Weaving

Chapter 3
Weaving and Woven Fabrics ..............3-2
Section 1 - Warp Preparation Process ................... 3-2
1.1 Warping Process ............................................................... 3-2 A

1.1.1 Direct Beaming ........................................................... 3-2
1.1.2 Section Warping .......................................................... 3-2
1.1.3 Ball Warping ................................................................ 3-3
1.2 Warping Data .................................................................... 3-3
1.3 Examples of Machine Settings for Warping ................... 3-5
1.4 Recent Development in Sectional Warping Machine .... 3-5
1.5 Defects and Possible Causes in Direct Beaming ............. 3-6
1.6 Warp Preparation for Rope Dyeing ................................ 3-9

1.6.1 Ball Warper Specification .......................................... 3-9
1.6.2 Ball Warping Process Parameters ................................ 3-9
1.6.3 Rope Dyeing ................................................................ 3-10
1.6.4 Typical Recipe Of Master Solution For Rope Dyeing 3-11
1.6.5 Technical Features Of Rope Dyeing Range ................ 3-12
1.7 Slasher Dyeing ................................................................... 3-13
1.6.6 Processing Parameters For Re-Beaming Of Rope
Dyeing ......................................................................... 3-13
1.7.1 Warping Requirements ................................................ 3-14
1.7.2 Typical Recipes of Master Solution for Slasher
Dyeing ......................................................................... 3-15
1.8 ROPE DYEING VERSUS SLASHER DYEING ................ 3-16
1.8.1 Characteristics of Rope Dyeing .................................. 3-16
1.7.3 Slasher Dyeing Processing Parameters ....................... 3-16
1.8.2 Disadvantages of Rope Dyeing ................................... 3-17
Section 2 - Warp Sizing ........................................... 3-19
2.1 Purpose of Warp Sizing .................................................... 3-19 A

2.2 Warp Size Types and Properties ...................................... 3-19
2.2.1 Warp Size Types And Properties ................................. 3-19
2.2.2 Size Auxiliary Chemicals ............................................ 3-23
2.3 Sizing Agents and Applications ........................................ 3-25
2.4 Examples of Recipes of Sizing Solution .......................... 3-25

2.4.1 Protein sizes ................................................................ 3-25
2.4.2 Starch Sizes ................................................................. 3-25
2.4.3 Cellulose ether sizes .................................................... 3-26
2.4.4 Polyvinyl alcohol sizes ................................................ 3-26
2.4.5 Acrylate copolymer sizes ............................................ 3-27
2.5 Comparison of the Properties of Four Types of Sizing
Agent .................................................................................. 3-27
2.7 Manufacturers and Brand of Commonly Used Liquid

Wax ..................................................................................... 3-28
2.6 Emulsified Oil, Liquid Wax and Solid Wax ................... 3-28
2.8 Size Defects and Possible Causes ..................................... 3-29
2.9 Sizing Process Defects and Possible Causes ................... 3-30
2.10 Example of Warp Tension for Cotton Yarn during

Sizing .................................................................................. 3-34
2.11 Guidelines for the Sizing of Denim .................................. 3-35

2.11.1 Size requirements ........................................................ 3-35
2.11.2 Causes of faults in sizing and its solutions .................. 3-35
2.12 Recent Development in Sizing ......................................... 3-37
2.12.1 WETSIZE Box SC (Sucker-Mueller-Hacoba) ............ 3-37
2.12.2 BEN-ECOSIZE (Benninger) ....................................... 3-37
3.1.1 Leasing ........................................................................ 3-38
3.1.2 Drawing-in .................................................................. 3-38
3.2 Specifications of Heald Wires .......................................... 3-38 A
Section 3 - Weaving Preparation ............................. 3-38
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................... 3-38

3.3 Specifications of Drop Wire ............................................. 3-40
3.4 Reed .................................................................................... 3-43
3.5 Tying-in .............................................................................. 3-44
3.6 Recent Development in Weaving Preparation ............... 3-44

3.6.1 Quick Style Change in Weaving ................................. 3-44
3.6.2 The process flow of a QSC system ............................. 3-44
Back to Table of Content

Chapter 3
WEAVING
AND WOVEN
FABRICS
3-2 Weaving and Woven Fabrics
CHAPTER 3.........
.......WEAVING AND WOVEN FABRICS
SECTION 1 WARP PREPARATION PROCESS
1.1 Warping Process

The purpose of warping is to arrange threads in long length parallel to
one another preparatory to further processing. The primary operation
of warp making in which ends withdrawn from a warping creel, evenly
spaced in sheet form, are wound onto a beam to substantial length.
There are three warping methods; the first is direct beaming, the second
is section warping and the third is ball warping.
1.1.1 Direct Beaming

Direct beaming is the winding of the total number of warp ends in
full width in a single operation from a creeled bobbin, either onto a
weavers beam or onto a sectional beam.
1.1.2 Section Warping

Section warping is a two-stage-machine method of preparing a warp
on a beam, consisting of firstly winding a warp in sections on to a
reel, and then beaming-off the complete warp from the reel onto a
weavers beam.
Figure 1.1.2 Sectional Warping Machine

Textile Handbook 3-3
1.1.3 Ball Warping

Ball warping is the winding of a number of warp ends from creeled
bobbins into rope form and then winding it onto a ball warper. These
ball warps are then sent for rope dyeing process.
1.2 Warping Data

To ensure a perfect warp quality, it is necessary to input all warping
data such as warp length, warping speed and warp density before warping.
The following table is an example of data required for warping process
designed by Benninger.
Figure 1.2 Example of a Warping Data Sheet (Front side)
Weaving and Woven Fabrics

Figure 1.2 Example of a Warping Data Sheet (Back side)

1.3 Examples of Machine Settings for Warping

Table 1.3 Examples of Machine Settings for Warping
Product Number
Item Unit
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Fabric
cm 152.4 114.3 152.4 114.3 152.4 114.3 152.4 114.3
Product Specification
width
Total ends 4200 3510 4680 3510 4680 3510 4680 3510
ends
Warp tex
yarn (Ne) 84 (7) 58 (10) 48 (12) 36 (16)
count
Fabric g/m2 457.7 256.0 271.2 203.4
weight

Warping m/min
speed 600 to 1200
Total number piece 350 262/263 390 292/293 390 292/293 390 292/293
of cones
Warp length m 9000 11000 11500 15000 14000 18500 18500 24500
Beam flange mm
diameter 710
No. of beams no. of
per batch beams 12
Tension g 45-50 35-40 30-35
Remark The creel can be divided into 3-5 zones for tension adjustment; yarn
tension at the rear part of the creel should be lower than the front part
because the weight of the released yarn should be considered.
1.4 Recent Development in Sectional Warping

Machine
The sectional warping process is gaining importance due to decreasing
order lengths. New models of the sectional warping machine usually
equipped with roller units for a wider range of yarn tensions. These
rollers are positioned between creel and sectional warping machine,
enabling precise control of the breaking force.
For example, the warping table of the T-2000 Sectional Warper (Sucker-
Mueller-Hacoba) equipped with a sensor control roller automatically
determines the right traverse, a deflecting roller for optimum guidance
of the section of warped threads, and an articulated roller for correct
measuring of the actual number of metres. This measuring system
ensures equal lengths of all ends and uniform wound-on tension of the
warping process. The operating principle is that once the article-specific
pressure has been defined, the sensor control roller automatically

determines the right traverse from the first revolution of the warping
drum. The measuring accuracy of the sensor control roller ensures a
traverse with a tolerance of less than 0.001 mm. The system continuously
controls the measured traverse in the first section and compensates
for error if necessary. The copying phase follows right after the measuring
phase of the first section. All traverse values determined in the first
section are then used to achieve exactly the same winding structure in
the subsequent sections. The system will also automatically check the
yarn counts warped in the subsequent sections and reacts accordingly.
1.5 Defects and Possible Causes in Direct Beaming

Table 1.5 Defects and Possible Causes in Direct Beaming
Defect Description Possible causes
Crossed end Broken end entangled with 1) Operators fault

adjacent ends in the warp sheet 2) Malfunction or slow reaction of the
auto-stop device
3) Improper function of drum brake,
machine stops slowly causing free
end wrap in warp sheet
Loose end Yarn tension of individual end 1) Insufficient tension applied or
(uneven tension) or group of ends is loosely accumulation of waste or flies in the
wound on the warp tensioner
2) Mis-threading of yarn through
tensioner or yarn guide
3) Incorrect position or direction of
tensioning device
4) Warp end coming out from the
tension disc
5) Uneven density of the adjustable reed
6) Scratched surface of the guide roller
behind the adjustable reed
Wave edge Few ends on one or both edges 1) Wide gap between press roll and
of the warp sheet are slack beam flange
2) Pressure of press roll is too high
3) Width of adjustable reed is either
too wide or not centered so that edge
yarns are pressed towards the flange
4) Deformed beam flange
5) Incorrect tension of edge yarn
tensioners
6) Malfunction of traverse motion
device of the reed holder
Convex edge One or both edges formed a 1) Width of adjustable reed is either
convex shape causing tight too narrow or not centered and the

tension on edge yarns during gap between the edge yarn and flange
unwinding is too wide causing the density of
edge yarns to be relatively low
2) Deformed beam flange
3) Incorrect tension of edge yarn
tensioners
4) Rear part of the creel humidity is
too high
Broken end on Frequent end breaks on one or 1) Beam flange is deformed or rough
edge both edges during un-winding 2) Convex edge
Missing end Machine continues to run with 1) Malfunction of machine stop device
end break 2) Improper function of drum brake
3) Stop motion sensor blocked with
waste
Double end on An extra end entangle to an 1) A lengthy broken end was not
fabric face adjacent warp is woven into the properly pieced and adhered to
fabric adjacent warp that created a double end
Waste Waste yarn wrap into warp sheet 1) Operators fault

accumulation 2) Waste yarn ends are not properly
trimmed
3) Waste trapped in cones
Wrong yarn Wrong yarn being wound into 1) Wrong yarn wound to the cone
the beam during winding
2) Change of the wrong cone
Incorrect warp Warp length different from 1) Malfunction of yardage meter

length requirement 2) Malfunction of drum brake device
3) Incorrect setting of yardage meter
4) Malfunction of length control device
Wavy ends Slack tension in group of a few 1) Beam shaft worn out or eccentric
or tenths of warp ends during 2) The centre line of the warp beam
un-winding and the press roll is not parallel
3) Big difference in humidity between
both sides of the creel
Incorrect Variation in actual and nominal 1) Operator does not check the number
number of ends number of warp ends of cones required
Stain Stain on surface of the warp sheet 1) Soiled cones

2) Lubricant stains on roller or press
roll during cleaning
Flies Flies trapped in warp sheet 1) Insufficient cleaning

during warping 2) Flies accumulated on cones
3) Tension disc does not rotate
4) Cleaning fan inefficient or inactive
Too many knots In a perfect warps, knots on single 1) Poor yarn quality
yarn shall not exceed 20 per 2) Improper cone winding
1,000 metre of warp. For high 3) Cone holder on creel is not
speed shuttless loom, knots on properly set
single yarn shall not exceed 10 4) Tension too high
per 1,000 metre of warp 5) Rotten yarn or high moisture
content
6) Knots on yarn too loose
7) Tensioner improperly set or worn
out
8) Humidity too high
1.6 Warp Preparation for Rope Dyeing
1.6.1 Ball Warper Specification

(Source: West Point Foundry And Machine Company)
Ball Capacity- Ball diameter up to 1200 mm (48")
Ball Width - 1067 mm (42"), 1220 mm (48")
Accessories- Leasing equipment, Digital Counter
In-Line Creel: Package size up to 356 mm (14") diameter
Stop Motion- Faller wire or drop wire, Motion sensitive

(ELECTROSENSE)
Tension System- Post/Disc ROTATENSE

Fig 1.6.1 A Ball Warper
1.6.2 Ball Warping Process Parameters
Parameters Unit Specifications

Yarn count tex (Ne) 84 (7) 58 (10), 48 (12) 36 (16)
Number of cones pcs 340~420 390~480 390~480
Warp length m 10000~15000 15000~20000 24000~32000
Warping speed m/min 250~300 250~300 250~300
Ball weight kg 300~450 300~450 300~450
Warp density g/cm 0.55~0.60 0.55~0.60 0.55~0.60
Lease interval m 300~500 300~500 300~500
Yarn tension g 45-50 35-40 30-35
Relative humidity % 65-70 65-70 65-70
1.6.3 Rope Dyeing

A group of undyed yarns (360 yarns) are twisted together and dyed as
a single unit (rope like). This system allows all the yarns to be treated
identically. The rope runs through a long machine where the yarn is
dipped into indigo, taken out and allowed to oxidize and redipped
again into the bath. Most rope dye machines allow 6 or 8 dips.
Figure 1.6.3 Rope Dyeing Range

1.6.4 Typical Recipe Of Master Solution For Rope Dyeing

Dyeing processing: 8 dips of oxidization, dyeing temperature
20 - 30oC, dye bath surface area 1.2m2 per vat
Figure 1.6.4(1) Dye Bath of a Rope Dyeing Range

Table 1.6.4(2) Typical Recipe of Master Solution For Rope Dyeing
Master solution
concentration (g/l by Ratio (by content of
Tex Total Dyeing D e p t h 100%)
mass content of 100%)
(Ne) no. of of
ends (g/min) s h a d e Indigo Sodium Caustic Indigo Sodium Caustic
(%) h y d ro - soda h y d ro - soda
sulphite sulphite
83.3 4282 8223 1.0 36 57 38.7 1 1.58 1.08
(7s) 1.5 54 71 50.8 1 1.32 0.94
1.8 65 79.5 58 1 1.22 0.89
2.0 72 85.5 63 1 1.19 0.88
2.2 80 92.6 68.7 1 1.16 0.86
2.5 90 100 75.5 1 1.11 0.84
2.7 97 105.5 80.2 1 1.09 0.83
3.0 108 115 88 1 1.06 0.82
4.0 120 123.5 95.7 1 1.03 0.80
106 3630 8866 2.3 85 95 71.6 1 1.12 0.84
(5.5s) 2.5 90 100 75.5 1 1.11 0.84
58.3 4640 6233 2.3 90 91 72.5 1 1.14 0.85
(10s) 2.5 90 102 76.5 1 1.13 0.85
36.4 4760 3992 2.5 90 105.5 78.3 1 1.17 0.87
(16s) 2.7 97 111 83 1 1.14 0.86
18.2 x 2 6496 5448 2.5 90 107.5 79 1 1.19 0.88
(32s/2) 2.7 97 114 84.3 1 1.18 0.87
9.7 x 2 7140 3197 2.7 97 116 85.3 1 1.20 0.88
(60s/2) 2.9 105 123 90.8 1 1.17 0.86
Remarks: This recipe may be suitable for the machine without a separate
chemical feed-in device. For machines with a chemical feed-in, the
ratio of Indigo : Sodium hydrosulphite : Caustic soda can be
1:0.8 ~ 0.9 : 0.8 ~ 0.9. The machine speed can be adjusted as long as
there is no overflow or drop in level of the dyeing solution.
1.6.5 Technical Features Of Rope Dyeing Range

The capacity of rope dyeing is determined by the number of ropes in
each vessel. The number of ropes can be 10, 12, 18, 24, 36, etc., and
the specification is listed in the table 1.6.5.
Table 1.6.5 Technical Features Of Rope Dyeing Range
Komatsu Morrison Textile Greenville Machinery

Items -bara Iron Machinery Co Corporation (KTM)
Works
Co Ltd
No. of ropes pcs 10 12 18 24 12 24 36
Cylinder width mm 1500 1220 1829 2134 1220 2290 3200
Machine length m 58 56 60 75 60 76 93
Machine height m 5.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6 8.6
Power Kwatt 55 72 72 72 74 74 126
Water consumption m3/h 3.0 3.5 5.0 7.8 3.1 7.5 11.3
Steam consumption kg/h 1600 1800 2500 3400 1700 3200 4800
Compressed air m3/h 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
consumption
No. of ends per ends 400-500 350-400 350-400 350-400 350-400 350-400 350-400
rope
Dyeing speed m/min <25 <36 <36 <36 <35 <35 <35
(max.)
Dipping length per m 8.0 8.8 5.5 8.8 8.8 8.0 8.0 8.0
passage
Oxidizing length m 22.5 39 39 39 39 39 39 39
per passage
Dye vat surface m2 2.13 1.16 0.89 1.66 1.95 1.2 2.0 3.0
area
Dyeing passage No. 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
No. of guide rolls pcs 7 5 3 5 5 5 5 5
per dye vat
Annual production Km 5500 8200 12000 16000 8200 16000 24000
capacity
1.6.6 Processing Parameters For Re-Beaming Of Rope

Dyeing
Table 1.6.6 Processing Parameters for Re-Beaming of Rope Dyeing
Items Unit Technological specification

Warp yarn count tex (Ne) 84 (7) 58 (10) 36 (16)
No. of ends ends 350-400 380-480 380-480
Warp length m 10000-15000 24000-32000 24000-32000
Re-beaming m/min 15 15 15
speed m/min 150-300 150-250 150-250
Yarn tension g 150-200 or above
Warp density g/cm3 0.50-0.55 0.55-0.60 0.55-0.60
Elongation % 0.5-0.7 0.5-0.7 0.5-0.7

Moisture regain % 8-9 8-9 8-9
of warp beam
1.7 Slasher Dyeing

Slasher Dyeing is a special dyeing technique which is mainly used in
the production of indigo dyed warp ends for denim fabric. It is a
continuous process which combines dyeing and sizing in a single
operation. Dyeing is done by continuously passing warp yarns in beam
form through several (at least 5) troughs of indigo dye liquor for short
intervals. The dyeing time is deliberately short to allow poor dye
penetration and build-up. This results in interior washing and rubbing
fastness of the dyed yarns, which accounts for the fashionable effect
of denim after subsequent washes. The dyed yarns are then sized and
wound onto a warp beam to be ready for use in the weaving process.
A schematic diagram of a slasher dyeing range is below.
Figure 1.7 Beam creel of a Slasher Dyeing Range

1.7.1 Warping Requirements

a) Warping tension
During the dyeing process, the warp ends of denim will
cross, float and overlap on each other if the tension of the
yarn sheet (or yarn rope) is not under control. This is
because most of the time the ends are under wet condition,
the processing is long, passing through many guide rollers
and the yarn tensioning control is bad. While these floating
and overlapping warps pass through each guide roller, the
wrapping tension difference occurs repeatedly and
alternatively which causes unexpected elongation and
serious tension unevenness and therefore, significantly
increased floating and crossing of warps, thus stopping
the dyeing processing. For these reasons, the warping
process should apply higher single yarn tension by using
a multiple curvature tension device, and single yarn tension
should around 4% of the original yarn strength.
b) Yarn tension control during warping
There are many methods of adjusting even warping tension,
such as adjusting the setting between the cones and the
creel guiding eyes, properly adjusting the washer weight
by segment and by row, proper threading of the reed and
suitably enlarging the distance between the bobbin creel
and warping head.
c) Warping speed
In order to minimize the number of end breakages, and
to increase the beam quality, the speed of warping of denim
should not be too high.
(i) If warping speed is too high, it is difficult to control
the braking distance within the effective range, and
the broken ends will easily run into the beam (warping
machine) or ball (ball warping machine). This will
cause breakage or crossed ends in the dyeing and sizing
processes, consequently, increasing the unevenness of
the yarn tension or lapping, and eventually affecting
the dyeing evenness.
(ii) The diameter of the unwinding balloon is large while
the warping speed is high, especially for coarse yarn,
because of the setting limitation of the creel. If the

balloon is too large, it hits the spindle and increases
the end breakage rate.
(iii) For coarse count, high density, if the warping speed is
too high, the yarns easily cross and twist when braked,
so when the machine starts again, the uneven tension
will increase the end breakage rate.
1.7.2 Typical Recipes of Master Solution for Slasher

Dyeing
Dyeing processing: 6 dips; dyeing speed 18.5m/min; dyeing temperature
25 - 30oC; dye bath surface area 1.6m2 per vat.

Figure 1.7.2 Typical Recipes of Master Solution for Slasher Dyeing
Master solution
concentration (g/l Ratio (by content 100%)
Yarn Total Dyeing Depth
by content 100%)
Count no. of mass of
tex ends (g/min) shade Sodium Sodium Caustic
(Ne) (pcs) (%) Indigo hydro- Caustic Indigo hydro- soda
soda
sulphite sulphite
1.0 32 78 47 1 2.44 1.47

1.5 48 89.5 57 1 1.86 1.19
1.8 60 101 66 1 1.68 1.10
2.0 65 103.5 69 1 1.59 1.06
83.3
4284 6085 2.2 72 109.5 73.5 1 1.52 1.02
(7S)
2.5 80 115.5 79 1 1.44 0.99
2.7 85 118.5 82 1 1.89 0.96
3.0 90 120 84 1 1.33 0.93
4.0 110 132.5 96.5 1 1.20 0.88
106 3630 6561 2.3 75 112 76 1 1.49 1.01
(5.5S) 2.5 80 115.5 79 1 1.44 0.99
58.3 4640 4612 2.3 75 119.5 79.5 1 1.59 1.06
(10S) 2.5 80 122.5 82.3 1 1.53 1.03
36.4 4760 2954 2.5 80 128 85 1 1.61 1.06
(16S) 2.7 85 131.5 88 1 1.55 1.04
18.2x2 6496 4032 2.5 80 127.5 84.7 1 1.59 1.06
(32S/2) 2.7 85 131 87.5 1 1.54 103
9.7x2 7140 2366 2.7 85 139 91.3 1 1.63 1.07
(60S/2) 2.9 90 141.5 94.2 1 1.57 1.05
1.7.3 Slasher Dyeing Processing Parameters

Dyeing process: 6 dips process
Figure 1.7.3 Slasher Dyeing Processing Parameters
Items Unit Technological specification

o
Dyeing temperature C 20-30
Dipping duration Sec 15-20
Oxidizing duration Min Each passage 1-1.5
Pick up % 20-25%
Padder pressure Ton 5-10
Depth of shade % 2.5
1.8 ROPE DYEING VERSUS SLASHER DYEING
1.8.1 Characteristics of Rope Dyeing

a) High Processing Speed and High Production Rate
The speed sometimes can reach as high as 36 metres/minute,
50% higher than the conventional slasher dyeing. (The
speed of slasher dyeing seldom exceeds 25 metres/minute)
In a rope dyeing machine of 24 or 36 bundles (ball warp),
the production rate is 2-3 times the rate of slasher dyeing.
b) Rope Dyeing gives a Higher Quality Yarn
It seldom has the problem of unlevelness and side-to-side
variations as in slasher dyeing. In addition it has better
penetration, higher degree of levelness and fastness. During
the padding of the dye liquor, the rope formed of hundreds
of yarns together will interact with one another to equalize
the pick-up rate even there is a distortion of the pad-roll.
(See Figure 1.8.1). With the slasher dyeing, it easily reveals
an uneven pick-up along its width with the distortion of
the pad-roll. The interacting pressure of individual yarn
in rope padding will result in a better penetration and
levelness. After dyeing, the rope beams have to be re-
beamed. Dozen of warp beams are mixed together
randomly, and sized to form the final warp beam. In this
mixing process, small dyeing faults and minor variations
in dyeing will be obscured.
Figure 1.8.1 The difference in rope and warp sheet padding
c) Better Warp Quality gives Higher Weaving Efficiency

In rope dyeing, the dyeing process and sizing process are
separated. There is a re-beaming process after dyeing.
When strict quality control is used in the re-beaming process,

the quality of the beam is assured and thus better efficiency
in weaving. The sizing of the warp is conducted in a
separate machine after dyeing, without being affected by
the dyeing conditions and its limitations. There is ample
time for loading and unloading of the warp beams, for
reed setting and for handling of missing ends. With a
shorter running distance of the warp sheet, it has the
advantages of better penetration of the size and better control
of the elongation of the yarn. These precise control of
warp quality will result in a better warp beam for weaving,
and a much better quality than the warp produced by dyeing
and sizing in one process.
1.8.2 Disadvantages of Rope Dyeing

a) More Manpower
Because of the many separate processes, more manpower
is required than in slasher dyeing.
b) Larger Capital Investment
Because more machines are needed, a large land space is
required. The machines for rope dyeing come in greater
dimensions and thus require a different factory layout;
generally a shop floor of L60xW10xH10 metres with
adequate ventilation, good exhaustion, a well-planned
drainage system and designed for safe operation. With
the higher requirements of the factory, the investment cost
of machine and factory together will be 8 to 10 times that
of the slasher dyeing.
c) Precise operation control - Rope dye can be operated at a

higher speed by dyeing several batches simultaneously.
This requires precise control of the elongation of each warp
beam. When a small variation of colour depth occurs in a
certain section, the different elongation of different beams
will cause dislocation of the section with the same colour
during the warp sizing and combining processes. The result
is a fabric with a few dozens or hundreds of metres in
length of uneven stripy surface.
In summarizing, though the rope dyeing requires more manpower,
higher capital investment and precise operation control, it gives better
quality fabric in respect of dyeing and weaving. It also has a higher
production rate. The quality has better acceptance and competitiveness
in the market, and it is more suitable for the production of heavy
weight denim. In recent years, because of the keen competition, many
conventional slasher dyers have replaced some of their machines with
rope dyeing machines.
SECTION 2 WARP SIZING
2.1 Purpose of Warp Sizing A

The main purpose of warp sizing is to give suitable weavability to
warp threads to make good quality fabrics at low cost. However, due
to the large number of different yarns that are produced at present, it
is necessary to understand their own particular properties thoroughly,
to prepare appropriate sizing agents, machines, and methods for their
treatment.
The spun yarns coarser than 40 count of two-ply yarns (40s/2), and
the filament yarns more twisted than a medium hard twisted yarn (75

den, 800 tpm) are, generally, possible to weave without sizing. Except
for those special yarns, almost all other kinds of yarns must be sized
for weaving.
The spun yarn is made of short fibres, e.g. staple fibres. The aims of
spun yarn sizing are to give strength to the yarns by increasing the
bonded force between those structural fibres, and to make a smooth
surface of yarn, thus preventing yarn breakage caused by the
entanglement of fluffs.
In the case of filament yarn which consists of a number of single

filaments, the cause of yarn breakage or fluff is due to the entanglement
of a separated single filament. Hence, the purpose of filament yarn
sizing is to prevent this single filament breakage by bonding those
filaments together. The warp sizing is also useful to twist set of hard
twist yarns. Other purposes of warp sizing are to adjust a suitable
hand feel and weight of grey fabrics for shipping.
2.2 Warp Size Types and Properties
2.2.1 Warp Size Types And Properties

Size is a mixture of primary and auxiliary chemicals. The subsections
below describe the chemical makeup of typical size mixtures.
a) Primary Component of Size

The type of size used depends on the yarn type, weaving
process (e.g., loom type, speed) and historical tradition
and experience in the textile facility. Three main types of

size are currently used:
Natural products (starch): Starch is the most common natural
size and the most common size overall. It can be derived
from a variety of substances, but corn and potatoes are
preferred, Starch is used mainly for cotton products and
other natural fibres.
Fully synthetic products: Synthetic sizes include polyvinyl
alcohol (PVOH or PVA), polyvinyl acetate (PVAc),
polyacrylic acid (PAA), and polyester (WD).
Semi-synthetic products (blends): Semi-synthetic sizes or
blends include modified starches, starch ethers, starch esters,
carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), hydroxyethyl cellulose
(HEC), and carboxymethyl starch (CMS).
Table 2.2.1a (1) Sizing Materials Used for Filament Yarns
Fibre Type Basic Size

Nylon Polyacrylic acid
PVA
Glass PVA
Dextrins
Amylose derivatives
Blends
Acetate Stymer (styrene-maleic anhydride copolymer)
Gelatin
Viscose PVA
rayon Amylose derivatives
CMC
Blends
Polyester Acrylic copolymers
Alkali-soluble polyvinyl acetate
Linear polyester
Table 2.2.1a (2) Categorization of Spun Yarn Sizing Materials
Starches: Corn, Potato, Tapioca

Unmodified-pearl
Acid-modified, 20-60 fluidity
Oxidized, several fluidities
Dextrinized (British gum)
Derivatized
Acetate
Hydroxyethyl ether
Acrylate
Styrene
Cross-linked

Cationic
High amylose
Low amylose (waxy)
PVA
Fully hydrolyzed
Partially hydrolyzed
Other
CMC
Blends
Other polymers
Table 2.2.1a (3) Environmental Advantages and Disadvantages of Alternative

Synthetic Sizes
Size Advantages Disadvantages

CMC Can reuse solutions Supports mildew
Washes off with cool water Cost
PVA Good adhesion Cost
Tough films
Can mix with starch
Washes off easily with hot water
PAA Washes off with alkali Cost
Good adhesion to nylon and synthetics
Can control stiffness by copolymerization
WD Good adhesion to polyester Cost
Washes off with very hot water Can precipitate and cause spots
b) Starch
Starch is the most common primary size component. Starch
offers good performance on natural fibres and is often used
in a blend with synthetic sizes for coating natural and
synthetic yarns. A major problem with starch size is the
inability to reuse or recycle the size because of degradation
of the starch to various sugars during the desizing process.
c) Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)
PVA offers excellent mill performance when processing
polyester/cotton goods and pure cotton fabrics and washes
out completely to facilitate uniform dyeing. The strength,
adhesion, viscosity, and other properties of PVA are affected
by the degree of hydrolysis (the percentage of acetate groups
replaced by hydroxyl groups). PVA can be used as size in
either 100-percent pure form, or in blends with natural
sizes such as starch. A typical blend formulation contains
50 to 95 percent PVA, depending on the type of fabric
used and other processing parameters. For spun yarn, high-
viscosity PVA is used to bind the surface fibres and coat
the yarn with a continuous film to suppress neps. In this
application, a fully hydrolyzed PVA/starch mixture is usually
employed. For filament fibres, low-viscosity partially
hydrolyzed PVA is used to penetrate the yarn to prevent
fibre splitting and breaking.
d) Sodium Carboxymethyl cellulose
CMC is an anionic polyelectrolyte that is soluble in either
cold or hot water. CMC size is used primarily for polyester/
cotton and polyester/rayon blended yarns. For sizing pure
synthetic fibres such as polyester, competing sizes provide
better adhesion, stronger film, less shedding, and less
sensitivity to moisture than CMC size. CMC and acrylics
might compete with PVA, but these sizes do not provide
the necessary strength for all applications. Also, at high
humidities, CMC sizes do not perform as well as other
alternatives.
e) Hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC)
HEC size is available in water-soluble or alkali-soluble
grades, with a range of properties including wide-ranging
solution viscosity. Alkali-soluble HEC is used in textile
sizing, although in negligible quantities.
2.2.2 Size Auxiliary Chemicals

Sizes generally consist of mixtures of the primary chemicals
(2.2.1a - e) plus additional auxiliary chemicals added to improve
weaving performance, enhance the stability of the size or sized
yarn, distinguish between sizes and for many other purposes.
Auxiliaries used in sizing mixtures include:

Adhesives and binders: To assist in binding the size to the
yarn. Examples include natural gums (locust bean gum,
tragasol, but not starch), gelatin, soya protein, casein,
acrylates, PVA and CMC.
Antistatic agents: To suppress static in high speed weaving.
Antisticking agents: To reduce fouling of dry cans and
guide rollers. Examples include waxes, oils, sulfated tallow,
pine oil, kerosene and Stoddard solvent.
Biocides (preservatives): To improve the shelf life of woven
goods. Example includes orthophenyl phenol (OPP).
Defoamers: To suppress foam in locations where process
water is very soft. Examples include zinc and calcium
chloride, light mineral oil, isooctyl alcohol but not silicones.
Deliquescents: To protect against overdrying. Examples
include zinc and calcium chloride, polyalcohols (PEG),
glycerine, propylene glycol, diethylene glycol (DEG) and
urea.
Emulsifiers, dispersants and surfactants: To stabilize size
mixtures during application and assist in desizing operations.
Examples are nonionic ethylene oxide compounds.
Humectants: To protect against drying.
Lubricants and softeners: To improve the bending and

frictional characteristics of the yarns. Examples include
fats, waxes, oils, tallow, sulfated tallow, butyl stearate,
glycerine and mineral oil.
Penetrants: To assist in penetration of size on filament yarns
but not spun yarns.
Release agents: To facilitate removal of size during desizing.
Thinning agents: To increase penetration (similar to
penetrants). Examples include enzymes, oxidizers,
perborates, persulfates, peroxides and chloramides.
Tints: To identify warps.
Weighters: To increase the density of woven yarn. Example:
clay.
Lubricants are grouped in two general classes: saponifiables
and unsaponifiables. The unsaponifiable lubricants are
considered the best friction reducers and include crude-scale
paraffin wax and refined paraffin wax. Removal of these
during desizing, however, requires added surfactants, which
have high aquatic toxicity. Saponifiables include fats and
fatty components such as fancy tallow, hydrogenated tallow
glycerides, and fatty esters, These compounds can also be
used as emulsifiers for the unsaponifiables.
Any of these additives that are present in the size mixture
will later be removed in wet processing (preparation, desizing,
and scouring), and thus all of these materials will appear in
waste streams from desizing operations, Undesirable materials
(e.g., zinc salts, OPP) are generally not used on domestic
(U.S.A) goods but regularly appear in imported fabrics. This
is an important point in the process at which to perform
quality control for raw material screening in textile operations.
2.3 Sizing Agents and Applications

Table 2.3 Sizes and applications
Polarity Sizes Suitable fibres
Hydroxyl group Starch, PVA, CMC Cotton, Rayon Acetate
Ester group Acrylic esters series, Maleic Polyester, Acetate
acid series
Amide group Acryl-amide series (PAM) Nylon, Silk, Wool
Hydrogen bond Starch, PVA, CMC, PAM Cotton, Rayon, Acetate, Nylon
Synthetic/natural powder Man-made spun and filament,
blended man-made/natural fibre blends,
cotton yarn

2.4 Examples of Recipes of Sizing Solution
2.4.1 Protein sizes

Warp: Cotton 17 tex (Nm 60/1), 50 ends/cm,(35s)
2% Protein size
10% Potato starch
0.2% Wax
Warp: Viscose staple rayon 25 tex (Nm 40/1),
50 ends/cm, (24s)
1% Protein size
5% Potato starch
0.2% Wax
Warp: Acetate filament 2.8dtex f70 (2.5 den 70), 90 ends/cm
7% Protein size
Warp: Viscose filament 133dtex (120 den 24), 50 ends/cm
2.5-3% Protein size
2.4.2 Starch Sizes

Warp: Cotton 20 tex (Nm 50/1), Satin stripe, (30s)
6.5% Potato starch
2.5% Modified starch
0.2% Size fat
Warp: Rayon staple 30 tex (Nm 34/1), 2680 ends, (20s)
2% Potato or maize starch
2% Modified starch
0.2% Size fat
Warp: Worsted 32-25 tex (Nm 32-40/1)

7% Potato or maize starch
2.5% Modified starch
0.2% Size fat
Warp: Polyester/cotton 14 tex (Nm 70/1),(42s)
11% Starch ether
3% Polyvinyl alcohol
0.5% Size fat
2.4.3 Cellulose ether sizes

Warp: Cotton 25 tex (Nm 40/1), (24s)
5% Cellulose ether
Warp: Cotton 30 tex (Nm 34/1), (20s)
2-3% Cellulose ether
4-6% Starch ether
Warp: Polyester 10 tex (Nm 100/1), (60s)
6% Cellulose ether
Warp: Wool yarn (woollen spun)
3% Cellulose ether
6% Maize starch
2.4.4 Polyvinyl alcohol sizes

Warp: Acetate 2.8dtex f70 (2.5 den 70), 80-90 ends/cm
Warp: Polyamide filament,
Warp: Polyamide staple fibre yarn 12.8 tex (Nm 79/1),
(46s)
Warp: Polyester filament
Warp: Polyacrylonitrile staple fibre yarn 17tex
(Nm 60/1), (35s)
5% Cellulose ether
0.2% Size fat
2.4.5 Acrylate copolymer sizes

Warp: Polyester filament
12% Acrylate size
Warp: Acetate 2.8dtex f70 (2.5 den 70), 90ends/cm
Warp: Polyamide staple fibre yarn 12.8 tex
(Nm 79/1),(46s)
5-10% Acrylate size
2.5 Comparison of the Properties of Four Types of

Sizing Agent

Table 2.5 Properties of Four types of sizing agent
Size
Sizing properties Starch Carboxymethy Polyvinyl Acrylate 3256
starch alcohol (Acrylate
type)
Film forming - + + + +
Adhesion 0 0 0 + +
Elasticity - + + + +
Evenness 0 + + + +
Easy to operate + + + 0 0
No foaming + + - + 0
Stable viscosity - 0 + + +
No tendency of + 0 0 + +
precipitation
Not sensitive to 0 + + - +
weather change
Solubility in water - 0 0 + +
Reaction to + + - + +
alkaline
Heat resistance - - 0 + 0
Chemical oxygen + + - 0 -
demand
Biodegradability + - - - +
Remark: (+) is good, (0) is normal, (-) is poor.

2.6 Emulsified Oil, Liquid Wax and Solid Wax

Table 2.6 Comparison of emulsified oil, liquid wax and solid wax
Properties Emulsified oil Liquid wax Solid wax

Decomposition Not easy Possible Possible
Rinsability Low Low High
temperature temperature temperature
Coverage No Partial Yes
Temperature of oil box or Always warm Always warm Should be
wax box heated
Recommended usage of liquid wax (% of warping weight) as follows:

Worsted yarn 1-2 Acrylic staple yarn 2 - 3
Woollen yarn 3-4 Polyester linen 3 - 4
Polyester wool 2-3 Viscose rayon filament 1 - 2
Polyester staple yarn 1-2 Cotton yarn 1 - 2
Polyester filament 0.5 - 1 Jute yarn 3 - 4
2.7 Manufacturers and Brand of Commonly Used

Liquid Wax
Table 2.7 Manufacturers and Type of Commonly Used Liquid Wax
Maker Type Colour Structure Viscosity Remark

(mPa.s)
Kettwachs Pale yellow Non-ionic 90
900 transparent
Rotta, liquid
German Rapid Same as Same as 195 Concentrated
schlichte above above liquid wax
933
G100-A Pale yellow Same as 42
viscosity above
Fibrofix,
liquid
Swiss
G46 Same as Same as 28
above above
L504 Pale yellow Same as - For yarn and
transparent above thread
Melior, liquid
France L550 Same as Same as - For filament
above above
L501 Same as Same as - Concentrated
above above liquid wax
2.8 Size Defects and Possible Causes

Table 2.8 Size Defects and Possible Causes
Problem Possible causes

Too much foam 1. Too much protein in starch.
2. The temperature of size in the size box is too high.
3. P.V.A. foams easily.
4. Missing surfactant in the oil, or the quantity of oil is not
enough.
5. Stirring speed of the size storage box is too fast.
6. No defoaming agent or penetrating agent.
7. No starch splitter agent.
Precipitation of 1. Size has been kept too long.
size 2. Sizing liquor viscosity is too low; the size contains talcum

powder.
3. The stirrer of the size storage box stopped.
4. pH value is too low.
5. Too much defoaming agent.
6. Too much starch splitter agent.
7. Affinity of size is not good.
High viscosity 1. The concentration is too high or there is insufficient water.
2. The boiling time is not long enough and the boiling temperature
is not high enough.
3. No starch splitter agent.
4. The viscosity of sizing agents are too high.
5. Size temperature too low.
6. Water hardness is too high.
7. pH value is too high.
Low viscosity 1. The concentration is too low.
2. Boiling temperature is too high.
3. Boiling time is too long.
4. Size has been kept too long.
5. Water leaking because the valve has not been tightly shut.
6. Water content of steam is too high.
7. Too much starch splitter.
8. Water hardness is too high.
9. pH value is too low.
Coagulation of 1. The stirrer was not in motion while pouring the sizing agent.
size 2. Pouring speed is too fast.
3. Hydrosoluble sizing agents had coagulated.
4. The pouring sequence is wrong.
5. Water temperature is too high while pouring.
Floating of oils 1. Emulsibility of oil is poor, or it has not been emulsified.
2. Emulsification of emulsifier has been taken by other sizing
agent.
2.9 Sizing Process Defects and Possible Causes

Sizing Defects and Possible Causes
Defects Possible causes

Cross end (1) Yarn separation in wrong sequence or not thorough
(2) Insufficient number of yarn separations
(3) Relocation of warp yarns in adjustable reed during warping
(4) Frequent ends break and cutting of broken yarn wrapped on
roller or incorrect handling of yarns accumulated at the reed.
(5) Yarn sheet is densely set at adjustable reed
(6) Slack tension in leasing zone
(7) Warp ends are unevenly threaded on the adjustable reed
(8) Heavy sizing,
(9) Slack tension in leasing zone during slow speed processing
(10) No leasing after clearing of ends cumulating at reed or size
stain
Selvedge cross end (1) Slack tension of edge yarns during warping cause wave edge
during un-winding
(2) Insufficient padding on edge yarns
(3) Deviation in position on both edges of the warp beam
(4) Long tuck-in of the free end of the leasing thread which causes
edge yarns overlap
Problem due to (1) Side positions of warp beam are not correct
traverse cause (2) Wave edge
concave and convex (3) Deformed warp beam or flange
edges (4) Inaccurate positioning of adjustable reed
(5) Edge yarns are either loosely or densely set at the adjustable reed
(6) Uneven tension on both sides during warping
Missing end (1) Frequent cutting end and yarn cumulating on reed
(2) Accidentally damage the adjacent yarn during cutting
(3) Yarn sheet is densely set at adjustable reed
(4) Ends twisted together due excess steam in the size box, ends
break during leasing
(5) Ends break due to high leasing force required by heavy sizing
Light size (1) Mismatch of size recipe and material
(2) Improper cooking of size
(3) Sizing solution viscosity too low
(4) Low strength of size
(5) Too much wax content in sizing solution, yarn too soft
(6) High moisture absorption of sizing solution, yarn too soft after
moisture regain
(7) Sizing solution temperature too low causing poor penetration
(8) Sizing solution viscosity too high causing poor penetration
(9) Sizing solution has been stored for too long causing over
degradation
(10) Low pick up or no waxing
(11) Too much condensed water in steam pipe

(12) Improper supply of sizing solution to size box
(13) Sizing solution temperature too low at start
(14) Squeeze roller pressure too high or Squeeze roller surface damaged
(15) Insufficient length of impregnation
(16) Squeeze roller pressure is not properly reduced at slow sizing
speed
(17) Insufficient drying
Over size (1) Sizing solution concentration too high
(2) Squeeze roller pressure too low
(3) Size has not been fully cooked during cold sizing
Size Stain (1) Sizing solution overflow from size box
(2) Size deposit are padded on the yarn sheet
(3) Sizing solution spilt on yarns due to over heating
(4) Sizing solution spilt on yarns due to rinsing of pipe

(5) Steam pipe is not properly installed so that size deposit between
the immersion rollers are pressed on yarns
(6) Machine stop for long time or temperature inside size box dropped
caused size film form on sizing solution surface
(7) Machine stop for handling defects or changing beam is too long
(8) Squeeze roller pressure drop or damaged
(9) Back yarn separation roll stop rotation
(10) Dirty size box containing size film or deposit
Size film formed on (1) Low wax content in sizing solution
drying cylinder (2) Yarn tension in size box is too low or variation in tension
between two warp sheets
(3) Drying cylinder temperature is too low
(4) Teflon coating on cylinder surface damaged
Yarns over stretch (1) Warp beam pressure too high causing rotation problem
(2) Yarn tension too high due to malfunction of tensioning system,
Edge yarns damage (1) Edge yarns being cut by rough edge of the yarn press roll
(2) Rough or deformed beam flange
Uneven winding of (1) Yarns are not evenly set in adjustable reed
weavers beam (2) Dent distance is not evenly set
(3) Too many cutting and uneven transfer of yarns
Cutting (1) Loose twist yarn
(2) Too many ends break in warp beam
(3) Cross end happened in warp beam
(4) Tensioning device is not properly set or malfunction
Snarling (1) Machine stops rapidly
(2) Warp beam braking device malfunction
(3) Yarn twist is too high or tension too low; snarling occurred in
warp beam
Piece mark missing (1) Malfunction of length measuring device

(2) Length marker malfunction
(3) Measuring device incorrectly set
Incorrect length (1) Malfunction of length measuring device
(2) Yarn tension too high and yarn over stretched
(3) Tension deviation between warp sheets
(4) Tension is incorrectly set
Difference moisture (1) Failure of water regulator of the drying cylinder
from both selvedges (2) Harness on both edges of the squeeze roller is different or squeeze
roller deformed
(3) Pressure setting on both edges of the squeeze roller is inconsistent
(4) Roller bearing damaged on one side
(5) Yarns wound on immersion roller or squeeze roller
(6) Temperature difference in two sides of the size box
Excessive moisture (1) Temperature control failure in drying cylinder
regain (2) Machine speed too high, steam pressure too low or water regulator
failure
(3) Sudden drop of squeezing pressure
(4) Malfunction of the moisture content control meter
(5) Insufficient pre-heating of drying cylinder during machine running
cold
(6) Residue cooling water inside drying cylinder
(7) Surface of drying cylinder cumulated with size deposit and waste
so that the surface heat conductivity is affected
Insufficient (1) Machine speed too slow or drying cylinder over heated
moisture regain (2) Temperature control of the drying cylinder failure
(3) Malfunction of moisture detector or the setting of moisture content
is too low
(4) Machine stop too long
Uneven dryness (1) Unstable steam pressure
(2) Immersion roller or squeeze roller bent
(3) Incorrect setting of moisture detector
Oil stain (1) Improper oiling
(2) Contamination
Dirts (1) Rusted or improper cleaning of feeding pipe, pump, size pan
and size box
(2) Dirty air extraction hood contains cotton waste and water drops
(3) Lubricant drop into size box, stain on yarn press roll or drying
cylinder
(4) Yarn passage guides damaged or rusted
(5) excess precipitate in size box are not cleaned
(6) Steam piping rusted
Mould (1) High moisture regain of sizing, sized beam storage too long
(2) Water drop on warp sheet
(3) Insufficient preservative added
Water mark (1) Poor exhaustion of baking chamber or drying cylinder, steam
condensed to water and drop on warp sheet
(2) Air extraction hood lack of cleaning cause accumulation of dirty
water
Flies (1) Too many flies in Workshop and around the air extraction hood
(2) Flies accumulated on warp beam creel are not removed
Loose ends in group (1) Incorrect setting of adjustable reed
during weaving (2) Warp beam flange loosen or deformed
(3) Low winding tension of weavers beam
(4) No or low pressure applied on press roll of the weaver s beam
End breaks due to (1) Excessive size pick up
yarn knots (2) High viscosity of sizing solution and poor penetration
(3) Low strength of size film
(4) Low wax content in size recipe

(5) No or insufficient waxing
Yarn breaks due to (1) Low moisture content due to over drying
over drying (2) Sizing tension too high so that yarn extensibility decreased
(3) Excessive tension of beaming machine or pressure of press roll
that reduce the yarn extensibility
Difficulty in yarn (1) Excessive size pick up
separation at the (2) Low wax content in size recipe
back rest of a loom (3) Insufficient drying
(4) Size film absorbs too much moisture
(5) Wet leasing at size box missing
Fabric fluffy surface (1) Low pressure on squeeze roller
(2) High size pick up
(3) Low wax content in size recipe, yarn too stiff
3-34
2.10 Example of Warp Tension for Cotton Yarn during Sizing

2.11 Guidelines for the Sizing of Denim
2.11.1 Size requirements

a) The essential size and size ratio: the essential size is high
concentration low viscosity modified starch and polyacrylate
size together. For soft handle, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)
size is rarely used and preferably not at all. The ratio of
starch to polyacrylate is 9 : 1 to 7 : 3 for a solid content of
polyacrylate size at 25%. A higher percentage of
polyacrylate size is used with finer yarn.
b) Auxiliary size: sizing Solution using modified starch,
softening agent is added to the sizing solution but no wetting

agent or other auxiliary. The softening agent used should
have minimum influence on the viscosity of the sizing
solution, this is important and has to be controlled for good
quality sizing. If the softening agent has the same effect
as polyacrylate, it may cause a great change to the viscosity
of the sizing solution.
c) High concentration and low viscosity size, but ensure good
wetting and adequate pick-up.
d) High speed and high pressure promote high efficiency and
quality.
2.11.2 Causes of faults in sizing and its solutions

There are two main kinds of fault. One is caused by the
process operation and the other by the sizing recipe.
a) The following are caused by the process operation:
(i) Inadequate warping and disorderly beaming will make
the sizing process difficult to carry out smoothly.
(ii) An unskillful sizing operation with a high amount of
knots and cross-ends will cause weaving faults. Without
taking preventive measures to avoid unnecessary
stoppages, frequent stoppages will cause stop marks
on the fabric.
(iii) Uneven padding pressure along the pad-roll will cause

shade variation. To prevent this, regular checking of
the padding pressure along the pad-roll is required. This
is checked with two sheets of white paper of the same
length as the rolls and sandwiched between them with
a sheet of carbon paper. The pad-rolls are kept closed
with the usual working pressure for a few seconds.
Take out the paper after the release of pressure and
check if there is a change of width of the carbon mark
on the paper along the roll length. The change of the
carbon mark width from one end towards the other
end or towards both ends shows a pressure difference
exists. The usual fault is higher pressure at the sides
than the middle. This is caused by high pressure applied
on both ends resulting in a distortion of the pad-roll.
To solve this, the rubber pad-roll is cut oval shaped
with thicker diameter in the middle. There is such a
kind of pad-roll on the market. This design is to
compensate the distortion of the pad-roll when pressure
is applied on it. The swimming rolls manufactured by
Kuester (a German company) give the best solution to
this problem.
b) Faults caused by inappropriate sizing process and recipe:
(i) It is advisable to use good quality sizing agent to ensure
purity and to keep out any undesirable foreign matter.
These impurities will get onto the warp yarn causing
sizing marks.
(ii) Clarity of sizing agent is also important. It ensures
that the true colour is not obscured and minimizes colour
variation on the surface.
(iii) If the viscosity is too high, a thick film of size will
form on the yarn surface. In the subsequent processes
of yarn separation and weaving, the abrasion between
yarns will cause abrasion marks and these marks will
carry to the fabric.
(iv) If the sizing temperature is too high near to its boiling
point, small specks of size will splash on the web causing
size marks. If the temperature is too low, a skin will
form. When this thicker and harder size gets onto the
web, it will also cause size marks.
Judging from the causes of faults, it is necessary to have better production

control, more operational training and enhance production upgrading.
2.12 Recent Development in Sizing
2.12.1 WETSIZE Box SC (Sucker-Mueller-Hacoba)

The Wetsize box SC combines pre-wetting and sizing in one unit.
The first size box is filled with hot water (80-90oC) only, while the
complete warp is sized in the second size box. The wetting and washing
of the yarns with hot water before sizing improves the adhesive power
of the sizing agent on the yarn, increases abrasion resistance and reduces
hairiness. The pre-wetting process for warp yarns leads to a reduction
in the quantity of sizing agents of 30 to 40%.

2.12.2 BEN-ECOSIZE (Benninger)
The Ben-Ecosize adopted the padding method for the application of a
low-temperature sizing agent with high adhesive powers, which are
also water-soluble, recyclable or biodegradable. The major economic
benefit of the Ben-Ecosize is based on low size liquid pick-up (low
energy requirement for drying) and lower dry substance add-on.
Application control ensures an even and programmable product pick-
up.
Figure 2.12.2 Ben-Ecosize
SECTION 3 WEAVING PREPARATION
3.1 Introduction
During sizing, the exact number of warp yarns required in fabric is
wound onto the loom beam. The warp ends, which may be leased, are
then passed through the drop wires of the warp stop motion the heald
wire of the heald frames and the dents at the reed. This can be achieved
by drawing -in or tying-in, the choice depending upon whether or not
the new warp is different from the warp already on the loom.
Warp Preparation after Sizing
Sizing machine Leasing Drawing-in Loom
Warp tying
3.1.1 Leasing
Leasing is the selection of warp so as to maintain the ends of the warp
in an orderly arrangement during warping, preparation processes and
weaving.
3.1.2 Drawing-in
This process of drawing every warp end through its drop wire, heald
wire thread eye and reed dent can be performed manually or by means
of automatic machines. In both cases, a length of warp yarn, just long
enough to reach to the other side of the frame, is unwound. Leasing at
this stage simplifies the separation of the yarns. Then they are threaded
through drop-wires, heald wire thread eyes and reed dents. The automatic
drawing machine can handle the leasing and drawing-in processes in
one single operation.
3.2 Specifications of Heald Wires

Healds were originally made of twisted cord; however twisted-wire
or flat steel healds which are free to move sideways on bars mounted
just inside the framework of the heald frame are now more popular.
Examples of heald specification (Source: Grob)

Table 3.2 (1) Healds With C-Shaped End Loops
Table 3.2 (2) Healds With J-Shaped End Loops

Table 3.2 (3) Healds With O-Shaped End Loops
Note: 1) GROBmicro PLUS surface is only available with OPTIFIL thread eye
5.5 x 1.2 mm in GROBINOX stainless steel.
Note: - The dimensions of Grob healds correspond with ISO Standards
11677-1 and 11677-2
- GROBETXTEX, GROBIMTEX, GROBIMEXTEX,
GROBAMEXTEX, SOLOPR, SOLOMIX, INTERMIX, DUOMIX,
OPTIFIL, GROBmcro Plus, and GROBINOX are registered trade
marks of Grob Horgen AG.
- Optifil is a patented design thread eye with increased airspace
available for warp yarns as they run through the harness, which
leads to less friction between warp yarns and neighbouring healds
and causes less warp breakages.
3.3 Specifications of Drop Wire

Drop wire or dropper is part of the warp stop motion. It is a thin strip
of metal to be supported on each warp so that when the warp breaks
the drop wire will fall and operate the warp stop mechanism. The
drop wire may vary in design depending on different circumstances;
for example designs for electrical warp stop-motion and automatic
drawing-in.
Examples of drop wire (Source: Grob)

Table 3.3 (1) Drop Wires (Non-standardised) for electrical warp stop motions
Table 3.3 (2) Drop wires ISO 441 for electrical warp stop motions

Table 3.3 (3) Drop wires ISO 1150 for electrical warp stop motions, designed
for automatic drawing-in
Table 3.3 (4) Determination of drop wire weights
Tex Metric. count Denier English Weight

System Nm Td count g
Ne
below 9 above 111 below 80 below 66 below 1
9 - 14 111 - 71 80 - 125 66 - 42 1 - l.5
14 - 20 71 - 50 125 -180 42 - 30 1.5 - 2
20 - 25 50 - 40 180 - 225 30 - 24 2 - 2.5
25 - 32 40 - 31 225 - 290 24 - 18 2.5 - 3
32 - 58 31 - 17 290 - 520 18 - 10 3-4
58 - 96 17 - 10 520 - 860 10 - 6 4-6
96 - 136 10 - 7 above 860 6-4 6 - 10
136 - 176 7-6 4-3 10 - 14
above 176 below 6 below 3 14 - 17.5
Guidelines for weights and densities have been developed through

extensive application experience. However, they can be influenced by
warp yarn types, required densities, or pattern parameters.
Manufacturers of high-speed weaving machines recommend drop wires

which may weigh up to 30% more.
Table 3.3 (5) Maximum Drop Wires Densities
Thickness Number per row

S = mm cm inch
0.2 20 50
0.3 14 36
0.4 10 26
0.5 7 18
0.6 5 13
0.65 4 10
0.8 3 8
1.0 2 5
3.4 Reed
The reed is a closed comb of flat metal strips, which are uniformly
spaced at intervals corresponding to the required spacing of the warp
ends. The spaces between the metal strips through which the ends
pass are known as dents.
Figure 3.4(1) Reed

Table 3.4 (2) Relationship Between Dent Number and Reed Number for Cotton
Fabric
Dent Reed Thickness Dent Reed Thickness Dent Reed Thickness
Number Number mm mils Number Number mm mils Number Number mm mils
10 16 1.270 50.0 30 56 0.423 16.7 50 96 0.254 10.0
11 18 1.154 45.5 31 58 0.410 16.2 51 98 0.249 9.8
12 20 1.058 41.0 32 60 0.397 15.6 52 100 0.244 9.6
13 22 0.976 38.5 33 62 0.380 15.2 53 102 0.240 9.4
14 24 0.907 35.7 34 64 0.373 14.7 54 104 0.235 9.3
15 26 0.847 33.3 35 66 0.363 14.3 55 106 0.231 9.1
16 28 0.794 31.2 36 68 0.352 13.9 56 108 0.227 8.9
17 30 0.747 29.4 37 70 0.343 13.5 57 110 0.223 8.8
18 32 0.705 27.8 38 72 0.334 13.2 58 112 0.219 8.6
19 34 0.668 26.3 39 74 0.326 12.8 59 114 0.215 8.5
20 36 0.635 25.0 40 76 0.318 12.5 60 116 0.212 8.3
21 38 0.604 23.8 41 78 0.310 12.2 61 118 0.208 8.2
22 40 0.577 22.7 42 80 0.301 11.9 62 120 0.205 8.1
23 42 0.552 21.7 43 82 0.295 11.6 63 122 0.201 7.9
24 44 0.529 20.8 44 84 0.289 11.4 64 124 0.198 7.8
25 46 0.508 20.0 45 86 0.282 11.1 65 126 0.195 7.7
26 48 0.488 19.2 46 88 0.276 10.9 66 128 0.192 7.6
27 50 0.470 18.5 47 90 0.270 10.6 67 130 0.189 7.5
28 52 0.453 17.9 48 92 0.264 10.4
29 54 0.438 17.2 49 94 0.259 10.2
Note: 1mils=1/1000in
3.5 Tying-in
Usually tying-in is used when a fabric of a particular type is being
mass produced. The new warp beams will be identical with the exhausted
beams on the looms. Therefore, if every end on the new beam is tied
to its corresponding end on the old beam, the drawing-in process can
be omitted. Tying-in may be done by means of a small portable machine
on the loom or as a separate operation away from the loom.
Figure 3.5 Tying Machine (Staeubli)
3.6 Recent Development in Weaving Preparation
3.6.1 Quick Style Change in Weaving

The preparation of the loom warps is an expensive and time-consuming
factor in the process of weaving. The greatly increased weaving speeds
of recent times, together with a progressive demand for small lots of
a wide range articles, call for improvements in preparatory procedures.
The makers of weaving machines and ancillaries have come up with
a concept of Quick Style Change (QSC) which is regarded as the
standard for greater flexibility, and shorter processing times in weaving
preparation. The QSC enables appreciable time savings to be made
in changes of the warp and style being woven. The modules of the
weaving machine are held by clamping device and moved by transporter
to the warp preparation site for drawing-in or tying in.
3.6.2 The process flow of a QSC system is as follows:

a) Signal appears on a weaving machine when it needs an
article changed and the machine stops.
b) Woven-out warp, together with droppers, healds and reed,

is taken out of the weaving machine and transferred using
a transporter module to the warp preparation department.
c) If for warp change only, the woven-out warp together with
droppers, healds and reed will be clamped by a transportable
ancillary device and the tying machine will join the woven-
out warp to a full warp beam.
d) Automatic drawing-in of the warp through the droppers,
healds and reed takes place with the aid of the driven clamp
roll.
e) If a style change is required, a full warp beam will be
prepared by the automatic drawing-in machine.

f) A film is fused to the warp yarns of the full warp beam by
a warp welding device, and the new warp is ready for
direct mounting in the weaving machine.
3-46
Figure 3.6 Quick Style Change Warp Preparation System (Staeubli)


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Chapter 3

Weaving and Woven Fabrics ..............3-2

Section 1 - Warp Preparation Process ................... 3-2

1.1 Warping Process ............................................................... 3-2 A

1.3 Examples of Machine Settings for Warping ................... 3-5

1.4 Recent Development in Sectional Warping Machine .... 3-5

1.5 Defects and Possible Causes in Direct Beaming ............. 3-6

1.6 Warp Preparation for Rope Dyeing ................................ 3-9

Section 2 - Warp Sizing ........................................... 3-19

2.1 Purpose of Warp Sizing .................................................... 3-19 A

2.4 Examples of Recipes of Sizing Solution .......................... 3-25

2.7 Manufacturers and Brand of Commonly Used Liquid

2.8 Size Defects and Possible Causes ..................................... 3-29

2.9 Sizing Process Defects and Possible Causes ................... 3-30

2.10 Example of Warp Tension for Cotton Yarn during

2.11 Guidelines for the Sizing of Denim .................................. 3-35

3.1 Introduction ....................................................................... 3-38

3.4 Reed .................................................................................... 3-43

3.5 Tying-in .............................................................................. 3-44

3.6 Recent Development in Weaving Preparation ............... 3-44

Back to Table of Content

SECTION 1 WARP PREPARATION PROCESS

1.1 Warping Process

1.1.1 Direct Beaming

1.1.2 Section Warping

Figure 1.1.2 Sectional Warping Machine

1.1.3 Ball Warping

1.2 Warping Data

Weaving and Woven Fabrics

Figure 1.2 Example of a Warping Data Sheet (Back side)

1.3 Examples of Machine Settings for Warping

Weaving and Woven Fabrics

1.4 Recent Development in Sectional Warping

pressure has been defined, the sensor control roller automatically

1.5 Defects and Possible Causes in Direct Beaming

Defect Description Possible causes

Crossed end Broken end entangled with 1) Operators fault

Weaving and Woven Fabrics

Waste Waste yarn wrap into warp sheet 1) Operators fault

Incorrect warp Warp length different from 1) Malfunction of yardage meter

Stain Stain on surface of the warp sheet 1) Soiled cones

Flies Flies trapped in warp sheet 1) Insufficient cleaning

1.6 Warp Preparation for Rope Dyeing

1.6.1 Ball Warper Specification

Ball Capacity- Ball diameter up to 1200 mm (48")

Ball Width - 1067 mm (42"), 1220 mm (48")

Accessories- Leasing equipment, Digital Counter

In-Line Creel: Package size up to 356 mm (14") diameter

Stop Motion- Faller wire or drop wire, Motion sensitive

Weaving and Woven Fabrics

Tension System- Post/Disc ROTATENSE

1.6.2 Ball Warping Process Parameters

Parameters Unit Specifications

1.6.3 Rope Dyeing

Figure 1.6.3 Rope Dyeing Range

1.6.4 Typical Recipe Of Master Solution For Rope Dyeing