available on these technologies in Appendix 2
British Standard for solid biofuels - BS EN 14961-1: 2010.
To identify the quality standard that is applicable for each type of WDF, it is necessary
Further detail on each of the standards is included in Appendix 1 to understand the nature of the WDF, the proposed end use of the fuel and the scope
of each quality standard included within this framework. The decision tree illustrated
The specification and classes for defining the quality of WDF are determined by the
in Figure 1 contains a series of questions on the nature of WDF and its end use.
appropriate quality standard. The quality of a fuel can be defined by a number of
Depending on the answers for each question, the appropriate quality standard which
variables. Key parameters include:
should be followed to define the quality of a particular fuel can be determined.
calorific value (CV);
moisture content; Once the usage of the classification scheme has been confirmed, the producer/
supplier can follow the guidance supplied to specify the relevant Classes of WDF as
ash content;
detailed in Section 3 and summarised in Appendix 3.
levels of undesirable material contamination;
physical properties; and
chemical properties.
These parameters are required by the EfW operators to define the minimum quality
of WDF that can be accepted within their process. The parameters required for
defining the quality of WDF and the limit value of each parameter for their particular
application will vary according to the operating parameters of the end user of
the fuel. Within this classification scheme the end users shown in Section 2.2 are
considered.

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Figure1: Decision tree to determine the most suitable

Is the waste hazardous in nature? (as defined in the
classification scheme - footnote - Please YES
Environment Agencys Guidance document? 1
note the usage of any classification scheme
is non-obligatory. NO
Is the waste excluded from the Waste Framework

Directive (2008/98/EC)2? YES
NO
Is the waste a product from AD? YES
NO
Is the waste untreated MSW? YES
NO
Is the waste going to be thermally treated or used as

fuel?
NO The standards identified in this document do not apply.
YES
Is the fuel classified as a solid biofuel according to BS EN Follow BS EN 14961-1:2010, Solid biofuel specifications
YES
14961-1:2010? (Refer to Section 2.3.2 for further detail) and classes if it is for a non-industrial use3.
NO
Is the WDF primarily going to be used for energy recovery

in a facility processing less than 100,000 tonnes? YES
1 A guide to the Hazardous Waste Regulations and the List of Waste
Regulations in England and Wales, Environment Agency 2008 NO
(http://publications.environment-agency.gov.uk/PDF/GEHO0506BKTR-E-E.pdf)
2 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2008:312:0003:0030:EN:PDF
3 http://shop.bsigroup.com/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000030200086 Follow BS EN 15359: 2011 Follow the A classification system to define the quality of
4 http://shop.bsigroup.com/ProductDetail/?pid=000000000030202007 Solid recovered fuel specifications and classes4. Waste Derived Fuels provided in Section 3.0

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3.0 Classification
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Economic attributes
of waste derived 3.3 Technical attributes
fuels for usage 3.4 Environmental attributes
in small scale
3.5 Summary of all WDF Classes and characteristics
3.6 Worked example
energy from waste 3.7 Summary
facilities
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3.1 Introduction Failure to manage the environmental attributes may result in harmful emissions if
not properly abated.
This classification scheme aims to provide unambiguous and clear classification
of waste derived fuel (WDF) properties for use by small scale EfW facilities. The
system is designed to help fuel users define the fuel parameters of WDF they need
3.2 Economic attributes
to power their facilities, by the use of a system of Classes. The system will also help The economic attributes of the WDF are those variables which will affect the
fuel producers to classify their WDF in terms of the same Classes and therefore the financial value of the fuel (in terms of energy generation, gate fees and the ability to
potential end user is able to analyse the data to determine whether they can accept claim revenue from Government incentive schemes such as Renewable Obligation
the WDF within their facility. This will enable direct and efficient trading of WDF and Certificates - ROCs). The economic attributes covered by the scheme are:
facilitate a good understanding between the seller and the buyer.
biomass content (wt% as received basis);
The system classifies the fuel properties of WDF against 3 main criteria: Economic, net calorific value (MJ/kg as received basis);
Technical and Environmental, within each of which are the key factors in need of moisture content (wt% total).
determination:
Economic attributes: characteristics that will affect the economics of the fuels The reasons for the inclusion of each of these parameters within the economic
usage: characteristics of the classification scheme and the limit values for each class are
{{ biomass content; explained in the following sections.
{{ calorific value; and
{{ moisture content.
These determine the value of the fuel and any potential incentive payments.
Technical attributes: characteristics that will affect the performance of the
combustion facility:
{{ chlorine (Cl) content which causes corrosion and fouling;
{{ ash content which affects melting and sintering temperatures; and
{{ bulk content which affects transport/space and infeed levels.
The facility will need to be designed to handle WDF with these qualities.
Environmental attributes: characteristics that will influence emissions to the
environment:
{{ mercury (Hg);
{{ cadmium (Cd); and
{{ other heavy metals.
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3.2.1 Biomass content as received (ar) 3.2.2 Net calorific value as received (ar)
The biomass content of WDF consists of its biodegradable fraction and is usually The calorific value of any fuel describes the amount of heat or energy generated
represented by the percentage of biogenic carbon (C-14) in comparison to the when it is completely combusted. It is expressed as a gross calorific value (GCV)
total carbon present in WDF. Biomass content is considered within the economic and net calorific value (NCV). NCV is determined by calculation and is equal to the
characteristic because: GCV minus any heat lost due to moisture present in the fuel and various chemical
processes. The NCV is more representative of the heat available in practice when
The electricity and/or heat generated from the biodegradable fraction of waste is
fuels are combusted in boilers and furnaces. The NCV (ar) ensures that the calorific
characterised as renewable energy and may be eligible for receiving ROC or RHI
value takes account of the moisture content as received at the laboratory before any
payments from the government.
processing or conditioning takes place, giving a more representative result.
Knowing the biomass/biodegradable content of waste could help operators and
end users quantify the landfill cost saved as a result of diversion of these wastes
from landfill.
Classification
Classification
Table 2 sets out the classification categories for the NCV content of WDF expressed
Table 1 sets out the classification categories for the biomass content of WDF as MJ/kg as received.
expressed as wt/wt% as received.
Table 2: Net calorific (as received) value classification
Table 1: Biomass content classification
Classification Unit Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5
Classification Unit Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5 property
property
Net calorific MJ/kg 25 20 15 10 6.5
Biomass wt/wt% 90 80 60 50 <50 value (as (mean)
content (as (mean) received)
received)
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3.2.3 Moisture content as received 3.2.4 Summary of economic attributes

Moisture content is used to describe the water present in WDF. Moisture content The classification system for describing the economic characteristics of WDF is
is included in the economic attributes as the amount of moisture present in WDF summarised in Table 4.
impacts on the NCVar. The heating value of the fuel decreases with increased
moisture content (2009[25]). In addition, moisture content is an important fuel Table 4: Classes for economic attributes of WDF
parameter as:
Classification
a higher moisture content increases the volume of flue gas produced per energy Unit Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5
property
unit, requiring larger waste heat boilers and flue gas cleaning equipment;
Biomass
high moisture content will reduce the combustion temperature, hindering the content (as % (mean) 90 80 60 50 <50
combustion of the reaction products resulting in higher emissions (2004 [21]) received)
and higher fuel quantities. Supplementary fuel may also be required to maintain
Net calorific
combustion temperature; and MJ/kg
value (as 25 20 15 10 6.5
the presence of moisture in WDF will influence the behaviour of the waste during (mean)
received)
the primary conversion stage in a gasification/pyrolysis plant and will also impact
Moisture % wt/wt
on the properties and quality of the syngas produced. 10 15 20 30 <40
content (mean)
Classification
Table 3 sets out the classification categories for the moisture content of WDF 3.3 Technical attributes
expressed as % wt/wt.
The chemical and physical properties of WDF are important as they can affect the
Table 3: Moisture content classification system performance of an energy from waste facility. The parameters of WDF that can have
a significant effect on the normal operation of the EfW plant are grouped within this
Classification Unit Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5 attribute. These properties are important as they affect the operational parameters
property that are set for using the incoming fuel. The parameters included within the technical
Moisture % wt/wt 10 15 20 30 <40 characteristics of WDF are:
content (mean) chlorine content (% wt/wt dry basis);
ash content (% wt/wt dry basis); and
bulk density (kg/m3 as received basis).
Moisture content could also be considered within the technical attribute as it can
cause ignition issues, but as the influence of moisture content on the economic
attributes is higher than it is on the technical attributes, it is included only within
the economic parameter to avoid overlap. The reason for including all the above
parameters within the technical attributes of this classification scheme and the limit
values for each class are explained in the following paragraphs.
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3.3.1 Chlorine content 3.3.2 Ash content

Burning WDF with a high chlorine content can cause corrosion, slagging and fouling Ash is the inorganic and incombustible mineral fraction of WDF that is left after
in boilers. The presence of chlorine can also increase emissions of hydrochloric complete combustion. The mineral fraction consists of non-combustible minerals
acid (HCl) and cause the formation of Polychlorinated Dibenzodioxins (PCDD) and which are contained in the fuel and contaminants which can be added to the fuel
Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans (PCDF). Chlorine is a highly electro-negative halogen during processing, such as dirt and dust. Typical elements present in ash are silicon
and is typically present in the following wastes: (Si), aluminium (Al), iron (Fe), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), potassium
organic food waste which contain salts such as sodium chloride (NaCl) and (K), sulphur (S) and phosphorous (P). The concentration of each element varies
potassium chlorides (KCl); according to the composition of the WDF. Ash content is included within the technical
attributes of WDF because:
plastic bags which are halogenated;
WDF containing a high ash content will require an efficient dust removal system
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) which are present in pipes, insulation cables, and as a
to reduce the amount of particulate emissions;
substitute for painted wood, films etc.;
WDF with a high ash content will have a lower calorific value; and
paper and wood pulp which have been bleached; and
the ash sintering, softening and melting temperature is determined by its
industrial solvents (e.g. degreasers, cleaning solutions, paint thinners,
elemental composition and therefore it is an important characteristic in
pesticides, resins and glues).
determining the combustion temperature to avoid problems with ash handling.
Most of these wastes can be present in WDF and higher amounts would result in
Classification
higher chlorine content. The chlorine content of the whole of the fuel can be diluted
by mixing with other waste fractions other than those listed above. The thresholds for each classification category for ash content are based on a review
of the data available in technical report CEN/TR 15508: 2006, Key properties on solid
Classification
recovered fuels to be used for establishing a classification system[1] and Refuse
The thresholds for each classification category for chlorine content are taken from Derived Fuel, Current Practice and Perspectives, European Commission, 2003[23]
the existing standard BS EN 15359: 2011[9] and set out in Table 5. Chlorine content and is set out in Table 6. Ash content should be expressed as % wt/wt (dry).
should be expressed as % wt/wt (dry).
Table 6: Ash content classification system
Table 5: Chlorine content classification system
Classification Unit Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5
Classification property
Unit Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5
property Ash content % wt/wt 10 20 30 40 <50
Chlorine % wt/wt 0.2 0.6 0.8 - - (dry) (mean)
content (dry) (mean)
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3.3.3 Bulk density 3.3.4 Summary of technical attributes

Bulk density is defined as the mass of the fuel that can occupy a specific volume. The classification system for the technical attributes of the WDF is summarised in
Bulk density is considered to be the most important physical property of a fuel for Table 8.
both economic and technical reasons. The bulk density of WDF is determined by the
fuel preparation technique employed. This can include sorting, biological treatment, Table 8: Proposed classes for technical attributes of the WDF
crushing, grinding, shredding, separation, screening, drying, compacting etc. Bulk
density is included within the technical attributes as WDF with a lower bulk density Classification Unit Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5
can have the following disadvantages[25]: property
the calorific value per unit volume is lower when bulk density is low; Chlorine % wt/wt 0.2 0.6 0.8 - -
controlling the process may be difficult;
Ash content % wt/wt 10 20 30 40 <50
feeding control has to be accurate; (dry) (mean)
a large amount of space may be required to store the WDF; Bulk density kg/m3 >650 450 350 250 100
transport costs may be increased as more WDF would be required; and (as received) (mean)
WDF with a low bulk density may be unsuitable for some technologies.
Some WDF applications require a lower bulk density to enable the WDF to be blown 3.4 Environmental attributes
into the furnace using air pressure.
Some elements present in WDF can cause harmful emissions when thermally treated
Classification and these elements are included within the classification of environmental attributes.
The elements considered are:
The thresholds for each classification category for bulk density are based on a review
of the data available BS EN 14961-1: 2010, Solid biofuels Fuel specification and mercury (mg/MJ as received basis);
classes Part 1: General requirements [3] and CEN/TS 15401:2010, Solid recovered cadmium (mg/MJ as received basis); and
fuels - Determination of bulk density [11] and is set out in Table 7. Bulk density other heavy metals (mg/MJ as received basis).
should be expressed as kg/m3 (as received).
It should be noted that the environmental performance of a plant generating energy
Table 7: Bulk density classification system from WDF is not only determined by the composition of WDF but is also influenced
by the design, operating procedures, permitting requirements and type of flue gas
Classification Unit Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5 abatement technology used. The classification of environmental attributes in this
property classification scheme alone will not give the end-user sufficient information to
Bulk density kg/m3 >650 450 350 250 100 assess the impact on emissions from the facility. It should be noted also that biomass
(as received) (mean) content, whilst listed within this scheme as an economic attribute, also provides
environmental benefits in the usage of biogenic carbon over fossil carbon, but
biomass content is listed only under economic attributes to avoid overlap.
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The actual emissions from the facility will depend on the relationship between the
input and output of these elements within the WDF which is termed as the transfer
3.4.2 Cadmium Content
factor. The transfer factor will be different for each facility and technology and end- The heavy metal cadmium (Cd) is included in the environmental attributes because
users are advised to carry out a study to determine the transfer factors for each its toxicity and accumulation in agriculture has the potential to damage human
element mentioned. A detailed description of the transfer factor and information on health. Cadmium is a metal that is volatised as chlorides and oxides during
how these can be measured can be found in CEN/TR 15508:2006, Key properties on combustion. Cadmium is typically present in the following wastes:
solid recovered fuels to be used for establishing a classification system[1].
paints and industrial solvents;
WEEE including batteries; and
3.4.1 Mercury Content electroplated metals.
Mercury (Hg) is a heavy metal and is toxic to the environment and human health. The technical report CEN/TR 15508:2006, Key properties on solid recovered fuels
Mercury is typically found in the following types of wastes: to be used for establishing a classification system[1] collected extensive data on
industrial sludge and filter cake; and the cadmium content of SRF derived from a number of sources and included a
classification system for cadmium.
Waste Electrical and Electronics Equipment (WEEE).
Classification
Mercury is included in environmental attributes because of its high vapour pressure
and volatility which can allow it to escape with the flue gas upon combustion. Mercury The threshold for each classification category for cadmium content, other than Class
has been recognised as one of the most significant global environmental pollutants 5 is taken from the technical report CEN/TR 15508: 2006 Solid recovered fuels Key
because of its middle and long term impacts on health[31]. properties on solid recovered fuels to be used for establishing a classification system
[1]. These classes are appropriate for small scale EfW facilities as they do not exceed
Classification
the normal design tolerance of a facility. The classification for the cadmium content
The classification of mercury content of WDF is shown in Table 9. of WDF is shown in Table 10.
Table 9: Mercury classification Table 10: Cadmium classification system
Classification Unit Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5 Classification Unit Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5
property property
mg/MJ mg/MJ
0.02 0.03 0.06 - - 0.1 0.3 1.0 5.0 7.5
(Median) (Median)
Mercury (Hg) Cadmium (Cd)
mg/MJ (as received) mg/MJ
(as received)
(80th 0.04 0.06 0.12 - - (80th 0.2 0.6 2.0 10 15
percentile) percentile)
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3.4.3 Other heavy metals 3.4.4 Summary of environmental attributes

Heavy metals are included within this classification scheme due to their detrimental The classification system for environmental characteristics of the WDF is
impact on the environment and human health. The heavy metals covered by this summarised in Table 12.
parameter are Antimony (Sb), Arsenic (As), Lead (Pb), Chromium (Cr), Cobalt (Co),
Copper (Cu), Manganese (Mn), Nickel (Ni) and Vanadium (V). There are environmental Table 12: Classes for the environmental attributes of WDF
concerns associated with the volatile fraction of these metals which are volatised as
chlorides and oxides during combustion (Khan et al., 2009 [25]). A large proportion of Classification Unit Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5
volatile metals present in the WDF would be captured and contained in air pollution property
control (APC) residues while the remaining are emitted through the stack. Non- Mercury (Hg) mg/MJ 0.02 0.03 0.06 - -
volatile metals are contained within the bottom ash. The existing classification (as received) (Median)
system set out in BS EN 15359:2011 does not include heavy metals. mg/MJ 0.04 0.06 0.12 - -
(80th
Classification percentile)
The classification for the heavy metal content of WDF is shown in Table 11. Cadmium (Cd) mg/MJ 0.1 0.3 1.0 5.0 7.5
(as received) (Median)
Table 11: Heavy metal classification system
mg/MJ 0.2 0.6 2.0 10 15
(80th
Classification Unit Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5 percentile)
property
Sum of heavy mg/MJ 15 30 50 100 190 Sum of heavy mg/MJ 15 30 50 100 190
metals (as (Median) metals (HM) (Median)
received) 30 60 100 200 380 (as received)
mg/MJ mg/MJ 30 60 100 200 380
(80th (80th
percentile) percentile)
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3.5 Summary of all WDF Classes and

characteristics
The criteria and fuel parameters used for defining the characteristics of WDF are
summarised in Table 13. It should be noted that the more desirable attributes are
always class 1 and desirability decreases with higher rated classes. This means that
lower class numbers in the definition of the fuel suggest a cleaner fuel.
Table 13: WDF characterisation
Classification Unit Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5 Classification Unit Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5
property property
Biomass mg/MJ
0.02 0.03 0.06 - -
content (as % (mean) 90 80 60 50 <50 (Median)
Mercury (Hg)
received) mg/MJ
(as received)
Net calorific (80th 0.04 0.06 0.12 - -
MJ/kg percentile)
value (as 25 20 15 10 6.5
(mean)
received) mg/MJ
0.1 0.3 1.0 5.0 7.5
(Median)
Moisture % wt/wt Cadmium (Cd)
10 15 20 30 <40 mg/MJ
content (mean) (as received)
(80th 0.2 0.6 2.0 10 15
Chlorine % wt/wt percentile)
0.2 0.6 0.8 - -
mg/MJ
Ash content % wt/wt 15 30 50 100 190
10 20 30 40 <50 Sum of heavy (Median)
(dry) (mean) metals (HM) mg/MJ
Bulk density kg/m3 (as received) (80th 30 60 100 200 380
>650 450 350 250 100
(as received) (mean) percentile)
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3.6 Worked example Partial results from measurement:
A sample template for reporting and specifying the characteristics of WDF is provided Lot number 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11- 13- 15- 17- 19-
as Appendix 1. This is based on the template included in BS EN 15359: 2011 Solid 12 14 16 18 20
recovered fuels Specifications and classes[9] and should be completed by the fuel BM (%) 60.8 63.4 64.4 61.2 59.9 62.0 61.4 64.5 57.9 58.9
producer. The inclusion of all the fuel parameters mentioned within Section 3.0 is
NCV (MJ/kg)* 8.5 9.9 9.9 10.0 10.1 10.5 10.9 11.1 11.5 12.0
required.
M (%) 30.4 24.0 24.4 18.0 18.3 17.2 17.0 16.8 16.4 16.0
Cl (%) 0.61 0.71 0.56 0.5 0.62 0.43 0.54 0.60 0.58 0.65
A MRF produces a generally homogeneous WDF from its facility for a period of Ash (%) 38.6 32.3 33.1 28.3 28.1 26.8 25.4 24.1 23.5 21.2
12 months, producing a total of 30,000 tonnes per annum. 20 segments are used BD (kg/m3) 389 410 420 428 434 453 464 471 479 487
to study the characteristics of the fuel mentioned in the Economic, Technical and
Environmental characteristics listed in Sections 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4. Hg (mg/MJ) 0.018 0.020 0.023 0.023 0.024 0.027 0.028 0.034 0.036 0.038
Cd (mg/MJ) 2.0 2.2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.7 3.1 3.1 3.3 3.5
Most testing facilities will require the producer to provide their samples via mail,
HM (mg/MJ) 63 64 67 67 69 71 71 73 74 75
meaning a reliable sampling process must be undertaken at the MRF. See WRAP
Sampling Guidance document for a recommended sampling procedure. * as received
Classification parameters calculation
1. Biomass (BM):
the arithmetic mean is 61.44 wt/wt%;
the standard deviation is 2.1 wt/wt%;
the lower limit of 95% confidence interval is calculated according
to Eq (2) (see Appendix 5);
the lower limit is 60.13 wt/wt%. The calculated mean value is rounded down to
61 wt/wt%; and
Characteristics tested during each lot: the calculated 95% confidence level is rounded down to 60 wt/wt%.
Class code BM: 3 (see Table 13)
1. Economic: Biomass content (BM), NCV (as received), Moisture (M)

2. Technical: Chlorine, Ash content, Bulk density (BD)
3. Environmental: Mercury, Cadmium, Heavy metals (HM)
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2. NCV (ar): The calculated mean value is rounded at 28% (wt/wt); and
The arithmetic mean is 10.4 MJ/kg (as received); The calculated 95% confidence level is rounded to 31% (wt/wt).
The standard deviation is 0.94 MJ/kg (as received);
Class code Ash: 2 (see Table 13)
The lower limit of 95% confidence level is 9.8 MJ/kg and is calculated
according to Eq (2); 6. Bulk Density (BD)
The calculated mean value is rounded down at 10 MJ/kg; and The arithmetic mean is 453.5 kg/m3; and
The calculated 95% confidence level is rounded down to 10 MJ/kg. The standard deviation is 30.6 kg/m3
Class code NCV: 4 (see Table 13) Class code BD: 2 (see Table 13)
3. Moisture (M): 7. Mercury (Hg)

The arithmetic mean is 19.85 % (wt/wt); Number of samples = 10;
The standard deviation is 4.54 % (wt/wt); Median will be at 5th and 6th sample (10/2 = 5);
The upper limit of 95% confidence level is 22.6 % (wt/wt) and is calculated The median value is 0.0255 mg/MJ ((as received) (0.024 +0.027)/2 = 0.0255);
according to the Eq (3); The 80th percentile is 0.035 mg/MJ ((10/0.8 = 8; (0.034+0.036)/2 = 0.035);
The calculated mean value is rounded at 20% (wt/wt); and The calculated median value is rounded to 0.02 mg/MJ; and
The calculated 95% confidence level is rounded down at 22 % (wt/wt). The calculated 80th percentile for Hg is rounded at 0.035 mg/MJ.
Class code M: 3 (see Table 13) Class code Hg: 1 (see Table 13)
4. Chlorine (Cl) 8. Cadmium (Cd)
The arithmetic mean is 0.58 % (wt/wt); The median value is 2.65 mg/MJ ((as received) (2.6 +2.7)/2 = 2.65); and
The standard deviation is 0.07 % (wt/wt); The 80th percentile is 3.2 mg/MJ ((10/0.8 = 8; (3.1+3.3)/2 = 3.2).
The upper limit of 95% confidence level is 0.62 % (wt/wt) and is calculated
according to the Eq (3); Class code Cd: 4 (see Table 13)
The calculated mean value is rounded at 0.60 % (wt/wt); and 9. Heavy metals (HM)
The calculated 95% confidence level is 0.62% (wt/wt). The median value is 70 mg/MJ ((as received) (69 +71)/2 = 70);
Class code Cl: 2 (see Table 13) The 80th percentile is 73.5 mg/MJ ((10/0.8 = 8; (73+74)/2 = 73.5).
5. Ash content (Ash) Class code HM: 3 (see Table 13)
The arithmetic mean is 28.14 % (wt/wt); Therefore, taking all of the results from above, we arrive at:
The standard deviation is 4.96 % (wt/wt); WDF Class code: BM 3 - NCV 4 - M 3
The upper limit of 95% confidence level is 31.2% (wt/wt) and is calculated Cl 2 - Ash 2 - BD 2
according to the Eq (3); Hg 1 - Cd 4 - HM 3
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The Class code above then, would list the fuel in the following manner, allowing fast, Figure 1 Fuel classification: 343, 222, 143.
easy understanding of the fuels content for each variable:
3 4 3, 2 2 2, 1 4 3
i.e.,
biomass Class3, CV Class4, moisture Class3.
chlorine Class2, ash Class2, bulk density Class2.
mercury Class1, cadmium Class4, OHM Class3.
Note that the factors are always shown in the order as listed above: first the 3
economic factors, followed by the 3 technical factors and finally the 3 environmental
Economic factors
factors.
Technical factors
The Classes indicate the level, and the lower Class numbers always indicates a
Environmental
better, or more desirable fuel for that factor. So in the example above (graphically, factors
Figure 1), the generally mid-high numbers in the economic section (left) and
environmental section (right) indicate a fuel with a low economic value and high
environmental risk (high levels of metals). This, for instance, may be a hazardous
material.
A fuel with low Classes on the left and low Classes on the right (1 1 1, 2 2 2, 1 1
1) Figure 2, would indicate the opposite, a high value, low risk fuel, which may,
for instance, be a wood waste biomass fuel with little or no treatments. Similarly,
high Classes in the central section (1 1 1, 4 4 5, 1 1 1) Figure 3, would indicate a
fuel which would be difficult for the plant to process (maybe bulky material which BM NCV MC Cl Ash BD Hg Cd OHM
produces lots of ash, or contains material deleterious to the plant itself, e.g.,
chlorine).
Compare the graphical representations of these values as shown in Figures 1, 2 and

3
The WDF producer will share this class code with the EfW operator who can then
check these values against their operating conditions and the process tolerance of
specific fuel parameters. The operator must acquire this information from the plant
designers or build an understanding of them based upon knowledge and experience
of their own plant.
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Figure 2 Fuel classification: 111, 222, 111. Figure 3 Fuel classification: 111, 445, 111.
Economic factors Economic factors

Technical factors Technical factors
Environmental Environmental
factors factors
BM NCV MC Cl Ash BD Hg Cd OHM BM NCV MC Cl Ash BD Hg Cd OHM

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3.7 Summary
This classification scheme will help the WDF producer to provide an unambiguous
and clear classification of the WDF to end users, to help them understand the fuel
quality. This will improve knowledge and understanding within the WDF industry.
Through usage of this scheme, if the EfW operator requires a different WDF quality,
for example, a lower chlorine content, they can ask the WDF producer to achieve this
through carrying out additional treatments prior to the use of the fuel (for instance
removing PVC from the feedstock), and the Class indicator for chlorine will show
if that requirement has been met. Similarly, the end user can request technical
details from the designer of the plant, relating to operating parameters which must
be followed during commissioning and on-going operation of the plant. The scheme
delivers a list of 9 Class parameters for those variables which were considered
to be the most important when discussed by the Technical Advisory Group. The
simple graphical manner of representing these values helps to identify the primary
characteristics of the fuel.
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4.0 appendices Appendix 1 - Existing standards
Appendix 2 - Relevant technologies
Appendix 3 - Template for recording the details of

individual samples of WDF
Appendix 4 - 80th percentile of cadmium, mercury and

other heavy metal calculations
Appendix 5 - Test methods
Appendix 6 - Notes
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Appendix 1 - Existing standards fibrous vegetable waste from virgin pulp production and from production of paper
from pulp, if it is co-incinerated at the place of production and heat generated is
recovered; and
4.1 Existing quality standards
cork waste.
The existing quality standards identified in Figure 1 are summarised in the following
4.2 Quality assurance
paragraphs.
Quality assurance (QA) procedures are required to provide confidence to the end user
4.1.1 BS EN 15359: 2011
that the WDF meets the specified requirements of the quality standard. A QA system
helps WDF producers to produce a product with consistent properties and enables
This European specification was developed by the European Committee for
them to describe these properties to customers. A good Quality Management System
Standardisation (CEN) technical committee for Solid recovered fuel (CEN TC 343).
(QMS) in the manufacturing and handling process of the WDF also helps in good
The specification covers the SRF prepared from non-hazardous wastes including
record-keeping and may reduce the number of required samples.
MSW, specific waste, industrial waste, commercial waste, construction and
demolition waste and sewage sludge. Waste wood from the demolition of buildings Table 14: Quality management systems to be followed
and civil engineering is included within the scope of this standard. Untreated MSW
is not included in the scope of this standard. Solid biofuels excluded from the Waste Quality Standards and Classification Quality management system to be
Incineration Directive (2000/76/EC), i,e, clean wood, are not included in this standard scheme followed
but are covered by BS EN 14961:2010
BS EN 15359: 2011 Solid recovered fuels BS EN 15358: 2011 Solid recovered fuels
Specification and classes QMS
4.1.2 BS EN 14961:2010
A classification system to define the quality
The standard for solid biofuels was developed by the CEN technical committee for of Waste Derived Fuel
Solid biofuels (CEN TC 335). It covers solid biofuels utilised for non-industrial use BS EN 14961-1:2010 BS EN 15234 1: 2011 Solid biofuels
which includes small scale appliances, such as households, small commercial Fuel quality assurance
and public sector buildings. Waste wood from the demolition of buildings and civil Solid biofuels specification and classes
engineering is not included within the scope of this standard. Solid biofuel wastes
originating from the following sources are included within the scope of this standard:
products from agriculture and forestry;
vegetable waste from agriculture and forestry;
vegetable waste from the food processing industry;
wood waste, with the exception of wood waste which may contain halogenated
organic compounds or heavy metals as a result of treatment with wood
preservatives or coating, and which includes in particular such wood waste
originated from construction and demolition;
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Appendix 2 - Relevant technologies If the plant has a treatment capacity higher than 100,000 tpa, then BS EN
15359: 2011 can be applied.
Cement kilns If the plant has a treatment capacity lower than 100,000 tpa, then A
classification system to define the quality of Waste Derived Fuel can be
Cement kilns and lime kilns can utilise large quantities of WDF and are capable applied (as shown in Section 3.0)
of accepting a wide variety of hazardous and non-hazardous WDF. Cement kilns
typically co-incinerate WDF with virgin fuels in various proportions depending on Advanced thermal treatment (e.g. gasification, pyrolysis).
their operating parameters. Although cement kilns specify the minimum quality
requirement and various parameters of WDF that can be accepted, the BS EN 15359: Advanced thermal treatment technologies are primarily those that employ
2011 can be applied to define the quality of WDF. pyrolysis and/or gasification to process WDF. Gasification and pyrolysis processes
transform the material content of the WDF into a number of synthetic gas (syngas),
Coal-fired power plants a char and/or an oil products, each of which can be then used as a fuel. This is
done by heating the materials to a high temperature in the absence of oxygen,
Significant environmental benefits can be gained by substituting primary fossil fuels which breaks down the materials into their constituent elements. Although
in coal fired power plants with WDF (2003[23]). Co-combustion of waste biomass in these technologies are in their infancy in the UK, they have been built and are
coal fired power plants has increased as a result of the implementation of the EC successfully operating in Europe, Japan and America. The standard followed for
Directive on Renewable Energy as it contributes to the Renewable Obligation (2003) of defining the quality of WDF for the specific application within advanced thermal
power companies. The quality of WDF used in such plants must be defined in terms treatment facilities would depend on the size of these facilities and the nature of
that are similar to those used for coal, e.g., GCV, ash content, volatile matter and waste treated as shown:
total sulphur content. Coal fired power plants typically follow BS EN 15359: 2011 in If the plant has a treatment capacity higher than 100,000 tpa, then the specific
defining the quality of the WDF. industrial quality requirement is followed or BS EN 15359: 2011 can be
applied.
Fluidised bed and moving grate combustion plants
If the plant has a treatment capacity lower than 100,000 tpa, then A
classification system to define the quality of Waste Derived Fuel can be
Fluidised bed combustion (FBC) units can treat a wide range of fuels due to their
applied (as shown in Section 3.0)
flexibility in design and the large amount of inert bed material which allows them
to treat low grade high-ash fuels efficiently. WDF from processed MSW is used in
FBC in the UK for energy generation (2003[23]). Moving grate combustion is a well-
developed and commonly used technology for the combustion of solid fuels. This
grate system moves waste through the combustion chamber to ensure complete
and effective combustion. The standard followed for specifying the quality of WDF
for their application in FBC and moving grate plants would depend on the size of the
facility as shown:
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Appendix 3 - Template for recording the details

of individual samples of WDF
The form presented here should be used as the primary method of data recording
when analysing the fuel characteristics. Records should be kept of each samples
analysis using the form below, in order to analyse those records to arrive at the
simple version.
Obligatory properties Technical characteristic

Parameters Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5 unit Mean Value Test method
Biomass Ash content % dry
Net Calorific Value (as received) Bulk density kg/m3 as t
Moisture content received
Chlorine content N/A N/A unit Value Test method
Ash content median 80th per
Bulk density Chlorine (Cl) mg/kg dry
Mercury N/A N/A

Cadmium
Environmental characteristic
unit Value Test method
Heavy metals
median 80th per
Mercury (Hg) mg/kg dry
Economic characteristic
Cadmium (Cd) mg/kg dry
unit Mean Value Test method
Other heavy mg/kg dry
Biomass content % as metals
received
Net Calorific Value MJ/kg as
received
Net Calorific Value MJ/kg dry Calculated/Measured
Moisture content % as
received
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Appendix 4 - 80th percentile of cadmium, Cs = Ce x Vs x 1/TF

mercury and other heavy metal calculations Eq (2)
Where,
Environmental attributes are expressed as mg/MJ rather than mg/kg. This unit Cs = specific concentration of property in WDF mg/MJ ar
allows them to be compared for fuels with a varying CV. The environmental
attributes in this classification scheme are based on using the median and 80th Ce = concentration of property in emitted gases mg/m3, the maximum value
percentile values compared to mean value which has been used for classifying the from WID is used
economic and technical attributes. The median and 80th percentile value is used
due to the right skewed normal distribution of the elements considered within Vs = specific volume of gas m3/MJ ar
the environmental attributes. Refer to CEN/TR 15508: 2006, Key properties on
TF = transfer factor that is selected depending on the technology applied for
solid recovered fuels to be used for establishing a classification system [1] for a
combustion and gas treatment and the plant performance. CEN/TR 15508:2009
detailed discussion on the skewed distribution of mercury and cadmium. The right
have calculated TF for mercury emissions from a fluidised bed combustion plant
skewed normal distribution for heavy metals has been confirmed in the dissertation
to be 0.6 for a plant without activated carbon abatement system and 0.065 for a
carried out by Prof. Dr. Ing. Sabine Flamme, ERFO [27]. The median should be
plant using activated carbon.
used for classifying WDF and the 80th percentile value is also provided to ensure
environmental protection as it is used for verifying whether the use of the WDF For calculating the maximum allowable concentration of mercury, the following
complies with the environmental permit. data were used.
The air emission limit values of the EfW facilities are used in determining the Ce = 0.05 mg/m3 (Annex V of WID)
maximum limit value for each metal mentioned in the environmental characteristic.
The air emission limits values are highlighted in the Directive 2000/76/EC on Vs = 0.1569 m3/MJ (data provided in CEN/TR 15508:2006 for Vs is 0.34 m3/
incineration of waste (WID). The following formula from CEN/TR 15508: 2006[1] was MJ for a minimum CV of 3MJ/kg)
used to determine the maximum allowable concentration of mercury content in WDF:
TF = 0.065 (data provided in CEN/TR 15508:2006 for fluidised bed
combustion units)
The minimum CV considered within this classification scheme is 6.5 MJ/kg.
Cs = 0.12 mg/MJ
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Appendix 5 - Test methods Moisture content:
Moisture content is typically measured by heating the fuel to 105C and measuring
Biomass: the weight loss. It is expressed using the unit % wt/wt. The moisture content of WDF
can be measured using one of the following two methods:
The methods for determining the biomass content in SRF are set out in BS EN
BS EN 15414-1: 2010, Solid recovered fuels Determination of moisture
15440:2011 Solid recovered fuels Method for determination of biomass content
content using the oven dry method - Part 1: Determination of total moisture by a
[15]. These methods should be used to measure the biomass content in WDF and
reference method [4]or
include selective dissolution, manual sorting or a measure of C14 content. The
fraction of biogenic content in WDF should be expressed as the percentage of BS EN 15414-2: 2010, Solid recovered fuels Determination of moisture content
biogenic carbon content to total carbon content (wt/wt % as received). using the oven dry method - Part 2: Determination of total moisture content by
simplified method [5].
Net calorific value:
Chlorine:
The NCV of WDF can be calculated and reported as set out in BS EN 15400:2011,
Solid recovered fuels - Determination of calorific value [10]. The chlorine content of WDF can be measured and reported using the methodology
set out in BS EN 15408: 2011, Solid recovered fuels Methods for the determination
If NCV data is available on a dry basis, you can use Eq (1) provided in BS EN 15296: of sulphur (S), chlorine (Cl), fluorine (F) and bromine (Br) content [13]
2011, Solid biofuels Conversion of analytical results from one basis to another[7]
is used to determine the classification categories for NCVd: Ash content
NCVar= (NCVd x (100 Mar)/100) 0.02443x Mar Eq (1) The ash content can be calculated using BS EN 15403: 2011, Solid recovered fuels
Where, Determination of ash content [12].
NCVd = Net calorific value, dry basis (MJ/Kg) Bulk density
NCVar = Net calorific value, as received basis (MJ/Kg) The bulk density of WDF can be measured using the methodology set out in BS EN
15401: 20101, Solid recovered fuels Determination of bulk density [11]
Mar = Moisture content, as received basis
0.02443 represents the correction factor of the enthalpy of vaporisation of water

(constant pressure) at 25C (in MJ/kg per 1 wt% of moisture).
NCV on a dry basis (NCVd) might be required to set the optimal operating
parameters for an EfW facility because they provide an accurate representation of the
WDF. This is because there is a possibility of moisture loss during transportation and
storage and hence the NCVar determined from samples might not be an accurate
representation of the WDF as received at the plant.
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Mercury, cadmium and other heavy metals Calculating the class of each parameter
The mercury, cadmium and other heavy metals content of WDF can be measured To classify WDF under this scheme the class limit value of the following parameters
and reported using the methodology set out in BS EN 15411: 2011, Solid recovered should be compared with the 95% confidence interval. Using the 95% confidence
fuels Methods for the determination of the content of trace elements (As, Ba, Be, interval ensures that any samples that are statistical outliers will have less of an
Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mo, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Tl, V and Zn)[14]. impact on the arithmetic mean resulting in a more representative figure. This is an
approach used within the BS EN 15359: 2011 Solid recovered fuels Specifications
The testing methodologies that should be followed to measure specific parameters and classes[9] for defining the classes for each parameter.
for the scheme are shown in Table 15.
1. Biomass content
Table 15: Testing procedures for various parameters 2. NCV (as received and dry)
3. Moisture content
WDF parameter Standard to be followed
4. Chlorine content
Biomass content CEN/TR 15440:2011, Solid recovered fuels - Determination of the
biomass content
5. Ash content
Calorific value EN 15400:2011 Solid recovered fuels - Determination of calorific The 95% confidence level is measured according to the formulae:
value
X= AM 1.96 x s/ n Eq (2)
Moisture content CEN/TS 15414-1:2010 Solid recovered fuels - Determination of
moisture content using the oven dry method - Part 1: Determination Where:
of total moisture by a reference method
CEN/TS 15414-2:2010 Solid recovered fuels - Determination of AM = arithmetic mean
moisture content using the oven dry method - Part 2: Determination s = standard deviation
of total moisture content by a simplified method n = number of measurements (10 lots so n =10)
Chlorine content EN 15408:2011 Solid recovered fuels - Methods for the determination 1.96 is the functional characteristic of the normal distribution (95% confidence level)
of sulphur (S), chlorine (Cl), fluorine (F) and bromine (Br) content
Some parameters matter more than others with regard to the operational
Ash content EN 15403:2011 Solid recovered fuels - Determination of ash content performance of the plant. These are biomass content, NCV, moisture content and
Bulk density CEN/TS 15401:2010 Solid recovered fuels - Determination of bulk chlorine content. It is therefore better to take a conservative approach to specifying
density these parameters and so each should be expressed in relation to mean. For
Mercury, cadmium EN 15411:2011 Solid recovered fuels - Methods for the determination example, it is better to express biomass content as slightly lower than the mean and
and other heavy of the content of trace elements (As, Ba, Be, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mo, moisture content slightly higher than the mean. This helps the operator to define a
metals Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Tl, V and Zn) class that is suitable for their application with confidence that the WDF will have the
minimum required characteristics. The table below shows how the value for each
parameter should be calculated.
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Table 16: Calculation of each parameter
Biomass content Lower limit value of the 95% confidence interval of arithmetic mean
(AM -1.96 x s/ n)
NCV (as received) Lower limit value of the 95% confidence interval of arithmetic mean
(AM -1.96 x s/ n)
Moisture content Upper limit value of the 95% confidence interval of arithmetic mean
(AM+1.96 x s/ n)
Chlorine content Upper limit value of the 95% confidence interval of arithmetic mean
(AM+1.96 x s/ n)
The class code for mercury, cadmium and heavy metals are determined using
median and 80th percentile and again represent a conservative approach. This
method is used to ensure that the facility can operate within the emissions limits of
their environmental permit.
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Appendix 6 - Notes
Notes on moisture content classification:
Notes on biomass content classification:
1. Class 1 covers WDF with a moisture content below 10%. A review of data on
1. The upper limit value of up to 90% for Class 1 mirrors the CHPQA Guidance the moisture content of various SRFs and RDFs in CEN/TR 15508: 2006, Key
Note 44 [19] which defines eligibility for issuing ROCs as: properties on solid recovered fuels to be used for establishing a classification
system[1] and Refuse Derived Fuel, Current Practice and Perspectives,
i. ROCs are issued to CHP Schemes using biomass (defined in the Renewables
European Commission, 2003 [23] shows that the following WDF fall into this
Obligation as a fuel where at least 90% of the energy content is derived from
category:
plant or animal matter) or waste
a. RDF pellets;
2. The Class 2 threshold of up to 80% is drawn from the report Refuse Derived
Fuel, Current Practice and Perspectives, European Commission, 2003[23] which b. SRF derived from polymers/polymer resins; and
calculates the typical biomass content of RDF to be 84% in the UK.
c. SRF derived from waste wood, filter cake, aluminium hydroxide sludge and
3. The Class 4 threshold of up to 50% was selected to take into account the spent activated carbon.
minimum rational biomass content required while co-firing biomass with coal.
2. The moisture content thresholds in Classes 2, 3 and 4 resulted from a review
4. WDF falling in Class 5 have a low or no biomass content. For example, solvents. of data on the moisture content of various SRFs and RDFs in CEN/TR 15508:
2006, Key properties on solid recovered fuels to be used for establishing
Notes on NCVar classification: a classification system[1] and Refuse Derived Fuel, Current Practice and
Perspectives, European Commission, 2003 [23]
1. The classification categories used to define Class 1 to Class 4 WDF are taken
from BS EN 15359: 2011 Solid recovered fuels Specifications and classes [9] 3. The moisture content threshold of 40% wt/wt for Class 5 is based on a review of
as they are also applicable for small scale EfW facilities. the data collected in CEN/TR 15508:2006[1] and Refuse Derived Fuel, Current
Practice and Perspectives, European Commission, 2003 [23]. WDF with a
2. Class 5 in BS EN 15359 has an NCV as received threshold value of less than 3 moisture content higher than 40% would have a very low NCV (typically around
MJ/kg and was derived based on adiabatic flame temperature and experience in 3MJ/kg) and would not be suitable for combustion in small scale EfW plants.
cement kilns using SRF with a high ash and high water content. It is not possible
for small scale EfW facilities to use WDF with a NCV of less than 3MJ/kg (as
received) and achieve self-sustaining combustion without the use of auxiliary
fuels. The World Bank has recommended a minimum NCV as received for fuel
to be a minimum of 6 MJ/kg to ensure self-sustaining combustion (World Bank
Technical Report, 1999[30]). The TAG members with their prior experience in
dealing with SRF for cement kilns and other EfW facilities agreed NCVar of 6.5
MJ/kg should give sufficient energy for any combustion process.
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Notes on chlorine content classification: Notes on bulk density classification:
1. The chlorine content thresholds for Class 1 and Class 2 are taken from BS EN 1. Bulk density is applicable only for solid fuels.
15359: 2011 Solid recovered fuels Specifications and classes [9]. This is
appropriate for small scale EfW facilities as it is within the normal tolerance 2. The bulk density threshold for Class 1 is appropriate for solid biofuels in the
range; form of briquettes and pellets.
2. The threshold for 0.8% wt/wt (dry) for Class 3 is lower than the Class 3 threshold 3. The bulk density thresholds for Classes 2, 3 and 4 were determined through
set out in BS EN 15359: 2011 of 1%, as plants treating wastes with more than a review of data on bulk density of solid biofuels available in BS EN 14961-
1% wt/wt (dry) chlorine content require chlorine bypass and other abatement 1: 2010, Solid biofuels Fuel specification and classes Part 1: General
systems to reduce the formation of PCDD/PCDF. The financial viability of requirements[3].
implementing a similar chlorine removal system in a small scale EfW facility is
4. The bulk density threshold for Class 5 is taken from the results of inter-
questionable and therefore, a maximum tolerance limit of 0.8% (wt/wt) is used.
laboratory testing carried out by the Quality management, organisation,
3. The chlorine content thresholds for Class 4 (1.5% wt/wt (dry)) and class validation of standards, developments and inquiries for SRF (QUOVADIS). The
5 (3.0 wt/wt (dry)) as set out in BS EN 15359: 2011 are not considered results showed the bulk density of SRF to be typically above 100 kg/m3. For
appropriate for small scale EfW plants because of the increased cost of air example, the bulk density of mixed SRF, wood containing SRF and plastic
emission abatement equipment that would be required. containing SRF is found to be above 100kg/m3.
Notes on ash content classification: Notes on mercury content classification:
1. The ash content threshold for Class 1 is appropriate for WDF of biomass origin 1. The mercury threshold for Classes 1 and 2 are taken from BS EN 15359: 2011
which is free from contamination. A review of ash content of biomass showed it Solid recovered fuels Specifications and classes[9] and are appropriate for
is typically below 10% (S.V. Vassilev et al., 2010 [28]; Masia et al., 2007 [26]). small scale EfW facilities as they fall within the normal design tolerance.
2. The ash content threshold for Classes 2, 3 and Class 4 were determined through 2. The 80th percentile mercury threshold for Class 3 is calculated using the
a review of existing data on the ash content of SRF and RDF in CEN/TR 15508: methodology set out in Appendix 2. The threshold represents the maximum
2006, Key properties on solid recovered fuels to be used for establishing limit value (80th percentile) for mercury that could be present in a WDF with a
a classification system[1] and Refuse Derived Fuel, Current Practice and NCV of 6.5MJ/kg (the lowest class) to enable the facility to still operate within
Perspectives, European Commission, 2003 [23]. the normal design tolerance, i.e. the WID emission limit for mercury would not
be exceeded. The median value for Class 3 is calculated using the ratio of the
3. WDF with ash content less than 50% will fall into Class 5. This value is set median to the 80th percentile taken from the data collected by the technical
upon review of the data collected in CEN/TR 15508: 2006, Key properties committee for CEN 343 on the characteristics of SRF and set out in BS EN
on solid recovered fuels to be used for establishing a classification system 15359: 2011[9].
[1] and Refuse Derived Fuel, Current Practice and Perspectives, European
Commission, 2003 [23] which showed that WDF with an ash content higher than 3. The mercury threshold for Class 4 and Class 5 in BS EN 15359: 2011[9] fall
50% has an NCV (as received) lower than 6.5 MJ/kg and is therefore not suitable outside the maximum limit value of mercury suitable for a small scale EfW
for small scale EfW. facility and are therefore not included within this classification. The maximum
Appendices Home
of the scheme
Guide
page 32
limit value of Class 5 (1mg/MJ) in the BS EN 15359: 2011 was determined by Notes on other heavy metal content classification:
taking into consideration the lowest NCV (assumed to be 3MJ/kg as received)
and the maximum for blending Hg containing wastes which was assumed to 1. The heavy metal threshold for Classes 1, 2, 3 and 4 were determined through a
be 5mg/kg to 10mg/kg (as received). This class within BS EN 15359: 2011[9] review of data on the heavy metals (mg/MJ as received) in SRF from a number of
represents SRF with high ash content that can be used as a raw material sources as provided in CEN/TR 15508:2006, Key properties on solid recovered
substitute in clinker production. fuels to be used for establishing a classification system[1]. The ratio of median
to 80th percentile is the same as mercury and cadmium.
Notes on cadmium content classification:
2. The heavy metal threshold for Class 5 is calculated using the same equation
1. The cadmium threshold for Class 5 value is calculated using the same equation applied for calculating the maximum limit value for mercury and cadmium as
as was applied for determining the maximum mercury limit value as shown in shown in Appendix 2. The maximum allowable content of heavy metals is set at
Appendix 2. The minimum NCV was assumed to be 6.5 MJ/kg and the maximum 2,500 mg/kg as this is the threshold above which WDF would be classified as
for blending Cd containing wastes was assumed to be same as that provided hazardous waste with the hazard code H14 for ecotoxicity.
in BS EN 15359: 2011 Solid recovered fuels Specifications and classes[9]
(100mg/kg dry basis). This is considered a conservative approach as lower
amounts of pollutants would be released per unit MJ because of the higher CV of
the material.
2. The median value is calculated using the ratio of the median to the 80th
percentile from the data collected by the technical committee for CEN 343 on the
characteristics of SRF. CEN/TR 15508:2006, Key properties on solid recovered
fuels to be used for establishing a classification system [1] considered a ratio of
0.5 and the same ratio was applied to calculate the median value for each class.
Appendices Home
of the scheme
Guide
page 33
4.0 References
References
Home
of the scheme
Guide
page 34
References
1. BSI 2007, PD CEN/TR 15508: 2006 Key properties on solid recovered fuels to be 12. BSI 2011, BS EN 15403: 2011 Solid recovered fuels Determination of ash
used for establishing a classification system, London 2006 content, London 2011
2. BSI 2010, BS EN 14588: 2010 Solid biofuels Terminology, definitions and 13. BSI 2011, BS EN 15408: 2011 Solid recovered fuels Methods for the
descriptions, London 2010 determination of sulphur (S), chlorine (Cl), fluorine (F) and bromine (Br) content,
London 2011
3. BSI 2010, BS EN 14961-1: 2010 Solid biofuels Fuel specifications and classes
Part 1: General requirements, London 2010 14. BSI 2011, BS EN 15411: 2011 Solid recovered fuels Methods for the
determination of the content of trace elements (As, Ba, Be, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg,
4. BSI 2010, BS EN 15414-1: 2010 Solid recovered fuels Determination of Mo, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Tl, V and Zn), London 2011
moisture content using the oven dry method - Part 1: Determination of total
moisture by a reference method, London 2010 15. BSI 2011, BS EN 15440:2011 Solid recovered fuels Method for determination
of biomass content, London 2011
5. BSI 2010, BS EN 15414-2: 2010 Solid recovered fuels Determination of
moisture content using the oven dry method - Part 2: Determination of total 16. BSI 2011, BS EN 15442: 2011 Solid recovered fuels - Methods for sampling,
moisture content by a simplified method, London 2010 London 2011
6. BSI 2011, BS EN 15234 1: 2011 Solid biofuels Fuel quality assurance Part 17. BSI 2011, BS EN 15443: 2011 Solid recovered fuels - Methods for the
1: General requirements, London 2011 preparation of the laboratory sample, London 2011
7. BSI 2011, BS EN 15296: 2011 Solid biofuels Conversion of analytical results 18. Abelha, P., Gulyurtlu, I., Boavida, D., Seabrra Barros, J., Cabrita, I., Leahy, J.,
from one basis to another, London 2011 Kelleher, B., Leahy, M., 2003. Combustion of poultry litter in a fluidised bed
combustor, Fuel 82, 687- 692
8. BSI 2011, BS EN 15358:2011 Solid Recovered Fuels Quality management
Systems Particular requirements for their application to the production f solid 19. CHP QA, Quality Assurance for Combined Heat and Power, Guidance Note 44,
recovered fuels, London 2011 Issue 2, November 2008; https://www.chpqa.com/guidance_notes/GUIDANCE_
NOTE_44.pdf; accessed on December 17th, 2011
9. BSI 2011, BS EN 15359: 2011 Solid recovered fuels Specifications and classes,
London 2011 20. Crelling, J.C., Hagemann, H.W., Sauter, D.H., Ramani, R.V., Vogt, W., Leininger,
D., Krzack, S., Meyer, B., Orywal, F., Reimert, R., Bonn, B., Bertmann, U., Klose,
10. BSI 2011, BS EN 15400:2011 Solid recovered fuels - Determination of calorific W., Dach, G., 2010. Coal, Wiley VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
value, London 2011
21. Demirbas, A., 2004. Effect of initial moisture content on the yields of oily products
11. BSI 2010, BS EN 15401: 2010 Solid recovered fuels Determination of bulk from pyrolysis of biomass, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 71 (2),
density, London 2011 803815
References
Home
of the scheme
Guide
page 35
References (continued)
22. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), 2011. General 30. World Bank Technical Guidance Report, 1999. Municipal Solid Waste Incineration,
Guidance Manual on Policy and Procedures for A2 and B Installations; http:// The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Washington D.C;
www.defra.gov.uk/publications/files/env-permitting-general-guidance-a.pdf ; http://www.worldbank.org/urban/solid_wm/erm/CWG%20folder/Waste%20
accessed on January 23rd, 2012 Incineration.pdf; accessed on 10th December 2011
23. European Commission, 2003. Refuse Derived Fuel, Current Practice and 31. Yao, H., Luo, G., Xu, M., 2006. Mercury Emissions and Species during Combustion
Perspectives. European Commission, 2005. Eurostat;http://ec.europa.eu/ of Coal and Waste, Energy & Fuels 20, 1946-1950
environment/waste/studies/pdf/rdf.pdf; accessed on October 2nd, 2011
24. Juniper Consultancy Services Ltd., 2005 Juniper Consultancy Services Ltd.,
2005. Mechanical biological treatment- a guide for decision makers; http://www.
cti2000.it/Bionett/BioG-2005-007%20MBT_AnnexD0.0009%20G-J%20(Final).pdf;
accessed on October 7th, 2011
25. Khan, A.A., de Jong, W., Jansens, P.J., Spliethoff, H., 2009. Biomass combustion
in fluidised bed boilers: potential problems and remedies, Fuel Processing
technology 90; 21-50
26. Masia, A.A.T., Buhre, B.J.P., Gupta, R.P., Wall, T.F., 2007. Characterising ash of
biomass and waste, Fuel Process Technology 88, 107181
27. Prof. Dr. Ing. Sabine Flamme, Dissertation Energy-oriented utilisation of

secondary fuels in industrial furnace systems derivation of measures for an
environmental-friendly utilisation.
28. Vassilev, S.V., Baxter, D., Andersen, L.K., Vassileva, C.G., 2010. An overview of the
chemical composition of biomass, Fuel 89, 913933
29. Vera Susanne Rotter, Annekatrin Lehmann, Thomas Marzi, Edda Mohle, Daniel
Schingnitz and Gaston Hoffmann, 2010. New techniques for the characterization
of refuse-derived fuels and solid recovered fuels, Waste Management &
Research 29(2) 229236
References
Home
of the scheme
Guide
page 36
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WRAP A CLASSIFICATION SCHEME TO DEFINE THE QUALITY OF WASTE DERIVED FUELS October 2012

Executive Summary Acknowledgements

Developing a scheme Home

Classification 1.3 What is waste derived fuel?

Scheme for waste 1.4 Scope of the classification scheme

Developing a scheme Home

1.1 Background 1.2 Introduction

The development of this classification scheme was made possible by the

Developing a scheme Home

Developing a scheme Home

2.0 The development

2.2 End users considered within this classification scheme

and nature of the

Development and nature Home

2.1 Introduction 2.2 E

Development and nature Home

Figure1: Decision tree to determine the most suitable

Is the waste excluded from the Waste Framework

Is the waste a product from AD? YES

Is the waste untreated MSW? YES

Is the waste going to be thermally treated or used as

Is the WDF primarily going to be used for energy recovery

Development and nature Home

3.2 Economic attributes

of waste derived 3.3 Technical attributes

fuels for usage 3.4 Environmental attributes

3.6 Worked example

energy from waste 3.7 Summary

3.2.3 Moisture content as received 3.2.4 Summary of economic attributes

3.3.1 Chlorine content 3.3.2 Ash content

3.3.3 Bulk density 3.3.4 Summary of technical attributes

Table 9: Mercury classification Table 10: Cadmium classification system

3.4.3 Other heavy metals 3.4.4 Summary of environmental attributes

3.5 Summary of all WDF Classes and

Table 13: WDF characterisation

3.6 Worked example Partial results from measurement:

Classification parameters calculation

1. Economic: Biomass content (BM), NCV (as received), Moisture (M)

3. Moisture (M): 7. Mercury (Hg)

Compare the graphical representations of these values as shown in Figures 1, 2 and

Economic factors Economic factors

BM NCV MC Cl Ash BD Hg Cd OHM BM NCV MC Cl Ash BD Hg Cd OHM

4.0 appendices Appendix 1 - Existing standards

Appendix 2 - Relevant technologies

Appendix 3 - Template for recording the details of

Appendix 4 - 80th percentile of cadmium, mercury and

Appendix 5 - Test methods

Appendix 3 - Template for recording the details

Obligatory properties Technical characteristic

Chlorine content N/A N/A unit Value Test method

Ash content median 80th per

Bulk density Chlorine (Cl) mg/kg dry

Mercury N/A N/A

Appendix 4 - 80th percentile of cadmium, Cs = Ce x Vs x 1/TF

The minimum CV considered within this classification scheme is 6.5 MJ/kg.

Appendix 5 - Test methods Moisture content:

NCVd = Net calorific value, dry basis (MJ/Kg) Bulk density

0.02443 represents the correction factor of the enthalpy of vaporisation of water

Table 16: Calculation of each parameter

Notes on chlorine content classification: Notes on bulk density classification:

Notes on ash content classification: Notes on mercury content classification:

27. Prof. Dr. Ing. Sabine Flamme, Dissertation Energy-oriented utilisation of

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2.0 The development

2.2 End users considered within this classification scheme

Figure1: Decision tree to determine the most suitable

3.5 Summary of all WDF Classes and

4.0 appendices Appendix 1 - Existing standards

Appendix 3 - Template for recording the details of

Appendix 4 - 80th percentile of cadmium, mercury and