COMST SmartGridSurvey PDF

Smart Grid The New and Improved Power Grid: A Survey
Xi Fang, Student Member, IEEE, Satyajayant Misra, Member, IEEE, Guoliang Xue, Fellow, IEEE,
and Dejun Yang, Student Member, IEEE
AbstractThe Smart Grid, regarded as the next generation TABLE I: A Brief Comparison between the Existing Grid and
power grid, uses two-way flows of electricity and information to the Smart Grid [70]
create a widely distributed automated energy delivery network.
In this article, we survey the literature till 2011 on the enabling Existing Grid Smart Grid
technologies for the Smart Grid. We explore three major systems, Electromechanical Digital
namely the smart infrastructure system, the smart management One-way communication Two-way communication
system, and the smart protection system. We also propose possible Centralized generation Distributed generation
future directions in each system. Specifically, for the smart Few sensors Sensors throughout
infrastructure system, we explore the smart energy subsystem, Manual monitoring Self-monitoring
the smart information subsystem, and the smart communication Manual restoration Self-healing
subsystem. For the smart management system, we explore various Failures and blackouts Adaptive and islanding
management objectives, such as improving energy efficiency, Limited control Pervasive control
profiling demand, maximizing utility, reducing cost, and con- Few customer choices Many customer choices
trolling emission. We also explore various management methods
to achieve these objectives. For the smart protection system, we
explore various failure protection mechanisms which improve Let us consider another example of demand profile shaping.
the reliability of the Smart Grid, and explore the security and Since lowering peak demand and smoothing demand profile
privacy issues in the Smart Grid.
reduces overall plant and capital cost requirements, in the
Index TermsSmart grid, power grid, survey, energy, informa- peak period the electric utility can use real-time pricing to
tion, communications, management, protection, security, privacy. convince some users to reduce their power demands, so that
the total demand profile full of peaks can be shaped to a nicely
smoothed demand profile.
I. I NTRODUCTION More specifically, the SG can be regarded as an electric
system that uses information, two-way, cyber-secure commu-
Traditionally, the term grid is used for an electricity system
nication technologies, and computational intelligence in an
that may support all or some of the following four operations:
integrated fashion across electricity generation, transmission,
electricity generation, electricity transmission, electricity dis-
substations, distribution and consumption to achieve a system
tribution, and electricity control.
that is clean, safe, secure, reliable, resilient, efficient, and
A smart grid (SG), also called smart electrical/power grid,
sustainable. This description covers the entire spectrum of
intelligent grid, intelligrid, futuregrid, intergrid, or intragrid, is
the energy system from the generation to the end points of
an enhancement of the 20th century power grid. The traditional
consumption of the electricity [80]. The ultimate SG is a
power grids are generally used to carry power from a few
vision. It is a loose integration of complementary components,
central generators to a large number of users or customers.
subsystems, functions, and services under the pervasive control
In contrast, the SG uses two-way flows of electricity and
of highly intelligent management-and-control systems. Given
information to create an automated and distributed advanced
the vast landscape of the SG research, different researchers
energy delivery network. Table I gives a brief comparison
may express different visions for the SG due to different
between the existing grid and the SG.
focuses and perspectives. In keeping with this format, in this
By utilizing modern information technologies, the SG is
survey, we explore three major systems in SG from a technical
capable of delivering power in more efficient ways and
perspective:
responding to wide ranging conditions and events. Broadly
Smart infrastructure system: The smart infrastructure
stated, the SG could respond to events that occur anywhere in
the grid, such as power generation, transmission, distribution, system is the energy, information, and communication
infrastructure underlying of the SG that supports 1) ad-
and consumption, and adopt the corresponding strategies. For
instance, once a medium voltage transformer failure event vanced electricity generation, delivery, and consumption;
occurs in the distribution grid, the SG may automatically 2) advanced information metering, monitoring, and man-
agement; and 3) advanced communication technologies.
change the power flow and recover the power delivery service.
Smart management system: The smart management sys-
Manuscript received May 27, 2011; revised September 25, 2011; accepted tem is the subsystem in SG that provides advanced
September 30, 2011. management and control services.
Xi Fang, Guoliang Xue, and Dejun Yang are affiliated with Arizona State
Smart protection system: The smart protection system
University, Tempe, AZ 85281. E-mail: {xi.fang, xue, dejun.yang}@asu.edu.
Satyajayant Misra is affiliated with New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, is the subsystem in SG that provides advanced grid
NM 88003. Email: misra@cs.nmsu.edu. This research was supported in part reliability analysis, failure protection, and security and
by ARO grant W911NF-09-1-0467 and NSF grant 0905603. The information
reported here does not reflect the position or the policy of the federal
privacy protection services.
government. Other surveys on SG were done in [41, 267, 17, 29, 90,
FANG et al.: SMART GRID THE NEW AND IMPROVED POWER GRID: A SURVEY 2
251, 97, 211, 247, 3, 254, 42]. Chen et al. [41], Yu et al. Standards and Technology (NIST) to coordinate the research
[267], and Hassan and Radman [97] briefly reviewed the and development of a framework to achieve interoperability
basic concepts of SG and some technologies that could be of SG systems and devices. Although a precise and compre-
used in SG. The authors of [211, 247] reviewed the existing hensive definition of SG has not been proposed yet, according
SG standardizations and gave concrete recommendations for to the report from NIST [177], the anticipated benefits and
future SG standards. Vasconcelos [251] outlined the potential requirements of SG are the following:
benefits of smart meters, and provided a short overview of 1) Improving power reliability and quality;
the legal framework governing metering activities and policies 2) Optimizing facility utilization and averting construction
in Europe. Brown and Suryanarayanan [29] determined an of back-up (peak load) power plants;
industry perspective for the smart distribution system and 3) Enhancing capacity and efficiency of existing electric
identified those technologies which could be applied in the power networks;
future research in the smart distribution system. Baumeister 4) Improving resilience to disruption;
[17] presented a review of the work related to SG cyber 5) Enabling predictive maintenance and self-healing re-
security. Chen [42] explored the security and privacy issues in sponses to system disturbances;
SG and related these issues to cyber security in the Internet. 6) Facilitating expanded deployment of renewable energy
Gungor and Lambert [90] explored communication networks sources;
for electric system automation and attempted to provide a 7) Accommodating distributed power sources;
better understanding of the hybrid network architecture that 8) Automating maintenance and operation;
can provide heterogeneous electric system automation appli- 9) Reducing greenhouse gas emissions by enabling electric
cation requirements. Akyol et al. [3] analyzed how, where, vehicles and new power sources;
and what types of wireless communications are suitable for 10) Reducing oil consumption by reducing the need for
deployment in the electric power system. Wang et al. [254] inefficient generation during peak usage periods;
provided a survey on the communication architectures in the 11) Presenting opportunities to improve grid security;
power systems, including the communication network com- 12) Enabling transition to plug-in electric vehicles and new
positions, technologies, functions, requirements, and research energy storage options;
challenges. They also discussed the network implementation 13) Increasing consumer choice;
considerations and challenges in the power system settings. 14) Enabling new products, services, and markets.
Our survey complements these existing surveys in that In order to realize this new grid paradigm, NIST provided a
we: 1) comprehensively survey the literature till 2011, and conceptual model (as shown in Fig. 1), which can be used as a
systematically classify the work for the smart infrastructure reference for the various parts of the electric system where SG
system (energy, information, and communications), the smart standardization work is taking place. This conceptual model
management system, and the smart protection system; and 2) divides the SG into seven domains. Each domain encom-
outline challenges and future research directions for each of passes one or more SG actors, including devices, systems,
these three major systems. The novelty of this survey is in the or programs that make decisions and exchange information
classification, volume of information provided, and outlining necessary for performing applications. The brief descriptions
of future research in these three major systems. of the domains and actors are given in Table II. Refer to
This survey is structured as follows. In Section II, we the appendix of the NIST report [177] for more detailed
present an overview of SG. In Section III, we review the descriptions. Note that NIST proposed this model from the
legislations, the standards, the projects, the programs, and perspectives of the different roles involved in the SG.
the trials of SG. We then describe three subsystems of the
smart infrastructure system in Sections IV-VI, respectively.
We next describe the smart management system and the smart
protection system in Sections VII and VIII, respectively. In
Section IX, we conclude this survey and present some lessons
learned. In addition, refer to Appendix A for the abbreviations
used in this survey.
II. W HAT IS S MART G RID ?

The initial concept of SG started with the idea of advanced
metering infrastructure (AMI) with the aim of improving
demand-side management and energy efficiency, and con-
structing self-healing reliable grid protection against malicious
sabotage and natural disasters [204]. However, new require-
ments and demands drove the electricity industries, research Fig. 1: The NIST Conceptual Model for SG [177]
organizations, and governments to rethink and expand the
initially perceived scope of SG. The U.S. Energy Independence In contrast, our survey, which looks at SG from a technical
and Security Act of 2007 directed the National Institute of view point, divides SG into three major systems: smart infras-
TABLE II: Domains and Actors in the NIST SG Conceptual 2) Smart management system: The smart management sys-
Model [177] tem is the subsystem in SG that provides advanced
Domain Actors in the Domain management and control services and functionalities.
Customers The end users of electricity. May also generate, store, The key reason why SG can revolutionize the grid is
and manage the use of energy.
Markets The operators and participants in electricity markets.
the explosion of functionality based on its smart infras-
Service Providers The organizations providing services to electrical tructure. With the development of new management ap-
customers and utilities. plications and services that can leverage the technology
Operations The managers of the movement of electricity. and capability upgrades enabled by this advanced in-
Bulk Generation The generators of electricity in bulk quantities. May
also store energy for later distribution. frastructure, the grid will keep becoming smarter. The
Transmission The carriers of bulk electricity over long distances. smart management system takes advantage of the smart
May also store and generate electricity. infrastructure to pursue various advanced management
Distribution The distributors of electricity to and from customers.
May also store and generate electricity. objectives. Thus far, most of such objectives are related
to energy efficiency improvement, supply and demand
balance, emission control, operation cost reduction, and
tructure, smart management and smart protection systems. utility maximization.
3) Smart protection system: The smart protection system
is the subsystem in SG that provides advanced grid
1) Smart infrastructure system: The smart infrastructure reliability analysis, failure protection, and security and
system is the energy, information, and communication privacy protection services. By taking advantage of the
infrastructure underlying the SG. It supports two-way smart infrastructure, the SG must not only realize a
flow of electricity and information. Note that it is smarter management system, but also provide a smarter
straightforward to understand the concept of two-way protection system which can more effectively and effi-
flow of information. Two-way flow of electricity ciently support failure protection mechanisms, address
implies that the electric energy delivery is not unidirec- cyber security issues, and preserve privacy.
tional anymore. For example, in the traditional power
grid, the electricity is generated by the generation plant, Fig. 2 shows the detailed classification of these three
then moved by the transmission grid, the distribution major systems. In this paper, we will describe SG using this
grid, and finally delivered to users. In an SG, electricity classification. We encourage the readers to refer back to this
can also be put back into the grid by users. For example, classification in case of any confusion while reading the text.
users may be able to generate electricity using solar
panels at homes and put it back into the grid, or electric III. A N OVERVIEW OF L EGISLATIONS , S TANDARDS ,
vehicles may provide power to help balance loads by P ROJECTS , P ROGRAMS AND T RIALS
peak shaving (sending power back to the grid when In 2001, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) began a
demand is high). This backward flow is important. For series of Communications and Controls Workshops focused
example, it can be extremely helpful in a microgrid on the integration of distributed energy resources [146]. The
(described in Section IV-D) that has been islanded due broad view of a transformation to SG was reflected in DOEs
to power failures. The microgrid can function, albeit at GridWise [200, 51]. The U.S. federal government has also
a reduced level, with the help of the energy fed back established its policy for SG, which is reflected in two Acts
by the customers. In this survey, we further divide this of Congress. The first one is the Energy Independence and
smart infrastructure into three subsystems: the smart Security Act of 2007 [239] which specifies studies on the state
energy subsystem, the smart information subsystem, and and security of SG; establishes a federal advisory committee
the smart communication subsystem. and intergovernment agency task force; frames technology
The smart energy subsystem is responsible for research, development and demonstration; directs the advance-
advanced electricity generation, delivery, and con- ment of interoperability; and creates a matching fund program
sumption. to encourage investment in SG [146]. The second one is the
The smart information subsystem is responsible American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 [240],
for advanced information metering, monitoring, and which includes $3.4 billion in funding for the SG Investment
management in the context of the SG. Grant Program and $615 million for the SG Demonstration
The smart communication subsystem is responsible Program. The result of these programs is expected to lead to
for communication connectivity and information a combined investment of over $8 billion in SG capabilities.
transmission among systems, devices, and applica- Several standardizations have also come up in different
tions in the context of the SG. areas, countries, or organizations. We list several major SG
Note that the reason why we separate information sub- standardization roadmaps and studies in the following:
system and communication subsystem is to get a handle 1) United States: NIST IOP Roadmap [177];
on the involved complexity of the SG as a system of sys- 2) European Union: Mandate CEN/CENELEC M/441 [67];
tems. This also makes our survey compliant with IEEE 3) Germany: BMWi E-Energy Program [187], BDI initia-
P2030 [109] to meet the interoperability requirements. tive -Internet der Energie [111];
We will briefly describe IEEE P2030 in Section III. 4) China: SGCC Framework [233];
Smart Grid
Smart Protection System
System reliablity and failure protection
System reliablity
Failure protection mechanism
Failure prediction and prevention
Failure identification, diagnosis, and recovery
Protection Failure identification and localization
Grid self-healing
Data recovery
Microgrid protection
Security and privacy
Information metering and measurement
Information transmission
Management
Infrastructure
Smart Management
System Smart Infrastructure System
Management objectives Smart energy subsystem
Energy efficiency and demand profile Power generation
Demand profile shaping Transmission grid
Energy loss minimization Distribution grid
Utility, cost, and price New grid paradigm: microgrid and grid-to-
Emission vehicle/vehicle-to-grid
Management methods and tools Smart information subsystem
Optimization Information metering and measurement
Convex programming Smart meter
Dynamic programming Sensor
Stochastic programming Phasor measurement unit
Robust programming Information management
Particle swarm optimization Data modeling
Machine learning Information analysis, integration, and optimization
Game theory Smart communication subsystem
Auction Wireless
Wireless mesh networks
Celluar communication systems
Cognitive radio
Wireless communications based on 802.15.4
Satellite communications
Microwave or free-space optical communications
Wired
Fiber-optic communications
Powerline communications
End-to-end communication management
Fig. 2: The Detailed Classification of the Smart Infrastructure System, the Smart Management System, and the Smart Protection
System: In Sections IV-VI, we will describe the smart energy subsystem, the smart information subsystem, and the smart
communication subsystem, respectively. In Section VII, we will describe the smart management system. In Section VIII, we
will describe the smart protection system.
5) Japan: METI Smart Grid roadmap [118]; 10) Microsoft: SERA [167].
6) Korea: Smart Grid Roadmap 2030 [247]; A detailed study comparing them and an overview of other
7) IEEE: P2030 [109]; SG roadmaps (e.g. Austria [209], UK [65], and Spain [75]) can
8) IEC SMB: SG 3 Roadmap [227]; be found in [247, 211]. In order to drive all the dimensions
9) CIGRE: D2.24 [113]; of the future standards of SG, a cooperative standardization
Smart Grid Projects in the U.S. Smart Grid Projects outside of the U.S.
Grids
Grids
Fig. 3: Smart Grid Project Map [226]
roadmap crossing different areas, countries, and organizations the new challenge.
is desired. In the meantime, those existing standards may need
to be developed and revised to adapt to the changes within
IV. S MART I NFRASTRUCTURE S YSTEM I - S MART E NERGY
technical, political, and regulatory aspects. Considering the
S UBSYSTEM
importance of IEEE standards, we briefly describe IEEE P2030
[109]. IEEE P2030 focuses on a system level approach to the Two-way flows of electricity and information lay the in-
guidance for interoperability components of communications, frastructure foundation for the SG. The smart infrastructure
power systems, and information technology platforms. SG can be subdivided into the smart energy subsystem, the smart
interoperability provides organizations the ability to communi- information subsystem, and the smart communication subsys-
cate effectively and transfer meaningful data, even though they tem, respectively. In this section, we explore existing work on
may be using a variety of different information systems over the smart energy subsystem and outline some future research
widely different infrastructures, sometimes across different directions and challenges.
geographic regions and cultures. P2030 views the SG as a The traditional power grid is unidirectional in nature [70].
large, complex system of systems and provides guidance Electricity is often generated at a few central power plants by
to navigate the numerous SG design pathways throughout the electromechanical generators, primarily driven by the force
electric power system and end-use applications. of flowing water or heat engines fueled by chemical com-
In order to promote the development of SG, governments, bustion or nuclear power. In order to take advantage of the
academia, industry, and research organizations have put a great economies of scale, the generating plants are usually quite
deal of effort in pilot projects, programs, and field trials. In large and located away from heavily populated areas. The
order to help the readers assess the recent progress, especially generated electric power is stepped up to a higher voltage
in the industrial sector, we summarize 17 major projects, for transmission on the transmission grid. The transmission
programs, and trials, shown in Table IV of Appendix B. They grid moves the power over long distances to substations. Upon
cover smart meter, AMI, transmission grid, distribution grid, arrival at a substation, the power will be stepped down from
distributed resource, virtual power plant, home application, the transmission level voltage to a distribution level voltage.
microgrid, electric vehicle, and integrated systems. These con- As the power exits the substation, it enters the distribution
cepts will be described in the following sections. In addition, grid. Finally, upon arrival at the service location, the power
in order to give the readers a direct impression, we use Fig. 3 is stepped down again from the distribution voltage to the
to show the map of the SG projects collected by Smart Grid required service voltage(s). Fig. 4 shows an example of the
Information Clearinghouse [226]. This map roughly shows traditional power grid.
the locations and the objectives of these SG projects. We In contrast with the traditional power grid, the electric
can observe that in the U.S., Europe, and East Asia, there energy generation and the flow pattern in an SG are more
already exist several integrated system projects, although we flexible. For example, the distribution grid may also be capable
are just at the beginning of the SG transition. As pointed out of generating electricity by using solar panels or wind turbines.
by Giordano et al. [84], in almost all countries, a significant In this survey, we still divide the energy subsystem into
amount of investments is devoted to projects which address power generation, transmission grid, and distribution grid.
the integration of different SG technologies and applications. Fig. 5 shows a classification of the work on the smart energy
Most of the technologies are known, but their integration is subsystem.
Generating step up Substation step down

transformer transformer
Residential
users
Nuclear plant
Commercial
users
Oil plant
Coal plant Industrial

(a) 2008 (b) 2009
users
Fig. 6: U.S. Electricity Generation by Source [58]
Power Transmission Distribution
generation grid grid
Fig. 4: An Example of the Traditional Power Grid
Smart Energy Subsystem
Power Generation Transmission Grid Distribution Grid

[6, 36, 114, 117] [141, 24] [235, 234]
[155, 172, 265]
[269, 266] Fig. 7: World Energy Supply by Source [259]
Fig. 5: Classification of the Work on the Smart Energy
Subsystem
from outside. Thus, the disturbance in the macrogrid can be
isolated and the electric power supply quality is improved. A
A. Power Generation study [114] from the International Energy Agency pointed out
Electricity generation is the process of generating electricity that a power system based on a large number of reliable small
from other forms of energy, such as natural gas, coal, nuclear DGs can operate with the same reliability and a lower capacity
power, the sun, and wind. During the 1820s and early 1830s, margin than a system of equally reliable large generators.
British scientist Michael Faraday discovered the fundamental A review of different distributed energy technologies such
principles of electricity generation: electricity can be generated as microturbines, photovoltaic, fuel cells, and wind power
by the motion of a loop of wire or a disc of copper between turbines can be found in [269].
the poles of a magnet, a principle still being used today. There However, implementing DG(s) in practice is not an easy
are many energy sources used to generate electric power. Fig. proposition due to several reasons. First, DG involves large-
6 shows the U.S. electricity generation by source in 2008 and scale deployments for generation from renewable resources,
2009 [58]. As fossil fuels get depleted and generally get more such as solar and wind, whose yield is, however, subject to
expensive, it is expected that the renewable energy will play wide fluctuations. In general, the generation patterns resulting
a more important role in the future power generation. Fig. 7 from these renewables and the electricity demand patterns are
shows the predicted world energy supply by source [259]. far from being equal [172]. Therefore, effective utilization
In contrast to the power generation in the traditional power of the DG in a way that is cognizant of the variability of
grid, smarter power generation becomes possible as the two- the yield from renewable sources is important. Second, the
way flows of electricity and information are supported. A key authors of [114, 269] indicated that the usual operation costs
power generation paradigm enabled by SG will be the dis- of distributed generators for generating one unit of electricity
tributed generation (DG). DG takes advantage of distributed are high compared with that of traditional large-scale central
energy resource (DER) systems (e.g. solar panels and small power plants. Considering the DGs potential benefits on
wind turbines), which are often small-scale power generators power quality, a systematic research on how to balance the
(typically in the range of 3 kW to 10,000 kW), in order high capital costs and the reliable power supplies brought by
to improve the power quality and reliability. For example, a DG is essential.
microgrid (discussed in Section IV-D), which is a localized Although we can only see a limited penetration of DG in
grouping of electricity generators and loads, can disconnect todays power system, the future SG is expected to adopt a
from the macrogrid so that distributed generators continue to large number of distributed generators to form a much more
power the users in this microgrid without obtaining power decentralized power system. As predicted in [114], it may
evolve from the present system in three stages: components) and innovative technologies (new materials, ad-
1) Accommodating DGs in the current power system; vanced power electronics, and communication technologies)
2) Introducing a decentralized system of DGs cooperating drive the development of smart transmission grids. As stated
with the centralized generation system; in [141], the smart transmission grid can be regarded as an
3) Supplying most power by DGs and a limited amount by integrated system that functionally consists of three interactive
central generation. components: smart control centers, smart power transmission
Note that as DG enables the users to deploy their own networks, and smart substations.
generators, the large-scale deployment of DG will also change Based on the existing control centers, the future smart
the traditional power grid design methodology, in which the control centers enable many new features, such as analytical
generators are connected to the transmission grid (see Fig. 4). capabilities for analysis, monitoring, and visualization.
The development and deployment of DG further leads to a The smart power transmission networks are conceptually
concept, namely Virtual Power Plant (VPP), which manages built on the existing electric transmission infrastructure. How-
a large group of distributed generators with a total capacity ever, the emergence of new technologies (e.g new materials,
comparable to that of a conventional power plant [172]. electronics, sensing, communication, computing, and signal
This cluster of distributed generators is collectively run by processing) can help improve the power utilization, power
a central controller. The concerted operational mode delivers quality, and system security and reliability, thus drive the
extra benefits such as the ability to deliver peak load electricity development of a new framework architecture for transmission
or load-aware power generation at short notice. Such a VPP networks.
can replace a conventional power plant while providing higher The vision of the smart substation is built on the existing
efficiency and more flexibility. Note that more flexibility al- comprehensive automation technologies of substations. Al-
lows the system to react better to fluctuations. However, a VPP though the basic configurations of high-voltage substations
is also a complex system requiring a complicated optimization, have not changed much over the years, the monitoring, mea-
control, and secure communication methodology. surement, and control equipment have undergone a sea change
Traditional VPPs are studied in [265, 266, 155, 36, 6]. in recent years [24]. Major characteristics of a smart substation
Anderson et al. [6] aimed to find and describe a suitable shall include digitalization, autonomization, coordination, and
software framework that can be used to help implement the self-healing. By supporting these features, a smart substation is
concept of a VPP in future power systems, and emphasized the able to respond rapidly and provide increased operator safety.
importance of Service Oriented Architecture in implementing In brief, with a common digitalized platform, in the smart
the VPP. Caldon et al. [36] proposed a cost based optimiza- transmission grid it is possible to enable more flexibility in
tion procedure for harmonizing the concurrent operation of control and operation, allow for embedded intelligence, and
distribution system operator and VPP which, although acting foster the resilience and sustainability of the grid.
in an independent manner, can be coordinated by means of
suitable economic signals. Lombardi et al. [155] focused on C. Distribution Grid
the optimization of the structure of the VPP. By using an
energy management system, a VPP can be controlled in order For the distribution grid, the most important problem is how
to minimize the electricity production costs and to avoid to deliver power to serve the end users better. However, as
the loss of renewable energy. You et al. [265] proposed a many distributed generators will be integrated into the smart
market-based VPP, which uses bidding and price signal as two distributed grid, this, on one hand, will increase the system
optional operations, and provides individual distributed energy flexibility for power generation, and on the other hand, also
resource units with the access to current electricity markets. makes the power flow control much more complicated, in turn,
You et al. [266] proposed a generic VPP model running under necessitating the investigation of smarter power distribution
liberalized electricity market environment, and attempted to and delivery mechanisms.
provide an outline of the main functions that are necessary An interesting research work was done by Takuno et al.
for the efficient operation of this generic VPP. [235]. Takuno et al. proposed two in-home power distribution
In addition, recently the integration of Vehicle-to-Grid systems, in which the information is added to the electric
(V2G) technology (explained in Section IV-D) and VPP was power itself and electricity is distributed according to this
investigated in [117], which outlined an architecture of V2G information. The first one is a circuit switching system based
integrating VPP, provided a sketch of the trip-prediction algo- on alternating current (AC) power distribution, and the other
rithm, and the associated optimization problem for the overall is a direct current (DC) power dispatching system via power
system architecture. packets. Note that the packetization of energy is an interesting
Similar ideas of virtual have also been used for other but challenging task since it requires high power switching
applications, such as virtual energy buffers [245] and virtual devices. Researchers have shown that silicon carbide junction
energy provisioning systems [119]. gate field-effect transistors are able to shape electric energy
packets [234]. Hence, the system proposed in [235] has the
potential as an intelligent power router. More specifically,
B. Transmission Grid supplied electricity from energy sources is divided into several
On the power transmission side, factors such as infrastruc- units of payload. A header and a footer are attached to the unit
ture challenges (increasing load demands and quickly aging to form an electric energy packet. When the router receives
packets, they are sorted according to the addresses in the

headers and then sent to the corresponding loads. Using energy
packet, providing power is easily regulated by controlling the
number of sent packets. In addition, many in-home electric Information flow
devices are driven by DC power and have built-in power
conversion circuits to commutate AC input voltage. Thus, DC-
based power distribution is feasible. These systems will make
in-home power distribution systems more efficient and easier
to control energy flow.
Power flow
D. Some New Grid Paradigms

In this subsection, we describe two of the most important
new grid paradigms, which benefit from smart energy subsys-
tem technologies and also further promote the development of Macrogrid
SG. These two paradigms are widely regarded as important
components of the future SG. Note that these two paradigms
also take advantage of other SG technologies as we will
explain in the corresponding sections. Microgrid
1) Microgrid
Fig. 8: An Example of a Microgrid: The lower layer shows a
Distributed generation promotes the development of a new
physical structure of this microgrid, including four buildings,
grid paradigm, called microgrid, which is seen as one of the
two wind generators, two solar panel generators, and one
cornerstones of the future SG [68]. The organic evolution
wireless access point (AP). These buildings and generators
of the SG is expected to come through the plug-and-play
exchange power using powerlines. They exchange information
integration of microgrids [70]. A microgrid is a localized
via an AP-based wireless network. The blue (top) layer shows
grouping of electricity generations, energy storages, and loads.
the information flow within this microgrid and the red (middle)
In the normal operation, it is connected to a traditional power
layer shows the power flow.
grid (macrogrid). The users in a microgrid can generate low
voltage electricity using distributed generation, such as solar
panels, wind turbines, and fuel cells. The single point of
common coupling with the macrogrid can be disconnected, get more expensive, fully electric vehicles or plug-in hybrid
with the microgrid functioning autonomously [122]. This oper- electric vehicles will rise in popularity. In the following, we
ation will result in an islanded microgrid, in which distributed use EV to represent both fully electric vehicle and plug-
generators continue to power the users in this microgrid in hybrid electric vehicle. The wide use and deployment of
without obtaining power from the electric utility located in the EVs leads to two concepts, namely Grid-to-Vehicle (G2V) and
macrogrid. Fig. 8 shows an example of the microgrid. Thus, Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G).
the multiple distributed generators and the ability to isolate the In G2V, EVs are often powered by stored electricity
microgrid from a larger network in disturbance will provide originally from an external power source, and thus need to
highly reliable electricity supply. This intentional islanding of be charged after the batteries deplete. This technology is
generations and loads has the potential to provide a higher conceptually simple. However, from the perspective of the
local reliability than that provided by the power system as grid, one of the most important issues in G2V is that the
a whole [136]. Note that although these users do not obtain charging operation leads to a significant new load on the
the power from outside in the islanding mode, they may still existing distribution grids. In the literature, many works have
exchange some information with the macrogrid. For instance, studied the impact of EVs on the power grid.
they may want to know the status of the macrogrid and decide Schneider et al. [224] pointed out that the existing distri-
whether they should reconnect to the macrogrid and obtain bution grid infrastructure in the Pacific Northwest is capable
power from the electric utility. of supporting a 50% penetration of EVs with the 120V smart-
Lasseter [135] also pointed out that using microgrids in the charging profile, which equates to approximately 21.6% of the
distribution system is straightforward and also simplifies the light duty vehicle fleet. This level of penetration exceeds the
implementation of many SG functions. This includes improved known capability of the existing generation resources, which
reliability, high penetration of renewable sources, self-healing, is approximately 18%. The authors of [228, 210, 92] further
active load control, and improved efficiencies. For example, in pointed out that serious problems (e.g.significant degradation
order to realize self-healing during outages, microgrids can of power system performance and efficiency, and even over-
switch to the islanding mode and as a result the users in loading) can arise under high penetration levels of uncoordi-
microgrids will not be affected by outages. nated charging.
2) G2V and V2G One solution to mitigate the impact of EVs on the grid is
An electric vehicle is a vehicle that uses one or more electric to optimize their charging profile. In other words, we need
motors for propulsion. As fossil fuels diminish and generally to keep the peak power demand as small as possible, taking
into account the extra power consumption from the vehicle transmission, and distribution. We have also described two new
charging. This can be done by coordinating the charging grid paradigms: microgrid and G2V/V2G. In the following, we
operations of different EVs so that they are not charged at list several research challenges and possible future research
the same time. For example, Clement et al. [48] show that the worth exploring.
coordinated charging of EVs can improve power losses and 1) Effective utilization of intermittent and fluctuant
voltage deviations by flattening out peak power. renewables: It is believed that distributed renewable energy
In V2G, EVs provide a new way to store and supply electric generation will be widely used in SG. However, the utilization
power. V2G-enabled EVs can communicate with the grid to of distributed renewable energy resources also poses many
deliver electricity into the grid, when they are parked and challenges and opens up many new research topics.
connected to the grid. Note that as reported by Kempton et al. The key problem is how to model renewable energy source.
[127], in the U.S. the car is driven only one hour a day on The intermittent and fluctuant nature of wind and solar
average. In other words, these cars are parked most of the time generation requires much more complicated forecasting and
doing nothing. There exist three major delivery setups: scheduling. Both long-term and short-term renewable source
1) A hybrid or fuel cell vehicle, which generates power patterns and likely behavior must be understood and explored
from storable fuel, uses its generator to produce power [198].
for a utility at peak electricity usage times. These vehi- For example, He et al. [100] divided a 24-hour period into
cles serve as a distributed generation system producing slots of length 1 each; and each 1 -slot, in turn, consists
energy from conventional fossil fuels or hydrogen. of slots, each of length 2 . The wind generation can be
2) A battery-powered or plug-in hybrid vehicle uses its modeled as a non-stationary Gaussian random process across
excess rechargeable battery capacity to supply power the 1 -slots, i.e., the wind generation amount in the th 2 -
for a utility at peak electricity usage times. These slot of the th 1 -slot follows (, 2 ), where is the
vehicles can then be recharged during off-peak hours Gaussian distribution, is the mean, and 2 is the variance.
at cheaper rates. These vehicles serve as a distributed In addition, finite-state Markov models have also been used as
battery storage system to store power. an effective approach to characterize the correlation structure
3) A solar vehicle which uses its excess charging capacity of the renewable energy outputs [66, 181]. Since we may
to provide power to the power grid when the battery is not fully observe the system transition state, hidden Markov
fully charged. These vehicles serve as a distributed small models are also used in modeling renewable energy systems
renewable energy power system. [175, 230, 32, 33]. Considering that in practice the power
Thus far, researchers have focused on the connection between pattern of renewable resources may not follow any simple
batteries and the power grid [126, 244], the validity of the V2G distribution or Markov process, Fang et al. [69] further used
system [123], the feasible service [244], its environmental non-stochastic multi-armed bandit online learning technique
and economic benefits [186], its new markets [125, 124], to learn the evolution of power pattern of renewable energy
and system integration [258]. Utilities currently also have source. Note that online learning is a model of induction
V2G technology trials. For example, Pacific Gas and Electric that learns the label of one instance at a time. The goal in
Company tried to convert a number of company-owned Toyota online learning is to predict labels for instances. A typical
Prius to V2G plug-in hybrids at Googles campus [28]. Xcel application could be that the instances are able to describe
Energy performed the nations first large test of V2G-enabled the current conditions of the renewable sources, and an online
EVs in Boulder, Colorado, as part of its internationally recog- algorithm predicts tomorrows value of a particular source. In
nized SmartGridCity project [260]. summary, in order to effectively utilize the renewable energy,
Note that G2V and V2G are not fully separated concepts more thorough mathematical analysis on modeling renewable
in the vision of SG. For example, V2G-enabled EVs are often energy is desirable.
used to provide power to help balance loads by peak shaving Another possible research topic is the optimal deployment
(sending power back to the grid when demand is high) but also of the additional ancillary services (e.g. energy reserves) to
valley filling (charging when demand is low). Therefore, a maintain reliability and meet operational requirements, taking
key question is how to determine the appropriate charge and into account the uncertainty and variability of renewable
discharge times throughout the day. Hutson et al. [107] studied energy resources.
this problem and used a binary particle swarm optimization 2) Utilization of G2V/V2G:
algorithm to look for optimal solutions that maximize profits In G2V, the challenge is that vehicle charging will lead to
to vehicle owners while satisfying system and vehicle owners a significant new load on the existing distribution grids, with
constraints. Note that particle swarm optimization is an iter- many of these circuits not having any spare capacity. In V2G,
ative stochastic optimization algorithm. The solution search the challenge is the availability of EVs, since an EV can only
is performed in a stochastic nature allowing the algorithm deliver power to the grid when it is parked and connected to
to overcome nonlinear, non-differentiable, and discontinuous grid. As a result, this increases the uncertainty of the power
problems. supplied by EVs.
It is easy to see that the above two challenges lead to
E. Summary and Future Research an urgent need for an analysis of large-scale EV stochastic
In this subsection, we have reviewed the work on the behavior. More specifically, we can use probability theory or
smart energy subsystem, more specifically, power generation, experiments to model the power request profile for a large
number of EVs charging operations, and the total available interfaces, and data flows. The domains are the same as the
power profile provided by a large number of EVs. Although seven domains mentioned in Section II. Entities (devices, com-
we cannot accurately predict the behavior of each EV, it is munication networks, computer systems, software programs,
very likely that over a large dataset, the overall profile must etc.) are generally located inside a domain and are connected
follow some distribution. Let us recall the normal distribution, to each other through one or more interfaces. Interfaces are
one of the most famous distributions. According to the central logical connections from one entity to another that support one
limit theorem [63], the mean of a sufficiently large number or more data flows implemented with one or more data links.
of independent random variables, each with finite mean and These data flows are application-level communications from
variance, follows the normal distribution. This analysis can entities that provide data to entities that consume data.
help the operator pre-design the system capacity margins. This guide does not specify which particular technology
In addition, queueing theory [87] could also play an impor- should be used. Instead, it aims to establish both entities and
tant role in G2V analysis. Assume that an EV charging station relationships within the environment of the SG and define
works as a queue, i.e., serving EVs sequentially. Queueing interfaces in a technology-agnostic manner. For example,
theory [87] enables mathematical analysis of several related it defines 20 entities and 81 interfaces among the major
processes, including arrival of EVs at the queue, waiting in entities in each of the domains. The methodology of this
the queue for being served, and being served at the front guide is applicable to all SG implementations. It is general
of the queue. Thus, we can predict the expected number enough to allow the implementation of newer technologies and
of EVs waiting or receiving service, and the probability of changing conditions in the utilitys operational environment.
encountering the charging system in certain states, such as This methodology is of great importance for the large-scale
empty, full, having an available server, or having to wait a deployment and interoperability of the SG. For example,
certain amount of time to be served. each entity can design its own implementation. As long as
3) Challenges in large-scale deployment: A deployed its implementation follows the standards, the whole system
large-scale commercial SG may have tens of millions of nodes. will work. In other words, the large-scale deployment task is
So far we have little experience in large-scale distributed hence divided into several small basic tasks, while these small
control approaches to addressing the complex power system tasks can be coordinated based on the well-defined interfaces
component interactions, and in large-scale deployment of new and relationships. Different functions of SG can be realized
technologies, such as batteries, thermal storages, DGs, and by using different combinations of basic tasks. [109] shows
EVs [146]. This challenge requires us to think about how to several such examples. In this way, the complexity of building
organize so many devices in a large-scale SG. Two approaches a large-scale SG is significantly reduced. Therefore, designing
may be applicable: top-down and bottom-up. a highly scalable, open, and instructive standard is of great
In the top-down approach, the high-level framework of the importance, albeit difficult.
system is formulated by a powerful grid operator, and each
subsystem is then refined in greater details. For example, a
group of users in a microgrid can refine their own connection
structure based on the high-level framework defined by an V. S MART I NFRASTRUCTURE S YSTEM II - S MART
upper supervisor. However, this approach needs a powerful I NFORMATION S UBSYSTEM
operator to initially design the whole architecture, which is
not an easy task. The evolution of SG relies on not only the advancement
The bottom-up approach is the piecing together of systems of power equipment technology, but also the improvement
to give rise to grander systems. For example, a group of users of sophisticated computer monitoring, analysis, optimization,
first link together to form a system. Then these systems link and control from exclusively central utility locations to the
together to form a larger system. Although this methodology distribution and transmission grids. Many of the concerns of
does not need a powerful operator to initially design the whole distributed automation should be addressed from an informa-
architecture, the final system grows up from many individually tion technology perspective, such as interoperability of data
formed subsystems. Therefore, the performance of the whole exchanges and integration with existing and future devices,
system may not be good enough. systems, and applications [109]. Therefore, a smart infor-
The advantages and disadvantages of both top-down and mation subsystem is used to support information generation,
bottom-up approaches need to be investigated. Furthermore, modeling, integration, analysis, and optimization in the context
self-organization is a topic worth exploring. For example, in of the SG.
the bottom-up approach, one question is how a group of users In this section, we concentrate on the smart information
or devices can be self-organized to form a system. subsystem. We first explore the information metering and
In addition, open, scalable, and instructive standards will measurement, which generates information from end entities
play an important role in the large-scale deployment of SG. Let (e.g. smarter meters, sensors, and phasor measurement units)
us take the IEEE P2030 guide for SG interoperability [109] as in an SG. This information is often used for billing, grid status
an example. Using a system of systems approach, this guide monitoring, and user appliance control. We then explore the
defines three perspectives: power systems, information tech- information management, including data modeling, informa-
nology, and communications. Moreover, these interoperability tion analysis, integration, and optimization. We finally outline
architectural perspectives are comprised of domains, entities, some future research directions and challenges.
A. Information Metering and Measurement Energy flows

Secure communication flows
Study in information metering and measurement can be
classified into smart metering, and smart monitoring and
measurement as shown in Fig. 9. In the following, we describe
Utility
this classification in detail. Dishwasher TV
Information Metering, Monitoring, and Data

Measurement Aggregator/
Refrigerator Smart meter Concentrator
Smart Metering Smart Monitoring and Measurement Distribution

[96, 71, 251] Substation
Sensor Phasor Measurement Unit

[139, 26] [11, 20, 22, 23, 38, 56, 110]
[90, 91] [137, 160, 183, 184, 197]
Fig. 10: An Example of the Smart Metering Structure: The
[157, 156] [196, 199, 221, 238, 237]
smart meter collects the power consumption information of
[256] [243, 248, 252, 270, 271, 272]
the dishwasher, TV, and the refrigerator, and also sends the
Fig. 9: Classification of the Work on the Information Metering control commands to them if necessary. The data generated
and Measurement by the smart meters in different buildings is transmitted to a
data aggregator. This aggregator could be an access point or
1) Smart Metering gateway. This data can be further routed to the electric utility
Smart metering is the most important mechanism used in the or the distribution substation. Note that the smart communi-
SG for obtaining information from end users devices and cation subsystem, described in Section VI, is responsible for
appliances, while also controlling the behavior of the devices. the information transmission.
Automatic metering infrastructure (AMI) systems [96], which
are themselves built upon automatic meter reading (AMR)
systems [208], are widely regarded as a logical strategy to and measurement of grid status. We review the following
realize SG. AMR is the technology of automatically collecting two major monitoring and measurement approaches, namely
diagnostic, consumption, and status data from energy metering sensors and phasor measurement units.
devices and transferring that data to a central database for Sensors: Sensors or sensor networks have already been used as
billing, troubleshooting, and analyzing. AMI differs from a monitoring and measurement approach for different purposes
traditional AMR in that it enables two-way communications [1]. In order to detect mechanical failures in power grids such
with the meter. Therefore nearly all of this information is as conductor failures, tower collapses, hot spots, and extreme
available in real time and on demand, allowing for improved mechanical conditions, Leon et al. [139] proposed that sensor
system operations and customer power demand management. networks should be embedded into the power grid and help
Smart meters, which support two-way communications be- to assess the real-time mechanical and electrical conditions of
tween the meter and the central system, are similar in many transmission lines, obtain a complete physical and electrical
aspects to AMI meters, or sometimes are regarded as part of picture of the power system in real time, diagnose imminent
the AMI. A smart meter is usually an electrical meter that as well as permanent faults, and determine appropriate control
records consumption in intervals of an hour or less and sends measures that could be automatically taken and/or suggested
that information at least daily back to the utility for monitoring to the system operators once an extreme mechanical condition
and billing purposes [71]. Also, a smart meter has the ability to appears in a transmission line.
disconnect-reconnect remotely and control the user appliances Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) in particular, given their
and devices to manage loads and demands within the future low cost, can provide a feasible and cost-effective sensing
smart-buildings. Fig. 10 shows a typical usage scenario for and communication platform for remote system monitoring
smart meters. and diagnosis. Gungor et al. [91] reviewed the application
From a consumers perspective, smart metering offers a of WSNs for electric power systems along with their op-
number of potential benefits. For example, end users are able portunities and challenges and presented a comprehensive
to estimate bills and thus manage their energy consumptions experimental study in different electric power system environ-
to reduce bills. From a utilitys perspective, they can use smart ments. They concluded that with the help of WSN, a single
meters to realize real-time pricing, which tries to encourage system contingency in the power grid could be detected and
users to reduce their demands in peak load periods, or to isolated before it causes cascading effects and leads to more
optimize power flows according to the information sent from catastrophic system-wide breakdowns.
demand sides. Other research work on applying WSNs for SG are [26,
2) Smart Monitoring and Measurement 157, 156]. Bressan et al. [26] explored the implementation
An important function in the vision of SG is monitoring of a smart monitoring system over a WSN, with particular
emphasis on the creation of a solid routing infrastructure Refer to [56] for a technical introduction to the PMU.
using the routing protocol for low-power and lossy networks, Phasor measurements using GPS based time synchroniza-
whose definition is currently being discussed within the IETF tion were introduced in the mid-1980s [22, 196, 252, 197].
ROLL working group. Lu et al. [156] proposed a closed-loop A Virginia Tech research team developed the first prototype
energy management scheme with a WSN, which was applied PMU in 1988 [271]. Later, the frequency monitoring network
as the architecture of an industrial plant energy management (FNET) project utilized a network of low-cost, high-precision
system. The importance of the proposed scheme lies in its non- frequency disturbance recorders to collect synchrophasor data
intrusive, intelligent, and low cost nature. Later, Lu et al. [157] from the U.S. power grid [184]. Recently Zhang et al. [271]
extended the previous work [156], and studied the overall presented some of the latest implementations of FNETs
system architecture. applications by using PMUs, which are significantly better at
However, the use of sensor networks in the SG has many observing power system problems than the earlier implemen-
requirements: [90, 91, 256]: tations. The current FNET system hierarchy is suitable for
high volume data transfer, processing, storage, and utilization.
1) Quality-of-Service (QoS) requirements: The information
A variety of applications, especially with regards to real-time
generated by sensor networks may be associated with
dynamic monitoring, have been developed and integrated into
some data QoS requirements, such as reliability, latency,
the system. FNET is growing into a mature, multifunctional,
and network throughput. For example, the critical sensed
and low-cost phasor measurement system with stable perfor-
data related to grid failures should be received by
mance and high accuracy.
the controller in a timely manner. The communication
Early research on the applications of PMU technology was
subsystem (described in Section VI) supporting sensor
mainly focused on validation of system models and accurate
networks must provide mechanisms to satisfy these QoS
postmortem analysis. However, now with wide-scale real-
requirements.
time PMU data being obtainable, system operators have the
2) Resource constraints: Sensor nodes are often low cost
capability of deploying system state estimation procedures and
and resource limited devices. Thus the control programs
system protection functionalities in power grids, with the goal
for sensor networks should be energy efficient.
of making the power system immune to catastrophic failures.
3) Remote maintenance and configuration: Sensors must be
Several countries, such as Brazil, China, France, Japan, South
remotely accessible and configurable, so that the sensor
Korea, Mexico, Norway, and the U.S., have installed PMUs
networks could be maintained remotely, conveniently,
on their power grid systems for research or are developing
and promptly.
prototypes [270]. The installation of PMUs on transmission
4) High security requirements: Security is very important
grids of most major power systems has become an important
for electric power systems. By compromising sensors,
activity.
attackers can jeopardize the power grid operation.
In addition, the investigation of PMUs is an exciting area
5) Harsh environmental conditions: In SG environments,
being explored by both industry and academia. Industry is
sensors may be subject to radio frequency (RF) in-
investigating how to install the PMUs, collect the data, and
terference, highly caustic or corrosive environments,
establish communication transfers of this data to the utility
high humidity levels, vibrations, dirt and dust, or other
control centers [183, 110]. In academia, typical research fields
conditions that may cause a portion of sensor nodes
are the applications of PMU for grid protection functions,
to malfunction. Hence the sensor network design must
such as providing loss-of-mains protection [137], monitoring
consider the survivability requirement, i.e., the sensor
fault event [221, 243, 237, 238, 272], locating disturbance
network is still connected or the critical areas are still
[160], estimating grid state [199, 248], studying synchronous
monitored if some sensors fail.
islanded operation [20], monitoring power quality [38], and
Phasor Measurement Unit: Recent developments in the SG devising experimental applications for the monitoring of active
have spawned interest in the use of phasor measurement units distribution grids [23].
(PMUs) to help create a reliable power transmission and
distribution infrastructure [11]. A PMU measures the electrical
waves on an electrical grid to determine the health of the
system. Technically speaking, a phasor is a complex number B. Information Management
that represents both the magnitude and phase angle of the sine In SG, a large amount of data and information will be
waves found in electricity. Phasor measurements that occur generated from metering, sensing, monitoring, etc. SG must
at the same time are called synchrophasor, as are the PMU support advanced information management. The task of the
devices that allow their measurement. Typically, PMU readings information management is data modeling, information anal-
are obtained from widely dispersed locations in a power ysis, integration, and optimization.
system network and synchronized using the global positioning 1) Data Modeling
system (GPS) radio clock. With a large number of PMUs and As stated by IEEE P2030 [109], the goal of SG information
the ability to compare shapes from alternating current (AC) technology data modeling is to provide a guide to creating
readings everywhere on the grid, system operators can use the persistent, displayable, compatible, transferable, and editable
sampled data to measure the state of the power system and data representation for use within the emerging SG. In other
respond to system conditions in a rapid and dynamic fashion. words, the objective is to make it as interoperable as possible
using relevant standards. That is specifically addressing the Information integration aims at the merging of information
data that represents state information about the grid and from disparate sources with differing conceptual, contextual,
individual items in it. This would include nearly all connected and typographical representations. In SG, a large amount of
items from generation down to individual consuming devices. information has to be integrated. First, the data generated by
They all have state information that may need to be read, new components enabled in SG may be integrated into the
stored, transmitted, etc. existing applications, and metadata stored in legacy systems
Why is data modeling important? Let us look at the follow- may also be used by new applications in SG to provide new
ing two reasons. First, the information exchange between two interpretations. IEEE P2030 [109] indicated that data integrity
application elements is meaningful only when both of them and name services must be considered in information integra-
can use the information exchanged to perform their respective tion. Data integrity includes verification and cross-correlation
tasks. Therefore, the structure and meaning of the exchanged of information for validity, and designation of authoritative
information must be understood by both application elements. sources and who are responsible for specific personnel who
Although within the context of a single application, developers own the data. Name service addresses the common issue of
can strive to make the meaning clear in various user interfaces, an asset having multiple names in multiple systems.
when data is transferred to another context (another system), Second, as stated in [115, 212], currently most utility
the meaning could be lost due to incompatible data represen- companies have limited installed capability for integration
tation. Considering that the SG is a complicated system of across the applications associated with system planning, power
systems, design of a generally effective data representation is delivery, and customer operations. In most cases, this informa-
very important. tion in each department is not easily accessible by applications
Second, the data modeling is also related to the system and users in other departments or organizations. These islands
forward compatibility and backward compatibility. On one of information correspond to islands of autonomous business
hand, a well-defined data model should make legacy program activities. Therefore, the emerging SG calls for enterprise-
adjustments easier. We hope that the data representation de- level integration of these islands to improve and optimize
signed for SG can also be (or at least partially) understood information utilization throughout the organization.
by the current power system, in order to take advantage Information optimization is used to improve information
of the existing infrastructure as much as possible. On the effectiveness. The data size in the future SG is expected
other hand, thus far SG is more like a vision. Its definition to be fairly large as a result of the large-scale monitoring,
and functionality keep evolving. Suppose that in the current sensing, and measurement. However, the generated data may
implementation, all the data is particularly designed to be have a large amount of redundant or useless data. There-
stored in an optimized way that can be understood by a fore, we need to use advanced information technology to
current application X. After some time, a new application Y is improve the information effectiveness, in order to reduce
integrated into SG. Data modeling is the key to whether this communication burden and store only useful information. This
new application can understand the historical data and obtain problem has been studied, among others, by [180, 257]. In
enough information from the historical data. order to compress the size of disturbance signals and reduce
IEEE 2030 [109] pointed out that ontology may be a good sinusoidal and white noise in the signals, Ning et al. [180]
option, because it is becoming an increasingly popular way proposed a wavelet-based data compression approach for SG.
of providing a data model with formal semantics based on a The proposed method can be implemented in SG to mitigate
shared understanding that is machine-readable. Ontology helps data congestion and improve data transmission and quality.
convey knowledge in a formal fashion, just like a programming Wang et al. [257] applied the singular value decomposition
language conveys mathematics in a formal fashion. With ontol- analysis to examine the coupling structure of an electrical
ogy, one speaks of concepts in a subject area, and relationships power grid in order to highlight opportunities for reducing the
between them. Like a programming language, it helps define, network traffic, by identifying what are the salient data that
clarify, and standardize what is being discussed. Another need to be communicated between parts of the infrastructure to
reason that ontology-based strategies are commonly used with apply a control action. They found that typical grid admittance
success in creating and manipulating data models is that matrices have singular values and vectors with only a small
they provide easy export or translation to Extensible Markup number of strong components.
Language (XML) or Unified Modeling Language (UML),
which provides for a great deal of information interoperability.
2) Information Analysis, Integration, and Optimization C. Summary and Future Research
Information analysis is needed to support the processing, inter- In this section, we reviewed the work on the smart infor-
pretation, and correlation of the flood of new grid observations, mation subsystem, especially information metering, measure-
since the widely deployed metering and monitoring systems ment, and management in SG. We list the following challenges
in SG will generate a large amount of data for the utility. and possible directions worth exploring.
As mentioned in [109], one part of the analytics would be 1) Effective information store: A large amount of informa-
performed by existing applications, and another part of the tion, such as the data from smart meters, sensors, and PMUs,
analytics dimension is with new applications and the ability will be sampled in SG, and sent to the control system. One
of engineers to use a workbench to create their customized important problem is what information should be stored in
analytics dashboard in a self-service model. the control system so that meaningful system or user history
can be constructed from this data. Note that system history is et al. [215] discussed the confidentiality and privacy issues,
important for analyzing system operations, and user history is and proposed some solutions, including designing multi-tenant
important for analyzing user behaviors and bills. Considering data architectures, and applying pseudonymization or crypto-
that the amount of information received by the control system graphic hashes. Second, it is unlikely that an electric utility
is huge, solving this problem is challenging. outsources all the information management functions to the
We suggest using data mining, machine learning, and infor- cloud. Therefore, we ask two questions:
mation retrieval techniques to analyze the information and thus 1) From the cloud providers perspective, which informa-
obtain the representative data. Furthermore, the correlation tion management services should be provided to maxi-
among some data may be high. For example, the smart meter mize its own profit?
readings must be similar when no activity takes place at home. 2) From the electric utility perspective, which information
This opens a door for significantly reducing the amount of management functions should be outsourced and which
information needed to store by using data compression. In should be operated by itself to maximize its own profit?
addition, database tools should be used to organize, store, and
retrieve this data. VI. S MART I NFRASTRUCTURE S YSTEM III - S MART
2) The utilization of cloud computing: Cloud com- C OMMUNICATION S UBSYSTEM
puting has been envisioned as the next-generation comput- The third part in the smart infrastructure system is the smart
ing paradigm for its major advantages in on-demand self- communication subsystem. This subsystem is responsible
service, ubiquitous network access, location independent re- for communication connectivity and information transmission
source pooling, and transference of risk [99]. The basic idea among systems, devices, and applications in the context of the
of the cloud computing is that the cloud providers, who operate SG.
large data centers with massive computation and storage In this section, we first give an overview of the smart com-
capacities, deliver computing as a service, whereby shared munication subsystem in SG. We then describe wireless and
resources, software and information are provided to computers wired communication technologies in Sections VI-B and VI-C,
and other devices as a utility over a network. Integrating cloud respectively. In Section VI-D, we describe how to manage end-
computing may improve the information management in SG. to-end communications in this heterogenous communication
First, since cloud providers have massive computation and system, where various communication technologies, network
storage capacities, they can design some basic and generic structures, and devices may be used. We finally outline some
information management services for electric utilities. There- future research and research challenges.
fore, electric utilities can focus on more advanced and com-
plicated information management functions, while outsourcing A. An Overview
the basic and generic information management functions to
the cloud. As a result, electric utilities do not have to develop The most important question in the communication sub-
the information management functions from scratch. This is system is, What networking and communication technology
especially useful for small utilities or even personal users should be used? While there is a general agreement on the
who provide power service. Let us consider an example. need for communication networks to support a two-way flow
Since distributed renewable generations are expected to be of information between the various entities in the electric grid,
widely used in the emerging SG, a user equipped with a there is still much debate on what specific technologies should
distributed renewable generator may want to sell his excess be used in each SG application domain and how they should
energy to other users nearby. This user can outsource the basic be implemented [231]. One reason why this is still not clear
information storage and management to the cloud, and thus has is that the SG consists of many different types of networks,
no need to design his own information management system. including for example
Second, cloud computing may be able to improve the 1) Enterprise bus that connects control center applications,
information integration level in SG. For example, as mentioned markets, and generators;
before in most cases, the information in each department 2) Wide area networks that connect geographically distant
is not easily accessible by applications and users in other sites;
departments or organizations. These islands of information 3) Field area networks that connect devices, such as intel-
correspond to islands of autonomous business activities. If all ligent electronic devices that control circuit breakers and
the information is stored and managed by a cloud, it actually transformers;
provides a relatively cost-effective way to integrate these 4) Premises networks that include customer networks as
islands of information. As stated by Rusitschka et al. in [215], well as utility networks within the customer domain.
the ease-of-interfacing with the cloud has the potential to Although thus far the answer is not clear, since reliable and
create usable de facto standards while enabling interoperability effective information exchange is a key to the success of the
and extensibility. future SG, a communication subsystem in an SG must at least
Although using cloud computing may improve the informa- satisfy the following basic requirements:
tion management in SG, it also poses many challenges. First, 1) The communication subsystem must support the quality
information security and privacy must be the major concern of service (QoS) of data [144]. This is because the
of electric utilities, since the information storage and man- critical data (e.g. the grid status information) must be
agement is out of the control of electric utilities. Rusitschka delivered promptly.
Communication Technologies
Wireless Wired
Wireless Mesh Cellular Cognitive IEEE 802.15 Satellite Microwave or Free-Space

Network Communications Radio [70, 3] Communications Optical Communications
[2, 3] [102, 3] [82, 161, 202] [177, 264] [90, 242, 57] [27, 60]
[90, 81] [106, 109] [203, 232]
Fiber-Optic Powerline
Communications Communications
[163, 90] [16, 54, 73, 76, 77]
[78, 90, 131, 149]
[165, 195, 208, 262, 273]
Fig. 11: Classification of Relevant Research in Communication Technologies in SG
Satellite
2) The communication subsystem must be highly reliable.
Since a large number of devices will be connected and
WiFi Satellite
different devices and communication technologies will Communications
be used, guaranteeing the reliability of such a large and

Free-space
Microwave
heterogeneous network is not a trivial task. Wireless Mesh Access
Optical
Communications
Communications
3) The communication subsystem must be pervasively Point
available and have a high coverage. This is mandated Base

Station
by the principle that the SG can respond to any event in Electric

Utility
the grid in time. Cellular
Powerline
4) The communication subsystem must guarantee security Zigbee
Powerline
Communications
Communications
Communications
and privacy. In Section VIII, we will discuss the security

and privacy issues of information transmission in SG. Residential
Community
In the rest of this section, we focus on the communication

and networking technologies which are applicable in SG. We
describe wireless and wired communication technologies in Substation
Sections VI-B and VI-C, respectively. Fig. 11 shows a classi-

fication of the work related to communication technologies in Fig. 12: An example of a communication network in SG:
SG. Fig. 12 shows an example of a communication network User devices and smart meters use ZigBee, WiFi, and pow-
used in SG. erline communications. Wireless mesh networks are used for
information exchanges between users. Communities are con-
B. Wireless Technologies nected to their electric utility via free-space optical, satellite,
Wireless technologies not only offer significant benefits over microwave, or cellular systems. A substation communicates
wired technologies, such as low installation cost, rapid deploy- with an electric utility over the powerline.
ment, mobility, etc., but are also more suitable for remote end
applications [193]. Wireless has already been widely used in
our daily life and can be deployed anywhere and anytime. actively working on new specifications for WMNs. A WMN
We list the following important wireless communication and also provides basic networking infrastructure for the commu-
networking technologies which may be applicable in future nications in SG. Some of the benefits of using WMNs in SG
SG. are highlighted as follows:
Wireless Mesh Network: Wireless mesh network (WMN), 1) Increased communication reliability and automatic net-
which is a communication network made up of radio nodes work connectivity: Since redundant paths usually exist
organized in a mesh topology, has emerged as a key tech- in WMNs, network robustness against potential prob-
nology for next-generation wireless networking [2]. Industrial lems, e.g., node failures and path failures, can be im-
standards groups, such as IEEE 802.11 and 802.16, are all proved. Furthermore, generally speaking a WMN is self-
organized and self-configured. This feature is crucial radio for the SG based on the IEEE 802.22 standard. In rural
for electric system automation, since it enables electric areas, the standalone option can provide broadband access to
utilities to cope with new connectivity requirements the geographically spread customers. In urban areas, IEEE
driven by customer demands [90]. 802.22 transceivers can be used as secondary radios to handle
2) Large coverage and high data rate: WiMAX mesh high volumes of non-critical data and also act as backup
network can enable both long distance and high data rate radios in emergency situations. Ma et al. [161] proposed
communications. In the SG, a large amount of data, such to communicate through a cognitive radio link between the
as the information from smart meters, sensors, and pha- sensors at the consumer side and the control center of the
sor measurement units (PMUs), will be generated and SG. Therefore, the state estimator needs to adjust to this new
sent to the control system. A communication network communication link as the link is affected by primary users.
with large coverage and high data rate is necessary. This link is governed by multiple semi-Markov processes
Traditionally, electricity power grid and WMN are two each of which can capture and model one channel of the
parallel concepts. In the literature, there exists a large amount cognitive radio system. Sreesha et al. [232] proposed a multi
of work focused on WMN technologies. An excellent survey layered approach to provide energy and spectrum efficient
on the general concepts of WMNs can be found in [2]. The designs of cognitive radio based wireless sensor networks
emerging SG will attempt to integrate WMN into power grid. at the smart grid utility. Their design provides a reliable
Recently, some researchers have conducted some studies and low-latency routing support for large-scale cognitive SG
along this line. Gharavi and Hu [81] presented a multi-gate networks. Qiu et al. [202] built a real-time CR network testbed,
mesh network architecture to handle real-time traffic for the which can help tie together CRs in the next-generation SG
last mile communication. The multigate routing is based on a network. Later, Qiu et al. [203] systematically investigated
flexible mesh network architecture that expands on the hybrid the idea of applying CR for SG, studied system architecture,
tree routing of the IEEE 802.11s. The network is specifically algorithms, and hardware testbed, and proposed a microgrid
designed to operate in a multi-gateway structure in order to testbed supporting both power flow and information flow.
meet the SG requirements in terms of reliability, self-healing, Wireless Communications based on 802.15.4: Three wire-
and throughput performance. More detailed studies on wireless less communication technologies based on IEEE 802.15.4
mesh technologies used in electric power system can be found protocol stack are recommended to be used in SG [3]. They
in [3, 90]. are ZigBee, WirelessHART, and ISA100.11a. ZigBee is a
Cellular Communication Systems: A cellular communica- wireless technology which is designed for radio-frequency
tion system, such as GSM [174] and 3G (WCDMA [103] and applications that require a low data rate, long battery life, and
CDMA-2000 [263]), is a radio network distributed over land secure networking. It might be one of the most widely used
areas called cells, each served by at least one fixed-location communication technologies in the customer home network.
transceiver known as a cell site or base station. It has been The ZigBee and ZigBee Smart Energy Profile (SEP) have been
a proven mature technology for data transmission for several defined as the one of the communication standards for use
decades. By using the existing 3G (or even 4G [105]) cellular in the customer premise network domain of the SG by the
communication systems, it is quick and inexpensive to obtain U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
data communications coverage over a large geographic area [177]. It has also been selected by many electric utilities as
[3]. the communication technology for the smart metering devices
Researchers have also conducted some studies on cellular [70], since it provides a standardized platform for exchanging
communications for the SG. For example, Hung et al. [106] data between smart metering devices and appliances located
studied a new network model in which sensor/relay nodes on customer premises. The features supported by the SEP
can also communicate with other back-end nodes using a include demand response, advanced metering support, real-
wide area network such as the cellular network, and proved time pricing, text messaging, and load control [264].
that the delay and cost of transmitting data can be reduced. WirelessHART utilizes a time synchronized, self-
Hochgraf et al. [102] proposed to use the GSM network and organizing, and self-healing mesh architecture, and supports
Short Message Service (SMS) messages as an option for SG operation in the 2.4 GHz band using IEEE 802.15.4 standard
communications, and presented a system that provides the radios. Developed as a multi-vendor, interoperable wireless
control of thousands of mobile electric vehicle (EV) chargers standard, WirelessHART was defined for the requirements
using a simple SMS message interface. In addition, using 3G of process field device networks. ISA100.11a is an open
cellular communication system as the backhaul network has wireless networking technology standard developed by the
also been recommended by IEEE P2030 [109]. Compared with International Society of Automation. The official description
WMN, the biggest strength of cellular communication systems is Wireless Systems for Industrial Automation: Process
is the pervasiveness of this mature technology. Control and Related Applications. For wireless sensor
Cognitive Radio: The communication system in SG needs to network applications in SG, such as a substation or a
be designed to accommodate the current management require- generation plant, it is recommended to use WirelessHART or
ments as well as the potential demand of future applications. ISA100.11a. These two standards are similar in functionality,
It is likely that unlicensed spectrum will also be used when and therefore either standard is suitable for deployment [3].
SG is in large-scale commercial use. Satellite Communications: Satellite communication is a
Ghassemi et al. [82] proposed an application of cognitive good solution for remote control and monitoring, since it
provides global coverage and rapid installation [90]. In some are important for future SG, and that different technologies
scenarios where no communication infrastructure exists, es- might be applicable. In order to assess the suitability of
pecially for remote substations and generation deployments, various wireless technologies for meeting the communication
satellite communication is a cost-effective solution. For exam- requirements of SG applications, Souryal et al. [231]
ple, Deep et al. [57] pointed out that with remote generation presented a methodology to evaluate wireless technologies.
deployments, such as those based on wind energy, a cost- The proposed approach to modeling wireless communications
effective communication system with global coverage using first identifies the various applications utilizing a specific link.
satellite technology would be advantageous. Such communi- Second, it translates the requirements of these applications to
cation can be easily set up by only acquiring the necessary link traffic characteristics in the form of a link layer arrival
satellite communication equipment. Note that some utilities rate and average message size. Third, it uses coverage analysis
have already installed such equipment for rural substations to determine the maximum range of the technology under an
monitoring [242]. Furthermore, a terrestrial-only architecture outage constraint and for a given set of channel propagation
is vulnerable to disasters or communication system failures on parameters. Finally, using the link traffic characteristics and
the ground. Therefore, in order to ensure the fail-safe operation coverage area determined above, it employs a model to
and the delivery of critical data traffic in disasters or terrestrial measure link performance in terms of reliability, delay, and
communication system failures, satellites can be used as a throughput.
backup for the existing grid communication networks.
However, we should also note the disadvantages of satellite
communications. There are two major shortcomings. First,
C. Wired Technologies
a satellite communication system has a substantially higher
delay than that of a terrestrial communication system. This It is also believed that wired communication technologies
makes some protocols (e.g. TCP), which are originally de- will be integrated into SG. We list the following important
signed for terrestrial communication, unsuitable for satellite wired communication technologies.
communications [90]. Second, satellite channel characteristics Fiber-optic Communications: There is a long history of the
vary depending on the effect of fading and the weather use of fiber communications by large power companies to
conditions. This property can heavily degrade the performance connect their generation network with their network control
of the whole satellite communication system [104]. facilities. Furthermore, its electromagnetic and radio interfer-
Microwave or Free-Space Optical Communications: ence immunity make fiber-optic communication ideal for high
Microwave technologies are widely used for point-to-point voltage operating environment [163].
communications, since their small wavelength allows use Due to its high bandwidth capacity and immunity character-
of conveniently sized directional antennas to obtain secure istics, it is believed that optical fibers will play an important
information transmission at high bandwidths. The report by role for the information network backbones in future SG
Donegan [60] pointed out that over 50% of the worlds mobile [90]. Although it is well-known that the installment cost of
base stations are connected using point-to-point microwave optical fibers may be expensive, fiber optic network is still
technologies. For over 20 years, microwave has been the a cost-effective communication infrastructure for high speed
primary solution for rapidly rolling out cost-effective mobile communication network backbones in future SG, since such
backhaul infrastructure worldwide [148]. fibers are already widely deployed in todays communication
Free-space optical communication is an optical communi- network backbones, with a large amount of spare capacity
cation technology that can use light propagating in free space being unused.
to transmit point-to-point data. It provides high bit rates with Powerline Communications: Powerline communications
low bit error rates. Furthermore, it is very secure due to the (PLC) is a technology for carrying data on a conductor also
high directionality and narrowness of the beams. In addition used for electric power transmission. In the last decades,
to providing long-distance point-to-point communication in utility companies around the world have been using PLC
remote or rural areas, these optical wireless technologies for remote metering and load control applications [73]. The
also provide point-to-point solutions suitable for use in dense debate on what is the actual role of PLC in future SG is still
urban areas where microwave solutions are impractical from open. Some advocate that PLC is a very good candidate for
an interference standpoint [27]. some applications [78, 208], while others express concerns on
Therefore, one important application of microwave or free- PLC (e.g. the security issue due to the nature of powerlines)
space optical point-to-point communications is to build up SG [195, 149]. Although the SG could use many different commu-
communication backhaul networks. This is especially impor- nications technologies, without a doubt, PLC is the only wired
tant in rural or remote areas, where using other wireless or technology that has deployment cost comparable to wireless
wired technologies is costly or even impossible. However, both technologies since the lines are already there [78].
microwave communication and free-space optical communica- Technically, in PLC power electronics are used to ma-
tion are line of sight communication technologies. Therefore, nipulate high-voltage waveforms for signal and information
their communication qualities are greatly affected by obstacles oriented applications [262]. For example, a thyristor or similar
(e.g. buildings and hills) and environmental constraints (e.g. device is used to create a waveform disturbance such as a
rain fade). very small but detectable voltage sag. The existence of the
Remarks: It is clear that wireless communication technologies sag implies digital 1 and no sag implies digital 0.
Although how to most effectively utilize PLC is still not may be used, we need to identify each entity (probably by
clear, Galli et al. [78] predicted that PLC may be more suitable giving a unique ID for each one), and solve the problem of
for the distribution grid. Traditional substations in the medium how to manage end-to-end communications (perhaps between
voltage distribution grids are not equipped with communica- any pair of entities).
tions capabilities. Thus using the existing powerline infrastruc- Recently, there is a growing trend towards the use of
ture represents an appealing alternative to the installation of TCP/IP technology (usually based on IPv6 address) as a
new communication links. This enables the information about common and consistent approach in order to achieve end-to-
state and event to flow among substations within a grid. In low end communications [18, 153, 154, 223, 46, 129, 177]. TCP/IP
voltage distribution grids (close to the homes), there also exist is an easy solution to the problem of managing systems based
a large number of applications of PLC. First, narrowband PLC on incompatible lower layer technologies. Therefore electric
is well suited for smart metering infrastructure [208]. Second, utilities can deploy multiple communication systems, while
PLC enables the communications between electric vehicles using TCP/IP technology as a common management platform
and power grid via powerline without introducing other wired for maintaining end-to-end communications, and enjoy the
or wireless equipments. Third, broadband PLC can provide the high rate of innovation (and competition) focused around the
service of transferring data seamlessly from SG controllers to TCP/IP protocol suite.
home networks and vice versa. NIST also indicated that there are a number of benefits that
The most urgent task for the research on PLC might make TCP/IP an important SG technology, including the ma-
be a comprehensive theoretical understanding. Most of the turity of a large number of standards, the availability of tools
works are focused on the ultimate performance that can and applications that can be applied to SG environments, and
be achieved over the powerline channel [90]. In order to its widespread use in both private and public networks [177].
further utilize PLC, we need to have a better understanding If an application does not support TCP/IP natively, it may
of the powerline channel, since it is a complicated and noisy still be possible to implement encapsulation, gateway, or semi-
medium disturbed by noise, external emissions, and frequent transparent tunneling by providing a special communication
impedance alterations. Some researchers have investigated interface for this application.
channel modeling and analysis methods for PLC, such as
[54, 76, 77, 131, 165, 16, 273].
E. Summary and Future Research
Barmada et al. [16] studied load-time variation in PLC
systems and analyzed asynchronous impulsive noise and re- In this section, we reviewed the work on the smart com-
lated channel variations due to switch commutations. Corripio munication subsystem, including wireless technologies, wired
et al. [54] analyzed the properties of indoor PLC channels technologies, and end-to-end communication management. We
when they are used for broadband transmission. It is shown list the following challenges and possible directions worth
that these channels exhibit a short-term variation. Galli [76] exploring.
reported for the first time some statistical properties of indoor 1) Interoperability of communication technologies: Since
powerline channel that exhibit some interesting similarities many different communication protocols and technologies will
to the wireless channel. He also reported for the first time be used in SG, and each of them probably will use its own
that both channel gain and root-mean-square delay spread protocols and algorithms, materializing interoperability is not
of indoor channels are lognormally distributed, leptokurtic, easy.
and negatively correlated, thus suggesting that channels which Although the framework architecture in the classic layer
introduce severe multipath fading are also characterized by model (e.g. the famous Open Systems Interconnection model)
large attenuation. Konate et al. [131] studied both frequency could provide a promising conceptual solution to this problem,
(100 kHz-30 MHz) and time-domain channel modeling in it is well-known that this model suffers in some modern
inverter driven electrical drives. Meng et al. [165] presented applications. For example, the performance of the pure TCP
an approach to model the transfer function of electrical pow- may be very bad in wireless networks since it cannot dif-
erlines for broadband PLCs. In this approach, the powerline ferentiate packet loss due to wireless fading from that due
is approximated as a transmission line, and the two intrinsic to a real congestion in the network. In order to improve
parametersthe characteristic impedance and the propagation the quality of service, under various operational conditions,
constantsare derived based on the lumped-element circuit some functions or services are not tied to a given layer, but
model. Zimmermann and Dostert et al. [273] analyzed and can affect more than one layer. This often requires cross-
tried to model impulsive noise in broadband PLC. Refer to layer design and optimization, which may be essential in the
[73] for more work along the research on channel modeling SG. However, interoperability among different communication
and analysis methods for PLC. technologies, a precursor to cross-layer approaches, is difficult.
We suggest studying the advantages and disadvantages of
cross-layer design in SG communication subsystem consid-
D. End-to-end Communication Management ering interoperability, especially the trade-offs between cross-
One important issue in the communication subsystem is layer optimization and the need for interoperability.
the end-to-end communication management. More specifically, 2) Dynamics of the communication subsystem: The com-
in this heterogenous communication subsystem where various munication subsystem underlying an SG may be dynamic, with
communication technologies, network structures, and devices topology changes being unpredictable. For example, both the
operation of connecting (or disconnecting) the electric vehicle

(EV) to (or from) the grid and the motion of vehicle may result
in the change of communication network topology. Note that
these operations may not follow a predictable pattern. The
dynamics of an SG communication subsystem have not been
fully explored.
The following two research directions are worth exploring.
First, systematic protocol designs are needed to support topol-
ogy dynamics. For example, communication protocols should
deal with topology reconfiguration in the connect-disconnect
operation of EVs. Second, dynamic resource allocation algo-
rithms are needed to support topology dynamics. For example,
due to the topology change, the network resources (e.g. band-
width) may need to be reallocated to optimize performance.
3) Smoothly updating existing protocols: The current
power grid has used several protocols to realize simple data
communications. For example, the currently used metering and Fig. 13: Total California Load Profile for a Hot Day in 1999
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition Systems (SCADA) [214].
[176] protocols are based on a simple request/response scheme
with their own addressing [223]. One problem is how to because the total amount of power demand by the users can
smoothly update existing protocols to the ones which are have a very widespread probability distribution, which requires
applicable in future SG. For example, as stated in Section spare generating plants in standby mode to respond to the
VI-D, for the end-to-end communication management, even rapidly changing power usage. The last 10% of generating
if an application does not support TCP/IP natively, it may capacity may be required in as little as 1% of the time. The
still be possible to implement the encapsulation, gateway, or attempts to meet the demand could fail, resulting in brownouts
semi-transparent tunneling for this application. However, en- (i.e. a drop in voltage), blackouts (i.e. electrical power outage),
capsulating such SCADA and metering protocols into mature and even cascading failures. In SG, demand response manages
TCP/IP protocols generates an overhead without additional the customer consumption of electricity in response to supply
benefit, and thus is deliberately not considered [223]. How conditions. More specifically, by using demand response, SG
to smoothly transit the systems using these protocols to the does not need to match the supply to the demand, but in
ones applicable in future SG is still an open question. contrast, to match the demand to the available supply by
For this open question, we may be able to borrow from using control technology or convincing the consumers (such
industry the idea of how to smoothly update old IPv4 networks as through variable pricing) thus achieving better capacity
to new IPv6 networks. For example, this transition can be utilization.
done in two stages: 1) the system can communicate using For example, Fig.13 shows the total energy usage pattern
pre-existing old protocols and also TCP/IP and 2) the system during a twenty-four hour period for a typical hot day in
operates by only using TCP/IP. A complete solution along this California (1999) [214]. As we can see, the total demand from
line is desired. 14:00PM to 18:00PM is much higher than the average. In an
SG, smart management by a smart meter can reduce energy
VII. S MART M ANAGEMENT S YSTEM consumptions by turning off non-essential devices during peak
time in a way that the peak total demand can be reduced.
In SG two-way flows of electricity and information are
In this section, we explore smart management in SG. We
supported, which lay the foundation for realizing various
first classify smart management techniques according to their
functions and management objectives, such as energy effi-
management objectives and then according to their manage-
ciency improvement, operation cost reduction, demand and
ment methods and tools.
supply balance, emission control, and utility maximization. A
common superficial understanding about SG is that only the
A. Management Objectives
energy, information and communication infrastructure under-
lying the SG is smart. This is not true. The more accurate Within the framework of SG, many management goals,
assessment is: With the development of new management which are difficult and possibly infeasible to realize in con-
applications and services that can leverage the technology and ventional power grids, become possible and easy. So far, the
capability upgrades enabled by this advanced infrastructure the works for smart management mainly focus on the following
grid will keep becoming smarter. three objectives:
For example, let us consider demand response, one of the 1) Energy efficiency and demand profile improvement;
most important concepts supported by SG. Traditionally, the 2) Utility and cost optimization, and price stabilization;
electric utilities try to match the supply to the demand for 3) Emission control.
energy. However, this may be not only expensive but also Fig. 14 shows a detailed classification of the research work
impractical, perhaps impossible in the longer run. This is related to these management objectives.
Management Objectives
Energy Efficiency and Utility, Cost, and Price Emission

Demand Profile [14, 32]
[86, 151]
Utility and Cost Price [218]
Demand Profile Energy Loss
[213]
Shaping Minimization
[14, 37, 40] [12, 10]
[108, 83, 130] [185, 228] Individual Multiple Electricity
[170, 171] User Users Industry
[188, 236] [32, 40] [98, 220] [37, 74]
[53, 69] [83, 89]
[95, 108] [120, 150]
[120, 171] [171, 178]
[170, 188] [206, 218]
Fig. 14: Classification of Management Objectives
The research on energy efficiency and demand profile then proposed a distributed scheduling mechanism to reduce
mainly focuses on two topics. The first one can be categorized peak demand within a neighborhood of homes. They finally
as demand profile shaping. It can help match the demand to introduced a more powerful energy management optimization
the available supply. The usual way to shape demand profile is model, based on dynamic programming, which accounts for
shifting, scheduling, or reducing demand in order to reshape electricity capacity constraints. Mohsenian-Rad and Leon-
a demand profile full of peaks to a nicely smoothed demand Garcia [170] proposed an optimal and automatic residential
profile, or reduce the peak-to-average ratio or peak demand energy consumption scheduling framework, which attempts to
of the total energy demand [14, 37, 40, 108, 130, 170, 171, achieve a desired trade-off between minimizing the electricity
188, 236, 83]. As discussed before, since electrical generation payment and minimizing the waiting time for the operation
and transmission systems are generally sized to correspond to of each appliance. Mohsenian-Rad et al. [171] discovered
peak demand, lowering peak demand and smoothing demand that by adopting pricing tariffs which differentiate the energy
profile reduces overall plant and capital cost requirements, and usage in time and level, the global optimal performance is
also increases the system reliability. Next we briefly describe achieved at a Nash equilibrium of the formulated energy
these research works. consumption scheduling game. ONeill et al. [188] proposed
an online learning algorithm to reduce residential energy costs
Bakker et al. [14] designed a three step control and opti- and smooth energy usage. Taneja et al. [236] introduced a
mization strategy and focused on the control algorithms used generalized measure of dispatchability of energy (called slack),
to reshape the energy demand profile of a large group of build- identified two classes of dispatchable energy loads, and created
ings and their requirements. Caron and Kesidis [37] proposed models for these loads to match their consumption to the
a dynamic pricing scheme incentivizing consumers to achieve generation of energy sources. Ghosh et al. [83] designed an
an aggregate load profile suitable for utilities, and studied optimal incentive mechanism offered to energy customers. Ac-
how close they can get to an ideal flat profile. Chen et al. cording to their mechanism, customers who are more willing
[40] studied two abstract market models for designing demand to reduce their aggregate demand over the entire horizon,
response to match power supply and shape power demand. which consists of multiple periods, rather than simply shifting
They characterized the resulting equilibria in competitive as their load to off-peak periods, tend to receive higher incentives,
well as oligopolistic markets, and proposed distributed demand and vice versa.
response algorithms to achieve the equilibria. Ibars et al.
[108] aimed to smooth the electric demand curve and avoid The second topic of energy efficiency and demand profile
overloading both the generation and distribution capacity of is minimizing energy loss. However, using distributed energy
the grid, by using a network congestion game, where each user generation in SG makes this problem more complicated. In
allocates demand as a response to other users actions. Kishore order to minimize the system energy loss, Ochoa and Harrison
and Snyder [130] first presented an optimization model for [185] proposed to determine the optimal accommodation of
determining the timing of appliance operation to take advan- distributed renewable energy generation for minimizing energy
tage of lower electricity rates during off-peak periods. They loss by using an optimal multi-period alternating current power
flow. Atwa et al. [12] aimed to minimize energy loss through a building operation while satisfying the energy balance and
the optimal mix of statistically-modeled renewable sources. complicated operating constraints of individual energy sup-
Aquino-Lugo and Overbye [10] presented a decentralized ply equipment and devices. The results showed that through
optimization algorithm to minimize power losses in the distri- integrated scheduling and control of various energy supply
bution grids. sources of the building, significant energy cost saving can be
We have reviewed the work on energy efficiency and achieved. Vandoorn et al. [249] presented a method for active
demand profile improvement in the above. Improving utility, load control in islanded microgrids, which is triggered by the
increasing profit, and reducing cost are also important manage- microgrid voltage level. This is enabled by using the voltage-
ment objectives. Researchers realize these objectives in various droop control strategy and its specific properties. It is shown
levels and from various perspectives, such as individual user that the presented demand dispatch strategy leads to reduction
cost/bill or profit [40, 53, 95, 120, 171, 170, 188, 32, 69], of line losses and that with the combination of the active power
single energy bill or aggregate utility of a group of users control and the presented active load control, the renewable
[98, 220], cost or utility of electricity industry and system energy can be exploited optimally. A review of challenges to
[37, 74, 83, 89, 120, 150, 171, 178, 206, 218]. Stabilization power management in microgrids can be found in [52].
of prices is also a research topic in SG, since relaying the real- G2V/V2G: As stated in Section IV-D, in G2V, high pene-
time wholesale market prices to the end consumers creates a tration levels of uncoordinated electric vehicle (EV) charging
closed loop feedback system which could be unstable or lack will significantly reduce power system performance and effi-
robustness, leading to price volatility. Roozbehani et al. [213] ciency, and even cause overloading. Coordinated charging has
therefore developed a mathematical model for characterization hence been proposed to mitigate these negative impacts using
of the dynamic evolution of supply, demand, and market stochastic programming [48, 49], quadratic optimization [93],
clearing (locational marginal) prices under real-time pricing, particle swarm optimization [218], and dynamic programming
and presented a stabilizing pricing algorithm. [95]. Recall that particle swarm optimization can solve com-
Emission control, another important management objective plex constrained optimization problems quickly, with accuracy
in the electric power industry, has a significant influence on and without any dimensional limitation and physical computer
environment protection. However, note that minimizing gener- memory limit. In the context of coordinated EV charging,
ation cost or maximizing utility/profit is not directly equivalent Sortomme et al. [228] studied the relationship between feeder
to minimizing emission by utilizing renewable energy as much losses, load factor, and load variance. They showed the benefits
as possible. This is because, generally speaking, the cost of of reduced computation time and problem complexity, when
power generation from renewable energy source is not always we use load variance or load factor as the objective function
the lowest. Therefore, as suggested by Gormus et al. [86], rather than system losses. Another interesting work is done by
environmental impact of energy produced from fossil fuels Pan et al. in [192]. Instead of attempting to find an optimized
should be factored into the demand scheduling algorithm as power dispatching approach, they explored how to aptly place
a cost parameter which may result in more peak loads to be EV infrastructures like battery exchange stations so that they
moved to the periods where renewable sources have a higher can support both the transportation system and the power grid.
percentage in the generation mix. However, individual users In V2G, we often discharge the battery to deliver the power
should be willing to accept their appliances to be scheduled to the grid and then recharge it later when the price is low.
according to the requirements of low carbon scheduling. In Therefore, a key question is how to determine the appropriate
addition, many researchers have also investigated how to charge and discharge times throughout the day, taking into
optimize emission reduction. Saber and Venayagamoorthy account the requirements of both vehicle owners and utility.
[218] studied how to take advantage of both plug-in hybrid Hutson et al. [107] studied this problem and used binary
electric vehicles and renewable resources to reduce emission. particle swarm optimization to look for optimal solutions that
Bakker et al. [14] presented a three step control strategy maximize profits to vehicle owners while satisfying system and
to optimize the overall energy efficiency and increase gen- vehicle owners constraints. In addition, Lund and Kempton
eration from renewable resources with the ultimate goal to [159] analyzed the positive influence of V2G on integration
reduce the 2 emission caused by electricity generation. Bu of renewable energy into the electricity sectors. Since todays
et al. [32] modeled the stochastic power demand loads as a abundant renewable energy resources have fluctuating output,
Markov-modulated Poisson process, and formulated the unit to increase the fraction of electricity from them, we must learn
commitment scheduling problem of power generation systems to maintain a balance between demand and supply. V2G tech-
as a partially observable Markov decision process multi-armed nology can provide storage, matching the time of generation
bandit problem. By adjusting the pollutant emission costs, the to time of load. They found that adding V2G to these national
2 emissions can be reduced. Liu and Xu [151] performed energy systems allows integration of much higher levels of
a mathematical analysis for the effects of wind power on wind electricity without excess electric production, and also
emission control, and developed a load dispatch model to greatly reduces national 2 emissions.
minimize the emission.
Considering the importance of microgrids and G2V/V2G,
we particularly list the work related to them. B. Management Methods and Tools
Microgrids: Guan et al. [89] applied microgrid technology In order to solve management objectives, researchers have
to minimize the overall cost of electricity and natural gas for adopted various methods and tools. Thus far, researchers
Management Methods and Tools
Optimization Machine Learning Game Theory Auction

[188, 69] [171, 108] [94, 169]
Convex Dynamic Stochastic Robust Particle Swarm

Programming Programming Programming Programming Optimization
[120, 170] [8, 95, 130, 172] [48, 49, 150] [53] [107, 217, 218, 168]
[228, 220] [178, 194, 192]
Fig. 15: Classification of Management Methods and Tools
mainly use optimization, machine learning, game theory, and tariffs that differentiate the energy usage in time and usage
auction as tools to solve various management problems. level, the global optimal performance is achieved at the Nash
Fig. 15 shows a classification of the related work. equilibrium of the formulated energy consumption scheduling
For optimization approaches, the commonly used mathe- game. Another reason why game theory is desirable is that the
matical tools are convex programming [170, 228, 220, 120] emerging SG will lead to the emergence of a large number
and dynamic programming [8, 95, 130, 172]. Since the of markets, which will be akin to multi-player games. For
renewable energy supply is often a time-varying process, example, the consumers within a microgrid can create a market
other optimization techniques such as stochastic programming for trading energy. Game theory can help us analyze the
[150, 178, 194, 192, 48, 49] and robust programming [53] are resulting market. For example, Chen et al. [40] characterized
also widely used. In addition, since the particle swarm opti- the resulting equilibria in competitive as well as oligopolistic
mization can solve complex constrained optimization problems markets, and proposed distributed demand response algorithms
quickly, with accuracy and without any dimensional limitation to achieve the equilibria.
and physical computer memory limit, it is also a widely used Auction may also be popular in the emerging SG. Dis-
optimization tool [107, 217, 218, 168]. tributed energy generation and microgrid will be widely used
Machine learning focuses on the design and development in SG. As mentioned above, the consumers within a microgrid
of algorithms that allow control systems to evolve behaviors can create a market for trading energy. Bidding and auction
based on empirical data, such as from sensor or phasor can be used for energy sale within a local microgrid market.
measurement unit (PMU) data. ONeill et al. [188] used online Auction is not limited to the microgrid market. The authors of
learning application to implicitly estimate the impact of future [94, 169] proposed demand reduction bid, a kind of demand
energy prices and consumer decisions on long term costs, response programs. Recall that demand response can be used
and thus schedule residential device usage. Fang et al. [69] to reduce the system peak load. At the peak load period,
used online machine learning to analyze the renewable energy customers send demand reduction bids to the utility with the
resource use strategy in islanded microgrids. More specifically, available demand reduction capacity and the price asked for.
a customer tries to decide among multiple renewable energy This program encourages customers to provide load reductions
sources which should be used to maximize profit. Although the at prices for which they are willing to curtail.
power pattern of the renewable energy source is not known in
advance, they proved that when the time horizon is sufficiently
large, on average the upper bound on the gap between the C. Summary and Future Research
expected profit obtained at each time slot by using the optimal Within the framework of SG, many management goals,
renewable energy source and that by following their strategies which are difficult and even infeasible to realize in conven-
is arbitrarily small. Considering that a large number of smart tional power grids, become easy and possible.
meters, sensors, and PMUs will be deployed, we believe that As reviewed in this survey, we found that most of the works
machine learning will play an important role in analysis and on the smart management aim to improve energy efficiency,
processing of user data and grid states. shape demand profile, increase utility, and reduce costs and
Game theory is also a strong analysis tool for SG man- emissions based on the advanced SG smart infrastructure.
agement. One reason is that we cannot always expect and We believe that this advanced infrastructure will lead to an
require all the users to be cooperative. Game theory can explosion of functionalities, and that more and more new
help us design effective schemes to cope with this case. For management services and applications will emerge. We present
example, Ibars et al. [108] proposed a distributed solution two possible services in the following.
based on a network congestion game to guarantee that the 1) The integration of pervasive computing and Smart
optimal local solution of each selfish consumer is also the Grid: Pervasive computing is a post-desktop model in which
solution of a global objective. In [171], by adopting pricing information processing has been thoroughly integrated into
everyday objects and activities. Using the information pro- globally optimal decision. We thus need to consider how
vided by pervasive computing, SG is able to serve users to determine the optimal size of a subgrid controlled by a
more effectively and smartly, and eventually revolutionize distributed management system and how to obtain necessary
the consumers lives. Let us consider a simple example. In timely information, so that the local decision is good enough.
summer, the average high temperature in Phoenix (Arizona, 3) Impact of ad-hoc organization of SG: In an SG many
USA) area can be over 100 (37.8) and has spiked over parts (such as solar panels) are deployed in a distributed
120 (48.9 ). People hope that when they get home, the manner, and are even required to work as plug-and-play
temperature at home is within 6080 . Therefore, the smart components. More flexibility from the users perspective also
meter connected to the air conditioner can periodically inquire leads to more difficulty in system design and management.
the position of the house owner by sending the inquiry to the This actually opens up many possible research topics.
owners smart phone which can obtain the owners position via For example, we need to study the self-configuration of the
GPS. If the smart meter finds the owner coming back home, power grid, and further how to manage the power dispatching
it will decide to turn on the air conditioner in advance so in such a self-configured system. Let us consider a more spe-
that when the owner gets home, the temperature is within the cific example. In a power system containing many functioning
comfortable zone. microgrids, when some components stop functioning in one
2) Smart Grid Store: Like Apples Application Store[9], microgrid, it could be interesting to study how to optimally
many management applications and services are available allocate some resources (e.g. distributed energy generators)
online. Users can choose their expected services and download from other microgrids to this one to improve the overall
them to the local system (e.g. the smart meter). For example, a performance of the whole power system.
user, who needs a management program supporting the smart 4) Impact of utilization of fluctuant and intermittent
control of air conditioner mentioned above, can buy such a renewables: The utilization of the renewable resources, such
program from the Smart Grid Store online and download it. as wind and solar, also makes management more difficult due
This Smart Grid Store provides an integrated platform, which to their fluctuant and intermittent nature. The management
can drive the third party to develop new management programs system should maintain reliability and satisfy operational
and meantime help users easily customize their management requirements, meanwhile taking into account the uncertainty
services. and variability of energy sources.
Although a smart management system in SG is promising In order to solve the optimization problems related to
and encouraging, we still face many challenges. We summarize such renewables, we suggest that stochastic programming and
the important challenges and the possible research directions robust programming [53] play more important roles as math-
worth exploring in the following. ematical tools, since they can model optimization problems
1) Regulating emerging markets: As mentioned before, that involve uncertainty. As discussed in Section IV-E, Markov
microgrids could lead to the emergence of new markets among process and online machine learning technology may also be
users within a microgrid for trading energy. Due to the lack applicable for the analysis of renewable source performance.
of supervision of conventional utilities, it is a challenge to Based on the prediction of renewable source performance, we
regulate such new markets. can try to achieve our management objectives.
For example, in an auction market where the consumers
within a microgrid trade energy, how to guarantee truthful VIII. S MART P ROTECTION S YSTEM
auction is a challenge, since some users could make untruthful The smart protection system in SG must address not only
bids to cheat the seller in order to obtain the benefit which inadvertent compromises of the grid infrastructure due to
they cannot get in truthful bidding. Note that truthful auction user errors, equipment failures, and natural disasters, but also
has been studied for several years. One of the most well- deliberate cyber attacks, such as from disgruntled employees,
known auction schemes is the Vickrey-Clarke-Groves (VCG) industrial spies, and terrorists.
scheme [47, 88, 253], which is a type of sealed-bid auction In this section, we explore the work targeted the smart
where multiple items are up for bid, and each bidder submits protection system in SG. We first review the work related to
a different value for each item. This system charges each system reliability analysis and failure protection mechanisms,
individual the harm they cause to other bidders, and ensures and then the security and privacy issues in SG.
that the optimal strategy for a bidder is to bid the true
valuations of the objects. The truthful auction problem in SG
may be solved along this line. A. System Reliability and Failure Protection
2) Effectiveness of the distributed management system: Reliability is the ability of a component or system to
The SG is expected to utilize distributed management sys- perform required functions under stated conditions for a stated
tems more often, since distributed generation and plug-and- period of time. System reliability is an important topic in
play components will be widely used to form autonomous power grid research and design. In the U.S., the annual cost
and distributed subgrids (e.g. microgrids). However, generally of outages in 2002 was estimated to be in the order of $79B,
speaking, more amount of timely information means smarter while the total electricity retail revenue was $249B [173].
management decisions in the management process. There- Furthermore, cascading blackouts could happen. For example,
fore, considering the limitation on accessible information, in the infamous 2003 East Coast blackout, 50 million people in
distributed management systems usually cannot compute a the U.S. and Canada lost power for up to several days [182].
An initial review of methods for cascading failure analysis play important roles in the smart protection system since they
in power grid systems can be found in [15]. The future SG attempt to prevent failures from happening. Second, once the
is expected to provide more reliable system operation and system does fail, failure identification, diagnosis, and recovery
smarter failure protection mechanism. are required to make the system recover from the failure
1) System Reliability and work normally as soon as possible. Fig. 16 shows a
It is expected that distributed generation (DG) will be widely classification of the work related to these two topics. In
used in SG. While using some fluctuant and intermittent addition, since the microgrid is regarded as one of the most
renewables may compromise the stability of the grid [132, 61], important new components in the SG vision, we review the
the authors of [43, 173] stated that innovative architectures and work focused on the microgrid protection.
designs can offer great promise to connect DGs into the grid Failure Prediction and Prevention: For an SG, one effective
without sacrificing reliability. approach to preventing failures from happening is predicting
Chen et al. [43] proposed to take advantage of new ar- the weak points or the region of stability existence in its energy
chitectures such as microgrid to simplify the impact of DG subsystem. Chertkov et al. [44] developed an approach to
on the grid. Intuitively, as loads are being served locally efficiently identify the most probable failure modes in static
within a microgrid, less power flows within the entire grid load distribution for a given power network. They found that if
infrastructure. Thus, the reliability and stability of the SG can the normal operational mode of the grid is sufficiently healthy,
be enhanced. They found a very encouraging result that local the failure modes are sufficiently sparse, i.e., the failures
power generation, even when only introducing a small number are caused by load fluctuations at only a few buses. Their
of local generators into the grid, can reduce the likelihood technique can help discover weak links which are saturated at
of cascading failures dramatically. Moslehi and Kumar [173] the failure modes, and can also identify generators working
observed that an ideal mix of the SG resources (e.g. distributed at the capacity and those under the capacity, thus providing
renewable sources, demand response, and storage) leads to a predictive capability for improving the reliability of any power
flatter net demand that eventually further improves reliability. system. Vaiman et al. [248] proposed to utilize PMU data
However, realizing this requires a systematic approach to compute the region of stability existence and operational
developing a common vision for cohesive gridwide integration margins. An automated process continuously monitors voltage
of necessary information technologies. Thus, they proposed an constraints, thermal limits, and steady-state stability simulta-
architectural framework to serve as a concrete representation neously. This approach can be used to improve the reliability
of a common vision. of the transmission grid and to prevent major blackouts.
Furthermore, the reliability and stability of an SG also Failure Identification, Diagnosis, and Recovery: Once a
depends on the reliability of the measurement system which is failure occurs, the first step must be quickly locating and
used to monitor the reliability and stability of the SG. Recently, identifying the failure to avoid cascading events.
the wide-area measurement system (WAMS) based on phasor Due to the wide deployment of PMUs in SG, the authors
measurement units (PMUs) is becoming an important com- of [237, 238, 272] proposed to take advantage of the phasor
ponent for the monitoring, control, and protection functions information for line outage detection and network parameter
in SG. In order to analyze the reliability of WAMS, Wang error identification. Tate and Overbye [237] developed an
et al. [255] presented a quantified reliability evaluation method algorithm which uses known system topology information,
by combining Markov modeling and state enumeration tech- together with PMU phasor angle measurements, to detect
niques. This method can be used for evaluating the reliability system line outages. In addition to determining the outaged
of the backbone communication network in WAMS and the line, their algorithm also provides an estimate of the pre-
overall WAMS from a hardware reliability viewpoint. outage flow on the outaged line. Later, Tate and Overbye
Another research topic is using simulation for system relia- [238] studied how double line outages can be detected using
bility analysis. The more accurately a simulation platform can a combination of pre-outage topology information and real-
emulate the behavior and performance of an SG architecture, time phase angle measurements that are obtained from PMUs.
the better we will understand its advantages and potential Zhu and Abur [272] showed that the identification of certain
shortcomings. However, the question is how to build up a parameter errors based on conventional measurements, no
simulation system which is accurate, flexible, adaptable, and matter how redundant they are, may not always be possible.
scalable enough. Bou Ghosn et al. [25] utilized an incremental They hence described the need for phasor measurements to
method, beginning with simulating a local microgrid, but with overcome this limitation.
a scalable design that can grow hierarchically into a more Other works on failure identification and diagnosis include
complete model. Such a simulator can help us understand [101, 35, 216, 34]. Sometimes we need to select proper
SG issues and identify ways to improve the electrical grid. features to identify the root cause. Cai et al. [34] reviewed
Godfrey et al. [85] proposed to model both the communication two popular feature selection methods: 1) hypothesis test,
network and the power system in SG using simulation. This 2) stepwise regression, and introduced another two: 3) step-
model provides means to examine the effect of communication wise selection by Akaikes Information Criterion, and 4)
failures as a function of the radio transmission power level. LASSO/ALASSO. Those algorithms are used to help engi-
2) Failure Protection Mechanism neers to find out the information that may be buried under
In this subsection, we first review two topics related to failure the massive data. Considering that many events in power
protection mechanism. First, failure prediction and prevention systems are stochastic, He and Zhang [101] proposed to
Failure Protection Mechanism
Failure Prediction and Prevention Failure Identification, Diagnosis, and Recovery

[44, 248]
Failure Identification Grid Self-healing Smart Meter Methodology of

and Locating [205, 145] Data Recovery Failure Processing
[34, 35, 101, 216] [39] [189]
[238, 237, 272]
Fig. 16: Classification of Failure Protection Mechanisms
use probabilistic graphical models for modeling the spatially from the central controller. They found that when coupled
correlated data from PMUs, and to use statistical hypothesis with a distributed rather than hierarchical communications
testing for the task of fault diagnosis. Calderaro et al. [35] architecture, preloading substation and field devices with a
carefully designed a Petri Net to capture the modeling details set of next-actions-to-be-taken instructions can significantly
of the protection system of the distribution grid, and presented increase grid reliability while simultaneously reducing real-
a method based on this Petri Net to detect and identify the time impact from loss of reliable control.
failures in data transmission and faults in the distribution grid. Microgrid Protection: Protection of microgrids during nor-
Note that the Petri net is one of several mathematical modeling mal or island operations is also an important research topic
languages for the description of distributed systems. Russell since microgrids will be widely used in SG. Note that pro-
and Benner [216] presented some examples of the types of tection of a microgrid is strongly related to its control and
incipient failures that can be detected from substation electrical operation issues [133]. For example, traditional protection for
waveforms, and described the significant data and analysis distribution grids is designed for high fault-current levels in
requirements to enable detection and classification. radial networks. However, during an islanding operation of
The ability to self-heal in the event of failure is expected the microgrid, high fault-currents from the utility grid are
to be an important characteristic of SG according to the not present. Moreover, most of the DG units which will
standards [177] from the National Institute of Standards and be connected to the low voltage microgrid will be con-
Technology (NIST). An effective approach is to divide the verted/interfaced with limited fault-current feeding capabili-
power grid into small, autonomous islands (e.g. microgrids) ties. This means that the traditional fuse protection of low
which can work well during normal operations and also voltage network is no longer applicable for microgrid, and that
continue working during outages [205]. By appropriately con- new protection methods must be developed. Feero et al. [72]
trolling the system reconfiguration, the impact of disturbances also examined several protection problems that must be dealt
or failures can be restricted within the islands or can be with to successfully operate a microgrid when the utility is
isolated. Cascading events and further system failures can experiencing abnormal conditions, and pointed out that there
hence be avoided. Therefore the overall efficiency of system are two distinct sets of problems to solve. The first is how
restoration can be improved [145]. to determine when an islanded microgrid should be formed in
Failures could also occur on smart meters so that load the face of abnormal conditions that the utility can experience.
data could contain corrupted or missing data. Processing or The second is how to provide segments of the microgrid with
even recovering such data is important since it contains vital sufficient coordinated fault protection while operating as an
information for day-to-day operations and system analysis. island separated from the utility.
Chen et al. [39] hence presented B-Spline smoothing and These new issues drive the research on new protection
Kernel smoothing based techniques to cope with this issue methods. Various methods for microgrid protection have been
and automatically cleanse corrupted and missing data. proposed in [133, 246, 31, 4, 179, 62, 229, 229, 219]. Al-
In addition, for the methodology of making decision on how Nasseri and Redfern [4] described a relay that uses distur-
to process a failure, Overman and Sackman [189] suggested bances in the three phase voltages to provide reliable and fast
that the decision-making ability should be distributed to the detection of different types of faults within the microgrid.
substation and/or field devices; or at the minimum, to preload Brucoli and Green [31] investigated the fault behavior of
these distributed devices with sufficient information such that inverter-supplied microgrids. They showed that the response
they can take corresponding automatic actions in the event of the system in the event of a fault is strongly dependent
of a system failure without having to wait for instructions on the inverter control which actively limits the available
Security and Privacy
Metering and Measurement Information Transmission

[59, 241, 158]
[128, 142]
Smart Metering Monitoring and

Measurement
[21, 55, 152]
Security Privacy [222, 261, 268]
[7, 19, 50] [177, 45, 64, 79]
[164, 162, 250] [121, 147, 140, 143]
[162, 207]
Fig. 17: Classification of the Work on Security and Privacy for SG
fault current. Therefore, the choice of an alternative protection empowers us to realize more powerful mechanisms to defend
scheme for an islanded microgrid is strongly dependent on against attacks and handle failures, but on the other hand
the type of control implemented. Driesen et al. [62] discussed opens up many new vulnerabilities. Thus in the following,
protection issues concerning DG. Their simulations concern we also discuss many new security and privacy issues due to
the effect of local induction generators on protection selectivity the deployment of smart meters, sensors, and PMUs, together
in a system with parallel distribution feeders. Nikkhajoei and with some solutions.
Lasseter [179] indicated that the philosophy for microgrid 1) Information Metering and Measurement
protection is to have the same protection strategies for both Security in Smart Metering: One of the security issues
islanded and grid-connected operations, and that it is important comes from the newly deployed smart meters. Smart meters
that the protection functions have plug-and-play functionality. are extremely attractive targets for malicious hackers, since
Laaksonen [133] presented the protection issues of low-voltage vulnerabilities can easily be monetized [162]. Hackers who
microgrids and developed extensions to the low-voltage mi- compromise a smart meter can immediately manipulate their
crogrid protection concept based on simulations with PSCAD energy costs or fabricate generated energy meter readings
simulation software [201]. Tumilty et al. [246] aimed at de- to make money. A common consumer fraud in traditional
veloping practical protection, control, and automation schemes power grid is that customers turn a traditional physical meter
for microgrids, and outlined several schemes covering both upside down in the electrical socket to cause the internal usage
urban and rural applications. Sortomme et al. [229] proposed counters to run backward. Due to the use of smart meter, this
a protection scheme using digital relays with a communication attack can even be done with remote computers.
network for the protection of the microgrid system, explored Moreover, widespread use of smart meters may provide a
the increased reliability of adding an additional line to form a potentially large number of opportunities for adversaries. For
loop structure, and demonstrated a novel method for modeling example, injecting misinformation could mislead the electric
high impedance faults to show how the protection scheme utility into making incorrect decisions about local or regional
can protect against them. Salomonsson et al. [219] proposed usage and capacity. Let us consider a simple but probably
a low-voltage DC microgrid protection system design. They effective Denial-of-Service (DoS) attack. An adversary forges
presented the operating principles and technical data of low- the demand request of a smart meter, and keeps requesting
voltage DC protection devices, both available and in the a large amount of energy. Within the framework of SG, it is
research stage. They also discussed different fault-detection possible that the electric utility disconnects all the appliances
and grounding methods. connected to this meter so that all the power services for this
user are denied.
Widespread deployment of smart meters not only leads to a
B. Security and Privacy potentially large number of opportunities for adversaries, but
Security is a never-ending game of wits, pitting attackers also opens up a door to the cyber attacks which could result in
versus asset owners. SG security is no exception to this broad effects and even large-scale disasters. Let us consider an
paradigm. Cyber security is regarded as one of the biggest example given by Anderson and Fuloria [7]. An ideal attack on
challenges in SG [177, 166, 17]. Vulnerabilities may allow an a target country is to interrupt its citizens electricity supply.
attacker to penetrate a system, obtain user privacy, gain access Until now, the only plausible way to do that involves attacks on
to control software, and alter load conditions to destabilize the critical generation, transmission, and distribution assets, which
grid in unpredictable ways [166]. Fig. 17 shows a classification are increasingly well defended. However, the emergence of
of the work on security and privacy for SG. We must note smart meters changes this game. The nightmare scenario is that
that the advanced infrastructure used in SG on one hand a country installs tens of millions of smart meters, controlled
by a few central controllers. The attacker can compromise by anonymizing smart metering data so that information
these controllers and send the combination of commands that gleaned from it cannot be easily associated with an identified
will cause meters to interrupt the supply. Such attack could person. Garcia and Jacobs [79] suggested that the current
cause disastrous results. smart metering structure should be rethought in order to
In order to improve the security of smart metering sys- replace a unilateral trust assumption with a more multilateral
tems, researchers have investigated many possible attacks architecture in which meters have a trusted component and
and proposed some solutions. Cleveland [50] discussed the enjoy a certain level of autonomy. Kalogridis et al. [121]
security requirements (confidentiality, integrity, availability, introduced a load signature moderation system that protects
and accountability) and related threats to the main components smart metering data privacy. They discussed a model in which
of an advanced metering infrastructure (AMI). McLaughlin the amount of utility energy required may (partially) hide
et al. [164] studied an adversarys means of defrauding the the consumers demand, by configuring a power router to
electrical grid by manipulating AMI systems, and validated the determine the power provided or required by a rechargeable
viability of these attacks by performing penetration testing on battery. Such a system allows users to control (to a certain
commodity devices. They concluded that not only is theft still degree) their energy usage and their home energy privacy.
possible in AMI systems, but that current AMI devices intro- Security in Monitoring and Measurement: Wide deploy-
duce a myriad of new vectors for achieving it. To prevent the ment of monitoring and measurement devices (e.g. sensors and
adversary from forging the smart meter reading and guarantee PMUs) could also lead to system vulnerabilities. The effective
the reading accuracy, Varodayan and Gao [250] proposed a operation of SG depends on the widely-deployed accurate
secure method for power suppliers to echo the energy readings measurement devices. These measurements are typically trans-
they receive from smart meters back to the customers so that mitted to a control center, such as Supervisory Control and
users can verify the integrity of the smart meter. Further- Data Acquisition (SCADA) Systems [176]. State estimators
more, their mechanism can guarantee information-theoretic in the control center estimate the power grid state through
confidentiality, therefore solving the potential confidentiality analysis of measurement data and power system models.
leak introduced by the redundant measurement. Berthier et al. Therefore, it is very important to guarantee the integrity of
[19] explored the practical needs for monitoring and intrusion the data.
detection through a thorough analysis of the different threats A typical attack to compromise data integrity is the stealth
targeting an AMI. They indicated that specification-based attack (also called false-data injection attack), which was first
detection technology has the potential to meet the industry- studied by Liu et al. in [152]. It was shown that an attacker
strength requirements and constraints of an AMI. However, can manipulate the state estimate without triggering bad-data
such technology incurs a high development cost. alarms in the control center. Xie et al. [261] also showed
Privacy in Smart Metering: Smart meters also have un- that with the knowledge of the system configuration, such
intended consequences for customer privacy. NIST pointed attacks will circumvent the bad-data measurement detections
out that the major benefit provided by the SG, i.e. the in present SCADA systems, and may lead to profitable fi-
ability to get richer data to and from customer meters and nancial misconduct. In order to estimate how difficult it is
other electric devices, is also its Achilles heel from a pri- to perform a successful false-data injection attack against
vacy viewpoint [121, 177]. The obvious privacy concern particular measurements, Sandberg et al. [222] defined security
is that the energy use information stored at the meter acts indices to quantify the least effort needed to achieve attack
as an information-rich side channel, and can be repurposed goals while avoiding bad-data alarms in the power network
by interested parties to reveal personal information such as control center. Yuan et al. [268] fully developed the concept of
individuals habits, behaviors, activities, preferences, and even load redistribution attacks, a special type of false data injection
beliefs [162, 147, 45]. A small-scale monitoring experiment on attacks, and analyzed their damage to power system operation
a private residence conducted in [147] showed that personal in different time steps with different attacking resource limi-
information can be estimated with high accuracy, even with tations.
relatively unsophisticated hardware and algorithms. To prevent such attacks, researchers have proposed various
In order to address the privacy issues of smart meters, some approaches. Recall that the control center uses state estimators
approaches have been proposed. Li et al. [140] proposed a to estimate the power grid state. In [21], it was shown how one
distributed incremental data aggregation approach, in which can completely protect a state estimator from these unobserv-
data aggregation is performed at all smart meters. Homomor- able attacks by encrypting a sufficient number of measurement
phic encryption is used to secure the data en route. Hence, devices. Dan and Sandberg [55] extended the work in [21, 222]
intermediate meters do not see any intermediate or final result. and proposed two algorithms to place encrypted devices in the
Li et al. [143] proposed to compress meter readings and use system to maximize their utility in terms of increased system
random sequences in the compressed sensing to enhance the security.
privacy and integrity of the meter readings. Rial and Danezis 2) Information Transmission
[207] proposed a privacy-preserving protocol for billing and It is well-known that the communication technologies we are
for performing general calculations on fine grained meter using are often not secure enough themselves. It is expected
readings. The Zero-knowledge proofs are used to ensure that that most of the security and privacy issues existing in the
the fee is correct without disclosing any consumption data. general communication networks (e.g. Internet and wireless
Costas and Kalogridis [64] addressed the privacy problem networks) could also exist in SG.
Particularly, we need to focus more on wireless communi- summarize the important challenges and the possible research
cation technologies since wireless networks are expected to directions worth exploring in the following.
be the more prevalent networks in SG. For example, wireless 1) Interoperability between cryptographic systems: Since
mesh networks (WMNs) are considered very reliable because many different communication protocols and technologies
they provide redundant communication paths, but WMNs are will be used in SG, and each of them may have their
vulnerable to attacks by intelligent adversaries. ZigBee is own cryptography requirements and security needs, realizing
a low-cost, low-power, wireless networking standard, based interoperability between cryptographic systems is not a trivial
on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard. However, there are known problem. Before cryptography can be used, we need a method
vulnerabilities associated with IEEE 802.15.4 implementations of securely issuing and exchanging cryptographic keys. One
[59]. possible solution is to design, as suggested in [17], a public key
Malicious attacks on information transmission in SG can infrastructure approach, which can mimic the layered approach
be categorized into the following three major types based on used in communication models. A complete solution based on
their goals [158]. this initial idea is needed.
1) Network availability: Malicious attacks targeting net- 2) Conflict between privacy preservation and informa-
work availability can be considered as DoS attacks. tion accessibility: How to balance privacy preservation and
They attempt to delay, block, or even corrupt informa- information accessibility is not an easy task. Consider, for
tion transmission in order to make network resources example, a group of users. On one hand, the more information
unavailable to nodes that need to exchange information about demand patterns these users are willing to disclose, the
in SG. As pointed out by NIST [241], the design of smarter decisions a management system can make for opti-
information transmission networks that are robust to mizing profits. However, more accessible information usually
attacks targeting network availability is the top priority, means more privacy leaks, which may easily disclose user
since network unavailability may result in the loss of profiles and behaviors. We suggest defining several privacy
real-time monitoring of critical power infrastructures and preservation levels similar to those in access control, each of
global power system disasters. which describes a tolerable amount of information leak. In
2) Data integrity: Data integrity attacks attempt to delib- each level, based on the accessible information, we can define
erately modify or corrupt information shared within the the management objectives. For example, one privacy policy
SG and may be extremely damaging in the SG. may allow full information exchange within a group of users.
3) Information privacy: Information privacy attacks attempt Therefore, this group of users can optimize their profits using
to eavesdrop on communications in SG to acquire de- their shared information. Other mechanisms using advanced
sired information, such as a customers account number encryption techniques may also be applicable.
and electricity usage. An initial work was done by 3) Impact of increased system complexity and expanded
Li et al. [142], who studied a fundamental limit, i.e., communication paths: The advanced infrastructure used in
how much channel capacity is needed to guarantee the SG is a double-edged sword. On one hand, it lays the
secured communications in SG, from the information foundation for the future advanced grid which can serve us
theory perspective, and investigated the case of single better. On the other hand, increased system complexity and
meter and Gaussian noise communication channel with expanded communication paths can easily lead to an increase
an eavesdropper. in vulnerability to cyber attacks and system failures. Note
that a fully implemented SG may consist of tens of millions
In order to improve the security and privacy of information of nodes. This system scale makes it difficult to anticipate
transmission, researchers have proposed various solutions. Lu how attacks may be manifested by an unpredictable and
et al. [158] suggested that the design of countermeasures intelligent adversary, and what failures could happen due to
to attacks targeting data integrity and information privacy many dependent or independent unpredictable factors [59].
should consider authentication protocol design and intrusion One possible research direction to solve this challenge is
detection. Furthermore, Khurana et al. [128] proposed a set of to divide the whole system into many autonomous sub-grids
design principles and discussed engineering practices which so that the system complexity can be decreased dramatically.
can help ensure the correctness and effectiveness of standards Therefore, the impact of system failures and attacks can be
for authentication in SG protocols. These design principles restricted to a limited level as much as possible. This is
include explicit names, unique encoding, explicit trust as- essentially similar to the concept of microgrid. We must note
sumptions, use of timestamps, protocol boundaries, release of that autonomy does not mean absolutely no connection
secrets, and explicit security parameters. among these sub-grids and electric utilities. The result of the
existence of such connections is that failures or attacks cannot
be completely isolated. Thus a complete solution needs to
C. Summary and Future Research
consider both autonomy and interconnectivity.
In this section, we have reviewed the work on the smart 4) Impact of increasing energy consumption and asset
protection system in SG. Although realization of reliable utilization: The modern grid is working at the edge of its
system operation, resistance to attacks and failures, and preser- reliable operation in more locations and more often because of
vation of privacy are the principle characteristics in the SG increasing energy consumption and especially the methodol-
vision, realizing these objectives poses many challenges. We ogy of increasing asset utilization (as much as possible) using
modern tools [173]. This inevitably increases system reliability security and privacy in SG. However, we must note that the
risk. advanced infrastructure used in SG on one hand empowers us
In order to improve system reliability, we first need to de- to realize more powerful mechanisms to defend against attacks
velop effective approaches to compute the margins in advance and handle failures, but on the other hand, opens up many new
for reliable operation of the system. Second, we need real vulnerabilities. More thorough research on the smart protection
time monitoring methods to dynamically observe the margins. system is desirable.
In addition, as stated before, maximizing the asset utilization From the existing efforts on SG, we have also learned
could reduce the margins and hence increase the risk of system some useful lessons. In the following, we list these lessons
failure. We have to balance the utilization maximization and from four perspectives: practical deployments and projects,
the risk increase. infrastructure, management system, and protection system.
5) Complicated decision making process: In order to First, the practical deployments and projects of SG should
process failures in SG, we usually have to solve much more be well-analyzed before the initiative begins. For example,
complex decision problems, but within shorter time [173]. Xcel Energys SmartGridCity project [260] aimed at turning
Considering that a commercial SG may have tens of millions Boulder, Colorado into an ultimate SG hub. However, when
of nodes, realizing this is challenging. the project was almost finished in 2010, only 43% of Boulder
A possible solution is trying to use more distributed decision residents had installed smart meters and the cost of the project
making systems. That is to say, a large number of failure con- ballooned to $42.1 million from $15.3 million. Note that this
trollers could be placed in the SG. Each of them takes care of number does not count the cost of running and maintaining the
several devices and makes decisions locally. This can decrease grid. One possible reason why the result was not satisfactory
the complexity of the decision making process and thus reduce is that Xcel failed to perform a thorough cost-benefit analysis
the failure response time. However, a locally optimal decision before the initiative begins. Therefore, although SG itself is
is not always globally optimal. We need to consider how to an encouraging and promising technology, we still need to
balance the response time and the effectiveness of the local carefully design blueprints of SG projects. In other words,
decision. new and advanced technologies do not necessarily and directly
lead to a profitable and bright future. We need advanced and
IX. C ONCLUSIONS AND L ESSONS mature project initiation, planning, execution, and controlling
Due to the potential importance of SG, this survey compre- to ensure that the practical projects of SG can be completed
hensively explores the technologies used in SG. We have sur- satisfactorily.
veyed the major SG projects/programs/trials and three major Second, the current projects and programs are mainly led
technical systems in SG: the smart infrastructure system, the by electric utilities or related organizations (refer to Table
smart management system, and the smart protection system. IV). They probably may not have enough experience on the
We have outlined challenges and future research directions design and deployment of complicated communication and
worth exploring for each of these three systems. information systems. However, SG is a complex system of
We further divided the smart infrastructure into three subsystems, resulting in complicated interactions among energy,
systems: the smart energy subsystem, the smart information information, and communication subsystems. The evolution of
subsystem, and the smart communication subsystem. For the the SG infrastructure may ask for more experienced informa-
smart energy subsystem, we have reviewed the work on tion and communication technology sectors to be involved.
power generation, transmission, and distribution. We have also For example, electric utility may still lead the evolution of
described two important new grid paradigms: microgrid and the grid while getting other sectors involved by outsourcing
G2V/V2G. For the smart information subsystem, we have or collaboration.
reviewed the work on information metering, measurement, Third, the term smart in Smart Grid implies that the
and management. For the smart communication subsystem, grid has the intelligence to realize advanced management
we have reviewed the wireless and wired communication objectives and functionalities. However, thus far, as stated in
technologies, and the end-to-end communication management. Section VII, most of such objectives are related to energy
In brief, in the transition from the conventional power grid to efficiency improvement, supply and demand balance, emission
the SG, we will replace a physical infrastructure with a digital control, operation cost reduction, and utility maximization.
one. The needs and changes present the power industry with The experience in other sectors, especially consumer electron-
one of the biggest challenges it has ever faced [116]. ics, tells us that only the technologies leading to customer-
For the smart management system, most of the existing oriented functionality will eventually motivate customers to
works aim to improve energy efficiency, demand profile, accept and use them. SG is no exception. For example, one
utility, cost, and emission, based on the smart infrastructure of the important management objectives in SG is reducing
by using optimization, machine learning, and game theory. We 2 emission. However, this does not necessarily imply that
believe that within the advanced infrastructure framework of the customers are willing to upgrade their devices to support
SG, more and more new management services and applications the new feature. Therefore, in addition to designing various
would emerge and eventually revolutionize consumers daily management objectives and functionalities, the electric power
lives. industry needs to think about how to motivate customers to
For the smart protection system, we have reviewed the work buy into these new ideas.
related to system reliability, failure protection mechanism, Fourth, for the protection part, we have the following
two lessons. The first one is that we need to investigate [11] A. Armenia and J. H. Chow. A flexible phasor data concentrator design
the behaviors of electric utilities. Although SG is expected leveraging existing software technologies. IEEE Transactions on Smart
Grid, 1(1):7381, 2010.
to provide advanced protection mechanisms, in real life the [12] Y. M. Atwa, E. F. El-Saadany, M. M. A. Salama, and R. Seethapathy.
electric utilities desire to provide services to minimize costs Optimal renewable resources mix for distribution system energy loss
or maximize profits. Therefore, they may tend to neglect minimization. IEEE Transactions Power System, 25(1):360370, 2010.
[13] Austin Energy. Austin Energy Smart Grid Program,
security and privacy, and long-term system reliability in the http://www.austinenergy.com/About%20Us/Company%20Profile/
face of a threat not well understood [59]. This poses some smartGrid/index.htm.
potential challenges for other system designers. For example, [14] V. Bakker, M. Bosman, A. Molderink, J. Hurink, and G. Smit. Demand
side load management using a three step optimization methodology.
we may ask Should we still fully trust the electric utility IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages 431436, 2010.
when we design our functions in the domain of this electric [15] R. Baldick, B. Chowdhury, I. Dobson, Z. Dong, B. Gou, D. Hawkins,
utility? It is likely that the electric utility itself is trustworthy, H. Huang, M. Joung, D. Kirschen, F. Li, J. Li, Z. Li, C.-C. Liu,
L. Mili, S. Miller, R. Podmore, K. Schneider, K. Sun, D. Wang, Z. Wu,
but it has no capacity of providing fully trusted services. P. Zhang, W. Zhang, and X. Zhang. Initial review of methods for
As mentioned in Section V-C, in order to save cost, electric cascading failure analysis in electric power transmission systems. IEEE
utilities may outsource the information management to a third Power and Energy Society General Meeting08, pages 18, 2008.
[16] S. Barmada, A. Musolino, M. Raugi, R. Rizzo, and M. Tucci. A
party (e.g. a cloud provider). As a result, electric utilities may wavelet based method for the analysis of impulsive noise due to switch
lose, to some extent, the control of ensuring the information commutations in power line communication (PLC) systems. IEEE
confidentiality and integrity. The second lesson is that when Transcations on Smart Grid, 2(1):92101, 2011.
[17] T. Baumeister. Literature review on smart grid cyber security, Technical
we introduce new technologies into SG, we should also assess Report, http://csdl.ics.hawaii.edu/techreports/10-11/10-11.pdf. 2010.
the possible risk introduced. For example, as stated in Section [18] C. Bennett and D. Highfill. Networking AMI smart meters. IEEE
VIII, using the smart metering architecture itself introduces Energy 2030 Conference08, pages 18, 2008.
[19] R. Berthier, W. H. Sanders, and H. Khurana. Intrusion detection
many new security and privacy issues. Therefore, we need to for advanced metering infrastructures: Requirements and architectural
do a thorough assessment on the new technologies. directions. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages 350355, 2010.
In summary, there is no doubt that the emergence of SG [20] R. J. Best, D. J. Morrow, D. M. Laverty, and P. A. Crossley. Syn-
chrophasor broadcast over Internet protocol for distributed generator
will lead to a more environmentally sound future, better synchronization. IEEE Transactions on Power Delievery, 25(4):2835
power supply services, and eventually revolutionize our daily 2841, 2010.
lives. However, we still have a long way to go before this [21] R. B. Bobba, K. M. Rogers, Q. Wang, H. Khurana, K. Nahrstedt,
and T. J. Overbye. Detecting false data injection attacks on DC state
vision comes true. We need to explore not only how to estimation. the First Workshop on Secure Control Systems10, pages
improve this powerful hammer (SG), but also the nails (various 19, 2010.
functionalities) it can be used on. [22] P. Bonanomi. Phase angle measurements with synchronized clock-
sprinciple and applications. IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus
and Systems, 100(12):50365043, 1981.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT [23] A. Borghetti, C. A. Nucci, M. Paolone, G. Ciappi, and A. Solari.
Synchronized phasors monitoring during the islanding maneuver of an
We thank the editor and the anonymous reviewers whose active distribution network. IEEE Transcations on Smart Grid, 2(1):82
comments on an earlier version of this survey have helped to 91, 2011.
[24] A. Bose. Smart transmission grid applications and their supporting
significantly improve the presentation and the content of this infrastructure. IEEE Transcations on Smart Grid, 1(1):1119, 2010.
survey. [25] S. Bou Ghosn, P. Ranganathan, S. Salem, J. Tang, D. Loegering, and
K. E. Nygard. Agent-oriented designs for a self healing smart grid.
IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages 461466, 2010.
R EFERENCES [26] N. Bressan, L. Bazzaco, N. Bui, P. Casari, L. Vangelista, and M. Zorzi.
[1] I. F. Akyildiz, W. Su, Y. Sankarasubramaniam, and E. Cayirci. A survey The deployment of a smart monitoring system using wireless sensors
on sensor networks. IEEE Communications Magazine, 40(8):102114, and actuators networks. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages 4954, 2010.
2002. [27] D. M. Britz and R. R. Miller. Mesh free space optical systems: A
[2] I. F. Akyildiz and X. Wang. A survey on wireless mesh networks. method to improve broadband neighborhood area network backhaul.
IEEE Radio Communications, pages 2330, 2005. IEEE Workshop on Local & Metropolitan Area Networks, pages 37
[3] B. Akyol, H. Kirkham, S. Clements, and M. Hadley. A survey of 42, 2007.
wireless communications for the electric power system. Prepared for [28] A. N. Brooks and S. H. Thesen. PG&E and Tesla Motors: Vehicle
the U.S. Department of Energy, 2010. to grid demonstration and evaluation program, http://spinnovation.
[4] H. Al-Nasseri and M. A. Redfern. A new voltage based relay scheme com/sn/Articles on V2G/PG and E and Tesla Motors - Vehicle
to protect micro-grids dominated by embedded generation using solid to Grid Demonstration and Evaluation Program.pdf.
state converters. 19th International Conference Electricity Distribution, [29] H. E. Brown and S. Suryanarayanan. A survey seeking a definition
pages 14, 2007. of a smart distribution system. North American Power Symposium09,
[5] American Transmission Company. American Transmission Company pages 17, 2009.
Phasor Measurement Unit Project Description, http://www.smartgrid. [30] R. E. Brown. Impact of smart grid on distribution system design. IEEE
gov/sites/default/files/09-0282-atc-project-description-07-11-11.pdf. Power and Energy Society General Meeting - Conversion and Delivery
[6] P. B. Andersen, B. Poulsen, M. Decker, C. Trholt, and J. stergaard. of Electrical Energy in the 21st Century, pages 14, 2008.
Evaluation of a generic virtual power plant framework using service [31] M. Brucoli and T. C. Green. Fault behaviour in islanded microgrids.
oriented architecture. IEEE PECon08, pages 12121217, 2008. 19th International Conference on Electricity Distribution, pages 14,
[7] R. Anderson and S. Fuloria. Who controls the off switch? IEEE 2007.
SmartGridComm10, pages 96101, 2010. [32] S. Bu, F. R. Yu, and P. X. Liu. Stochastic unit commitment in smart
[8] R. N. Anderson, A. Boulanger, W. B. Powell, and W. Scott. Adaptive grid communications. IEEE INFOCOM 2011 Workshop on Green
stochastic control for the smart grid. Proceedings of the IEEE, Communications and Networking, pages 307312, 2011.
99(6):1098 1115, 2011. [33] S. Bu, F. R. Yu, P. X. Liu, and P. Zhang. Distributed scheduling in smart
[9] Apps for iPhone. http://www.apple.com/iphone/apps-for-iphone/. grid communications with dynamic power demands and intermittent
[10] A. A. Aquino-Lugo and T. J. Overbye. Agent technologies for control renewable energy resources. IEEE ICC11 Workshop on Smart Grid
application in the power grid. 43th Hawaii International Conference Communications, 2011.
on System Sciences, pages 110, 2010. [34] Y. Cai, M.-Y. Chow, W. Lu, and L. Li. Statistical feature selection
from massive data in distribution fault diagnosis. IEEE Transcations security issues 2009, http://www.inl.gov/scada/publications/d/securing
on Power Systems, 25(2):642648, 2010. the smart grid current issues.pdf.
[35] V. Calderaro, C. N. Hadjicostis, A. Piccolo, and P. Siano. Failure [60] P. Donegan. Ethernet backhaul: Mobile operator strategies & market
identification in smart grids based on Petri Net modeling. IEEE opportunities. Heavy Reading, 5(8), 2007.
Transcations on Industrial Electronics, 58(10):46134623, 2011. [61] J. Driesen and F. Katiraei. Design for distributed energy resources.
[36] R. Caldon, A. R. Patria, and R. Turri. Optimal control of a distribution IEEE Power & Energy Magazine, 6(3):3040, 2008.
system with a virtual power plant. Bulk Power System Dynamics and [62] J. Driesen, P. Vermeyen, and R. Belmans. Protection issues in mi-
Control Conference, pages 278284, 2004. crogrids with multiple distributed generation units. Power Conversion
[37] S. Caron and G. Kesidis. Incentive-based energy consumption schedul- Conference07, pages 646653, 2007.
ing algorithms for the smart grid. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages [63] R. Durrett and R. Durrett. Probability: Theory and examples. Cam-
391396, 2010. bridge University Press, 2010.
[38] A. Carta, N. Locci, and C. Muscas. GPS-based system for the [64] C. Efthymiou and G. Kalogridis. Smart grid privacy via anonymization
measurement of synchronized harmonic phasors. IEEE Transactions of smart metering data. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages 238243,
on Instrumentation and Measurement, 58(3):586593, 2009. 2010.
[39] J. Chen, W. Li, A. Lau, J. Cao, and K. Wang. Automated load curve [65] Electricity Networks Strategy Group. A smart grid routemap. 2010.
data cleansing in power system. IEEE Transcations on Smart Grid, [66] F. Y. Ettoumi, H. Sauvageot, and A. Adane. Statistical bivariate mod-
1(2):213221, 2010. elling of wind using first-orde markov chain and weibull distribution.
[40] L. Chen, N. Li, S. H. Low, and J. C. Doyle. Two market models for Renewable Energy, 28(11):17871802, 2003.
demand response in power networks. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages [67] European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CEN-
397402, 2010. ELEC). Smart Meters Coordination Group: Report of the second
[41] S. Chen, S. Song, L. Li, and J. Shen. Survey on smart grid technology meeting held on 2009-09-28 and approval of SM-CG work program
(in Chinese). Power System Technology, 33(8):17, April 2009. for EC submission. 2009.
[42] T. M. Chen. Survey of cyber security issues in smart grids. Cyber [68] European SmartGrids Technology Platform. Vision and strategy for
Security, Situation Management, and Impact Assessment II; and Visual Europes electricity networks of the future, http://www.smartgrids.eu/
Analytics for Homeland Defense and Security II (part of SPIE DSS documents/vision.pdf. 2006.
2010), pages 77090D177090D11, 2010. [69] X. Fang, D. Yang, and G. Xue. Online strategizing distributed
[43] X. Chen, H. Dinh, and B. Wang. Cascading failures in smart grid - renewable energy resource access in islanded microgrids. IEEE
benefits of distributed generation. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages Globecom11, 2011.
7378, 2010. [70] H. Farhangi. The path of the smart grid. IEEE Power and Energy
[44] M. Chertkov, F. Pan, and M. G. Stepanov. Predicting failures in power Magazine, 8(1):1828, 2010.
grids: The case of static overloads. IEEE Transcations on Smart Grid, [71] Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. Assessment of demand
2(1):162172, 2011. response and advanced metering. Staff Report, http://www.ferc.gov/
[45] H. S. Cho, T. Yamazaki, and M. Hahn. Aero: Extraction of users legal/staff-reports/2010-dr-report.pdf. 2010.
activities from electric power consumption data. IEEE Transcations [72] W. Feero, D. Dawson, and J. Stevens. Consortium for electric reliability
on Consumer Electronics, 56(3):20112018, 2010. technology solutions: Protection issues of the microgrid concept. http:
[46] Cisco Systems. Internet protocol architecture for the smart grid, //certs.lbl.gov/pdf/protection-mg.pdf.
white paper, http://www.cisco.com/web/strategy/docs/energy/CISCO [73] H. Ferreira, L. Lampe, J. Newbury, and T. Swart. Power line com-
IP INTEROP STDS PPR TO NIST WP.pdf. July 2009. munications: Theory and applications for narrowband and broadband
[47] E. H. Clarke. Multipart pricing of public goods. Public Choice, communications over power lines. John Wiley and Sons, 2010.
11(1):1733, 1971. [74] D. Forner, T. Erseghe, S. Tomasin, and P. Tenti. On efficient use
[48] K. Clement, E. Haesen, and J. Driesen. Coordinated charging of of local sources in smart grids with power quality constraints. IEEE
multiple plug-in hybrid electric vehicles in residential distribution grids. SmartGridComm10, pages 555560, 2010.
IEEE PSCE09, pages 17. [75] FutuRed. Spanish electrical grid platform, strategic vision document.
[49] K. Clement-Nyns, E. Haesen, and J. Driesen. The impact of charging 2009.
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles on a residential distribution grid. IEEE [76] S. Galli. A simplified model for the indoor power line channel.
Transactions on Power Systems, 25(1):371380, 2010. IEEE International Symposium on Power Line Communications and
[50] F. M. Cleveland. Cyber security issues for advanced metering infras- Its Applications, pages 1319, 2009.
tructure (AMI). IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting: [77] S. Galli, A. Scaglione, and K. Dosterl. Broadband is power: Internet
Conversion and Delivery of Electrical Energy in the 21st Century, access through the power line network. IEEE Communications Maga-
pages 15, 2008. zine, pages 8283, 2003.
[51] D. Coll-Mayor, M. Paget, and E. Lightner. Future intelligent power [78] S. Galli, A. Scaglione, and Z. Wang. Power line communications and
grids: Analysis of the vision in the European Union and the United the smart grid. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages 303308, 2010.
States. Energy Policy, pages 24532465, 2007. [79] F. D. Garcia and B. Jacobs. Privacy-friendly energy-metering via
[52] C. M. Colson and M. H. Nehrir. A review of challenges to real- homomorphic encryption, Techinical report. Radboud Universiteit
time power management of microgrids. IEEE Power & Energy Society Nijmegen, 2010.
General Meeting, pages 18, 2009. [80] H. Gharavi and R. Ghafurian. Smart grid: The electric energy system
[53] A. J. Conejo, J. M. Morales, and L. Baringo. Real-time demand of the future. Proceedings of the IEEE, 99(6):917 921, 2011.
response model. IEEE Transcations on Smart Grid, 1(3):236242, [81] H. Gharavi and B. Hu. Multigate communication network for smart
2010. grid. Proceedings of the IEEE, 99(6):1028 1045, 2011.
[54] F. J. C. Corripio, J. A. C. Arrabal, L. D. del Ro, and J. T. E. [82] A. Ghassemi, S. Bavarian, and L. Lampe. Cognitive radio for smart grid
Munoz. Analysis of the cyclic short-term variation of indoor power communications. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages 297302, 2010.
line channels. IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, [83] S. Ghosh, J. Kalagnanam, D. Katz, M. Squillante, X. Zhang, and
24(7):13271338, 2006. E. Feinberg. Incentive design for lowest cost aggregate energy demand
[55] G. Dan and H. Sandberg. Stealth attacks and protection schemes for reduction. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages 519524, 2010.
state estimators in power systems. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages [84] V. Giordano, F. Gangale, G. Fulli, M. S. Jimenez, I. Onyeji, A. Colta,
214219, 2010. I. Papaioannou, A. Mengolini, C. Alecu, T. Ojala, and I. Maschio.
[56] J. De La Ree, V. Centeno, J. S. Thorp, and A. G. Phadke. Synchronized Smart Grid projects in Europe: lessons learned and current develop-
phasor measurement applications in power systems. IEEE Transcations ments. JRC Reference Reports, Publications Office of the European
on Smart Grid, 1(1):2027, 2010. Union, 2011.
[57] U. D. Deep, B. R. Petersen, and J. Meng. A smart microcontroller- [85] T. Godfrey, S. Mullen, R. C. Dugan, C. Rodine, D. W. Griffith, and
based iridium satellite-communication architecture for a remote renew- N. Golmie. Modeling smart grid applications with co-simulation. IEEE
able energy source. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, 24(4):1869 SmartGridComm10, pages 291296, 2010.
1875, 2009. [86] S. Gormus, P. Kulkarni, and Z. Fan. The power of networking: How
[58] Department of Energy. http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/epm/ networking can help power management. IEEE SmartGridComm10,
table1 1.html. pages 561565, 2010.
[59] Department of Energy, Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Relia- [87] D. Gross and C. M. Harris. Fundamentals of queueing theory. Wiley
bility. Study of security attributes of smart grid systems - current cyber Series in Probability and Statistics, 1998.
[88] T. Groves. Incentives in teams. Econometrica, 41(4):617631, 1973. Magazine, 7(2):5262, 2009.
[89] X. Guan, Z. Xu, and Q.-S. Jia. Energy-efficient buildings facilitated [117] B. Jansen, C. Binding, O. Sundstrom, and D. Gantenbein. Architecture
by microgrid. IEEE Transcations on Smart Grid, 1(3):243252, 2010. and communication of an electric vehicle virtual power plant. IEEE
[90] V. C. Gungor and F. C. Lambert. A survey on communication networks SmartGridComm10, pages 149154, 2010.
for electric system automation. Computer Networks, 50(7):877897, [118] Japan. Japans roadmap to international standardization for smart grid
2006. and collaborations with other countries. 2010.
[91] V. C. Gungor, B. Lu, and G. P. Hancke. Opportunities and challenges [119] T. Jin and M. Mechehoul. Ordering electricity via Internet and its
of wireless sensor networks in smart grid. IEEE Transcations on potentials for smart grid systems. IEEE Transcations on Smart Grid,
Industrial Electronics, 57(10):35573564, 2010. 1(3):302310, 2010.
[92] S. W. Hadley and A. A. Tsvetkova. Potential impacts of plug-in hybrid [120] M. G. Kallitsis, G. Michailidis, and M. Devetsikiotis. A framework for
electric vehicles on regional power generation. Electricity Journal, optimizing measurement-based power distribution under communica-
22(10):5668, 2009. tion network constraints. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages 185190,
[93] A. Hajimiragha, C. A. Canizares, M. W. Fowler, and A. Elkamel. 2010.
Optimal transition to plug-in hybrid electric vehicles in Ontario, [121] G. Kalogridis, C. Efthymiou, S. Z. Denic, T. A. Lewis, and R. Cepeda.
Canada, considering the electricity-grid limitations. IEEE Transactions Privacy for smart meters: Towards undetectable appliance load signa-
on Industrial Electronics, 57(2):690701, 2010. tures. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages 232237, 2010.
[94] J. Han and M. Piette. Solutions for summer electric power shortages: [122] S. M. Kaplan and F. Sissine. Smart grid: Modernizing electric
Demand response and its applications in air conditioning and refrig- power transmission and distribution; energy independence, storage and
eration systems. Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Electric Power security; energy independence and security act and resiliency; integra
Machinery, 29(1):14, 2008. (government series). 2009.
[95] S. Han, S. Han, and K. Sezaki. Development of an optimal vehicle-to- [123] W. Kempton and S. E. Letendre. Electric vehicles as a new power
grid aggregator for frequency regulation. IEEE Transcations on Smart source for electric utilities. Transp. Res. D, 2(3):157175, 1997.
Grid, 1(1):6572, 2010. [124] W. Kempton and J. Tomic. Vehicle-to-grid power fundamentals:
[96] D. G. Hart. Using AMI to realize the smart grid. IEEE Power and Calculating capacity and net revenue. Journal of Power Sources,
Energy Society General Meeting 2008 - Conversion and Delivery of 144(1):268279, 2005.
Electrical Energy in the 21st Century, pages 12, 2008. [125] W. Kempton and J. Tomic. Vehicle-to-grid power implementation:
[97] R. Hassan and G. Radman. Survey on smart grid. IEEE SoutheastCon From stabilizing the grid to supporting large-scale renewable energy.
2010, pages 210213, 2010. Journal of Power Sources, 144(1):280294, 2005.
[98] S. Hatami and M. Pedram. Minimizing the electricity bill of cooper- [126] W. Kempton, J. Tomic, S. Letendre, A. Brooks, and T. Lipman. Vehicle-
ative users under a quasi-dynamic pricing model. IEEE SmartGrid- to-grid power: Battery, hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles as resources for
Comm10, pages 421426, 2010. distributed electric power in California. Prepared for California Air
[99] B. Hayes. Cloud computing. Communications of the ACM, 51(7):911, Resources Board and the California Environmental Protection Agency,
2008. 2001.
[100] M. He, S. Murugesan, and J. Zhang. Multiple timescale dispatch and [127] W. Kempton, V. Udo, K. Huber, K. Komara, S. Letendre, S. Baker,
scheduling for stochastic reliability in smart grids with wind generation D. Brunner, and N. Pearre. A test of vehicle-to-grid (V2G) for energy
integration. IEEE INFOCOM Mini-conference, pages 461465, 2011. storage and frequency regulation in the PJM system. Mid-Atlantic Grid
[101] M. He and J. Zhang. Fault detection and localization in smart grid: A Interactive Cars Consortium, 2009.
probabilistic dependence graph approach. IEEE SmartGridComm10, [128] H. Khurana, R. Bobba, T. Yardley, P. Agarwal, and E. Heine. Design
pages 4348, 2010. principles for power grid cyber-infrastructure authentication protocols.
[102] C. Hochgraf, R. Tripathi, and S. Herzberg. Smart grid charger Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, pages 110,
for electric vehicles using existing cellular networks and sms text 2010.
messages. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages 167172, 2010. [129] Y.-J. Kim, M. Thottan, V. Kolesnikov, and W. Lee. A secure decen-
[103] H. Holma and A. Toskala. WCDMA for UMTS: Radio access for third tralized data-centric information infrastructure for smart grid. IEEE
generation mobile communications, third edition. John Wiley & Sons, Communications Magazine, 48(11):5865, 2010.
Ltd, Chichester, UK, 2005. [130] S. Kishore and L. V. Snyder. Control mechanisms for residential
[104] Y. Hu and V. Li. Satellite-based Internet: a tutorial. IEEE Communi- electricity demand in smartgrids. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages
cations Magazine, 39(3):154162, 2001. 443448, 2010.
[105] S. Y. Hui and K. H. Yeung. Challenges in the migration to 4G mobile [131] C. Konate, A. Kosonen, J. Ahola, M. Machmoum, and J. F. Diouris.
systems. IEEE Communications Magazine, 41(12):5459, 2003. Power line channel modelling for industrial application. IEEE Inter-
[106] K. Hung, W. Lee, V. Li, K. Lui, P. Pong, K. Wong, G. Yang, national Symposium on Power Line Communications and Its Applica-
and J. Zhong. On wireless sensors communication for overhead tions08, pages 7681, 2008.
transmission line monitoring in power delivery systems. IEEE Smart- [132] B. Kroposki, R. Margolis, G. Kuswa, J. Torres, W. Bower, T. Key,
GridComm10, pages 309314, 2010. and D. Ton. Renewable systems interconnection: Executive summary.
[107] C. Hutson, G. K. Venayagamoorthy, and K. A. Corzine. Intelligent Technical Report NREL/TP-581-42292, U.S. Department of Energy,
scheduling of hybrid and electric vehicle storage capacity in a parking 2008.
lot for profit maximization in grid power transactions. IEEE En- [133] H. J. Laaksonen. Protection principles for future microgrids. IEEE
ergy2030, pages 18, 2008. Transcations on Power Electronics, 25(12):29102918, 2010.
[108] C. Ibars, M. Navarro, and L. Giupponi. Distributed demand manage- [134] R. Lasseter and J. Eto. Value and technology assessment to en-
ment in smart grid with a congestion game. IEEE SmartGridComm10, hance the business case for the certs microgrid, http://certs.lbl.gov/pdf/
pages 495500, 2010. microgrid-final.pdf. 2010.
[109] IEEE. P2030/D7.0 draft guide for Smart Grid interoperability of energy [135] R. H. Lasseter. Smart distribution: Coupled microgrids. Proceedings
technology and information technology operation with the electric of the IEEE, 99(6):10741082, 2011.
power system (EPS), and end-use applications and loads. 2011. [136] R. H. Lasseter and P. Paigi. Microgrid: A conceptual solution.
[110] IEEE Power Engineering Society. IEEE standard for synchrophasors PESC04, pages 42854290, 2004.
for power systems, IEEE Std C37.118-2005. [137] D. M. Laverty, D. J. Morrow, R. J. Best, and P. A. Crossley. Differential
[111] B. Initiativ. Internet of energy - ICT for energy mar- rocof relay for loss-of-mains protection of renewable generation using
kets of the future, http://www.bdi.eu/bdi english/download content/ phasor measurement over internet protocol. 2009 CIGRE/IEEE PES
Marketing/Brochure Internet of Energy.pdf. 2008. Joint Symposium on Integration of Wide-Scale Renewable Resources
[112] IntelliGrid. http://intelligrid.epri.com/. Into the Power Delivery System, pages 17, 2009.
[113] International Council on Large Electric Systems (CIGRE). CIGRE [138] Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. CERTS microgrid laboratory
D2.24 EMS architectures for the 21st century. 2009. test bed, http://certs.lbl.gov/pdf/certs-mgtb-app-o.pdf.
[114] International Energy Agency. Distributed generation in liberalised [139] R. Leon, V. Vittal, and G. Manimaran. Application of sensor network
electricity markets 2002. for secure electric energy infrastructure. IEEE Transactions on Power
[115] A. Ipakchi. Implementing the smart grid: Enteriprise information inte- Delievery, 22(2):10211028, 2007.
gration. GridWise Grid-Interop Forum, pages 121.1221 121.1227, [140] F. Li, B. Luo, and P. Liu. Secure information aggregation for smart
2007. grids using homomorphic encryption. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages
[116] A. Ipakchi and F. Albuyeh. Grid of the future. IEEE Power and Energy 327332, 2010.
[141] F. Li, W. Qiao, H. Sun, H. Wan, J. Wang, Y. Xia, Z. Xu, and P. Zhang. [168] J. Mitra, S. B. Patra, and S. J. Ranade. Reliability stipulated microgrid
Smart transmission grid: Vision and framework. IEEE Transcations on architecture using particle swarm optimization. 9th International
Smart Grid, 1(2):168177, 2010. Conference on Probabilistic Methods Applied to Power System, pages
[142] H. Li, L. Lai, and R. C. Qiu. Communication capacity requirement for 17, 2006.
reliable and secure state estimation in smart grid. IEEE SmartGrid- [169] S. Mohagheghi, J. Stoupis, Z. Wang, Z. Li, and H. Kazemzadeh.
Comm10, pages 191196, 2010. Demand response architecture: Integration into the distribution man-
[143] H. Li, R. Mao, L. Lai, and R. C. Qiu. Compressed meter reading agement system. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages 501506, 2010.
for delay-sensitive and secure load report in smart grid. IEEE [170] A.-H. Mohsenian-Rad and A. Leon-Garcia. Optimal residential load
SmartGridComm10, pages 114119, 2010. control with price prediction in real-time electricity pricing environ-
[144] H. Li and W. Zhang. Qos routing in smart grid. IEEE Globecom10, ments. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 1(2):120133, 2010.
pages 16, 2010. [171] A.-H. Mohsenian-Rad, V. W. S. Wong, J. Jatskevich, R. Schober, and
[145] J. Li, C.-C. Liu, and K. P. Schneider. Controlled partitioning of a A. Leon-Garcia. Autonomous demand-side management based on
power network considering real and reactive power balance. IEEE game-theoretic energy consumption scheduling for the future smart
Transcations on Smart Grid, 1(3):261269, 2010. grid. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 1(3):320331, 2010.
[146] E. M. Lightner and S. E. Widergren. An orderly transition to a [172] A. Molderink, V. Bakker, M. G. C. Bosman, J. L. Hurink, and G. J. M.
transformed electricity system. IEEE Transcations on Smart Grid, Smit. Management and control of domestic smart grid technology.
1(1):310, 2010. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 1(2):109119, 2010.
[147] M. A. Lisovich and S. B. Wicker. Privacy concerns in upcoming [173] K. Moslehi and R. Kumar. A reliability perspective of the smart grid.
residential and commercial demand-response systems. the TRUST 2008 IEEE Transcations on Smart Grid, 1(1):5764, 2010.
Spring Conference, 2008. [174] M. Mouly and M.-B. Pautet. The GSM system for mobile communi-
[148] S. Little. Is microwave backhaul up to the 4G task. IEEE microwave cations. Telecom Publishing, 1992.
magazine, 10(5):6774, 2009. [175] J. Mur-Amada and A. A. Bayod-Rujula. Wind power variability
[149] W. Liu, H. Widmer, and P. Raffin. Broadband PLC access systems and model part II - probabilistic power flow. 9th International Conference
field deployment in European power line networks. IEEE Communi- Electrical Power Quality and Utilisation, 2007.
cations Magazine, 41(5):114118, 2003. [176] National Communications System. Technical Information Bulletin 04-
[150] X. Liu. Economic load dispatch constrained by wind power availability: 1, Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems. 2004.
A wait-and-see approach. IEEE Transcations on Smart Grid, 1(3):347 [177] National Institute of Standards and Technology. NIST framework
355, 2010. and roadmap for smart grid interoperability standards, release
[151] X. Liu and W. Xu. Minimum emission dispatch constrained by 1.0, http://www.nist.gov/public affairs/releases/upload/smartgrid
stochastic wind power availability and cost. IEEE Transcations on interoperability final.pdf. January 2010.
Power Systems, 25(3):17051713, 2010. [178] M. J. Neely, A. S. Tehrani, and A. G. Dimakis. Efficient algorithms
[152] Y. Liu, P. Ning, and M. Reiter. False data injection attacks against state for renewable energy allocation to delay tolerant consumers. IEEE
estimation in electric power grids. ACM CCS, pages 2132, 2009. SmartGridComm10, pages 549554, 2010.
[153] F. Lobo, A. Cabello, A. Lopez, D. Mora, and R. Mora. Distribution [179] H. Nikkhajoei and R. H. Lasseter. Microgrid protection. IEEE Power
network as communication system. SmartGrids for Distribution, Engineering Society General Meeting07, pages 16, 2007.
CIRED Seminar, pages 14, 2008. [180] J. Ning, J. Wang, W. Gao, and C. Liu. A wavelet-based data
[154] F. Lobo, A. Lopez, A. Cabello, D. Mora, R. Mora, F. Carmona, compression technique for smart grid. IEEE Transcations on Smart
J. Moreno, D. Roman, A. Sendin, and I. Berganza. How to design Grid, 2(1):212218, 2011.
a communication network over distribution networks. 20th Internal [181] D. Niyato, E. Hossain, and A. Fallahi. Sleep and wakeup strategies
Conference and Exhibition on Electricity Distribution, pages 14, 2009. in solar-powered wireless sensor/mesh networks: Performance analysis
[155] P. Lombardi, M. Powalko, and K. Rudion. Optimal operation of a and optimization. IEEE Transaction on Mobile Computing, 6(2):221
virtual power plant. IEEE Power & Energy Society General Meeting, 236, 2007.
pages 16, 2009. [182] North Amercian Electric Reliablity Corporation. http://www.nerc.com/
[156] B. Lu, T. G. Habetler, R. G. Harley, and J. A. Gutierrez. Apply- ?lez/blackout.html.
ing wireless sensor networks in industrial plant energy management [183] North American SynchroPhasor Initiative, Performance and Standard
systems-part I: A closed-loop scheme. IEEE Sensors, pages 145150, Task Team. A guide for PMU installation, commissioning and
2005. maintenance, Part II, PMU installation procedures. 2007.
[157] B. Lu, T. G. Habetler, R. G. Harley, J. A. Gutierrez, and D. B. Durocher. [184] R. F. Nuqui. State estimation and voltage security monitoring using
Energy evaluation goes wireless. IEEE Industrial Applications Maga- synchronized phasor measurements. Doctor of Philosophy Dissertation,
zine, 13(2):1723, 2007. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
[158] Z. Lu, X. Lu, W. Wang, and C. Wang. Review and evaluation of [185] L. F. Ochoa and G. P. Harrison. Minimizing energy losses: Optimal ac-
security threats on the communication networks in the smart grid. commodation and smart operation of renewable distributed generation.
Military Communications Conference2010, pages 18301835, 2010. IEEE Transcations on Power Systems, 26(1):198205, 2011.
[159] H. Lund and W. Kempton. Integration of renewable energy into [186] U. of Delaware. V2G techonolgy: http://www.udel.edu/V2G/.
the transport and electricity sectors through V2G. Energy Policy, [187] OFFIS, SCC Consulting, and MPC management coaching. Unter-
36(9):35783587, 2008. suchung des Normungsumfeldes zum BMWi-Foerderschwerpunkt
[160] J. Ma, P. Zhang, H. Fu, B. Bo, and Z. Dong. Application of phasor E-Energy - IKT-basiertes Energiesystem der Zukunft,
measurement unit on locating disturbance source for low-frequency http://www.e-energy.de/documents/Zusammenfassung-2009-02-23
oscillation. IEEE Transcation on Smart Grid, 1(3):340346, 2010. Untersuchung des Normungs- und Standardisierungsumfeldes
[161] X. Ma, H. Li, and S. Djouadi. Networked system state estimation in E-Energy(1).pdf. 2009.
smart grid over cognitive radio infrastructures. 45th Annual Conference [188] D. ONeill, M. Levorato, A. Goldsmith, and U. Mitra. Residential
on Information Sciences and Systems (CISS), pages 15, 2011. demand response using reinforcement learning. IEEE SmartGrid-
[162] P. McDaniel and S. McLaughlin. Security and privacy challenges in Comm10, pages 409414, 2010.
the smart grid. IEEE Security & Privacy, 7(3):7577, 2009. [189] T. M. Overman and R. W. Sackman. High assurance smart grid: Smart
[163] M. McGranaghan and F. Goodman. Technical and system requirements grid control systems communications architecture. IEEE SmartGrid-
for advanced distribution automation. 18th International Conference Comm10, pages 1924, 2010.
and Exhibition on Electricity Distribution, pages 15, 2005. [190] Pacific Gas and Electric Companys SmartMeter Program. http://www.
[164] S. McLaughlin, D. Podkuiko, and P. McDaniel. Energy theft in the ad- pge.com/smartmeter/.
vanced metering infrastructure. 4th Workshop on Critical Information [191] Pacific Northwest Smart Grid Demonstration Project. http://www.
Infrastructures Security, pages 176187, 2009. pnwsmartgrid.org/.
[165] H. Meng, S. Chen, Y. L. Guan, C. L. Law, P. L. So, E. Gunawan, and [192] F. Pan, R. Bent, A. Berscheid, and D. Izraelevitz. Locating PHEV
T. T. Lie. Modeling of transfer characteristics for the broadband power exchange stations in V2G. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages 173178,
line communication channel. IEEE Transactions on Power Delievery, 2010.
19(3):10571064, 2004. [193] P. P. Parikh, M. G. Kanabar, and T. S. Sidhu. Opportunities and
[166] A. R. Metke and R. L. Ekl. Security technology for smart grid challenges of wireless communication technologies for smart grid
networks. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 1(1):99107, 2010. applications. IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meeting10,
[167] Microsoft. Smart energy reference architecture SERA. 2009. pages 17, 2010.
[194] M. Parvania and M. Fotuhi-Firuzabad. Demand response scheduling [220] P. Samadi, A.-H. Mohsenian-Rad, R. Schober, V. W. Wong, and
by stochastic SCUC. IEEE Transcations on Smart Grid, 1(1):8998, J. Jatskevich. Optimal real-time pricing algorithm based on utility
2010. maximization for smart grid. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages 415
[195] N. Pavlidou, A. H. Vinck, J. Yazdani, and B. Honary. Power line com- 420, 2010.
munications: state of the art and future trends. IEEE Communications [221] O. Samuelsson, M. Hemmingsson, A. H. Nielsen, K. O. H. Pedersen,
Magazine, 41(4):3440, 2003. and J. Rasmussen. Monitoring of power system events at transmis-
[196] A. G. Phadke and J. S. Thorp. Synchronized phasor measurements and sion and distribution level. IEEE Transactions on Power System,
their applications. New York: Springer, 2008. 21(2):10071008, 2006.
[197] A. G. Phadke, J. S. Thorp, and M. G. A. Adamiak. A new measurement [222] H. Sandberg, A. Teixeira, and K. H. Johansson. On security indices
technique for tracking voltage phasors, local system frequency, and rate for state estimators in power networks. the First Workshop on Secure
of change of frequency. IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Control Systems, 2010.
Systems, PAS-102(5):10251038, 1983. [223] T. Sauter and M. Lobashov. End-to-end communication architecture for
[198] C. W. Potter, A. Archambault, and K. Westric. Building a smarter smart smart grids. IEEE Transcations on Industrial Electronics, 58(4):1218
grid through better renewable energy information. IEEE PSCE09, 1228, 2011.
pages 15, 2009. [224] K. Schneider, C. Gerkensmeyer, M. Kintner-Meyer, and R. Fletcher.
[199] M. Powalko, K. Rudion, P. Komarnicki, and J. Blumschein. Observ- Impact assessment of plug-in hybrid vehicles on pacific northwest
ability of the distribution system. 20th International Conference and distribution systems. Power & Energy Society General Meeting, pages
Exhibition on Electricity Distribution, pages 14, 2009. 16, 2008.
[200] R. G. Pratt. Transforming the U.S. electric system. IEEE PES Power [225] Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-city. http://www.eco-city.gov.cn.
System Conference and Exhibition04, pages 16511654, 2004. [226] Smart Grid Information Clearinghouse. http://www.sgiclearinghouse.
[201] PSCAD. https://pscad.com/success stories/resear/simulation of org.
electrical power supply performance using pscad. [227] SMB Smart Grid Strategic Group (SG3). IEC smart grid standardiza-
[202] R. C. Qiu, Z. Chen, N. Guo, Y. Song, P. Zhang, H. Li, and L. Lai. tion roadmap. 2010.
Towards a real-time cognitive radio network testbed: Architecture, [228] E. Sortomme, M. M. Hindi, S. D. J. MacPherson, and S. S. Venkata.
hardware platform, and application to smart grid. Fifth IEEE Work- Coordinated charging of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles to minimize
shop on Networking Technologies for Software Defined Radio (SDR) distribution system losses. IEEE Transcations on Smart Grid, 2(1):198
Networks, pages 16, 2010. 205, 2011.
[203] R. C. Qiu, Z. Hu, Z. Chen, N. Guo, R. Ranganathan, S. Hou, and [229] E. Sortomme, S. S. Venkata, and J. Mitra. Microgrid protection using
G. Zheng. Cognitive radio network for the smart grid: Experimental communication-assisted digital relays. IEEE Transcations on Power
system architecture, control algorithms, security, and microgrid testbed. Delivery, 25(4):27892796, 2010.
IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid (to appear), 2011. [230] T. Soubdhan, R. Emilion, and R. Calif. Classification of daily solar
[204] F. Rahimi and A. Ipakchi. Demand response as a market resource radiation distributions using a mixture of Dirichlet distributions. Solar
under the smart grid paradigm. IEEE Transcations on Smart Grid, Energy, 83(7):10561063, 2009.
1(1):8288, 2010. [231] M. Souryal, C. Gentile, D. Griffith, D. Cypher, and N. Golmie. A
[205] S. Rahman, M. Pipattanasomporn, and Y. Teklu. Intelligent distributed methodology to evaluate wireless technologies for the smart grid. IEEE
autonomous power systems (IDAPS). IEEE Power Engineering Society SmartGridComm10, pages 356361, 2010.
General Meeting07, pages 18, 2007. [232] A. A. Sreesha, S. Somal, and I.-T. Lu. Cognitive radio based wireless
[206] B. Ramachandran, S. K.Srivastava, C. S. Edrington, and D. A. Cartes. sensor network architecture for smart grid utility. 2011 IEEE Long
An intelligent auction scheme for smart grid market using a hybrid Island Systems, Applications and Technology Conference (LISAT),
immune algorithm. IEEE Transcations on Industrial Electronics, pages 17, 2011.
58(10):46034612, 2011. [233] State Grid Corporation of China. SGCC framework and roadmap for
[207] A. Rial and G. Danezis. Privacy-preserving smart metering, http:// strong and smart grid standards, whitepaper. 2010.
research.microsoft.com/pubs/141726/main.pdf. [234] T. Takuno, T. Hikihara, T. Tsuno, and S. Hatsukawa. HF gate drive
[208] D. W. Rieken and M. R. Walker. Ultra low frequency power-line circuit for a normally-on SiC JFET with inherent safety. 13th European
communications using a resonator circuit. IEEE Transcations on Smart Conference on Power Electronics and Applications (EPE2009), pages
Grid, 2(1):4150, 2011. 14, 2009.
[209] Roadmap Smart Grids Austria. Der Weg in die Zukunft der elektrischen [235] T. Takuno, M. Koyama, and T. Hikihara. In-home power distribution
Stromnetze, version prepared for the smart grids week salzburg. 2009. systems by circuit switching and power packet dispatching. IEEE
[210] C. Roe, F. Evangelos, J. Meisel, A. P. Meliopoulos, and T. Overbye. SmartGridComm10, pages 427430, 2010.
Power system level impacts of PHEVs. 42nd Hawaii International [236] J. Taneja, D. Culler, and P. Dutta. Towards cooperative grids: Sen-
Conference on System Sciences, pages 110, 2009. sor/actuator networks for renewables integration. IEEE SmartGrid-
[211] S. Rohjansand, M. Uslar, R. Bleiker, J. Gonzalez, M. Specht, T. Suding, Comm10, pages 531536, 2010.
and T. Weidelt. Survey of smart grid standardization studies and [237] J. Tate and T. Overbye. Line outage detection using phasor angle
recommendations. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages 583587, 2010. measurements. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 23(4):1644
[212] J. Roncero. Integration is key to smart grid management. IET-CIRED 1652, 2008.
Seminar 2008: SmartGrids for Distribution, pages 14, 2008. [238] J. Tate and T. Overbye. Double line outage detection using phasor angle
[213] M. Roozbehani, M. Dahleh, and S. Mitter. Dynamic pricing and measurements. IEEE Power & Energy Society General Meeting09,
stabilization of supply and demand in modern electric power grids. pages 15, 2009.
IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages 543548, 2010. [239] The Congress of the United States. Energy Independence and Security
[214] F. Rubinstein, D. Neils, and N. Colak. Daylighting, dimming, and Act of 2007, an Act of the Congress of the United States of America
the electricity crisis in California. IESNA National Conference, pages Publ. L. No. 110-140, H.R. 6. December 2007.
114, 2001. [240] The Congress of the United States. American Recovery and Reinvest-
[215] S. Rusitschka, K. Eger, and C. Gerdes. Smart grid data cloud: A ment Act of 2009, an Act of the Congress of the United States of
model for utilizing cloud computing in the smart grid domain. IEEE America Publ. L. No. 111-5. Feburary 2009.
SmartGridComm10, pages 483488, 2010. [241] The Smart Grid Interoperability Panel - Cyber Security Working Group.
[216] B. D. Russell and C. L. Benner. Intelligent systems for improved relia- Guidelines for Smart Grid cyber security: Vol. 1, Smart Grid cyber
bility and failure diagnosis in distribution systems. IEEE Transcations security strategy, architecture, and high-level requirements. NISTIR
on Smart Grid, 1(1):4856, 2010. 7628.
[217] A. Y. Saber and G. K. Venayagamoorthy. Unit commitment with [242] A. Tisot. Rio grande electric monitors remote energy assets via satellite.
vehicle-to-grid using particle swarm optimization. IEEE Bucharest Utility Automation & Engineering T&D Magazine, 2004.
Power Tech Conference, pages 18, 2009. [243] J. Tlusty, A. Kasembe, Z. Muller, J. Svec, T. Sykora, A. Popelka, E. V.
[218] A. Y. Saber and G. K. Venayagamoorthy. Plug-in vehicles and Mgaya, and O. Diallo. The monitoring of power system events on trans-
renewable energy sources for cost and emission reductions. IEEE mission and distribution level by the use of phasor measurements units
Transcations on Industrial Electronics, 58(4):12291238, 2011. (PMU). 20th International Conference and Exhibition on Electricity
[219] D. Salomonsson, L. Soder, and A. Sannino. Protection of low-voltage Distribution, pages 14, 2009.
dc microgrids. IEEE Transcations on Power Delivery, 24(3):1045 [244] J. Tomic and W. Kempton. Using fleets of electric-drive vehicles for
1053, 2009. grid support. Journal of Power Sources, 168(2):459468, 2007.
[245] L. H. Tsoukalas and R. Gao. From smart grids to an energy Internet: [273] M. Zimmermann and K. Dostert. Analysis and modeling of impulsive
Assumptions, architectures and requirements. DRPT 2008, pages 94 noise in broad-band powerline communications. IEEE Transactions on
98, 2008. Electromagnetic Compatibility, 44(1):249258, 2002.
[246] R. M. Tumilty, I. M. Elders, G. M. Burt, and J. R. McDonald.
Coordinated protection, control & automation schemes for microgrids.
Interational Journal of Distributed Energy Resources, 3(3):225241, A PPENDIX A
2007. A BBREVIATIONS
[247] M. Uslar, S. Rohjansand, R. Bleiker, J. Gonzalez, M. Specht, T. Suding,
and T. Weidelt. Survey of smart grid standardization studies and
recommendations - part 2. IEEE PES10, pages 16, 2010. TABLE III: Abbreviations
[248] M. Vaiman, M. Vaiman, S. Maslennikov, E. Litvinov, and X. Luo.
Calculation and visualization of power system stability margin based 3G or 4G 3rd or 4th generation mobile telecommunications
on PMU measurements. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages 3136, 2010. AC Alternating current
[249] T. L. Vandoorn, B. Renders, L. Degroote, B. Meersman, and L. Van- AP Access point
develde. Active load control in islanded microgrids based on the grid DC Direct current
voltage. IEEE Transcations on Smart Grid, 2(1):139151, 2011. AMI Advanced metering infrastructure
[250] D. P. Varodayan and G. X. Gao. Redundant metering for integrity with AMR Automatic meter reading
information-theoretic confidentiality. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages DER Distributed energy resource
345349, 2010. DG Distributed generation
[251] J. Vasconcelos. Survey of regulatory and technological developments DOE Department of energy
concerning smart metering in the European Union electricity market, DoS Denial-of-service
http://cadmus.eui.eu/handle/1814/9267. EUI RSCAS PP, 2008. EV Electric vehicles
[252] V. Venkatasubramanian, H. Schattler, and J. Zaborszky. Fast timevary- FNET Frequency monitoring network
ing phasor analysis in the balanced three-phase large electric power G2V Grid-to-vehicle
system. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, 40(11):19751982, GPS Global positioning system
1995. GSM Global system for mobile communications
[253] W. Vickrey. Counterspeculation, auctions, and competitive sealed IEEE Institute of electrical and electronics engineers
tenders. The Journal of Finance, 16(1):837, 1961. IETF Internet engineering task force
[254] W. Wang, Y. Xu, and M. Khanna. A survey on the communication IP Internet protocol
architectures in smart grid. Computer Networks, 55:36043629, 2011. NIST National institute of standards and technology
[255] Y. Wang, W. Li, and J. Lu. Reliability analysis of wide-area measure-
PHEV Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
ment system. IEEE Transcations on Power Delivery, 25(3):14831491,
PLC Powerline communications
2010.
PMU Phasor measurement unit
[256] Y. Wang, W. Lin, and T. Zhang. Study on security of wireless sensor
networks in smart grid. 2010 International Conference on Power QoS Quality of service
System Technology, pages 17, 2010. RF Radio frequency
[257] Z. Wang, A. Scaglione, and R. J. Thomas. Compressing electrical SCADA Supervisory control and data acquisition
power grids. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages 1318, 2010. SEP Smart energy profile
[258] WINMEC, UCLA. WINSmartEV - Electric Vehicle (EV) Integration SG Smart grid
into Smart Grid with UCLA WINSmartGrid Technology, http://www. SMS Short message service
winmec.ucla.edu/ev.asp. TCP Transmission control protocol
[259] WWF. The energy report, http://wwf.panda.org/what we do/ V2G Vehicle-to-grid
footprint/climate carbon energy/energy solutions/renewable energy/ VCG Vickrey-Clarke-Groves
sustainable energy report/. 2010. VPP Virtual power plant
[260] Xcel Energy. SmartGridCity, http://www.xcelenergy.com/smartgridcity. WCDMA Wideband code division multiple access
[261] L. Xie, Y. Mo, and B. Sinopoli. False data injection attacks in electricity CDMA-2000 Code division multiple access 2000
markets. IEEE SmartGridComm10, pages 226231, 2010. UML Unified modeling language
[262] W. Xu and W. Wang. Power electronic signaling technology-a new WAMS Wide-area measurement system
class of power electronics applications. IEEE Transcations on Smart WMN Wireless mesh network
Grid, 1(3):332339, 2010. WSN Wireless sensor network
[263] S. C. Yang. 3G CDMA2000 wireless system engineering. Artech XML Extensible markup language
House Publishers, 2004.
[264] P. Yi, A. Iwayemi, and C. Zhou. Developing ZigBee deployment
guideline under WiFi interference for smart grid applications. IEEE
Transcations on Smart Grid, 2(1):110120, 2011.
[265] S. You, C. Trholt, and B. Poulsen. A market-based virtual power A PPENDIX B
plant. IEEE ICCEP, pages 460465. S MART G RID P ROJECTS /P ROGRAMS /T RIALS
[266] S. You, C. Trholt, and B. Poulsen. Generic virtual power plants:
Management of distributed energy resources under liberalized electric-
ity market. the 8th International Conference on Advances in Power
System Control, Operation and Management, pages 16, 2009.
[267] Y. Yu and W. Luan. Smart grid and its implementations (in Chinese).
CSEE, 29(34):18, 2009.
[268] Y. Yuan, Z. Li, and K. Ren. Modeling load redistribution attacks in
power systems. IEEE Transaction on Smart Grid, 2(2):382390, 2011.
[269] H. Zareipour, K. Bhattacharya, and C. Canizares. Distributed genera-
tion: Current status and challenges. NAPS04, pages 18, 2004.
[270] P. Zhang, F. Li, and N. Bhatt. Next-generation monitoring, analysis,
and control for the future smart control center. IEEE Transcations on
Smart Grid, 1(2):186192, 2010.
[271] Y. Zhang, P. Markham, T. Xia, L. Chen, Y. Ye, Z. Wu, Z. Yuan,
L. Wang, J. Bank, J. Burgett, R. W. Conners, and Y. Liu. Wide-area
frequency monitoring network (FNET) architecture and applications.
IEEE Transcations on Smart Grid, 1(2):159167, 2010.
[272] J. Zhu and A. Abur. Improvements in network parameter error
identification via synchronized phasors. IEEE Transactions on Power
Systems, 25(1):4450, 2010.
TABLE IV: A Summary of Major Projects/Programs/Trials

Project/Program Name Organization *Country Period Brief Description of Project/Program/Trial Project/Program
/Trial Category
1 Acea Distribuzione Acea IT From The implementation of the integrated advanced me- Smart meter and
Smart Metering in Distribuzione 2004 tering management system began in 2004 with the AMI
Rome [226] objective of improving energy efficiency in Italys cap-
ital. The system includes high accuracy bi-directional
meters and smart grid applications such as network
operation control, and the ability to monitor low and
medium voltage line status automatically.
2 American Transmission American US 2010- It aims at building a fiber optics communications Transmission grid
Companys Phasor Transmission 2012 network for high-speed communications to maximize
Measurement Unit Company the full capability of phasor measurement networks
Project [5] across American Transmission Companys transmis-
sion system.
3 Austin Energy Smart Austin Energy US From Smart Grid 1.0 deployment started in 2003. It is the Integrated system
Grid [13] 2003 first fully operational SG deployment in the U.S. Smart
Grid 2.0 deployment started in 2008. It offers improved
customer services, including: 1) by phone or online
real-time meter reads, 2) web-based management of
smart consumer appliances, and 3) remote service turn-
on and shut-off.
4 CERTS Microgrid Test American US From It aims at enhancing the ease of integrating small Integrated system
Bed Demonstration Electric Power 2006 energy sources into a microgrid. and microgrid
[134, 138]
5 DLC+VIT4IP [84] Kema Neder- DE, AT, UK, 2010- It aims at developing, verifying, and testing a high- Communication
land BV NL, IT, BE, 2013 speed narrow-band power line communications in- and information
IL frastructure using the Internet Protocol (IP) which is systems
capable of supporting existing and extending new and
multiple communication applications.
6 EU-DEEP[84] GDF Suez FR, GR, UK, 2004- It brings together eight European energy utilities and Integrated system
DE, BE, ES, 2009 aims at removing most of the technical and non- and distributed re-
SE, PL, LV, technical barriers that prevent a massive deployment sources
AT, HU, IT, of distributed energy resources in Europe.
FI, CY, CZ,
TR
7 Fenix [84] Iberdrola Dis- ES, UK, Sl, 2005- It aims at boosting distributed energy resources by Integrated system
tribucion AT, DE, NL, 2009 maximizing their contribution to the electric power and virtual power
FR, RO system, through aggregation into large scale virtual plants
power plants and decentralized management.
8 Grid4EU[84] ERDF DE, SE, ES, 2011- It is led by a group of European distribution system Integrated system
IT, CZ, FR 2015 operators and aims at testing in real size some in-
novative system concepts and technologies in order
to highlight and help to remove some of the barriers
to the SG deployment (technical, economic, societal,
environmental or regulatory).
9 INOVGRID [84] EDP Distribu- PT 2007- It aims at replacing the current low voltage meters Integrated system
cao SA 2011 with electronic devices called Energy Boxes, using and home applica-
Automated Meter Management standards. tion
10 IntelliGrid[30, 112] Electric Power US From It aims at creating a new electric power delivery infras- Other
Research Insti- 2001 tructure that integrates advances in communications,
tute computing, and electronics to meet the energy needs
of the future. At present, the IntelliGrid portfolio is
composed of five main projects: IntelliGrid architec-
ture, fast simulation and modeling, communications
for distributed energy resources, consumer portal, and
advanced monitoring systems.
11 Large-scale demonstra- ChoosEV A/S DK 2011- Its main investigation is whether it is possible to Smart meter and
tion of charging of elec- 2013 move the charging of electric vehicles to a more AMI, integrated
tric vehicles [84] environmental friendly time and whether the electric system, and
vehicle owner is interested in it. electric vehicle
*Country Codes: AT-Austria, BE-Belgium, CA-Canada, CN-China, CY-Cyprus, CZ-Czech Republic, DE-Germany, DK-Denmark, FI-Finland, FR-
France, GR-Greece, ES-Spain, HU-Hungary, IL-Israel, IT-Italy, LV-Latvia, MK-Macedonia, NL-Netherlands, RO-Romania, PL-Poland, PT-Portugal,
SE-Sweden, Sl-Slovenia, TR-Turkey, UK-United Kingdom, US-United States
TABLE IV: A Summary of Major Projects/Programs/Trials (Continued)

Project/Program Name Organization *Country Period Brief Description of Project/Program/Trial Project/Program
/Trial Category
12 Model City Manheim MW Energie DE 2008- It concentrates on an urban conurbation in which dis- Integrated system
[84] 2012 tributed renewable energy resources are used to a large
extent. Within the framework of the E-Energy project,
a representative large-scale trial is being conducted
both in Manheim and in Dresden to demonstrate that
the project can be applied and translated to other
regions.
13 More Microgrids [84] ICCS/National ES, GR, PT, 2006- It aims at: 1) implementing sophisticated control tech- Integrated system,
Technical NL, IT, DK, 2009 niques for distributed generators; 2) integrating micro- smart meter and
University of MK, DE grids into operation and development of the power sys- AMI, microgrid,
Athens tem; 3) conducting field trials to test control strategies distribution
on actual microgrids; and 4) quantifying microgrids grid, and home
effects on power system operation and planning. application
14 Pacific Gas and Electric Pacific Gas US From It is part of a statewide effort driven by the California Smart meter and
Companys SmartMeter and Electric 2006 Public Utilities Commission to upgrade Californias AMI
Program [190] Company energy infrastructure with automated metering tech-
nology. This technology will enable new programs that
help California energy customers use less energy and
save money.
15 Pacific Northwest Bonneville US 2010- It aims at 1) validating new smart grid technologies Integrated system
Smart Grid Demon- Power Admin- 2014 and business models; 2) providing two-way commu-
stration Project [191] istration nication between distributed generation, storage, and
demand assets and the existing grid infrastructure;
3) quantifying smart grid costs and benefits, and 4)
advancing standards for interoperability and cyber
security approaches.
16 SmartGridCity, Xcel Energy US 2008- SmartGridCity is a technology pilot that explores Integrated system,
Boulder, Colo. [260] 2010 smart-grid tools in a real-world setting. The goal of smart meter and
this pilot is to help determine: 1)Which energy man- AMI
agement and conservation tools customers want and
prefer; 2) Which technologies are the most effective at
improving power delivery; 3) How best to incorporate
SG technology into the business operations to improve
efficiency, reduce carbon emissions and modernize
the energy delivery system; 4) How to roll out the
most promising SG components on a wider scale.
Xcel Energy has installed approximately 23,000 smart
meters in Boulder as part of a new era in electricity
grid management.
17 Smart Grid Demonstra- Tianjin CN 2010- The project aims at building a smart power supply Integrated systems
tion Project in Sino- Electric Power 2011 network with 220kV and 110kV transmission grid, 10-
Singapore Tianjin Eco- Company 35kV distribution lines, and 380V/220V low voltage
city [225] distribution grid.
*Country Codes: AT-Austria, BE-Belgium, CA-Canada, CN-China, CY-Cyprus, CZ-Czech Republic, DE-Germany, DK-Denmark, FI-Finland, FR-
France, GR-Greece, ES-Spain, HU-Hungary, IL-Israel, IT-Italy, LV-Latvia, MK-Macedonia, NL-Netherlands, RO-Romania, PL-Poland, PT-Portugal,
SE-Sweden, Sl-Slovenia, TR-Turkey, UK-United Kingdom, US-United States
Xi Fang (Student Member 2009) received the B.S. Dejun Yang (Student Member 2008) received his
and M.S. degrees from Beijing University of Posts B.S. from Peking University, Beijing, China, in
and Telecommunications, China, in 2005 and 2008 2007. Currently he is a PhD student in the School
respectively. Currently he is a Ph.D student in the of Computing, Informatics, and Decision Systems
School of Computing, Informatics, and Decision Engineering (CIDSE) at Arizona State University.
Systems Engineering at Arizona State University. His research interests include economic and opti-
He was a recipient of the IEEE ICC11 (IEEE mization approaches to wireless networks and social
International Conference on Communications) networks. He has published over 20 papers in venues
Best Paper Award. One of his papers was se- such as IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Com-
lected as the Best Paper Award Runner-up at IEEE munications, IEEE Transactions on Computers,
ICNP2010 (IEEE International Conference on IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, ACM
Network Protocols), and one of his papers was nominated for the Best Paper MOBIHOC, IEEE INFOCOM, IEEE ICNP, IEEE ICC, and IEEE Globe-
at IEEE MASS2011 (IEEE International Conference on Mobile Ad-hoc com. He has received a Best Paper Award at IEEE ICC2011 and a Best
and Sensor Systems). His research interests include algorithm design and Paper Award Runner-up at IEEE ICNP2010.
optimization in wireless networks, optical networks, cloud computing, and
power grids.
Satyajayant Misra (Member 2004) received his

integrated M.Sc. (Tech.) information systems and
M.Sc. (Hons.) physics degrees from the Birla In-
stitute of Technology and Science, Pilani, India, in
June 2003, and his Ph. D. degree in computer science
from Arizona State University, Tempe, in 2009. He
is an Assistant Professor with the Department of
Computer Science, New Mexico State University,
Las Cruces. His research interests are anonymity, se-
curity, and survivability in wireless sensor networks,
wireless ad hoc networks, and vehicular networks.
He is also interested in the design of algorithms for energy harvesting wireless
sensor networks and real time and multimedia communication in wireless
networks. Dr. Misra is serving on the editorial board of the IEEE Communi-
cations on Surveys and Tutorials and as the Vice-Chair of Information Systems
for the IEEE INFOCOM2012. He has served on the executive committees
of IEEE SECON2011 and IEEE IPCCC2010 as the publicity chair and on
the TPC of several international conferences. He is the recipient of the New
Mexico State Universitys University Research Council award Early Career
Award for Exceptional Achievement in Creative Scholastic Activity, for the
year 2011. He has co-authored eight referred journal articles and 22 referred
conference publications and has received a Best Paper Award Runner-up at
IEEE ICNP2010.
Guoliang Xue (Member 1996, Senior Member

1999, Fellow, 2011) is a Professor of Computer
Science and Engineering at Arizona State University.
He received the BS degree (1981) in mathematics
and the MS degree (1984) in operations research
from Qufu Normal University, Qufu, China, and
the PhD degree (1991) in computer science from
the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA.
His research interests include survivability, security,
and resource allocation issues in networks ranging
from optical networks to wireless mesh and sensor
networks and social networks. He has published over 200 papers (including
97 journal papers) in these areas. He received a Best Paper Award at IEEE
Globecom2007 (IEEE Global Communications Conference), a Best Paper
Award Runner-up at IEEE ICNP2010 (IEEE International Conference on
Network Protocols), and a Best Paper Award at IEEE ICC2011 (IEEE
International Conference on Communications). He received the NSF Research
Initiation Award in 1994, and has been continuously supported by federal
agencies including NSF and ARO. He is an Associate Editor of IEEE/ACM
Transactions on Networking and IEEE Network magazine, as well as
an Editorial Advisory Board Member of IEEE Transactions on Wireless
Communications. He served as an Associate Editor of IEEE Transactions
on Wireless Communications and Computer Networks journal. His recent
conference services include TPC co-chair of IEEE INFOCOM2010, Sympo-
sium co-Chair of IEEE ICC2009, General co-Chair of IEEE HPSR2008,
and Panels Chair of ACM MOBIHOC2008. He was a Keynote Speaker at
LCN2011 (the 36th IEEE Conference on Local Computer Networks) and
a Plenary Speaker at ICCCN2011 (International Conference on Computer
Communication Networks). He is a Distinguished Lecturer of the IEEE
Communications Society. He is a Fellow of the IEEE.

COMST SmartGridSurvey PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

COMST SmartGridSurvey PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

COMST SmartGridSurvey PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Smart Grid The New and Improved Power Grid: A Survey

II. W HAT IS S MART G RID ?

Fig. 3: Smart Grid Project Map [226]

Generating step up Substation step down

Coal plant Industrial

Fig. 4: An Example of the Traditional Power Grid

Smart Energy Subsystem

Power Generation Transmission Grid Distribution Grid

packets, they are sorted according to the addresses in the

D. Some New Grid Paradigms

A. Information Metering and Measurement Energy flows

Information Metering, Monitoring, and Data

Smart Metering Smart Monitoring and Measurement Distribution

Sensor Phasor Measurement Unit

Wireless Mesh Cellular Cognitive IEEE 802.15 Satellite Microwave or Free-Space

be used, guaranteeing the reliability of such a large and

3) The communication subsystem must be pervasively Point

available and have a high coverage. This is mandated Base

by the principle that the SG can respond to any event in Electric

and privacy. In Section VIII, we will discuss the security

In the rest of this section, we focus on the communication

Sections VI-B and VI-C, respectively. Fig. 11 shows a classi-

operation of connecting (or disconnecting) the electric vehicle

Energy Efficiency and Utility, Cost, and Price Emission

Management Methods and Tools

Optimization Machine Learning Game Theory Auction

Convex Dynamic Stochastic Robust Particle Swarm

Failure Protection Mechanism

Failure Prediction and Prevention Failure Identification, Diagnosis, and Recovery

Failure Identification Grid Self-healing Smart Meter Methodology of

Security and Privacy

Metering and Measurement Information Transmission

Smart Metering Monitoring and

TABLE IV: A Summary of Major Projects/Programs/Trials

TABLE IV: A Summary of Major Projects/Programs/Trials (Continued)

Satyajayant Misra (Member 2004) received his

Guoliang Xue (Member 1996, Senior Member

You might also like