Maur Meyer

W.
Mauermayer
Transurethral
Surgery
With Contributions by
K. Fastenmeier, G. Flachenecker, R. Hartung,
and W. Schlitz
Translated by A. Fiennes
Foreword by Willard E. Goodwin
With 240 Figures and 14 Color Plates
Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg NewYork 1983
Translation of the German Edition
Transurethrale Operationen
© by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1981
ISBN-13: 978-3-642-81911-7 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-81909-4

DOl: 10.1007/ 978-3-642-81909-4
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Mauermayer, W. (Wolfgang), 1919- Transurethral surgery.
Translation of: Transurethrale Operationen. Bibliography: p.
Includes index. 1. Urethra-Surgery. I. Title.
RD583.M3813 1982 617'.462 82-17016
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© by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1983
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1983
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and therefore free for general use.
Reproduction of figures: Gustav Dreher GmbH, Stuttgart
Typesetting by Universitiitsdruckerei H. Stiirtz AG, Wiirzburg
2122/3130-543210
Professor Dr. WOLFGANG MAUERMAYER
Urologische Klinik und Poliklinik rechts der Isar der Technischen Universitat,
Ismaninger StraBe 22, D-8000 Miinchen 80
Contributors
Professor Dr.-Ing. K. FASTENMEIER
Professor Dr.-Ing. G. FLACHENECKER
Hochschule der Bundeswehr Miinchen, Fachbereich Elektronik,
Institut fUr Hochfrequenztechnik,
Werner-Heisenberg-Weg 39, D-8014 Neubiberg
Professor Dr. R. HARTUNG
Urologische Universitatsklinik Essen, HufelandstraBe 55, D-4300 Essen 1
Privatdozent Dr. W. SCHliTZ
Urologische Klinik und Poliklinik rechts der Isar der Technischen Universitat,
Ismaninger StraBe 22, D-8000 Miinchen 80
Translator
Dr. ALBERIC FIENNES
5, Narborough Street, GB - London SW6 3AP
Dedicated gratefully to the three great masters
of American endoscopic urology
ROGER W. BARNES, RUBIN H. FLOCKS, and REED M. NESBIT
who guided my first steps in transurethral urology

more than thirty years ago.
Foreword
In 1951 WOLFGANG MAUERMAYER was one of the first young German urologists
to visit the United States, after the war. He brought a very personal enthusiasm,
and joy in learning, to many well known clinics in both the eastern and western
United States. It was then that I first had the pleasure of meeting him; and,
since then, we have enjoyed each other's company on a number of occasions.
From California (and during a half year sabbatical in Berlin) I have followed
the course of his exceptional career. He has transformed his Munich Clinic
into one of the leading European centers for transurethral surgery.
His first book on transurethral operations, published in 1962, appeared only
in German. Consequently, it is little known in the United States and England.
The present book, now in its first English edition, is the result of more
than 30 years experience in transurethral surgery. During this time more than
10,000 patients were treated in Mauermayer's clinic by various endoscopic oper-
ations. His unusual reservoir of experience forms the basis for this book. It
seems of particular importance that surgical techniques are described in a
number of steps, since this enables even a novice to understand the various
procedures.
As I write this, I have not yet seen the English edition, although I am
a proud owner of the first German edition. In November 1981, Professor
MAUERMA YER sent me a copy of the German edition and wrote, "The text
is formulated as a step-by-step 'TUR Cookbook'''. I wrote back to him in
December 1981, "Congratulations on your new book (which Dr. BERCI has
just brought to me). You certainly have covered the subject most completely,
I am sure it will become a classic. I think you should ask Springer Verlag
if they would consider presenting an English edition. I was particularly interested
in the clear illustrations which enhance it a great deal".
Subsequently, I talked with editors at Springer and re-emphasized my feeling
that this book would be an important contribution, if we could have an English
edition.
For many years, MAUERMAYER has offered courses in transurethral surgical
technique in his Munich Clinic, where operations are relayed live over color
television to illustrate various methods to those who wish to learn. His extensive
teaching experience is repeatedly demonstrated in this book.
He also described many tried and proven "clinical secrets", which are illus-
trated by means of numerous outstanding drawings. A number of excellent
color illustrations at the end of the book demonstrate his impressive cystoscopic
photography.
It is an honor and a pleasure for me to write a foreword for this excellent
book written by my good friend, Professor MAUERMAYER. I hope that this
textbook will reach a wide audience in the United States and other English
speaking countries where it deserves a warm reception.
Los Angeles WILLARD E. GOODWIN

Preface
This operating manual was written between 1975 and 1981 and bears the same
title as a monograph published in 1962. Almost 20 years separate these two
books, and in view of the great technical advances made in the last two decades
this second textbook has had to be a completely new entity.
One of the most important of these technical achievements was the introduc-
tion of Hopkins telescopes, which set totally new standards in providing a
previously unknown brilliance and quality of image.
It has been almost equally important to the author not only to be able
to watch his younger colleagues at work through a fiberoptic teaching attach-
ment but also to see himself operating on color video recordings. To be able
to watch oneself and one's pupils at work is of immeasurable value for the
improvement of one's technique and for the recognition of imperfections. The
resulting knowledge has been exploited in this book and will, I hope, improve
its didactic value.
It is this particular interest in teaching that has given birth to an extensive
description of the basic elements of resection technique with diagrams illustrat-
ing individual cutting methods. A section on special resection technique de-
scribes the surgical strategy to be adopted for various configurations of the
bladder neck.
Transurethral operations on bladder tumors and calculi are also discussed,
as well as the use of the Zeiss loop and the insertion of indwelling ureteric
catheters.
Space is devoted further to specialized forms of electro resection in the treat-
ment of a variety of syndromes, and both pre- and postoperative management
are dealt with in depth.
There is a long tradition in the description of operative technique, and most
great masters of operative surgery have passed on their knowledge in operating
manuals.
In comparison to these manuals of open operative surgery, however, the
number of books on transurethral technique is quite modest. The following
are only a selection from the host of reasons for this:
1. It is far easier to represent an open surgical procedure in words and pictures,
since the operation is equally visible to the surgeon, his assistant and the
illustrator.
2. Endoscopic surgery has only become a modern discipline consisting of a
number of planned and formalized operations since the early 1940s.
XII Preface
The first monographs by ROGER W. BARNES and REED M. NESBIT both

appeared in 1943. Although these excellent books were published only
37 years ago they have already become classics of medical literature.
A further reason lies in the difficulty of adequately describing transurethral

operative techniques in words and in sensibly illustrating them. This latter situa-
tion has, however, improved considerably since the introduction of high-effi-
ciency telescopes and of fiberoptic illumination and since the availability of
usable teaching attachments. All this equipment has rendered photography,
cinematography, video recording, transmission of endoscopic procedures an
everyday affair. In this respect the demonstrability of endoscopic technique
has very considerably approached that of open surgical methods. A number
of people may now observe a single operation, and the latter is now easily
illustrated by photographs, films, video recordings, and sketch drawings.
Furthermore, anyone who has the opportunity to watch younger surgeons
as they operate and to take note of their technical mistakes is then in a very
much better position to develop a proper system for teaching what is after
all a difficult technique. The author has over 30 years' clinical experience, in
the course of which he has trained numerous younger colleagues in the tech-
niques of transurethral surgery as well as introduced a large number of visitors
to the basics of transurethral technique. This book owes its present form in
part to the many answers given to questions arising during teaching sessions
and demonstrations, and in part to an incomparable opportunity to evaluate
frequent and typical errors.
The arrival of facilities for observing transurethral operations has trans-
formed a previously more-or-Iess self-taught art into a fully fledged field of
surgical teaching, of which the fundamental techniques may be taught and
learned in exactly the same way as those of open surgery.
This book therefore adopts a well-tried teaching system in formalizing and
discussing in depth each individual phase of operation.
A variety of practices and maneuvers are presented for imitation, and partic-
ular attention is drawn to hazards and possible complications.
I have consciously desisted from any description of the various types of
anesthesia suitable for transurethral procedures, since these methods in no way
differ from those applicable to surgery in general. The most appropriate tech-
nique for any particular occasion is best chosen in close collaboration with
the anesthesiologist.
No such operating manual would nowadays be complete without endoscopic
color photographs. These serve a purpose wherever they contribute to the de-
scription of an individual situation or are superior to words and drawings.
Standard modern endoscopes allow such photographs to be taken without much
ado during any operation, and the complicated preparations we used to indulge
in have become unnecessary. It has thus been possible to record photographi-
cally any situation which needed to be illustrated without impairment of asepsis,
loss of time, or risk to the patient. Color photographs were selected purely
with teaching in mind.
Preface XIII
I am indebted to NANCY CLIFF-NEUMULLER for the large number of diagrams

based on the author's own sketches. She showed great understanding for my
various wishes and was of considerable assistance in simplifying and reducing
pictorial content to the minimum, with a corresponding increase in teaching
value. In some situations this aim could only be achieved by exaggerating certain
anatomical configurations. Many illustrations were based on small sketches
made while discussing the operation immediately after its conclusion and under
the eye of the surgeon. The drawings thus impart a vivid impression of real
events.
I therefore wish to express my sincere thanks to Mrs. CLIFF-NEUMULLER
for her tremendous efforts and her sense of involvement.
To write a book of this size while keeping to a full clinical timetable means
sacrifices not only for the author but also for his family, and they deserve
my special thanks for the great patience they have shown throughout these
years. Whenever I was cross and irritable they were there to encourage me
with love and equanimity.
Toward the end Dr. HERBERT LEYH, an associate of our unit, was a great
support as a proof reader and in arranging the illustrations throughout the
text. He also took over various organizational tasks, thus saving me a consider-
able nuisance, and for this lowe him special gratitude.
My thanks are also due to Mr. ALBERIC FIENNES, F.R.C.S., for his excellent
and rapid English translation of my original German text, which he approached
with considerable sensitivity and technical knowledge. It is due to the energy
he brought to bear on this task that the present volume has been able to reach
the Anglo-Saxon market during 1982.
My colleague, Dr. RAINER KUNTZ, went to great pains in reading through
the English text and checking it against the original. In collaboration with
Dr. HERBERT LEYH, to whom the index of the German edition is largely due,
he also undertook the considerable task of compiling an English index. I should
like to thank both gentlemen for their efforts. It is a special pleasure for me
to thank my son Andreas for all the photographs of instruments and operation
equipment.
Finally I have a special need to thank Dr. H. GOTZE for the great trust
he placed in me by encouraging me to write this book. In this context I should
also mention Professor C.E. ALKEN, who lent support to my original idea of
writing it.
Despite the business risks involved in publishing a book of this type, Mr.
W. BERGSTEDT of Springer-Verlag was tireless in his advice on various organiza-
tional matters and in encouraging me to write and illustrate this manual as
I thought fit. I am indebted to Springer-Verlag for the sumptuous presentation.
It is my hope that this book will find its way into the hands of those specialist
colleagues I aim to help develop a more systematic approach to a difficult
technique, thereby enabling them to master it.
Munich WOLFGANG MAUERMAYER

Contents
Chapter A. Operating Facilities for Transurethral Surgery

I. General Considerations . . . . . . . . . .
II. The Operating Suite for a Transurethral Unit
1. The Operating Room for Transurethral Procedures
2. The Anesthetic Room 5
3. The Instrument Room 7
4. Ancillary Rooms 10
5. The Recovery Area 10
6. The Siting of Transurethral Operating Suites 10
Chapter B. Instruments and Their Care 11
I. Instruments for Transurethral Surgery 11

1. Diagnostic Instruments . . . . . . 11
2. Operating Cystoscopes . . . . . . 11
3. Water Connections for Diagnostic and Operating Cystoscopes 14
4. Electro-resectoscopes ..... 15
a) The Resectoscope Sheath 16
IX) Insulation-Coated Sheaths 16
13) The External End of the Resectoscope Sheath 17
y) The Obturator ..... 18
b) The Electrotome . . . . . . . . . . . 21
IX) Loop Control Mechanisms . . . . . 21
13) Cutting Loops and Other Work Pieces 22
,) The Telescope . . . . . . . . . . . 26
c) Irrigation Fluids for Transurethral Surgery 26
d) The Fiber Optic Light Source 27
e) The High Frequency Diathermy Unit . . 27
f) Lubricating Agents . . . . . . . . . . 27
g) Sundries: Lighting Cable, High Frequency Cable, Irrigation Supply, and Drainage
Hoses . . . . . . . . . 28
5. Lithotrites 30
a) Preliminary Considerations 30
b) The Punch Lithotrite According to MAUERMAYER 31
IX) The Sheath . . . . . 31
13) The Operating Module 31
c) The Urat-I-Lithotrite . . 33
d) The Ultrasonic Lithotrite 33
XVI Contents
6. The Continuous Irrigation Resectoscope 35

7. The Suprapubic Aspiration Trocar 36
8. The Laser Operating Cystoscope . . . . 36
9. The Operating Urethroscope . . . . . 37
II. Cleaning, Sterilization and Maintenance of Endoscopic Instruments 38
1. Instrument Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
a) Preliminary Disinfection .............. . 38
b) Cleaning the Sheaths and Accessories (Excluding Telescopes) 39
c) Cleaning the Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . 41
d) Inspecting the Light Cables . . . . . . . . 43
2. Sterilization and Decontamination of Instruments 44
a) The Decontamination Process . . . . . . . 44
b) Sterilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
III. High Frequency Technology: Applications and Hazards. By K. FASTENMEIER and G.
FLACHENECKER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1. Cutting and Coagulating with High Frequency Current 47
2. The Electrical Circuit in Transurethral Resection 51
a) Cutting Loop and Connecting Cable 51
b) Indifferent Electrode . . . . . . . 52
c) Current Pathways Within the Patient - Effect of Electrical Properties of Instru-
ments and Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
d) Insulation Faults Within the Instrument - Electrical Conductivity of Irrigation
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
e) Capacitive Effects 57
3. Hints for the Avoidance of Electrical Hazards During Transurethral Resection 58
Chapter C. Preoperative Requirements 61
I. Assessment of the Patient 61

1. The History 61
2. Urological Assessment 62
a) Rectal Examination 62
b) Radiologic Investigation of the Urinary Tract 62
oc) Excretion Urogram 62
P) Cystourethrogram 63
c) Indications for Preoperative Outpatient Cystoscopy 65
II. Indications for Surgery 66
1. General Considerations 66
2. General Indications for Prostatectomy 67
a) Acute Retention of Urine 67
b) Recurrent Retention 67
c) Increasing Residual Volume 67
d) Chronic Retention with Upper Tract Obstruction 67
e) Recurrent Ineradicable Infection 68
f) Hemorrhage from Prostatic Veins 68
g) Bladder Calculi 68
h) Bladder Diverticula . 69
i) Severe Outflow Disorders Without Residual Urine 69
j) Bladder Tumors 69
Contents XVII
3. Rare Indications for Transurethral Surgery 70

a) Chronic Prostatitis and Prostatic Abscess 70
b) Prostatic Tuberculosis 70
c) Multiple Prostatic Calculi 70
4. Indications for Transurethral Prostatectomy 71
a) Prerequisites of the Surgeon . . . . . 71
b) Early Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . 73
c) General Indications for Transurethral Resection 73
5. Contraindications and Limitations to Transurethral Prostatic Adenomectomy 74
a) The very Large Adenoma . . . . . . . . . . 74
b) The Markedly Protuberant Mobile Median Lobe 74
c) Bladder Calculi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
oc) Endoscopic Approach to Calculus and Adenoma 75
fJ) Cystotomy for the Calculus and Transurethral Resection at a Subsequent Date 75
y) Cystotomy and Prostatectomy as a Single Procedure 75
d) Bladder Diverticulum and Prostatic Adenoma 75
oc) Large Diverticulum and Bladder Neck Fibrosis 75
fJ) Multiple Diverticula . . . . . . . . . . . 76
e) Bladder Diverticulum, Bladder Calculus and Prostatic Adenoma 76
f) Urethral Stricture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
g) Paraurethral Abscess During Preliminary Catheterization 76
h) Unusually Short Suspensory Ligament of the Penis 77
i) Large, Irreducible Hernias . . . . . . . . . . 77
j) Epididymitis and Severe Urinary Tract Infection 77
k) Ankylosis of One or Both Hip Joints . . . . . 77
I) Prostatic Carcinoma Amenable to Radical Surgery 77
6. Limits of Operability . . . 78
a) Initial Considerations . 78
b) Cardiovascular Disease 78
c) Pulmonary Disease . . 79
d) Cerebrovascular Disease 79
e) Renal Insufficiency . 80
f) Liver Damage . . . . 80
g) General Decreptitude . 80
h) Mental Subnormality and Psychosis 80
i) Inoperable Carcinoma in Other Organs 81
j) Coagulation Disorders 81
k) Diabetes Mellitus 82
I) Obesity . . . . . . . 82
m) Thrombophlebitis, Varicose Veins 82
III. Preoperative Treatment . . . . . 82
1. Draining the Bladder 83
a) Intermittent Catheterization 83
b) Permanent Drainage 83
oc) The Dye Test . . . . . 83
fJ) Ind welli ng Catheters . . 84
y) Slow Decompression of the Bladder 84
(5) Immediate Decompression of the Bladder 84
r.) Cystostomy 84
2. Vasectomy . . 86
a) Indications 86
b) Technique 86
XVIII Contents
3. The Treatment of Urinary Infections . . . . 87

4. Balanitis and Inflammation of the Prepuce 87
5. Chance Finding of Urogenital Tract Tumors 88
6. Strictures of the Urethra . . . . . . . . 88
7. Preoperative General Medical Preparation 88
IV. Preoperative Endoscopy 89

2. Introducing the Instrument 89
a) Surgical Anatomy 89
b) Physiologic Urethral Constrictions 90
IX) The External Meatus . . . . . 90
P) The Transition from Fossa Navicularis to Penile Urethra 91
y) The Penile Urethra ............. . 92
b) The Transition from Bulbar to Membranous Urethra 92
c) Curvature of the Urethra 92
IX) Curvature at the Penoscrotal Angle 92
P) Curvature in the Bulb . . . . . 92
y) Ventral Curvature of the Urethra Due to a Median Lobe 93
3. Aids to Passing the Instrument . . . . . . . . . 94
a) Internal Urethrotomy with the Otis Urethrotome 94
IX) Preliminary Considerations . . 94
p) Technique of Otis Urethrotomy 94
y) The Modified Otis Urethrotome 95
b) Sachse Urethrotomy Under Direct Vision During Instrumentation 97
c) Instrumentation Under Direct Vision 97
d) Optical Aids to Passage of the Sheath 98
4. Trauma During Instrumentation . . . . 98
b) Injuries Below the External Sphincter 98
c) Injuries Above the External Sphincter 99
IX) Ventral Injuries . . . 99
P) Dorsal Injuries 99
y) Subtrigonal Perforation 99
5. Orientation at the Site of Resection 99
a) Telescopes for Inspection of the Bladder and Bladder Neck 100
IX) The End Viewing Telescope . . 102
P) Diagnostic Telescopes 103
y) Retrograde-Viewing Telescopes 104
b) Directional Features of the Bladder Neck 105
IX) Group I Features: Distal-Proximal . . 105
P) Group II Features: Clockwise Rotation 105
y) Group III Features: Lateral-Medial, Dorsal-Ventral 106
6. Examination of the Bladder Neck 107
b) Assessing Bladder Neck Length 107
c) Depth Assessment of the Urethral Cleft 108
d) Dorsal Tissue Volume 110
e) The Verumontanum 110
IX) Free-Standing Verumontanum 110
P) Covered Verumontanum 111
y) Poorly Visible Verumontanum 112
b) Aids to Seeking the Verumontanum 112
Contents XIX
8) The Topographic Relationship of Verumontanum and Distal Extremity of the

Lateral Lobe . . . . . . . . . 113
f) The External Sphincter 114
ex) Initial Anatomical Considerations 114
P) Endoscopic Appearance of the External Sphincter Region 115
y) Further Aids to Recognition of the Sphincter Region 116
J) The Sphincter Test of Tammen 116
8) The Sphincter Test of Hartung ........ . 117
g) The Internal Urinary Meatus 117
ex) The Internal Meatus in Small Adenoma, Bladder Neck Fibrosis, and Transverse
Bar . . . . . . . . . 118
p) Endourethral Hyperplasia 118
y) Endovesical Hyperplasia 120
h) The Internal Sphincter 123
i) The Bladder Base and the Retroprostatic Recess 124
j) The Urinary Bladder . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
ex) Incidental Finding of Bladder Disease 126
P) Relation of the Bladder to the Operative Field 127
Chapter D. General Resection Technique 129
Cutting Methods and Techniques 129
I. Introduction 129
II. Holding the Instrument 130
1. Two-Handed Technique 130
2. Single-Handed Technique 133
III. Irrigation Technique . . . 135
1. The Irrigation Supply 135
2. Air Bubbles in the Field 138
3. Evacuation of Irrigation Fluid and Resection Chips 139
a) Standard Drainage Technique 139
b) Evacuation by a Drainage Port 141
c) The Collecting Sieve 142
d) Ellik Bulb in the Drain Hose . 142
e) Technique with Central Irrigation Cock 145
f) Drainage by Specially Designed Instruments or Suprapubic Trocar 145
ex) General Considerations 145
P) The Iglesias Irrigating Resectoscop . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
y) Resection with Trocar Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
g) Urodynamic Aspects of High and Low Pressure Irrigation During Transurethral
Prostatic Resection. By W. SCHUTZ . . . . . . . 150
h) Special Devices for Evacuation of Resection Chips 153
ex) Preliminary Considerations . . . . 153
P) Use of the Ellik Evacuator 154
y) Evacuation by Metal Piston Syringe 155
J) The Extraction of Outsize Tissue Fragments from the Bladder 156
IV. Cutting Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
1. The Cut Proper . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
a) The Cut with Predetermined End Point 157
b) The Cut with Predetermined Starting Point 160
xx Contents
c) The Extended Cut 160

d) Retrograde Cutting 166
e) Entrapment Cutting 167
2. Practical Aspects of Resection 167
a) The Single Cut . . . . 167
b) Serial Cutting 168
c) Excavating the Capsule 170
d) Cutting Rate 171
V. The Recognition of Individual Tissues During Surgery 172

1. Preliminary Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . 172
2. Surgigal Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3. Prerequisites for the Recognition of Tissue Structure 174
4. The Appearance of Individual Types of Tissue 174
a) Adenoma Tissue . . 174
b) Fibromuscular Tissue 176
c) The Prostatic Capsule 176
d) Fatty Tissue . . . . 177
e) Sphincter Fibrosis Tissue 177
f) Bladder Muscle Fibers 177
g) Infiltration by Urogenital Tumors 178
h) Infiltration by Extrinsic Tumors 178
i) Ejaculatory Ducts 179
j) Seminal Vesicles 179
k) Blood Vessels 179
I) Prostatic Calculi 179
m) Prostatic Abscess 180
VI. Accidental Injuries . . 180

1. Injuries to the Prostatic Capsule 180
b) Threatened Perforation 181
c) Covered Perforation 182
d) Free Perforation . . . 182
e) Subtrigonal Perforation 184
ex) Preliminary Considerations 184
fl) Subtrigonal Perforation During Instrumentation 184
y) Detachment ........ . 186
J) Complete Subtrigonal Perforation 187
2. Other Types of Accidental Injury 188
a) Injury to the Ureteric Orifice 188
ex) Types of Injury 188
fl) Sequelae . . . . . . . 189
b) Injuries to the External Sphincter 189
ex) Preliminary Considerations 189
f3) Appearance of the Injury . . 189
y) Aftercare . . . . . . . . . 189
J) Grading of Incontinence According to Severity 190
B) Conclusion . . . . . . 191
c) Intraperitoneal Perforation 191
d) Excessive Blood Loss . . . 191
3. Concluding Remarks on Accidental Injuries 192
Contents XXI
Chapter E. Special Resection Technique 193
I. General Considerations . . . . . 193

II. Basic Rules of Resection Technique 194
III. Resection of Small Adenomas . . 197
1. Step 1: The Marking Groove at 6 o'clock 197
2. Step 2: Extending the Groove Laterally . 199
3. Step 3: Deepening the Groove Down to the Capsule 199
4. Step 4: Removing the Lateral Lobe Base 200
5. Step 5: Resecting Ventral Tissue . . . . 201
6. Step 6: Resecting the Roof of the Cavity 202
7. Step 7: Resection of Apical Tissue . . . 203
b) Step 7 a: Apical Resection in the Immediate Vicinity of the Verumontanum 204
c) Step 7b: Extending the Resection Field Laterally 207
d) Step 7c: Resecting the Ventral Apex 207
8. Aids to Resection of Apical Tissue . . . . . . . . 208
a) Examining the Neck of the Empty Bladder . . . 209
b) Advancing and Withdrawing the Sheath (Wobble Test) 211
c) Recognizing Tissues Around the Apex 211
d) Rectal Palpation. Around the Prostatic Apex 213
oc) Advantages of Rectal Support . . . . 213
{3) Disadvantages of Rectal Support 214
y) Pressing Indications for Rectal Support 214
e) Faradic and Hydraulic Stimulation of the External Sphincter 217
IV. Resecting Large Adenomas 217
1. Preliminary Considerations 217
2. Nesbit's Method 218
a) Step 1: Formation of a Ventral Plateau 218
b) Step 2: Cutting the Trench ..... 221
c) Step 3: Tissue Ablation . . . . . . . 221
d) Step 4: Resection Down to the Prostatic Floor 223
e) Conclusion 224
3. Excavating the Cavity 225
a) Basic Principles 225
oc) Small Single Cuts 225
{3) Extended Cutting 225
b) Control of Instrument and Loop 226
oc) The Linear Cut . . . . . . 226
{3) Depth of Tissue Penetration . 226
y) The Extended Cut: Three Elements Combined 226
c) Determining the Depth of Cut . . . . . . 228
oc) The Trench Method (Segmental Method) 229
{3) The Tangential Method 229
4. Resecting Endovesical Lateral Lobes 230
b) Resection Technique 231
5. Resecting Endovesical Median Lobes 233
b) Resection Technique 234
XXII Contents
6. Barnes' Method . . . . . . . . . 236

b) Resection on the Prostatic Floor 236
c) Lateral Lobe Resection . . . 237
d) Conclusion 238
7. The Method of Alcock and Flocks 238
b) Removing the Median Lobe 239
c) Removing the Lateral Lobes 239
d) Removing the Ventral Tissue 240
e) Resecting the Prostatic Apex 240
f) Conclusion . . . . . . . 240
8. Final Inspection at the End of Operation 241
a) Inspection of the Bladder . . . . . 241
IX) Looking for Injuries. . . . . . 241
P) Looking for Retained Resection Chips and Coagula 241
y) The Large Free Fragment .......... . 241
b) Inspecting the Cavity for Complete Clearance of Tissue 243
IX) Scanning the Cavity Wall . . . . 243
P) Inspection of Paracollicular Tissue 243
V. Resecting Outsize Adenomas 244
2. Points of General Technique 245
a) Tissue Volume per Cutting Run 245
b) Rapid Evacuation of Irrigating Fluid and Chips 245
3. Trocar Drainage ..... . 245
4. Resection According to Iglesias 245
5. The' Rasp' Technique of Reuter 246
6. Subdividing the Field into Cutting Zones 246
7. Marking Trenches . . . . . 246
8. Optimal Hemostasis . . . . 246
9. Determination of Blood Loss 247
10. Encumbrance of the Surgeon 247
11. Nesbit Technique 247
12. Our Own Method 248
a) Phase 1 248
IX) Step 1 248
P) Step 2 249
y) Step 3 249
<5) Step 4 249
b) Phase 2 249
c) Phase 3 250
13. Conclusion 250
Chapter F. Hemostatic Technique . . . . . . . 251
I. Blood Loss During Transurethral Prostatic Surgery 251

1. Preliminary Considerations . . . . . . . . 251
2. A Method for Blood Loss Estimation 253
3. The Significance of Blood Loss Determination 253
Contents XXIII
II. Arterial Bleeding 254

2. Surgical Anatomy . . 254
3. "Anatomical" Operative Techniques 256
a) The Nesbit Technique 256
b) The Technique of Alcock and Flocks 256
c) Other Techniques 257
4. Detecting Hemorrhage 258
b) Instrument Factors . . 259
c) The Value of Experience 259
5. Prerequisites for the Detection of Hemorrhage 259
a) A Suitable Instrument (Habituation to a Preferred Instrument) 259
b) Resection Technique . . . . . . . . . 260
a) Clear Visibility of the Resection Cavity 260
13) Dividing the Operation into Stages . . 260
y) Matching the Irrigation Rate 260
(5) Position of Instrument and Cutting Loop 261
G) Immediate Closure of all Arteries 262
c) Rationale for Immediate Hemostasis 262
6. General Rules for the Detection of Arterial Bleeding 263
a) Finding Arteries During Resection 263
b) Appearance of the Vessel Stump 264
c) Multiple Arteries . . . . . . . . 265
7. The Technique of Coagulating Vessels 265
8. Special Problems of Hemostasis . . . 266
a) Arteries Spurting into the Instrument 267
b) Ricochet Bleeding . . . . . . . . 268
c) Bleeding from Behind a Tissue Eminence 268
d) Bleeding Under Coagula . . . . . . 269
e) Massive Hemorrhage . . . . . . . . 270
f) Ventral Bleeds from the Vesicoprostatic Junction 271
g) Poor Hemostasis in Previously Coagulated Tissue 272
h) Arterial Bleeding at the Margin of a Venous Sinus 273
i) Pseudohemostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
j) Hemorrhage in Distal and Proximal Extremities of the Field 276
III. Venous Bleeding . . . . 277
2. Surgical Anatomy . . 277
a) The Submucous System 277
b) The Deep System 278
3. Detection of Venous Bleeding During Surgery 278
a) Inspection of Irrigation Drainage . 278
b) Visible Blood in the Resection Field 279
c) Inspection of the Resection Field 279
4. Closure of Venous Sinuses 280
IV. Final Inspection of Hemostasis 280
V. Summary . . . . . . . . . 281
XXIV Contents
Chapter G. Transurethral Bladder Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
I. Introduction 283
II. Morbid Anatomy 284
III. Further Aspects of the Assessment and Classification of Bladder Tumors 286
1. Site Within the Bladder 286
2. Tumor Morphology . . 286
a) Surface Structure . . 287
b) Direction of Growth 289
3. Tumor Size . . . . . . 290
a) Endovesical Tumor Bulk 290
b) Diameter of the Tumor Base 290
4. Solitary and Multiple Tumors 290
5. Recurrence Rates 290
IV. Assessing the Patient 291
2. History . . . . . . . 291
3. Radiologic Investigation 292
a) Excretion Urogram 292
b) Cystogram 292
c) Cystourethrogram 293
d) Pelvic Angiogram 293
e) Computer Tomogram 293
f) Lymphangiogram 293
4. Ultrasound in Diagnosis 294
5. Cystoscopy . . . . . . 294
b) Diagnostic Cystoscopy 294
c) Examination of the Internal Meatus 296
d) Dynamic Cystoscopy . . . . . . 296
e) Examination of the Ureteric Orifices 297
f) Determining the Size of the Tumor Base 298
g) Examination of Diverticula . . . . . 300
h) Vaginal (Rectal) Palpation During Cystoscopy 301
6. Bladder Biopsies 301
a) Biopsy by Endoscopic Forceps . . . 301
b) Resectoscope Biopsy . . . . . . . 301
7. Bimanual Examination Under Anesthesia 302
V. Operating on Bladder Tumors . . 303
1. Preliminary Considerations . . 303
2. Coagulation of Bladder Tumors 303
b) Technique of Coagulation . 304
c) Local Anesthesia for Coagulation and Small Resections 305
d) Healing After Coagulation 307
3. Electroresection of Bladder Tumors 308
b) Anesthesia for the Resection of Bladder Tumors 308
c) Methods of Avoiding Obturator Stimulation . . 309
d) High-Frequency Current for the Resection of Bladder Tumors 309
e) Instruments for Resection of Bladder Tumors . . . . . . . 309
Contents xxv
4. Technique of Bladder Tumor Resection 310
a) Horizontal Approach 310
b) Vertical Approach 310
c) Dividing the Stalk 310
d) The Resection of Large Exophytic Growths 311
e) Hemostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
5. Special Types of Tumor Resection . . . . . . 314
a) Resecting Tumors on the Posterior Wall of the Bladder 314
b) Resecting Tumors on the Lateral Wall of the Bladder 317
c) Resecting Tumors Close to the Internal Meatus in the Male 317
d) Resecting Tumors Close to the Internal Meatus in the Female 318
e) Resecting Tumors on the Bladder Vault . . . . . . 320
f) Resecting Tumors of or Around the Ureteric Orifice . . . 321
6. Tissue Recognition During Resection of Bladder Tumors 322
7. Systematic Tissue Sampling as a Guide to Complete Resection 323
a) Single Sample with Directional Orientation ...... 323
b) Sampling in Tissue Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
c) Biopsy Technique for the Diagnosis of Carcinoma in Situ and Other Early Urothe-
lial Carcinomas . . . . . 325
8. Controlled Perforation . . . . . . . . . . 326
a) Preliminary Considerations . . . . . . 326
b) The Technique of Controlled Perforation 326
c) Irrigation During Controlled Perforation 327
9. Resecting the Periphery of a Tumor 328
10. Palliative Resection . . . . . . . 328
VI. Accidents During Resection of Bladder Tumors 329
1. Preliminary Considerations . . 329
2. Types of Perforation . . . . . 329
a) Intraperitoneal Perforation 329
b) Extraperitoneal Perforation 330
c) Gas Detonation . . . . . 331
VII. Check Cystoscopy Following Transurethral Resection of Bladder Tumors 331
VIII. Concluding Remarks on Bladder Tumor Resection 332
IX. Other Transurethral Bladder Operations 333
1. Incising the Neck of Bladder Diverticula 333
a) Preliminary Considerations and Indications 333
b) Operative Technique 333
2. Injecting Drugs into the Bladder . . . . . . . 335
Chapter H. Special Resection Procedures Around the Bladder Neck 337
I. Introduction 337
II. Electroresection of Prostatic Carcinoma 337
1. Preliminary Considerations and Indications 337
2. Operative Technique . . . . . 338
a) Commencing the Operation 338
b) Hemorrhage . . . . . . . 338
c) Evacuation of Chips 338
d) Resection of the Prostatic Apex 338
XXVI Contents
e) How Much to Resect? 339

f) Resection for Recurrent Hemorrhage . 339
g) Resection of Necrotic, Infected Tumors 340
h) Resecting Tumor Infiltrating the Bladder 340
III. Resection for Bladder Neck Fibrosis 340
IV. Resection for Outflow Obstruction in the Female Bladder 341
1. Preliminary Considerations . . . . . . . . . . 341
2. Symptoms of Female Bladder Outflow Obstruction 342
3. Diagnosis of the Disorder 343
a) Cystoscopy 343
b) Urodynamic Investigations 343
c) Differential Diagnostic Considerations 344
4. Morbid Anatomical Change and Outflow Disorders of the Female Bladder 345
5. Treatment of Bladder Outflow Disorders . 345
a) Transurethral Resection . . . . 345
b) Postoperative Treatment 346
6. Assessing the Operative Success Rate 346
V. Resection and Prostatic Calculi 346
VI. Resection and Prostatic Abscess 347
VII. Resection and Chronic Prostatitis 348
VIII. Resection and Prostatic Tuberculosis 349
IX. Palliative Resection 349
X. Electroresection in Patients with Cardiac Pacemakers, Artificial Heart Valves or Vascular
Prostheses. By W. SClruTZ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
XI. Resection for Impaired Micturition Following Rectal Surgery 353
XII. Resecting Papillary Tumors of the Prostatic Urethra 354
XIII. Resection of Bladder Diverticula 354
XIV. Resection and Bladder Calculi . 355
XV. Resection of Bleeding Adenomas 355
XVI. Resection in the Presence of Bladder Tumor 356
XVII. Resection Following Open Adenomectomy 356
Chapter I. Litholapaxy 359
I. Preliminary Considerations 359

II. Preliminary Assessment of the Patient 359
III. Indications 360
IV. The Technique of Litholapaxy 360
2. Ultrasound Litholapaxy 361
a) The' Aachen' Ultrasound Lithotrite 361
b) Technique with the Ultrasound Lithotrite 362
3. Urat-I Litholapaxy 363
a) Apparatus 363
b) The Probe 363
Contents XXVII
c) Hazards of the Technique . . . . . . . . 363

d) Anesthesia for Pressure Wave Litholapaxy . 363
e) Instruments for Pressure Wave Litholapaxy 364
f) The Technique of Electrohydraulic Litholapaxy 364
4. The Punch Lithotrite 365
5. Technique of Evacuation . . . . . . . . . . . 366
6. Difficult Litholapaxy Due to Anatomical Factors 367
7. Postoperative Care ............ . 367
Chapter K. The Zeiss Loop and the Placement of Indwelling Ureteric Catheters 369
1. Extracting Ureteric Calculi with Endoscopic Instruments 369

2. Indications for Using the Zeiss Loop 370
3. Description of the Zeiss Loop 370
4. Introducing the Zeiss Loop 372
a) The Standard Loop 372
b) The Tilting Loop 375
c) Checking Loop Position 375
5. Techniques of Calculus Extraction 375
a) Traction Technique 376
b) The Indwelling Loop 376
6. Hazards 377
II. Placement of Indwelling Ureteric Catheters 378
1. Passing Plain Catheters 378
2. Indwelling Ureteric Catheters 379
3. Indications for Indwelling Ureteric Catheterization 379
4. The Double-l Catheter and Its Properties 380
a) Technique of Catheterization 380
b) Difficulties During Catheterization 381
5. Side Effects 381
Chapter L. Endoscopic Procedures in the Urethra. By R. Hartung 383
1. Introduction 383
II. Internal Urethrotomy Under Direct Vision 384
1. History of the Procedure . . . . . . . 384
2. Diagnosis of Urethral Stricture in the Male 384
3. Indications for Urethrotomy Under Vision 384
4. Undertaking Surgery . . . . . . . . . . 385
a) Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
b) Preoperative Preparation of the Patient 386
c) Operative Technique 386
d) Operative Difficulties . 387
e) Operative Complications 387
5. Postoperative Treatment Following Viewing Urethrotomy 388
III. Endoscopic Laser Surgery to Urethral Strictures 388
XXVIII Contents
IV. Endoscopic Surgery for Urethral Tumors 389

1. The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . 389
2. Technique of High-Frequency Surgery 389
3. Technique of Laser Coagulation . . . 389
V. Endoscopic Correction of Cicatricial Bladder Neck Stenosis 389
1. Introduction 389
2. Diagnosis 390
3. Indications for Surgery 390
4. Operative Technique . 390
VI. Endoscopic Submucous Bladder Neck Infiltration with Teflon in the Treatment of Uri-
nary Incontinence . . . . . . . 391
1. Introduction ....... 391
2. Operative Technique in the Male 392
3. Operative Technique in the Female 392
Chapter M. Urethral Dilatation 393
I. Preliminary Considerations 393

II. Bougies and Dilators 393
III. Patient Assessment 393
IV. Dilating the Urethra 394
1. Blind Dilatation 394
2. Dilatation Under Direct Vision 395
b) Technique . 396
3. Repeated Dilatation as Definitive Treatment 397
4. Golden Rules of Dilatation 397
Chapter N. Postoperative Management . . . . . . 399
I. Management Following Normal Conclusion of Surgery 399

1. Passing the Indwelling Catheter . . . . . . . . 399
a) Preliminary Considerations . . . . . . . . 399
b) Catheterization After Satisfactory Hemostasis 399
c) Catheterization in the Presence of Venous Hemorrhage (Venous Sinuses) 402
2. Irrigating the Bladder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
3. Evacuating Clots from the Bladder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
4. Vigorous Reactionary Hemorrhage on the Day of Operation 405
5. Postoperative Fluid Intake (Management of Irrigating Fluid Overload) 406
6. Management of Urinary Infection 406
b) Paraurethral Abscess 407
c) Severe Urethritis 407
d) Cavernitis . . . . . 407
e) Epididymitis . . . . 408
7. Postoperative Mobilization 408
8. Removing the Catheter . . 408
Contents XXIX
9. Assessing the Result . . 409

10. Recatheterization 409
11. Postoperative Medication 410
12. Repeat Resection for Poor Stream 410
II. Postoperative Management of Operative Complications 411
1. Postoperative Management of Perforation 411
a) Postoperative Management of Extraperitoneal Perforation 411
b) Postoperative Management ofIntraperitoneal Perforation 411
2. Postoperative Management of Ureteric Orifice Trauma . 412
3. Postoperative Management of External Sphincter Injuries 412
4. Postoperative Management of the TUR Syndrome 412
III. Postoperative Complications 413
2. Persistent Oozing 414
3. Moderate Hemorrhage 414
4. Mild Hemorrhage . . 414
5. Microscopic Hematuria 415
6. Infective Problems . . 415
7. Catheter-Induced Bladder Spasm 415
a) Regulating Catheter Position 415
b) Drug Therapy . . . . . . . 415
8. Urge Incontinence . . . . . . . 416
IV. Late Complications After Transurethral Surgery 416
2. Urethral Stricture . . . . . . 416
3. Internal Meatal Stenosis 417
b) Treatment ...... . 417
IX) Retrograde Incision with the Resectoscope Loop 417
fJ) Incision by Wire Probe . . . . . . . 417
y) "Cold" Incision with the Sachse Knife 418
4. Recurrence of Urinary Symptoms 418
5. Unyielding Urinary Infection 419
Chapter O. Learning and Teaching Transurethral Operative Technique 421
Color Plates 427
References 457
Subject Index 465

Chapter A
Operating Facilities for Transurethral Surgery
I. General Considerations
Transurethral surgery should be undertaken in a specially designed and equipped

environment. Small cystoscopy rooms were used for much of the pioneer work,
but as the technique gained increasingly wide application in surgical and urologic
practice the rising number of operations and more rigorous demands for asepsis
have made these improvised operating units quite inadequate. This has led
to the progressive development of specialized transurethral operating facilities.
MITCHELL (1972) advocated a "combined" operating room suitable both
for open surgical removal of large adenomas and for transurethral resection
of smaller ones, depending on the findings.
I do not share this view, since the technology nowadays available for transur-
ethral surgery requires so many specific structural features in the operating
room that the latter can only really be optimally suitable for one purpose or
the other.
This is not, however, to say that a transurethral operating suite should
not be equipped for emergency procedures, such as laparotomy following inad-
vertent surgical perforation of the bladder.
I was able to see an exemplary solution to this problem in the Urology
Clinic, Innsbruck, and this provided much inspiration for the planning of our
own department at the Rechts der Isar Clinic (MARBERGER 1968, personal com-
munication).
An operating manual such as this can only contain suggestions for the design
and equipment of transurethral operating facilities. The suite itself and its loca-
tion (part of a central operating facility or isolated urologic transurethral operat-
ing unit in a urologic clinic) must depend on local requirements and conditions.
II. The Operating Suite for a Transurethral Unit

1. The Operating Room for Transurethral Procedures
The operating theater (Fig. 1) need not be situated along the outside wall of
the building. Its illumination may be entirely artificial, and in fact artificial
2 Chapter A Operating Facilities for Transurethral Surgery
Fig. 1. General view of an operating room for transurethral surgery in our urology clinic (Urologische
Klinik rechts der Isar). In the center is seen the Maquet operating table complete with leg rests,
showing the collecting funnel, hose and drainage bucket for irrigating fluid. On the floor to the
left is the footswitch controlling vertical and Trendelenburg movements of the table, on the right
is a footswitch for cutting and coagulating current. The small operating lamp mounted centrally
above the table is intended for emergency procedures as well as vasectomies, circumcision and other
minor genital surgery such as may arise in conjunction with transurethral procedures. Other apparatus
suspended from the ceiling comprises an irrigating fluid supply, an anesthetics module with gas
supply and monitoring equipment, and a combined cutting/coagulating diathermy and light source.
In the background to the right of the table is a high frequency resistant ECG monitor for pacemaker
patients. The far wall is taken up with fitted cabinets for instruments, apparatus and catheters.
The doorway leads to the anesthetic room, seen here in darkness
light has the advantage over daylight of being controllable. Since direct sunlight
is a nuisance in any endoscopic work a south-facing wall should definitely
be avoided. When planning the construction of new buildings a floor area of
30-35 m 2 should be considered adequate.
Welded PVC has stood the test of time as a floor material. Despite hygienic
objections a floor gully should still be provided near the operating table. It
will, however, be necessary to arrange for its most scrupulous disinfection.
In new buildings, or when completely re-equipping the operating department,
a combined high frequency diathermy and cold-light source should be suspended
The Operating Room for Transurethral Procedures 3
Fig. 2. Sterile irrigation supply. Both sources are suspended from the ceiling. The left-hand apparatus
is fully automatic and provides a continuous supply of filtered abacterial with constant isotonicity
maintained by the automatic admixture of selected additives. To the right is a motorized hoist
for raising and lowering pre-packed irrigation fluid containers of various manufacture. Both systems
are attached to the false ceiling, thus facilitating rapid modifications to the system without the
need for extensive structural work
from the ceiling, as should irrigation facilities. The latter may consist of appara-
tus for continuous water decontamination and treatment (equipment either com-
prising filter apparatus with continuous solute admixture and isotonic output
or based on the reverse osmosis principle). Alternatively, there may be equipment
for simply raising and lowering suspended bags of irrigation fluid (Fig. 2). A
third ceiling unit should supply anesthetic gases, compressed air and vacuum
as well as containing modular apparatus for monitoring the EeG and pulse rate.
a
Fig. 3 a, b. The re-sterilizable funnel for the collection of irrigation fluid (views showing its attachment b
to the operating table). In a the funnel is shown swung into its extended position, in b, it is retracted.
During the operation the funnel is covered with its own sterile drape enabling the operator himself
to move it into whatever position he requires. The funnel can be removed by simply lifting it off
its mounting bracket. Funnel, drainage hose and collection bucket can all be autoclaved
The Anesthetic Room 5
Special attention should be paid to the immunity of ECG equipment to

high frequency current induced by the diathermy. High frequency resistant ECG
apparatus is commercially available, but at a premium. This aspect of the equip-
ment is of particular importance when operating on patients with cardiac pace-
makers, a situation arising ever more frequently.
The operating table itself should be specially designed for transurethral pro-
cedures. Special models with a work surface for transurethral surgery have
proved of particular value in our practice (MAQUET).
Beneath this work surface is fixed a removable funnel of stainless steel and
of dimensions compatible with small autoclave chambers. This collecting device
is movable and may be extended or retracted according to individual require-
ments. Irrigating fluid is thus directed by a plug-on sterilizable hose into a
stainless steel bucket of 10 liters capacity and marked in liters (Fig. 3).
The dimensions of the funnel are such that it will fit an autoclave. Two
such funnels should be provided for each operating table, so that one may
be left to cool after each sterilization cycle. Since some operators prefer standing
to sitting, the table must have an adequate range of height adjustment. The
Maquet table used in our clinic allows for either working position.
A foot switch allows the operator electrical control of table column height
and Trendelenburg tilt.
Adequate cupboard and shelf space must be provided within the operating
room itself or in an easily accessible side room to contain the instruments
required for transurethral surgery (Fig. 4).
A prepared, sterilized and packed instrument set for emergency laparotomy
should also be kept available along with the considerable number of packed
instrument sets required for occasional minor procedures (e.g., for circumcision,
perineal urethrotomy, vasectomy).
2. The Anesthetic Room
Whenever possible, anesthesia should be induced in a special anteroom in which

the patient is transferred from bed to operating table. Otherwise it would be
necessary for the patient to be wheeled into the operating theater in his bed.
We use an operating table of which the top may be carried on a special
bogey, so that after induction of anesthesia the table top is wheeled into the
theater and attached to the operating table column (Fig. 5).
<l Fig. 4. A work surface in the operating room. The cabinet on the left houses essential types of disposable
sutures for emergency operations. To the right there is a balance for weighing the operative specimen,
and in front of this an apparatus for determining operative blood loss. To the left is a pipette
stand containing disposable pipettes and beside it an autopipette for the cyanide solution used
in preparing cyanohemoglobin. The blood-loss apparatus seen in the central foreground gives a
digital readout of blood loss corrected for hemoglobin concentration
Fig. 5. The mobile operating table top. This is seen here attached to its transport bogey in the anesthetic
room. Behind this is the entrance to the operating theater. Anesthesia is induced on this trolley
in the anesthetic room, and the patient is usually able to use the small steps to climb onto the
operating table. Anesthetic apparatus may be seen in the background. This procedure is used for
both regional and general anesthesia, and the patient is then wheeled into the operating theater.
The table-top simply locks onto the table column, which then takes over all further functions.
Raising and lowering of the table as well as Trendelenburg tilt and all other movements of the
table may be controlled either by a footswitch on the floor or by a control module available to
the anesthetist
This system has the great advantage that, during induction of anesthesia,
the setting-up of instruments and equipment may proceed in the operating the-
ater itself.
This naturally requires the presence of the usual anesthetic gas supplies
in the anesthetic room as well as in the operating room. Routine anesthetics
The Instrument Room 7
are administered from a small, wall-mounted apparatus, thus obviating the

need to move equipment with the patient.
The anesthetic room should naturally be genereously provided with cabinets
for the storage of anesthetic equipment.
3. The Instrument Room
The cleaning, maintenance and sterilization of endoscopic instruments requires

a specialized working area which we shall call the instrument room.
Whenever possible, this room should be so set out as to correspond to
the work sequence. Thus the individual steps of instrument preparation such
as initial decontamination, preliminary and final mechanical cleaning, disinfec-
tion and laying out of instruments for the next operation should be undertaken
in sequentially arranged dedicated working spaces.
The overall aim of such an arrangement is easily appreciated from a floor
plan drawing (Fig. 6).
The individual procedures are discussed in detail in Chap. B.
The instrument room should also contain equipment for gas and steam
sterilization. Hot air is so time-consuming a method of decontamination as
to be lapsing into disuse.
The recycling of endoscopic equipment and instruments in a Central Sterile
Supply Department can only be accepted if within this department specially
trained personnel work at special work places. Otherwise there is a considerable
danger of the central sterilizing unit becoming a central instrument liquidation
department: Discussions with numerous colleagues have confirmed my convic-
tion that the best alternative remains sterilization in the operating department's
own specialized, supervisable and monitored working area.
The quality of instrument preparation (and the repair factor) for these
delicate instruments is entirely dependent upon the availability of a highly
trained team. A single day of inappropriate handling of instruments by an
untrained auxiliary may give rise to damage totaling several times that person's
monthly salary. One should therefore never economize on first-class personnel.
Gas sterilization using ethylene oxide is nowadays the preferred method of
decontamination for endoscopic instruments and optics. The ability of this gas
to penetrate plastic foil has opened up the possibility of prior packing and
sealing of instruments in plastic sleeves.
Because of the health and safety problems with this technique a number
of factors need to be taken into account at the planning stage, e.g., exhaust
gas extraction, storage of gas cartridges and the provision of adequate space
for the deaeration of sterilized material (de aeration cupboards).
The approximate instrument requirement should be established early in the
planning of a new department. This - together with the legal requirements
on deaeration times - will determine whether one or two sterilizing chambers
need to be provided.
I t is of equal importance to provide for an adequate total capacity of careful-
ly exhausted deaeration cupboards.
To and
from O.A.
I
Sinks for prelim.
chemical and final
Storage cabinets
decontam- washing
ination (see Fig. 33))
Packing area
(see Fig. 40)
Steam and gas

sterilization
Deaeration for
gas-sterilized
instruments
for sterilizing plant To anesthetic room
Fig. 6. Floor plan of the instrument room. This workroom is divided into a wet and dry side. In
the wet area the instruments are washed, cleaned and subsequently prepared for reuse by soaking
in disinfectant solution. On the dry side instruments are packed in plastic foil and sterilized by
gas or steam
We have completely abandoned boiling as a method of sterilization, although

numerous instrument companies manufacture optical systems suitable for this
process.
An autoclave should be provided for subsidiary sterilization in the endoscopy
instrument room. As already mentioned, we use this equipment for sterilizing
the operating table funnel, rubber goods and pure metal instruments. The advent
of disposable drapes has led to reduced linen requirements.
Fig. 7. Floor plan of our transurethral operating suite (Urologische Klinik reehts der Isar). An airlock
system allows entry to the unit via the changing rooms, showers and lavatories for male and female
personnel. The scrub-up area may be reached by crossing a corridor, and this then allows access
to the two transurethral operating theaters. Room I is designed primarily for sterile and aseptic
procedures and Room II is reserved for infected patients. The scrub-up area also gives access to
the instrument room. The activity in this area is to be further described in detail in Chap. B. Patients
reach the operating theaters via the anesthetic room, and the transition from bed to operating
table is made at the threshold of the entry corridor to the anesthetic room. All working areas
are liberally equipped with fitted cabinets
The Instrument Room 9
Anes!h.
14.9
Urology O.A. I Urology O.A. II

36.6 39.8
DO
DODD D
DODD DO
DODD DO
DODD DReS!
Teaching
20.7
00 room
21.0
4. Ancillary Rooms
However small an endoscopic operating suite may be, additional rooms will
be required for the storage of standby equipment, stores and rarely used instru-
ments.
It is thus mandatory to have a standby high frequency diathermy available,
since failure of this apparatus at a moment of vigorous hemorrhage may repre-
sent the gravest hazard to the patient and may even lead to an emergency
open procedure to underrun the prostatic capsule or resection point of a bladder
tumor.
5. The Recovery Area
Patients undergoing prostatic or bladder tumor surgery require intensive moni-

toring in the immediate postoperative period, particularly if operative hemosta-
sis has not been entirely successful. A recovery and monitoring room should
therefore be situated close to the operating theater, so that the patients may
be seen between operations by the surgeon and the function of the catheter
and degree of hemorrhage be monitored by trained personnel.
For this purpose we have provided anesthetic gases and monitoring equip-
ment so that up to four patients can be recovered in their beds in the broad
entry corridor outside the anesthetic rooms at the same time.
6. The Siting of Transurethral Operating Suites
In large hospitals not built on the pavilion principle, a transurethral suite rna)
be located within a central operating department or may be accommodated
in a decentralized fashion within the urology department.
There are negative and positive aspects of either solution. Personally I prefer
the decentralized variant, since this enables the combination of endoscopic oper-
ating and examination facilities with a urologic X-ray department. Such an
arrangement would also allow particular attention to the important aspects
of endoscopy. It does, however, go without saying that the suite described
above may equally be set up within a central operating area. Under these circum-
stances it is essential that the instrument room with its specialized facilities
for sterilization and care of delicate equipment remains part of the operating
suite. Figure 7 demonstrates by the example of our own clinic a typical layout
of operating and ancillary rooms. Such a unit may easily be placed within
a large central operating department.
Chapter B
Instruments and Their Care
I. Instruments for Transurethral Surgery
1. Diagnostic Instruments
Among the range of instruments available for diagnostic purposes the so-called
panendoscope has nowadays found general application. The chief feature of
this instrument is its ability to examine the urethra, prostatic urethra and bladder
through a single sheath. For these purposes a slightly forward-viewing telescope
(30° Storz or 155 0 Wolf) is generally adequate. It is only cases in which protrud-
ing lobules of adenoma prevent a full view of the bladder that require lens
systems with more acute angulation of the optical axis. In fact under some
circumstances retrograde-viewing telescopes may be required. The narrow cali-
ber diagnostic instruments manufactured by Storz direct irrigating fluid in a
jet toward the bladder wall, which is thereby indented somewhat. Thus these
instruments allow the bladder wall to be palpated with a water jet (see Ch.
G.IV.5.d.).
Such instruments, available in a range of diameters from 15-18 Ch, also
permit minor endoscopic procedures such as retrograde injection, coagulation
of small bleeding vessels or minute papillomata as well as excision biopsy by
means of fine forceps. Depending on the overall diameter, the instrument
channel in these cystoscopes measures 5-6 Ch (Fig. 8).
Nevertheless, their chief application is purely diagnostic.
2. Operating Cystoscopes
This term embraces all those instruments of which the operating channel will
accept wide-bore probes and special attachments for the introduction of small
operating instruments into the bladder (Fig. 9).
Various manufacturers offer these instruments in sizes ranging from 20 to
24Ch.
Such instruments permit the comminution of small and soft stones by means
of small forceps, excision biopsy and even the fragmentation of larger stones
with the hydraulic lithotrite.
12 Chapter B Instruments and Their Care
b c
Fig. 8a--d. A diagnostic cystoscope with a 5 Ch operating channel. This instrument, of only 15.5 Ch
diameter, is able to accept the manufacturer's entire range of telescopes. It is thus not only suitable
for a comprehensive examination of bladder and urethra but also allows minor diagnostic and
therapeutic procedures. a General view of the instrument with a 5Ch. miniature biopsy forceps
in situ. b Detailed view of the vesical end showing the same biopsy forceps. c As above, but with
a ureteric catheter introduced. dThe cystoscope equipped with a hooked probe. Alternative equipment
includes a fine injection needle for local anesthesia of small areas of the bladder mucosa and a
fine coagulating wire
Generally speaking, however, the repertoire of the operating cystoscope has

been considerably diminished by the advent of true transurethral resection in-
struments. This development has been particularly fruitful in the treatment of
bladder tumors by coagulation, since this had not previously been adequately
radical. Of equal importance in this respect are the so-called coagulating cysto-
scopes with their retrograde-viewing and operating facilities (Fig. 10).
It is important to note that these working attachments may also be intro-
duced through the resectoscope sheath. There has thus been a development
towards the concept of a modular instrument set.
All these instruments will accept the full range of available telescopes, from
pure forward- to retrograde-viewing.
An intermediate position between operating cystoscope and resectoscope
is occupied by an instrument described by ENGBERG (unpublished). This narrow
caliber resectoscope (Fig. 11) has an additional special channel allowing the
Operating Cystoscopes 13
c
b
Fig. 9a-k. 23 Ch operating cystoscope. a General view of the instrument. c-k A variety of diagnostic
and operative accessories. b Vesical end of the instrument closed off by the obturator for blind
instrumentation. c The same instrument containing a viewing obturator enabling urethroscopy during
introduction of the sheath. d A diagnostic telescope in situ. e Cystoscope with 70° telescope and
ureteric catheter controlled by the Albarran lever. f Rigid biopsy and operating forceps. Note the
gouge-shaped jaws enabling biopsies to be taken with minimal tissue trauma. g Operating insert
with forward-viewing telescope and Urat probe for shock-wave litholapaxy. h Heavy forceps for
the removal of small stone fragments and foreign bodies. i Punch biopsy forceps with cutting jaws.
j Small rigid foreign body forceps. k Flexible biopsy forceps similar to those in Fig. Sa and b
Fig. 10. Retrograde coagulating cystoscope (Wolf). This instrument is designed for coagulating small
tumors in the region of the internal meatus. A special biopsy forceps may be passed through the
flexible operating channel in order to obtain biopsies prior to coagulation
introduction of a local anesthetic needle into the bladder, and a cutting loop
permits the resection of small bladder tumors.
The instrument has been designed chiefly for the ambulant treatment of
tumor recurrences without the need for hospital admission. It has the further
advantage that its small diameter should be less traumatic to the urethra. Our
initial experience has been entirely positive.
3. Water Connections
for Diagnostic and Operating Cystoscopes
For many years it was customary in English-speaking countries to use Luer-lock

connections for irrigating fluid. With the increasing availability of German-made
Electro-resectoscopes 15
d
e
Fig. 11 a-g. Transurethral operating instrument after Engberg. This 20-Ch instrument was developed
primarily for outpatient use. The various accessories enable minor resections to be carried out under
local anesthesia. An injection cannula may be inserted for the infiltration of local anesthetic under
small bladder tumors. A rigid biopsy forceps is available for use in place of the electrotome. a
Sheath and obturator. b Electrotome with small cutting loop and special small caliber operating
telescope (3.5 mm/O.14" diameter). c Detail of cutting loop. d, d' Detailed view of the injection
cannula and its connection hub. This cannula may be introduced in place of the cutting loop.
e Urethrotome blade for cold urethrotomy under direct vision. f Timberlake type hinged obturator.
g Rigid biopsy forceps to be introduced in place of the electrotome
instruments 1ll these countries the three-way cock system has gained ground
(Fig. 12).
My personal preference is for a three-way cock, since it requires considerably
fewer cleaning and maintenance maneuvers during instrument preparation, and
in use its attachment and removal are accomplished more quickly. Irrigation
of the bladder is achieved by means of a single control, while Luer-lock connec-
tions require the manipulation of at least two levers.
4. Electro-resectoscopes
Resectoscopes produced by various manufacturers all over the world have taken
on a measure of similarity, although certain makers offer particularly convenient
special equipment.
-.-----
a b
Fig. 12a, b. Two different types of water connection for diagnostic instruments. a Luer-lock connection.
b The three-way cock and bayonet connector system preferred by us for its speed of operation
(see text)
a) The Resectoscope Sheath
The resectoscope sheath generally consists of a cylindrical metal tube, the vesical
end of which is protected from the current pathway by a ring of insulating
material.
The vesical end is available in a variety of similar contours ranging from
long beak to minimal obliquity (Fig. 13).
a) Insulation-Coated Sheaths. The sheath for the original Stern-McCarthy instru-

ment was made of insulating material (Bakelite). European manufacturers and
users have always preferred metal sheaths. For some years now, resectoscope
sheaths with a Teflon coating have also been available with noteworthy varia-
tions in quality, ranging from a thin film on the sheath to its investment with
a continuous, homogeneous Teflon sleeve. This point is of considerable impor-
tance, since small defects in the Teflon coating may give rise to dense leakage
currents. It is therefore important to test the integrity of this insulation periodi-
cally. These Teflon coatings were introduced in an attempt to prevent transfer
of high frequency current induced in the metal sheath by the cutting loop.
The insulating ring at the vesical end may be made from a variety of materials.
We prefer a ceramic substance which has equally excellent mechanical and elec-
The Resectoscope Sheath 17
\'---~\L.-_ __ a
~'----'------ b
\ I c
Fig. 13a~. Various contours available for the vesical end of resectoscope sheaths. a Long beak. b
Shorter version of the same. c Oblique-ended sheath. d Straight-ended sheath. We prefer type d
for our instruments since it renders them most versatile in use. We have entirely dispensed with
protective beaks (a, b) since they render proper resection of small prostatic adenomas considerably
more difficult
Fig. 14a, b. The external end of resectoscope sheaths. a Irrigation inlet by Luer-Lock connector.
There is no separate outlet port. Irrigation fluid leaves through the open end of the sheath. b
Central three-way cock fitted to a resectoscope sheath, showing inlet and outlet ports (see text).
Connections are made by attachment of standard push fit hoses
trical properties. The introduction of these materials has virtually eliminated

the need for repairs to the sheath aperture.
Teflon is a water-repellant substance. Water-soluble lubricants will therefore
not adhere to the sheath collar, and special Teflon-compatible lubricants should
be used.
Resectoscope sheaths are available in sizes from 22- 28 Ch. We prefer a
24 Ch instrument so as to spare the urethra.
~) The External End of the Resectoscope Sheath. The external end of the resecto-
scope sheath consists of irrigation fluid connections and, depending on the
type of instrument, the mechanism for locking the electrotome into the sheath
(Fig. 14).
In the simplest form, therefore, there is only a water-inlet port and stopcock.
Drainage is through the open end of the sheath after removal of the electrotome.
It is technically only slightly more complicated, but in practical usage of
considerable advantage to provide the sheath with its own drainage port. This
should be of wide caliber and be able to accept a run-off tube, through which
both irrigating fluid and resection chips may drain after the electrotome is
removed. If the open end of the sheath is closed with one finger, extensive
soiling of the operating theater and operator may be largely avoided (see
Fig. 100).
The long run-off tube generates a mild siphon effect which hastens emptying
of the bladder. We use a tube of approximately 40 cm length which drains
into the operating table funnel. The sterile drape is provided with a plastic
gauze window which sieves out the resected chips.
Where such equipment is lacking the drain may be run to a bucket
and connected to the inlet stub of a collecting sieve. Such a drainage arrange-
ment, with its greater length of hose, will generate an increased siphon effect
(Fig. 15).
A degree of perfection of the resectoscope sheath was achieved with the
introduction of the central irrigation cock. This is a three-way cock controlling
water inlet and drainage. The advantages of this system are discussed in detail
in Chapter. D.III.3.e).
A resectoscope with central stopcock has for many years been our standard
instrument.
1) The Obturator. The obturator closes the vesical end of the sheath and aids
instrumentation (Fig. 16). Three basic types are available:
1. Viewing obturators
2. Straight obturators
3. Timberlake obturator according to hinged
The Viewing Obturator. Not infrequently it is useful to introduce the sheath

under direct vision. This is greatly facilitated by the use of a viewing obturator,
which allows atraumatic instrumentation under direct visual control. By the
combined use of direct vision and simultaneous irrigation urethral trauma is
avoided.
The Straight Obturator. This is the most frequently used type of obturator.
A particularly useful variant was introduced by LEUSCH. Locking the obturator
causes a rubber cuff to spread and bulge against the sheath aperture, thus
shrouding its sharp edges. This mechanism reliably protects the urethra from
this form of trauma.
The Hinged Obturator. This finds ready application when blind instrumentation
is thwarted by the marked ventral protrusion of a large middle lobe obstructing
advancement of the sheath. I have no personal experience with this type of
obturator, since I prefer instrumentation under direct vision using the forward-
The Resectoscope Sheath 19
Fig. 15. Drainage of irrigation fluid by outlet port and central cock. In the example shown here
a rubber bulb (Ellik-pattern) forms an integral part of the drain pathway, thus allowing better
extraction of resection chips. The latter are collected by a sieve hooked over the side of a 10-liter
collecting bucket. Graduations on this bucket aid in the estimation of blood loss
c
The Electrotome 21
viewing telescope of the electrotome. Under direct vision it is always possible

to surmount the obstacle of a ventrally protruding middle lobe.
b) The Electrotome
The electrotome is an operating unit consisting of telescope and cutting loop

control mechanism.
a) Loop Control Mechanisms. Three distinct systems of loop control are in

use (Figs. 17 and 18):
1. Rack and pinion loop control as in the original Stern-McCarthy instrument
2. The Nesbit system
3. The Baumrucker system
The rack and pinion mechanism is certainly the one offering most accurate
control of the loop. However, its use requires longer practice.
In the Nesbit system a spring retracts the cutting loop into the sheath.
Cutting therefore requires that the loop be extended out of the sheath by pressure
against the spring, and the loop will then retract of its own accord. The operator
achieves faster or slower cutting by varying his resistance to the spring return.
In the Baumrucker system a spring extends the loop out of the sheath,
and cutting is achieved against the tension of this spring by manual retraction
of the loop into the sheath. The loop is thus extended out of the sheath in
the resting position and this must be borne in mind when introducing such
electro tomes (Fig. 18c).
In the final analysis the choice of loop mechanism will depend on the opera-
tor's training, temperament and personal preference.
The electrotome has a viewing channel for interchangeable telescopes, and
the cutting loop is firmly fixed to its transport mechanism. This also bears
a connecting terminal for cutting current.
A large number of variations on this basic principle are commercially avail-
able. In drawing attention to the specifications found in instrument catalogues,
I would emphasize that the art of operating ultimately depends on the dexterity
of the operator, which the most artfully designed mechanism can never replace.
It has been my observation that the majority of experienced transurethral opera-
tors use the simplest possible instruments, while the self-taught and beginners
seem to prefer mechanically more complicated models, in the apparent hope
of compensating for their lack of experience by the refined construction of
their instrument (NESBIT 1943).
The cutting loop must be firmly connected to the live lead, ideally by screw
connections.
:::::\ Fig. 16a-f. Obturators for occluding the vesical end of the sheath. a Simple metal obturator without
protection of the insulating ring. b Timberlake hinged obturator. c LEUSCH obturator. In the closed
state a rubber sleeve protects the sheath aperture, thus preventing urethral injury. d Viewing obturator
according to SCHMIEDT, with telescope in situ. e, f Detailed view of LEUSCH obturator in open
(e) and closed (t) positions
Fig. 17a, b. Diagram of two types of loop control mechanism. a Baumrucker system for cutting by
digital pressure. A spring between telescope and loop carriage extends the loop from the telescope.
Cutting is achieved by pulling a lever back toward the eyepiece. This compresses its spring which
will return the loop to its starting position at the end of each cut. b Nesbit spring-powered system
for passive cutting. Extending the loop compresses a spring which will retract the loop when the
lever is released
The loop control mechanism should be checked for freedom of travel before
any operative maneuver.
~) Cutting Loops and Other Work Pieces. The tissue is normally cut by means
of a loop-shaped electrode, this loop being made of fine tungsten wire. Depend-
ing on application, the gauge of this wire varies between 0.35 and 0.25 mm
(0.01-0.014"). Finer loops require less current to cut the tissue, but they are
mechanically less robust. Since the cutting loop is gradually eroded by the
current, its central portion, which most frequently enters the tissue, is consumed
more rapidly than the lateral sections (Fig. 19). The latter are prone to little
The Electrotome 23
a b
Fig. 18a-c. 3 patterns of loop control mechanism. a Rack and pinion system. Back and forth move-
ments of the lever retract and extend the cutting loop. This mechanism corresponds to the Stern-
McCarthy system (carriage for loop attachment and high frequency connection). b Spring-powered
cutting arrangement. The bent leaf spring (Iglesias pattern) retracts the loop into the sheath. This
spring must therefore be compressed every time the loop is extended into its cutting position. c
Cutting by finger pressure. A spring built into the lever system extends the cutting loop out of
the sheath. Active pressure is therefore required to retract it during cutting. Note that with this
system the loop is extended in the resting position
deterioration and may advantageously be used for the coagulation of bleeding

points, which requires the largest possible contact area.
The progressive consumption of the cutting loop may be observed endoscopi-
cally.
Figure 20 gives a review of the available cutting loops and other work pieces.
Tumors in certain parts of the bladder are advantageously dealt with by the
straight mowing loop, but its use demands great perfection of operative tech-
nique. This loop projects from the sheath even when the instrument is fully
retracted (see Chap. G).
The resection of bladder tumors requires thin loops, since only these permit
fine dissection with low currents. In view of the small quantity of tissue usually
Fig. 19. Markedly worn cutting loop. The loop shows most wear at the point of maximum use.
The high current density generated by such a narrow cross section is particularly suitable for the
resection of bladder tumors. Smooth sharp cuts may be achieved at low current settings. Coagulation,
however, should be carried out using the side flanks of the loop, where there is a greater area
of contact to prevent the loop sinking into the tissues in a cutting fashion when coagulation current
is applied
Fig. 20a-j. Resectoscope according to Mauermayer. a General view with electrotome inserted. Impor- [>
tant features of the instrument include the central cock and drainage stub and a telescope set rather
more distally than usual in the sheath. The telescope is thus placed at the point of best irrigation
and allows a high quality view even in the presence of brisk hemorrhage. The telescope is set centrally
within the sheath, being of pure forward-viewing type without a deflection prism (0° system). The
advantages of this system are discussed in detail in the text. b Standard cutting loop. c Knife-shaped
electrode for cutting bands of scar tissue and for sphincterotomy in neurogenic outflow disturbances.
d Ball electrode for surface coagulation of wide area, e.g., hemorrhage from inoperable tumors.
e Conical electrode giving point coagulation for hemostatic control of persistently bleeding vessels
by generating a high density current at the electrode tip. f Blunt curet for scraping off necrotic
tissue and encrustations in the bladder and prostatic capsule. g Sharp curet for removing more
firmly attached slough and for drawing calculous debris into the sheath. h Mowing loop. This
type of loop is particularly suitable for resecting bladder tumors on the posterior wall. Because
its use may easily lead to perforation of the bladder it should be restricted to the most experienced
operators. i Rigid biopsy forceps. This is rendered more versatile by the arrangement for its extension
and retraction within the sheath. j Detailed view of these forceps. Note the gouge pattern of the
jaws, which is designed to provide sharp separation of the tissue margins and therefore reduced
trauma artefact in the specimen
The Electrotome 25
to be removed, the more rapid wear of these loops is of no significance, whereas

surgery to a prostatic adenoma demands the almost exclusive use of thicker
loops so as to avoid changes of loop during the operation.
A number of manufacturers offer rigid loops designed to be used without
current in the fashion of a curet for the clearance of necrotic tissue and adherent
coagula from the operating field . They are also useful for the clearance of
calculous material following litholapaxy.
& ~...........~= ~~~--------~~~

b c d
e g
,
,
-0.'-; 7;7;;;;;;;;;;:;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
"
.... "':1\
- I
70~i \
1\ -
I
I \
\
12'0·
Fig. 21. Viewing angle of the various telescopes used in our practice (Hopkins, Storz). The chain-dotted
line represents the optical axis and the broken lines the field of view
A cutting hook is a useful instrument for incising the bladder neck. It may
be equally employed for dividing a fibrosed internal sphincter in the female
and in neurogenic outflow disturbances in the male.
Various patterns of coagulating probe are available, and the electrode is
generally so designed as to provide a wide area of coagulation. Ball electrodes
are also available for rolling across the operating field. Such electrodes should
be used with great caution, since coagulation over an excessively wide area
leads to unnecessary necrosis. The principle indication for their use is diffuse
parenchymal bleeding in which individual bleeding points cannot be located .
y) The Telescope. As a general rule, optical systems for transurethral surgery

have a more or less forward-viewing axis (Fig. 21). For historical reasons it
has been traditional to use telescopes with 3-5° angulation of the viewing axis.
This arose mainly from technical requirements for illumination of the operating
field prior to the introduction of fiber optics. However, modern fiber optic
technology has enabled the construction of purely forward-viewing resection
telescopes. I personally prefer 0° telescopes in which there is no angulation
of the viewing axis.
c) Irrigation Fluids for Transurethral Surgery
Irrigating fluid for transurethral operations may be prepared in one of two

basic fashions :
1. A continuous supply by means of factory-built filtration or reverse osmosis
plant with automatic refilling of the reservoir and addition of concentrated
additives to preserve isotonicity.
Lubricating Agents 27
2. Prepacked, ready-prepared irrigation solutions in bags or containers.

Because any transurethral resection of the prostate carries the risk of intrave-
nous passage of irrigation fluid, only isotonic solutions should be used. Although
irrigating fluid is in no way a therapeutic agent designed for intravenous injec-
tion, any resection will entail lesser or greater quantities entering the venous
system, and there is thus a strict requirement for pyrogen-free water.
It is not yet clear whether the application of newer reverse osmosis or anodic
oxidization plant will prove to be economical and safe. It may well be that
the use of prepacked irrigation fluids will become the standard method. At
present the latter is rather too costly for general application.
d) The Fiber Optic Light Source
All makers of endoscopic instruments supply light sources which are particularly
suitable for their own fiber optic light cables. Ideally, a combined high frequency
diathermy and light source are suspended by a ceiling bracket.
e) The High Frequency Diathermy Unit
High frequency current generators with special settings for cutting and coagu-
lation are now in general use. A footswitch selects cutting or coagulation current
according to requirements. Although a previous generation of machines em-
ployed a vacuum tube system for cutting and a spark gap generator for coagu-
lation current, virtually all manufacturers nowadays supply exclusively solid-
state equipment generating both types of current. An indifferent electrode pro-
vides a large surface area of contact with the patient, either by means of a
buttock pad or a foil plate wrapped around the thigh, according to local prefer-
ence. The most important problems of high frequency surgery, the appropriate
safety rules and basic principles of high frequency technology are discussed
in Sect. III.
t) Lubricating Agents
Until recently, little attention was paid to the lubricating agents used to reduce
friction between the urethra and the resectoscope sheath.
Following the studies of FLACHENECKER et al. (1977, 1979) we have come
to realize the importance of using electrically conducting lubricants with metal
sheaths so that an electrically conducting film is formed between the sheath
and the urethral mucosa (see Sect. III). Teflon sheaths require special lubricating
agents able to coat this water-repellent material.
Before introducing the sheath we gently (i.e., without exerting pressure)
fill the urethra with lubricant by means of a 10-ml glass syringe (gonorrhea
syringe). The carefully lubricated sheath can then be introduced more smoothly.
g) Sundries: Lighting Cable, High Frequency Cable,

Irrigation Supply, and Drainage Hoses
Individual instrument companies so design their light cables that they will only
fit their own instruments. However, by means of adaptors or by unscrewing
part of the connection, they may be adapted for other types of instrument
(Fig. 22).
These light cables contain varying numbers of individual glass fibers (Figs. 23
and 24). It is generally recommended to use the thickest available cable, since
its superior light-conducting power will provide the best illumination of the
bladder. Although our modern high-power optical systems provide a considera-
bly better picture than did the old pre-Hopkins lens systems, one should never-
theless always aim to work in a field of maximum brightness, as provided
by the thickest available cable. There is then no difficulty in undertaking cysto-
(i)
'I CD
Fig. 22. Universal light connector. By screwing on a variety of threaded sleeves the telescope Q)
may be connected to various manufacturers' light cables (CD, CD=threaded sleeves)
Fig. 23a, b. Fiberoptic cables of various caliber, view across the end of the fiber bundle. a Standard
cable with modest number of fibers. Such a cable is suitable for the majority of aU diagnostic
and therapeutic maneuvers. b Diameter of a cable of high total fiber cross section. This type of
cable is used mainly for photographic and cine application or for use with prismatic or fiberoptic
teaching attachments (the latter always divert a proportion of the available light to the observer
through a beam splitter)
Sundries: Lighting Cable, High Frequency Cable, Irrigation Supply, and Drainage Hoses 29
Fig. 24a, b. Light cables for diagnostic and therapeutic applications. a Standard cable with a cross
section corresponding to that in Fig. 23 a. b Integral system. Light is taken from the lighting unit
at two separate points and subsequently united in a single fiber bundle which runs without interrup-
tion to the vesical end of the telescope. Optical systems of this type generally have special applications,
such as video, cinematography and still photography, all of which have high light requirements
scopy or resection using a normal light source equipped with a 1S0-W or 2S0-W
halogen tube. However, the attachment of fiber optic or prismatic teaching
attachments to the eyepiece may well divert too great a quantity of light to
the observer, so that the operator's image becomes too dark. Under these cir-
cumstances, it is advisable to use a light source employing a high-pressure mercu-
ry vapor tube, which most manufacturers supply for this very purpose. It may
then also be helpful to use a light guide with twin connecting plugs. For video-
or cine-recording of endoscopic procedures so-called integrated light systems
(Fig. 24 b) are advantageous, since the individual fibers run without interruption
to the front lens of the telescope.
High frequency leads connect the cutting loop or coagulating probe to the
high frequency diathermy. They are specially designed for compatibility with
the terminal on individual instruments and are therefore not generally inter-
changeable, except in the case of coagulating probes, for which a standardized
pattern of connector has gained ground.
Silicone rubber hosing has become popular for the irrigating system. This
material is transparent, allowing one to detect air bubbles and the presence
or absence of flow in the tube. They are relatively resilient and not easily kinked.
The size required will depend on the size of connector on the instrument. Their
length should always be adequate to allow the operator free movement to the
maximum excursion of his instrument.
Run-off hoses are only required for instruments having a drain port on
the sheath. Since this drainage port is generally of larger diameter than the
inlet, appropriate sizes of tubing will be required.
The length of tubing will need to be adapted to the sieving system employed,
be it part of the sterile drape or a drainage sieve in the floor bucket.
The short drain hose employed in the sieve-drape system is generally packed
as part of a sterile drape set. Its free end is attached to a special anchor piece
which keeps the outlet clear of obstruction and prevents its direct contact with
the drapes.
If irrigation fluid is to drain into a floor bucket, additional length is required
in the drain hose to provide free movement. The hose is usually connected
to an attachment on a sieve, allowing the collection of resection chips.
For the recovery of individual separate tissue samples, for example during
the resection of bladder tumors, we use a sterilizable sieve which is positioned
in the collecting funnel of the operating table and emptied at the end of each
collection cycle by tapping it out on a sterile towel.
5. Lithotrites
a) Preliminary Considerations
Blind litholapaxy is a dying art practiced ever less frequently since the availabili-
ty of alternative technology has saved a whole generation of young urologists
The Punch Lithotrite According to Mauermayer 31
from having to learn this technique. Litholapaxy by electro hydraulic pressure

waves and by ultrasound has, furthermore, displaced purely mechanical meth-
ods, although I personally would greatly regret the demise of the blind lithotrite.
Since the introduction of the punch lithotrite (MAUERMAYER 1976) a new
technique of litholapaxy has come into being.
b) The Punch Lithotrite According to Mauermayer
This instrument crushes the stone by the application of the same principle as
that employed in the punch resectoscope (YOUNG). Naturally, its mechanical
construction needs to be adapted to this use.
The instrument consists of a metal sheath equipped with a central stopcock
as previously described, an obturator, a hand-lever system for operating the
crusher and a telescope (0° and 30° systems available according to preference)
(Fig. 25).
IX) The Sheath. The sheath is an elliptic metal tube of 24 Ch. Its vesical end
is so designed as to withstand considerable mechanical stress. The external
end is equipped with the three-way central stopcock as described. The sheath
is provided with an obturator to close it off during introduction.
P) The Operating Module. The operating module consists of a second tube

of high tensile steel which can be withdrawn into the sheath by a scissor-grip
mechanism. The vesical end of the punch tube is so notched out as to fashion
a small point directed backward toward the internal meatus. The calculus or
its fragments are maneuvered into this notch of the inner tube, and closing
of the handgrips crushes it in a resection-like maneuver.
It is of paramount importance that the inner section be introduced into the
sheath with the grips in the closed position, since lack of such control may lead
to serious injuries to the bladder. The grip should only be released under direct
vision.
The inner tube contains a telescope channel.
Instead of this punch forceps, a sheath insert may be used which consists
of a control mechanism for an electro-hydraulic lithotrite probe. An ultrasound
lithotrite by the same maker (Storz) may also be introduced into this sheath.
In its present form, the punch lithotrite is capable of endoscopic removal
of virtually any calculus, with the exception of those whose great mechanical
strength renders them equally immune to electro hydraulic litholapaxy. We have
had no experience of such resistant concretions when using the ultrasonic litho-
trite. In our practice the Ellik evacuator has proved invaluable for the removal
of debris. Alternatively, the rubber bulb that we employ in the run-off tube
during resection procedures may be of equal use.
We have completely given up using Young's stone-crushing forceps or larger
mechanical viewing lithotrites.
u
b
g
The Ultrasonic Lithotrite 33
Fig. 26. Frontal view of probe for use with the Urat apparatus. In the center may be seen the core
of the high tension coaxial cable surrounded by a dark insulating ring. This is coaxially surrounded
by the tubular second electrode, which in turn is protected on the exterior by an insulating sheath.
Spark discharge between the central and ring electrodes gives rise to pressure waves which shatter
the calculus
c) The Urat-I-Lithotrite
The instrument consists chiefly of a generator providing short bursts of high

tension electricity. This is discharged as a spark by means of a special probe
brought into contact with the calculus. The probe has a diameter of 10 Ch
and consists of an inner central conductor separated by an insulating layer
from a coaxial outer tube (Fig. 26).
When the current is switched on, sparks are discharged between the two
electrodes.
If the probe is brought into close contact with a calculus, the latter will
be shattered by shock waves resulting from the spark discharge. This apparatus
should only be used under most careful adherence to the operating instructions,
with particular attention to grounding of the apparatus, the patient and the
operating table. I have used this instrument for almost 20 years and have never
experienced an accident.
By this method litholapaxy may be undertaken through virtually any instru-
ment with a suitable 10 Ch instrumentation channel.
d) The Ultrasonic Lithotrite
Although extremely elegant in principle, this technique was at first bedeviled

by technical problems with the apparatus, so that it did not initially gain ground
as rapidly as it deserved to. The problems, which were principally concerned
with the generation of high frequency waves, are now solved and technically
<I Fig. 25a-g. Mauermayer punch lithotrite. a General view of the instrument with the operating unit
in position. b View of the vesical end, explaining the mechanism of action. Compression of the
handgrip retracts the inner tube into the sheath. c A calculus grasped by the instrument, thus further
demonstrating the mode of action. d Stone punch sheath with attached Ellik evacuator. In place
of a directly attached evacuator (illustrated), a rubber bulb along the course of the drain hose
(see Fig. 15) may also be used for aspirating debris. e Punch sheath without operating unit. f Operating
unit with Urat probe in situ. The operating channel is of 10 Ch diameter. g Urat operating unit
inserted in the punch sheath. Such a combination allows a preliminary attack on a large calculus,
followed by its definitive destruction by the punch unit
Fig. 27. General view of an ultrasound lithotrite (Aachen model). The operating unit of the lithotrite
is seen inserted in the punch lithotrite sheath. A cranked telescope enables in-line attachment of
the ultrasound drill probe. In the background is seen above the ultrasound generator, and below
an irrigation unit with its peristaltic pump. A foot switch controls both generator and irrigating
unit. The irrigator also provides for cooling of the ultrasound transducer (quartz crystal). In addition
to the connecting leads shown here, inlet and drain hoses are required for the punch sheath. Despite
the profusion of cables and hose connections one may work quite rapidly with this instrument,
since no change of position is needed
mature production models of this apparatus are available. Its mechanism of

action is based on the technical principle of all ultrasound apparatus: a quartz
crystal is excited by an electromagnetic signal and emits synchronous oscilla-
tions. The forward and backward excursions of the crystal are coupled to the
operating element of the lithotrite, the tip of which is armed with a crenellated
drill tip, Thus an ultrasonic lithotrite set consists of the following individual
components (see Figs. 27 and 28):
1. The ultrasound generator. This generates the high frequency electromagnetic
signals for escitation of the crystal.
2. The lithotrite itself. A metal housing contains the active quartz crystal which
is coupled to a connecting rod running down the instrument sheath into
the bladder as the operating element.
3. A water connection is provided for cooling of the quartz crystal.
The Continuous Irrigation Resectoscope 35
Fig. 28 a, b. Detailed view of ultrasound unit inserted in the punch sheath. a Note the cranked telescope
and the ultrasonic transducer head with its cooling water and high frequency cable connectors.
Irrigation inlet and drain hoses remain to be connected to the punch sheath and are under the
control of a central cock. b Detailed view of the ultrasound drill tip
Fig. 29. Iglesias resectoscope. Inlet slits for continuous drainage of irrigation fluid may be seen
at the vesical end of the instrument (see text)
The particular ultrasound lithotrite which we use is so far perfected that

the comminution and evacuation of bladder calculi no longer present difficulties
and may generally be accomplished without general or spinal anesthesia. The
only disadvantage of the technique is that the stone is not shattered into frag-
ments but has to be rather laboriously drilled apart.
6. The Continuous Irrigation Resectoscope
This instrument was first described by IGLESIAS in 1975. It enables resection

to be undertaken as a continuous, uninterrupted process. Fresh irrigating fluid,
so essential for the maintenance of a clear view, is continuously supplied to
the resection field and is equally continuously evacuated under negative pressure
through small fenestrations in the vesical end of the sheath (Fig. 29). Such
continuous irrigation resectoscopes are nowadays available from all major in-
strument makers. Precise descriptions of the individual instruments may be
found in the manufacturers' catalogues and in special pUblications.
Fig. 30a, b. Reuter trocar for suprapubic puncture of the bladder. a Trocar and stylet for penetration
of the abdominal wall. b The trocar inset with multiple holes for collection of irrigation fluid.
Penetration depth of the trocar may be controlled by the adjustable collar and plate
The chief objective behind the design of this instrument is prevention of

excess hydrostatic pressure in the bladder and prostatic cavity, with the aim
of avoiding the infusion of irrigating fluid into the prostatic capsular venous
plexus.
7. The Suprapubic Aspiration Trocar
REUTER and JONES (1974) described a special trocar which also permits continu-
ous drainage of irrigating fluid from the bladder during transurethral resection.
At the beginning the operation the trocar is inserted transcutaneously into the
well-filled bladder. The operation then proceeds in the usual fashion using an
ordinary resectoscope. Irrigation fluid is continually aspirated via the trocar
connected to a suction device. This technique has the same aim as the above
i.e., minimizing irrigation fluid infusion via opened prostatic veins (Fig. 30).
8. The Laser Operating Cystoscope
The laser operating cystoscope is a special cystoscope of approximately 25 Ch

diameter, designed or laser coagulation and permitting the transmission of a
laser beam. Following the initial theoretical and practical studies by MUSSIGANG,
HOFSTETTER, SCHMIEDT in 1980 (see HOFSTETTER et al. 1979) we have, ourselves,
recently started to employ the technique of laser coagulation (Neodyn-Yaklaser
by Messerschmidt-Bolkow-Blohm).
Although laser operating cystoscopes are at present available from two com-
panies, they are of essentially similar construction (Fig. 31). The laser-generated
The Operating Urethroscope 37
Fig. 31. Vesical end of the laser-operating cystoscope. The exit point of the laser beam may be seen
on the movable lever. Note the laser conduction bundle within the sheath aperture. The beam
is thus controlled both by the Albarran lever and by movement of the entire instrument
light passes via a firm screw connection to the operating element of the cysto-
scope. A quartz conductor carries laser light down the interior of the instrument
and terminates as an integral part of the Albarran lever, which thus renders
it dirigible. Since the laser beam of this apparatus is not itself visible, it is
marked by a red pilot beam so as to facilitate the operator's control of the
beam.
9. The Operating Urethroscope
Diagnostic urethroscopes belong to an early historical phase of endoscopy.

As well as permitting the passage of a ureteric catheter for marking out and
dilating tight strictures, the original instrument described by FISCHER was pro-
vided with an additional channel allowing the passage of a fine insulated wire
probe with which internal urethrotomy could be carried out by high frequency
diathermy.
b c d
Fig. 32a--d. Sachse operating urethroscope for cold incision of urethral strictures. a The instrument
fully assembled. The knife is so adjusted as to partly protrude from the sheath when extended.
The sheath itself is equipped with a channel for the passage of a filiform bougie. b Detailed view
of straight knife in sheath aperture. c Angled disk-shaped knife. A bend in the control rod moves
the blade to the lateral edge of the field of view, thus facilitating anatomical orientation. d saw-toothed
blade (enlarged)
In 1973 SACHSE published a description of the viewing urethrotome which

bears his name and he thus initiated a renaissance of internal urethrotomy
(Fig. 32).
The urethrotome has a 20-Ch metal sheath which is able to accept an operat-
ing element imparting cutting (" sawing") movements to a small knife for which
various types of blade are available. In the modification of DETTMAR a small
loop on the bellied knife may be threaded over a ureteric catheter which controls
the direction of cut.
The Sachse-urethrotome insert may also be introduced into a Storz resecto-
scope sheath. Thus strictures may be incised at the beginning of a transurethral
resection. The knife blade may equally be fitted in place of the cutting loop.
II. Cleaning, Sterilization, and Maintenance

of Endoscopic Instruments
1. Instrument Cleaning
I have already drawn attention, when discussing the optimal layout for a trans-
urethral operating suite, to the provision of an instrument room, to its equip-
ment and to the sequence of operations involved in the mechanical cleansing
of instruments.
For practical reasons, right-handed staff prefer an arrangement by which
the dirty instrument is passed from left to right towards the sterile zone. If
this is not possible, the cleaning sequence may of course take place from right
to left, even though this may offend against a natural sequence of movements
(Fig. 33).
a) Preliminary Disinfection
Immediately after use, instruments should be dismantled as far as necessary

and placed in disinfectant solution. The object of this maneuver is to prevent
secretions, blood and other organic substances from drying on the instrument
and becoming difficult to remove.
We use Helix solution for this process, since it has both detergent and disin-
fectant properties. All such work is carried out in protective gloves to shield
the nurses from infection by virulent organisms. The instruments remain in
this solution for 30 min and are only then given their mechanical cleaning.
This concept is necessarily time-consuming and, in view of the large number
of procedures we carry out every day, requires a considerable stock of instru-
ments with most sets being at least duplicated.
Cleaning the Sheaths and Accessories (Excluding Telescopes) 39
Fig. 33. "Wet department" of the instrument room. To the right of 2 sinks let into the worktop,
a plastic trough for the preliminary disinfection of instruments in Helix solution. At this stage
the nurses handle the instruments with disposable gloves, available in a wall-mounted dispenser.
Before soaking, the instruments must be dismantled. Stock solutions are stored below the work
surface. In this particular room work proceeds from right to left: technical factors made this unavoid-
able. The water jet used for cleaning the instruments is delivered by the pistols seen behind the
sink. A wall attachment above contains the various nozzles. Above the left sink may be seen a
compressed air point to which a high pressure hose can be attached for blowing out instrument
channels. To the left of the sink note the 2 sterilizable sloping-bottomed troughs for wet decontamina-
tion of the instruments ; on the right the decontamination trough, on the left the distilled water
rinse. Time-clocks are on the wall above. Further to the left a clean operating table funnel awaits
sterilization. The casto red insert under the table is stocked with irrigation fluids and intravenous
infusions. On the corner of the wall cabinet a twin-lens illuminated magnifier is available for detailed
inspection of instruments
b) Cleaning the Sheaths and Accessories (Excluding Telescopes)
The mechanical cleansing of used instruments is the prerequisite of subsequent

decontamination or sterilization. Only if these articles are completely free of
blood, secretions and other material is the disinfectant solution able to penetrate
all parts of the instrument and have its desired effect. Disinfectant solutions
are not capable of penetrating specks of dirt, irrespective of whether these con-
taminants are proteinaceous or not.
The best mechanical cleansing agent is running water under considerable
pressure. Splashes of water are well avoided if this rinsing is carried out under
Fig. 34. Cleaning the instruments by water jet. A special pistol mounted behind the worktop sink
enables a high pressure water jet to be forced through instrument channels. Since the instruments
are soaked immediately after use, blood and secretions are not able to dry on and are thus easily
removed by the vigorous water jet
water in a sink. We have found a water pistol with a variety of nozzles extremely
useful, since it allows a jet of water to be injected into the various openings
of the endoscope (Fig. 34).
Other cleaning equipment consists of small brushes provided by endoscope
manufacturers to suit the caliber of various sheaths and instrument channels.
It is also very useful to have a variety of wooden sticks, the tips of which
are wrapped in cotton wool. Simple toothpicks and somewhat larger wooden
sticks available in household stores for kitchen use are suitable for this purpose.
Cotton wool is simply twisted round the tip of these sticks and with a little
dexterity the wool ball is adjusted to the caliber of the various channels. Wood
has the advantage over metal that cotton wool may be passed through the
instruments without scratching the bore.
At the end of this cleaning process we use a nylon loop to pull strips of
wick through the sheaths and instruments (Fig. 35). These wicks are chosen
Cleaning the Telescopes 41
Fig. 35. A nylon loop pulling a wick through a narrow instrument channel
to be a tight fit within the lumen, and their appearance tells whether or not
the instrument is properly clean.
Fine edges and corners, which modern instrument design has done so much
to eliminate, are picked clean with a tooth-pick (Fig. 36).
All these tasks require a great deal of skill and a sense of responsibility.
The schooling of personnel for this work is best carried out within the unit
by a well-trained and responsible sister.
c) Cleaning the Telescopes
Because of their smooth and unbroken surfaces, telescopes do not represent

a mechanical cleaning problem. On the other hand, the outer surfaces of lenses
and the connection points for the light source require special care.
The front lens of a used telescope may be covered with a fine coating of
clotted blood not visible to the naked eye. The lens is best cleaned by a gentle
twisting motion with a soft cotton cloth, moistened with alcohol and a trace
of a liquid washing-up detergent. Abrasive cleaning agents should be strictly
avoided, as should prolonged rubbing of the front lens or eyepiece, since this
may lead to scratches and blemishes.
We have found it particularly useful to check the instruments under an
illuminated magnifier with a twin lens. For general inspection, the larger lens
of low magnifying power is quite adequate, while detailed inspection may be
undertaken with the superimposed more powerful lens (Fig. 37). It is quite
surprising how frequently such optical inspection reveals contamination.
Fig. 36. Corners and crevices are cleaned with cotton wool sticks
Fig. 37. llluminated magnifier. Fine detail is best appreciated under optimal lighting and magnifica-
tion. A variety of illuminated magnifiers of various types are commercially available. Such a unit
should be sited at the end of the mechanical preparation area
Inspecting the Light Cables 43
Particular attention should be paid to the light connection, which should

be cleaned with a small cotton-wool stick. This part is also prone to accumulate
coatings leading to a substantial loss of light transmission.
Following each cleaning cycle the telescopes should be inspected along the
following lines:
1. Cleanliness of the front lens and eyepiece (illuminated magnifier)
2. Unimpeded entry and exit of the light beam
3. Unspoilt surface of the metal tube (dents!)
4. Detection of mechanical distortion
5. View through the telescope. a) Circular field of view? Half-moon ? b) Clarity
of the image (clouding, partial loss of definition)
Dents in the metal tube are usually caused by carelessness when a heavy
object is allowed to fall on the telescope. A telescope may be severely damaged
simply by a blow from a falling pair of toothed forceps.
Routine inspection according to this five-point plan will establish with cer-
tainty when and by whom damage was caused - an extremely important and
fruitful educative measure.
d) Inspecting the Light Cables
The light conduction of fiber optic cables should be tested from time to time.
It is natural to use these components for as long as possible and only replace
them when their transmitting power is markedly reduced. Since the glass fibers
tend to break over a period of use, their condition must be checked periodically.
Fig. 38 a, b. Inspection of light cables. a A cable in usable condition despite a few broken fibers.
b This cable should be removed from service immediately and exchanged for a manufacturer's
reconditioned unit
Broken fibers may lead to a very substantial loss of brightness, and if this
occurs on a large scale it is usually due to excessive bending.
Figure 38 shows two examples of fiber bundles, of which one is still virtually
intact but the other has suffered such extensive deterioration that an unaccept-
able loss of illumination results. It should therefore be sent for reconditioning
(usually on an exchange basis).
Inspection is best carried out with a 10 x magnifying glass as used by philatel-
ists.
The light cable is attached to the source and the latter turned to its lowest
setting so as not to dazzle the inspecting eye. If this is not possible, the cable
may alternatively be directed toward the ceiling light and the exit end then
inspected with the magnifying glass. Figures 38a and b correspond in their
magnification approximately to the image thus obtained.
At the same time an oblique view of the surface will reveal its state of
cleanliness.
2. Sterilization and Decontamination of Instruments
a) The Decontamination Process
Wet decontamination with aqueous solution has, in recent years, gained increas-
ing importance, since the addition of glutaraldehyde means that a 20-min expo-
sure is sufficient to kill all vegetative forms of bacteria, fungi, yeasts and acid-fast
bacilli.
It goes without saying that careful mechanical cleaning, as just described,
is an absolute prerequisite.
It is important to employ a time-clock which gives an acoustic signal at
the end of the decontamination time. The instruments should be soaked in
troughs with an inclined bottom, so that air bubbles within the lumen of tubular
instruments are eliminated of their own accord. When placing the instrument
in the solution, care should be taken that it is completely wetted, if necessary
by gentle shaking.
When decontamination is complete the instruments should be soaked for
a few minutes in sterile distilled water to wash out the formalin of the first
solution (2nd container). Sodium bisulfite should be added to the water in
a ratio of 8 g per 4 1 of solution. This additive greatly neutralizes the sharp
smell of formalin and prevents irritation of the eyes.
The dismantled instruments are now laid out on a sterile drying towel whence
they can be removed for further use. Whether the instruments should be reassem-
bled by a nurse wearing sterile gloves or, for training purposes, by the surgeon
himself, must be decided on a departmental basis.
Disinfectant containers should routinely be autoclaved.
The decontamination process must be continuously monitored. The best
method is to rinse out not only the lumen of instruments, but also that of
catheters and ureteric catheters with sterile solution from a disposable syringe.
The solution is collected in small specimen tubes and sent to the bacteriology
Sterilization 45
Fig. 39. Packed instrument set. All the instruments required for a given operation (here for TUR)
are contained in a metal tray, which is sealed in a plastic bag and sterilized by ethylene oxide,
The test strip in the bottom left-hand corner gives information on the duration and effect of the
sterilizing process
laboratory, This monitoring is the responsibility of the sister-in-charge, who

must keep a record according to a predetermined protocol.
b) Sterilization
Most clinics now use gas sterilization of their instruments with ethylene oxide.
Only articles composed entirely of metal, rubber and textiles are sterilized by
steam. In our clinic, steam and gas sterilization are carried out in a ratio of
approximately 1: 3.
No further description is required of the widespread and well-known tech-
nique of steam sterilization.
Ethylene oxide has the great advantage as a sterilizing agent that instruments
may be packed in advance, since the gas is able to penetrate special plastic
films and sterilize the equipment through them.
Sterile instruments may thus be stored prepacked and prepared in a systemat-
ic layout. The contents of individual packs may be inspected with ease (Fig. 39).
It is, however, necessary to cleaerate plastic and rubber materials after the
sterilization process. Clearation times may be shortened by the use of force
ventilated chambers. The supplier will be able to provide precise data for this
process.
Fig. 40. Working area for packing instruments. On the left the openings of gas and steam sterilizing
units. Above the work surface is a dispenser for rolls of plastic sleeving in various widths. A propor-
tion of this is nowadays available as combined paper and plastic sleeving. Below this dispenser
is situated the sealing unit, and to the right a variety of small wooden boards corresponding to
the length and breadth of various instruments. The plastic foil sleeving is wound around these
and cut off at either end, thus providing correct pre-cut lengths for packing a variety of instruments.
A footswitch controls the sealing unit and on the left of the latter are rolls of sealing and sterilizer
tape for gas and steam sterilization
The instruments are packed in a special working area (Fig. 40). A stock
of bags is kept in the form of rolls of plastic sleering of varying breadth hung
in a dispenser and passed through a sealing appliance controlled by a foot
switch. Before packing, all stopcocks on the instruments should be opened
to allow the entry of gas. Maintenance operations (greasing of cocks, etc.)
must also be carried out prior to packing.
Sterilization also requires continuous monitoring. The self-adhesive indicator
strips only show that the materials have undergone a certain process, but they
give no information as to the quality of that process. Monitoring methods
involving spore samples are well described in the various manufacturers' and
suppliers' literature.
Packed, sterilized instruments may be stored on open shelving. Day-to-day
working will be greatly facilitated by keeping an adequate supply of instruments
and accessories such as hoses, light cables, evacuator bulbs, loops and similar
sundries.
Cutting and Coagulating with High Frequency Current 47
III. High Frequency Technology: Applications and Hazards

By K. FASTEN MEIER and G. FLACHENECKER
The successful execution of innumerable transurethral resections by means of

high frequency current gives continuing testimony to the suitability and reliabili-
ty of this method. Nevertheless, we are occasionally reminded of the inherent
dangers of electrical current by accidental injuries, such as burns to the patient's
skin, muscle stimulation and a proportion of urethral strictures. In order to
avoid such hazards the resecting surgeon needs a minimum understanding of
electrical processes and the mechanism of action of high frequency current
in surgery. Only thus will he detect inadequacies in the equipment and faults
in the circuit before the laws of physics render them an inescapable hazard
to himself or his patient.
1. Cutting and Coagulating with High Frequency Current
Figure 41 represents the use of high frequency current to make a cut in the
urethral tissues. The internal arrangement of the instrument enables high fre-
quency current (I) to be supplied to the tungsten wire cutting loop. This current
flows from the surface of the loop into the tissue being cut, thus generating
the heat needed to separate the tissues. It must be emphasized that the cutting
current then continues into the interior of the patient's body, only to leave
it again by means of the attachment point of the indifferent electrode. It is
thus inherent in the principle that the patient's body represents part of the
electrical circuit within which high frequency current flows.
"'- __ 'n,,,,. lalion
Fig. 41. Cutting by high frequency current. Arrows = current density; HF = high frequency
Current density a rows
Cutti
loop
Spark Spark
a or arc orarc
Direction ofcut
b
c
Fig. 42a-i:. Current flow from cutting loop to tissue. Effect of various diathermy settings : a Correct
setting. bToo low. cToo high
,
The events which take place at the surface of the loop during the cutting
process are explained in Fig. 42. Examples are given of three separate settings
of the diathermy unit: optimal, too low and too high.
Figure 42a represents the optimal case. Current flowing from the loop into
the surrounding tissue causes intracellular fluid to boil and vaporize so rapidly
as to disrupt cell membranes. The cells thus discharge steam so fast as to separate
the wire from the tissue, destroying direct electrical contact. However, with
correct setting of the equipment the electrical tension will be just adequate
for the vapor gap to be bridged by an electrical arc. As Fig. 42a indicates,
the arc will be generated on the front of the cutting loop in its direction of
travel. The combination of a high temperature arc and restriction of current
to a fraction of the loop surface results in an optimal cut requiring the minimum
power output from the diathermy.
If the power output (or output voltage) is set too low, then either the cyto-
plasm will not vaporize at an adequate rate, or the vapor zone will not be
bridged by an arc, resulting in the tissue remaining firmly applied to the entire
surface of the wire loop. This situation is represented in Fig. 42 b, where the
current density is inadequate to produce explosive cytoplasmic vaporization, with
consequent arrest of the cutting process. The tissue is merely desiccated or
coagulated, giving the surgeon a sensation of getting stuck in the tissues.
If, on the other hand, the diathermy is at a higher setting than is strictly
necessary for smooth cutting, excess energy is mainly dissipated in the electrical
Cutting and Coagulating with High Frequency Current 49
Time ..
Fig. 43. Time-course of typical cutting current
arc. It may be seen in Fig. 42c how spread of the arc zone onto previously
cut tissue leads to excessive necrosis over a superfluously wide area. This is
mainly the consequence of excess tissue heating.
There are, however, further undesirable side-effects of an exaggerated arc:
Current stimuli: When a high frequency arc is maintained between two
different substances a degree of current rectification takes place. The low fre-
quency currents thus generated will stimulate adjacent nerves and muscles (e.g.,
stimulation of the obturator nerve). Such electrical stimuli will increase with
the intensity of the arc.
Oxyhydrogen: Adequate temperatures are generated within an electrical arc
to bring about thermal dissociation of water vapor. The explosive gas mixture
thus formed may collect within the bladder and be ignited at a later time.
The quantity of gas generated will increase with the intensity of the arc.
It is thus essential to limit arc generation to the minimum required for
smooth cutting.
The following operating parameters allow the diathermy unit to provide
ideal cutting conditions:
Output voltage: 250-280 V

Output current: 0.2--0.5 A
Output power: 50-150W
The cutting process thus depends on the thermal effect of high frequency current,
the heat required for vaporization of cell water being generated partly in the
electrical arc and partly within the tissue itself (Joule effect). This thermal effect
is not directly dependent on the frequency of the current. The latter needs
to be above 100 kHz because of the ability of low frequency current to stimulate
all nerve and muscle in or around the current pathway within the patient by
irreversible electrochemical processes (electrolysis). At frequencies above
100 kHz this effect is negligible.
Figure 43 displays the wave form of high frequency current as generated
by a modern solid-state diathermy unit set to "cutting".
For coagulation purposes it is undesirable for the current to produce a
tissue-separating effect. The cell water should therefore not be so rapidly heated
as to vaporize explosively, but should rather diffuse through the cell membrane.
1--1·- -T -I
Time -
Fig. 44. Time-course of typical coagulating current
Time
Fig. 45. Time-course of typical blend current
Such a desiccating effect on the tissues may be achieved by the current wave
form shown in Fig. 44. This time course is typical of the current produced
by an up-to-date high frequency generator in the "coagulate" setting. Note
that under these conditions, electrical power is transferred to the tissues in
pulses, so that the tissue is denatured without disruption of its cellular architec-
ture. The following electrical values are customary for coagulating diathermy
current:
Pulse interval T: 10-100 microseconds
Pulse width r: 1-20 microseconds
Peak voltage: up to 3,000 V
Peak current: up to 2 A
Mean power output: 10-50 W
In addition, many high frequency units are able to provide a "blend" of cutting
and coagulating current. Figure 45 represents the wave form of such a blend,
the result of which is a cutting action with increased necrosis of the cut surface.
For this latter reason, many transurethral surgeons deplore its use. Furthermore,
it becomes more difficult and requires higher diathermy settings to make a
further cut into this extensively necrosed tissue.
Cutting Loop and Connecting Cable 51
2. The Electrical Circuit in Transurethral Resection
a) Cutting Loop and Connecting Cable
During any transurethral resection the patient's body represents part of a closed
electrical circuit, as in Fig. 46. The first part of this circuit, running from the
HF-output of the diathermy unit to the cutting loop must be carefully insulated
so as to exclude the formation of inadvertent circuits at any point along the
course of the cutting cable, the connecting plug to the resectoscope and the
internal connection between this and the loop.
Particularly high quality insulation is required for the wiring within the
instrument, since on the one hand it must occupy little space, while on the
other safe protection is required against the voltages quoted. To avoid insulation
breakdown after prolonged periods of use the loop connections should form
an integral unit with the loop itself and thus be renewed at every change of
loop.
Patient
Insulation +---+- Indifferent electrode
Resectoscope --\-:-7--.......
Twin lead
HF current t i HF current
Indifferent pole
Live HF connection
HF unit
Foot switch
Fig. 46. Electrical circuit during TUR

HF diathermy
\+-\-I
ECG
Stray cu rrent
Fig. 47. Stray current via ECG unit due to incorrect attachment of indifferent electrode
b) Indifferent Electrode
The positioning of the indifferent electrode should always be a prime considera-
tion. Perfect electrical contact to the patient's deep tissues is required, if it
is to provide the sole pathway of current return, and if contact burns at its
site of attachment are to be avoided. It is thus important to maintain a broad
area of intimate contact with the skin throughout the operation. More hirsute
skin should be carefully shaved. Some reliable elastic device is needed to prevent
displacement of the elctrode. The indifferent electrode should overlie an ade-
quate thickness of well-perfused tissue, and its siting over bony prominences
is to be strictly avoided.
So as to keep the current pathway within the patient as short as possible,
the neutral plate should be as close to the site of operation as possible. The
thigh is particularly suitable, although the buttock may also be used with ade-
quate safeguards against slipp. The plate should never be placed rostral to
the operating field in the vicinity of the heart, especially in patients with cardiac
pacemakers.
Diathermy plate burns are not the only danger inherent in disregarding
these points. Poor conduction to the indifferent electrode also increases the
danger of current returning to the diathermy by alternative pathways. Figure 47
shows an example involving the EeG. The high current density arising from
an inadequate electrode surface, even at modest current intensities, may bring
about bums. Spurious circuits may also arise via ventilators and by inadvertent
contact between patient and table (either directly or via wet drapes). The stray
currents generated in such circuits may give rise to burns, the origin of which
cannot be reconstructed in retrospect.
Current Pathways Within the Patient 53
Attachment point To HF diathermy
Indifferent electrode
Fig. 48. Twin lead for monitoring indifferent electrode
Not all skin damage with the appearance of electrical burns is truly the
consequence of stray current. Constituents of various disinfection and sterilizing
agents acting on the patient's skin during the operation may be equally responsi-
ble. This is described in the literature as chemical corrosion.
Because of the consummate importance of impeccable contact between the
indifferent electrode and the diathermy unit, this connection is uniformly made
by a twin lead, of which the two cores meet only at the diathermy plate, as
shown in Fig. 48. Interruption of either lead will activate a safety mechanism
within the equipment and prevent operation of the diathermy. It should, howev-
er, be noted that the equipment used nowadays only tests the circuit between
the indifferent electrode and the diathermy unit, not the quality of contact
with the patient.
c) Current Pathways Within the Patient-

Effect of Electrical Properties of Instruments and Lubricants
The distribution of current within the patient between the cutting loop and
neutral electrode is largely dependent on whether the resectoscope sheath has
an insulated or metallic conducting surface.
Metal sheaths have a considerably higher electrical conductivity than human
tissues. They thus have a powerful influence on current distribution within
the body. A proportion of the current finds its way to the indifferent electrode
via a section of the sheath, as shown in Fig. 49 . This proportion of the current
thus traverses the urethra twice, giving rise to a specific current density distribu-
tion, as shown in the lower half of Fig. 49. These urethral currents are only
innocuous if a low diathermy setting is used, if there are no insulating faults
within the instrument and if the lubricating agent is of adequate electrical con-
ductivity.
If the electrical conductivity of the lubricating agent is markedly lower than
that of the tissues surrounding the sheath, high density current may flow through
localized points of contact, and the resultant local high temperature within
the urethra may give rise to strictures. Metal sheaths should, therefore, only
be used in conjunction with lubricants with an electrical conductivity a greater
than 1 mS/cm.
These problems of urethral conduction may be avoided by the use of an
insulated resectoscope sheath. Transurethral resection may then proceed with
a current distribution similar to that shown in Fig. 50. The sheath does not
Relative current
density in urethra
ol _I ':,;:.:f/:if;if..hi-'-"i:!,..
o x
Distance from
tip of sheath
Fig. 49. Current distribution within the patient using metal sheath. Below: Relative current distribution
along the urethra
form part of the electrical circuit, and the current density across the urethra
is negligible. In the special case of plastic-coated metal sheaths, injury to the
insulating layer should be carefully avoided. Damaged sheaths should never
be used.
The electrical conductivity of the lubricant is of little importance with insu-
lated sheaths, but agents with the lowest possible conductivity are nevertheless
recommended (0-< 1 mS/cm), to prevent currents bridging the gap between the
glans and metallic parts of the instrument via traces oflubricant on the insulating
collar.
The current distributions shown here for the two types of sheath are only
valid if there is no external conduction pathway between resectoscope and
ground connection on the diathermy. If, on the other hand, the sheath is
grounded, very considerably higher currents may flow to the instrument, and
in the case of metal sheaths the urethra will then be subject to extremely dense
currents. Care should therefore be taken that the sheath is not inadvertently
grounded, e.g., by the attachment of a video camera to the telescope.
Insulation Faults Within the Instrument 55
Insulated sheath
I
1
r
Relative current
density in urethra
oo- ------'--
x_
Distance from
tip of sheath
Fig. 50. Current distribution within patient using Teflon sheath. Below: Relative current distribution
along urethra (scale as in Fig. 49)
Comparison of the two types of sheath from an electrical point of view

gives a clear advantage to the insulated sheath since the urethra is not then
subject to any current. At the same time, insulated sheaths have mechanical
and chemical properties which influence their care and maintenance. Thus an
increased deaeration time is required following gas sterilization, and other
methods of sterilization are therefore to be preferred for such sheaths.
d) Insulation Faults within the Instrument -

Electrical Conductivity of Irrigation Fluid
An insulation fault between instrument and cutting loop connections will divert
a proportion of high frequency current to the instrument. Where metal sheaths
are used this will result in an increased current density in the urethra, with
its concomitant risk of stricture. The use of an insulated sheath will certainly
Fig. 51. Leakage current to instrument and surrounding tissue via conductive irrigating fluid
protect the patient, but higher voltages may be generated in metal parts of
the instrument with a consequent shock hazard to the operator.
Furthermore, in either case, but particularly when using a metal sheath,
leakage current to the instrument is not available for cutting or coagulation.
The result is a poor quality cut and reduced coagulating power. If, therefore,
the usual diathermy setting appear inadequate during a transurethral resection
they should not be mindlessly increased - rather the instrument should be care-
fully checked for insulation faults.
These faults may arise either from mechanical damage to the cutting loop
connections, from excess diathermy voltage or from damp penetration. In partic-
ular, the connecting plug between cutting cable and resectoscope should be
carefully protected from moisture throughout the very longest procedures. Not
infrequently a hissing noise in the resectoscope when cutting or coagulating
may indicate stray vaporization or arcing over due to moisture patches.
Excessive electrical conductivity of the irrigating fluid will have a similar
effect to that of insulation faults, and this is particularly noticeable when saline
is inadvertently used. Similar but less marked effects occur with tap water of
high ionic content, giving rise to particularly noticeable difficulty at the begin-
ning of a cut and when coagulating, since the loop is then mainly immersed
in irrigation fluid (Fig. 51). A proportion of the current will flow through the
fluid to adjacent tissue and the instrument. Specially prepared irrigation fluids
of low ionic content, such as are commercially available for TUR, are thus
to be preferred to simple tapwater. It should be noted that an influx of blood
may equally increase the electrical conductivity of the fluid, particularly in the
presence of sluggish or continuous irrigation. Figure 52 illustrates this state
of affairs.
Substantial short circuits between loop and instrument may be prevented
by avoiding the use of bent or badly worn cutting loops. In either case the
wire loop may come into contact with the telescope. Distorted loops should
therefore be carefully straightened, and worn ones discarded at an early juncture,
since breakage during the cutting process may allow sudden bending.
Capacitive Effects 57
Fig. 52. Influx of blood renders irrigating fluid more conductive
HF diathermy
Cutting lead
resectoscope
Fig. 53. Burn hazard due to capacitive current between cutting lead and patient
e) Capacitive Effects
High frequency potentials differ from direct current in their ability to give
rise to capacitive current even in the absence of metallic contact. This has
various consequences for transurethral surgery, but only the most important
are discussed here.
If, as in Fig. 53, the cutting cable remains in contact with a single naked
area of the patient's skin throughout an operation, capacitive currents may
give rise to a skin burn despite impeccable insulation. The slightest increase
in separation, e.g., by a dry drape, between cable and patient will minimize
such effects.
In the presence of an insulation fault within the resectoscope, considerably
increased potentials are generated within the instrument, particularly if it is
Cutting loop
Telescope
Sheath circuit
Fig. 54. Spark discharge to surgeon in event of short circuit in insulated sheath resectoscope
of the insulated type. The operating surgeon may then receive a shock, even
if there is no metallic conducting pathway between him and the ground potential
of the operating room and diathermy unit. The current transmitted to him
(represented in Fig. 54 as a spark discharge following short circuit between
the cutting loop and the telescope) will then take a capacitive route back to
the diathermy. Instruments with insulated sheaths should therefore also be
equipped with insulating eyepieces.
An additional capacitive pathway within the instrument is across the cutting
loop insulation. This has, however, been shown to be of negligible magnitude
in modern resectoscopes.
3. Hints for the Avoidance

of Electrical Hazards During Transurethral Resection
Pay attention to To avoid possible
Indifferent 1. Surface to be kept clean and free of

electrode: corrodent film
2. To be sited over muscle (preferably
on thigh or, with additional care, Skin bums under the indifferent elec-
under buttocks) trode plate; skin bums anywhere on
3. Entire surface to be in contact the body surface.
4. Not to be applied to hirsute skin
(shave first)
5. Secure to prevent slipping
Hints for the A voidance of Electrical Hazards During Transurethral Resection 59
6. Reliable connection Burns anywhere on the

to diathermy unit patient's body surface
7. Attach caudal to Increased influence on
the site of opera- cardiac pacemakers
tion (thighs or
buttocks)
Cutting 1. Never use cable with damaged insu- General danger of burns
cable: lation
(connecting 2. Careful connection to instrument Arcing over at resectoscope plug,
cable from and diathermy damage to plug
diathermy to
3. Avoid contact with naked skin of Skin bum to the patient at the
resectoscope)
paticnt (protect with towels) contact point with insulation (capaci-
tive!)
Patient: 1. No metallic contact with table Contact bums

2. Avoid damp pathway between pa- Conducting bridges between patient
tient and operating table and table: bums hazard; Hazard of
chemical corrosion without electrical
cause
Instrument, 1. Cutting cable plug to be kept dry Creepage currents to instrument and
cutting loop: 2. Discard loops with insulation faults ) urethra;
(hissing noise when cutting) Urethral stricture with metal sheath
or electric shock to surgeon with in-
sulated sheaths
3. Straighten or exchange distorted Short circuit loop to telescope;
loops
4. Early exchange of worn loops )
Urethral strictures with metal sheath
or electric shock to surgeon with in-
sulated sheath, damage to telescope
5. Regular check on Stricture hazard from
insulated sheaths short circuits within
instrument
6. Use insulated eye Burns to surgeon if
piece with short circuit
insulated sheath within the instrument
7. Observe deaeration Stricture of non-
time or avoid gas electrical cause
sterilization of
insulated sheaths
8. Do not ground Urethral stricture
instrument
Lubricant: 1. Metal sheaths require good conduc- Stricture following high density
tivity lubricants (conductivity current in urethra
(J> 1 mS/cm)
2. Insulated sheaths require low conduc- Thermal damage to glans penis
tivity lubricant (conductivity
(J< 1 mS/cm or carefully avoid lu-
bricant bridges between glans and
metallic parts)
Irrigation 1. Prefer non-conducting fluids

fluid: 2. Never use highly conductive fluids
Currents from loop via irrigating
(saline)
fluid to instrument and urethra;
3. Avoid tap water of high ionic Poor cutting;
content (electrical conductivity) High diathermy setting leading to in-
4. Note increased conductivity due to creased thermal load on patient
blood contamination in sluggish or
continuous irrigation
Diathermy 1. Use lowest possible setting (smallest Increased thermal load to patient,
unit: possible arc between loop and tis- especially with metal sheaths; Stimu-
sue) lation of muscles and nerves
(especially obturator nerve and
sphincter muscle) due to rectifying
effect of excessive cutting arc; Oxy-
hydrogen formation and explosion
hazard with excessive arc;
Increased tissue necrosis with exces-
sive arc
2. Check circuit rather than increase Increase in all electrical hazards
diathermy setting if poor cutting
I
and coagulating power; in particu-
lar check: indifferent electrode, re-
sectoscope cable plug, loop insula-
tion, irrigation fluid
Ancillary All connections between patient and

equipment: surroundings to be poorly conducting
(ECG, venti- (high resistance)
Bums to patient
lator, etc) Avoid spurious electrical contact be-
tween patient and metal theater equip-
ment
Chapter C
Preoperative Requirements
I. Assessment of the Patient
A textbook of operative surgery such as this is not the proper place to discuss
details of medical and urologic assessment. Only those factors are mentioned
which will influence the decision to operate and the choice of operation. Particu-
lar attention is paid to the surgical anatomy of the diseased bladder neck and
its anatomical relations.
The decision to operate arises mainly from the individual patient's micturi-
tion symptoms and from the results of routine investigations. The type of opera-
tive procedure selected on the basis of findings of rectal palpation, the cysto-
urethrogram and the findings at urethrocystoscopy.
1. The History
Inquiry into the general past medical history of a patient not only reveals pre-
vious illnesses, but also allows some assessment of the patient's personality.
A general impression of his degree of physical and mental agility may weigh
as heavily with the surgeon as the result of any individual investigation, when
it comes to a decision on whether to operate. In the absence of urologic or
general medical contraindications, the patients's wishes and his willingness (and
that of his family!) to undergo anything for the sake of normal urinary function
has very considerable significance. On the other hand, any decision should
take account of such factors as disproportionate fear of surgery despite pro-
nounced symptoms.
The general medical history should include such questions as excercise toler-
ance, metabolic disorders, coagulation defects previous myocardial infarcts or
cerebrovascular accidents as well as the presence or absence of a cardiac pace-
maker.
Patients frequently omit to mention previous urologic illnesses and opera-
tions: these should therefore be specifically asked after. Symptoms of micturition
should occupy a central place in the patient's history. Subject to the physical
findings and the outcome of investigations, the symptomatology alone may
at this stage suffice for a preliminary decision on the advisability of surgery.
62 Chapter C Preoperative Requirements
2. Urological Assessment
Rectal palpation of the prostate, radiologic investigation of the urinary tract

(excretion urography and cystourethrogram) and cystourethroscopy form the
basis of any decision on the type of operation to be planned.
The combined outcome of these investigations allows an accurate assessment
of the upper and lower urinary tract and the extent of pathologic change therein.
Uroflowmetry provides valuable additional dynamic information, especially
when the patient is a poor historian.
a) Rectal Examination
I prefer to perform rectal examination in the left lateral position with the legs
drawn up and the hips flexed. This position may be achieved even by the most
elderly and decrepit patient and is reached by simply rolling over from the
supine position in which the abdomen, hernial orifices and genitalia were exam-
ined. Rectal palpation should assess the following:
1. Extent of the gland (' organ limits ')
2. Protrusion into the rectum (' volume ')
3. Symmetry
4. Position of the gland (high lying - low lying)
5. Mobility
6. Consistency
The validity of rectal assessment. Rectal examination provides a first encounter,

often a decisive one, with the diseased organ. In the majority of cases, it is
only the rectal examination that will allow one to decide whether, in the presence
of suitable indications, transurethral or open surgery is more appropriate. Small
to medium adenomas, i.e., hyperplasia with a specimen weight of up to 50 g,
may be assessed in this fashion.
It goes without saying that the palpating finger must search for a carcinoma
of the prostate or rectum within its reach. Further investigations such as biopsy
and proctosigmoidoscopy should be carried out as appropriate. With regard
to the assessment of prostatic volume it should be noted that rectal examination
only encompasses an enlargement in the region of the prostatic urethra, not
within the bladder.
b) Radiologic Investigation of the Urinary Tract
ex) Excretion Urogram. Intravenous urogram allows accurate assessment of uri-

nary flow or the presence of obstruction in the upper urinary tract. Additional
findings such as tumors or calculous disease of the upper urinary tract are
rare but nevertheless add to the justification for this investigation which provides
such valuable functional assessment as well as displaying the bladder before
and after micturition.
Radiologic Investigation of the Urinary Tract 63
a b
Fig. 55 a, b. Diagrammatic representation of the bladder outline, as seen on excretion urogram. a

Normal outline of bladder filled almost to maximal capcity. The bladder base may be seen below
the superior margin of the symphysis. b Elevation of the bladder base by a small mainly endourethral
adenoma. (Figure 55 and 56 are derived from clinical radiography of which the findings were subse-
quently confirmed endoscopically)
When surgery is contemplated the presence of residual urine and filling

defects in the base of the bladder assume special importance.
In conjunction with the rectal findings the i.v. urogram will provide working
criteria for the type of operation to be considered.
The level of the base of the bladder in relation to the symphysis pubis
is a guide to the degree of enlargement in the urethral part of the gland. Endoves-
ical protrusion, on the other hand, appears as an isolated filling defect in the
medial part of the bladder. In typical cases, the filling defect may be identified
as being due to the median or the lateral lobes (see Figs. 55 and 56).
Pseudodiverticula, true diverticula and filling defects due to nonopaque
calculi or tumors of the bladder are further features to be considered.
Finally, the after micturition film allows a crude assessment of residual
urine. This should be accepted only with caution in more sensitive patients,
who may have difficulty in fully emptying their bladder to command. The pres-
ence of an apparently high residual urine on the after micturition film, in combi-
nation with the measurement of repeatedly normal residual volumes after mic-
turition in relaxing surroundings is a phenomenon well known to every experi-
enced urologist.
P) Cystourethrogram. The final radiologic investigation of cystourethrogram

may so complete the anatomic data that cystoscopy frequently has little to
add (Fig. 57).
We carry out this investigation routinely, with the following in mind:
1. Caliber of the urethra
2. Demonstration of bladder neck length
3. Demonstration of urethral angles
4. Demonstration of bladder contour (see Fig. 62)
In the investigation of benign prostatic hyperplasia we consider retrograde
cystourethrogram to be adequate and have dispensed with micturating films
of the urethra, since this is anyway only possible in the small proportion of
patients who still have adequate urethral flow.
Fig. 56 a-e. Diagrammatic representation of the radiologic picture obtained in the presence of endoureth-
ral and endovesical adenomas. a, b Configuration of prostatic and bladder anatomy within the pelvic
ring, showing the relationship between bladder, prostate and pelvic skeleton. a Arrangement of
normal-sized prostate. b Elevation of bladder base by a small mainly endourethral, only partially
endovesical adenoma. c The same configuration, showing the radiologic bladder outline. d Mild
elevation of the bladder base due to partially endovesical enlargement of the lateral lobes. e Marked
endourethral hyperplasia of both lateral lobes without endovesical moiety
Comparison of the dimensions of the prostate on cystourethrogram and

the weights of surgical specimens reveals a significant correlation between the
length of the prostatic urethra in centimeters and the weight of tissue in grams.
We have therefore come to the conclusion that the length of the prostatic urethra
is the only reliable criterion for the size of an adenoma.
When performing cystourethrogram it is thus important to achieve the best
possible views of the prostatic urethra.
Indications for Preoperative Outpatient Cystoscopy 65
Fig. 57. Principle dimensions measured on the cystourethrogram. 1 Length of the prostatic urethra
(distance verumontanum - internal meatus), 2 Distance from external sphincter mechanism to internal
meatus (the true length of the lateral lobes lies somewhere between the values of 1 and 2, since
the lateral lobes often extend distally beyond the verumontanum), 3 Height of the bladder base
above the symphysis as a measure of endourethral hyperplasia. The ventral (left) curvature of the
prostatic urethra is indicative of the extent to which the latter is distorted by a median lobe (see
also Fig. 63)
An important clue as to the configuration of the proximal bladder neck

may be found in the angle at which the urethra opens into the bladder. The
presence of a tall median lobe projecting far into the urethra, thus presenting
a potential obstacle to instrumentation, may then be appreciated prior to cysto-
scopy.
The demonstration of urethral strictures is of significance in relation to
potential problems of instrumentation and for the documentation of a preopera-
tive narrowing of the urethra.
c) Indications for Preoperative Outpatient Cystoscopy
All the above investigations may be carried out on an outpatient basis. We

generally omit cystoscopy unless there is a specific indication, such as hematuria,
symptoms of a bladder calculus or even the suspicion of a bladder tumor.
In the presence of such indications, however, we have no hesitation in perform-
ing outpatient cystoscopy under urethral anesthesia, with the strict proviso od.
stipulation that the standard of asepsis should equal that of an operating room
environment (disinfection, sterile drapes and instruments). The use of suitable,
and if necessary retrograde-viewing, telescopes usually allows such an excellent
view of the bladder that general anesthesia is req uired only for the most sensitive
and anxious patients.
As always, there is an exception to this rule: If previous investigations have
failed to indicate with certainty whether transurethral or open prostatectomy
should be performed, we proceed to inspect the bladder neck and bladder in
the outpatient clinic prior to arranging surgery. This is mainly for organizational
reasons related to the planning of operating lists.
Such doubts as to the suitability of one or the other type of procedure
arise only with large adenomas when a decision on transurethral or open surgery
must otherwise be based on measurements of bladder neck length and the ure-
thral cleft. The situation alters if coexistent disease such as severe infection,
tumor, urethral stricture or a protuberant median lobe render instrumentation
or inspection of the bladder painful to the patient. Under such conditions cysto-
scopy should be abandoned at an early stage, and under no circumstances should
the instrument be forcefully introduced.
It goes without saying that full routine laboratory investigation is required
in addition to the above. As well as urinalysis and bacteriology, hematologic
and blood chemical parameters should be measured. Since the majority of such
investigations are nowadays performed by auto-analyzers measuring a full range
of parameters, it is quite inappropriate to limit the investigations requested
on grounds of economy alone.
Assessment along the above lines will always allow a decision to be made
on advising surgery or expectant treatment. Furthermore, a firm basis is pro-
vided for the choice of perative procedure.
II. Indications for Surgery
1. General Considerations
In discussing the indications for prostatic adenomectomy, a sharp distinction

should be made between general and special indications. The former are indica-
tions for surgery as such, without considering how the gland is to be removed.
The latter are concerned with deciding on the most suitable procedure. Finally
the contraindications should also be considered, both as they apply to surgery
and to transurethral procedures in particular.
No one who has spent a considerable period of time looking after patients
with bladder outflow disturbances can fail to be surprised by the variability
in the patient's own assessment of his symptoms. Many men become so habitu-
ated to a gradual and almost imperceptible deterioration in micturition as to
accept this as a normal fact of life. Many will continue in this fatalistic attitude
until hygienic requirements force their wives to bring them to a urologist for
treatment of overflow incontinence. On the other hand, there is a group of
men who will enthusiastically seek surgical relief of the slightest impairment
of micturition.
A great deal of responsibility therefore devolves on the surgeon in his assess-
ment. He has to avoid carrying out unnecessary operations and yet to use
his medical authority to convince those patients for whom surgery is urgently
indicated.
In the following sections typical indications are described, yet these should
only be regarded as crude guidelines, since every case will have its own specific
features.
Chronic Retention with Upper Tract Obstruction 67
2. General Indications for Prostatectomy
a) Acute Retention of Urine
Inability to urinate may be one of the most important grounds on which a

patient is advised to undergo prostatic surgery. Acute retention may occur sud-
denly without any premonitory symptoms. If attempts at spontaneous micturi-
tion fail after repeated catheterization, an indwelling catheter will be required
while the patient is prepared for surgery. Intermittent catheterization or the
establishment of a suprapubic fistula may also be used to span a short preopera-
tive waiting period.
b) Recurrent Retention
In contrast to those with acute irreversible retention, these patients are able
to pass urine normally after decompression of the bladder by catheterization.
They therefore not infrequently fail to see the need for surgery. Nevertheless,
we always advise them to undergo operation, since the passage of time almost
inevitable renders their retention irreversible. An intravenous urogram may sig-
nifcantly influence the decision to operate. If a patient with a large adenoma
has the slightest degree of ureteric holdup, even in the absence of residual
urine, one should advise more urgent surgery.
c) Increasing Residual Volume
A small residual urine volume does not in itself represent an indication for
surgery unless there are quite marked subjective symptoms, although it is not
of course possible to give an exact figure above which an operation is required
and below which it is not: An approximate dividing line lies in the region
of 100-150 ml. In such patients, clinical progress may be the deciding factor,
with progressive deterioration indicating a rather greater need for surgery than
a static condition. More general factors should also be taken into account in
these patients, and if their general condition deteriorates despite apparently
static urologic symptoms and findings, early surgery should be considered, since
the risks of surgery can only increase with time.
d) Chronic Retention with Upper Tract Obstruction
In these cases the outcome of radiologic investigation is the major reason for
advising surgery. In the presence of the typical signs of ureteric back pressure
there is an absolute indication for early surgery, unless renal function needs
first to be improved by a period of indwelling urethral or suprapubic catheteriza-
tion.
e) Recurrent Ineradicable Infection
This group comprises all those patients who suffer from recurrent urinary tract
infections or in whom the urine cannot be sterilized. They may remain relatively
free of symptoms as long as they take antibiotics, yet their old symptoms will
return shortly after discontinuing treatment. It is not uncommon to find residual
urine volumes ofless than 100 ml, which may even disappear almost completely
with antibacterial therapy. During periods of infection the symptoms are often
substantial. Patients will them develop frequency and nocturia, often associated
with marked dysuria and poor stream. Specific treatment often relieves or almost
entirely abolishes the complaint, and radiology is often unhelpful. Secondary
phosphatic calculi occasionally form in the bladder in which case they represent
an absolute indication for surgery in fundamentally operable patients. Surgery
should, however, be advised in these patients, even in the absence of calculi,
whether the gland be large or small. Operation must be performed under anti-
biotic cover after bacteriologic diagnosis. Some of these patients nevertheless ref-
use to accept the need for operation as long as antibiotics provide relief. Regret-
tably, they only come to surgery when a resistant organism makes their condition
intolerable.
t) Hemorrhage from Prostatic Veins
Just as some patients suffer from recurrent retention, one comes across others
who at irregular intervals suffer episodes of hematuria which may on occasion
be so severe as to require the evacuation of clots where these are markedly
interfering with micturition. Some hemorrhages cease spontaneously. On the
other hand the bleeding may be so brisk as to be life-threatening and require
a cystoscopic attempt at arresting the hemorrhage by coagulation. The problems
associated with this maneuver are discussed in the chapter on operative treat-
ment. Whenever this is unsuccessful, i.e., when the hemorrhage is only reduced
but not completely arrested, there is a vital indication for emergency prostatec-
tomy, which paradoxically represents the only chance of stopping the bleeding.
g) Bladder Calculi
The formation of a bladder calculus is often true evidence of a bladder outflow

disorder. The usual explanation for the pathogenesis of such calculi is the accu-
mulation of uric acid crystals in a small amount of residual urine in the base
of the bladder (10-20 ml may suffice), and they are said to form calculi by
aggregation. This assumption is given weight by the failure of such calculi to
reoccur if free drainage has been re-established by prostatectomy, even though
the biochemical situation has not altered. The crystals are then cleared during
micturition. Equally, the clinical course of patients whose stones were eradicated
by chemical means, perhaps because of a hesitancy to operate, leads nevertheless
with inevitability to prostatectomy.
Bladder Tumors 69
h) Bladder Diverticula
With the odd congenital exception, formation of a bladder diverticulum results

from increased outflow resistance at the bladder neck. There is thus an indication
for the removal of this obstacle. It is usually possible to remove the diverticulum
during the same hospital admission. If a diverticulum occurs in association
with a small adenoma, bladder neck fibrosis or a transverse bar, it is our practice
to first excise the diverticulum by a suprapubic approach and subsequently
perform TUR of the bladder neck as a separate short procedure. Such a strategy
is significantly more radical than wedge resection of the dorsal bladder neck
or the usually quite difficult enucleation of a small adenoma of 10-20 grams.
i) Severe Outflow Disorders Without Residual Urine
In these cases one is to some extent dependent on subjective information from

the patient, although this may be objectively substantiated by urodynamic inves-
tigation.
As already pointed out in the above remarks on history-taking, a patient
may have exceedingly severe symptoms and yet the general assessment will
reveal little more of substance than a more or less enlarged prostate and some
trabeculation of the bladder. Residual urine or back pressure on the upper
tract cannot be demonstrated in such cases. The more measurement of urine
flow tends to substantiate the patient's claims of severe urinary symptoms,
the more inclined one should be to accede to his request for surgery. Even
if there is no frequency of micturition but merely an extremely poor stream,
as substantiated by urine flow measurements, there is a genuine indication to
operate.
j) Bladder Tumors
In elderly patients bladder tumors are frequently an additional or chance finding

during cystoscopic assessment of bladder outflow disorders. In all cases where
an indication for transurethral treatment of a bladder tumor arises, we simulta-
neously resect the prostate or the prostatic adenoma, usually before treating
the tumor itself. Such a procedure is of course only indicated for elderly patients,
in whom the associated retrograde ejaculation is not a significant problem,
and in younger patients in whom excision biopsy has revealed a carcinoma
of the bladder of such shallow penetration as to be suitable for further endoscop-
ic treatment.
The reasons for this regime are simple. In many cases the tumor is situated
on the lateral walls of the bladder or close to the internal meatus. Its removal
is less difficult if access to the side wall of the bladder is improved by preliminary
prostatectomy. These patients will all require regular check cystoscopies, and
instrumentation is far easier through a widely open bladder neck. As a result,
patients will have less aversion to outpatient cystoscopy and are more likely
to keep their appointments without reminders.
3. Rare Indications for Transurethral Surgery
In this section we consider uncommon indications for surgery which need to

be borne in mind despite the rarity with which they arise.
a) Chronic Prostatitis and Prostatic Abscess
This indication is much debated and should be considered only a relative indica-
tion for proceding to surgery.
In chronic prostatitis surgery may turn out to be a blessing if immaculately
performed on correctly appreciated indications. It is, however, mandatory to
confirm the diagnosis by bacteriologic examination of ejaculate and expressed
prostatic secretion, as well as by punch or aspiration biopsy. Ultimate perfection
of operative technique is also required to guarantee the removal of inflamed
and infected glands or areas of adenoma right down to the true fibrous capsule.
Prostatic abscess, on the other hand, is only then an indication for transur-
ethral surgery if it lies close to the urethral lumen. Preoperative cystourethro-
scopy will easily confirm this, since the abscess may be seen bulging into the
lumen of the prostatic urethra. On the other hand, in cases where rectal palpa-
tion reveals a perhaps fluctuant mass bulging into the rectum, drainage through
the perineum is to be preferred.
Subsequent resection of the abscess cavity, i.e., of an area of chronic prostati-
tis, may still be performed at a later date if required.
This disease has recently become extremely rare. Ten or twenty years ago
we saw up to five cases of abscess a year, now a single case may be separated
from the next by several years. Pyogenic prostatitis is also on the decrease.
b) Prostatic Tuberculosis
This disease has also become so very rare as to be mentioned here purely
for the sake of completeness. In the 1940s and 1950s it was an unusual but
well-recognized condition with an incidence of several patients per year. Surgery
is mainly indicated where obstructive symptoms are dominant. A preoperative
period of high-dose chemotherapy is mandatory.
c) Multiple Prostatic Calculi
Only in the presence of obstructive symptoms and/or where the calculi form
a nidus of inflammation or microabscesses does this disease represent an indica-
tion for adenectomy. Microabscesses may be diagnosed from the clinical picture,
rectal examination and a copious purulent discharge on forceful palpation of
the gland. Radiologic demonstration of duct ectasia is seldom successful (see
Fig. 58).
Prerequisites of the Surgeon 71
Fig. 58a, b. Diagrammatic cross section through the prostatic urethra in midorgan. a Large abscess
of the left lateral lobe enlarging the latter and shifting the urethral cleft to the right. Obvious
protrusion of the spherically enlarged lobe into the urethral lumen. b Position of prostatic calculi
between adenoma and true capsule. These calculi are concretions formed within the glandular ducts
of the prostate proper and concentrated in the periphery by enlargement of the adenoma. If the
calculi are sizeable they become palpable rectally. Their visualization during resection proves that
the margins of the capsule ha ve not been exceeded
In the majority of cases asymptomatic prostatic calculi are not themselves

a true indication for operation, merely a surgical obstacle. The techniques in-
volved in these unusual types of resection and the way in which such rare
indications may arise are further discussed in Chap. H.
4. Indications for Transurethral Prostatectomy
a) Prerequisites of the Surgeon
That the indications for this procedure are largely dependent on the technical
ability of the surgeon became apparent even in the early years in which the
guidelines for transurethral prostatectomy given in books by NESBIT and BARNES
(both 1943) made this operation part of the general urosurgical repertoire in
the USA. To this extent transurethral procedures are no different to those
in other branches of surgery. No sensible or conscientious surgeon would
operate on a cerebral tumor unless he had undergone an adequately long neu-
rosurgical training of sufficient standard. One can imagine other examples ad
infinitum.
The same is true of all transurethral surgery. Years of training are required
before a surgeon should carry out this operation on his own unless the procedure
is to be far more hazardous than open prostatectomy by the retropubic or trans-
vesical route. The pioneer days when everybody tried his best are behind us.
A numerical estimate of technical ability is easily made. In transurethral
operating units, records are routinely kept of operating time, irrigation fluid
consumption, blood loss and total specimen weight in grams. These data provide
a good measure of a given surgeon's abilities. For this purpose operating time
should be divided into two parts:
1. The time required for removal of the tissue bulk
2. The time required for definitive hemostasis
The quality of hemostatic technique may be reliably estimated by two further
factors:
1. The volume blood loss is an indicator of the surgeon's ability to close bleeding
vessels as soon as they are cut, during the first phase.
2. The degree of hemostasis at the end of the procedure is evident from the
appearance of the irrigating fluid.
According to an old rule, which I believe still to be valid today, the duration
of surgery should not exceed one hour. If a young urologist is capable of resect-
ing half a gram of tissue per minute, a 20-g adenoma should be resectable
within the hour. Forty minutes are thus available for resection, and a young
surgeon may require all of the remaining 20 min for definitive hemostasis. The
blood loss during such a procedure should not exceed 200 ml. Since an experi-
enced surgeon always supervises the trainee through a teaching attachment,
these latter 20 min are perhaps a somewhat generous estimate allowing for
small corrections to be carried out at the behest of the instructor.
As a gradual increase in speed during the first phase of the resection (without
an increase in blood loss) testifies to the surgeon's increasing competence, he
may be entrusted with operations on larger glands.
A highly experienced surgeon is capable of removing 100-130 g of tissue
in an hour, including final hemostasis. In this case the first 50 min are devoted
to tissue removal and concurrent hemostasis, and the remainder is for careful
final hemostasis and cleaning of the resection cavity. Such a degree of practice
is naturally only attained after a large number of operations and requires a
high degree of technical dexterity, a factor well known to anyone with extensive
experience in the training of young urologists.
Taking the example of a surgeon who removes 20 g of tissue in one hour,
it may be seen that he is capable of successfully treating 30-40% of all patients
requiring this type of operation for a bladder outflow disorder. Normally a
surgeon's manual dexterity increases with time. With increasing experience he
will feel able to resect larger adenomas without fear or trepidation. The level
to which his abilities rise depends not only on individual talent but also on
his enthusiasm for the procedure. If he has trained in a unit where the procedure
is practiced with technical perfection, he is likely to have seen extremely high-risk
patients come through the operation with flying colors and leave hospital a
few days later in the usual fashion. This is usually adequate motivation for
him to want to learn to emulate his masters.
All these considerations determine the indications as appreciated by an indi-
vidual surgeon. This naturally requires true and honest self-criticism. It is of
little or no service to the patient if a surgeon embarks on an adenoma too
large for his technical ability and finally just about achieves a palliative resection.
The days are over when transurethral operations were" a one-eyed art without
a witness" (W. HEYNEMANN). The master can watch his apprentice's every step
General Indications for Transurethral Resection 73
and vice versa. Fiberoptic teaching attachments have greatly contributed to

this state of affairs.
This discussion of the personal element in the indications for TUR has,
with good reason, been detailed, and in summary it may be said that every
surgeon must know his limitations and should never attempt an operation
beyond his abilities.
b) Early Surgery
This term denotes the concept of operating on a patient at a time when surgery
represents only an insignificant hazard to him. To put it simply, but also crudely,
the patient undergoes surgery at a stage in his disease when his symptoms
are still so slight as not in themselves to represent a rigorous indication. The
patient is nevertheless advised to undergo surgery at an early stage because
of the greatly reduced risk, and because he will thus avoid an unpleasant waiting
period. This notion is seductive as long as all goes well. However, when compli-
cations arise it becomes deeply depressing to have been responsible for advising
a fellow human being to have an operation which was not strictly required.
On the other hand, patients who have waited for several years with pronounced
symptoms and finally decide in favor of surgery may often be heard to ask
postoperatively: "Why didn't you try to persuade me harder all those years
ago?" .
These are borderline cases to which there is no patent solution such as
exists when surgery plainly is or is not indicated. There will always be a no-man's
land in which the decision for or against surgery depends on experience, manual
dexterity and quality of aftercare, but one should remember that the personality
of the surgeon himself is paramount in determining his willingness to take
a risk or his caution in not doing so.
Finally, a number of other factors also play a part. A patient with only
early symptoms who is travelling to an area with a poor standard of medical
care should, for example, be rather more strongly advised in favor of surgery
than one who lives in a town with modern transport facilities and virtually
opposite the hospital, where he can be admitted immediately should he deterio-
rate or go into acute retention.
In this connection it should also be pointed out that the balance between
indication and contraindication is nowadays significantly different to the situa-
tion of 30 or 40 years ago. In those days the operative mortality for this opera-
tion was 5-8%, whereas most units nowadays achieve a figure in the region
of 1%, and often significantly less. This substantial reduction in the hazards
of operation thus justifies a lower indication threshold.
c) General Indications for Transurethral Resection
If the operator requirements are met, any adenoma up to a given size may
be removed transurethrally. The dividing line is better defined in terms of the
contraindications.
5. Contraindications and Limitations

to Transurethral Prostatic Adenomectomy
None of the following contraindications should be regarded as absolute. They

are relative and under proper conditions and with the right precautions transure-
thral resection may nevertheless be carried out in their presence.
a) The very Large Adenoma
What was said in the previous section about operator competence is largely
relevant in this connection. Despite the highest degree of technical ability, how-
ever, there are good reasons for setting reasonable limits.
1. The duration of the operation and the quantity of tissue removed are
closely related to the incidence of urethral stricture. Unless the gland is ap-
proached by perineal urethrotomy the likelihood of stricture increases with the
weight of tissue removed and the duration of the procedure.
2. Blood loss is directly dependent on the amount of tissue removed. Even
with complete mastership of the Nesbit technique (see page 247) a minimum
blood loss cannot be avoided, since hemorrhage not only depends on good
or poor surgery but is also related to the length of the operation and the
area of tissue from which continuous venous bleeding occurs.
3. A similar direct relationship exists for the entry of irrigating fluid into
the circulation.
4. Resection should be carried out in a single session. The patient is certainly
better advised to undergo supra- or retropubic prostatectomy in a single session
than to be subjected to two or three transurethral resections of too large a
gland just to serve a principle.
5. Finally, the transurethral method of operation is not an end in itself
nor is it any form of artistic activity. It is far more one of a series of methods
for the removal of a prostatic adenoma. Particularly in the case of large ad-
enomas, the objective dangers increase rapidly for both forms of operation,
open surgery or TUR. In terms of operative stress to the patient it is therefore
no doubt better to set reasonable limits. We have decided on a value of 70-80 g,
although the gland is not infrequently incorrectly estimated, with the result
that adenomas in the region of 100 g or slightly over end up being removed
transurethrally (and significantly smaller ones transvesically!).
b) The Markedly Protuberant Mobile Median Lobe
BAUMRUCKER (1968) has described this as a contraindication. Once again, the

considerations of the previous section are largely true in this connection. The
median lobe would have to be of really considerable size to become a significant
contraindication to transurethral resection. It is precisely predominant median
lobes in the presence of insignificant lateral lobes that are so easy to remove,
Bladder Diverticulum and Prostatic Adenoma 75
since the bulk of hyperplastic tissue arises from the floor of the prostatic capsule.
It is, however, true that removal of the endovesical portion of such an adenoma
requires a special technique (see p. 233). The risk that larger pieces of the
median lobe may be separated from their point of attachment and fall back
into the bladder is not a specific feature of this form of hyperplasia and arises
in any extensively intravesical adenoma. We have never experienced difficulty
in the removal of large, free-floating lobe fragments, since they are easily with-
drawn into the prostatic capsule and broken up there (see Fig. 166).
c) Bladder Calculi
The coexistence of a bladder calculus and prostatic adenoma is not infrequent.

The decision between a transurethral approach to both lesions, suprapubic cys-
totomy for removal of the stone with later transurethral resection and thirdly
a suprapubic approach to both lesions depends on a variety of factors.
a) Endoscopic Approach to Calculus and Adenoma. This is the most common

procedure. An experienced surgeon can remove calculi of up to 3 cm diameter
in 15-20 min, including the time required for evacuation of debris. There then
remains adequate time for the resection of a 30-40 g adenoma. This upper
limit should only be exceeded by a highly experienced surgeon.
~) Cystotomy for the Calculus and Transurethral Resection at a Subsequent Date.

In special cases where a large calculus coexists with a small adenoma (transverse
bar, bladder neck fibrosis), the least invasive procedure for the patient is removal
of the stone by cystotomy with resection of the bladder neck approximately
a week later, when the bladder wound has healed. We inevitably choose this
course of action if particularly large calculi completely fill the cavity of the
bladder and compress the ureteric orifices, causing upper tract obstruction.
A quick cystotomy under epidural, or even local anesthesia is well tolerated
even by uremic patients. When the bladder wound has healed and renal function
has improved, the bladder neck obstruction may be dealt with as a separate
procedure.
y) Cystotomy and Prostatectomy as a Single Procedure. This combination is

indicated whenever calculus and adenoma are both large, i.e., in all cases where
the limits given under Sect. ()() are exceeded.
d) Bladder Diverticulum and Prostatic Adenoma
The coexistence of these two pathologies also requires that therapy be correctly
tailored to the individual situation.
IX) Large Diverticulum and Bladder Neck Fibrosis. If the diverticulum is large
but the obstacle at the bladder neck small, it is preferable to deal with the
diverticulum prior to any procedure on the bladder neck. When the bladder
has healed, the bladder neck may be resected in a separate event. The reason
for this procedure is that enucleation of very small adenomas is often difficult
and incomplete, while wedge excision of the dorsal bladder neck component
is insufficient. The sequence (diverticulum first, bladder neck second) is impor-
tant, since the separation of large diverticula is rendered difficult by a previous
cystitis and, furthermore, the extraction of resection chips from one or more
diverticula may be time-consuming.
P) Multiple Diverticula. Multiple small diverticula are often unsuitable for opera-
tive treatment. In these cases resection of the bladder neck obstruction is not
infrequently successful in securing regression of the diverticula.
e) Bladder Diverticulum, Bladder Calculus, and Prostatic Adenoma
This combination is rare but always associated with difficulties in transurethral

surgery, since litholapaxy is made difficult by the calculus or calculi disappearing
into the diverticula in the same way as resection chips. Wherever the patient's
general condition permits, a suprapubic approach should be chosen. This policy
may of course change if diverticulum, calculus and adenoma are small. Under
such circumstances a "customized" strategy is required.
f) Urethral Stricture
This pathology does not in itself represent a contraindication to transurethral

surgery, so long as a filiform bougie may be passed and the urethra dilated
enough to accept the Otis urethrotome, i.e., to 18 Ch. Following Otis urethro-
tomy - which should always be generous (to over 35 Ch!) - transurethral resec-
tion may be carried out.
An exception are cases in which dilatation leads to recurrent inflammatory
change and profuse secretion from the urethra. Such a strategy should equally
be abandoned wherever paraurethral cellulitis or even abscess occurs. In this
case one may either rest the bladder by suprapubic catheterization and await
regression of the inflammatory process with a view to subsequent urethrotomy
under vision (SACHSE). Alternatively one may bypass the stricture altogether
and carry out transurethral resection via a perineal urethrotomy, reserving the
solution of the stricture problem for a later date. In younger patients it is
worth considering whether the stricture should be treated by a reconstructive
operation once prostatectomy has been completed.
g) Paraurethral Abscess During Preliminary Catheterization
This may delay operation but does not render it impossible. Suprapubic catheter-
ization is performed and resolution of the infection awaited. Since the duration
of postoperative catheterization is considerably shorter following TUR than
after supra- or retropubic prostatectomy, we prefer this method for such cases.
Prostatic Carcinoma Amenable to Radical Surgery 77
h) Unusually Short Suspensory Ligament ofthe Penis
This contraindication only becomes apparent when instrumentation is attempt-

ed. In pronounced cases it may be necessary to bypass the anterior urethra
by perineal urethrotomy. If forceful instrumentation is carried out, a urethral
stricture at the penoscrotal angle may be anticipated.
i) Large, Irreducible Hernias
These may represent a considerable difficulty by markedly inhibiting excursions

of the instrument, unless the obstacle is once again circumvened by perineal
urethrotomy and the scrotum elevated by suitable strips of broad plaster. A
similar situation may arise in extremely obese men whose penis is completely
retracted into the pubic fat pad and scrotum. In such cases an initial attempt
should be made to introduce the instrument in the usual way, and perineal
urethrotomy may be undertaken if the instrument is not adequately mobile.
j) Epididymitis and Severe Urinary Tract Infection
Both these complications are contraindications to any procedure, and their

resolution must first be achieved by appropriate drug therapy. There is a solitary
exception: patients with infected urine and bladder calculi may not tolerate
indwelling catheterization. They frequently suffer continuous bladder spasm
refractory to any pharmacologic attack. In these cases early operation under
high-dose antibiotic cover is the best and most rapid solution. In all cases
of preoperative epididymitis operation should be delayed until the induration
is largely resolved. Epididymectomy and contralateral vasectomy is advisable.
k) Ankylosis of One or Both Hip Joints
This may represent an absolute contraindication to transurethral resection, sim-

ply because it is virtually impossible to pass the instrument, and even if one
succeeds in this, movement may be so limited in all directions as to render
a proper operation impossible. In a few cases the hip joints may be slightly
flexed in an upward direction, and the operator then sits beneath the patient.
Such an approach should not, however, be achieved by force and is only appro-
priate to particularly urgent indications.
I) Prostatic Carcinoma Amenable to Radical Surgery
In such cases any transurethral procedure is contraindicated because of its inade-

quate radicality.
6. Limits of Operability 1
a) Initial Considerations
Whenever the initial assessment suggests that a patient requires surgery, it must
still be decided whether he can be expected to tolerate it. In this section those
factors will be discussed which may affect a patient's general operability. Diffi-
cult decisions may arise where the choice is between condemning the patient
to a life with an indwelling catheter or unrelenting dysuria on the one hand
or both patient and surgeon accepting the unusually high risk of an operation
under unfavorable conditions on the other. Wherever possible, a patient should
be fully informed of the situation and be actively involved in decision making
as far as his mental powers allow. In high-risk cases I make a practice of
discussing the matter with the family whenever possible, as I find it unacceptable
for the doctor alone to bear the responsibility of the decision, just as it is
unacceptable for the patient to be entirely excluded.
Conditions relating to other fields of practice naturally require a specialist
opinion. Occasionally a decision can only be reached in consultation with a
number of specialists, and in addition to these detailed considerations weight
should also be given to the surgeon's overall impression of the patient in the
light of his experience.
Such factors as the patient's general activity, his will to cooperate and recov-
er, his joie-de-vivre and wish to remain alive, also his appetite and in short
the sum total of his expressions of vitality may, in the end, be of more decisive
influence than any laboratory investigation.
The following is a summary of the more important complications which
may be anticipated in elderly people together with a few hints on their individual
significance for the selection of surgical candidates.
b) Cardiovascular Disease
This is frequent and only represents a contraindication if proper preliminary

medical treatment is unable to achieve significant improvement.
Surgery is ill-advised in the presence of irremediable or poorly correctable
cardiac failure or in the presence of some types of malignant hypertension
giving rise to cardiovascular complications despite maximum hypotensive thera-
py (cardiac dysrhythmias, cerebral hemorrhage). The increased bleeding ten-
dency of hypertensives may also represent an operative difficulty.
Patients with external pacemakers do not represent risk patients since pace-
maker function and the interaction of pacemaker- and cardiac rhythm are easily
checked by ECG and regular pacemaker clinic attendances.
1 I am particularly indebted to Professor W. Sack for revising and in part considerably extending
this section. For more than 10 years he has been Consultant Physician to our department and makes
a point of seeing all our patients coming to surgery both before and after their operation. In view
of his appointment to the II. Department of Internal Medicine in Munich (Klinikum rechts der
Isar) he is eminently predestined for such a task
Cerebrovascular Disease 79
Any cardiac condition may require an increased degree of cooperation be-

tween urologist, physician and anesthetist.
c) Pulmonary Disease
Chronic bronchitis, emphysema and bronchial asthma are the commonest dis-
eases of the respiratory system. Chronic purulent bronchitis responds excellently
to intubation and bronchial aspiration during anesthesia, and for such cases
ventilation is to be preferred. For emphysematous patients, however, we prefer
to maintain spontaneous respiration and employ epidural anesthesia. Neither
condition is commonly a contraindication. Severe bronchial asthma is another
matter, and we frequently experience extensive postoperative problems. Anesthe-
sia itself presents no difficulties, but the postoperative period is fraught with
danger, particularly in patients who depend on high doses of steroids. Problems
arise with respiratory failure and severe urinary tract infections despite early
removal of the catheter and high-dose antibiotic cover, and it is often impossible
to avoid secondary infection of the lungs. It may, however, be that these experi-
ences represent a coincidental cumulation of poor risk candidates since we have
only had a small number of such patients.
d) Cerebrovascular Disease
Advanced stages of this disease may represent an absolute contraindication

(even to cryosurgery), the danger lying not in the operative but in the postopera-
tive phase. Patients generally withstand operation well, but on the second or
third postoperative day they begin to become agitated and confused. Motor
agitation is particularly difficult to control and may require sedation despite
the availability of a special nurse. Patients often pull out their catheters, usually
violently, and occasionally this results in urethral trauma. They have bizarre
fantasies, are unaware of their surroundings and frequently fail to recognize
their relatives. This period may persist for 2-3 weeks before they return to
their normal condition, and the assistance of cooperative relatives is of the
utmost value.
For this reason particular attention should be paid to preoperative diagnosis
of this type of condition. This may be quite difficult, since some patients have
a considerable instinctive ability to conceal their true state. Day-to-day language
is composed to such an extent of stereotype expression that it may be some
time before a deterioration of mental agility and intellectual capacity becomes
apparent. Operating on such patients therefore always entails a very considerable
and not easily estimable risk. Death may often result from bronchopneumonia
with or without pyelonephritis and in the presence of complete cerebral decom-
pensation.
Even if patients recover from the procedure and regain a proportion of
their previous intellectual ability, there is often a residual defect with permanent
incontinence of nonanatomical causation.
e) Renal Insufficiency
Interestingly enough, even patients with severely impaired renal function tolerate
transurethral resection extemely well. Renal failure as a result of prolonged
occult chronic urinary obstruction often responds favorably to a period of decom-
pressive catheterization. However, an end-stage in this improvement is reached
after 3 or perhaps 6 months. The raised serum creatinine may be temporarily
reduced by a forced fluid intake, but at the end of intravenous therapy it will
gradually drift back to its original level. Never a year passes in which we do
not operate on a few such patients with a serum creatinine of 7, 10 or even
15 mg%, and yet their postoperative course is no different from that of other
patients. Not infrequently they have had an indwelling catheter for several years
because of an unfounded fear of postoperative renal failure.
t) Liver Damage
Only the most severe disorders prevent operation. Any patient in a stable condi-
tion (i.e., without rapidly progressive disease) may be operated on without addi-
tional risk. In view of the statistically documented increase in liver disease,
advising physicians not infrequently have to suggest delay and occasionally
cancellation of an operative procedure because decompensated cirrhosis or
chronic inflammatory disease of the liver with acute exacerbations excludes
anesthesia. Temporary transfer to a medical ward and extensive suppression
of the inflammatory process may improve the preoperative situation.
g) General Decrepitude
Such patients are not characterized by any particular dominant abnormal physi-
cal findings. Nevertheless, in the light of experience they represent poor risks.
Their life is at a low ebb, they exhibit little motor activity, but are fully orien-
tated. They eat little and doze a great deal. They tend to minimize their urologic
symptoms, including retention with overflow. Laboratory values are frequently
normal and vital functions intact.
Nevertheless these burnt-out peop'le are not suitable for surgery. They accept
permanent urethral or suprapubic catheterization for retention, high residual
or incontinence with fatalism and hardly seem to notice it, whereas operation
shortens their lives. For the totally disorientated patient who repeatedly pulls
out his indwelling catheter there is often no alternative to intermittent catheteri-
zation.
Personally, I am extremely doubtful whether cryosurgical treatment offers
any improvement of this situation, since the postoperative requirements are
identical to those of diathermy resection.
h) Mental Subnormality and Psychosis
Although subnormal patients are frequently good-natured and will agree to

anything, there are a variety of reasons for excluding them from surgical treat-
Coagulation Disorders 81
ment. Even such a simple process as the relearning of micturition following

prostatectomy requires a minimum of intellectual ability. These patients often
remain incontinent postoperatively, and in the first phase of the postoperative
period they may behave like patients with cerebrovascular disease, not infre-
quently exercising violence to remove their balloon catheters.
With psychotic patients the situation is different. In this age group we are
mainly concerned with depression and the decision on the indications for surgery
should only be reached in close consultation with a psychiatrist to whom the
patient is well-known. Discussions with the family may also be helpful in such
cases.
Patients should not be operated on during acute bouts of depression, and
a remission should be awaited, although surgery itself may precipitate a deterio-
ration. Since a proportion of antidepressants exercise a paralytic effect on the
detrusor muscle, a large proportion of these patients exhibit a significant and
rapid worsening of their urinary symptoms during attacks of depression.
i) Inoperable Carcinoma in Other Organs
Surgery should be reserved for those patients whose expected survival is at

least a year by conservative estimate. This applies particularly to the elderly
whose carcinoma of the rectum, stomach or bronchus often progresses extremely
slowly. Colostomy patients in particular may find a permanent indwelling cathe-
ter an intolerable additional burden.
In such cases a decision should be reached in discussion with the practitioner
treating the patient's principle complaint, and with the family, wherever the
patient himself is not aware of his condition.
The same is true for chronic leukemias which often run a rather indolent
course in the elderly.
j) Coagulation Disorders
Only a proportion of those disorders of hemostasis liable to complicate or

indeed prohibit operative urologic procedures are amenable to preoperative
diagnosis and treatment. Thromboembolic disease requiring anticoagulant or
fibrinolytic therapy is common, and there is nothing out of the ordinary about
myocardial infarct and pulmonary embolus survivors, especially among male
patients.
Laboratory investigation is required of the total clotting time, of individual
clotting mechanisms and of fibrinogen titers, in order to monitor the return
to normal following withdrawal of anticoagulant therapy. Only thus may hemor-
rhagic complications during and after surgery be avoided. Furthermore, post-
operative infections and severe sepsis carry their own risk, particularly in the
elderly, of consumption coagulopathy - changes in the coagulation and fibrino-
lytic system due to entry into the circulation of endotoxin from a septic focus.
Frequent estimation of all coagulation parameters with appropriate thera-

peutic action and observation of the patient in an intensive care unit are manda-
tory.
The clinical entity of isolated hyperfibrinolysis is extremely rare but should
be considered among the causes of any postoperative coagulation problem.
The care of any of these disorders demands the availability of a coagulation
laboratory day and night, 7 days a week.
k) Diabetes Mellitus
This disease is not a contraindication to surgery. The most severe cases may
require a brief period of postoperative observation in an intensive care unit.
Every case requires close cooperation with the patient's physician.
Once again, a 24-h laboratory service is essential for the early diagnosis
of deteriorating diabetic control.
I) Obesity
Early mobilization of these patients after surgery is of paramount importance,

since their tendency to thromboembolic problems is best avoided by frequent
and early ambulation in addition to heparin and Hydergine prophylaxis. The
obese are often, by their very nature, somewhat inert and have a low exercise
requirement. However much they moan and groan, therefore, they must be
mobilized and made to leave their beds. If surgery is definitely indicated but
is not urgent, it should be made conditional on losing weight. The latter in
itself frequently improves the urinary symptoms. On account of the poor healing
qualities of fat, transurethral surgery is the method of choice, even for large
adenomas.
m) Thrombophlebitis, Varicose Veins
In these patients we wait for the regression of acute inflammatory episodes.

Early postoperative mobilization is mandatory.
III. Preoperative Treatment
Preoperative preparation and assessment are often carried out during the same
period of time. They are dealt with separately in this book for purely systematic
reaons which have nothing to do with clinical practice. As far as possible,
preliminary assessment and preoperative treatment should be on an outpatient
basis before admission to hospital, so as to save the patient valuable time and
Permanent Drainage 83
considerable hospital expense. Only a small proportion of urologic workup

requires hospital admission, e.g., the treatment of severe infection or of renal
failure and uremia following chronic retention.
1. Draining the Bladder
The atonic bladder with a large residual volume (above approx. 500ml) and
of course all patients with overflow incontinence or acute retention require
decompression of the bladder. This may be achieved by an indwelling catheter,
intermittent catheterization or suprapubic cystostomy.
a) Intermittent Catheterization
This form of drainage procedure is useful when a patient has gone into acute
retention but there seems some likelihood of re-establishing spontaneous mictur-
ition. It has the disadvantage that the patient must be catheterized at least
thrice daily, and the advantage that appropriate aseptic conditions allow the
avoidance of a urinary tract infection such as is certain to occur after several
days of indwelling catheterization. In principle, a patient with acute retention
could be operated on as soon as the appropriate preliminary investigations
and preoperative treatment are complete, i.e., after 2-3 days ifno serious medi-
calor other special complications supervene. The patient's professional commit-
ments or a lack of hospital beds prevent this, the patient may be tided over
a short waiting period by intermittent catheterization.
Technical note: a fine Tiemann catheter (12-14 Ch) is preferred.
b) Permanent Drainage
Permanent preoperative urinary drainage is indicated whenever chronic reten-

tion has led to overdistension of the bladder and consequent atony, or if renal
function has been impaired by back pressure of urine into the upper tract. All
such patients should be treated by permanent bladder drainage prior to surgery,
either to allow the restoration of bladder tone or to encourage the recovery
of renal function.
a) The Dye Test. This process may be monitored either by repeated estimation
of blood nitrogen levels, by the PSP test or, more simply, by "blue testing".
Since restoration of upper tract tone usually goes hand in hand with recovering
renal function, the time elapsing between the injection of 5 ml indigo carmine
(0.02 g/5 ml) and the appearance of blue coloration in a bladder irrigation is
a reliable measure of the degree of improvement in urine transport. Failure
of blue dye to appear even after 20 min is strongly suggestive of a lack of
improvement in real function and upper tract dilatation. If the dye appears
in under 10 min, but only in weak concentration, cautions conclusions may

be drawn as to the recovery of renal function, which should then be substantiated
by serum creatinine estimation. Only if obvious blue discoloration is apparent
in under 7-8 min do we proceed to repeat excretion urography, which then
invariably shows a marked improvement in function and morphology of the
upper urinary tract.
P) Indwelling Catheters. Indwelling catheterization is one alternative for continu-

ous drainage of the bladder. Bilateral vasectomy should be performed at the
time of catheterization. Despite an increasing tendency toward permanent drain-
age by suprapubic cystostomy, there are a number of indications for an indwell-
ing urethral catheter:
1. Markedly obese patients with an abdominal fat apron
2. Patients suffering from large and enormous inguinal hernia
3. Patients with chronic exudative eczema and other dermatoses of the hypogas-
tric region
4. Patients with coagulation disorders preventing even supra public needle punc-
ture
5. The presence of a colostomy should lead one to consider the additional
difficulty in proper hygiene
6. In markedly agitated and temporarily dis orientated patients, repeated cathe-
terization with a periodic need to replace an indwelling catheter is still prefera-
ble to the difficulties in maintaining the otherwise more practical suprapubic
drainage route
"{) Slow Decompression of the Bladder. On occasion, a chronically overdistended

bladder may show a tendency to react to sudden emptying by profuse hemor-
rhage. Slow decompression should therefore be routine clinical practice. We
have occasionally had patients referred to us whose bladder has been suddenly
completely emptied. A few of them developed surprisingly severe hemorrhage
from a diffusely erythematous mucosa not unlike that of hemorrhagic cystitis.
On occasions the hemorrhage was so brisk that we suspected some other cause
of bleeding and undertook emergency cystoscopy which would not otherwise
have been indicated. Such hemorrhage should be treated by continuous irriga-
tion of the bladder until the risk of clot obstruction of the catheter is over.
0) Immediate Decompression of the Bladder. This is the method of choice in

acute retention and is employed by some in the routine treatment of chronic
retention. For the reasons given above, I personally prefer slow decompression
of the latter.
E) Cystostomy. This may be performed either by formal operative cystostomy

or by transcutaneous puncture. Formal suprapubic cystostomy is nowadays
rarely employed, having been almost entirely replaced by trocar cystostomy.
The latter may be performed in three ways.
1. Simple trocar cystostomy by nonballoon catheter. This has the disadvantage

that some form of additional attachment of the catheter is required, since there
Permanent Drainage 85
is no balloon to hold it in the bladder. Its advantage lies in the absence of

a side-slit in the trocar, so that no urine is extravasated on withdrawal of
the stilette.
2. Suprapubic puncture cystostomy by Campbell trocar. The trocar described

by CAMPBELL (1951) has a side slit allowing introduction of a balloon catheter
into the bladder. Because of the risk of extravasation of urine from an overfilled
and overdistended bladder we only employ this method if we ourselves are
in a position to control bladder volume, e.g., when suprapubic drainage is
established in the treatment of paraurethral abscess. In such cases a volume
of 300-400 ml, depending on bladder capacity, is adequate to so extend the
cave of Retzius that the extraperitoneal portion of the bladder becomes substan-
tial.
3. The technique of trocar cystostomy (transcutaneous cystostomy). Unless chron-

ic retention has so distended the bladder as to obviate any doubt that the dis-
tended bladder has elevated the peritoneal reflection, local anesthetics should
first be aged to produce an intracutaneous weal, 1-2 fingers' breadths above
the symphysis. A fine needle of approximately 10 cm length is then used to
infiltrate the puncture tract with local anesthetic. The tip of the needle should
thus enter the bladder and allow proof aspiration of urine. A small pointed
scalpel is next used to make a skin incision of some millimeters length. Unless
the patient is exceptionally obese the blade will reach the deep fascia and may
be used to penetrate it. A sudden push thrusts the trocar into the bladder,
the stilette is withdrawn and urine flows from the tube. A catheter, either of
balloon or plain type is now quickly advanced through the trocar tube into
the bladder. Inflation of the balloon and withdrawal of the catheter until the
balloon is in contact with the anterior bladder wall are the final steps of the
procedure. Plain catheters with a central opening must be adjusted for depth,
according to the patient's stature, and in this technique it is preferable to intro-
duce the catheter rather lower and to fix it by means of a skin suture tied
around the catheter. As an additional precaution we attach a safety pin to
the catheter, place a keyhole gauze swab above and below the pin and fix
the entire dressing and catheter by means of additional adhesive strapping.
4. Suprapubic puncture by disposable catheter. In recent years a number of

purpose-made, disposable instruments have become available that greatly facili-
tate suprapubic puncture. However, the tubes used in this equipment are consid-
erably narrower than the usual catheters. For this reason the changing of tubes
and conversion of the cystostomy to balloon catheter drainage is somewhat
complex. On the other hand, this disposable equipment has considerably broad-
ened the indications for suprapubic drainage.
5. Formal cystostomy. This may become necessary if previous procedures such

as cystotomy or intraperitoneal surgery in the lower abdomen have made the
behavior of the peritoneal reflection unpredictable. Adhesions may have fixed
it so far caudally that attempted suprapubic puncture may enter the abdomen.
Formal cystostomy can be avoided in patients who require suprapubic diversion

for a paraurethral abscess and whose urethra can or should no longer be cathe-
terized if the bladder is distended by intravenous fluids and mannitol. It is
then necessary to so sedate the patient as to prevent premature reflex voiding.
2. Vasectomy
a) Indications
Even if this maneuver is carried out prior to permanent indwelling catheteriza-

tion, it cannot be guaranteed to prevent epididymitis and funiculitis, although
it is likely to reduce their incidence. It would seem that urethral organisms
are capable of lymphatic spread. Prophylactic vasectomy occasionally appears
justified by the phenomenon of funiculitis involving the proximal spermatic
cord as far as the point of interruption, where the process terminates in a
bulb-like infiltration.
Extreme scrotal edema, unilateral or bilateral hernia and marked obesity
with pronounced subsumption of the scrotum into the inguinal fat-fold may
render vasectomy unusually difficult.
In such cases vasectomy is not easily performed through the customary
1 cm skin incision in the scrotum; either an inguinal approach to the cord
or a more extensive scrotal incision is then required. The procedure should
then be carried out under general or epidural anesthesia. It is indeed worth
considering dispensing with vasectomy altogether and accepting the risk of epidi-
dymitis. Should the latter occur it may still be treated by early epididymectomy
and contralateral vasectomy. Bilateral inflammatory change in the epididymis
is rare, but does occur.
b) Technique
The operation may be extremely simple, but is on occasion quite taxing. Vasecto-
my is always easy if the scrotum is lax and consists chiefly of pendulous skin
without extensive wrinkling by the cremaster muscle. This minor procedure
is rendered less easy, but by no means truly difficult, by taut wrinkled scrotum
drawn up toward the trunk by an active cremaster. In either case careful palpa-
tion of the cord is of prime importance, making possible the displacement of
possible edema. With a little dexterity the vas deferens is easily isolated and
firmly grasped between thumb and index finger of the left hand. Only then
is 2% local anesthetic injected immediately under the skin as well as cranially
and caudally along the course of the vas. This helps to minimize the dragging
pain sometimes experienced during delivery of the vas. At this stage finger
grip should be replaced by a towel clip, capture of the vas derens confirmed
and a small incision, not greater than 1 cm, made along the cord parallel to
its axis. The vas is then grasped with forceps and freed of all fascial layers,
Balanitis and Inflammation of the Prepuce 87
a process greatly facilitated by a small incision into the adventitia of the vas.
The duct is now elevated out of the wound and central and peripheral ligatures
applied 3--4 cm apart. Subcutaneous and skin sutures complete the procedure.
Hemostasis is rarely required if the initital incision was made through an area
of scrotal skin devoid of superficial veins.
3. The Treatment of Urinary Infections
If urinary infection is apparent on initial assessment, it should be energetically

treated in the run-up period to surgery. Patients whose preoperative treatment
does not require an indwelling catheter must be considered separately from
those requiring catheterization because of renal failure or bladder atony. Uncath-
eterized patients should be treated according to the severity of infection and
in the light of bacteriologic sensitivity studies. If there are fewer than 104 organ-
isms/ml, no treatment is required. Where the bacteria count lies between 104
and lOS, treatment should be at the mucosal level by an agent achieving good
urine levels. Even if there are more than lOS organisms/ml, therapy should
take account of the severity of symptoms and number of pus cells. If the latter
are numerous, one should not hesitate to prescribe a broad spectrum antibiotic
at a dose of 3 g per day and arrange to operate at the earliest possible date,
so that surgery will be covered by this treatment.
Such a regime is particularly strongly indicated if a tiresome organism such
as Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Proteus or a resistant Coliform is cultured. In
these cases, which frequently require treatment with several agents in combina-
tion, antibacterial therapy should be instituted 3 days prior to surgery and con-
tinue without interruption well into the postoperative period.
A preoperative exacerbation of infection in patients with indwelling catheters
may usually be adequately treated by a sulphonamide or furantoin derivative.
Specific curative therapy is only required under the circumstances described
for uncatheterized patients.
It goes without saying that intercurrent infection with severe symptoms,
such as epididymitis, funiculitis or acute fibrinoid cystitis with bladder spasm
demands energetic antibacterial therapy. Both severe urethritis and paraurethral
abscess, the latter nowadays rarely seen except in patients in poor general condi-
tion, require the exhibition of antibiotics in high doses. Paraurethral cellulitis
should be treated prior to formation of an abscess by removal of the indwelling
catheter, local instillation of an antibiotic gel (viscosity, long local duration
of action) and by suprapubic diversion, as described above.
4. Balanitis and Inflammation of the Prepuce
The patient with an indwelling catheter and a tight preputial recess is particularly
prone to balanitis and inflammatory change of the prepuce. Since prophylactic
circumcision is nowhere near as commonplace in Europe as in the Orient or
the USA, we not infrequently come across such problems. Although circum-
cision represents a simple form of treatment, the bacteriologic situation should
nevertheless be investigated and the appropriate therapy of fungal or yeast
infections initiated.
5. Chance Finding of Urogenital Tract Tumors
Under these circumstances priority should be given to removing the more dan-
gerous carcinoma, e.g., a hypernephroma or ureteric tumor, in order to proceed
to prostatectomy after a suitable recovery period.
6. Strictures of the Urethra
Stricture patients with an adequate urinary flow who do not require indwelling
catheterization need no special treatment prior to admission. Once they are
in hospital, they may be treated by daily recatheterization with indwelling cathe-
ters of increasing size. The urethra may then be calibrated at the time of opera-
tion by introducing the Otis urethrotome (16-18 Ch). Less rigid strictures may
be left alone until the time of operation; they are then incised with the Otis
knife prior to introduction of the resectoscope. The same procedure may be
adopted with tougher strictures, but preoperative urethrotomy under vision
is preferable. This may then be followed by a transurethral resection.
7. Preoperative General Medical Preparation
In nearly every clinic this is undertaken in close consultation with an advisiing

physician. Once again, investigation and preliminary therapy are closely linked
and based on the appropriate pathologic findings. There is rapid interplay of
diagnosis and treatment.
Our system, whereby our own consulting physician sees every patient in
the unit, has stood the test of time. Such close cooperation means not only
that he comes to recognize the specific problems of our type of patient, but
also that he remains in touch with the patients postoperatively. He thus acquires
an accurate sense of the severity of the procedure and is able to give valuable
advice when the arguments for and against surgery in the high-risk patient
are being considered. He will advise additions to the routine laboratory workup
and has access to EeG and chest X-ray facilities, enabling him to request
further investigations.
Wherever organizational considerations permit, the physician should be
available at the time of preliminary outpatient assessment. Once a patient is
Surgical Anatomy 89
admitted he will thus be seen by a physician to whom he is accustomed and

whom he will identify as "his own."
Particular importance attaches to electrolyte estimations in all cases of renal
impairment. Any significant degree of renal failure will require appropriate
modification of intravenous fluid and elctrolyte therapy.
IV. Preoperative Endoscopy
As already discussed under Sect. I.2.c), we have dispensed with outpatient cys-
toscopy for the majority of cases. Our aim is to spare the patient unnecessary
duplication of examinations, as enough is usually already known about the
morphology and extent of the bladder neck obstruction on the basis ofinvestiga-
tions such as excretion urography, cystourethrogram and rectal palpation. There
is chemical data on renal function and radiologic information on the upper
urinary tract. The advising physician has already clarified the question of opera-
bility and the indications for surgery will have emerged from the workup so
far. There are thus extremely few patients in whom the question of retropubic
or transurethral resection is still open at this stage. We have adopted the practice
of carrying out cystoscopy and bladder neck examination under the same anes-
thetic as the definitive operation.
2. Introducing the Instrument
a) Surgical Anatomy
The urethra presents both physiologic narrowings which may resist instrumenta-
tion and curvatures which need to be borne in mind.
Before the technique of Otis urethrotomy became generally accepted, there
was in Germany a widely held belief in the need to dilate the urethra prior
to passing the resectoscope. Daily recatheterizations with catheters of increasing
size were used to dilate its lumen in 2-Ch steps to a caliber 2 Ch greater than
that of the instrument. Only then would the resectoscope be passed. I remember
quite clearly that FLOCKS refused to operate transurethrally on any patient
who had not been catheterized for at least 2 days prior to surgery.
Beside this gradual method there is also that of rapid dilatation of the
urethra by metal sounds to a caliber of 30 Ch or more. Since this frequently
painful procedure was preferably carried out under general anesthetic, such
urethral dilatations were usually done immediately prior to resection. The latter
method originated in the USA (whence it became popularized in Germany,
but was for all this no more physiologic). Such dilatation to over 30 Ch is
Fig. 59. Urethral narrowing. Physiologic variations in urethral caliber occur at specific sites. These
regions are also the sites prone to traumatic strictures: (1) internal meatus, (2) transition navicular
fossa to penile urethra proper, (3) penile urethra, (4) transition bulbar urethra to membranous
urethra. (After ISAAC, 1959)
bound to cause urethral tears, even if carried out in 2-Ch steps - a fact of
which one may convince oneself by passing the resectoscope under direct vision
through a thus traumatized urethra.
The advantages of a clean cut by the technique of internal urethrotomy
(EMMETT) are set out later (see Sect. IV.3).
b) Physiologic Urethral Constrictions (see Fig. 59)
a) The External Meatus. The external urethral meatus is of extremely variable

caliber, a fact without clinical significance. Only in cases of true meatal stenosis
may the urinary stream be impaired. Under normal circumstances the external
meatus does not represent an obstacle to our standard 24-Ch resectoscope.
If, however, the instrument will not pass this point spontaneously, a tapered
dilator should under no circumstances be employed, since this is invariably
associated with tears of the urethral mucosa and deeper layers. These small
tears lead to meatal stenosis, as frequently occurs following the use of wide
bore instruments with sharp-ended sheaths, and the reader is reminded of our
comments on this subject in Chap. B. The shrouding of this sharp edge of
Physiologic Urethral Constrictions 91
Fig. 60. Introducing the instrument with a standard obturator. The step-like transition between obtura-
tor and insulating ring may give rise to mucosal injuries. The point of transition from navicular
fossa to penile urethra is particularly at risk, since there is a genuine change in caliber at this
point
Fig. 61 a, b. Leusch cuffed obturator. a The step between obturator and resectoscope sheath insulating
ring is clearly seen. b Rubber cuff of the obturator spread so as to completely shroud the sharp
edge of the insulating ring
the instrument by the cuffed obturator of LEUSCH represents a significant contri-

bution in reducing the stricture rate in this region of the urethra. Without
the streamlining effect of this rubber cuff, the transition from the obturator
to the sheath end acts as a gouge resulting in serious urethral injuries which
regrettably enough frequently go unnoticed (Figs. 60 and 61). This region is,
furthermore, particularly at risk since it is the point of collection of urethral
secretions. The latter tend to penetrate mucosal tears and give rise to inflamma-
tory change and subsequent stricture.
~) The Transition from Fossa Navicularis to Penile Urethra. At this point there
is a marked change of caliber, as the broad fossa narrows into the penile urethra.
If the resectoscope sheath, the most dangerous part of which I have already
discussed, is forcibly advanced at this stage, the same injury may occur as
at the external meatus. The mechanism of injury may be accurately observed
if the instrument is advanced to the point of resistance, the obturator then
removed and the urethra observed through the electrotome telescope under
running irrigation. The insulating ring of the sheath has ruckled up the mucosa
at the point of transition from fossa to penile urethra so that it bulges in
a fold into the lumen of the sheath. Further advancement would lead to multiple
tears of which the outcome would be an iris-like stricture.
1) The Penile Urethra. This part of the urethra is physiologically somewhat

narrower than the remaining parts and is therefore liable to injury. Care must
thus be taken with this region also. The sheath should be allowed to fall gently
under its own weight into the bulb, once the urethra is well lubricated.
0) The Transition from Bulbar to Membranous Urethra. This point once again
represents a change in caliber between the extremely capacious bulbar and the
proximal urethra as it narrows to pass the urogenital diaphragm. Although
this latter region is usually extraordinarily elastic and fully expands during
micturition, it is normally constricted by tonic contraction of the external
sphincter muscle, as may be observed on any urethrocystogram film. When
advancing the instrument blind toward the bladder one not infrequently feels
some resistance which may be overcome by a slight change in direction. If
the same method of observation is employed as has been already described
for the fossa navicularis, one may once again observe folds of mucosa bulging
into the sheath aperture. Under direct vision it becomes extraordinarily easy
to pass this narrowing and advance the instrument, since one is then changing
direction according to the true requirements rather than by feel alone.
c) Curvature of the Urethra
In all three curvatures are to be passed (Fig. 62).

(1) Curvature at the Penoscrotal Angle. The fixed portion of the urethra at the
transition between penile and intrascrotal urethra, at the penoscrotal angle,
is usually overcome by elevation of the member under gentle traction.
P) Curvature in the Bulb. In this region the urethra loses its almost horizontal
direction and rises steeply up behind the symphysis toward the bladder neck.
This curve can only be overcome by lowering the instrument. All the special
equipment designed to facilitate passage of this region (e.g., Timberlake obtura-
tor) is usually superfluous if only the external end of the sheath is lowered
far enough. Since the fully introduced instrument will inevitably splint the
urethra into a straight line, this process may be allowed to occur progressively
during passage of the instrument. For the past 20 years we have used exclusively
straight instruments and have never experienced difficulty in passing this region.
The sole, extraordinarily rare obstacle may be an extremely short suspensory
Curvature of the Urethra 93
Fig. 62. Urethral curvatures. 1 Curvature at penoscrotal angle (easily straightened). 2 Curvature
at the bulb. At this point the urethra rises up behind the symphysis. This curvature is easily overcome
by lowering the instrument. 3 Curvature due to a large endovesical median lobe. This change in
direction must also be compensated for by lowering the eyepiece of the instrument. a procedure
occasionally giving rise to pain in the unanesthetized patient. Forceful advancement at this point
may perforate the median lobe, which structure can always be manipulated away dorsally during
instrumentation under direct vision
ligament of the penis, which prevents the penis being bent downward. We have
already discussed this difficulty when considering contraindications, and a peri-
neal urethrotomy may then be required. Once the instrument has reached the
membranous urethra no further change of direction is necessary.
y) Ventral Curvature of the Urethra Due to a Median Lobe. This third and
final curvature is not invariably found, only occurring in the presence of a
dorsoventrally bulging median lobe (Fig. 63). It may be a truly difficult obstacle
to overcome in the unanesthetized patient, e.g., if a patient with painless hematu-
ria is to be cystoscoped in the outpatient clinic. However, we have never failed
to pass the instrument over the most protuberant median lobe during preopera-
tive cystourethroscopy under general anesthetic, although it is fair to point
out that we employ direct vision at the slightest difficulty during this final
phase of instrumentation. It then becomes possible to lower the instrument
as far as is required and to use the end of the sheath to somewhat depress
the median lobe. The various aids designed for this maneuver, such as angled
or hinged obturators, Tiemann Catheters passed through the sheath, etc. are
obviated by passage under direct vision.
Fig. 63. Large median lobe with extensive protrusion into the bladder. This may represent a true
obstacle to instrumentation, and is usually clearly seen on cystourethrography. The lobe represented
here has a narrow base, easily confirmed by the mobility of the lobe. Care should be taken during
its ablation so as not to separate a large fragment which will then float freely within the bladder.
(See Chap. E.IV.5)
3. Aids to Passing the Instrument
a) Internal Urethrotomy with the Otis Urethrotome
a) Preliminary Considerations. The mistake most frequently made during instru-

mentation is the use of force, which will inevitably raise the stricture rate.
The urethral lumen should therefore be adequately calibrated by urethrotomy.
The rationale for this procedure is simple: instead of multiple uncontrolled
tears in the mucosa and the subjacent corpus cavernosum of the urethra, a
smooth sharp longitudinal cut is made in a predetermined direction (Fig. 64).
This longitudinal incision subsequently epithelializes, albeit with the formation
of a longitudinal scar. The straight band of scar tissue, however, seldom pro-
duces more than minimal narrowing of the urethra, whereas multiple tears
distributed around the periphery give rise to ring strictures. A urethrotomy
scar is seldom even visible at subsequent urethroscopy.
The work of EMMET and WINTERRINGER (1954) was therefore a fundamental
contribution to the prevention of such strictures which would represnt a serious
contraindication to transurethral surgery, could they not be avoided.
~) Technique of Otis Urethrotomy. The detailed procedure is a follows: The

well-lubricated sheath is introduced into the external meatus. If it fails to pass
this point spontaneously under gravity, no further attempt is made to pass
the resectoscope. The Otis urethrotome is always at the ready and is immediately
employed to incise the urethra in this region to 30 Ch. We base this procedure
on the experience that the Otis incision needs to be 5 Ch larger than the diameter
of the resectoscope. Since we never use an instrument greater than 24 Ch, even
for the resection of large adenomas, the Otis urethrotome is set at 30 Ch but
Internal Urethrotomy with the Otis Urethrotome 95
12
Fig. 64a, b. Comparison of blunt dilatation and internal urethrotomy. a Blunt dilatation of the urethra
nearly always gives rise to multiple tears. One may easily convince oneself of this by urethroscopy
following the passage of metal or plastic sounds. b Internal urethrotomy gives rise to a sharp smooth
lllClSlon
used only to incise the most anterior part of the urethra, since the exact caliber
of the more proximal segments is not at this time known with certainty. Ureth-
rography will only have revealed the more obvious variations in caliber. Unless
a further more proximal narrowing occurs, the resectoscope will now sink slowly
into the bulbar urethra.
Since the transition from the navicular fossa to the penile urethra, already
described, will also have been incised by this process, no further difficulty will
be encountered in this region. The situation is different if the external meatus
is wide but a narrow transition occurs beyond the fossa. In this case the proce-
dure described for the external meatus should once again be followed. The
rule should thus be to allow the instrument itself to seek out urethral stenoses.
These areas may then either be visualized by urethroscopy or immediately
incised with the Otis urethrotome.
y) The Modified Otis Urethrotome. The Otis urethrotome is an historical instru-

ment which has persisted in contemporary practice since first being described
at the turn of the century.
For a variety of reasons we have modified this classic and brilliantly con-
ceived instrument:
1. Incisions were made with the original instrument by withdrawing it down
the urethra with the knife extended and set to the required Charriere caliber.
The conically tapering instrument thus not only incises but also dilates the
urethra. Consequently the depth of cut does not always correspond to the
cali ber set.
2. A very narrow urethra may prevent the instrument from being opened to
the required caliber. The incision must therefore be made in two or three
stages, each of which requires reintroduction of the instrument, since it will
only cut when it is withdrawn distally with the knife in working position.
Fig. 65a, b. Otis urethrotome. a In this revised model the instrument opens as a virtual parallelogram,
thus dilating all parts of the urethra to the same extent. This also allows an alteration of cutting
technique (see text). b The blade is ground to a roof top profile, thus permitting incisions to be
made in both directions
3. The consequence of this procedure is that the second and third incisions
are not always made in exactly the same place (the 12 o'clock position) as
the first. Their exact point on the circumference of the urethra is more or
less a matter of chance.
4. If the knife is retracted somewhat too far, it will no longer lie opposite
the greatest diameter of the open instrument. Exact definition of the depth
of cut is thus lost.
Our modification consists of two alterations (Fig. 65):
1. The instrument no longer opens in a conical fashion but as a parallelogram
along its length.
2. The knife is ground in such a fashion as to cut both on advancement and
retraction. The blade is thus modeled on that of the Maisoneuve instrument.
These slight changes in construction permit a series of new maneuvers:
1. The instrument is passed through the stricture and opened until it lies in
close contact with the lumen. The first cut is then made by moving the
knife from its resting position and then further withdrawing it. The instru-
ment itself is not moved.
2. If it becomes necessary to deepen the cut the Otis urethrotome is then opened
a few Charriere units until it once again lies in firm contact with the urethral
wall. A further cut is then made by readvancing the knife in a proximal
direction.
3. This process may be repeated continuously until the required urethral lumen
has been achieved.
Instrumentation Under Direct Vision 97
It should, however, be noted that the instrument only incises the urethra
if the latter is in close contact with the instrument. At points where the urethra
is wide and unstrictured there will be no or only a shallow incision.
b) Sachse Urethrotomy Under Direct Vision During Instrumentation
In recent years we have made it our practice to incise urethral strictures obstruct-
ing passage of the resectoscope under direct vision with the SACHSE urethrotome.
Instead of the cutting loop, a SACHSE knife is mounted on the electrotome
and the stricture incised under direct vision until the resectoscope sheath passes
easily. See Chap. L for the technique of this procedure.
c) Instrumentation Under Direct Vision
Direct visual control of passage is a justifiable technique in various fields of

endoscopy, having richly increased our knowledge of the urethra - for so long
the poor relation in urology. The advantages of this technique are not quite
so manifest when passing a resectoscope.
1. If an obturator of the LEUSCH pattern is employed, the rubber cuff so co-
piously shrouds the sharp edge of the aperture as to bring about a slight
urethral dilatation.
2. Despite a good irrigation flow, the sharp edge of the aperture may neverthe-
less traumatize the urethra at its narrower points if direct viewing is em-
ployed.
3. The method of introducing the sheath under its own weight makes it impossi-
ble to employ force and at the same time is a diagnostic maneuver for detect-
ing stenoses. During direct viewing instrumentation one is tempted to over-
come the stenoses by rocking movements of the sheath which is thus ad-
vanced, rather than being allowed to come to rest at the obstacle, where
a urethrotome would then be substituted for the resectoscope.
4. In addition to this, the technique of advancement under gravity is successful
in more than 80% of our cases. Gentle pressure with the tip of a single
finger is usually adequate to advance the instrument from the bulbar into
the prostatic urethra since the instrument normally seeks out the passage
almost of its own accord unless it is forcefully deviated.
Despite these counterarguments there are various points in favor of instru-
mentation under direct vision:
Whenever resistance is felt, visualization of the obstacle and slight correc-
tions of position may allow a contracture or fold in the urethra to be circum-
vented.
True strictures may be diagnosed under direct vision and incised with the
Sachse knife. Special viewing inserts which direct the irrigation flow against
the mucosa and lift it off the instrument so as to prevent injury, allow particular-
ly gentle instrumentation.
d) Optical Aids to Passage of the Sheath
The sheath may be passed either with a SCHMmDT viewing obturator, the electro-
tome itself or with the SACHSE urethrotome in situ. The individual choic.e among
these methods will depend on circumstances. .
1. If nothing further than a direct view of the process of instrumentation is
required, the Schmiedt viewing obturator is the correct instrument. Its chief
advantage over the electrotome as a viewing insert lies in the fact that it
is a true obturator virtually occluding the sheath aperture.
2. The electrotome is suitable for cases which could be instrumented blind,
but in which there are other reasons for wishing to view the urethra.
3. The Sachse knife should be used whenever previous urethrogram or cysto-
scopy has revealed a stricture which will require incision during instrumenta-
tion.
4. Trauma During Instrumentation
In our experience, injury rarely occurs if urology residents are properly trained,
and if the rules previously described are strictly adhered to. Passing the resecto-
scope is generally the first step in the training of a budding transurethral surgeon.
Long before our young colleagues carry out their first cut they are given ample
opportunity to pass the instrument under supervision, having first on several
occasions seen the practical application of these rules through a teaching attach-
ment. Observation of the rules thus becomes second nature.
If the trainee should arrive at a truly impassable obstacle, instrumentation
will be continued under direct vision. Only at this point will a more experienced
colleague intervene and clarify the situation.
Apart from the stretching injuries already described, the following types
of trauma may occur:
1. False passage below the external sphincter
2. False passage above the external sphincter
In 35 years of practice I have never seen a perforation of the urogenital
membrane. This tissue is far too tough and resistant.
b) Injuries Below the External Sphincter
Below the external sphincter the instrument may find a false passage out of
the bulbar urethra (perhaps already deformed by poor catheterization) into
the perineum. The nature of the fascial layers and the self-evident inappropriate
direction quickly reveal the error, since the urogenital membrane almost com-
pletely resists passage of the instrument.
Orientation at the Site of Resection 99
c) Injuries Above the External Sphincter
Above the external sphincter a false passage may lead ventrally or dorsally.
(X) Ventral Injuries. After leaving the midline, a ventral false passage might
enter the substance of one or other lateral lobe. This is by no means a disaster,
as long as the perforation is intracapsular and the instrument eventually
reaches the bladder by this detour through the lateral lobe. Such an accident
may occur in the presence of an extremely asymmetrical configuration of the
lateral lobes with consequent deviation of the midline toward the less developed
side. If an experienced operator takes over at this point, the complication is
harmless, since the instrument may be used to cut a passage from lateral to
medial through the lateral lobe back into the urethra. Alternatively the instru-
ment may be retracted beyond the point of the perforation and the correct
way into the bladder through the distorted urethra sought under direct vision.
Once again this is an extremely rare complication, which I have only experi-
enced twice. In both cases the operation was successfully concluded without
further problems. BAUMRUCKER (1968) describes this complication as "acci-
dent 13".
P) Dorsal Injuries. Dorsal perforation can only occur if particularly extensive

ventral protrusion of a median lobe impedes instrumentation.
This" detour" into the bladder is, however, of no significance for the patient
as long as it remains intracapsular and is recognized for what it is at an early
stage. As for other intracapsular lobar perforations, this problem may be cor-
rected either by retraction of the instrument and advancement under direct
vision or by ablation of the hyperplastic tissue around the perforation. In the
latter case a way is cut through adenoma tissue into the urethral lumen proper,
the landmarks lying in correct appreciation of the tissue structure.
y) Subtrigonal Perforation. Perforations under the trigone are considerably more

problematic, resulting from further advancement after perforation of the median
lobe in a frenzied attempt finally to enter the bladder. The capsule is perforated
and the instrument comes to lie beneath the trigone. In such a case the view
up the electrotome will reveal not bladder mucosa but the web-like strands
of fatty areolar and loose perivesical tissue.
If this occurs, it is preferable to abandon immediate surgery and operate
after 3--4 days' indwelling catheterization.
This type of perforation is discussed in further detail in Chap. D.VI.1.e)
and in Fig. 125.
5. Orientation at the Site of Resection
Orientation may be difficult in a cavity of complex configuration, occurring

as it must by means of a monocular optical instrument.
Fig. 66. Viewing direction of various telescopes. Dotted lines: Optical axis of Storz telescopes as
used by us. In this context 0° means that there is no deviation of the optical axis from strict forward
viewing. Other manufacturers use a descriptive system in which such a telescope would be designated
180°. Slight deviation of the axis can thus be described as 175°, indicating that the direction of
view deviates by 5° from straight ahead. This principle applies equally to other numerical denomina-
tions
a) Telescopes for Inspection of the Bladder and Bladder Neck
Three different lens systems are available for this purpose, differing in their
viewing angle (Fig. 66). The different direction taken by their optical axis will
result in a different appearance of individual structures. We shall discuss this
in terms of an every day example which clarifies the principles involved.
Metaphorically speaking, the bladder neck with its two lateral lobes im-
pinging on the cleft-like urethra resembles a ravine. End-viewing telescopes
will provide the image one might have of the ravine through a panoramic
telescope set up in a central position and looking up the ravine. To the extent
that the axis is angulated, the image will resemble that obtained from a bridge
crossing the ravine. 90° telescopes look vertically down from the bridge to
the floor of the ravine. Retrograde systems will provide an image of the ravine
such as might be obtained by leaning over the bridge and looking back under
it towards the mouth of the ravine.
This metaphor is a useful model for thinking about the bladder neck, since
the observer is forever prone to the illusion that what he happens to see with
any given telescope is a true image of the actual anatomy. It must be emphasized
that there are as many perspectives of the bladder neck as there are telescopes.
In practical terms, this means that the urologist examining this intricately confi-
gured cavity must get to know its appearance at a variety of viewing angles,
so as to develop a three-dimensional concept closely approximating to reality.
Two further points are worthy of consideration:
Firstly, only a single telescope is used for resection - a forward-viewing
type with up to 15° angulation. Orientation during surgery must occur with
this system. As a result, the beginner must become accustomed to the viewing
angle of this telescope, so as to be capable of recognizing things which he
cannot see directly but may estimate by their movement, their behavior and
Telescopes for Inspection of the Bladder and Bladder Neck 101
Fig. 67. Simplified appearance of the verumontanum as seen by three different telescopes. 0 telescope:
0
the verumontanum and both lateral lobes are seen here through a forward-viewing telescope looking
straight up the urethral cleft (viz. the ravine analogy in the text). The optical axis is approximately
in the center of the field, and urethral structures are thus represented in equal perspective around
the periphery if the instrument is held horizontally. 30° telescope: A slightly downward view onto
the verumontanum. Only the lower parts of the lateral lobes are visualized. 70° telescope: Almost
vertical view of the urethral floor. Only the verumontanum and roots of the lateral lobe are visible.
If held horizontally, such a telescope gives a distorted view of the extent of the lateral lobes
the shadows cast. Thus, for example, endovesical protrusion of a median or

lateral lobe cannot be definitely recognized as such from below with a forward-
viewing telescope, but the mobility and the relationship of adenoma tissue to
exposed fibers of the internal sphincter muscle will announce the presence of
endovesical adenoma to the experienced operator.
Secondly, the slightest hemorrhage during operation will make it totally
impossible to obtain any view with any telescope except the forward-viewing
system of the electrotome. All other telescopes will show nothing but red on
red and only very close approximation to the mucosa or the wound will allow
poor view of a small area. Except for what was seen before the operation
with other types of telescopes and carefully committed to memory, no further
orientation will be possible.
It is these two points which render preoperative inspection with all three
telescopes, the forward-viewing, the side-viewing and the retrograde, so impor-
tant for the beginner who has to learn to assemble in his mind the three perspec-
tives into a spatial image (Fig. 67). During the operation proper he will have
to depend solely on his end viewing telescope.
Fig. 68. Diagrammatic representation of the field of view of a 0° telescope. The field includes a median
lobe protruding somewhat into the lumen, its summit just visible. Beyond, the posterior wall of
the fully distended bladder is visible
ex) The End Viewing Telescope. As already discussed in the example of the
ravine, this telescope looks in a forward direction only (Fig. 68). Only by moving
the instrument in the appropriate direction, left and right laterally as well as
ventrally and dorsally, may the lateral, ventral and dorsal areas of the prostatic
urethra be assessed. In addition, advancing and withdrawing the instrument
allows one to wander up and down the ravine. One may draw on this metaphor
yet again to point out that a narrow field of view may to some extent be
compensated for by viewing the object from a greater distance (Fig. 69). In
practical terms this means slightly withdrawing the instrument so as to gain
a greater distance from the object. Thus the entire circumference of the paracolli-
cular area can only be seen within a single field if the instrument is somewhat
retracted into the membranous urethra. This is particularly true if tall and
voluminous lateral lobes give the urethra an increased dorsiventral extension.
The female bladder could be completely surveyed with this telescope, since
the urethra is so short and so mobile as to allow the instrument to be angled
in all directions. In the male, however, the urethra is considerably less mobile
due to the firm fixation of its membranous and prostatic parts, and in addition
to this, endovesical portions of the adenoma obscure the view of recesses lateral
or caudal to these nodules.
If, however, the obstructing portions of the prostate are ablated, the entire
male bladder may also be viewed under operative conditions with an end
viewing. Such a maneuver may be necessary, e.g., for the resection of bladder
tumors in the vault and on the lateral walls near the internal meatus. If, in
addition, external counterpressure is applied suprapubically the ventral bladder
wall will be visualised. Then there is in the male bladder equally no area which
cannot be seen with an end viewing telescope and approached surgically.
A poor view of the lateral and ventral areas of the bladder base indicates
endovesical growth of adenoma.
Telescopes for Inspection of the Bladder and Bladder Neck 103
Fig. 69. Diagrammatic representation of the field of view of a 0° telescope. The same situation as
in Fig. 68, but with the instrument somewhat withdrawn. In this bladder neck both lateral lobes
are seen in the endoscopic image. The field of view, and therefore the extent of the area visualized,
depends to some extent on the distance between the front lens of the telescope and the objects
being viewed
Fig. 70. Diagrammatic representation of the field of view of a diagnostic telescope. The telescope
looks straight down onto the bladder base. At the distal margin of the field the left ureteric orifice
is visible, while the proximal margin is in the base of the bladder. Further retraction of the instrument
would allow the " retrograde " region of the field to view the transition between bladder base and
the only mildly enlarged endovesical portion of the adenoma
The technique of rocking (see Fig. 72) the instrument in various planes
[Group III, Sect. IV.5.b)y)] allows a good overall view of the prostatic urethra.
The configuration of the internal meatus may be appreciated at the same time.
~) Diagnostic Telescopes. This term applies to all telescopes with an axis angle
of 30-90° (Fig. 70). They allow a good overall view of all parts of the bladder
and the internal meatus which are hard to see with an end viewing. In addition
they are quite indispensable for a careful examination of the bladder mucosa.
Fig. 71. Examination of the bladder and its base with a retrograde-viewing telescope. The telescope
only projects a short way into the bladder but nevertheless views the entire median lobe and even
part of the prostatic urethra. With this type of telescope, assessment of the anatomic situation
is more difficult than with other types, which may explain the moderate popularity of retrograde
systems. They are, however, indispensable for the assessment of cases in which protuberant endovesi-
cal adenomas may mask tumor in the angle between adenoma and bladder wall (see Fig. 199)
Those with a wide field of view may even be used in place of retrograde-viewing
telescopes, since an instrument with a 90° optical axis and a 90° field of view
will be half forward- and half retrograde-viewing. Such wide-angled telescopes
give a valuable view of the overall relationship in large expanses of bladder.
This is particularly true of structures at the internal meatus, where nodules
of median and lateral lobes are often tightly pressed together with deep clefts
between, and such diagnostic telescopes with their "bird's eye" perspective
may allow a considerably better assessment of the overall situation.
A wide-viewing angle is also of importance when inspecting the retroprostatic
recess. In this region there may be a deep depression between internal meatus
and bladder base or trigone. Particularly in cases with a tall median lobe the
bladder base may be quite hard to visualize, occasionally requiring a retrograde-
viewing telescope.
These telescopes are of little value for diagnostic inspection of the prostatic
urethra.
1) Retrograde-Viewing Telescopes. The principle of this telescope dates to

the days of NITZE, who published the design of a retrograde cystoscope.
This viewing angle is of particular importance in assessing regions of the bladder
around the internal meatus (Fig. 71). In conjunction with the two previous
lens systems, this telescope gives an excellent view of endovesical portions of
the adenoma. The perspective is not, however, easily understood unless one
routinely uses it in everyday practice. It is once again true that nothing may
be seen with this telescope during surgery, once the irrigating fluid is blood-
stained.
We have only recently started to use retrograde telescopes, which is to say
that we had previously carried out all preoperative assessment of the bladder
Directional Features of the Bladder Neck 105
neck without such systems and without any impairment of our results. The
training of our younger colleagues is, however, greatly improved if they are
able to obtain a view of the operating field around the bladder neck from
within the bladder, so that they can more easily learn the art of endoscopic
visualization.
b) Directional Features of the Bladder Neck
Spatial orientation at the bladder neck is greatly facilitated by understanding

the optical characteristics of various telescopes. A further aid is afforded by
considering the area in terms of directional pairs corresponding to the three
dimensions. It will thus be possible for surgeon and observer alike to find
any location within the prostatic capsule on purely descriptive information.
a) Group I Features: Distal-Proximal. This axis corresponds to the longitudinal

axis of the urethra, and the instrument is slid forward or backward along it.
At the proximal edge of the urethra, the internal meatus, various forms
of transition to the bladder may be observed. In the presence of a short trans-
verse bar, the floor of the prostatic urethra falls away after a brief rise during
which tissue closely approaches the front lens.
A protuberant median lobe looks quite different. In this case the instrument,
or at any rate its ventral portion, is already within the bladder which may
be seen straight ahead by the observer, while tissue of the median lobe continues
to be seen beneath the telescope (see Fig. 74). 0° degree instruments give the
most realistic representation of this state of affairs, since the far wall of the
bladder may then be seen even when part of the median lobe is still in the
field of view at 6 o'clock.
Further withdrawal of the instrument will reveal a sinking away of the
floor of the prostatic urethra. The median lobes drift past on either side and
the verumontanum surfaces at 6 o'clock. In a normally developed verumon-
tanum, the small fold of the utriculus is easily seen, and more distally the
urethral crest.
The relationship of the lateral lobes to the verumontanum should be noted,
the former being recognized by their convexity. Unfortunately (with resulting
difficulty in orientation) this convexity may lead them to bulge somewhat distal
to the verumontanum, a fact which may be appreciated from the distribution
of light and shade.
Most distally of all lies the external sphincter [see Sect. IV.6.f)]. The greater
range of morphologic variation in this region is apparent from Plates I-III,
Illustrations 1-16. The detailed captions to these illustrations serve to supple-
ment what has been said here.
P) Group II Features: Clockwise Rotation. The resection area may be divided

into segments corresponding to the points of a clock dial so as to facilitate
orientation when rotating the instrument. The most obvious mark on this dial
is the verumontanum, seen on the floor of the urethra at 6 o'clock. Its ventral
Fig. 72. Diagram to show the method of extending the field of a forward-viewing telescope in all
directions. The telescope pivots in the urogenital diaphragm. This is its fulcrum, or rather the apex
of a cone described by the telescope axis. By this means, large expanses of bladder may be visualized
by a forward-viewing system. Under general anesthesia, retraction of the instrument and abdominal
pressure on the bladder vault will allow any part of the bladder mucosa to be seen
opposite number is the commissure of the lateral lobes, whose point of communi-
cation may nearly always be seen with the necessary clarity. This will not be
the case in the presence of a rare anterior lobe forcing the lateral lobes apart
after the fashion of a median lobe. By rotating the instrument clockwise one
may appreciate the configuration of the internal meatus. For example, there
is nearly always a deep groove marking the dividing line between median and
lateral lobes. This maneuver also allows a volume appreciation of the lateral
lobe if the instrument is withdrawn on into the prostatic urethra; the bulging
lobes will then be seen returning to their original position whence they had
been laterally displayed by the instrument.
Together with the features of Group I (distal-proximal), this division into
segments permits extremely accurate description of a point within the resection
field. Such topographic cues are of great importance if a vessel that had not
been sealed during a first filling of the bladder requires further coagulation,
or if one wishes to describe to an observer an area of interest which he is
to seek out. In this context, see Color Illustrations 1-16 (Plates I-III). Illustra-
tions 1-7 relate to the topography of the verumontanum, the ventral commissure
is seen in Illustration 11.
y) Group III Features: Lateral-Medial, Dorsal-Ventral. Movement of the instru-
ment in these planes will describe a cone within the bladder neck (Fig. 72).
In the male the instrument is after all fixed at a fulcrum in the membranous
urethra. Moving the external end of the instrument up and to the right will
correspondingly shift the beak to the left and depress it. This property is em-
ployed when the capsule is being freed of adenomatous tissue (teaspooning)
by digging movements of the cutting loop induced by moving the external
end of the instrument. In the first phase of resection, during which a funnel-
shaped section of the adenoma is ablated, the margins of the funnel correspond,
on a reduced scale, to excursions of the eyepiece.
Assessing Bladder Neck Length 107
6. Examination of the Bladder Neck
On the basis of this final preoperative examination, it will be decided whether

transurethral surgery or some enucleation procedure is more appropriate. It
is, however, true to say that an experienced operator will have little doubt
by the time this point is reached.
The second object of a detailed bladder neck examination is to devise an
exact plan of operation, and the younger urologist will take this opportunity
to gain the most exact knowledge of anatomic relationships in this region.
We are of the opinion that a beginner must have carefully examined at least
50 bladder necks before he is ready to undertake an actual resection. During
these inspections he should have the benefit of some commentary from a more
experienced surgeon who will demonstrate the various regions of the bladder
neck and discuss them individually.
b) Assessing Bladder Neck Length
The first feature of the bladder neck to be assessed is its length. This may
be done by visualizing two fixed points, the internal meatus and the verumon-
tanum with the end viewing telescope and noting the position of the glans
along the sheath of the instrument for each one (Fig. 73).
The first practical step is to advance the instrument into the bladder until
the rear wall of the latter may be seen. The instrument is then slowly withdrawn.
The first measurement is made when the internal meatus rises into view, by
placing a finger on the sheath where it emerges from the urethra. The resecto-
scope is now slowly withdrawn until the verumontanum is fully seen. The measur-
ing finger remains applied to the original mark. The distance along the sheath
between the external urethral meatus and the finger corresponds to the length
of the bladder neck.
Errors may be introduced into this measurement by the presence of a high-
lying adenoma or an extensively endovesical median lobe necessitating a concer-
tina movement of the penis to visualize the internal meatus. Equally, the penis
may stretch during retraction of the instrument if the external meatus is rather
a tight fit around the sheath. Furthermore, correct registration of the internal
meatus may be rendered difficult if a protuberant median lobe obliterates any
clear borderline. Under these circumstances, it is important that length assess-
ment be made on the basis of the median lobe and not in terms of the lateral
lobes which generally protrude less far into the bladder. Errors of several centi-
meters would then be liable to occur.
This bladder neck measurement corresponds quite accurately to prostatic
size and thus to the expected volume of tissue.
Our experience to date suggests that prostatic volume as assessed by a rectal
ultrasound probe correlates well with this length measurement. Optical measure-
ment of this type has a further special value for the operator, since its outcome
1 2 3 4
Fig. 73. Measuring the bladder neck. The instrument is advanced into the bladder until no part
of the bladder neck structures is visible. Measurement is then commenced by gradually withdrawing
the instrument until the internal meatus appears in the field of view. Measurements are taken from
this point by applying a finger to the resectoscope sheath. The instrument is then further withdrawn
until the verumontanum is visisble, when the distance between the glans and the finger on the
sheath will correspond to the length of the bladder neck. Care should be taken that a narrow
external meatus does not lead to stretching of the glans, thus giving a false measurement. 1 The
verumontanum appears in the field. 2 Further advancement into the bladder. The lateral lobes
are in contact centrally. 3 The median lobe appears in the field of view and the lateral lobes recede.
4 The summit of the median lobe still just visible
will materially influence his operative strategy. For equal overall length, a
bladder neck with a large voluminous median lobe will require a different tech-
nique to hyperplasia restricted mainly to two large lateral lobes.
c) Depth Assessment of the Urethral Cleft
This value can only be estimated, not measured (Fig. 74). It is mainly determined
by the behavior of the lateral lobes, which in the well-known way convert
the urethra into a flattened scabbard-like cleft, whose greatest extension is in
the dorsiventral direction. A first impression of lateral lobe volume may be
gained by viewing the bladder neck from the region of the verumontanum.
The instrument is then further withdrawn into the membranous urethra, thus
giving a good overall view. Raising and lowering the eyepiece will reveal the
ventral and dorsal extent of large nodules. In very large hyperplastic glands,
it is only the integration of a number of views obtained in this way that will
allow an overall assessment. The instrument is then advanced toward the bladder
and the behavior of the lateral lobes studied at various levels. The area of
Depth Assessment of the Urethral Cleft 109
Fig. 74 a-f. Assessing the caliber of the urethral cleft. a--c Dorsiventrally capacious urethral cleft.
a Endoscopic appearance: this sketch is a composite of 3 individual fields of view. With the telescope
in a neutral horizontal position only the equatorial portion of the lateral lobes is seen. A lower
view reveals only the verumontanum and the dorsal limits of the lateral lobe. An upward view
visualizes the anterior commissure of the lateral lobe. bSchematic cross section through the prostate.
c Schematic drawing of the corresponding cystourethrogram. d-f Dorsiventrally restricted urethral
cleft. d A single position of the telescope allows one to take in the verumontanum and both lateral
lobes. e Schematic cross section of the prostate. fSchematic drawing of the corresponding cystoureth-
rogram
contact between the spheroidal lobes may be seen, as may their dorsal and
ventral parting. The same raising and lowering of the eyepiece is required at
each of these observation points.
It is thus the two lateral lobes which keep the cleft of the prostatic urethra
open. This situation persists for some time during resection, even though large
portions of adenoma may already have been removed. If the remaining lateral
lobe tissue is again inspected from the level of the verumontanum, it may be
seen that the residual apical tissue, i.e., the most distal part of the lateral lobe
vestiges, continues to hold open the urethral cleft. Only when this remaining
tissue is finally removed does the urethra return to its original shape (see
Fig. 144; Plate IX, Illustration 54).
In smaller glands, on the other hand, both the dorsal and ventral walls
of the prostatic urethra may be seen within a single field ; only in close proximity
to the front lens are they lost to view. By the same token the increase in breadth
of the gland may be so slight as to be hardly apparent to the operator, since
the instrument sheath will tend to hold the lateral lobes apart.
Color Illustrations 10 and 11 (Plate II) clearly show how the prostatic ure-
thral cleft is held open by the lateral lobes. Illustration 16 (Plate III), on the
a b
Fig. 75 a, b. Assessing the dorsal tissue volume by rectal palpation against the resectoscope sheath.
a The thickness of tissue on the floor of the prostatic capsule may only be determined with adequate
accuracy if it is palpated with the resectoscope sheath acting as a thrust point. In this sketch there
is a small quantity of tissue. bMore copious dorsal tissue. This preliminary examination is indispens-
able for resecting down to the floor of the capsule
other hand, shows that this aperture need by no means be symmetrical, and
in this illustration the left lateral lobe bulges far over to the right, thus displacing
the urethral cleft. Illustrations 1, 2, 4 and 5 (Plate I) are examples of a narrow
urethral cleft.
d) Dorsal Tissue Volume
The layer of adenoma to us tissue lying between the floor of the prostatic urethra
and the capsule may be of varying thickness. Particularly at its proximal end,
where median lobe tissue protrudes into the prostatic cavity, this layer may
be considerably developed. A combined examination technique will reveal this,
since the tissue will separate the resectoscope sheath from a rectally palpating
finger (Figs. 75 and 76). The more laterally placed tissue is less reliably assessed
by this method if the urethral lumen falls away steeply between the lateral
lobes. Since the resectoscope sheath lies in the midline between two lobes there
is no counter-resistance to rectal palpation of the latter. For long bladder necks,
a midline profile of the prostatic urethra may be palpated.
e) The Verumontanum
In most cases the verumontanum is a conspicuous and easily recognized anatom-

ic structure. Various changes may make it more difficult to visualize: massive
lateral lobes may cover it, edema or tumor in the vicinity may obliterate it.
a) Free-Standing Verumontanum. This is easily seen even from the membranous

urethra as the instrument is advanced toward the bladder under direct vision.
Such a situation arises whenever the lateral lobes are only modestly devel-
oped, e.g., in cases of transverse bar, small adenoma or predominant median
The Verumontanum 111
Fig. 76. Assessing the dorsal profile of the prostatic urethra. In addition to the technique shown
in Fig. 75, the profile of tissue along the floor of the prostatic capsule may thus be assessed. 1
Palpation close to the internal meatus where there is a substantial median lobe. 2 Palpation close
to the verumontanum: sparse tissue
lobe hyperplasia. Due to the optical distortion introduced by all types of tele-
scope, the verumontanum appears very large when viewed at close quarters.
It stands well clear of the easily visualized bladder neck (see Plate I, Illustrations
2 and 3). The more the lateral lobes are developed toward the midline, the
more its lateral portions appear flattened. Alternatively, the verumontanum
may still be visisble and yet its sides are compressed and covered by adenoma
nodules on the floor of the prostatic cavity. In such cases only its anterior
surface, directed toward the instrument, will remain visible. Such an arrange-
ment is really a transition to the configuration in which the verumontanum
is so taken up by lateral lobe tissue as to no longer be immediately visible.
~) Covered Verumontanum. In these cases two related processes lead both to

a sinking of the prostatic urethral floor and to a crowding together of the
lateral lobes in the midline. Since the lateral lobes enlarge not only laterally
and medially but also in a dorsiventral direction, the dorsal part of the prostatic
cavity is pressed further back, carrying with it the urethral floor and verumon-
tanum. Nodules proliferating toward the midline go on to cover the latter com-
pletely.
For observation purposes this process may be reversed, either by a finger
in the rectum elevating the floor of the prostatic cavity, or by "dipping" the
beak of the instrument into the depth of the prostatic urethra, so as once
again to render the verumontanum visible (Fig. 77). During operation both
maneuvers will blend imperceptibly with one another, and their technique should
be practiced at the time of examination (Plate I, Illustration 6).
1) Poorly Visible Verumontanum. Even if the lateral lobes are less pronounced,
the verumontanum may be poorly seen for one of four reasons.
1. Prostatic carcinoma. Carcinomas of the prostate which have spread considera-

bly toward the external sphincter may infiltrate the entire urethral zone, thus
obscuring or indeed completely effacing the verumontanum. Even if the site
at which it should lie is freely visible, infiltration or edema of the mucosa,
or occasionally a local protrusion of tumor, may so markedly alter the local
topography that even an experience surgeon is unable to identify the verumon-
tanum. This will cause considerable difficulties in operative orientation, and
stimulation of the external sphincter with the apparatus of TAMMEN may, in
these cases, help to avoid sphincteric trauma. A safe rule in cases of doubt
is to err on the side of leaving some tissue at this point, since this would
be amenable to subsequent resection if adequate micturition is not established
postoperatively. A second operation is infinitely preferable to incontinence.
2. Papillary tumors of the prostatic urethra. This represents a somewhat different

situation, since the verumontanum may usually be visualized if the urethra
is dissected free of tumor, starting at the proximal end. It is then frequently
possible to dissect the verumontanum out of the papillomatous mass so that
it is clearly demonstrated at the end of the procedure.
3. Edema of severe inflammation. Similar difficulties occur when the verumon-

tanum is poorly seen as a result of inflammatory change. This occurs in long-
term catheter patients, in severe inflammatory conditions of the prostatic glands
and in the wake of abscesses around the urethra. Some inflammatory processes
may give rise to pseudopapillary change of the mucosa which may render the
structures of this region unrecognizable.
4. Trauma of previous surgery. Particular problems arise if the verumontanum

was partially or completely ablated during previous procedures, or if cicatricial
bands distort or cover it. This may be the result of previous transurethral or
enucleative surgery. Edema at the wound margins of previous surgery may
present further problems, and in this situation testing of the sphincter (TAMMEN
and HARTUNG 1973, 1976; HARTUNG 1979) has become an indispensable aid.
0) Aids to Seeking the Verumontanum. In this type of case rectal palpation

may be useful, since it enables one to feel the prostatic capsule, and one then
has a more accurate idea of where to look. Such counterpressure may occasional-
ly also unfold paracollicular infiltrations. The verumontanum is easily distin-
guished from protrusions of similar appearance by the mucosal fold of the
utriculus.
The Verumontanum 113
Fig. 77 a-c. Demonstration of the poorly visible verumontanum. a With the telescope held in normal
horizontal position the verumontanum is invisible lying as it does between two pronounced lateral
lobes. The lateral lobes also overhang the verumontanum distally. b Marked downward tilt of the
telescope within the urethral cleft. The lateral lobes are forced apart and the verumontanum becomes
visible. c The same effect is achieved if the f100r of the prostatic urethra is lifted by a finger in
the rectum. The urethra will then open out to reveal the verumontanum. In this position (instrument
distal to the prostatic capsule!) the midline limit of the capsule is also palpable
E) The Topographic Relationship of Verumontanum and Distal Extremity of the

Lateral Lobe. Every book or work on transurethral resection presents the veru-
montanum as the ultimate boundary never to be transgressed distally. The special
significance of this lighthouse warning the seafarer of the reef of incontinence
is now to be discussed in greater detail.
The rule is certainly valid in respect of the midline, and the boundary is
thus a midline boundary, at 6 o'clock. Careful observation will reveal that,
even slightly to either side of this line, a voluminous lateral lobe may considera-
bly overtake the verumontanum distally. The same fact emerges from the study
of pathologic specimens and anatomic illustrations. The value of the verumon-
tanum as a landmark is thus slightly reduced, since it becomes no longer a
universal boundary line never to be transgressed. It does, however, remain an
extremely important midline landmark to be referred to in a topographically
difficult region of paramount importance for the preservation of continence.
The region should thus be inspected with the following questions in mind:
Where is the distal limit of the lateral lobes ?
What is the relationship of this limit to the verumontanum?
This clearly requires careful examination of the lateral lobes, which will
appear on endoscopy as medially convex tissue masses. Their limit is easily
recognized as the point at which this convexity meets the circular cross section
of the urethra.
One important aid to understanding the topographic relationships of veru-
montanum and lateral lobes is the way in which the resectoscope sinks into
the cleft between verumontanum and lateral lobe, as seen in Plate II (Illustration
8). The convexity of the lateral lobe may be seen extending distally beyond
the verumontanum. The same cleft is visualized in Illustration 7 in the same
plate. The significance of this arrangement for surgery may be appreciated from
Plate X (Illustrations 56 and 58), where it is particularly obvious that the lateral
lobes terminate distal to the verumontanum. In Illustrations 55 and 57 (Plate
X) the instrument has been dipped down into the cleft and is pushing the
lateral lobe vestige away, thus demonstrating the boundaries for resection.
Aids to understanding this relationship. The verumontanum and the distal end
of the lateral lobe may be easily visualized either by pressing the resectoscope
sheath into the depths of the urethral cleft, or equally by the palpating finger
lifting up the floor of the prostatic capsule. Both techniques have been described
above (p. 111) and are further illustrated in Fig. 77.
f) The External Sphincter
IX) Initial Anatomical Considerations. The phrase "external sphincter" has

become so indigenous to urologic literature as to be a definite technical term,
although the structures designated as external sphincter in a variety of drawings
are often only partly correct in their anatomic representation. TANAGHO and
SMITH (1966) went to great pains to clarify this question and their careful histo-
logic studies revealed an entity consisting of mixed striated and smooth muscle
fibers connected to the prostatic capsule. The concept of a circular ring muscle
should thus be abandoned, despite the considerable clinical evidence for such
an assumption.
The same fact may be demonstrated by endoscopic examination of this
region in unanesthetized patients who are voluntarily able to contract this muscle
structure to command. We know, however, that this voluntary muscle is not
solely responsible for continence, a clinical observation which has been substan-
tiated by urodynamic investigation of partially continent patients who are well
The External Sphincter 115
able to interrupt their urinary stream for a short period of time, but nonetheless
remain incontinent despite the demonstrable function of this voluntary appara-
tus. It is most probable that continence further requires the activity of an invol-
untary muscle system. It would seem that the endoscopically observable response
to the faradic test of TAMMEN and HARTUNG (1973, 1976) represents the con-
traction of smooth and striated muscle fibers to simultaneous stimulation.
It may be that the entity examined by the hydraulic sphincter test of
HARTUNG (1979) is merely the resting tone of these groups of muscles which
had been opposed throughout the endoscopic procedure by the flow of irrigating
fluid and were then seen to return to their resting position on reduction of
hydrostatic pressure. These matters are not fully understood and remain the
subject of further studies. The great interest in the external sphincter derives
from its importance as a bladder outflow control. It is because of this function
that it remains a boundary of overriding significance in transurethral surgery.
P) Endoscopic Appearance of the External Sphincter Region. An external

sphincter itself cannot be visualized endoscopically, only the region in which
contractile elements are found. For this purpose three methods are available:
1. Examination of this region in the unanesthetized patient (neither general
nor regional anesthesia, merely local anesthetic of the urethral mucosa)
2. Faradic stimulation of the external sphincter region (TAMMEN and HARTUNG
1973, 1976)
3. Hydraulic stimulation of the region (HARTUNG 1979)
The recognition of fine detail is further impeded if the patient has had
an indwelling catheter for a long enough period to cause urethral mucosal
edema.
If, in the unanesthetized patient, the instrument is gradually withdrawn from
the prostatic urethra, the verumontanum is the first structure to emerge, occa-
sionally heralded by the urethral crest (see Plate II, Illustration 9), a fine linear
elevation of the mucosa blending with the verumontanum only to re-emerge from
it distally. The floor of the prostatic urethra then sinks gently away dorsally,
to rise up again a few millimeters lower. If the instrument is gently pushed
in and out, a fine wrinkling of the mucosa may be provoked distal to the
verumontanum. This wrinkling has been called the Nesbit sign.
In fact wrinkling was originally described by NESBIT himself as a ventral
landmark only (see Plate I, Illustrations 1,4 and 5).
A totally different appearance may be found in larger hyperplastic glands,
since the distal extent of the lateral lobes may almost completely cover the
verumontanum and markedly alter the urethral profile. This effacement may
so alter the appearance that the typical surface markings of the normal urethra
or of that found in small adenomas may be totally unrecognizable. In these
cases the techniques of hydraulic and faradic stimulation, to be described below,
may be helpful in identifying the external sphincter apparatus.
The contractile portion of the urethra is generally seen far more distally
than was previously assumed. A proximal limit is not easily recognized if the
cutting loop, by which the faradic stimulus is applied, is held too far distally,
since the contracting urethra will then obscure the forward view. A careful
Fig. 78. Testing the sphincter by the technique of Tammen and Hartung. Diagrammatic sagittal section
of the prostatic capsule and proximal (membranous) urethra. By means of a changeover switch
the cutting loop has been connected to a faradic stimulating current. By sweeping the regions contain-
ing contractile sphincter elements, i.e., distal to the verumontanum, contraction may be initiated
over a 1-2.5 cm segment of urethra. It is remarkable how frequently this segment is distal to where
one might expect
gradual approach to this limit is therefore necessary. I personally have never

identified sphincteric fibers with absolute certainty during operation.
y) Further Aids to Recognition of the Sphincter Region. Rectal palpation while

resecting in this region may be of some help in identifying the boundary between
capsule and membranous urethra, but only if the instrument is withdrawn dis-
tally from the prostatic into the membranous urethra. The midline margin of
the capsule then becomes palpable, having previously been obliterated by the
distortion introduced into the urethra by the presence of the resectoscope sheath.
Palpation remains a somewhat unreliable aid allowing only approximate orienta-
tion.
0) The Sphincter Test of Tammen. TAMMEN developed his sphincteric test in

1973 in our department (TAMMEN and HARTUNG 1973, 1976). He exploited
the simple concept that any musculature involved in closing the bladder outlet
must be susceptible to faradic stimulation and may therefore be made to con-
tract.
By means of an additional footswitch, a stimulus generator (which may
be integrated into the high frequency diathermy unit) is able to provide a stimu-
lating current in the resectoscope loop. Using this current the cutting loop
can scan the posterior urethra and establish the region in which contractions
may be brought about (Fig. 78). Precise information is then available which
enables contractile elements to be spared from resection. Incipient closure of
the urethra is clearly seen in Illustration 83; Illustration 84 (Plate XIV) shows
complete closure.
The stimulating unit and its connection to the diathermy are illustrated
in Fig. 79.
The Internal Urinary Meatus 117
.~
.~.
. .,. . ---0 •
Fig. 79. The Tammen stimulating unit
E) The Sphincter Test of Hartung. HARTUNG (1979) introduced a practical im-

provement on faradic stimulation alone by testing the resting tone of the
sphincter by means of a short on-off cycle of irrigation flow. If the region
distal to the verumontanum is observed under conditions of maximum irrigation
inflow, this portion of the urethra will be filled and distended under hydrostatic
pressure. When the irrigation hose is then rapidly pinched off, the external
sphincter will return to its "natural" position, i.e., it will resume its normal
tone and thus somewhat impinge on the lumen of the urethra. This movement
may be easily and repeatedly produced by rapidly pinching and releasing the
hose. It is important that the bladder should not be overfilled and be able
to accommodate irrigation fluid, since the flow will otherwise be too slow and
the phenomenon refractory.
This dynamic method of examining the membranous urethra so sharpens
one's perception of the normal structures in the region that one is soon able
to recognize the slight bulge of the sphincter margin without this "irrigation
test." Distal to the lower limit of convexly bulging adenoma nodules a discrete
narrowing of the urethra may be seen.
g) The Internal Urinary Meatus
Because of the manifold patterns of median and lateral lobe enlargement, this
proximal boundary of the operating field is of particularly varied appearance.
Between the extremes of a simple transition to the bladder, e.g., a transverse

bar and massive trilobed hyperplasia of the gland, there are a variety of transi-
tional types requiring careful study and preoperative recognition.
At this juncture the relationship of internal meatus to the ureteric orifices
must be carefully examined, both in the distended and the empty bladder.
Finally, attention should be directed to the internal sphincter ring, which
may constrict the endoprostatic and endovesical parts of the gland to a varying
extent.
ex) The Internal Meatus in Small Adenoma, Bladder Neck Fibrosis, and Transverse
Bar. In these cases the arrangement is not dissimilar to normal. The instrument
slides over a more or less pronounced transverse fold delineating the prostatic
urethra from the bladder. This annular aperture is more easily perceived as
a "bar" by telescopes with a somewhat angulated axis directed toward the
bladder base. Lens systems providing complete forward viewing normally also
visualize the ventral aspect of the sphincter-like constriction between urethra
and bladder. The best impression of this region may be gained when examining
the bladder through a suprapubic cystotomy, where this very small aperture
with its funnel-like inlet may be easily seen in the base of the bladder. That
is also the appearance of the internal meatus when the bladder is open. A
forward-viewing telescope also enables the bladder base and both ureteric ori-
fices to be seen without marked tilting of the instrument towards the bladder
base.
Fibrosis of the sphincter sometimes has its own characteristic appearance.
The mucosa on the markedly rigid summit of the internal meatus is pallid
and devoid of obvious blood supply. The toughness of this region is easily
appreciated as the instrument glides over it. Morphologic differentiation of
sphincter fibrosis and so-called transverse bar, i.e., isolated hyperplasia of the
median lobe, may present considerable difficulties. The general impression is
that the tissue of sphincter fibrosis is considerably tougher and the narrowing
of the bladder neck somewhat less pronounced. In cases of transverse bar,
on the other hand, the changes in the bladder neck are more substantial, more
voluminous and correspondingly softer (Fig. 80). These differences are not, how-
ever, so pronounced as to allow exact clinical diagnosis, and the results of
histologic examination must be awaited.
P) Endourethral Hyperplasia. This corresponds to "Type 2" of TANDLER and

ZUCKERKANDL (1922). The hyperplastic tissue mass is situated within the prosta-
tic capsule, although negligible portions may protrude into the bladder (Fig. 81).
This form of tumor growth is characterized by the excellent view of the bladder
obtainable from the internal meatus. A side viewing telescope gives clear access
to the side walls of the bladder without obstruction by hyperplastic tissue.
The appearance of the internal meatus would at first seem similar to the pre-
viously described types, the difference being in the length of the bladder neck.
Examination of the internal meatus by the suprapubic route would then reveal
merely a discrete bulging of the immediate vicinity of the internal urethral
Fig. 80. Diagrammatic sagittal section of distal bladder and prostatic capsule. In this illustration there
is sparse hyperplastic tissue. Only at the internal meatus is there some elevation of the prostatic
urethra, appearing endoscopically as a transverse bar of whitish consistency. This pallid appearance
of the tissue is due to its high proportion of connective tissue and consequent low vascularity
Fig. 81. Appearance of chiefly urethral hyperplasia. Diagrammatic cross section of the bladder (above)
and coronal section through distal bladder and prostatic capsule (below). The adenoma bulges only
slightly into the bladder, and there is thus only mild elevation of the bladder base in the region
of the prostate
Fig. 82. Appearance of mainly endovesical hyperplasia. Diagrammatic cross section through the bladder
(above) and coronal section through distal bladder and prostate (below). In this example more than
two-thirds of the tumor is within the bladder, while the capsule contains only a small proportion
of the hyperplastic tissue. Such median lobes may sometimes develop to considerable volumes, often
treated by suprapubic enucleation, although precisely this type of hyperplasia affecting the floor
of the prostatic urethra and the bladder base is particularly suitable for transurethral resection,
even by beginners (see also Figs. 63 and 85)
orifice together with elevation of the entire bladder base. In pure examples
of this type of growth, no adenoma tissue projects into the bladder.
r) Endovesical Hyperplasia. This growth pattern corresponds to "Type 1" of

the T ANDLER and ZUCKERKANDL classification. The adenoma has grown up
through the limiting ring of the internal sphincter and extends up into the
bladder (Fig. 82). Both lateral and median lobes may be involved in this process.
Such a classification does not, however, mean that little or no hyperplastic
tissue is to be found within the prostatic capsule. There is rather a growth
pattern in which the internal sphincter constricts the elongated growth in an
hourglass fashion and thus separates it into an endourethral and endovesical
portion. This constriction groove may be confirmed by the examination of
enucleated specimens, and its presence should equally be appreciated during
transurethral dissection. It is essential to diagnose this state of affairs prior
to operation, since such an anatomic arrangement requires a totally different
operative technique (Fig. 83).
Fig. 83 a--c. Sagittal section through prostatic capsule before and after enucleation of an adenoma
(with specimen). a Section through the capsule with marked median lobe. b Operative specimen
following enucleation. Note the marked "waisting" of the specimen at the point where its develop-
ment was hindered by the internal sphincter. Somewhat proximally note the separated margin of
mucosa clothing the endovesical moiety of the tumor. c Empty capsule. Constriction of the internal
sphincter region is clearly seen. These three illustrations are to remind the operator how restricted
the lumen of the internal meatus may be. When hollowing out the capsule this state of affairs
deserves particular attention so as to avoid perforation of the vesicoprostatic junction
This preoperative diagnosis is easily reached by the use of a wide-angle

diagnostic telescope. The ventral and lateral walls, as well as the bladder base,
are now no longer so easily seen, being partly obscured by adenoma tissue
projecting into the bladder. Predominant median lobe hyperplasia may render
the entire bladder base and interureteric ridge invisible, while concurrent lateral
lobe development will rather obscure the lateral parts of the bladder (Fig. 84).
In such cases a retrograde-viewing telescope may clarify the situation, if the
operator is at home with the particular characteristics of this system. The per-
spective from the bladder base renders the appearance of the hyperplastic tissue
curiously flat. A normal diagnostic telescope provides a far more plastic but
less complete image of the growth. The sensation of depth is further accentuated
by the sharp shadows cast in the field of illumination.
The transurethral surgeon must become equally proficient at recognizing
this arrangement through the forward-viewing telescope with which he will
Fig. 84. Marked endovesical median and lateral lobe hyperplasia. The massive median lobe almost
completely obscures the interureteric ridge. A 0 °telescope is incapable of viewing the ureteric orifices,
and this may require a retrograde telescope in a fully distended bladder. The cleft arising between
median and lateral lobes is easily seen. The verumontanum lies proximal to the distal ends of the
lateral lobes within the prostatic urethra
Fig. 85. Typical appearance of trilobe hyperplasia with two lateral and one median lobe projecting
well into the bladder. Once again the verumontanum is not the most distal point limiting the field
of resection. The lateral lobes extend beyond it distally. The cleft between lateral and median lobes
is once more seen
The Internal Sphincter 123
operate. As already pointed out, the beginner should carry out his preoperative
examination with the widest variety of telescopes in order to obtain the best
three-dimensional concept of the anatomic situation.
Extensive median lobe hyperplasia may further be palpated with the instru-
ment, the sheath being allowed to slide from lateral to medial across the summit
of the gland, so as to inspect the often deeply grooved boundaries of the lateral
lobe. The instrument is allowed to sink into this" boundary trench", and thus
a better view of it is obtained. At the same time an impression is gained of
the degree of fixity of the median lobe at its base. Highly mobile lobes tightly
constricted by the internal sphincter require a special technique of resection
in order to avoid early complete separation of the lobe at its base. The removal
of a median lobe floating free in the bladder presents considerable problems.
The same may be said of the lateral lobe.
The commonest form of endovesical growth involves all three lobes and
a view from the bladder would then present the typical pattern of trilobe hyper-
plasia (Fig. 85). As a rule there is a degree of asymmetry, and frequently there
is predominance of the median lobe which may amount to over one-quarter
of the total amount of tissue removed. Such variations are, however, of them-
selves of no consequence for operative technique, so long as the bare fact of
endovesical hyperplasia is recognized and technique correspondingly adjusted.
h) The Internal Sphincter
This ring of tissue is not, of course, visible during preoperative inspection

of the bladder neck, although its size may have been estimated prior to opera-
tion. The caliber of the internal urethral orifice, on the other hand, may be
definitely determined (Fig. 86). If the instrument is freely mobile at that point,
,I •.
a b
Fig. 86a, b. Internal urethral meatus of varying cali her. Diagrammatic sagittal section through distal
bladder and prostatic capsule. a The adenoma has stretched both the internal sphincter region
and the capsule. In such a case, resection of the endovesical portion of adenoma is easy, since
hollowing out of the capsule does not require wide excursions of the instrument. b Markedly con-
stricted internal meatus. Resection may be expected to be difficult. Such a constriction is often
only vaguely suspected preoperatively but will become apparent after the first few cuts expose the
sphincter (see Fig. 83)
there can be no significant narrowing of the sphincter, 'and vice versa. In some
cases the internal meatus may be recognized as a broad slit-like opening, and
the cleft between the lateral lobes then continues without constriction into the
bladder. Such an arrangement will present fewer operative difficulties than does
the presence of a true constriction.
Inspection of the prostatic capsule during transvesical enucleation proce-
dures is helpful in understanding the various forms of internal sphincter. The
sphincter ring may be so tight that the enucleated tissue can only be extracted
from the prostatic capsule with great difficulty, or it may be so broad that
the gland may easily slip back into the bladder. Such experience should help
to complete the stereoscopic concept of the bladder neck gained during preoper-
ative examination.
i) The Bladder Base and the Retroprostatic Recess
Part and parcel of examination of the internal meatus is an assessment of its

relation to the bladder, particularly those regions of the latter adjacent to the
operative field.
The depth of the retroprostatic recess is best established using the forward-
viewing operating telescope. Examination should start with the bladder empty,
so that its behavior in its various regions may be studied as it is gently filled
by the irrigating flow.
The retroprostatic recess. As the adenoma grows it leads to changes in the

bladder base and internal meatus. This is particularly true of the expanse of
bladder base between internal meatus and ureteric orifices.
If the adenoma is small, the transition from urethra to bladder is almost
normal, and a forward-viewing telescope gives a good view of bladder base,
interureteric ridge and ureteric orifices. A deep recess renders the orifices hard
to see (Fig. 87).
Fig. 87 a, b. Shallow and deep retrosprostatic recesses. a There is a short distance from prostatic
urethra to bladder base and ureteric orifices. Such a situation is easily recognized endoscopically
prior to operation, which should proceed with particular care. b Deep recess. A considerable amount
of tissue must be removed before the bladder base could come within reach of the resectoscope
loop. Tissue may thus be energetically removed during the initial phases of operation
The Bladder Base and the Retroprostatic Recess 125
Fig. 88a-d. Visualizing the bladder base in the presence of endovesical adenomas. Sagittal section
through distal bladder and prostatic capsule. a The instrument lies horizontally in the prostatic
urethra. In this position the bladder base is not visible. b Instrument tilted down towards bladder
base. The interureteric ridge and ureteric orifices may be demonstrated. c Instrument in the prostatic
urethra in horizontal position. A large median lobe covers the trigone. d Downward tilt of the
instrument. The median lobe overlies the interureteric ridge and obscures it. Only removal of the
median lobe or preoperative use of a retrograde telescope will render the interureteric ridge visible
As the bladder is emptied, the orifices and the bladder base will move toward
the internal meatus, whence they will again move away on refilling.
A deeper recess will require that the instrument beak be markedly lowered
if the trigone and ureteric orifices are to be seen at all (Fig. 88). In the presence
of very large adenomas this may become completely impossible with the
forward-viewing telescope and a diagnostic instrument must then be used. It
is difficult to classify precisely the different situations which may occur, since
there is great variation and an imperceptible transition from one form to
another.
A separate problem arises from endovesical hyperplasia, since even a modest
but protuberant median lobe will then severely impede examination of the
bladder base.
The ease of assessment of the recess and its depth has not proved a useful
measure of prostatic size in our hands.
Fig. 89a, b. Relationsbip of ureteric orifices to internal meatus in the full and empty bladder. Diagram-
matic sagittal section through bladder and prostate. a Arrangement with distended bladder. The
ureteric orifices and interureteric ridge are separated from the internal meatus both cranially and
dorsally. There is thus little danger of accidental damage under these circumstances. b Arrangement
when the bladder is empty. Interureteric bar and orifices have approached the internal meatus both
by caudal descent and ventral elevation. The orifices are thus considerably at risk if this state of
affairs goes unrecognized, e.g., if the bladder is excessively emptied by an automatic evacuating
device
j) The Urinary Bladder
Wherever a prostatic adenoma (or carcinoma) is to be resected there are two

groups of questions to be considered:
1. Incidental finding of bladder disease on endoscopy
2. Relation of the bladder to the operative field
Bladder disease is further considered later in the appropriate section, while
topographic relationships to the operative field are properly dealt with in this
general anatomic discussion.
a) Incidental Finding of Bladder Disease. Any endoscopic examination of the

prostatic urethra must of course incorporate a careful assessment of the bladder.
Particular attention should be paid to the use of special telescopes for the exami-
The Urinary Bladder 127
nation of that part of the bladder obscured by extensive protrusion of median

or lateral lobe tissue into its lumen. Particularly elderly patients may have a
high incidence of clinically silent tumors in addition to the prostatic adenoma
obstructing their bladder outflow. It would be worse than fatal if a small tumor,
probably amenable to curative resection, were so long overlooked as to subse-
quently present at an inoperable stage. The same is true of bladder diverticula
and bladder calculi, to mention only the more frequently found concomitant
pathologies.
P) Relation of the Bladder to the Operative Field. The bladder is the immediate
relation of the bladder neck, and examination of the operative field proper
should always incorporate an examination of the bladder in the various degrees
of distension likely to be encountered during the procedure.
In particular, the way in which the shape of the bladder changes as a function
of filling may be carefully studied during this preliminary examination. It will
then be appreciated how the trigone and interureteric ridge of the empty
bladder closely approach the internal meatus, both as a result of elevation
of the bladder base and of actual approximation, as demonstrated in Fig. 89.
The wall of the empty bladder may actually lie in intimate contact with an
extensive endovesical adenoma. In such a case, the bladder wall is at risk during
resection of this moiety, unless preliminary examination has firmly implanted
such a danger in the surgeon's mind.
The less experienced operator is also strongly advised to measure the bladder
capacity, so as to be aware of the available duration of an individual cutting
run.
Chapter D
General Resection Technique
Cutting Methods and Techniques
I. Introduction
Electroresection is a highly developed operative technique in which a number

of individual manual maneuvers must be coordinated to a meaningful pattern
of work. Control of the irrigating flow, application of cutting and coagulating
current, operation of the electrotome and last but not least a general sense
of being at home in the endoscopic field only become an automatic sequence
of reflex actions at the end of a long period of training. For this reason a
number of authors have recommended the use of teaching phantoms, such
as a clay model (PIRKMAYER and LEUSCH 1977), a cow's udder (HABIB et al.
1975) or bovine heart (CONGER 1963). For a variety of organizational reasons
we have so far managed without such practice equipment and manage to train
young surgeons by a process of careful and stepwise introduction to operative
technique (see p. ). This requires a great deal of patience on both sides.
Twenty-five years of experience in the training of young urologists has taught
me the fundamental importance of becoming completely accustomed to one
instrument. After all, a driving pupil or student pilot would be expected to
at first practice his technique on a single type. NESBIT (1954) has explained
this in graphic terms:
"With such a variety of instruments presently available the urologist can
select the type that best suits his temperament and needs. But the neophyte
resectionist should not hope to supplant dexterity by ingenuity of instrument
design; or a carefully acquired technique by automatic machinery. Duffers at
golf do not shoot par by the purchase of fancy clubs."
A further point should be made by way of introduction: the younger a
person who wishes to learn the technique of resection, the greater the chance
that he will rapidly acquire a good standard of proficiency. If a urologist of
50 or more belatedly recognizes the gap in his education and then expects
that, due to his experience, he will easily master this technique, he should realize
that the majority of such attempts end in only a moderate degree of success.
Of course there are individual exceptions, but the difficulties will be considerably
greater for the older man. Detailed knowledge of the instrument set for transur-
ethral surgery is best gained by repeated dismantling and reassembly. The ideal
opportunity for this is the cleaning of instruments after surgery. Such knowledge
is not only of value for the surgeon working in a well-organized clinic, it is
130 Chapter D General Resection Technique. Cutting Methods and Techniques
also of fundamental importance to the established urologist providing a special-

ist service in private clinics where he is unable to rely on a disciplined team
of specially trained nurses. A further important aspect of such training is the
requirement for the surgeon to be capable of overseeing the whole working
of the operating department team in exercising his position of leadership. From
this point of view, simple cleaning maneuvers form an invaluable foundation
for further procedures. They represent an opportunity to learn the more impor-
tant maneuvers involved in operating the instrument without the requirement
for sterile techniques. The loading of a new cutting loop for example needs
to be carried out quickly and with a steady hand. The surgeon himself must
be capable of executing these maneuvers with the precision of a steepwalker
whenever a gowned scrub nurse happens to be unavailable. This is true not
only of changing the loop but for manipulation of all parts of the instrument.
By the same token the recognition and correction of small technical defects
may be learnt during such a preoperative phase of training. There thus arises
a manual intimacy between operator and instrument similar to the basic weapon
drill of cleaning and maintaining a rifle in army training. Since the eye is unable
to monitor the individual maneuvers during surgery, these must be practiced
to the point of automatism. The urologist's fingers, for example, should come
to know exactly the position of the irrigation cock lever.
Holding the instrument should also at first be practiced under nonsterile
conditions. Single- and two-handed operating, the maneuver of 180 0 axial rota-
tion, i.e., for resection in the ventral region, need to be tried out and understood.
The learner will have an excellent opportunity during the operation to observe
these maneuvers in the hands of a practiced surgeon and can then repeat and
practice everything for himself as a "dry-run" while cleaning the instruments.
II. Holding the Instrument
1. Two-Handed Technique
This is the more usually practiced way of holding the instrument. The left
hand grasps the sheath and the right controls the electrotome and executes
cutting movements by operating the loop control mechanism (Fig. 90). The
majority of instruments in current use have rings and handles arranged for
optimal control of the loop by the right hand. We use an instrument in which
a thumb ring is connected to the loop carriage and controls its movements.
The other fingers of the right hand are steadied against the outlet port of
the sheath or are inserted into an oblong ring upon the resectoscope sheath.
According to the particular instrument employed there will be minor variations
of technique, but the principle remains the same. Instruments in which loop
Two Handed Technique 131
Fig. 90. The instrument held with both hands. The right hand operates the electrotome and supports
the instrument during movement and rotation of the instrument which are, however, initiated by
the left hand. The left hand operates water inlet and outlet as required by means of the central
stopcock. When the electrotome is removed, the thumb of the left hand closes the end of the sheath.
Irrigating fluid and resection chips then escape through the drainage port (see Fig. 15)
movements are controlled by rack and pinion, as in the original Stern-McCarthy

design, are to some extent an exception.
The left hand holds the resectoscope sheath, and is mainly responsible for
advancing and retracting movements as well as actual rotation of the sheath.
Furthermore, the left hand is in control of the water supply. Under some circum-
stances the left hand may also help to steady the resectoscope sheath against
the patient's thigh (Fig. 91). This position is of particular value in relation
to the short female urethra, when operating through a perineal urethrotomy
or when excising tissue from the immediate vicinity of the sphincter, in short
wherever particularly fine and carefully controlled cutting is required, e.g., at
the prostatic apex.
A different situation arises if the instrument is rotated through 180 into 0
the position for cutting ventral tissue (Fig. 92). This requires a change in the
grip and the mind alike. The right hand now controls the electrotome from
above while the left hand works the water control, which is now on the right
side of the instrument.
Some urologists prefer not to change their grip for ventral operating, but
adopt an appropriate posture (Fig. 93). This procedure has the advantage of
allowing a rapid return to lateral and dorsal areas of the bladder neck without
further shifting one's grip.
Fig. 91. Two-handed grip on the instrument. The little finger of the left hand is braced against the
patient's perineum and so fixes the instrument as to prevent uncontrolled distal movements (protec-
tion of the sphincter)
Fig. 92. Change of grip required when rotating the resectoscope through 180°. The right hand now
operates the electrotome from above while the left holds the instrument and operates the stopcock.
In many cases this position may be used for the resection of tumors of the bladder vault or of
ventral portions of the prostate
Single Handed Technique 133
Fig. 93. Alternative change in posture for ventral cutting. Ventral portions of the prostate and the
bladder vault may be reached equally well if the operator leans to one side while rotating the
instrument into the ventral cutting position without shifting his grip. Many urologists prefer this
position, since it permits an uninterrupted transition from dorsal to ventral regions without releasing
the instrument
2. Single-Handed Technique
This method is used when resecting basal and apical areas of the gland, if
this requires that the capsule be elevated toward the cutting loop by a rectal
finger (Fig. 94). Single-handed working may also be necessary if one needs
to press the bladder vault or ventral parts of the adenoma toward the resecto-
scope. In these cases the instrument is operated with the right hand while the
left presses down on the vault. At the same time the resectoscope is rotated
into an inverted position. Control of irrigation by the cock lever then becomes
impossible and thus depends on compressing and releasing the irrigation
hose (Fig. 95). These are precisely the phases of operation in which a reduced
inflow of water is desirable, since increasing distension will lift the bladder
wall up and away from the instrument. Compression of the hose between thumb
and index finger allows the flow to be regulated and surgery to be undertaken
with a just adeq uate degree of irrigation. The index finger itself may accompany
the other fingers of the left hand in simultaneously pressing down on the abdomi-
nal wall. The same technique is useful for ventral lobes protruding into the
bladder.
When operating in the normal position, single-handed technique does not
allow continuous control of the irrigation, since only the thumb of the rectally
Fig. 94. Single-handed operation of the instrument. The right hand controls the instrument and simulta-
neously operates the electrotome. The index finger of the left hand is in the rectum and elevates
the floor of the prostatic cavity toward the cutting loop
The Irrigation Supply 135
Fig. 96. Regulation of irrigating flow in the single-handed technique. (See also Fig. 94). With this
technique it is often difficult to achieve appropriate control of the irrigating flow (increase - decrease).
This is easily overcome if the eyepiece of the instrument is gradually lowered until it comes within
reach of the left thumb, which is then able to operate the stopcock lever
employed hand is available to control the cock. This requires a brief interruption
of cutting, since the lever is only accessible when the sheath is moved over
toward the thumb (Fig. 96).
Occasionally, control of irrigating water may be delegated to a suitably
dextrous assistant.
III. Irrigation Technique
1. The Irrigation Supply
The following is a discussion of some technical and practical problems of irriga-

tion fluid supply and use.
The purpose of irrigation is to open up the operative field and clear it
of blood. Fluid flows from an irrigator suspended above the operating table
::J Fig. 95. Regulation of irrigating flow in the single handed technique. The irrigating hose is compressed
between thumb and index finger of the left hand. The rate of flow is then easily controlled by
opening and closing this pinchcock with the thumb. The remaining four fingers of the hand exert
pressure on the abdominal wall as required. This counterpressure could equally be provided by
an assistant, but this has the disadvantage that every increase or decrease of pressure on the bladder
is by instruction, which inhibits rapid coordination of movements
Fig. 97. Adjusting the irrigator height. The average water level should be about 20 cm above the
patient's knee. This corresponds to a water head of 60--70 cm
via a sterile hose to a water cock on the resectoscope sheath. Thence it is

conducted through the sheath past the electrotome up into the resection field.
The volume of irrigating water flowing per unit time will depend on the height
at which the container is suspended and on the diameters of the tubing system,
which may vary from place to place. The narrowest point is usually the bore
of the stopcock on the resectoscope sheath.
The irrigation reservoir should not hang too far above the patient, since
the bladder would otherwise fill too rapidly and the pressure within the bladder
and the wound cavity rise to unacceptable levels. Such increased intravesical
pressure is one of the factors responsible for the intravascular absorption of
irrigation fluid into open veins in the resection field.
This latter hazard is greatly reduced if the irrigator hangs only 40-50 cm
above the patient. A convenient rule is for the lower edge of the irrigator
to be at the patient's knee (Fig. 97). Account must furthermore be taken of
the varying water level in the reservoir, which will then vary between 40 and
a maximum of 65 cm. This pressure head must sometimes be reduced, e.g.,
when one or several venous sinuses have been opened or a large abscess incised.
The consequent increase in "clearing time" (the time elapsing between introduc-
ing the electrotome and the achievement of a clear field) has to be accepted
under such circumstances.
The Irrigation Supply 137
There are a variety of practical reasons for not routinely employing a very
low irrigation pressure:
1. Clearing of the operative field takes considerably longer.
2. Below a certain pressure head the field of view is cleared only in the center
and not around its periphery.
3. Arterial bleeds, even from small vessels, impair the view so badly as to
prevent rapid and controlled operating.
For these reasons we have arrived at the previously mentioned compromise
level.
As the bladder fills and nears its maximum capacity, the irrigation flow
slows up. It reaches zero when endovesical pressure and hydrostatic pressure
in the irrigating system are equal. Such a reduction in irrigation flow may
be easily recognized by a variety of factors:
1. Resection chips are no longer propelled away from the loop into the bladder
at the usual rate.
2. The view deteriorates, especially at the periphery of the field.
3. Even small vessel bleeding is no longer cleared.
With increasing practice one will come to recognize these signs at their
earliest stage, when they are a signal to terminate the cutting series. The same
may be recognized from pressure curves of the bladder. Experienced operators
use less water at a slower flow rate for longer and still end a cutting series
before there is a marked rise in intravesical pressure. As already mentioned,
the water flow per unit time depends not only on the height of the irrigator
but also on the cross-section of the connecting tubes. Since the aim of a perfect
technique is to use only as much water as is absolutely necessary, the rate
of flow must be regulated to take account of the operative situation. The majori-
ty of resectoscopes are so designed as to allow a far greater flow than is truly
necessary.
This ability is an asset in emergency situations which may involve profuse
hemorrhage. The maximum irrigating flow is then sufficient to maintain a clear
field of view until hemostasis is secured. Under normal working conditions
the rapid flow of such large volumes of irrigating fluid is not necessary, and
the experienced surgeon will "match" the rate of flow to suit the operating
condition, allowing good vision without wasting fluid. To this end the rate
of flow must continually be adjusted by means of the stopcock provided on
every instrument. Generally speaking, an average degree of hemorrhage will
require only half the maximum available rate of flow. We have therefore had
our routine instrument provided with a half-way mark on the control cock.
This is easily felt, since the lever has a slight locating action at this setting.
Chapter F deals with the specific problems or irrigating fluid and hemostasis
in more detail. The effects of raised intravesical pressure due to overfilling
are discussed in the appropriate section (see p. 150).
Some instruments are fitted with an additional small irrigating channel (origi-
nal Stern-McCarthy instrument) which may be connected to an additional irri-
gating tube for use in cases requiring particularly rapid flow. BAUMRUCKER
(1968) recommends this procedure for excessive bleeding. As already remarked
elsewhere, I consider clearing of the operating field to be chiefly a problem
138 Chapter 0 General Resection Technique. Cutting Methods and Techniques
of irrigation quality rather than quantity. Even large arteries are easily revealed
by the use of certain tricks, although they may spurt straight into the field
of view or originate contralaterally and generate vortices on the opposite wall
of the capsule (see Chap. F).
For this reason it is also quite incorrect to automatically increase the irriga-
tion setting in order to achieve better visibility. The majority of commercially
available instruments nowadays represent such an excellent solution to the
question of irrigation quality as to make it quite unnecessary to increase the
quantity (the flow per second) or irrigation. One exception to this rule may
arise in teaching units: an inexperienced trainee may in a short space of time
open a number of arteries without achieving their immediate coagulation. The
resulting hemorrhage may then be so profuse that the supervising surgeon has
briefly to have the irrigator raised to a higher level. Usually only a few minutes
are required to clear the field, and the irrigator may then be lowered to its
usual level.
2. Air Bubbles in the Field
Air bubbles in the operating field nearly always originate in the connecting
tubing and are carried down the resectoscope sheath by the irrigating current
into the field of view, where they come to rest with irritating tenacity.
The physics of gas bubble formation is discussed elsewhere together with
a method for avoiding this tiresome phenomenon (see p. 331).
Apart from this fundamental technique for avoiding the occurrence of gas
bubbles, a number of tricks are available for reducing bubble formation in
the operating field, since a proportion of them arise from the ingress of air
into the sheath.
1. Before reintroducing the electrotome into the sheath, the irrigation should
be turned fully on. The electrotome is only introduced when irrigating fluid
is refluxing out of the sheath.
2. The locking mechanism between electrotome and sheath must be properly
closed.
3. If the water connections are fitted with stopcocks, it should be ensured
that the latter are sealed in an airtight fashion. Loose cocks will allow
the irrigating current to suck in air.
4. The hose connecting irrigator and instrument should from time to time
be shaken out with the irrigation fully on. During this procedure the electro-
tome should not be within the sheath.
5. Excessively high settings of cutting or coagulating current may bring about
electrolytic decomposition of water that has not been completely demineral-
ized. Electrolytes arriving in the vicinity of the cutting loop as a result
of blood admixture will further augment this process.
6. The bladder vault should from time to time the evacuated of gas, which
is easily achieved by holding the sheath aperture up into the vault during
emptying of the bladder. At the same time a hand on the abdominal wall
pushes the vault towards the sheath.
Standard Drainage Technique 139
7. When using the Iglesias resectoscope, it will suffice to briefly interrupt the
flow of water and hold the sheath toward the collected air bubbles. The
latter are then sucked down the drainage pathway.
8. A similar procedure is possible with instruments having a central stopcock,
since the latter may be briefly switched into drainage position. This process
may be carried out under direct vision.
9. Shaking the instrument or intermittent compression of the irrigation supply
hose are often helpful.
10. With increasing practice one often becomes so accustomed to individual
types of bubble as to tolerate them as easily as one would a resection
chip caught up on the loop.
Air bubbles are a particular nuisance whenever a first-class image is required,
i.e., for cinematography, photography or video transmission of procedures.
Under these circumstances the use of prepacked irrigating fluid may be the
only way of avoiding bubble formation.
3. Evacuation of Irrigating Fluid and Resection Chips
The clearing of resection chips and irrigating fluid are discussed here under
a single heading, since the two are always carried out simultaneously at opera-
tion. It is thus impossible to separate the evacuation of irrigating fluid or of
operation debris either in practice or for the purposes of discussion, since the
method is one and the same.
Two exceptions should, however, be mentioned - the resection technique
employing an irrigating resectoscope and that using a suprapubic drainage
trocar. Both techniques originate from the aim of minimizing intraoperative
pessage of irrigating fluid into the venous system, and thence from a requirement
for the lowest possible irrigator level. For systematic reasons they are therefore
considered here together with the various other techniques of irrigating fluid
drainage.
a) Standard Drainage Technique
Once the electrotome is removed from the sheath, irrigating fluid and a propor-
tion of the resection debris will flow out (Fig. 98). Care should be taken that
the end of the sheath lies free in the bladder and is not pressed against the
mucosa on the base of the bladder or elsewhere. The siphon pressure in the
drainage pathway would otherwise suck mucosa into the sheath aperture, as
evidenced by a sudden reduction in drainage flow. The proper position of the
instrument to facilitate washing out of resection chips is achieved if the sheath
is held close to the bladder base and horizontal movements of the sheath aper-
ture from one side of the bladder to the other so to speak "sweep" the floor
of the bladder, thus extracting a maximum number of chips.
Irrigation fluid and resection chips must then be caught by an assistant
holding a container under the end of the sheath. Tissue fragments are separated
Fig. 98a-d. Developments in irrigating fluid drainage. a Standard technique. Irrigating fluid runs
out of the resectoscope sheath into a container held by an assistant. Gauze across the container
separates resection chips from fluid . b Outlet of irrigating fluid through a drainage port. The sheath
is closed with a finger. Irrigating fluid drains through a long hose into a graduated bucket on
the floor. A sieve collects resection chips. c Same arrangement as in b, with the difference that
the drainage hose opens into a sterile funnel mounted on the operating table. d Same arrangement
as in c, but the drainage tube contains an Ellik bulb attached to a T-piece and allowing the evacuation
of larger resection fragments
from the liquid either by means of a sieve in this container, or when the fluid
is subsequently emptied into a bucket.
This method is the most prevalent, although it is clumsy and requires an
additional assistant.
It is also possible to design the operating table so that drained irrigating
fluid is caught in a funnel pivoting on the tabletop. Modern drape sets have
a fine plastic gauze mesh let in in an appropriate position to be laid over
this funnel (Fig. 99). The operator need then only pull the funnel out from
under the table toward himself to collect both irrigation and chips. (The operat-
ing table and funnel, the use of which we so strongly recommend, have already
been described above in Chap. A under the discussion of the operating suite.)
Beneath the funnel is placed a container for collecting irrigating fluid for the
absolutely necessary purpose of determining blood loss.
Evacuation by a Drainage Port 141
Fig. 99. Special drape used in our unit with a built-in sieve of plastic gauze and laid across the opening
of a sterile metal funnel. This lies under the opening of the drain hose. Resection chips are collected
within the sterile area and can therefore be handled by the surgeon himself
b) Evacuation by a Drainage Port
To may knowledge this method of irrigating fluid evacuation has two precur-
sors: (1) The THOMPSON punch resectoscope dating to 1935, and (2) the Schulte
valve, a drainage tube fitted opposite the inlet port on certain special resecto-
scope sheaths produced by the Acmi Company.
Both devices allow irrigation fluid to be drained away through a rubber
tube attached to this port. After removing the electrotome it is necessary only
to close the end of the sheath with a finger, so that irrigation fluid and resection
chips alike may be collected without significant flooding of the operating room.
The drainage port I described in 1973 is based on the same concept as that
of the above-named precursors (Fig. 100).
The drain hose may then be run into a bucket standing on the operating
room floor, the chips being collected in an interposed sieve. This form of drain-
age has the advantage of a long siphon head with consequent improved suction,
but the disadvantage that the collecting device lies outwith the sterile area.
In our own practice we use a short drainage hose opening onto a gauze
sieve let into the drapes specially designed for transurethral operations
(Fig. 101).
Fig. 100. Irrigation outlet by drainage port. The thumb closes off the resectoscope sheath and the
central stopcock is set to the drain position so that irrigating fluid runs through the hose on the
outlet port. Horizontal sweeping movements with the sheath facilitate evacuation of resection chips
This enables the surgeon himself to select individual fragments and pieces
of tissue for further studies, which is of particular importance during the resec-
tion of bladder tumors, since it allows fragments from various tissue planes
or special areas of the tumor to be individually analyzed. During resection
of prostatic adenomata the basal zone adjacent to the capsule may be studied
separately where there is a suspicion of carcinoma.
c) The Collecting Sieve
In order to ensure the collection of individual tissue samples, we have had

a special sieve made to fit over the drainage funnel of the Maquet operating
table and lie on the sterile drapes. The drainage hose opens onto this device,
so that individual fragments may be easily found. The tissue is removed by
turning the sieve upside down and tapping it on the sterile instrument trolley.
The scrub nurse is then able to pot the various samples ready for dispatch,
without further disturbing the surgeon (see Fig. 102).
d) Ellik Bulb in the Drain Hose
Resection of large adenomas or of rigid tissue (carcinoma) often generates size-

able tissue fragments which may block the drain hose. In this situation we
have found a simple device most useful. By means of a plastic T-piece we
have had a rubber Ellik bulb interposed in the drain hose (Fig. 103). This
Ellite Bulb in the Darin Hose 143
Fig. lOt. Technique of evacuation with the drain port. The thumb closes off the resectoscope sheath.
Irrigating fluid runs into a metal sieve laid over the collecting funnel of the operating table . A
device is attached to the end of the hose so as to weigh it down and yet guarantee free flow
of fluid and resection material
bulb is automatically filled by effluxing irrigating fluid. Gentle pumping move-

ments will stir up the tissue fragments and facilitate their drainage. The addition-
al weight of the bulb is barely a hindrance once one has become accustomed
to it: one forgets its presence, except to use it when necessary. The device
is also of value during punch litholapaxy for the evacuation of calculous debris.
This accessory is always at the ready and we have found its use more conve-
nient than the repeated attachment of a bladder syringe or Ellik evacuator.
Considerable time is saved, and it is only rarely necessary to employ an addition-
al metal piston syringe when the method has failed to provide adequately rapid
clearance.
Fig. 102. Extracting a biopsy specimen from the sieve. The surgeon lifts the sieve out of the funnel
with his left hand
Fig. 103. Ellik bulb in the drain hose. When resecting large adenomas or whenever very hard resection
chips accumulate, e.g., in prostatic carcinoma, there is a tendency for the drain hose to become
blocked. The provision of such a rubber bulb enables them to be easily evacuated and discharged.
This device is also useful for punch litholapaxy, since the attachment of an Ellik evacuator is thus
avoided
Drainage by Specially Designed Instruments or Suprapubic Trocar 145
e) Technique with Central Irrigation Cock
This differs from techniques with previously mentioned instruments chiefly in

allowing the drainage of irrigating fluid without removal of the electrotome
from the sheath. Under some circumstances this may be a distinct advantage,
e.g., when the bladder is too full to allow further coagulation, but a bleeding
vessel has been detected at a point where it will not easily be found again.
In this situation the instrument may be kept in the required position and water
evacuated by means of a central cock, although this may take somewhat longer
since the presence of the electrotome within the sheath impedes the flow of
liquid. On the other hand, coagulation may recommence immediately the irrigat-
ing flow has been restored. A further example is the evacuation of gas and
air bubbles from the bladder vault where they tend to collect. They interfere
with and hinder surgery in this region of the bladder and may lead to unpleasant
side effects. On the one hand, exposure of the cutting loops to air may lead
to their rapid burning out, and on the other hand, the dreaded explosion of
gas in the vault may occur. Furthermore, the optically active gas-water interface
interferes with vision.
The central cock enables bladder vault gas to be evacuated under direct
vision while continuing the resection of a bladder vault tumor under a gentle
flow of irrigation. This aid is equally useful for operations on the side wall
of the bladder. After one or more cuts have been completed the bladder may
be progressively emptied under direct vision until the tumor once again comes
to lie in an easily accessible position.
t) Drainage by Specially Designed Instruments or Suprapubic Trocar
I!X) General Considerations. Special comment should be made on two methods

of irrigation drainage - that by irrigating resectoscope and that of bladder
drainage by suprapubic trocar.
This technique arose from the desirability of maintaining a low pressure
of irrigating fluid in bladder and prostatic cavity, so as to prevent any significant
entry of irrigation fluid into the venous system of the prostate.
The danger of hemolysis due to irrigation fluid infusion into juxtacapsular
veins (venous sinuses) exposed within the prostatic cavity has been established
since the classic work of CREEVY (1947). As early as 1948 NESBIT and GLICKMAN
(1948) introduced isotonic irrigation with a solution of glycine (aminoacetic
acid) as a means of countering this hazard. However, it was not until 1954
that BULKLEY et al. (1954) drew attention to the possibility of intraoperative
overhydration of the patient following such inadvertent infusion or irrigating
fluid. The related problems were carefully studied by MADSEN (MADSEN and
NABER 1973; MADSEN et al. 1969). There is an extensive further bibliography
in addition to these authors, emphasizing the concern felt by many urologists
about this danger.
In recent years two technical solutions have been proposed in order to mini-
mize or exclude this danger to the patient. There are three theoretical approaches
and associated practical solutions:
1. Resection using the IGLESIAS type irrigating resectoscope

2. Resection with additional suprapubic drainage (TRUSS 1968; BERGMANN
1971; ADAIR 1972; REUTER 1974)
3. Resection with low irrigating pressure head
The first two methods require additional technical equipment in the operat-
ing room. Unless they are made fool-proof by appropriate check procedures
they will have their own additional technical failure and complication rate.
The third method is easily employed using instruments of good irrigating capaci-
ty but will always be disadvantageous in the presence of profuse hemorrhage,
since this will eventually nevertheless require elevation of the irrigator. The
exact extent of risk due to irrigation fluid embolism is accorded a varying
degree of significance. These remarks concern not hemolytic reaction to distilled
water or other nonisotonic solutions but solely the transurethral resection (TUR)
syndrome brought about by irrigation fluid infusion via the venous sinuses
of the prostatic capsule with consequent water intoxication and hyponatremia.
This latter complication was the real basis for recommending the above special
procedures during transurethral surgery.
It may be of some interest to note the figures of MELCHIOR et al. (1974),
analyzing results and complications of 2223 electroresections.
The complication rate due to "fluid absorption toxicity" lay between
0.2%-1 % for glands up to 40 g and increases (as expected!) only where 40 g
are exceeded, reaching 5.5% for glands greater than 60 g. The death rate was,
however, unaffected by the incidence of this complication.
It may be of some interest to note the relationship between TUR syndrome
and renal function. Azotemic patients had an incidence of 1.7%, significantly
greater than the overall incidence of 0.7% for patients with normal renal func-
tion. The ability of the healthy kidney to eliminate intraoperative fluid overload
is thus a factor attaining statistical significance. Even in the group with reduced
renal function, however, intravascular absorption of irrigation fluid in no case
gave rise to serious complications. For 2015 cases published by HOLTGREWE
and VALK (1962), colleagues of MELCHIOR, the figures were approximately the
same. Only 0.4% of patients undergoing surgery suffered the TUR syndrome
(fluid absorption toxicity). In this series there were once again no deaths attribut-
able to this complication. Basic clinical corrective procedures were always effec-
tive.
Our own experience over the past 10 years points in the same direction,
for we have never observed this clinical picture in a single case. Over a long
period of time we have documented plasma sodium and hematocrit in all pa-
tients undergoing transurethral surgery before, during and after the operation,
and on no occasion have we detected a statistically significant change. Indeed,
it is a great many years since we had to deal with a clinical case of dilutional
hyponatremia, and this in the face of considerable vigilance following the dire
warnings in the literature.
It is therefore reasonable in such a situation to carefully consider the cost
effectiveness of more expensive modern techniques. It is not after all as simple
as merely buying an irrigating resectoscope or draining the irrigating fluid supra-
pubically from every patient undergoing transurethral surgery.
Both techniques are only of any value if the irrigation flow is controlled
by a reliable regulator or assistant. The operator himself is overtaxed by this
additional task. One or other measure must be employed to ensure that irrigation
fluid is removed from the bladder exactly at the rate at which it is introduced,
so that the same low degree of bladder distension is continuously maintained.
Outflow obstruction will lead to overfilling and the usual unpleasant conse-
quences of increasing severity the longer it goes unnoticed - which may be
a considerable time since the operator will be depending on the drainage system.
The other problem of continuous irrigation, i.e., excessive bladder emptying,
may have particularly fatal consequences for the beginner (and therefore his
patient) when endovesical lateral lobes are being operated on. The empty and
collapsed bladder then comes to lie against the lateral lobe and is inadvertently
injured (see Fig. 89b). The above thoughts should in no way be interpreted
as a rejection of continuous irrigation, they are merely a consideration of possi-
ble and conceivable aspects of operating with either system.
Neither the technique with the irrigating resectoscope nor that of supra-
pubic evacuation can obviate careful training in basic endoscopic surgical tech-
niques. Whether or not they facilitate this learning process is not yet established.
They represent special forms of resection technique with their own specific ad-
vantages and disadvantages and both require additional expenditure on equip-
ment or personnel. No doubt excellent results comparable to those of the classic
technique are achieved in the hands of those accustomed to their regular use.
Rather more questionable is whether transurethral resective surgery would be
an imperfect art of increased risk for the patient had these techniques not
been invented. The world-wide popularity of the classic technique, especially
in the USA, where it was developed and perfected, seems to suggest an answer.
Certainly no one can be spared the toil of training in operative technique
by either the conventional or the low pressure irrigation method.
In view of the current significance attached to this whole area a separate
section is devoted to each technique.
P) The Iglesias irrigating resectoscope. These instruments are commonly referred

to by the collective term Iglesias resectoscopes, although they vary in technical
details from manufacturer to manufacturer. The basic principal is common
to all (Fig. 104). Irrigating fluid is delivered to the tip of the sheath through
a tube surrounding the cutting loop. This inlet tube is mounted on the electro-
tome and forms an integral structural part of it.
Fine slits around the end of the resectoscope sheath allow irrigating fluid
to return via the narrow cylindrical cavity between inlet tube and the inner
surface of the sheath. Owing to the narrow cross section of this pathway, evacua-
tion of drainage fluid must be ensured either by the employment of a suction
pump or by means of the operating room vacuum line. Supply is by means
of the usual irrigator reservoir or by commercially available bags or containers
of irrigating fluid.
Inlet and outflow of irrigating fluid must be kept carefully in step, so that
the bladder is neither overdistended no collapsed by excessive evacuation with
inadequate inflow. The chief source of difficulties is plastering of tissue frag-
Fig. 104. Resectoscope after Iglesias. This instrument was designed to allow continuous resection
without interruption for bladder emptying and to prevent its overdistension. The resectoscope sheath
must thus accommodate channels for both water inlet and outflow. The illustration shows the basic
design. Irrigating fluid runs into the bladder through a tube surrounding the electrotome. A number
of slits in the vesical end of the sheath enable fluid to be aspirated and evacuated by means of
a pump through the space between inlet tube and sheath
ments and blood clots against the drainage slits in the resectoscope sheath.
In particular, partial blockage of these apertures may lead to gradual and imper-
ceptible overdistension of the bladder.
The most objectionable aspect of our experience with these instruments lies
in the difficulty of recognizing severe or even minor hemorrhage during proce-
dures of any real duration. The numerous resection chips collecting on the
floor of the prostatic capsule represent a further hindrance.
In the absence of accurate measurements there is no definite foundation
for the suggestion that low pressure in the prostatic capsule reduces venous
bleeding by 50%, an effect termed" hydraulic hemostasis" by IGLESIAS himself.
For anybody who has used a standard instrument for any length of time,
considerable adaptation is required when working with the irrigating resecto-
scope.
y) Resection with Trocar Drainage. The technique of evacuating irrigating fluid

via a suprapubic puncture is at least as old as the technique of transurethral
resection itself (Fig. 105). In the early days it was far more common to drain
cases of chronic retention with marked bladder distension by means of a supra-
pubic cather than is now the case. It was, therefore, customary to connect
the suprapubic catheter to a drainage tube and thus evacuate irrigating fluids.
I remember this technique being employed in the 1950s, when it was often
employed in MAY'S urology clinic in Munich. REUTER (1974) reports similar
experience when working under HOESEL at the urology clinic in Ulm.
In more recent years, TRUSS (1968) described suprapubic puncture performed
specifically with a view to TUR. In the US literature, ADAIR (1972) describes
this method employing a special instrument. REUTER (1980) has followed BERG-
MANN (1971) in adopting this technique and indeed devotes a specific section
to it in his monograph.
Fig. 105. Resection using a suprapubic trocar. Irrigating fluid runs in through the resectoscope sheath
in the usual fashion but is continually evacuated by means of a suprapubic trocar. The trocar
must be connected to a vacuum bottle (piped vacuum) or aspirating pump (peristaltic or venturi
pump)
Once again the technique originates from the desirability of holding intravesi-
cal and, therefore, intracapsular, pressure at the lowest possible level with a
view to preventing the incorporation of irrigating fluid. For this reason the
preliminary considerations set out at the beginning of the present section hold
equally good for this technique.
A factor in favor of suprapubic irrigation fluid drainage is the avoidance
of any alterations to the resectoscope or tampering with the careful tuning
of the irrigation inlet system. The problems we have encountered in recognizing
significant hemorrhage using various types of irrigating resectoscope also indi-
cates the advantage of suprapubic evacuation.
Furthermore, the suprapubic trocar required by this system may subse-
quently be used for the placement of a suprapubic catheter for early postopera-
tive drainage. This may be desirable in the occasional case of treatment-resistant
urinary infection.
The assertion of IGLESIAS et al. (1977) that low pressure resection results
in reduced hemorrhage due to "hydraulic hemostasis" is equally unproven in
the version stated by REUTER for trocar drainage. As long as comparative blood
loss measurements for various techniques of resection remain unavailable, one
can only consider these remarks to be clinical impressions.
The arguments put forward by way of introduction (see p. 146) are particu-
larly true for the trocar drainage technique since the required suprapubic bladder
puncture represents an additional procedure. Prevention of an easily controlled,
and incidentally rare, complication should not necessitate subjecting all patients
undergoing transurethral prostatic surgery to temporary suprapubic drainage.
If ever, this might only arise where tumors in excess of 50 g are to be resected,
but the majority of transurethral surgeons will anyway decline to operate endo-
scopically on such cases.
g) Urodynamic Aspects of High and Low Pressure

Irrigation During Transurethral Prostatic Resection
By W. SCmJTZ
High and low pressure irrigation are the two alternative techniques available
during transurethral prostatic surgery. Their chief difference lies in the intraoper-
ative pressures developed in the prostatic bed and the bladder. In high pressure
irrigation the irrigating fluid required to maintain a clear operating field runs
into the bladder under gravity. Rising intravesical pressure reduces the rate
of flow, and when irrigator pressure has been reached the flow will cease. Deterior-
ating visibility in the operating field then requires intermittent emptying of
the bladder, achieved by removing the electrotome and draining fluid out
through the resectoscope sheath with a concomitant evacuation of resection
debris. Resection is thus intermittently and briefly interrupted throughout the
entire operation.
On the other hand, low pressure irrigation allows continuous drainage of
the bladder, i.e., irrigating fluid escapes either by an additional outflow channel
in the resectoscope or through a trocar placed suprapubically before the opera-
tion (BERGMANN 1971; IGLESIAS and STAMS 1975; TRUSS 1968). Continuous
drainage thus allows continuous resection. Intravesical pressure shows no signifi-
cant increase during the normal progress oflow pressure irrigation. The develop-
ment and introduction of low pressure irrigation represented an attempt to
reduce the entry of irrigating fluid into the open vascular system of the prostatic
bed, since high intravesical pressures and the use of hypotonic electrolyte-free
irrigation solutions had occasionally been described as giving rise to significant
irrigating fluid infusion with subsequent so-called TUR syndrome (BEIRNE et al.
1964; CECCARELLI and MANTELL 1961; GRIFFIN et al. 1955; HAGSTROM 1955;
MADSEN and NABER 1973; MALUF et al. 1956; NABER et al. 1973). The socalled
TUR syndrome corresponds to water intoxication or the so-called disequilibra-
tion syndrome seen during dialysis. The underlying abnormality is always a
dilutional hyponatremia with concurrent hypervolemia. The fact that low pres-
sure irrigation may indeed markedly reduce the incidence of this complication
has led to its achieving a certain degree of popularity (BAUMBUSCH 1977;
BUTTGER 1977; FAUL 1977; GEISTER 1977; HAHN 1977; IGLESIAS and STAMS
1977; IVERSEN and IVERSEN HANSEN 1977; OBERNEDER 1977; PEREZ CASTRO
1977; POTEMPA 1977; SPARWASSER 1977). Other advantages claimed for low
pressure irrigation include improved visibility due to substantially continuous
irrigating flow, shorter operating time due to the absence of periodic interruption
and reduced blood loss due to improved hemostasis (SINAGOWITZ and REUTER
1978).
SINAGOWITZ and REUTER (1978) claim as a further advantage that it is easier
for beginners to learn the technique on the grounds that continuous supervision
is more easily achieved. REUTER (1980) describes tissue damage and extravasa-
tion, bladder atony, overdistension of the prostatic fossa, water logging of tissue,
perforation, tissue separation and localized deposits or irrigating fluid as addi-
Urodynamic Aspects of High and Low Pressure Irrigation 151
em HJl
~I- B_la~dd_e_r~~~ ~~ __ ____ ~~,, ____-
cmHp
I'
.
50 Prostatic cavity
~
Time (sec.)
60
I
em Hp
75 Irrigator
5OlA.-___-.....;...J-~
2S
Fig. 106. Pressure curve for continuous low pressure irrigation using the irrigating resectoscope. Maxi-
mum pressures in bladder and prostatic cavity during continuous resection remain below 35 cm
H 2 0. As a result of this continuous irrigating technique and the pressure drop inherent in the
tubing system, irrigating pressure measured at the inlet port of the instrument never equals the
hydrostatic pressure head corresponding to the level of the irrigator (60 cm H 2 0)
tional sources of complication following high pressure irrigation said to employ

pressure heads not more than 50 cm of water.
Despite the at least in part indisputable advantages oflow pressure irrigation,
if is of course true that the high pressure technique has its own specific advan-
tages which are extensively described elsewhere in this text. The following discus-
sion is concerned with the fundamental physical differences between the two
methods, with particular attention paid to avoiding the entry of large quantities
of irrigating fluid into the circulation.
The pressure due to the inflow of irrigating fluid into the bladder consists
of two components: hydrostatic and hydrodynamic. Measurements of hydrody-
namic pressure with a variety of resectoscopes under conditions of both high
and low pressure irrigation revealed that for an irrigator level of between 50
and 100 cm of water the hydrodynamic pressure never exceeded 5 cm H 2 0
(REUTER 1980; SCHUTZ 1979; SINAGOWITZ and REUTER 1978). Hydrodynamic
pressure is further related to the lumen of the irrigating channel and the viscosity
of the irrigating fluid. Since the pressure in the prostatic veins can be assumed
to lie in the region of 10 cm H 2 0, hydrodynamic pressure of maximally 5 cm
H 2 0 cannot be considered a significant cause of irrigating fluid infusion.
Depending on the irrigator level, however, high pressure irrigation may lead
to the development of considerably greater intravesical hydrostatic pressure
capable of giving rise to considerable delivery of irrigating fluid into both the
@
,",- ,-
an Hp
!ill - Bladder ~.i
!l----/i~
anHp
~ '- ~
,,
Irrigator
o Time (sec.)
. &l
,
13)
, ,
1110
Fig, 107, Bladder and irrigation pressures for intermittent high pressure irrigation (irrigator head 60 em),
Each resection run is characterized by a gradual rise in intravesical pressure and its subsequent
fall when the bladder is emptied through the sheath. The duration of each run is determined by
bladder volume and rate of irrigating flow. At the time the bladder is emptied (A) through the
sheath, intravesical pressure has risen to 45 cm H 2 0. For a few seconds it thus lies above the
limiting value for substantial irrigating fluid infusion. At the beginning of each emptying phase
the full hydrostatic pressure of the irrigating fluid is seen since flow into the bladder is temporarily
interrupted. This pressure corresponds to the irrigator level of 60 cm. It should be noted, however,
that intravesical pressure at no time equals the irrigator hydrostatic pressure head. Since the increasing
hydrostatic intravesical pressure tends to reduce the hydrodynamic pressure of the irrigating jet,
deteriorating visibility inevitably leads to cessation of resection and drainage of the bladder before
pressure equilibrium occurs
intravascular and extravascular spaces. For this reason a limiting irrigation

pressure of less than 60-80 cm H 2 0 has been prescribed for high pressure irriga-
tion (BAUMRUCKER 1968; BRUHL and SAUERWEIN 1977; CASTRO 1974; MAUER-
MAYER 1962; NABER et al. 1973). It would appear that significant irrigation
fluid infusion does not occur if a critical hydrostatic intravesical pressure of
32-48 cm H 2 0 is only briefly exceeded during resection.
Low pressure irrigating systems avoid the occurrence of high intravesical
hydrostatic pressure levels, since automatic drainage of the bladder contents
occurs every time a predetermined intravesical pressure is exceeded. A typical
pressure time curve measured during low pressure irrigation is presented in
Fig, 106. It may be seen from Fig, 107 that high pressure irrigation may not
in fact give rise to substantially higher pressures than the low pressure irrigation.
It should be noted that there is never complete equilibrium between intravesical
and irrigator pressures.
High and low pressure irrigation are both techniques available for electrore-
section of the prostate. The risk of infusion irrigating fluid during low pressure
irrigation would appear prima facie to be less. On the other hand, limiting
the irrigator level to 60 cm and avoiding equilibrium between intravesical and
hydrostatic irrigator pressures during high pressure irrigation would seem sub-
stantially to eliminate the risk of irrigating fluid infusion and consequent TUR
syndrome, Since this is so, the significant advantages discussed in the individual
passages on various aspects of resection weigh strongly in favor of adhering
to the high pressure irrigation to which they are specific.
Special Devices for Evacuation of Resection Chips 153
h) Special Devices for Evacuation of Resection Chips
a) Preliminary Considerations. The above-described methods ensure the evacua-

tion from the bladder of virtually all resection debris together with the irrigating
fluid, a sole exception being resectoscopes with continuous evacuation or trocar
evacuation. There remain, however, certain anatomical situations (deep prostatic
recess) in which a few chips will nevertheless remain in the bladder. The tech-
nique of resection itself may, furthermore, influence the number of chips left
in the bladder base at the end of the operation . Particularly if the resectoscope
sheath is not held in the fashion I have previously described so as to execute
sweeping motions across the bladder base, numerous fragments are likely to
remain in the bladder. If the bladder is thus not completely clear of resection
debris it is necessary to attach an evacuator to the sheath and remove the
remaining tissue fragments in this fashion. The fundamental problems of evacua-
tion are however, the same for all systems and they are therefore discussed
at the outset.
The evacuation process requires a certain quantity of fluid which will be
shifted back and forth. Therefore the bladder should not be completely emptied
prior to evacuation. Furthermore, the resectoscope sheath must be held in such
a fashion that its aperture is not able to suck in bladder mucosa (Fig. 108),
and this may be achieved in a more or less horizontal position. A different
situation arises in the presence of a deep retroprostatic recess. In such cases
the sheath must be inclined down toward the bladder base. It is perhaps best
to use a gentle irrigating flow to first inspect the bladder base and direct the
sheath aperture towards the area containing the most chips. The sheath is then
held firmly in this position, the electrotome removed, and the chips subsequently
evacuated. The presence of numerous pseudodiverticula may render evacuation
particularly difficult. It may then be necessary to use the loop to draw individual
Fig. 108. Diagrammatic sagittal section through bladder and prostatic capsule. The end of the instru-
ment is directed toward the bladder base but is not closely applied to it. This position may be
achieved prior to evacuation under visual control. Sudden interruption of evacuation indicates that
the sheath aperture is lying against the base of the bladder
Fig. 109. Evacuating resection material with the Ellik evacuator. The evacuator is attached to the
opening of the resectoscope sheath by a conical connector. Our resectoscope, with its central stopcock,
obviates the need for prior filling of the evacuator. Air entering the bladder during the filling process
is easily vented through the central cock by elevating the end of the sheath into the vault of the
bladder and setting the stopcock to the drain position. The Ellik evacuator should be operated
with small pumping excursions only, since this provides the most rapid evacuation of fragments
(see also removal of calculous material following litholapaxy
chips into the sheath and thus extract them by removing the electrotome. At
the end of the operation the bladder should be subjected to a further thorough
examination to ensure that all resection chips have been removed. For this
purpose the water flow should be reduced to the minimum so that any remaining
fragments will lie in the base of the bladder rather than being stirred up. Evacua-
tion at the end of the operation should also always be followed by a further
examination of the wound cavity, since forceful fluid shifts may occasionally
reopen vessels which had previously been closed.
P) Use of the Ellik Evacuator. This is the technique most frequently employed
in the Anglo-Saxon world, but it has only recently gained popularity in German-
speaking countries (Fig. 109). The method requires an additional sterile bowl
of irrigating fluid in which the evacuators are held at the ready, thus avoiding
the laborious business of discharging air once they are attached to the instru-
ment. It is true that sheaths with a central cock facilitate the filling of evacuators,
but it nevertheless remains an additional maneuver. Care should be taken that
the rubber bulb is also free of air so as to obtain a maximum suction effect.
The device is attached to the resectoscope sheath by means of a suitable
cone joint. Some models are designed to lock onto the sheath. Evacuation
Special Devices for Evacuation of Resection Chips 155
Fig. 110. Evacuating resection material with the piston syringe. An advantage of the metal piston
syringe is its ability to be connected to the sheath in a rigid and airtight fashion . It is simply
pushed into the sheath opening and locked by turning it to the right. A rigid sheath-syringe unit
is capable of not only aspirating large tough fragments but is also ideal for evacuating coagula
of any size
is best achieved by a gently oscillating pump action at the bulb, the amplitude
being so adjusted that water is aspirated out of the bladder into the upper
half of the Ellik evacuator. The flow of water is here diverted in a circular
direction with the final result that resection chips (or calculous fragments) sink
to the bottom of the glass vessel. Experience has shown that gentle movements
are more effective than violent ones, since the latter may suck bladder wall
into the sheath aperture. Evacuators should be changed frequently to avoid
washing tissue fragments back into the bladder. A bowl in which two on three
filled evacuators are kept in reserve is thus of considerable help and saves operat-
ing time.
In the presence of a large number of resection chips, blockage of the sheath
lumen and/or cone adaptor of the evacuator may rarely occur. This is an inher-
ent limitation of the technique and may equally manifest itself during attempts
to evacuate consolidated clots from the bladder.
In such cases, the use of a metal pis toned syringe is considerably more
effective and has no true substitute.
'"1) Evacuation by Metal Piston Syringe. This method of removing resection mate-
rial (see Fig. 110) has been our practice for many years, and in our opinion,
as well as that of many other users of the technique, offers a variety of advan-
tages over the rubber bulb:
1. The syringe may be laid out on the instrument table without a requirement
for prior charging.
2. The syringe may be filled by simply connecting it to the resectoscope sheath
and running in irrigating fluid.
3. Sheath and syringe form a rigid unit facilitating coordinated movements
of the two.
4. Large fragments may be extracted because of the powerful suction generated
by the syringe piston. This is also true for blood clots, which may become
extremely hard and tenacious if left in the bladder for any length of time.
5. The metal piston syringe has a stroke volume of 150 ml. This allows large
amounts of fluid to be shifted with a consequent powerful suction effect.
The few remaining fragments that so often lie hidden within pseudodiverti-
cula are thus more likely to be extracted.
6. Being independent of the recoil of a rubber bulb, the suction generated by
the syringe may be finely adjusted.
This description of its advantages should be enough to recommend the use
of the syringe. Naturally, special care is required when manipulating any rigid
system within the bladder and forceful movements could theoretically bring
about a bladder injury. The fact that we have not seen a single such injury
among the over 9000 resections we have performed since 1952 will give some
idea of the practical significance of this risk.
There is of course an absolute requirement for careful maintenance of the
syringe. If, for example, poor cleaning technique leaves any fibrin residue on
the inner surface of the glass barrel, the piston will not move with the ease
required for proper functioning of the instrument. This point should therefore
receive particular attention during instrument preparation.
Equally, syringes with excessive play between piston and cylinder should
be repaired or replaced, since they develop inadequate suction.
0) The Extraction of Outsize Tissue Fragments from the Bladder. Within this
discussion of techniques for extracting and evacuating resection debris a particu-
lar type of tissue fragment deserves special mention, although it may only rarely
cause problems. In my book published in 1962 I called this "das groBe, freie
Stuck" (the large, free-floating fragment). The dimensions of these outsize pieces
make them incapable of normal evacuation, and because of their tendency to
suddenly and repeatedly interrupt drainage, they usually draw attention to them-
selves during operation. They are likely to occur whenever an adenoma with
large endovesical moieties is operated on. If the waist of such a large median
or lateral lobe is cut across, part of the lobe falls into the bladder base and
tends to lie across the sheath aperture like a flap valve.
The technique of cutting up these large lumps is not particularly difficult
if certain maneuvers are practiced.
1. First of all one must obtain a good view of the fragment. It will be carried
around the bladder by the irrigating flow and is most easily found by empty-
The Cut with Predetermined End Point 157
ing the bladder through the central cock under direct vision and waiting
until the fragment sinks to the bottom.
2. With its loop extended the instrument is now carefully advanced towards
the fragment, the sheath aperture presses it firmly against the bladder base
and small "nibbling" cuts are executed to divide it into evacuable segments.
Firm pressure against the bladder is required in order to close the circuit
for the cutting current.
3. If control is lost of the main fragment during this procedure, it must again
be approached as described under point 1 above. Finally, care should be
taken when the fragment is nearly completely cut up so as to avoid injury
to the bladder base.
4. At this stage it may be of assistance to firmly jam the fragment between
loop and sheath aperture and thus withdraw the instrument and fragment
in one. The soft piece of tissue will mould so easily to the urethral lumen
as not to be dragged out of the loop.
Note: Although I initially experienced many such incidents, the occurrence
of "large, free-floating fragment" has become a rarity using the techniques
to be described.
IV. Cutting Technique
1. The Cut Proper
Cutting with the resectoscope loop is a technically simple process. The tissue
to be divided is brought to lie between cutting loop and sheath aperture, follow-
ing which current is applied and the cutting loop withdrawn into the sheath
(Fig. 111). There are a variety of technical variations on this simple process,
and these are now to be discussed.
a) The Cut with Predetermined End Point
In this technique the resectoscope sheath (sheath aperture) remains fixed at

the point determined as the end of the cut (Fig. 112). This arises particularly
when operating near the external sphincter for the removal of apical tissue
or of a nodule extending toward the sphincter. The sheath aperture covers
the area of the operating field to be protected (Step 1). The loop is then extended
over the tissue to be removed (Step 2). Finally, current is applied and the loop
withdrawn into the sheath, thus removing the previously selected tissue (Step 3).
The advantage of this method is protection of endangered tissue by the
resectoscope sheath.
One disadvantage for the beginner may lie in the invisibility of the starting
point beyond the obstacle. The loop may be allowed to sink too deeply into
the tissue, since the cut starts" blind."
a C
Fig. 111 a-d. Diagrammatic representation of the cutting process. The obstacle (e.g., median lobe
of the prostate) is observed with the instrument (a). The next maneuver is to lower the eyepiece
so as to negotiate the loop over the obstacle (b). After returning the sheath to its original position
(raising the eyepiece) the obstacle is brought to lie between sheath aperture and cutting loop (c).
If cutting current is now applied and the loop withdrawn into the sheath the intervening tissue
will be transected (d)
Fig. 112 a-d. Cutting with predetermined end point. a The sheath aperture lies at the level of the
verumontanum. In the right-hand drawing the verumontanum is shown in order to illustrate the
situation, but will be covered by a short advancement of the sheath prior to cutting. It is thus
safely protected. The arrow in the left-hand half of the figure is to indicate that the sheath aperture
is held stationary in this protective position. b The eyepiece of the instrument is lowered and the
cutting loop advanced into the bladder over the obstacle. Individual stages in this process are num-
bered 1- 3. c The eyepiece is now raised to press the tissues more firmly against the loop which
spans it, thus producing a deeper cut. The sheath aperture is held immobile in the plane of the
verumontanum (see also Fig. 111). d Retraction of the cutting loop into the sheath. A groove is
thus cut in the tissue. For demonstration purposes, the verumontanum has been represented in
these illustrations as though it were in front of the end of the sheath. In reality it lies beneath
the sheath and is thus well protected
The Cut with Predetermined End Point 159
d
Illustrations 19-23 (Plate IV) illustrate this process. Illustration 33 (Plate VI)
is particularly instructive in relation to this cutting technique as applied to
a small adenoma. Note that a median groove has been cut in the 6 o'clock
position and that the verumontanum may be distinguished at the distal margin.
In this case the loop is engaged under vision at the proximal dividing line
between adenoma tissue and capsule. The loop is held steady at this point
and the sheath gradually retracted until the verumontanum just appears in
the field. The latter is then covered by the sheath aperture so as to be guarded
against injury during the subsequent cut.
b) The Cut with Predetermined Starting Point
This cutting technique should be applied when a danger area (e.g., ureteric
orifice or interureteric bar) lies close to the starting point of the loop. The
cutting process is then the exact opposite of that previously described (Fig. 113).
The loop is applied to the desired point at a safe distance from the area to
be protected. When extending the loop, the resectoscope sheath is gradually
withdrawn down the urethra toward the verumontanum so as to hold the loop
in a fixed position. Cutting is once again achieved by then withdrawing the
loop into the sheath aperture.
The advantage of this technique is the clear visualization of the area to
be protected in the vicinity of the starting point. This is an important require-
ment when operating on median lobes closely related to the ureteric orifice
or interureteric bar, and the technique may also be invaluable in the removal
of papillomas in the same region. This description of the process may sound
complicated, but a practiced operator will apply it automatically without con-
scious awareness of the individual steps.
A disadvantage may occasionally arise from invisibility of the end point.
The two cutting methods thus described blend imperceptibly with one
another. They represent the basic elements of tissue separation.
c) The Extended Cut
In the previously described cutting technique, length of cut is determined by

the limited range to which the loop may be extended from the sheath. This
Fig. 113a--c. Cutting with predetermined starting point. The resection of a median lobe protruding I>
into the bladder is shown. The adenoma reaches the vicinity of the interureteric ridge and ureteric
orifices, which must therefore be protected from inadvertent injury. To this end the loop is applied
to the tissues under visual control. a The cutting loop is only slightly extended out of the sheath
and placed behind the tissue to be removed where it is engaged as deeply as possible. b The loop
is kept firmly fixed in this position but the sheath is gradually withdrawn distally to the planned
extent of the cut. c The process is concluded by applying cutting current and withdrawing the
loop into the sheath
The Extended Cut 161
c
Fig. 114a-il. The extended cut. This type of cut is used whenever long tissue elements are to be
removed (e.g., long median or lateral lobes or a large bladder tumor). This is the most efficient
cutting method because of the large amounts of tissue which may be removed in a short time.
The extended cut technique is also suitable for the final phase of resection when the wound cavity
is to be smoothed. a The cutting loop is engaged either blind (corresponding to the predetermined
end point technique) or under direct vision (predetermined starting point). The tissue surface and
part of the cutting loop lie within the field of view. b The entire instrument, that is the cutting
loop together with the sheath, is now retracted. During this process the loop is kept in a fixed
position, somewhat protruding from the sheath. Tissue is seen sliding past the telescope. c The
process is continued until the end point of the cut appears in the field of view (in this case the
verumontanum). This indicates the margin of intended resection. The sheath is slightly raised and
brought to rest, the aperture covers the verumontanum, and the cutting loop is withdrawn into
the sheath. This concludes the cut. d This illustration shows the state of affairs at the end of the
cut, the resection groove shown in red. The sheath aperture has masked the verumontanum and
the loop is "parked" within the sheath
distance varies with the exact design of the instrument between 2 and 3 cm.
When operating on larger adenomas there may be an unavoidable requirement
for somewhat longer cuts, and if these are intended the following technique
may be applied (Fig. 114).
The loop is applied at the desired starting point under direct vision but
is kept fully extended from the sheath. Cutting is now achieved by withdrawing
the entire sheath distally and the required end point appears within the field
of view. Movement of the resectoscope sheath now ceases and the cut is con-
cluded by retracting the loop into the sheath in the usual fashion. This enables
the execution of cuts up to a length of several centimeters, depending on the
length of the bladder neck. The beginner may find this extended cutting tech-
nique difficult, since he will be uncertain how far distally he may cut.
This difficulty in recognizing the proper end point may be solved by dividing
the line of the first cut into a number of individual stages until the desired
end point is reached by standard technique (Fig. 115). The end point may be
recognized, e.g., by the proximity of the verumontanum or by the curvature
of the lateral lobes. Once the end point has been defined by this subdivided
cutting technique, further extended cuts in the vicinity are easily orientated
with reference to the first cut. At the start of resection the prostatic urethra
d
Fig. 115. Determining the end point of a cutting series and the divided cut technique. This cutting
technique is based on the fact that only a short distance may be properly visualized by the resecto-
scope. The cut is therefore subdivided into individual portions small enough to present no difficulty
of orientation. The loop is reapplied at the end point of cut (1) employing the technique of predeter-
mined end point. The verumontanum remains masked by the sheath. The loop is applied to the
end point of the first cut and withdrawn into the sheath. The result is a composite groove of
the required length (2). For adjacent grooves the technique of extended cut is employed, the end
point being the end of the previous composite cut. The rest of the procedure is easily read from
the diagram
is invested with mucosa, so that the first cutting series will create a shallow
groove devoid of epithelium and exposing naked adenoma tissue. The next
cut is so placed as to keep the margin of the previous one within view. When
the end point of the previous cut appears in the field (recognizable by the
reappearance of mucosa), the end point of the second cut will be defined. As
when ploughing a field, the end point of each furrow is placed adjacent to
that of the previous one. The same approach can be employed when removing
the second layer, since the mucosal edge remaining from the previous cutting
series may be used as a landmark (Fig. 116). This extended cutting method
may of course equally be employed in conjunction with the Nesbit technique
of first cutting out the groove that separates adenoma from capsule. Once
again, cutting ceases as the mucosal edge appears within the field.
Other landmarks for extended cutting are tissue differentiation and the con-
figuration of the adenoma. This means that the experienced surgeon will end
his cut when he finds himself leaving adenoma tissue, or when the curvature
of the nodule reminds him that he is coming to the margin of the adenoma.
Extended cutting is excellent when used like a jack plane to smooth the
surface of the resection cavity. The cut is kept shallow so as to remove only
a thin layer and obliterate unevenness.
Advantages of the method are the rapid removal of large quantities of tissue
and the creation of a smooth-edged cavity. Accidental injury is virtually impossi-
ble as long as the above maneuvers are carefully observed and the surgeon
gradually improves his technique, rather than attempting, at the outset of his
training, to emulate the rapid cutting sequence of his experienced colleagues.
The only disadvantage is the difficulty in mastering the method.
Hg. 1l6a-c. Divided cut technique, a practical example. a The first cut is executed according to
the predetermined starting point technique (corresponding to groove 1 in Fig. 115). b Extension
of this cut toward the verumontanum. c The last cut is once again executed with predetermined
end point. The verumontanum remains masked by the sheath aperture (3). All further cuts are
then terminated in relation to this point (3). A similar procedure is adopted for bladder tumors,
where it may, e.g., be necessary to cut down toward a ureteric orifice. There is no methodological
difference
d) Retrograde Cutting
Reverse cutting may be achieved by extending the loop out of the sheath and
carving off tissue as with a woodcarver's gouge (Fig. 117). This method is not
without danger since, in contradistinction to all other resection techniques,
cutting is not terminated by the loop coming to rest in the retracted position,
and the cut will continue as long as current is applied and the loop is in contact
with tissue. Furthermore, the cut progresses away from the viewing system,
and the end point is therefore not always accurately seen. I would therefore
only recommend retrograde cutting for the effacement of small irregularities
which cannot otherwise be removed. Some find it easier to remove residual
tissue in the region of the verumontanum by cutting toward the bladder in
this fashion. Although I know from conversation with colleagues that some
prefer this technique, we restrict its use to minor smoothing maneuvers, since
the hazards mentioned above are particularly severe for the beginner. There
is a single true indication where reverse cutting leads to rapid success: division
of an iris-like internal meatal stenosis. The exact sequence of this procedure
is described in Chap L, V. (See p. 390.) Briefly, the extended loop is used to
clear a way for loop and sheath alike out of the prostatic cavity and through
the obstacle. A single cut is usually adequate to allow the instrument through
into the bladder, so that the operation may then proceed in the usual fashion
(see Plate V, Illustrations 26 and 27).
The advantage is the absolute definition of the starting point.
The disadvantage is the unreliability in determining the end of the cut.
Fig. 117. Retrograde cutting. In this technique the cutting loop moves away from the instrument
but does not attain its limit of travel at the end of the cut. This type of cut is therefore only
suitable for certain special cases, since the risks are not entirely predictable (perforation, penetration
of the loop to an undesired depth). In the example shown here the loop is cutting a small tissue
protuberance off the paracollicular region in a retrograde fashion. In this region there is no danger
attached since the procedure is a minor rectification. Length and depth of cut are under direct
control. The cut is usually executed with loop and sheath together. The extended loop protrudes
somewhat from the sheath, and a common movement allows the fixed energized loop to push the
tissue away
The Single Cut 167
Fig. I1Sa, b. Entrapment cutting. This technique employs a combination of mechanical and electrical
tissue separation. It is suitable for use wherever a small tag of precoagulated tissue is to be removed.
The loop often cuts poorly under these circumstances and wedging of the tissue between the loop
and sheath aperture improves the electrical contact as well as imparting a mechanical component
to the cutting process. The loop is used to press the tissue against the sheath aperture (a) and
as the cutting current is applied a levering movement separates the tissue (b)
e) Entrapment Cutting
This variation is employed when small irregularities prove difficult to remove

during final cleaning out of the resection cavity at the end of the operation.
Problems often arise when previous cuts have precoagulated the tissue. In such
a case a solution is readily found if the tissue fragment is caught between
cutting loop and sheath aperture (entrapment cut) and then separated by apply-
ing current (Fig. 118). Such firm fixation of the fragment between loop and
sheath ensures a particularly good circuit for the cutting current. Retraction
of the sheath then allows complete separation.
2. Practical Aspects of Resection
The individual types of cut described above merge so smoothly during their
practical application in surgery that an observer watching the procedure through
a teaching attachment or on a video screen frequently has difficulty in discerning
individual techniques, unless they are specifically pointed out.
The aim of all these considerations remains that of always maintaining a
well-defined resection cavity allowing correct orientation and careful hemostasis
during every phase of the operation.
This is achieved by a systematic working procedure, as described below.
a) The Single Cut
In the early years this was the standard technique of resection. A tissue fragment
was separated with the loop and then withdrawn from the sheath together
with the electrotome, a technique largely dictated by the parameters of the
cutting current employed. A very considerable coagulating effect led to rapid
encrustation of the cutting loop. Fragments therefore frequently adhered to
the loop, and the electrotome had to be withdrawn from the sheath and tissue
picked off the loop to maintain adequate visibility. Such single cuts are nowa-
days only employed if a piece of tissue is to be removed from a certain area

for a specific purpose, e.g., histologic examination. The precise cutting action
of modern diathermy current frequently leads to the tissue fragment completely
separating and being washed into the bladder, whence it must subsequently
be evacuated. This effect can only be avoided by interrupting the irrigating
flow shortly before the end of the cut. The technique is equally useful for
making small corrections at the end of the procedure. In order to avoid repeating
the evacuation of resection chips from the bladder, a number of single cuts
are executed in the manner described (i.e., interrupting irrigation at the end
of the cut). Lastly, a marked reduction in bladder capacity may dictate the
use of this technique.
b) Serial Cutting
Most work is nowadays done in this fashion. Portions of tissue are separated
in a rapid sequence of cuts carefully placed side by side so as to achieve a
defined field of resection. The same principle applies, albeit with a shallower
depth of cut, once the main bulk of tissue has been removed and the operation
moves into the phase of careful cleaning of the capsule.
There is a simple reason for preferring serial cutting: every time the electro-
tome is reintroduced, the irrigating system requires a short period of time
to produce a clear field of view. The operation cannot proceed until reorientation
is thus possible. The time available for actual tissue removal would thus be
drastically less with single than with serial cutting. A normal capcity bladder
and moderate irrigation flow will allow the serial removal of 20 or more chips
before the bladder needs to be emptied.
On the other hand, serial cutting requires a certain degree of technical ability.
The aim is to clear a reasonable area of resectable tissue in a rapid series
of cuts, while maintaining an acceptable blood loss and without losing sight
of the overall situation. This in turn demands a systematic approach, best under-
stood by reference to a simple example: the removal of tissue is best compared
with a ploughing of a rectangular field by the parallel placement of furrows;
as shown (schematically) in Fig. 119.
There are various examples of the practical application of this technique,
such as the ablation in layers of lateral and median lobes. Even the fairly
difficult resection of apical tissue may proceed along such lines: a marking
furrow is first ploughed and the remaining tissue then reduced to the level
of this initial cut (see p. 203 for details).
Some mention should finally be made of the various depths of cut (Fig. 120).
The amount of tissue removed by an individual cut will depend on the
depth of penetration of the loop. Early in resection, when a considerable amount
of tissue remains to be removed, the loop may cut deeply into the tissue. The
nearer one comes to the prostatic capsule the shallower the cuts should become,
their depth being controlled by angulation of the sheath (raising or - for lateral
tissue - contralateral abduction of the eyepiece), or by pressing tissue up toward
the instrument. The latter technique can only be employed for dorsal tissue,
where the capsule lies in contact with the rectum.
Serial Cutting 169
Fig. 119. Serial cutting. This diagrammatic and somewhat idealized illustration demonstrates the
guiding principle of serial cutting: each cut is laid parallel to the previous one, a process readily
comparable to the ploughing of a field. The result is a clearly defined operating field. Orientation
problems are best solved in this fashion, since depth and end point of each successive cut are
derived from the preceding cut
a b c
Fig. 120a-c. Varying depths of cut. Shallow (a), normal (b), and deep (c) cuts are shown in diagram-
matic form. These three depths of cut may be employed according to the amount of tissue to
be removed. a Close to the prostatic capsule or when excising a bladder tumor deep in the muscle
a shallow cut should be employed. b This shows normal cutting. c The loop may be allowed to
penetrate deeply into the tissue, e.g., when a marking trench is being cut out of a lateral lobe,
that is when a very substantial layer of tissue is to be cut through or separated
In this region the loop may be allowed to penetrate so deeply that its insu-
lated side arms themselves sink into the tissue. This allows the removal of
tissue fragments of greater thickness than the radius of the loop (see Fig. 124c),
although only the most experienced surgeon should attempt this.
Depth of cut is further determined by the size of the loop. Correspondingly
larger resectoscopes (28 Ch and greater) will naturally allow the removal of
more tissue per unit time than is possible with smaller instruments (24 Ch and
less). The size of the loop is not, however, the be all and end all. Some years
ago we adopted the practice of working exclusively with 24-Ch instruments
so as to reduce mechanical trauma to the urethra to an absolute minimum.
Despite this, resection times and weight of tissue resected per unit time have
not decreased, probably because inurement to a single instrument outweighs
purely mechanical factors.
c) Excavating the Capsule
This chapter aims at presenting basic techniques and we cannot therefore devote
space to detailed methods of excavation. The following is, then, only a general
review of the problems involved.
In a vivid simile, NESBIT compared excavation of the capsule with the cutting
loop to spooning out the flesh of half an apple. To this day no better or
more realistic description has been given of this operative procedure, and it
is for this reason that the expression "teaspooning" has gained general accep-
tance in the Anglo-Saxon literature.
Anyone attempting a true transurethral adenomectomy must have fully mas-
tered this technique. In Nesbit's simile the prostatic capsule surrounding the
adenoma represents the skin of the apple, and the adenoma itself the flesh
of the fruit. Any attempt to cut adenoma tissue out of the capsule must therefore
take account of the spheroidal shape of the organ.
The cutting techniques described so far are all concerned with a straight
linear cut executed while the sheath is held in an absolutely stationary position.
If, however, the eyepiece of the instrument is raised during the cutting process,
the intravesical end of the instrument will be lowered, and the loop will then
penetrate more deeply into the tissue. At the end of the cut an equal and
opposite movement will taper the end of the slice (Fig. 121). This maneuver
enables the cutting loop to follow the contour of the capsular cavity. During
this phase of the operation the surgeon's head and trunk may be seen to control
the movements executed by the loop in the resection zone. Thus, if the right-hand
side of the capsule is to be excavated, the surgeon's head and therefore the
eyepiece of the instrument will move medially so as to impart an opposite
movement at the site of operation: the loop penetrates deeper into the right
lateral lobe.
Although this coordination of body movement and loop control arises from
long practice, it is by no means an artistic exercise of which only few are
capable. All the young urologists we train are able to learn this technique of
excavation during their apprenticeship.
A finger in the rectum is able to elevate dorsal components of the prostate
which lie immediately anterior to it and offer them up to the instrument, thus
partly effacing the curvature of the capsule. This is not possible for lateral
parts of the gland, where transurethral adenomectomy is entirely dependent
on the technique of teaspooning.
Cutting in this vicinity is nearly always by predetermination of the starting
point. Each cut begins at the point where typical capsular tissue merges into
Cutting Rate 171
Fig. 121. Excavating the capsule. Only the principle is illustrated: the prostatic cavity has been dis-
sected clear at the left and right margin where only apical tissue remains. This phase of resection
has not yet been reached on the floor of the cavity. where the operator may help himself by elevating
the prostatic floor so as to efface its curvature. (The actual technique of excavation is discussed
in Chap. E in greater detail)
adenoma [see p. 176 and Illustrations 31 and 32 (Plate VI)]. Both illustrations
clearly show this boundary between the smooth capsular tissue and the adenoma
as it bulges somewhat into the lumen of the prostatic cavity. This is the point
where the loop should be placed for the commencement of each cut. The process
is subsequently repeated in a like fashion but somewhat more distally, producing
a distal extension of capsular dissection.
Extended cuts may be executed in cases of extremely large adenoma, thus
requiring the surgeon to combine side-to-side movement of the eyepiece and
his head with progressive retraction of the instrument, since the extended cut
requires simultaneous movement of sheath and electrotome.
The correct depth of cut is easily maintained if a "marking trench" is first
"dug." This trench should be sliced out by the single cut technique, i.e., by
a number of individual small cuts working gradually down to the capsule so
as to define the available depth of cut for the rest of the procedure. Chapter E
provides a more detailed discussion of this entire operative technique.
d) Cutting Rate
The rate of cut, expressed as cmis, is a factor not to be underestimated during

electroresection.
Simply expressed, the faster the loop moves through tissue, the less the
thermal damage, and vice versa. The possible rate of cut depends not only
on the surgeon's technical ability but also on parameters of the cutting current,
and apart from a few technical limitations the situation is easily summed up:
the greater the power output of the diathermy, the faster the loop may travel
through the tissue. A weak current (low setting of the intensity control) will
require the loop to move extremely slowly if a smooth cut is to be achieved.
Higher control settings allow a virtually unlimited speed of cut. Finally, tissue
factors - mainly the water content - will also affect the rate of cut. Bladder
neck fibrosis and ring strictures consist of fibrous tissue of low water content
and are more difficult to cut than the solid tissue of prostatic carcinoma. These
problems are mentioned here only briefly and for the sake of completeness,
since a more extensive and accurate description is given in Sect. B.IlI in relation
to the use of high frequency current.
The following should, however, be said in conclusion: The surgeon must
always aim to cut as fast as possible with the lowest suitable current setting.
A high rate of cut permits considerably better orientation, since the tissue surface
will be less disrupted. Individual tissues are more easily recognized and the
full range of anatomic landmarks is then available to guide the operation.
These remarks have only limited applicability to older equipment employing
spark gap generators. In my own experience, however, such apparatus has been
completely superseded.
v. The Recognition of Individual Tissues

During Surgery
1. Preliminary Considerations
In recent years a number of technical improvements in the resectoscope have

greatly augmented the ease of orientation during transurethral surgery. Never-
theless the Old Masters of transurethral technique were able to provide histo-
logic proof of their ability to recognize individual tissues endoscopically (BARNES
1943). Orientation by anatomical landmarks is as valuable during transurethral
surgery as during any open operation.
Modern optical systems are so superior in both brightness and resolving
power to those previously available that the up-and-coming generation of uro-
logists will find the recognition of individual tissues far easier. The operative
field is more brightly illuminated, and a variety of teaching attachments have
greatly simplified the demonstration of the numerous tissue structures. Thus
the trainee is fully conversant with the endoscopic appearance of individual
types of tissue long before undertaking his own first cut. Because of the great
variability in the appearance of these structures, live demonstration can never
fully be replaced even by the most refined photographic technique.
There can be little doubt that frequent observation of demonstration resec-
tions is the best means of learning to recognize tissue differentiation. Nonethe-
less, this chapter will present a detailed description of each type of tissue, since
only a high degree of familiarity will permit proper anatomical dissection.
Surgical Anatomy 173
2. Surgical Anatomy
Operation is aimed at complete removal of hyperplastic adenomatous tissue

from the so-called prostatic capsule. Two types of tissue are thus of particular
interest: the tissue of the capsule and that of the hyperplastic gland. While
the capsule always appears as coarse fibrous tissue, the gland may show a
variety of hyperplastic forms.
In strict anatomical terms, so-called prostatic hypertrophy is an adenoma-
tous fibromuscular hyperplasia of individual groups of glands in the vicinity
of the prostatic urethra, the stimulus to growth apparently arising from abnor-
mal hormonal control. Three tissue elements are thus involved: gland, connec-
tive tissue and smooth muscle (insignificant proportions of striated muscle)
which may make up the tissue in varying proportions. The so-called surgical
capsule, a zone of true prostatic tissue compressed against the anatomical capsule
by hyperplastic tissue, cannot be discerned from the latter endoscopically. The
appearance of adenoma tissue will vary according to the predominant element
in the growth. In cases of mainly adenomatous hyperplasia the endoscopic
appearance will be determined by the transected gland element. In fibromuscular
hyperplasia (rare) they are virtually absent. The picture is further altered by
the state of the glandular tissue. Marked inflammatory change gives rise to
a different appearance to that of bland uninflamed adenoma. Only considerable
experience and the availability of modern telescopes with their brilliant image
enable the fine detail of such change to be recognized.
The ejaculatory ducts are not infrequently cut into during resection, since
they run in a dorsolateral to ventromedial direction from the ampullae into
the paracollicular region. Since the duct traverses hyperplastic tissue, any thor-
ough resection is bound to enter its lumen at some point. Depending on its
state of repletion this lumen will appear larger or smaller.
The field of resection is delineated proximally from the bladder by fibers
of the so-called internal sphincter. These bundles encircle the whole bladder
neck and progressively constrict the lumen of the prostatic cavity toward the
bladder. Its fibers should be recognized not only as an optical boundary line,
but also because of the importance of sparing them. Unduly deep incisions
in this region may lead to sub trigonal perforation or, more laterally, to free
perforation of the vesicoprostatic junction.
The outer surface of the prostatic capsule is invested with fatty tissue, which
may become visible at any time during resection if the capsule is too deeply
incised. The appearance of fatty tissue is thus a definite indication of incipient
or complete perforation.
Chapter F provides a detailed anatomy of the vascular supply.
Concretions are not infrequently formed within the glandular duct system
of the prostate. Adenoma formation will displace these laterally toward the
capsule, together with true prostatic tissue. The emergence of this calculous
layer thus announces that the surgical capsule has been reached, i.e., that one
is still within the true prostate. This fact is of particular importance in the
region of the prostatic apex, since dissection within the confines of this layer
of concretions is safely within the capsule and there is no fear of perforation.
Poor drainage of secretions combined with inflammation within the glands

may give rise to multiple small abscesses within the adenoma. These may have
remained undiagnosed prior to being opened at surgery.
3. Prerequisites for the Recognition of Tissue Structure
The surface of the wound cavity and its tissue structure is easily recognizable
only under certain conditions:
1. The current must have a sharp cutting action. If the cutting current markedly
damages the tissues, the cut surface will be so altered and the wound cavity
so clothed in brown crusts as to prevent any fine distinction of structure.
This unwanted effect may also result from slow cutting with a high current
intensity and a thick loop. The tissues are thus best demonstrated by a
rapid cutting action with a just adequate current.
2. Poor hemostatic technique will permit the formation of a more-or-Iess thick
layer of clot spreading across the wound surface like a red jelly. Even if
this layer is very thin or is formed only in depressions and tissue spaces
it will nevertheless markedly impede visualization of the wound surface.
3. The fine detail of the tissue is best appreciated if the telescope closely ap-
proaches the tissue. One will thus achieve a degree of magnification and
powerful optical resolution of fine structures.
4. Illumination should be adequate but not overpowering. If, for example, a
demonstration resection employing a teaching attachment or the use of an
articulated video tube has required illumination by xenon lamp, normal illu-
mination should be re-employed once the light-hungry beam splitter has
been detached. The excess light will otherwise obliterate numerous details
and blind the surgeon.
5. A particularly detailed image is obtained by the use of either the cylindrical
lens systems computed by HOPKINS or of other derivative telescopes.
4. The Appearance of Individual Types of Tissue
a) Adenoma Tissue
Typical adenoma tissue is easily recognized since its surface appears dotted
with fine granules (Fig. 122). When cut relatively slowly this tissue in particular
may acquire a brownish tint. In large adenomas, septa of connective tissue
may be seen running between groups of glands.
This surface appearance is an artefact due to the cutting current. The thermal
effect of the applied high frequency current tears the epithelial lining of tran-
sected glands away from its supporting element, and at the cut surface contact
with the cutting arc will sinter them into almost homogeneous nodules. These
fine irregularities of the cut surface are responsible for the characteristic appear-
ance of adenoma tissue (Fig. 123).
Adenoma Tissue 175
Fig. 122. Macrophotograph of a resection chip showing the typical surface of adenoma tissue. The
dots are prostatic glands torn out of their supporting tissues and superficially sintered into lumps
of tissue by the cutting current
Fig. 123. Histologic section through a dot. It may be easily seen that the dot consists of sintered
epithelium torn out of the transected gland ducts by the thermal effect of the cutting current and
superficially coagulated into a small lump, the typical endoscopic characteristic of this tissue
As expected, this typical appearance will not be seen during punch resection,
since the tissue has then not been cut by high frequency current but with a
circular knife.
Wide caliber ducts rich in secretion may occasionally be revealed by the
flux of minute quantities of milky secretion. Not infrequently, however, a
smooth pasty mass emerges from these ducts, appearing in the transected lumen
rather like yellowish-white toothpaste. The quantities may occasionally be such
that it is difficult to decide whether one is dealing with inspissated secretion
or an abscess, the only clue being the presence or absence of a membrane
lining the abscess cavity. As a general rule the pus of a prostatic abscess is
considerably more viscid than this paste.
The recognition of adenoma tissue means that at this point the prostatic
capsule has not yet been reached and resection should proceed to a greater
depth. How much deeper, however, can only be determined by a marking trench
- not by the surface appearance of the tissue. A number of typical appearances
of adenoma tissue are illustrated in Plates V and VI (Illustrations 28-30 and
31-35). Detailed descriptions are given in relation to each illustration. Illustra-
tions 25 (Plate V) and 36 (Plate VI) demonstrate the first few cuts of a marking
trench.
b) Fibromuscular Tissue
Pure fibromuscular hyperplasia is extremely rare. The typical dots of adenoma

tissue are more rarely visible in this type of bladder neck hyperplasia. Individual
gland ducts are seen within a homogeneous and unstructured ground substance.
This tissue is most easily discerned by first exposing the capsule proximally
at the transition to the parallel fibers of the internal sphincter. At the boundary
of proximal capsule and more distal fibromuscular tissue, the individual charac-
teristics of and differences between these two structures may be easily studied.
The floor of the prostatic capsule is most suitable for this comparison.
Illustration 35 (Plate VI) conveys a good idea of this type of tissue. Only
a small number of" dots" are visible on the cut surface.
c) The Prostatic Capsule
The fibers of this region are arranged in a network quite different to the parallel
arrangement in the internal sphincter. The surface is more homogeneous, and
the deeper one penetrates the tissue, the more apparent is the predominant
structural element of individual interwoven fiber bundles. Deeper still the
bundles are isolated and more widely separated. Immediately prior to perfora-
tion fatty tissue may be seen shining through between the ever more sparsely
distributed bundles. NESBIT (1954) has greatly emphasized the clinical insignifi-
cance of these small covered capsular injuries, through which periprostatic fat
tissue makes itself visible. Our experience has been identical. Nevertheless, there
is no excuse for carelessness when resecting in the region of the capsule, since
Bladder Muscle Fibers 177
a deep free perforation may have serious consequences unless it is recognized

early and treated appropriately.
Illustrations 37-41 (Plate VII) demonstrate the appearance of the prostatic
capsule in various sets of circumstances. Illustrations 38 and 39 are a good
example of widely separated deep fiber bundles. In Illustration 47 the fibers
may be seen separated at the point of entry of an artery against a background
of shiny periprostatic fat.
d) Fatty Tissue
The transurethral surgeon comes across fat not only at frank perforation but
also at a premonitory stage and in the immediate vicinity of large vessels, which
tend to be invested in a fine sleeve of fat tissue. This fat glints under illumination
rather like a snowcap in sunlight. In addition, various characteristics of the
fat may be discerned, e.g., inflammatory or neoplastic infiltration, such as is
seen when locally perforating bladder tumors. In the presence of neoplastic
infiltration, the fat loses its typical yellowish color, appearing strangely pale
and of homogeneous consistency. The usual gleaming of fat droplets in the
light is seen only in places, or not at all. Inflamed fatty tissue; on the other
hand, retains its typical yellow coloration but is denser and unusually homoge-
neous. One may come across such tissue during prostatic resection if, for
example, the capsule is perforated during a revision operation. The fat then
closely and firmly encases the capsule and is of great mechanical toughness.
As easily confirmed when operating on bladder tumors, high frequency current
cuts infiltrated fat better than normal fat.
e) Sphincter Fibrosis Tissue
This tissue is very similar to that of the iris-like fibrous scar occasionally occur-
ring after resection or enucleation of adenoma. It is of a tough consistency,
is difficult to cut and has a finely fibrous structure which is irregular and cannot
therefore be confused with the internal sphincter. On deeper dissection through
this tissue the fibers of the internal sphincter will suddenly appear once the
typical scar tissue has been penetrated.
f) Bladder Muscle Fibers
These are not normally exposed during prostatic resection, but the operator
should be able to recognize them since he may inadvertently transgress the
boundary of the internal sphincter in a proximal direction and find himself
cutting into bladder muscle. He will certainly come to recognize this tissue
structure when operating on bladder tumors.
The fibers have a characteristic appearance. They are matted with one
another like felt. The individual fiber is coarse and is only separated from
its fellows by loose connective tissue. In contrast to the prostatic capsule there
is no interspersed ground substance. There is some variation between individual
parts of the bladder. The trigonal musculature is rather more closely woven,
while that of the remaining bladder shows little structural relationship between
individual fibers.
g) InfIltration by Urogenital Tumors
Depending on its histologic properties, prostatic carcinoma may appear in a

variety of guises. Well-differentiated adenocarcinoma is quite similar to ad-
enoma tissue although transected gland tubules are more sparse and of wider
caliber so that the spots appear coarser. Solid anaplastic or highly cellular
cribriform carcinomas show far less structure. The surface is greasy, yellowish-
white and of extremely hard consistency. In advanced cases the tissue may
be so rigid as to markedly impair movement of the instrument at the beginning
of the operation. Frequently a strangely sweet smell on evacuation of the gas
generated during resection will betray the presence of a carcinoma.
In a few cases I have been able to observe large crumbling masses of tumor
tissue tumbling out of transected ducts. These nests of tumor tissue were so
soft and amorphous that they could even be massaged out of their cavities
by perineal pressure.
The same may be said of neoplastic infiltration of the bladder, where deeper
zones of tumor tissue consume and obliterate the musculature. Less advanced
regions of solid tumors will reveal muscle fibers embedded in homogeneous
ground substance. When cutting into papillary carcinomas one may often
observe a crumbling reddish mass welling up between the muscle fibers.
A similar situation arises if an infiltrating carcinoma of the bladder extends
into the prostatic cavity. One may once again differentiate between solid and
papillary tumors.
Extension of a prostatic carcinoma into the bladder also has a characteristic
endoscopic appearance. The individual appearances seen in the prostatic cavity
are then recapitulated in the bladder wall.
Papillary mucosal tumors of the prostatic urethra represent a special entity.
They are of epithelial origin yet may infiltrate the prostate or a bladder neck
adenoma as papillary carcinomas. Their surface appearance is that of a papillary
bladder tumor, yet they infiltrate in cords of cells. If the latter are transected
at operation, carcinomatous tissue spills out of the cut tumor peg. This tissue
has a crumbling reddish appearance. A curative resection should be so deep
as to reach the capsule.
h) InfIltration by Extrinsic Tumors
Tumors of the female genitalia or of the rectum occasionally infiltrate bladder

or prostate. Rectal tumors, in particular, may invade the prostate and simulate
primary prostatic carcinoma, especially if rectal palpation of recurrences is ren-
dered impossible by previous abdominoperineal surgery.
Prostatic Calculi 179
Adenocarcinoma of the rectum, however, has absolutely characteristic fea-

tures. The tumor is white, soft and almost crumbly. Mucin production may
be confirmed endoscopically.
The appearance of female genital tumors is somewhat less typical and in
these cases only a careful history and the histology report may clarify the situa-
tion.
i) Ejaculatory Ducts
The ducts are frequently entered during complete resection of a prostatic ad-
enoma, but because of their small lumen they may be so unremarkable as
to be overlooked. The duct may be recognized within the field of resection
by the slightly brownish tint of its lining epithelium and generally appears as
a fine channel distinguishable from a blood vessel by the absence of bleeding
and the occasional efflux of seminal fluid.
More proximally the lumen is wider, its size and the presence of septa some-
what reminiscent of seminal vesicles. Once again the brownish appearance of
the epithelium and the absence of blood allows a distinction from venous sinuses.
j) Seminal Vesicles
It is rare but not entirely unusual to open the seminal vesicle during a transure-
thral operation on the prostate. The organ is usually transected tangentially
during the attempt to completely remove all the dorsal tissue of an adenoma
bulging extensively into the rectum.
The incised seminal vesicle is unmistakable. Its margin is often of a brownish
tint, and there is not infrequently a discharge of secretion resembling semen.
As shown in Illustration 43 (Plate VIII) a clear view may be obtained of the
fundus of the organ and occasionally of its septate structure.
We see this occurrence approximately once a year, yet I have never had
a patient who suffered serious consequences. Check cystourethrograms follow-
ing healing of the prostatic wound in no case revealed retrograde filling of
the vesicular cavity from the urethra.
k) Blood Vessels
Their appearance is described and illustrated in detail in Chap. F "Hemostasis."
I) Prostatic Calculi
The presence of calculi is ususally revealed by preoperative radiology. They

occur in a vast variety of sizes and have an unmistakable appearance, even
though their shape and color are capricious. Calculi ranging from the size of
a cherry stone to minute blackish-brown granules (" snuff prostate") may be

encountered.
Larger calculi lie in a bed lined with epithelium. They are surrounded by
extremely tough connective tissue and may be difficult to extract. It is often
only the tip of such a calculus that protrudes into the zone of resection. Once
the loop has levered a calculus out of its bed the latter may be recognized
as an epithelialized depression in the wound cavity. Not infrequently a cloudy
secretion surrounding the stone is washed away as the cavity is opened.
The smaller, darker calculi only rarely occur in larger sizes. They usually
lie innocuously within the tissue at any depth right up to the epithelium, where
they may appear as black dots.
The endoscopic appearance of prostatic calculi cannot be confused with
anything else; illustrations 44 and 45 (Plate VIII) show characteristic examples.
Illustration 45 demonstrates a calculus bed epithelialized and containing a sub-
stantial quantity of concretions. Since the occurrence of calculi is entirely intra-
capsular (see Fig. 58), their appearance is safe evidence that the operative field
remains within the capsule.
m) Prostatic Abscess
The opening of a previously undiagnosed abscess is an unmistakable and impres-

sive event. The resection area is suddenly obscured by a massive outpuring
of pus. Once the abscess cavity has been washed clear of pus, its lining membrane
is easily recognized as a reddish, irregularly granular surface, often with paren-
chymatous bleeding.
Pseudo abscesses look similar, but these are probably merely collections of
inspissated secretion or old inactive abscesses. Illustration 42 (Plate VII) shows
such thick pasty material exuding from one of these cavities.
VI. Accidental Injuries
1. Injuries to the Prostatic Capsule
The word "perforation" has an alarming quality likely to throw not only the
trainee but also the teacher standing behind him into a state of agitation. This
reaction is only rarely justified. Even in a teaching center where beginners are
trained in transurethral surgical techniques, perforation is an extremely rare
occurrence. For historical reasons a number of books devote considerable space
to this complications, since it occurred far more frequently in the early years
when many surgeons were self-taught.
Threatened Perforation 181
The fear of perforation also dates back to the apprentice years of every
transurethral surgeon. At this stage of his training he will have found difficulty
in accurately assessing the volume of the gland and thus have tended to make
shallow cuts in areas he could safely have resected more deeply. The fear remains
as a psychologic "engram," only lost after much practice.
There is only one type of perforation requiring urgent action, i.e., a broad-
surfaced, free, deep penetration of the capsule. For anatomical reasons this
rarely occurs purely within the capsule and is far more frequent at the junction
of capsule and bladder. It is at this more-or-less acute angle, the waisted constric-
tion between the two unequal spherical organs, that the much feared perforation
holes may occur. Within the capsule, cutting is usually more or less tangential
to the capsule itself, so that the latter is in turn generally only incised tangen-
tially, and it is thus unlikely that this area will be so deeply penetrated as
when the angle between bladder and prostatic capsule is cut across as with
a bowstring.
Perforations may be graded in the following fashion:
1. Threatened perforation
2. Covered perforation
3. Free perforation
4. Subtrigonal perforation
It seems sensible to discuss the endoscopic appearance of these perforations
in this chapter, since they will lead to a change in the quality of tissue observed
during surgery. The clinical consequences of individual types of perforation
are here only touched upon since they will later be discussed in detail as operative
complications.
b) Threatened Perforation
During the attempt to expose capsular tissue over the entire surface of the
cavity it is not uncommon to see an area of diverging fibers of generally decreas-
ing caliber. A similar situation may be seen if one of the large capsular arteries
has been opened and coagulated. Once again the vicinity of the peripheral
capsule margin is denoted by divergence of the fibers. Periprostatic fat may
be visible, covered only by a fine spider's web of fibers. Some years ago,
I described this situation as "drohende Perforation" (threatened perforation)
(MAuERMAYER 1962). The picture is typical and easily remembered.
Illustration 39 (Plate VII) best resembles threatened perforation. Illustration
38 on the same plate also demonstrates the typical divergence of the fiber struc-
ture which so calls for caution. My responsibility to my patients has prevented
me from presenting further photographic material of threatened perforation,
since it would be unethical to spend time on photography of a situation which
might be hazardous to the patient instead of bringing the procedure to a rapid
conclusion.
Sequelae. This frequent event has no clinical consequences whatsoever, a fact

of which one may convince oneself by follow-up contrast cystography. As long
as intraoperative pressures are kept below the usual limit of 60 cm H 2 0, there
is no demonstrable extravasation. Naturally, irrigating pressure should not be

increased without a vital indication once this attenuated area of the capsule
has been recognized, and greater caution is also required during aspiration
of resection chips. Only profuse bleeding from a large artery could represent
such a vital indication for a transient increase in irrigating pressure. Once the
vessel has been closed the irrigator should be returned to its normal height.
Aftercare is routine with no requirement for antibiotics in a primarily unin-
fected patient. If hemostasis is satisfactory, the indwelling catheter may be
removed on the second postoperative day in the usual fashion.
c) Covered Perforation
These differ from the previous type only in degree. The" spider's web" is absent
and fatty tissue is freely visible at the site of perforation. This fat, however,
firmly covers the perforated hole, and even if the point of perforation is scanned
with the irrigation jet, fat remains adherent to the aperture and at least visibly
there is no extravasation.
Sequelae. The consequences of this accident are basically the same as for threat-
ened perforation. Irrigating pressure should be reduced, overfilling the bladder
should be avoided and care should be taken to evacuate resection chips without
violent pumping maneuvers. There is an added necessity to bring the operation
to an early conclusion. If perforation should occur early in the procedure, the
beginner is strongly advised to carry out careful hemostasis and terminate the
operation. Only an experienced surgeon should risk continuing the procedure
with repeated careful inspection of the site of perforation in order to ascertain
that adherent fat has continued to plug the hole.
Aftercare in no way differs from that of threatened perforation.
d) Free Perforation
This type of injury cannot be overlooked (Fig. 124) and classically occurs at
the vesicoprostatic angle rather than in the capsule proper. A more-or-Iess obvi-
ous hole gapes at the point of perforation and irrigation fluid may be seen
to run in and, occasionally, out of it. All layers of the capsule (and bladder
wall, if the injury occurs in the classic position) are readily recognizable. Little
or no periprostatic fat will be seen at the margins of the wound, and in the
few cases that I have myself seen, I was able to observe moderately brisk hemor-
rhage from venous channels around the capsule. If the irrigating fluid is allowed
to drain away under direct vision, a small quantity of blood-stained fluid may
be seen to drain from the wound back into the cavity.
Additional factors suggesting perforation are mentioned here only briefly:
irrigating fluid deficit, evacuation problems, distension of the hypogastrium,
flat manometry curve, extravasation on follow-up cystography, circulatory dis-
turbances.
Free Perforation 183
Fig. 124. Diagrammatic cornonal section throngh bladder and prostate showing typical perforation
at the vesicoprostatic junction. On the right a peforation, to the left the mechanism by which this
error occurs. The prerequisite of this injury is that too deep a cut is made at this point without
adequate visual control. (Blind application of a loop extended too far out of the sheath. The sheath
aperture is unable to press tissue away from the sheath). This is a rare complication always requiring
operative intervention
Surgeons accustomed to undertaking TUR under epidural anesthesia report

that the patient complains of a characteristic lower abdominal pain at the time
of perforation. The occurrence of this alarm signal is indeed sometimes presented
as an indication for epidural anesthesia. These additional aids to the diagnosis
of perforation are, however, only of significance when operating either with
great levity, under poor visibility or with unacceptable hemostasis. Anyone
regarding resection as a process of anatomic dissection under visual control
must recognize the misfortune of perforation immediately the prostatic and
bladder wall have been penetrated.
Sequelae. The only remedy is immediate exposure of the site of injury and
oversewing of the same followed by liberal drainage of the paraprostatic and
paravesical spaces.
Although accidents of this kind are so extremely rare during prostatic resec-
tion, transurethral operating rooms should be so equipped as to permit retro-
pubic exploration, oversewing and drainage in the same operating room and
on the same operating table (see Chap. A).
Recognized early and promptly treated, this complication has a reasonable
prognosis. Antibiotic cover is advisable and an indwelling catheter should
remain in place for at least a week. The transurethral operation may then
be concluded at a second sitting.
e) Subtrigonal Perforation
~) Preliminary Considerations. This type of perforation occupies a special posi-

tion in that it may occur not only during surgery but also before a single
cut has been made at the time of introducing the instrument. Only inappropriate
advancement of the instrument in a proximal direction enables it to penetrate
under the trigone. A precursor of this accident is not infrequently seen as so-
called detachment and this is predisposed to by the topographic situation. If
a degree of separation occurs between the prostatic capsule at its junction with
the bladder distally and dorsal bladder neck fibers proximally, then the capsule
may have become so attenuated as to give way at this point. Without any
further resection in this area it may be seen later in the operation that the
base of the bladder has lifted away complete with the parallel fibers of the
bladder neck. The result is a slit opening into a more-or-Iess deep cleft under
the trigone. No other interpretation can be placed on this event than that of
pre-existing tension within the tissue leading to spontaneous rupture of the
tissue bridge between prostate and bladder in the wake of a general mechanical
weakening during resection.
Whether, however, it is justified to interpret such detachment as the result
of excessive dynamic intravesical pressure (REUTER 1980) seems to me to be
another matter. One would then expect this accident to occur quite frequently
in teaching units where the early phases of resection are carried out by inexper-
ienced surgeons. In fact this occurrence is rare. Anyway, the pressures involved
are far too low.
P) Subtrigonal Perforation During Instrumentation. Straight instruments which

do not follow the urethral curvature and require lowering of their external
and raising of their internal end in order to pass the ventral angulation of
the bladder neck are more likely than their cranked counterparts to track under
the trigone after perforating the dorsal floor of the urethra. BAUMRUCKER has
given an impressive description and illustrations of this injury in his original
book (1968). The Timberlake-Alcock obturator was devised to minimize this
risk. In our own clinic we have never seen such subtrigonal perforation during
passage of the sheath, presumably as a result of many decades of experience
in passing straight instruments. The straight irragating jet cystoscope of MAY
(1953) and straight sounds have taught us to traverse the urethra in this fashion.
I am thus unable to discuss the problem in the light of my own experience
and can only point to the excellent descriptions given by BAUMRUCKER.
I will, nevertheless, describe a technique for safely avoiding this injury,
insofar as I have not already done so when discussing how to pass the sheath
(see p. 89). In virtually every case the instrument may be passed without diffi-
culty when guided by a single finger. The instrument finds its own way and
only slight corrections of direction and subtle axial pressure are required. During
Subtrigonal Perforation 185
Fig. 125. Subtrigonal perforation. The drawing illustrates this extremely rare event. The resectoscope
sheath first penetrates adenoma and then passes through the prostatic capsule in the direction of
the trigone. This injury may be reliably avoided by sensitive instrumentation without the use of
force. Whenever resistance occurs, it is preferable to introduce the instrument under direct vision,
either by a viewing obturator or by means of the electrotome (see also Fig. 124)
our courses on transurethral surgery we have occasionally demonstrated this

technique of instrumentation via a video link to a large auditorium. Whenever
the instrument spontaneously comes to rest at an insuperable obstacle any
attempt at blind instrumentation is immediately abandoned and the obturator
replaced either by the electrotome or a viewing obturator (Fig. 125).
Direct vision offers accurate control of any evasive movement required to
pass a urethral stenosis or dis torsion. The same method will render even the
most overweening ventral extension of the median lobe surmountable. If the
head of the operating or examination table is lowered, the angle due to ventral
extension of the median lobe is easily negotiated. Our yearly workload is approx-
imately 600 transurethral procedures, a large proportion of them carried out
by young surgeons under supervision, and yet we have never felt the need
for an articulated obturator of the Timberlake-Alcock pattern. Under difficult
circumstances visual control is a very much better protection against perforation
than any specialized instrument design.
Once this injury has occurred it is mandatory to discontinue the procedure
and drain the urine by indwelling catheter for 3-4 days so that the perforation
may close. Catheterization may present problems, since the catheter tends to
follow the instrument in taking the" false passage." Rectal support of the cathe-
ter tip usually succeeds in guiding it upward (ventrally) until it finds the correct
pathway. If the fine point of a normal Tiemann catheter causes difficulties,
a curved catheter of the Mercier pattern may be substituted.
In conclusion, great importance should be attached to ensuring that urologic
technique takes account of this most vulnerable part of the male urinary tract.
Fig. 126. Intraoperative type of subtrigonal perforation. The tissue between bladder neck and internal
sphincter has been too extensively dissected during the course of the operation. This anatomically
predetermined weakness gives way. The result is elevation of the dorsal bladder edge and sinking
away of the floor of the cavity. The outcome is a slit through the tissues, wide in the midline
and attenuated laterally. The event is of no consequence for the patient if it occurs at the end
of the operation and is recognized for what it is. If, on the other hand, the operator loses the
way in the direction of the broken arrow he will pass the instrument under the trigone
Only continuous critical self-appraisal and the proper education of trainees

can help to prevent penetration of the subtrigonal tissues.
y) Detachment. The use of this term in the above sense is due to HOSEL (MARQU-
WARDT 1954, personal communication) and applies to a situation described
in a variety of publications. It would appear that numerous urologists involved
in transurethral surgery have had the same experience. I have drawn attention
to the probable anatomical predisposition to this event under a) above.
At an early stage, i.e., before the region of the internal meatus has become
separated from the capsule, the endoscopic appearance is one of diverging fiber
bundles with fatty and loose areolar tissue visible in the intervening space.
Under no circumstances should further resection be undertaken when this endo-
scopic picture has been seen (Fig. 126).
The event of complete detachment nearly always goes unseen. The fibers
of the internal meatus, i.e., the region often referred to as internal sphincter,
contract and as it were elevate the base of the bladder upward (ventrally).
The result is a slit-like opening of varying depth between prostatic cavity and
bladder base. Usually this slit only extends a few millimeters under the bladder
neck fibers, but occasionally the floor of the cavity may not even be visible
endoscopically. The cavity is lined with fat and fine cobweb areolar tissue.
Sequelae. We have never come across any damage as a result of this event,
even in cases where the endoscopic appearance was impressive. Catheterization
may nevertheless be difficult. A suitable technique will subsequently be described
when complete perforation is discussed.
Subtrigonal Perforation 187
In cases of detachment the catheter should not be removed on the second

postoperative day, as is usually done, but rather left several days longer. Even
if the urine was not previously infected, antibiotic cover is recommended. We
have never come across an indication for suprapubic exploration. If one exam-
ines the bladder neck of these patients at a later date, neither endoscopic nor
urethrocystographical change can be demonstrated which would distinguish
them from patients who had had a normal bladder neck resection.
/) Complete Subtrigonal Perforation. This event is prone to occur when an

inexperienced surgeon loses his way and allows the resectoscope to slide under
the trigone once detachment has occurred. In his attempts to get back into
the bladder he then advances the instrument rather than retracting it from
the false passage.
The endoscopic appearance is not easily understood, since the experienced
surgeon who takes over the case will naturally return the instrument to its
proper position as quickly as possible rather than spending valuable time exam-
ining the cavity. The immediate aim is to secure hemostasis and terminate the
procedure. In the few cases of which I have personal experience, fat and curious
cobweb-like tissue structure were the dominant impression. I have never come
across serious hemorrhage as a result of this injury.
Sequelae. There is no general rule for the management of this problem. Impor-
tant points are to carefully examine the perforation from within the prostatic
cavity and to control any hemorrhage at that point. A second priority is to
achieve the best possible hemostasis both within the prostatic cavity and at
its margin while at the same time employing the minimum practicable irrigation
pressure and frequent emptying of the bladder. The aim of this is to hold
intravesical pressure as low as possible.
Catheterization problems. Under these circumstances it may be difficult to pass

a catheter. We always try to use a Tiemann catheter and avoid balloon catheters,
since the presence of an inflated balloon in the prostatic cavity may inhibit
the drainage of secretion and fluid from the site of perforation. A Tiemann
catheter is usually passed with ease if rectal support is used to direct its tip
upward. On the other hand, the curvature of a Mercier-tip catheter is less
likely to become caught, so it may be worthwhile to try with one of these.
Only if both these attempts fail should one use a normal N6laton catheter
with a hollow tip allowing it to be introduced on a curved metal sound.
There was one case in which we were unable to advance the catheter into
the bladder by any of the above methods. We, therefore, reintroduced the resec-
toscope under direct vision and removed the electrotome once the bladder had
been entered. A straight metal sound was then passed through the sheath and
the latter removed. There was no subsequent difficulty in passing an open-ended
catheter with two side eyes over this guide-rod into the bladder.
The use of a ureteric catheter (6 Ch) as a guidewire is a variation on the
same principle.
Diagnostic measures following sub trigonal perforation. In this situation a cysto-

gram should be performed under the image intensifies immediately after the
procedure. If contrast appears in the subvesical space after the instillation of
only a small volume, it is probably safer for the patient to make a small supra-
pubic incision and drain the left and right paravesico-prostatic spaces.
Extravesical contrast medium may be masked by contrast within the pros-
tate. The area should, therefore, be screened again after removal of contrast
medium.
Aftercare. It is unnecessary to suture this injury since it always heals spontane-

ously.
The case described by BAUMRUCKER (1968) shows that even drainage is
not absolutely necessary.
Postoperative antibiotics should be given as a matter of course, and in appro-
priately high doses if a preoperative urinary infection had been documented.
2. Other Types of Accidental Injury
The various types of perforation together with the appropriate therapeutic con-
sequences have already been discussed above in connection with the endoscopic
appearance of various tissues. In the following section we can, therefore, confine
ourselves to injuries of the ureteric orifices and external sphincter, intraperiton-
eal perforation and excessive blood loss.
a) Injury to the Ureteric Orifice
This complication is extremely rare among our case material, and indeed has
not occurred at all in the last 10 years. Such an injury can really only arise
if the surgeon so loses his way as to believe himself in the prostate when he
is actually resecting in the bladder. Such an occurrence nearly always results
from several basic mistakes simultaneously: poor hemostasis, inappropriate
panic, false pride and poor knowledge of local tissue structure, all leading to
loss of orientation.
IX) Types of Injury. In the simplest form, there is merely a superficial resection
of the orifice. If vacuum tube cutting current with its sharp atraumatic action
was used, this superficial injury will heal without sequelae.
I have only come across deeper and multiple laceration of the orifice in
a single patient transferred to us as an emergency because of profuse hemorrhage
from the resection field. This patient subsequently developed low pressure reflux
through the associated orifice.
This is one type of late sequel. The other is stenosis (in this connection
see the more detailed discussion of "intentional" orifice resection in bladder
tumors, p. 321).
Injuries to the External Sphincter 189
P) Sequelae. Once the indwelling catheter has been removed, one needs to know
if there is reflux or whether this will later develop. Extended follow-up will
be needed in order to detect cicatricial stenosis of the ureteric orifice. The
presence of reflux usually excludes stenosis.
In the immediate postoperative period the use of the slightest pressure during
bladder irrigation should be strictly avoided, so as not to cause pyelonephritis
by the reflux of infected urine.
b) Injuries to the External Sphincter
I:l) Preliminary Considerations. There is no exact information in the literature

on the frequency of this complication. Any clustering of postoperative inconti-
nence within a unit certainly represents the writing on the wall for the urologist-
in-charge and he should make every effort to thoroughly re-examine his tech-
nique. It is quite fair to say that a number of cases of postoperative incontinence
are not the result of incising the external sphincter and, from the point of
view of compensation these have an entirely different significance to cases of
incontinence due to excessively distal resection. Thus excessive pressure from
the presence of a balloon catheter in the prostatic cavity over an excessive
length of time may lead to permanent weakening of the external sphincter.
A further type of "natural" incontinence is due to infiltration of the sphincter
region by invasive prostatic carcinoma, thus impairing its contractility. Finally,
there is certainly nothing iatrogenic about the inability of the patient with severe
cerebrovascular disease to control his bladder. In the context of these two latter
cases the patient or his relatives should be warned of the danger of incontinence
at the time of taking consent for operation.
Despite the majority of illustrations in anatomic and urologic works, the
external sphincter is not a short contractile ring but a long, muscular tube
composed mainly of smooth muscle and capable of responding to faradic stimu-
lation (sphincter test of TAMMEN and HARTUNG 1973, 1976). These fibers con-
tinue into the prostatic capsule.
P) Appearance of the Injury. Anyone with any medicolegal experience of this

injury will know its anatomic situation. There is nearly always an incision beside
the colliculus (which is usually still present) running distal to it. Later this
may be replaced by scar tissue. Early cases transferred to our unit afford a
good opportunity to demonstrate this injury which is reproduced in Illustra-
tion 46 (Plate VIII). At a later stage only the principle consequence remains
visible and may be revealed by faradic stimulation of the sphincter muscle
region and observation of its contraction in the sphincter test of TAMMEN and
HARTUNG. Some contraction can nearly always be seen but it is usually only
partial and is less vigorous the worse the degree of incontinence. Occasionally
the urethra appears as a rigid tube resisting contraction.
y) Aftercare. If the external sphincter should inadvertently be injured at opera-

tion, a balloon catheter should only be placed in the resection cavity and secured
under traction on absolutely vital indications. The result of this procedure would
merely be to stretch the wound and promote healing in a dilated condition.
The indwelling catheter should, however, remain in situ as long as hemorrhage
demands. The observation of a distal incision does not always mean the occur-
rence of incontinence. Treatment should therefore only begin when removal
of the indwelling catheter is followed by convincing partial or complete inconti-
nence.
() Grading of Incontinence According to Severity. We distinguish three types

of incontinence which may be defined urethrographically and urodynamically.
Mild incontinence. This type always improves spontaneously. Its clinical manifes-
tation is involuntary voiding of urine on standing-up, sitting down or other
change of posture. These patients are continent when coughing and sneezing.
No injury can be recognized endoscopically. Cystourethrogram reveals a
well-filled anterior urethra and an easily visible constriction in the region of
the sphincter. Although drug therapy may be tried, the good prognosis of this
type of incontinence usually renders it unnecessary.
Stress incontinence. This corresponds to a somewhat more severe injury to the

external sphincter. Coughing, heavy lifting or sneezing leads to passage of
greater or smaller quantities of urine. Voluntary control of the bladder is possi-
ble and activation of the sphincter is able to interrupt the urinary stream. The
supine patient is fully continent, but strangely enough his incontinence worsens
with fatigue during the afternoon. Cystourethrogram demonstrates almost
normal filling of the urethra and obvious constriction by the external sphincter.
In such cases we have seen good results with drug treatment with strychnic
acid derivatives such as Movellan. (One tablet 7.5 mg two to three times daily;
interruption of treatment at weekends to prevent cumulation.)
Complete incontinence. This would appear to be a rare sequel to electroresection,

since we are called upon to give an expert opinion on one to two cases per
year at the most.
These patients are occasionally capable of continence so long as they remain
in bed. As soon as they get up, however, urine leaks out of the bladder, necessi-
tating the wearing of either a penile clamp or a urinal. Voluntary interruption
of the urinary stream is either completely or partially impossible despite maximal
effort. Urine dribbles from the bladder of the standing patient at the rate at
which it is produced. The supine position allows a certain amount of urine
to collect in the bladder, rarely more than 50-80 ml. This urine is voided, howev-
er, as soon as the patient stands, and he therefore holds the urine bottle to
his member before getting up or puts on his penile clamp or urinal.
Cystourethrogram reveals a virtually empty urethra with absence of any
narrowing at the external sphincter. Drug treatment is unsuccessful and should
therefore not even by contemplated except for psychologic support. Improve-
ment is not to be expected except in the wake of surgical treatment.
Excessive Blood Loss 191
The best palliative management of these patients is by penile clamp or urinal.

For some time now the injection of Teflon paste around the external
sphincter region has been recommended as a palliative measure in the treatment
of this complication. The procedure is described and evaluated in Chap. L.
t) Conclusion. Permanent incontinence of urine is certainly the most unpleasant

postoperative complication a patient may suffer from. Several urologists are
therefore usually consulted in succession in the hope of finding counsel and
help. The practitiones responsible for the condition often comes to be seen
as a personal enemy, and lawyers not infrequently become involved in these
cases. The danger of injuring the sphincter is one particular justification for
the caution urged throughout this book when resecting apical tissue. Because
of the medicolegal implications, it is particularly important to draw attention
to the danger of this complication before the patient consents to operation.
c) Intraperitoneal Perforation
We mention this complication here only for the sake of completeness. In over
8000 transurethral operations I have myself never come across such a case,
neither by any fault of my own nor as a result of error by a colleague.
This injury may, however, occur during the resection of bladder tumors,
and is therefore discussed at the appropriate point.
d) Excessive Blood Loss
This complication is mentioned in many textbooks but is usually the result

of an incorrect assessment of the indications for surgery: too large an adenoma
is tackled by too inexperienced a surgeon. Apart from the correct choice of
operation and surgeon, a variety of safety measures may be adopted:
1. Running estimation of blood loss. We have developed apparatus for use
in the operating theater permitting rapid and simple estimation of blood
loss. The collecting bucket for irrigating fluid has a capacity of 101. As
soon as it is full, the blood loss is determined and announced loudly so
that both surgeon and anesthetist can hear it. There is thus a running check
on the volume of blood loss and the appropriate measures can then be
taken.
2. Drained irrigating fluid must be collected. Only this measure will permit
any statement to be made on the quantity of blood that has been lost.
3. Only running blood loss determination on small volumes or irrigating fluid
(10 I, not 20 I) will allow an up-to-date assessment of the situation.
4. We have conducted tests to show that all subjective estimates are completely
unreliable.
5. The technique of NESBIT and CONGER employing hematin and hydrochloric
acid becomes inaccurate for large volumes of blood, with a tendency to
underestimate the true quantity. Any system of continuous blood loss deter-
mination therefore requires the presence within the operating room of easily
handled apparatus adjustable for the patient's hemoglobin concentration.
As a result of these concepts we have developed an instrument that satisfies
all requirements (HARTUNG et al. 1976). Chapter F gives further details on the
technique of using this instrument. If the above points are observed, excessive
blood loss can never occur as an unforeseen catastrophe. Even the earliest
samples will indicate an excessive loss of blood, and everything possible must
then be done to avoid any further increase. If a more experienced surgeon
is available in the unit he should immediately take over the procedure. Alterna-
tively, the operation should be cut short after careful hemostasis and if necessary
brought to a conclusion at some other time.
Generally speaking, substantial blood loss is not an unavoidable occurrence
during electroresection. The only exception may be particularly vascular ad-
enomas in which every cut will open one or several large arteries. This danger
will be recognized early in the operation, at the latest after the first blood
loss measurements. It will then become necessary to work rapidly and in a
particularly bloodless fashion, or else it may become unavoidable to finish the
procedure at a second sitting. Such cases are, however, extremely rare. It is
certainly completely wrong to fatalistically accept substantial blood loss as a
built-in aspect of the technique in the majority of cases.
3. Concluding Remarks on Accidental Injuries
Reading the detailed discussion of accidental injuries just given might easily
lead the uninitiated to conclude that such complications are frequent. This
is by no means the case. Even in teaching units where young urologists are
trained in these operative techniques, the incidence is measured in fractions
of a percent. Those of us involved in training apprentice urologists are well
aware of the responsibility we bear, and the training methods employed have
been described in various places in this chapter. The supervisor first carries
out a resection which his trainees observe through a teaching attachment, and
the process is then reversed with the master watching the apprentice at work.
Our young colleagues gradually progress to a point where they only rarely
require help and this method has led to a noticeable reduction in the intraopera-
tive complication rate.
It is implicit in the concept of an operating manual such as this that the
book must present all these problems, since the very fact that transurethral
surgery is difficult to learn was responsible for its being written in the first
place. For this reason the descriptive detail devoted to these complications
should not be taken as an indication of their frequency.
Chapter E
Special Resection Technique
I. General Considerations
In Chap. D, entitled" General Resection Technique," we discussed the individ-

ual elements comprising operative technique. These maneuvers are, as it were,
the bricks of which the entire procedure is built. Just as a young cabinetmaker
must first learn the proper use of plane, saw and chisel before attempting to
produce a piece of furniture, acquiring complete familiarity with individual
maneuvers is the only method of learning this operative technique.
This chapter will describe the coordination of such elements into a composite
tactical approach to electro resection of the prostate. The greater the quantity
of tissue to be removed, the more important is a rational plan of action. Thus
there is only a small variety of ways to resect a small transverse bar, while
the resection of a large adenoma permits the use of various plans of attack.
These questions revolve around two sets of considerations:
1. What is the fastest means of depriving the adenoma tissue of its arterial
supply?
2. Which method is most suitable for a given adenoma configuration?
These thoughts will be further influenced by the school in which the surgeon
trained and by his personal style.
Our guiding principle shall be that transurethral resection means transure-
thral adenomectomy. Whosoever contents himself" with cutting a little timid
English channel" (BLANDY 1971) might as well save himself the bother of reading
this chapter - unless he still wishes to learn the technique. We should not
forget that in the early years, partial resection was a standard procedure in
transurethral operative technique, a fact evident from an illustration in one
of MCCARTHY'S publications dated 1932 (Fig. 127). In the meantime, however,
the books of NESBIT (1943) and BARNES (1943), giving detailed descriptions
of transurethral adenomectomy, have become" bibles" of resection technique,
so that the mere excision of a funnel or groove can no longer be considered
a complete electroresection. Worldwide experience with the method and the
advent of a new generation of urologists have brought the initial epoch of
electroresection to a close.
There is indeed a scientific foundation to the requirement for adenomectomy.
The question is not merely one of honesty or of an "aesthetic" approach to
the prostatic cavity, but also one of wound healing. This was clearly explained
194 Chapter E Special Resection Technique
Fig. 127. One of McCarthy's original illustrations (reproduction). This figure is taken from a publica-
tion by MCCARTHY in 1932. It clearly shows the state of the art in resection technique at that
time. The bladder neck obstruction was excised as a simple cone. By present day standards this
procedure would be regarded as a purely palliative resection
by FLOCKS (1943) whose chapter on the arterial blood supply of the prostatic
bed was based on vascular anatomic considerations.
Furthermore, an inadequately resected prostate has a greater tendency to
give rise to "recurrences," if one may apply this term to renewed protuberances
of incompletely removed tissue, although it would perhaps be more properly
reserved for true new growth of hyperplastic tissue. It is, therefore, not merely
misplaced perfectionism for transurethral resection to aim at transurethral ade-
nomectomy.
II. Basic Rules of Resection Technique
The principles to be described are valid for all further operative approaches
described in this chapter. The procedure should be divided into three steps
(see Fig. 128).
1. Cone excision (Fig. 129):
The main tissue bulk is resected as a cone, of which the apex lies approximate-
ly at the verumontanum and the base circumference in the region of the
internal sphincter. This phase of resection will excise approximately two-
thirds of the total tissue mass.
The object of such an approach is to remove the major proportion of excis-
able tissue in a rapid cutting sequence and without risk of accidental injury.
2. Excavation of the capsule (Fig. 130):
This phase may also be accomplished fairly rapidly, although it will every-
where expose capsule and transect the main bulk of blood vessels (which
should of course be immediately closed by coagulation).
Basic Rules of Resection Technique 195
Fig. 128a, b. The three phases of operation. Diagrammatic coronal and sagittal sections. a Coronal
section through the prostatic cavity and distal bladder. In this diagram the three phases of resection
are marked. Phase 1: Excision of a tissue cone with its base situated at the internal sphincter.
Phase 2: Excavation of the prostatic cavity with exception of the apical tissue. Phase 3: In the
concluding phase of the operation paracollicular apical tissue is removed. Reasons for this triphasic
procedure: Phases 1 and 2 permit rapid tissue removal, since the danger of accidental injury is
slight. The final Phase 3 (close to verumontanum and external sphincter) requires slow careful surgery.
b The situation represented in a is seen here in sagittal section. This is to improve the reader's
spatial conceptualization. Comparison of coronal and sagittal diagrams should provide a three-
dimensional image of the operative field. For the purposes of this diagram the verumontanum
is represented at the point in the vicinity of which (somewhat distally) the apex of the cone should
be imagined. Depending on the configuration of the prostatic cavity, the main bulk of tissue will
be either dorsal or ventral
Fig. 129 a, b. Phase I: Cone excision. a The same situation as in Fig. 128 a. Zone number 1 in that
diagram has been removed. The conical wound cavity is clearly seen, its apex situated in the vicinity
of the verumontanum and its base at the level of the internal sphincter. b The same situation
as in a, seen in sagittal section. It may be clearly seen that the mucosa is intact over ventral portions
of the lateral lobes
Fig. 130a, b. Phase 2: Excavating the cavity. a Diagrammatic coronal section. The capsule is more
or less clear of adenoma tissue, only the apical parts remaining. View from above into the dorsal
half of the cavity. b Diagrammatic sagittal section: view into the more or less empty right half
of the cavity, only apical tissue still visible
Fig. 131a, b. Phase 3: Apical resection. a Final arrangement at the end of complete transurethral
adenomectomy, seen in coronal section. View from above into the empty dorsal half of the cavity.
b Sagittal section: view into the empty right half of the prostatic cavity after complete resection
of the adenoma
3. Resection of apical tissue (Fig. 131):

At the end of stage 2, only apical tissue will remain. This third phase is
concerned with its removal and requires particularly careful and precise tech-
nique to which we later devote an entire section. The third step is of greater
importance in determining the patient's fate than those preceding it. Whether
this phase of the operation falls short of or exceeds its target will ultimately
alone determine whether the patient has a good urinary stream or becomes
incon tinen t.
Step 1: The Marking Groove at 6 o'clock 197
III. Resection of Small Adenomas
Before discussing individual operative approaches according to NESBIT (1943),

ALCOCK-FLOCKS (1943) and BARNES (1943), a brief passage should be devoted
to the resection of small adenomas, of bladder neck fibrosis or of transverse
bar, since these in fact represent the most numerous type of obstacle to micturi-
tion and do not permit the application of the individual techniques just men-
tioned.
This problem, furthermore, represents the classic indication of TUR, ac-
cepted even by those who still firmly believe in the advantages of open surgery.
The principle reasons for this are the difficulty in enucleating small adenomas
and the unsatisfactory results for transvesical wedge resection of bladder neck
fibrosis.
In the following sections the technique for resecting small adenomas is de-
scribed in detail. I here present the technique as practiced in our clinic and
tried and tested in over 1000 demonstration resections by myself and my assis-
tants for the benefit of young colleagues.
The following description may seem rather exhaustive, but I think this no
bad thing since I have been quite unable to find such a detailed presentation
and description of resection technique anywhere in the literature. My intentions
here are therefore as much didactic as descriptive.
I have dispensed with any mention of hemostasis, since it goes without
saying that this should follow immediately on the transection of any vessels.
For reasons associated with my preferred teaching method, hemostasis is dealt
with in detail in a separate chapter.
1. Step 1: The Marking Groove at 6 o'clock
Resection starts in the 6 o'clock region. Wherever the retroprostatic recess is

shallow, cutting should be by predetermination of the starting point (see p. 160).
When the recess is deep, the cutting loop may be engaged behind the bladder
neck obstruction, energized and withdrawn into the sheath. For safety reasons,
the resulting groove should end adequately proximal to the verumontanum,
its depth depending on the degree of penetration by the loop (Fig. 132).
The groove should now be extended to end close to the verumontanum
by the technique of predetermined end point (see p. 157). This cutting series
will thus provide a precise definition of the 6 o'clock position for the field
of operation (Fig. 133). In small adenomas or short transverse bars, where little
tissue is to be removed, this first cut will expose fibers of the internal sphincter.
Indeed, if this is not the case the groove so started should be further deepend
until fibers are exposed at 6 o'clock.
Illustrations 19-23 (Plate IV), 25 (Plate V), and 33 and 36 (Plate VI) display
these first few cuts.
Fig. 132a, b. Once again two separate views are shown. In the left-hand drawing a the right-hand
half of bladder and prostatic cavity are seen in sagittal section. The right-hand illustration b is
the individual phases of operation in cross section, approximately in the rostral third of the prostatic
cavity. This twin diagram is once again aimed at providing a three-dimensional impression. a Diagram
of the starting situation . A small adenoma with marked median lobe development is to be removed.
The median lobe bulges somewhat ventrally and obstructs the observer's view from the verumon-
tanum toward the bladder. Mucosal margins are marked in red. b View toward the urethra from
a cut across the prostatic cavity. Dorsally, the median lobe has forced the two lateral lobes apart.
In this region the lateral lobes therefore contain less tissue than they do ventrally. The prostatic
urethra is compressed by the lateral lobes into the shape of a scabbard, thus appearing slit-like.
The verumontanum is covered by the bulge of the median lobe into the urethral lumen
Fig. 133a, b. (Diagram as in Fig. 132a, b) a The first few cuts have been placed along the floor
of the prostatic cavity. The bulge of the median lobe into the urethral lumen has thus been so
far ablated as to permit a free view from the verumontanum into the bladder. b The prostatic
cavity seen in cross section. The median lobe has been so far removed as to permit the verumontanum
to be seen from the bladder at the bottom of the wound cavity. In the 6 o'clock position the mucosal
margin passes close to the edge of the verumontanum on the bladder side
Step 3: Deepening the Groove down to the Capsule 199
Fig. 134a, b. (Diagram as in Fig. 132a, b). a The groove has been extended bilaterally to the 5
and 7 o'clock positions. b Lateral extension of the groove seen particularly clearly in this cross
section
2. Step 2: Extending the Groove Laterally
Depending on the extent to which lateral tissue bulges medially, this groove
is now extended to the left and right to create a freely visible gutter (Fig. 134).
3. Step 3: Deepening the Groove down to the Capsule
This gutter is now deepened down to the prostatic capsule. Great importance
attaches to this, since it allows the depth of the prostatic cavity to be estimated
(Fig. 135). The less practiced surgeon will carry out this step by small separate
cuts while his experienced colleague will use the extended cutting technique.
Whether a finger is used in the rectum to provide support by pressing the
tissue upward is more or less a matter of personal style and experience. I myself
go solely on the appearance of the tissues, although in earlier years when our
optical equipment was not of its present standard I tended to guide myself
with a rectal finger. This additional aid certainly helps the beginner and gives
him some impression of the volume he has to remove.
Appearance at the end of Step 3. The conclusion of Step 3 leaves a broad trench
at 6 o'clock. The trench has three main functions:
1. A limited zone of capsule is exposed.
2. The prostatic cavity is of known depth.
3. The lateral lobes previously held apart by basal tissue will now move me-
dially. This renders them easier to assess and more accessible for resection.
Exposing the entire longitudinal extent of the capsule in the 6 o'clock position
provides a good resection guide for the lateral lobes.
Fig. 135a, b. (Diagram as in Fig. 132a, b.) a This phase of resection has exposed the floor of
the prostatic cavity. The reason for this procedure is that premature cutting into the depths of
the lateral lobes will permit them to fall together in the midline and thus considerably obstruct
further surgery. If the resection area is therefore initially extended laterally (Fig. 134 a, b), enough
space is created to allow this decisive step to be taken without fear of hindrance. b The dorsal
excavation of the wound cavity is clearly seen
Fig. 136a, b. (Diagram as in Fig. 132a, b.) a After exposing the prostatic floor the median and
upper zones of the lateral lobe may be resected. Resection proceeds symmetrically until only a
small tissue residue is left between 11 and 1 o'clock. This uppermost portion is left until the end
because it may require the instrument to be held differently (see text). Once again the apical region
is left untouched. b Cross section provides the best impression of this stage of the operation. At
the end of this phase, only a small tissue residue remains in the roof of the cavity
4. Step 4: Removing the Lateral Lobe Base
The basal moiety of one or other lateral lobe is now removed. It is of no

importance whether one starts on the left or on the right, although virtually
every surgeon will instinctively start on the favorite side he finds easier. The
process starts in a fashion similar to the initital cut. One area is resected until
Step 5: Resecting Ventral Tissue 201
Fig. 137a, b. (Diagram as in Fig. 132a, b.) a Situation at the end of the previous phase. It is not
always necessary to rotate the instrument through 180 in order to clear this part of the cavity
0
of adenoma to us tissue. Occasionally a suitable change in posture may suffice. The previous ablation
of basal lateral lobe tissue enables ventral material to drop down, i.e., capsular contraction will
offer it up to the surgeon. b The sparse residue in the roof of the cavity is easily seen. It is easily
removed, being isolated all around
the internal sphincter is exposed, and this cut is then extended distally until
capsule is exposed right down to the distal third of the cavity. Even so, a
fairly wide safety band of apical tissue will remain (Fig. 136).
The capsular exposure of Step 1 provides a good gauge of the safe depth
of cut.
This step is concluded by resection of the opposite side.
Appearance at the end of Step 4. The bulk of the tissue has now been removed
bilaterally to the 3 and 9 o'clock levels. Only in the paracollicular region has
a "protective layer" of apical tissue been spared. The region so far resected
will not have presented substantial difficulties since little rotation of the instru-
ment was required.
5. Step 5: Resecting Ventral Tissue
This phase is concerned with the resection of upper, i.e., ventral portions of
the adenoma and requires rotation of the instrument through up to 180 at 0
the 12 o'clock position. Many will find orientation difficult in this position,
although proper training of the beginner will dispel his fear of this region
(Fig. 137).
Only by frequently observing this process through the teaching attachment
can one come to understand the landmarks, quite apart from learning the pos-
ture required for operating in this region. The simplest method is to begin
on one side by exposing the sphincter in the same way as described in previous
steps. This will not require so extreme a rotation of the instrument as to necessit-
Fig. 138a, b. (Diagram as in Fig. 132a, b) a Final arrangement after complete excavation of the
prostatic cavity. The capsule is free of adenomatous tissue around its entire circumference but apical
tissue still bulges around the paracollicular region like a horseshoe, thus maintaining the slit-like
urethral cross section. b Cross section at this stage showing why the urethral lumen still appears
as a "gothic arch" when viewed from a point distal to the verumontanum
ate a change of hand or grip, since rotation may be compensated for by craning
over both neck and trunk. This step in the resection is concluded when both
sides have been cleared to the 11 or 1 o'clock level. A safety margin of apical
tissue is once again spared.
6. Step 6: Resecting the Roof of the Cavity
Only the residual tissue reaching from 11 through 12 to 1 o'clock now remains.
Having been dissected free on either side, it will now hang down into the wound
cavity and is easily identified and incised. It is advisable to change grip and
completely rotate the instrument through 180 when working in this region
0
so as not to strain one's neck or take up a cramped posture (see p. 131). The
internal sphincter has been exposed during Step 5 and further cuts are now
placed so as to reduce the remaining tissue from both left and right. These
cuts will finally meet in the midline. Once again, apical tissue is spared as
in all previous steps (Fig. 138).
Step 6 will thus completely expose the internal sphincter. Its fibers may
be identified in all areas, and it remains only to remove the apical tissue. If
the bladder neck is 2-3 cm long, approximately 10-15 g of tissue will have
been removed. One should not, however, imagine that the resection is now
concluded, simply because the instrument does not encounter any tissue when
advanced into the bladder!
Appearance of the bladder neck at the end of Step 6. If, at this stage, the bladder
neck is now studied with the bladder empty, it will be seen that the newly
Preliminary Considerations 203
fashioned internal meatus is not round but slit-like (see Fig. 144). Marked disten-
sion of the bladder will convey the impression of a widely open bladder neck
and no requirement for further resection (Fig. 145). The fallaciousness of this
impression may be recognized by a second sign: if the sheath is now slid in
and out in the region of the apex, it may be seen that the apical tissue bulges
toward the midline as the sheath is withdrawn and slides back into its original
position when it is readvanced (wobble test, see p. 211, see also Fig. 146).
7. Step 7: Resection of Apical Tissue
The following concluding phase of resection is undoubtedly the most difficult

and that with the most serious consequences. It is resection in this region which
decides between incontinence and good urinary stream. Furthermore, inconti-
nence may even occur in the presence of a poor stream:
The explanation for this key role of paracollicular resection is in fact a
simple one:
1. The external sphincter is situated in the region distal to the verumontanum
and is to a large extent responsible for continence. Any injury will lead
to its more or less pronounced failure and thus to incontinence.
2. The caliber of the resected area in the vicinity of the bladder is of little
consequence for the quality of micturition as may be seen by considering
the example of two funnels. Only at the point where the prostatic cavity
contracts into the membranous urethra does the removal of all obstacles
to micturition acquire increasing importance. Any narrowing (Fig. 139) of
the lumen at this point will affect the rate of urinary flow to its third power.
This functional behavior of the paracollicular region has become apparent
from experience with revision resections. In many such cases, the removal
of a small quantity of residual tissue was enough to bring about a significant
improvement of urine flow.
It is paramount that the resectionist understand and subsequently master
two points:
1. He must discern tissues with confidence so as to be capable of distinguish-
ing capsule from adenoma tissue with certainty.
2. He must be fully conversant with the topography of the paracollicular
regIOn.
Both these capabilities may be acquired during training sessions using a teaching
attachment, or even better by observing the process on a video screen, since
the optical quality available from articulated beam splitters provides the best
reproduction of fine detail.
The teacher observing his trainee's progress through a teaching attachment
will need to supervise his apprentice with particular care during this phase
of resection and intervene as required.
Fig. 139 a, b. Comparison to a funnel, showing the significance of apical resection. In both cases the
mouth of the funnel is wide enough to allow the copious entry of fluid. a The egress of liquid
is still obstructed by the constriction between funnel and spout. b Only when this constriction has
been removed is free flow possible
b) Step 7a:
Apical Resection in the Immediate Vicinity of the Verumontanum
If the verumontanum is inspected from close to, the basal remnants of the
lateral lobes will be seen to lie against it and the instrument beak is lowered
toward the floor of the cavity. It is as if one were looking into a little valley
between two hills. If the instrument is lowered into this "valley," the two slopes
- that of the verumontanum and that of the lateral lobe residue - may be
pushed apart so as to visualize the cleft between them (Fig. 140). One will
then have a clear view of the distal margin of resection and the tissue ring
of the prostatic apex.
It is at this point that resection should be initiated, so as both to dissect
out the verumontanum and ablate the apical tissue (Fig. 140). Cuts in this
region need to be short and shallow (see Illustration 59, Plate X). It is often
necessary to dip the instrument deeply into the prostatic cavity or lift up the
tissue on the tip of a rectally palpating finger (Fig. 148a, b).
The diagram helps to explain Illustrations 54 (Plate IX) and 55 and 57
(Plate X). In Illustration 54, the resectoscope sheath lies outside the prostatic
urethra and the apical remnants of both lateral lobes are thus able to fall
together in the midline, their convexity clearly visible. In Illustration 55, the
sheath aperture exercises gentle pressure on the floor of the prostatic urethra,
thus opening its cleft somewhat. The "valley" between the left lateral lobe
residue and the verumontanum may be seen directly above the cutting loop.
In Illustration 57, the lateral lobe base has been almost completely ablated.
Resection in this region may and should be continued until all the whitish
(nonepithelialized) tissue has been removed. The instrument must therefore be
directed steeply down into the cavity to permit the cut to be tangential to
the capsule (see Fig. 159a, b).
Step 7a: Apical Resection in the Immediate Vicinity of the Verumontanum 205
Fig. 140a, b. Diagram of the apical region. The instrument lies in the membranous urethra looking
toward the verumontanum. a Retraction of the sheath allows the lateral lobe remnants (" apex")
to assume their natural position since they are no longer held apart by the sheath. The basal paracolli-
cular tissue is normally so closely applied to the verumontanum that the cleft (arrow) , here of
exaggerated breadth, is hardly visible. b If the sheath is now further advanced toward the bladder
and depressed into the cleft between verumontanum and contiguous lateral lobe, this region opens
up to allow better inspection (arrow). The distal edge of the prostatic urethral mucosa (distal margin
of resection) comes into view. This configuration is the key position for further prostatic apical
resection
Experience is required in defining the margin of this region. The special

aids to solving this problem are discussed in detail on p. 209; but the most
important ones are briefly mentioned here.
1. Bladder neck configuration: Even during this phase of operation, the lateral
lobes maintain their convexity, i.e., they bulge more or less obviously into
the urethral lumen. This surface contour is an important landmark, although
its optical recognition must be repeatedly practiced by inspection of the
bladder neck (see Illustrations 56 and 58, Plate X).
2. Appearance of the tissue surface: As long as adenoma tissue is clearly recog-
nizable there can be no danger of damaging the bladder outlet control mecha-
nism since this tissue is entirely limited to the capsule. Reliance on this
feature will, however, require great expertise in tissue recognition on the
part of the surgeon (see p. 174).
3. Faradic and hydraulic sphincter tests: the rationale and practice of this aid
is described later (see p. 217) and is merely mentioned at this point.
Retrograde cutting is occasionally recommended for resection of this region
on the grounds that it is safer. I would discourage any surgeon using this
book as a guide from employing that technique since it offends against the
basic design of the resectoscope. Instead of ending the cut with the loop in
a protected resting position within the sheath, the retrograde method requires
that the cut be terminated by lifting the loop out of the tissue under conditions
of poor visibility and orientation. In place of this I therefore recommend cutting
with predetermined end point. One may slowly and safely approach the required
Fig. 141. The resection of the apical region demands particular care, since excessively distal cuts
may lead to incontinence. It is therefore vital that the instr~ment be carefully controlled and steadied.
It is useful to brace the little finger of the left hand against the perineum, giving particularly accurate
control of proximodistal movements
end point by a slow process of small "nibbling" cuts. Subsequent cuts are
made in relation to the end point of the previous one. These techniques were
discussed in detail in Chap. D and are only recapitulated here for the sake
of rendering this difficult phase of operation doubly clear to the surgeon. Illus-
tration 59 (Plate X) shows this nibbling away of apical tissue.
Paracollicular tissue must be removed first from one side and then from
the other. It is usually helpful to observe this region with the bladder empty
and to identify apical tissue by sliding the sheath in and out. Many resectionists
find rectal palpation equally useful, since it permits an estimate of the thickness
of tissue. As already pointed out, I myself prefer purely optical control during
this difficult final phase.
Steadying the hand on the perineum. Resting the little finger of the left hand
against the perineum may be helpful during this phase of operation. This appar-
ently insignificant device allows the execution of particularly fine and subtle
cutting movements (Fig. 141).
At the end of this phase the verumontanum should be completely free on
both sides (see Illustrations 62 and 63, Plate XI). It will now be clear how
much apical tissue remains in the region of the lateral lobes, since it will be
thrown into relief by the groove on either side of the verumontanum.
Inspecting the operative field with different telescopes. The region will appear
quite different, depending on the use of an angled or straight viewing telescope.
A forward-viewing system will show a cut margin of the bladder mucosa as
Step 7c: Resecting the Ventral Apex 207
Fig. 142. Diagram showing resection in the apical region. The maneuver shown in Fig. 140b has
lifted a lateral lobe remnant away from the lateral flank of the verumontanum. Apical tissue is
removed in a series of careful individual cuts. The distal limit is derived from the observation
of three important features: configuration of the lobe remnants, appearance of the tissue and hy-
draulic sphincter test (see p. 217)
a sharp edge and only the distal surface of the lateral lobe remnant will be
visisble. More proximal tissue can only be seen by advancing the instrument
toward the bladder and slightly abducting it. While such a telescope gives a
particularly three-dimensional perspective, use of a 30° lens system gives a bird's
eye view of the little mound of lateral lobe residue.
c) Step 7b: Extending the Resection Field Laterally
The cutting out of grooves in this confined space between verumontanum and
basal residues of the lateral lobes provides an ideal landmark for further work
(Fig. 142). It only remains to remove tissue to the same extent as from 5 through
6 to 7 o'clock (see p. 168). Since the end point for this serial cut has already
been determined by phase 7 a of the operation, all further cuts will be defined
by these two end points (Fig. 143). Resection of the area is complete when
all adenomatous tissue has been removed and the capsule is visible. Step 7b
is concluded when the 3 and 9 o'clock positions have been reached.
d) Step 7 c: Resecting the Ventral Apex
The procedure in this region is the same as in Step 5. The distal end point
of each cut is determined by the cut margin created in previous steps. During
this phase, the instrument should repeatedly be withdrawn to allow inspection
of the field (with the bladder empty) and the tissues should be continually
tested by advancing and withdrawing the sheath. Even in this region the loose,
freely mobile tissue of the adenoma bulges into the urethral lumen as the sheath
Fig. 143a, b. Appearance of the bladder neck after the first few cuts. a On the left side of the patient
(on the right of the diagram) the first few cuts have already been made. The verumontanum is
thus exposed and the upper (ventral) end of this cutting series may be recognized in the slightly
overhanging lateral lobe remnant. On the opposite side a margin of resection is indicated by the
dotted line. b Same situation as in a, seen in cross section through the bladder neck. The base
of the left apical lateral lobe residue has been removed. The mucosal margin is visible at the root
of the verumontanum running upward and laterally to the end of this cutting series at the 3 o'clock
position. The remaining apical tissue still forms a fold around the urethral aperture and continues
to splint it into a slit
is withdrawn. The new internal meatus should acquire a progressively circular

shape as the operation proceeds, and we have linkened this to the conversion
of a gothic into a romanesque arch. Paradoxically, the urethral caliber becomes
progressively smaller since there is less and less adenomatous tissue to hold
it open, and the capsule in this region is thus able to retract down to the
dimensions of the membranous urethra (Fig. 144).
Once again, this process is best seen using a 0 ° telescope, since one will
then have an almost coaxial view up the urethra. Minimal withdrawal of the
instrument during this final phase will render the slightest irregularities in the
"romanesque arch" easily visible and remediable, usually with help from the
steadying left little finger. When the bladder is empty, the margin of resection
should come to lie almost against the verumontanum (see also Fig. 145).
8. Aids to Resection of Apical Tissue
During this description of the individual steps involved in resecting a small

adenoma, various aids to better (improved micturition) and safer (avoidance
of incontinence) surgery are only briefly mentioned in the text, so as not to
interrupt the descriptive flow. These" tricks" are now described and justified
individually and in greater detail.
Two such control procedures are purely optical and a third is by palpation.
Only the last requires special equipment.
Examining the Neck of the Empty Bladder 209
Fig. 144a-d. Appearance before and after apical resection. The endoscopic view is represented in
a and c and a cross section through the prostatic cavity looking from the bladder toward the
urethra at band d. a The resectoscope has been retracted into the membranous urethra allowing
the entire urethral slit to be seen from one position. The opening from prostatic cavity into urethra
has a tall pointed configuration. b A fold of apical tissue still surrounds the urethral aperture and
holds it open. A small amount of prostatic urethral mucosa still intrudes into the cavity. c After
complete resection of apical tissue the urethral lumen appears smaller. It now forms a "romanesque"
arch over the verumontanum. d The apical tissue has been removed and the cavity is completely
clear of adenoma tissue. This supporting fold around the verumontanum has been removed, and
normal tone now returns the urethral lumen to its usual round appearance
a) Examining the Neck of the Empty Bladder
The prostatic cavity is connected to the bladder and is to some degree, therefore,
involved in any movement of the bladder wall. As the bladder dilates, the
cavity opens up, only to collapse again when the bladder empties (Fig. 145).
Fig. 145a-d. The appearance of apical tissue with the bladder full and empty. a, b Appearance with
an empty bladder. The prostatic cavity expands and contracts depending on the degree of bladder
filling. An empty bladder allows a narrower lumen. This results in the advancement of residual
apical adenoma tissue into the urethral lumen so that the lateral lobe remnants are closely applied
to the verumontanum (a Diagrammatic coronal section, b Diagrammatic endoscopic image). c, d
Appearance with a full bladder. The walls of the cavity drift apart as the bladder fills. This movement
also involves the apical tissue, which therefore recedes out of the urethral lumen. The appearance
of the bladder neck under these circumstances may therefore falsely be interpreted as complete
clearance of the cavity (c Diagrammatic coronal section, d Diagrammatic endoscopic image). Note:
Always assess bladder neck and apical tissue with the bladder empty
The capsule is freely mobile and yet the membranous urethra is fixed and
the point of transition subject to movement as the bladder fills and empties.
Seen in a single plane, this movement resembles the opening and closing of
a window shutter, the hinge line being as it were at the transition from prostatic
cavity to membranous urethra. This imaginary example may render it easier
to understand why apical tissue bulges further into the urethra when the bladder
is empty and less so when it is full. If this effect is to be utilized to facilitate
resection, the initial cuts must be made with an empty bladder. Since, however,
the convexity of the tissue will depend on the filling state of the bladder, only
short cutting runs can be employed. In practical terms this means that every
few cuts must be followed by emptying of the bladder prior to a further cutting
run. It goes without saying that this dynamic behavior of apical tissue does
not occur when employing the irrigating resectoscope or trocar drainage.
Recognizing Tissues Around the Apex 211
b) Advancing and Withdrawing the Sheath (Wobble Test)
Adenoma tissue is not tightly bound to the capsule but has highly flexible
elastic attachments. If the resectoscope sheath is advanced it will force the
tissue dorsally or laterally, depending on the region of the cavity one is working
in. Retraction of the sheath, on the other hand, leads not only to the tissue
returning to its previous position but will indeed allow it to bulge even further
into the lumen of the prostatic urethra, although this mechanism may be inhib-
ited by overfilling of the bladder (see Sect. a).
This great flexibility of the tissue is best understood by watching video
recordings of operations one has oneself carried out. During the procedure
itself the surgeon is frequently too absorbed by the actual operative event and
has little time to observe such niceties. I myself only came to recognize the
extreme mobility of apical tissue by watching such recordings.
This behavior is easily harnessed to the purposes of resection, by first of
all sliding the sheath in and out a few times so as to fully understand the
situation (wobble test). It will then become absolutely clear where resectable
tissue remains and where it comes to an end (Fig. 146).
Its resection then requires only one simple maneuver: the sheath should
be retracted until tissue protrudes into the lumen. The retracting movement
is arrested and the loop passed beyond the now clearly visible adenoma tissue.
The cut should under no circumstances extend beyond what was seen to be mobile.
This process may be repeated several times and represents an ideal supplement
to the previously discussed method.
If the technique of end point determination is carefully applied, so as to
approach the boundary line with caution, there will be no danger. Previous
remarks under Step 7 c (gothic - romanesque arch) are complementary to this
procedure.
c) Recognizing Tissues Around the Apex
The problems associated with recognizing individual tissues in this region are
similar to those encountered more proximally. The point is simply that in this
area the surgeon has the danger of incontinence perpetually hanging over him
and he is therefore less disposed to rely on tissue appearances alone.
That is of course less true of the experienced surgeon than of the beginner.
Many seek to sidestep this danger by leaving a thin safety margin of tissue
rather than attempting complete adenomectomy.
The calculi not infrequently found within prostatic glands offer an important
landmark of some certainty in this area. They may often be seen through the
mucosa, and the associated change has been vividly described as "snuff pros-
tate." The smallest of these concretions may be recognized as minute black
dots, whereas the larger ones may be easily seen on X-ray as calcific shadows.
On inspection they have a yellowish-brown color, and they frequently comprise
a thin skin-like layer. It is important to note that they occur exclusively within
prostatic tissue. This clustering occurs because the true tissue within which the
Fig. 146a-d. The wobble test. Changes in appearance of the urethral lumen depending on position
of- the sheath. a Diagrammatic sagittal section. Transition from prostatic to membranous urethra.
Retraction of the sheath enables bladder neck tissue to bulge into the urethral lumen. Traction
on the mucosa possibly contributes to this phenomenon by pulling contiguous tissues out of the
cavity. b Endoscopic appearance of the urethral lumen with the sheath retracted. Irregular tissue
tags are clearly seen dangling into the ventral urethra. c Diagrammatic sagittal section. The sheath
has been advanced toward the verumontanum. The previously dependent adenoma remnant has
been pushed back into the cavity. Once again it may be that the mucosa is involved in this process
by transmitting pressure to the tissues. d Diagrammatic endoscopic view. The sheath has been ad-
vanced and the urethral lumen appears free of tissue remnants
calculi have formed is compressed along with the calculi by adenoma. As long
as calculi appear in the field, one may therefore be absolutely certain of still
working within adenoma tissue or in the "surgical" capsule of compressed
glandular tissue. Since these concretions and calculi are a really frequent occur-
rence they represent a valuable aid to orientation (Fig. 147).
It will already be known from experience in enucleative surgery that the
transition from adenoma to capsule does not taper to an acute angle but forms
a full billowing curve. As a result, resection of this region frequently requires
steep angulation or extreme abduction of the instrument to reach into the lateral
extremity of the gland, unless tissue is offered up by rectal support. DENIS
(1959) has provided excellent illustrations of this situation.
The presence of adenoma tissue at the beginning of the cut is also not
a reason to abandon caution. This part of the operation should proceed in
Rectal Palpationaround the Prostatic Apex 213
Fig. 147. Prostatic calculi. Diagrammatic coronal section through the distal prostatic cavity and
proximal urethra. The adenoma has compressed 'true' prostatic tissue into a thin layer along the
capsule. This is the zone where prostatic concretions may be found. Previously distributed throughout
the gland, they have been concentrated by the growth of the adenoma into a narrow band. As
long as the surgeon remains within a calculous region he may be certain of operating within the
capsule, even if the field of resection runs close to and occasionally distal to the verumontanum
small individual bites so as to avoid a cut beginning in adenoma and ending

in the sphincter.
The typical secretory tubules of adenoma tissue are often more sparsely
distributed in this region and the surface structure may be finer.
d) Rectal Palpationaround the Prostatic Apex
Some urologists (NESBIT 1939; BAUMRUCKER 1946; IGLESIAS 1948) have attached
so much importance to rectal support that they designed special instruments
to permit single-handed operating. On the other hand, I have been able to
note that others, such as FLOCKS, stick to the Stern-McCarthy resectoscope
with its rack and pinion loop control as their standard instrument. FLOCKS
would only use rectal support in the most unusual cases and he then showed
great artistry in controlling the loop with the same hand as he held the instru-
ment.
It) Advantages of Rectal Support. Three objectives may be achieved by rectal

support (see Figs. 148 and 149).
1. The dorsal bulge of the adenoma can be compensated for by pressure from
the rectum. This avoids the necessity for steep dipping and to some extent
for wide lateral excursions of the resectoscope.
2. The thickness of tissue between index finger and resectoscope sheath may
be estimated by palpation.
Fig. 148a, b. Two methods of resecting apical tissue from the dorsal cavity. Cross section through
the prostatic cavity, seen from the bladder. a During the final phase of operation adenoma tissue
is to be removed from the prostatic cavity where it tapers down into the urethra. The position
of the instrument must therefore be adapted to this anatomical situation, and this demands a steep
slant of the tip of the instrument into the cavity (see also Fig. 149a). b A similar effect may be
achieved if adenoma tissue is lifted up by rectal support, thus avoiding extreme angulation of the
instrument. This technique is particularly recommended where prostatic calculi hinder proper clear-
ance of the region
3. In some cases, resection is facilitated by trapping the tissue in an immobile

position.
P) Disadvantages of Rectal Support. These advantages should be balanced against

the following disadvantages:
1. This phase of operation must be carried out by the single-handed technique.
2. The little finger of the left hand can no longer be steadied on the perineum
(see Fig. 91).
3. A false sense of security may arise. Improved three-dimensional perception
of the field may lead one to cut too deep and too far.
4. The technique is only effective in the region from 5 through 6 to 7 o'clock;
more laterally, the absence of a firm connection between rectum and prostatic
capsule will prevent its use.
In earlier years I made far more frequent use of rectal support, but nowadays
I employ it less and less.
y) Pressing Indications for Rectal Support. There are, however, a few distinct
urgent indications for passing a finger into the rectum.
1. Muscular contraction due to cutting current. Contraction of the levator ani
and pelvic floor musculature initiated by the cutting current is of some impor-
tance.
Rectal Palpationaround the Prostatic Apex 215
Fig. 149 a--c. Diagrammatic sagittal section through the prostatic cavity which has been cleared except
for apical tissue. a Resection of dorsal parts of the apex by tilting of the instrument beak into
the cavity (see Fig. 148a). b Same situation as in Fig. 148b. Apical adenoma tissue is offered up
to the instrument beak. If the sheath is retraced at this point until the verumontanum appears
within the field of view, the tissue to be removed is easily pressed into the space between sheath
and loop (cutting by predetermined end point). c The resectoscope sheath has now been retracted
until the verumontanum appeared in the field of view. It is shielded by the sheath aperture and
apical tissue is being offered up to the loop
Such contractions not infrequently occur when apical tissue is being re-
sected. Although less rapid in onset than in the obturator region, they may
nevertheless cause tissue to be suddenly pressed against the cutting loop
with an at least theoretical hazard of perforation or incision of the rectum.
Although I myself have never seen complications of this extent, I have fre-
quently had the unpleasant experience of seeing the entire prostatic floor
lift up and move toward the loop. During lightning contractions in the obtur-
ator region, the very fastest reaction by the surgeon can be nothing more
than to immediately switch off the current or withdraw the loop from the
tissues. In the region of the apex, on the other hand, one may master the
problem by as it were prophylactically anticipating the movement. The tissue
is lifted up toward the loop by the finger and held there. Contraction will
certainly lift up adjacent regions of the pelvic floor, but cutting of the tissue
held up on the finger may proceed uninterrupted.
2. Prostatic calculi. These are frequently contained within a cavity which one
may open but be prevented by the stone from completely effacing. On the
other hand, calculi are easily pressed out of their bed or massaged into
a new position. Otherwise poorly accessible deeper regions of the boundary
layer between adenoma and surgical capsule are thus rendered accessible.
The base of this tissue formation is always somewhat irregular in its structure
and smoothing of the tissue is considerably easier if the cutting loop en-
counters some firm resistance. Rectal palpation quite often reveals further
nests which had not previously been appreciated, and palpation is considera-
bly easier if the tissue is allowed to roll between sheath and finger in a
form of bimanual palpation (Illustrations 43 and 45, Plate VIII).
3. Deep dorsal extension of the prostate. A number of hyperplastic glands have
developed so far down toward the rectum as to present considerable technical
difficulties of excavation unless rectal pressure elevates the tissues. In these
cases it will be possible to palpate as yet unremoved tissue substance between
resectoscope sheath and rectal wall. The best information is obtained by
allowing the tissue to slide between sheath and finger. This permits exact
definition of the various irregularities. Since apical resection usually com-
mences immediately beside the verumontanum and good clearance is usually
obtained at this point, the layer palpated near the midline is generally thin,
thickening laterally. The art of this type of resection consists of "simply"
translating the findings on palpation into a spatial image. It is then quite
easy to remove the remaining hyperplastic tissue. The danger of nevertheless
cutting too far distally was mentioned at the outset.
4. Poorly recognizabel verumontanum. Some types of hyperplasia may make
it quite difficult to see the verumontanum (see Illustration 56, Plate X), which
in part results from the presence of exuberant folds of mucosa such as are
commonly seen after long-term catheterization. A deep groove between the
lateral lobes may equally continue distally as a mucosal fold concealing the
verumontanum.
In these cases elevation of the verumontanum by rectal pressure is ex-
tremely useful. The urethral wall unfolds and the verumontanum and urethral
crest become obvious anatomical structures and useful landmarks.
5. Papillomatosis of the prostatic urethra. The verumontanum may be hidden

in a similar fashion by prostatic urethral papillomatosis. Furthermore, this
fairly soft tissue is far more easily cut if supported dorsally.
6. Certain types ofprostatic carcinoma. Some forms of carcinoma of the prostate
extend so far distally that the verumontanum is barely recognizable. The
special techniques to be employed in resecting these cases are discussed in
the appropriate section.
e) Faradic and Hydraulic Stimulation of the External Sphincter
Both these alternatives have already been mentioned in Chap. C (p. 217), and
since their technique was fully described there, they receive only mention in
the present section. Both types of test have a number of advantages:
1. Every transurethral surgeon may now gain exact information on the site
of the external sphincter.
2. An excellent technique is available for teaching the young surgeon the anato-
my of the posterior urethra.
3. The experienced operator will find a useful place for the sphincter test where
previous surgery has destroyed the verumontanum or where scar tissue has
altered the appearance of the posterior urethra.
4. In cases where prostatic carcinoma or papillary tumors of the prostatic
urethra have led to obliteration of paracollicular anatomy by tumor growth,
the sphincter test may usefully be employed. It will also give warning of
excessively complete resection where the external sphincter has been rendered
partially incompetent by tumor invasion. This state of affairs may be recog-
nized as slow and incomplete contraction.
5. The sphincter test is, furthermore, an outstanding addition to urodynamic
investigation of urinary incontinence.
The older and more seasoned operators in our clinic only employ sphincter
tests in cases where the anatomy is not clear, but our younger colleagues make
regular use of it for both didactic and prophylactic purposes.
IV. Resecting Large Adenomas
Various rational approaches have been proposed to the removal oflarge quanti-
ties of tissue, arising at least in part from a wish to interrupt all blood vessels
supplying the prostate prior to removal of the main tissue bulk, thus minimizing
blood loss during the procedure. This is particularly true of the method proposed
by NESBIT (1943) who isolates the main bulk of lateral lobe tissue from the
lateral wall of the capsule by a deep trench in which the capsular vessels are
coagulated. The remaining tissue may then be rapidly removed without signifi-
cant blood loss.
All techniques have in common that tissue is resected in three stages, the
first one being the removal of a cone of tissue based at the internal sphincter
and with its apex near the verumontanum (see Figs. 134-137).
In a second phase, this funnel is extended distally, and in the third and
final phase apical tissue is cleared.
The differences arise only in the tactical details of each technique. Which
part of the gland is removed first, where should one start and in which sequence
are individual portions resected?
The approach is determined not only by an overall scheme of things but
also often to a considerable extent by the configuration of the individual ad-
enoma. Thus a large median lobe will require a different plan of action to
that suitable for voluminous hyperplastic lateral lobes.
All these considerations will be further modified by the surgeon's own per-
sonal style of operating, where he receives his training and the experience he
has with a particular method - which he may prefer to apply even where theo-
retic factors suggest an alternative approach. In other words, a good transure-
thral surgeon must be highly versatile in order to adapt to all situations.
2. Nesbit's Method
NESBIT gave the first detailed description of his technique in 1943 in his book
Transurethral Prostatectomy.
The method consists of cutting a trench between prostatic capsule and hyper-
plastic tissue so as to isolate the main bulk of the adenoma from its blood
supply. In a second phase this tissue mass is then rapidly resected with minimal
blood loss.
The main prerequisite for this approach is the presence of an adenoma
large enough to permit the placement of such a trench. Modest lateral lobe
development or predominant median lobe hyperplasia render the technique un-
suitable. For didactic purposes, I precede the following diagrams with a general
plan (Fig. 150) recapitulating the anatomical relationships.
a) Step 1: Formation of a Ventral Plateau
The procedure starts at the 12 o'clock position with the instrument rotated
through 1800 to permit easier working in this region. Prior to resection proper,
the field is carefully surveyed, since its appearance will be somewhat strange
to the surgeon used to starting at 6 o'clock (see Illustrations 11, Plate II, and
16, Plate III). This region of the commissure between the lateral lobes may
be asymmetrical in its development and the midline may be displaced from
the median plane by disparate development of one lobe. Figures 151 and 152
illustrate the situation at the outset in 3 different perspectives. The distal and
proximal limits must be clearly recognized by advancing and retracting the
Step 1: Formation of a Ventral Plateau 219
Fig. 150. Anatomical dissection of a bladder, prostate and urethra. The bladder and prostatic cavity
are seen in perspective. The two nodules of prostatic adenoma lie in the two halves of the capsule
like a pair of flattened eggs. The groove of urethral mucosa has also been divided into a dorsal
and ventral proportion as an aid to understanding the relationships. The median lobe covered in
mucosa projects somewhat into the bladder
Fig. 151 a--(;. Arrangement at the beginning of resection after Nesbit. Once again three different views
are given as an aid to understanding the technique and to provide the reader with a three-dimensional
impression of the procedure. This subdivision into three views is repeated in Figs. 152-156 so that
the individual stages of operation may be closely followed . a Diagrammatic representation of the
endoscopic view through a forward-viewing telescope. The urethral cleft is seen in the midline as
a longitudinal groove, dividing in the dorsal region as the two lateral lobes encompass the verumon-
tanum. b Cross section through the bladder slightly above the ureteric orifices and looking from
rostral toward the base of the bladder. A moderately large adenoma bulges up into the bladder.
Two lateral lobes encircle a moderately developed median lobe. c Coronal section through prostatic
cavity, bladder and proximal urethra. The ventral half of the bladder has been swung away but
the two adenoma nodules left in the prostatic cavity like two eggs in an egg cup. They therefore
bulge out beyond the cut edge of bladder, prostatic cavity and urethra
Fig. 152a-c. Formation of the ventral plateau. Step 1 in the method of Nesbit: a Forward-viewing
endoscopic appearance. Starting at the ventral extremity of the cavity, i.e., at the interlateral com-
missure, tissue is removed working from the urethra towards the roof of the prostatic cavity, initially
ventrally and subsequently in a lateral direction. The numerals 1- 3 indicate the position of successive
subsequent cuts. b View from the bladder. The ventral tissue at the summit of each lateral lobe
has been removed, thus creating a plateau facilitating the next step. This will consist of encircling
the lateral lobes and separating them from the capsule. c The lateral lobe domes seen from above.
Once again, it may be seen how a conical region has been excised from the dome of each lateral
lobe
instrument. Furthermore, one or other sphincter test (see p. 217) may be used
to provide an additional landmark, should the surgeon be uncertain of the
anatomy in the ventral prostatic urethra and its transition to the membranous
urethra.
The first cut is made at 12 o'clock or, where the lateral lobes are asymmetri-
cally developed, through the commissure. Since as a rule only a small quantitity
of tissue connects the two lobes, one or two cuts may suffice at the proximal
margin to expose the internal sphincter. These fibers then serve to mark the
proximal margin of resection. A series of single extended cuts is then used
to continue the excision distally to the limit of adenoma tissue. As usual,
an apical safety margin should be left for protection of the external sphincter.
Once this first cut is complete, a plateau should be created. This is achieved
by extending the cut laterally to left and right, the end point of the initital
channel serving to limit subsequent cuts. The first cut will have defined impor-
tan t limits:
1. The internal sphincter

2. The distal end point of the cut
3. The depth of cut required to reach the capsule
Laterally placed cuts are configured by reference to the first one. I personally
prefer to continue with this ventral plateau until the apex of the two lateral
lobes has been ablated, before proceeding to the excavation of Nesbit's trench
(see Fig. 152a-c).
Step 3: Tissue Ablation 221
Fig. 153a-c. Second stage of Nesbit's method: Cutting the trench. a Forward-viewing endoscopic
appearance. A trench has been cut down from the plateau on either side, thus encircling the summit
of each lateral lobe in a conical fashion. b The same situation seen from the bladder. Starting
at the plateau, the lateral lobes have been two-thirds encircled and thus isolated from their blood
supply. c View from ventral on to the lateral lobe domes. The plateau created in Step 1 is easily
seen together with the adjacent grooves encircling a conical portion of lateral lobe
This procedure provides adequate play for the instrument, space for the
drainage of irrigating fluid (with a consequent improvement in visibility) and
finally permits good hemostasis of the not infrequent hemorrhage from sizeable
arteries in this region.
b) Step 2: Cutting the Trench
Creation of the plateau concludes Step 1. A bilateral start should now be made
on the trench (Fig. 153a-c). NESBIT (1943) describes continuing the trench on
one side until the 7 o'clock position has been reached and only then proceeds
to the opposite side. I prefer to carry out this part of the operation in a symmetri-
cal fashion alternating between left and right. This tends to facilitate orientation.
The landmarks to be followed consist proximally of the internal sphincter
and peripherally of the prostatic capsule. Each cut terminates distally, level
with the end of its neighbor (Fig. 154).
The first vessels will be encountered quite soon after beginning with this
trench. They should be coagulated on the capsular side as soon as they are
opened. The trench should be continued bilaterally to the 8 or 4 o'clock position.
Careful hemostasis should be carried out before proceeding to the next phase
of resection.
c) Step 3: Tissue Ablation
The next step is to remove all hyperplastic tissue to the level of the bottom
of the trench (Fig. 155). This may be carried out in a rapid cutting sequence,
since there will be little bleeding. It is of great value to support this phase
Fig. 154. Aids to orientation when cutting the trench. Diagrammatic representation in coronal section,
looking down on to the dorsal half of the prostatic cavity. The cut commences at the transition
point bladder-prostate. Landmarks are: fibers of the internal sphincter and the beginning of adenoma
tissue (1). In the middle of the trench only typical adenoma tissue may be seen (2). The cut is
terminated as soon as prostatic urethral mucosa appears (3)
Fig. 155a-c. Third stage in Nesbit's method: Tissue ablation. Previously encircled by the trench,
thus isolated from the capsule, median lobe tissue is now removed in successive horizontal layers.
a Forward-viewing endoscopic appearance. The lateral lobe tissue cones are approximately half
excised. The dome of the median lobe has just been incised. b View from the bladder. The horizontal
plane created by resection in layers is easily seen. A first cut has entered the dome of the median
lobe. c View from ventral toward the lateral lobe domes. Two-thirds of Nesbit's cone has been
removed. This view into the resection cavity provides a good impression of the distal lateral lobe
moieties, as yet untouched
Step 4: Resection Down to the Prostatic Floor 223
Fig. 156a-c. Stage 4: Resection down to the floor of the cavity. The tissue cone has been excised
right down to the floor of the prostatic cavity. a Forward-viewing endoscopic appearance. Both
lateral lobes and the median lobe have been ablated down to the floor of the cavity. The internal
sphincter has been cleared in its entire circumference. Only apical tissue remains. The cavity is
not yet, however, excavated (see Fig. 157). b View from the bladder. The circular funnel of remaining
tissue is seen. At its apex, note the circular mucosal edge around the verumontanum. It is once
again clearly seen that the capsule has not yet been excavated. c View from ventral toward the
lateral lobe domes. The conical space is easily seen, together with the distal untouched portions
of the lateral lobes (see Fig. 129)
of the operation with a finger in the rectum, since the somewhat looser tissue
has been deprived of its lateral fixation and tends to be mobile.
Tissue removal should, however, proceed layer by layer, working from left
to right and back following one carefully placed layer with another. A clearly
defined plateau should be preserved since one may otherwise lose one's way.
Both lateral lobes are removed from trench to trench in a single sequence.
This phase of resection is concluded when the floor of both trenches has been
reached.
d) Step 4: Resection Down to the Prostatic Floor
This phase of the procedure is technically as simple as the preceding one. As

before, the tissue is removed in horizontal layers from one side of the cavity
to the other until fibers of the internal sphincter have been exposed dorsally
around their entire circumference (Fig. 156). It is not necessary at this stage
to excavate tissue down to the capsule, although that would be particularly
easy in this dorsal region. Rectal support will itself provide a good impression
of the required margin of resection and is after all the normal procedure for
small adenomas. This phase of operation on large hyperplastic glands should
be concluded by rounding off and smoothing the cone inferiorly. Only when
this has been undertaken and proper hemostasis is complete should excavation
of the cavity begin. The process of excavation is the same for all resection
strategies, since they all begin with the excision of a central cone around the
Fig. 157. Diagram explaining cone excision. The tissue cone has been represented by the artist as
though it were removed in one piece. It seems to float in the wound cavity. It now remains to
clear the prostatic capsule of adenoma tissue by the technique of excavation and apical resection.
(After NESBIT 1943)
prostatic urethra, and the differences consist merely in the method of its excision.
The state of affairs after removal of this central periurethral cone is demon-
strated in Fig. 157, adapted from one of NESBIT'S original illustrations.
e) Conclusion
In the hands of a surgeon who is used to its application, this technically some-
what taxing technique has the advantage of reduced operative blood loss. The
blood supply is occasionally subject to variations which may frustrate the inten-
tion of dividing vessels at their point of entry into the adenoma. Any surgeon
with a degree of experience in this method will remember a number of operations
at which hemorrhage from multiple and ubiquitous vessels was difficult to
control despite division and closure of the principle channels in the usual way.
There is one further reason why few surgeons - at least on the European
continent - adhere exclusively to this method: it is quite difficult to learn the
technique, and particularly the obligatory ventral starting point may present
problems to the trainee, who will find it easier to orientate himself endoscopically
by starting at 6 o'clock. In this position, the verumontanum is directly in view,
and the instrument is held in a natural position so as to provide the accustomed
picture.
Once a young urologist has become adequately trained to be capable of
mastering Nesbit's resection, he will also have become so accustomed to some
alternative method as not to wish to change his technique.
In November 1952 I was fortunate enough to spend some weeks observing
NESBIT himself at work. The demonstrations with plaster models by which
he explained his technique as well as numerous endoscopic demonstrations of
Excavating the Cavity 225
the various stages of this procedure impressed me so deeply that from 1952
onward I devoted considerable effort to popularizing the method in Germany.
Unfortunately at that time today's teaching equipment was not available (e.g.,
teaching attachments), so it was many years before I could pass on my self-
taught expertise in the way I do today.
I personally recognize one particular indication for NESBIT'S resection: the
protrusion of very voluminous lateral lobes into the lumen of the prostatic
urethra in adenomas of substantial size, perhaps of over 40 g resection weight.
In small adenomas I find excavation of the trench too difficult and time-
consuming since I could have removed an entire lateral lobe in the same space
of time.
Furthermore, one needs to carry out a very considerable number of opera-
tions every year in order to master the Nesbit technique. Anybody undertaking
less than 50-100 resections a year is well advised to employ a technically less
taxing approach.
Various of NESBIT'S pupils have modified the method. The reader of
CONGER'S monograph (1963) will find few remains of the Nesbit trench in the
illustrations, apart from the initial ventral excision.
3. Excavating the Cavity
This technique was already mentioned in Chap. D. It is here discussed in greater

detail, since it is common to all resection strategies. It is thus not a specific
phase of the NESBIT technique but a recurring theme in all methods of resection.
Nonetheless it would seem from conversation during our resection courses that
this very" excavation" presents many colleagues with a degree of difficulty.
a) Basic Principles
From a geometric point of view, the cavity may be excavated in one of two
ways (Fig. 158):
a) Small Single Cuts. The left-hand half of the figure shows the method preferred
by the beginner: he attempts to remove the tissue by numerous shallow individ-
ual cuts gradually penetrating the adenoma tissue. This enables the instrument
to be kept straight, almost rigid, without the necessity for lateral excursions
to drive the loop into the tissues. The result is numerous short resection chips
of small diameter.
~) Extended Cutting. The right-hand side of Fig. 158 represents the technique
employed by the more experienced surgeon: long slices with a shallow start,
but penetrating more deeply into the tissue toward their middle, enable the
operator to rapidly approach the capsule. The resulting chips are longer and
taper at either end.
Fig. 158. Excavation technique. Diagrammatic coronal section through the prostatic cavity, view
from above onto the dorsal half. Left-hand side: Technique of multiple single cuts. This method
allows the inexperienced operator to avoid "submerging" the loop. The resulting chips, however,
are always somewhat small and thin, and this method is therefore time-consuming. Right-hand side:
Technique by lateral excursion of the loop (" submersion ") into the tissues. The surgeon must not
only execute the usual sliding action of the instrument along its axis but must also sink the instrument
beak into the tissue and then withdraw it. This results in much longer chips with tapered ends
b) Control of Instrument and Loop

(Fig. 159)
The specific region of the capsule being excavated may require a degree of
backup movement by the whole body. It is precisely these coordinated move-
ments which the beginner finds difficult. This gouging technique consists of
three components.
11) The Linear Cut. The first component is the actual cutting process which
may be termed linear. The loop is extended and returned into the sheath as
the cut proceeds.
P) Depth of Tissue Penetration. Throughout this cutting process the surgeon's

head, and thus the eyepiece of the instrument, execute an equal and opposite
movement to that of the instrument in the field. Abduction of the instrument
to the right-hand side of the patient causes the loop to penetrate more deeply
into the left-sided tissues.
y) The Extended Cut: Three Elements Combined. The extended cut required
by larger adenomas adds a third component consisting of retraction of the
entire instrument.
It is the coordination of these three processes which make the technique
seem so difficult to the student. A further geometric factor is worth considering:
Control of Instrument and Loop 227
Fig. lS9a-d. Instrument control during excavation. a Coronal section through the middle of bladder
and prostatic cavity. The various positions of the cutting loop indicate different attitudes of the
sheath. In this case, the sheath has to be sharply abducted to the patient's right (left in the picture).
b Diagrammatic sagittal section through prostatic cavity and distal bladder. Arrows: Vicinity of
the fulcrum around which the instrument moves as a lever. If the instrument eyepiece is raised,
the loop will penetrate more deeply into the tissue to re-emerge as it is lowered. c, d Two illustrations
to show why the surgeon must move his entire body during excavation of the capsule. c Diagrammatic
representation of the operation in progress. The bladder is imagined to be transparent. The two
arrows at the transition from prostatic capsule to membranous urethra indicate the fulcrum around
which the resectoscope rotates. The high gear ratio of this lever system is responsible for the extensive
movements the operator must execute for small excursions of the cutting loop. d Enlarged detail
of the prostatic capsule and fulcrum in the region of the membranous urethra
Fig. 160. Excavating the prostatic capsule. Apart from the usual proximodistal movement, this cutting
technique demands movements of the loop in an additional dimension, i.e., from medial to lateral
and back. The figure shows this procedure exemplified during excavation of the left lateral lobe.
The tip of the resectoscope sheath travels distally from point 1-4 but also executes a semicircular
movement by abduction of the eyepiece to the opposite side (dotted line, arrow)
the fulcrum of the instrument lies in the region of the membranous urethra,
so that the shorter lever arm is in the prostatic urethra and the longer one
within the penile urethra and outside the patient's body. The surgeon must
thus augment his external movements in the ratio of these lever arms so as
to achieve adequate excursions at the internal end of the instrument.
The same remarks apply to vertical movements of the operator's head during
excavation of the prostatic floor.
Figure 160 provides a visual explanation of these problems: as the sheath
glides distally, the loop plunges into the tissue only to withdraw into the sheath
at the end of the cut.
To learn this technique of controlled eyepiece excursion is an important
aim of training, since it alone permits a rapid time-saving surgical process.
c) Determining the Depth of Cut
Although there are no reliable inherent markers for the depth of cut, two opera-
tive maneuvers permit estimation of the tissue volume to be removed, thus
promoting complete transurethral prostatectomy without perforation.
Determining the Depth of Cut 229
Fig. 161. Excavation technique: Placement of a marker groove (segmental method). Diagram of the
right dorsal portion of the prostatic cavity in coronal section. At point 1 the loop has carefully
felt its way down to the capsule and thus excavated a groove. The base of this groove provides
information on the necessary and possible depth of cut. Such marker grooves are placed on either
side at 7 and 50-clock. Starting in this groove adenomatous tissue is progressively removed from
the entire length of the capsule in a segmental fashion (2. 3) (segmental technique)
a) The Trench Method (Segmental Method). In this technique one cautiously

"digs" one's way down to the capsule in a series of shallow single cuts, usually
in the 7 or 5 o'clock position (Fig. 161). Phase 2 of resection (cone excision)
has already exposed the internal sphincter around the entire periphery of the
internal meatus. The loop is therefore engaged at this proximal margin and
makes a more or less extensive cut, depending on the size of the adenoma.
If this reveals further capsular tissue the loop is once again engaged at the
capsule-adenoma boundary and a further shallow cut is then carefully made.
This process may be repeated until the capsule is exposed along the entire
length of the groove. Depending on the bulk of the adenoma, this marking
groove will be of a varying depth and ends in the apical region, since the
paracollicular tissue cuff is left as a protective barrier until the end of the
procedure. The bilateral placement of these trenches at 9 and 3 o'clock indicates
how thick a layer of tissue may and must be removed. The two trenches are
now extended in both directions until a number of cuts in each segment expose
the capsule. Since this technique always exposes the capsule segment by segment,
I have termed it the segmental method. It may be applied wherever there is
a large tissue volume.
P) The Tangential Method. This approach is suitable for adenomas of little

substance (Fig. 162). In the previous method, the entire adenoma bulk was
Fig. 162. Excavation tecbnique: Removal of tangential layers (tangential metbod). Diagram of the
right dorsal half of the prostatic cavity in coronal section. Here the capsule is exposed in a series
of stages, starting proximally and ending distally at the apex. A short marking groove is cut in
the region of the internal sphincter and after exposure of a small area of capsule this groove is
then extended laterally until the entire proximal area has been exposed circumferentially (1). The
process is repeated distally until the apex is reached (2, 3). This technique is particularly suitable
for small adenomas, where as a rule only two or occasionally three stages are required
divided down to the capsule in a number of radial segments, but here, by

way of contrast, resection is carried out in a series of tangential stages. An
initial area is cleared in a circular fashion and this field is subsequently extended
distally until the entire circumference of the capsule has been cleared down
to the apical tissue ring.
Whichever method one employs during this phase of the operation, the
landmarks remain the same: internal sphincter, capsule, proximal resection
margm.
Once again, resection of apical tissue concludes the procedure, and the tech-
nique is the same for all resection strategies.
4. Resecting Endovesical Lateral Lobes
a) Surgical Anatomy
As remarked when discussing the anatomical basis for resection technique, an

adenoma may be primarily intracapsular (subtrigonal) or endovesical in its de-
velopment. The latter endovesical type may present difficulties even to an experi-
Resection Technique 231
enced surgeon, since complete removal of all endovesical portions is often asso-
ciated with technical and operative problems. The internal sphincter may con-
strict the adenoma in an hourglass fashion, thus increasing the danger of perfo-
ration at the vesicoprostatic junction (see Fig. 83).
b) Resection Technique
If difficulties of this kind are anticipated, they will be best overcome after
careful preliminary investigation and examination (cystourethrogram, endoscop-
ic examination, including use of a retrograde telescope) in order to determine
whether one is really dealing with this type of adenoma. Endoscopy will indicate
at which point there is the least tissue bulk, i.e., at which point anatomical
factors have preformed a groove. This may be at the interlateral commissure
or at the commissure between lateral and median lobes.
The ventral commissure of the lateral lobes is usually the most suitable
starting point. One may once again apply the trench technique previously dis-
cussed by laying an ever deeper series of cuts toward the capsule until the
internal sphincter is exposed at the transition between bladder on the one hand
and endocapsular adenoma on the other (Fig. 163a, b). It may then be that
some tissue with the appearance of adenoma will remain proximal to the internal
sphincter. This can, however, only be a thin tongue connected to the internal
meatus by a narrow isthmus. If a further cut is now made with predetermined
starting point, i.e., if the cutting loop is engaged over the tip of this tissue
process in an almost empty bladder (Fig. 163c), complete separation may be
achieved. The resulting state is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 163d.
This final cut greatly simplifies the situation. The internal sphincter is re-
vealed as the proximal limit of resection and the groove allows distal orientation
in relation to the capsule. If resection now proceeds with removal of the endoves-
ical tissue down to the internal sphincter, the problem is easily mastered. One
must, however, beware of cutting into the endovesical portion in too tangential
a fashion, since a thin lip of tissue will then be formed which tends to float
away from the cutting loop and present difficulties in further resection. Fig-
ure 164 demonstrates this in a diagrammatic way.
Such an occurrence may be particularly unpleasant in ventral areas, since
resection of this floating tissue will require very marked depression of the eye-
piece before the tissue can be captured. The worst mistake is to separate such
a piece of lateral lobe at its base and then be left with a large chunk of tissue
that falls into the bladder and is too large to be evacuated.
One aid to resection of a floating lateral lobe residue is to start resection
with the bladder almost empty, a marked head-down tilt of the patient and
- if the tissue flap lies ventrally - suprapubic counterpressure by an assistant.
Occasionally, it is also helpful to drain the bladder under direct vision
through the central stopcock and then review the region with minimum irriga-
tion flow. The residual tag of adenoma is found hanging into the lumen of
the prostatic cavity and is easily grasped.
d
Fig. 164a-c. Diagrammatic section through an endovesicallaterallobe at the transition bladder-prostate.

Avoidance of the problem described in Fig. 163 a-d. a The lobe is being resected in shallow tangential
slices. b Formation of a floating lip of lateral lobe process. This is difficult to resect without dividing
it at the base and leaving a large free fragment floating in the bladder. c If steeper slices are taken
from this lobe by increased abduction of the instrument. this problem may be avoided (similar
procedure for resection of endovesical median lobes)
5. Resecting Endovesical Median Lobes
a) Surgical Anatomy
The situation is similar to that appertaining to endovesical lateral lobes. A

more or less developed median lobe bulges up into the bladder and may even
reach beyond the interureteric bar. There is thus a danger of injury to the
ureteric orifices. If, on the other hand, the retroprostatic recess is deep, the
median lobe will lie free within the bladder without contacting the bladder
base. A very narrow internal sphincter may once again constrict the lobe near
its origin (see Fig. 83).
<J Fig. 163a-d. Resecting an adenoma with endovesical extension. Coronal section through bladder and
prostatic cavity. The adenoma has been left protruding above the plane of section. a The first
few cuts have been made into the lateral lobes. This results in the endovesical portion of the lateral
lobe becoming somewhat attenuated and less resistant at its base. b Excessive excavation of the
lateral lobe from its urethral aspect will render it ever thinner. It thus escapes attempts at ablation
and is difficult to grap with the loop. c This situation corrected by cutting with an empty bladder.
The collapsed bladder presses the lateral lobe down toward the loop as long as the irrigating flow
is reduced. It may be necessary to repeat this maneuver as described in the text until the entire
floating lobe remnant has been ablated (cut with predetermined end point i). d Arrangement after
this error has been corrected. All endovesical tissue, including the residual lip of the lobe, has
been removed. For avoidance of this problem see Fig. 164
Fig. 165a, b. Blood supply of the median lobe and resection technique. Coronal section through the
distal bladder and prostatic cavity. a On the left side of the patient (right side in the illustration)
the blood supply is shown as described by FLOCKS (1937, 1945). A branch of the urethral artery
penetrates the lateral lobe and supplies the median lobe. On the left of the figure, a groove has
been cut between median and lateral lobes (arrow), thus interrupting the supply to the median
lobe. If such a groove is cut on either side and the vessels then coagulated, further tissue removal
will lead to little hemorrhage. b Same situation, seen from the bladder. Note the groove cut between
lateral and median lobes
The trench principle may again be employed. In the junctional region to the
lateral lobes there is usually a substantially reduced amount of tissue so that
a few radial cuts in this region, directed toward the capsule, will expose fibers
of the internal sphincter. No tissue should be left proximal to the internal
sphincter, just as when resecting endovesical lateral lobes. A similar cut is placed
on the opposite side, since its purpose is not only provision of landmarks but
also partial devascularization of the median lobe (Fig. 165). After coagulation
of the often sizeable vessels transected, removal of the median lobe may com-
mence. Careful attention should be paid to avoiding shallow tangential incisions,
since the same problem may otherwise arise as described for lateral lobe resection
(Fig. 166, see also Fig. 164).
I have found it best always to begin at that point which offers optimal
orientation, i.e., in the grooves either side of the median lobe. Illustrations 24
(Plate IV) and 25 (Plate V) illustrate initial phases in the cutting of this groove.
The ureteric orifices should be protected by the technique of predetermined
starting point, since a tangentially resected median lobe may sink onto the
base of the bladder and lie across the orifices.
Again, there is a possibility of producing a large free fragment by injudicious
division of the lobe remnant, and this may present difficulties in evacuation.
Fig. 166a-c. Technique of median lobe resection. Diagrammatic sagittal section. a Correct technique
of resection . The slices are of increasing steepness (eyepiece raised), so as to avoid formation of
a residual lip. This is particularly important to prevent the lobe remnant lying across the interureteric
bar, which later would be endangered by further cuts. b Shallow resection of the median lobe
results in the formation of a tongue. c End stage of this erroneous technique. Solution: the lobe
is grasped and cut with a predetermined starting point; lift up the lobe with cutting current off;
cut only when loop and lobe tissue are clear of the ureteric field
Fig. 167. Final arrangement after ablation of endovesical median lobe. Coronal section through the
distal bladder and prostatic cavity. As the median lobe is ablated each cut is continued down into
the interior of the prostatic capsule. The base of each lateral lobe is thus removed as in the technique
previously described (Figs. 133-138, especially Fig. 136)
Once the entire circumference of the internal sphincter has been exposed
and the distal margin of resection has been defined, this phase of operation
may be regarded as over. Figure 167 represents this state.
6. Barnes' Method
BARNES described his method of resection in a monograph in 1943, the very

year of NESBIT'S publication. In fact the procedure we nowadays regard as
Barnes' method was not described in detail until 1959, although its basic princi-
ples had been set out in Endoscopic Prostatic Surgery.
The method is distinguished from NESBIT'S by the way it adapts strategy
to the configuration of the adenoma. Whereas NESBIT concentrated his technique
on early circumferential exposure of the internal sphincter, BARNES aims to
completely clear one side after the other. Nevertheless, the three main phases
of proximal, middle and apical resection are once again easily recognizable
(Fig. 168).
b) Resection on the Prostatic Floor
The floor of the prostatic cavity is first of all cleared, together with the median
lobe (Fig. 169a). BARNES favors ablation of tissue in layers (BARNES 1959) rather
than laying out marking grooves.
Barnes' Method 237
Fig. 168a-f. Stages in the resection method of Barnes. Coronal section through the lower urinary
tract: bladder - prostate. a Arrangement prior to operation. b Excision of median lobe and basal
portions of lateral lobes. c Further ablation of the endovesical part of the median and of the left
lateral lobe. together with the endourethral part of both. d Complete excision of the left lateral
lobe except for an apical remnant. e Same procedure on the right-hand side. Only apical tissue
now remains on either side. f Final arrangement after completion of resection. (After BARNES 1959)
Fig. 169a, b. Resection plan for median (a) and lateral (b) lobes. Cross section through the bladder
slightly above the ureteric orifices. (After BARNES 1959)
c) Lateral Lobe Resection
A tissue cone is first removed from one lateral lobe (Fig. 169b). Tissue is once
again removed in layers, this time in a vertical direction. Starting on the floor
of the cavity, where excision of the median lobe will already have provided
some landmarks, one lateral lobe is now ablated, working from dorsal to ventral
away from the prostatic floor. An initial attack is made on the medial surface
of the lateral lobe within the flattened scabbard-like lumen of the urethra. This
requires axial rotation of the instrument if ventral portions of the lateral lobe
are to be reached. The procedure is only subdivided to the extent that a proximal
half cone, i.e., the endovesical and medial intracapsular part of one lateral
lobe is first excised, and this is extended by a second cutting series to include
the endourethral region. Only when the entire lateral lobe has been removed
does BARNES approach the opposite side. Neither in the 1943 publication nor
in the 1959 manual is the technique of apical resection expressly described.
d) Conclusion
The principal characteristic of BARNES' technique is certainly the recommenda-

tion of a dorsal starting point. He never described his method in the same
detail as did NESBIT, but despite this sparsity of instructions one may nevertheless
easily imitate his technique. It was perhaps his description and illustration of
layer-by-Iayer tissue removal that made the greatest contribution to resection
techniques in general. His systematic approach is an excellent source of working
principles, even if there are other reasons for not following his general method.
In particular, the idea of complete initial removal of one lateral lobe has been
taken up by MARBERGER (1965, personal communication) and his school. They
particularly favor this approach for the resection of large adenomas which,
on general considerations, they prefer to excise in two separate sittings. In
addition to this, the procedure has the further advantage that it is easily termin-
ated at any time if some operative problem should so require (venous sinus,
perforation, circulatory problems). I personally prefer a bilateral approach in
which a stage of resection is carried out first on one side and then repeated
on the other. I have little personal experience of BARNES' resection as a whole,
although the step of median lobe ablation is entirely derived from him.
7. The Method of Alcock and Flocks
The technique of ALCOCK and FLOCKS most closely resembles our own, differing
only in the approach to resection of the lower lateral lobe. The trenching out
employed by both authors to subdivide the median lobe at its midpoint, i.e.,
at approximately 3 and 9 o'clock is employed by us whenever a larger adenoma
is to be removed. Under these circumstances one may indeed provide several
such grooves and then remove the tissue in individual portions. I was fortunate
enough to watch FLOCKS' own mastery of this technique in Iowa City in 1951,
prior to its detailed publication in his Surgical Urology (1954).
The Method of Alcock and Flocks 239
Fig. 170. Resection method of Alcock and Flocks. Cross section through the bladder slightly above
the ureteric orifices. The left lateral lobe has been divided from the 9 o'clock position at its equator
and at right angles to the capsule by a trench cut. Tissue is subsequently removed down to the
floor of the prostatic cavity in a series of horizontal slices. The procedure then continues with
an identical approach on the opposite side
b) Removing the Median Lobe
The procedure begins in a similar fashion to that of BARNES with removal

of the median lobe, except that this starts laterally. A groove is incised on
either side at the junction of lower lateral lobe and median lobe, and extended
to such a depth as to expose fibers of the internal sphincter and divide the
principal vessels feeding the median lobe (see Fig. 165). The entire median lobe
may then be ablated down to the internal sphincter fibers. In fact this series
of cuts on the floor of the prostatic cavity always removes a portion of the
lower end of the lateral lobes, thus leading naturally to the next phase of opera-
tion.
c) Removing the Lateral Lobes
This is a highly original feature of the technique, since the lateral lobes are
now first divided at their midpoint in the 3 and 9 o'clock region by a radial
trench (Fig. 170). This trench runs laterally from the urethral cleft toward the
capsule until fibers of the internal sphincter are encountered. The tissue to
be removed has thus been marked or encircled. The operative limits are then
determined by these marking grooves. Whether the lateral lobes are now resected
from median to lateral according to the BARNES' technique, or by the resection
of horizontal tissue layers according to NESBIT'S will depend entirely on the
local situation. Voluminous lateral lobes projecting far into the urethral lumen
will present such a tissue bulk that layers may simply be removed in a horizontal
fashion. For less bulky glands, a technique of resecting progressively from
medial to lateral is recommended. As in all the other methods, there is scope
for many personal variations.
Advantages. The advantage of this technique is the way it simplifies the entire
procedure. Once the lateral lobe has been divided by a marker trench it is
able to sink toward the floor of the prostatic cavity, and in this position it
is accessible to a series of horizontal cutting sequences by which it may be
progressively removed. All this work may be carried out in a normal position
and with the resectoscope held in the usual way. It is therefore far less tiring
than working in a contorted posture.
d) Removing the Ventral Tissue
This is carried out as previously described (see p. 201), although voluminous

glands may render this phase of operation quite difficult since the volume of
tissue to be removed may be substantial. The technique I described at the outset
of "encircling" the ventral tissue from either side and then finally resecting
what is left between 11 and 1 o'clock is heartily recommended. Previous resection
of the region between 9 and 11 or 3 and 1 o'clock will leave the ventral midline
residue hanging freely in a dorsal direction within the urethral lumen, whence
it is easily removed.
e) Resecting the Prostatic Apex
Rectal support and tilting the resectoscope beak down into the prostatic cavity
are both to be recommended. In cases where the adenoma has extended beyond
the verumontanum, it is imperative to identify the external sphincter, whose
structures may be recognized under the mucosa by withdrawing and advancing
the instrument. All the various aids previously described for this phase of opera-
tion may be applied without difficulty to the present technique.
t) Conclusion
An extremely mature resection technique has just been described, based on

the principle of dividing adenoma tissue into individual, carefully defined and
delimited portions, to be ablated individually. This idea has much to recommend
it, particularly to the beginner who will thus find himself working within a
clearly limited area devoid of orientation problems. Our own method is based
on this procedure, with the single difference that we prefer resection of the
basal lateral lobes to proceed from below upward.
Resection from above downward presents a difficulty to the inexperienced,
since it requires a marker groove to be laid whose proximal limit is not easy
to establish.
The above technique is, however, considerably easier to learn than the NESBIT
procedure. In the operative surgery courses held in our clinic we present the
method of ALCOCK and FLOCKS as the standard technique to be employed
in larger adenomas.
Inspection of the Bladder 241
8. Final Inspection at the End of Operation
This section is concerned solely with morphologic aspects of resection, not with
the question of hemostasis. The latter is naturally one of the most important
features of the final inspection, but for methodologic reasons it is discussed
separately.
a) Inspection of the Bladder
Since the field of resection is in continuity with the bladder, only separated
from it by the internal sphincter, the bladder has absolutely to be included
in any final inspection. Not only should accidental injury be looked for. It
must also be ensured that resection material has been completely evacuated.
(1) Looking for Injuries. Trauma to the bladder, especially to the trigonal area,
is a potential complication. In fact we have hardly ever come across it, since
it is easily avoided by proper technique and is only likely to arise where surgery
is carried out with inadequate visibility or absence of clear orientation.
The trigone and ureteric orifices are particularly at risk in the presence
of a median lobe which projects into the bladder. The situation is easily under-
stood if the internal sphincter is carefully inspected with a 0° telescope (resection
telescope), when it will be immediately apparent whether one or more cuts
have passed proximal to this boundary. The bladder base and ureteric field
also warrant careful inspection. Injuries may be easily recognized by an absence
of mucosa and the visibility of bladder wall musculature.
~) Looking for Retained Resection Chips and Coagula. This inspection is of

the greatest significance for the postoperative course, since resection chips left
in the bladder may subsequently block the catheter. Blood clots may have a
similar effect and therefore need to be carefully evacuated.
In most cases this final inspection is merely a routine safety procedure,
since our use of a resectoscope provided with a drain port leads to more or
less automatic evacuation of most resection debris. In cases of true or pseudodi-
verticulum, however, considerable importance attaches to ensuring that no chips
are left in depressions and sacculations. Such chips, it is true, are less likely
to cause a postoperative catheter blockage but they may nevertheless lead to
serious urinary infections and subsequently become encrusted or act as a nidus
for secondary calculus formation. The base of the bladder, where resection
chips are usually found, should be inspected under minimal irrigation, since
the fragments will otherwise be washed out of the field of view.
y) The Large Free Fragment. During resection of endovesically protuberant

median or lateral lobes a large tissue fragment is occasionally separated at
its base so as to fall into the bladder. These pieces are far too large to be
aspirated through the resectoscope sheath. However hard one tries to avoid
this tiresome problem it still occurs from time to time.
Recognizing the free fragment. Whenever there are sudden jerky interruptions
to the free drainage of irrigating fluid during an operation the suspicion of
a large free fragment will arise. All attempts to correct the problem by vigorous
evacuation will fail.
The diagnosis must finally be made endoscopically. The bladder is first
of all drained. This is usually achieved by directing the sheath aperture toward
the vault or by sweeping movements across the base of the bladder.
Instruments with a central stopcock permit drainage under direct vision
and the presence of the electrotome within the sheath will then prevent the
fragment from lying across the aperture.
Extracting the fragment. Three methods are available:
1. Extraction by lithotrite or foreign body forceps. This used to be the
standard method in the days before improved cutting current became available
and permitted comminution of the fragment within the bladder. It is always
surprising how large a fragment will pass the urethra without any force being
employed. They are easily deformed and adapt to the cross section of the urethra
so that little or no mucosal damage results. It goes without saying that the
use of force is absolutely contraindicated. The fragment must be firmly engaged
in the forceps, since for it to slip out in the urethra will give rise to new and
unpleasant difficulties.
2. Comminution of the fragment within the bladder or prostatic cavity.
This is the method nowadays in general use and is rendered unproblematic
by the excellent cutting power of modern diathermy current. One or two tricks
facilitate the procedure. The fragment must first be found and then grasped
by engaging it between cutting loop and sheath aperture. It is often difficult
to localize within the bladder, only sinking to the bottom when the irrigating
flow is reduced to an absolute minimum.
Once the fragment has been grasped it may be cut up either within the
bladder itself, on the floor of the bladder or within the prostatic cavity. The
first step is for the underside of the tip of the sheath to press it against the
floor of the bladder or prostatic cavity (electrical contact!). Once it has been
fixed in this way the loop is cautiously extended beyond the fragment, lowered
and retracted so as to cut off a small piece. With luck the main fragment
will remain fixed under the sheath, otherwise it must be found once more.
Depending on the size of the initial fragment a number of cuts, normally between
five and ten, will be necessary for complete extraction.
3. If the free fragment is somewhat smaller, but nevertheless too large to
be evacuated through the sheath, it may be extracted by firmly wedging it
between aperture and loop and then withdrawing the whole instrument complete
with fragment. This procedure is somewhat more risky, since the tissue fragment
may slip out and be lost within the urethra. I only employ this third technique
if the fragment is quite small and I am certain that the bladder is otherwise
entirely empty, thus obviating the need to reintroduce the instrument.
I usually prefer to cut these pieces of tissue up within the prostatic cavity
- if this is already well excavated - since this is the easiest place to hold the
fragment still.
Inspecting the Cavity for Complete Clearance of Tissue 243
Care should be taken to avoid accidental injury to the bladder base or

prostatic capsule (no blind cutting !).
The procedure is concluded by a final inspection to ensure that all fragments
have been removed.
b) Inspecting the Cavity for Complete Clearance of Tissue
This procedure really forms part of apical resection, but it is nevertheless impera-
tive to repeat it before removing the instrument. One of two methods may
be employed: scanning the cavity wall or inspection of the paracollicular tissue.
ex) Scanning the Cavity Wall. The instrument is briefly advanced beyond the
verumontanum toward the bladder. Under good conditions the entire field of
resection can be scanned in radial sectors. If the adenoma was small (bladder
neck 2-3 cm long), this may be possible in a single view, since the field can
be inspected with adequate depth of focus and magnification. Only a weak
irrigating flow should be employed so as to reveal bleeding points. The closer
the telescope approaches the tissue, the better the view of fine detail. This
is not, however, the aim of this inspection which is mainly concerned with
the final degree of smoothness in the field of resection. Small tissue tags and
ridges between individual cuts are smoothed off. Occasionally, small islands
of adenoma tissue will be seen protruding into the lumen. This is also the
best time for detecting injuries to the capsule and venous sinuses, and the inspec-
tion goes hand in hand with final hemostasis as discussed elsewhere.
~) Inspection of Paracollicular Tissue. The further one withdraws the sheath

into the membranous urethra, the more the bladder neck tissues will assume
their final configuration. Because of its fibromuscular constitution the prostatic
capsule has the ability and a tendency to retract.
This may result in residual adenoma tissue swinging into the urethral lumen.
Furthermore, this position of the instrument may enable tissues previously pre-
vented by the sheath from fully expanding to move more freely and take up
a configuration in which they are more easily visible. DENIS (1959) has given
a good description of this situation, terming a lateral lobe incised at its base
so as to sink dorsally when the instrument is withdrawn "lobe phantome"
(Fig. 171). By the same token, any other part of an incompletely resected ad-
enoma will assume its preferred position once the sheath is withdrawn to the
observation point (MAUERMAYER 1962). They ususally hang down from ventral
to dorsal, unless the sheath had previously pressed them down when they will
spring up into the urethral lumen. This behavior is particularly likely if a long
beaked sheath is employed, since its projection into the cavity may so displace
adenoma tissue as to render it quite invisible. With the sheath withdrawn to
the observation point, the tissue is able to return to its normal place and then
becomes freely visible.
Fig. l7la, b. Correcting an inadequate resection by retracting the sheath to the urethral observation
point. Diagrammatic cross section through the bladder slightly above the ureteric orifices, looking
toward the urethra. a The resectoscope sheath presses the poorly resected lateral lobe upward.
The surgeon thus believes himself to be at the 12 o'clock position. b After retracting the sheath
to the observation point the "lobe phantome" (DENIS 1959) swings back into its resting position
and may then be correctly resected from lateral to medial. In the example shown here, the floor
of the cavity remains to be cleaned and the cavity excavated
V. Resecting Outsize Adenomas
Although the elements of cutting technique are the same as for small adenomas,
a variety of points should be borne in mind:
1. Only those whose operating technique is so mature that they can remove
3 g per minute during the initital phases should attempt resection of ad-
enomas greater than 70-80 g.
2. Careful consideration should be given to the relative indications for transur-
ethral or enucleative adenomectomy.
3. Although we generally tend to manage our resections without blood transfu-
sion, all the necessary preparations should be made.
4. Internal urethrotomy is mandatory for these cases, even if instrumentation
is easy. The stricture rate is directly related to the quantity of tissue to
be removed. Resection via a perineal urethrotomy may even by considered.
5. We think it unnecessary to use wide-bore resectoscopes, since we remove
all large adenomas with a 24-Ch sheath in the same length of time as pre-
viously with a 28-Ch instrument.
6. The patient should be warned that, under certain circumstances, operative
conditions may require the procedure to be completed at a second session.
Resection According to Iglesias 245
2. Points of General Technique
a) Tissue Volume per Cutting Run
In order to remove large volumes of tissue with each filling of the bladder,
one must work rapidly and accurately. Thanks to the excellent irrigating power
of modern resectoscopes a low rate of flow will be quite adequate for a normal
degree of hemorrhage. This may be achieved either by lowering the irrigator
or, alternatively, by using the stopcock to control the rate of flow. I prefer
the latter method, since full pressure then remains available for initial clearance.
After a few seconds - when optimum visibility has been achieved - I reduce
the rate of flow so that I can just see. A normal bladder capacity of 250-350 ml
will then permit 10-15 cuts to be executed, depending on their length.
b) Rapid Evacuation of Irrigating Fluid and Chips
Our resectoscope sheaths are equipped with a drain port to which a rubber
bulb may be connected for evacuation purposes. This permits extraction of
large volumes of resection material without blockage of the drain system
(Fig. 109). Evacuation is thus achieved in a considerably shorter time with a
consequent improvement of the gram/minute relationship for the whole resec-
tion. In rare cases where a large quantity of chips nonetheless block the drainage
path the system may be cleared by attaching an aspirating syringe to the sheath.
3. Trocar Drainage
Twenty years ago we were already resecting patients who had a suprapubic
catheter (e.g., for overflow incontinence). We have remained unconvinced of
the technique since the prostatic cavity cannot then be assessed by the usual
interplay of bladder filling and emptying. In recent times, REUTER (1980) has
revived suprapubic drainage, as previously advocated by TRUSS (1968).
For reasons already stated we do not employ this technique (see p. 148),
and we decline to use this route of continuous evacuation, even in patients
who have a suprapubic catheter before surgery.
4. Resection According to Iglesias
Unfortunately we have not found this technique useful for large resections.
The evacuation slits rapidly become blocked by tissue fragments and blood
clots. Visibility deteriorates after only 15-20 min. Furthermore, resection chips
accumulate in the prostatic cavity, particularly if the retroprostatic recess is

shallow. In the light of our experience, therefore, we cannot recommend the
use of this instrument for particularly large adenomas.
5. The 'Rasp' Technique of Reuter
Although REUTER mentions this method in his 1963 monograph, no further

description is given. For the removal of large expanses of tissue he cuts contin-
uously in a forward, and backward direction with cutting current continuously
on. To my knowledge he has no followers in this respect.
6. Subdividing the Field into Cutting Zones
The maintenance of careful orientation is a prerequisite for successful endoscop-

ic surgery in a very extensive field. A considerable reduction in workload may
be achieved by carefully subdividing the field of resection into individual zones.
Only when one zone has been completely cleared is a further one approached.
Such systematic subdivision oflarge fields into individual parcels also considera-
bly improves orientation.
7. Marking Trenches
By the suitable placement of grooves, a volume of tissue may be subdivided

into smaller portions. Marker grooves may thus expose the tissue limits (internal
sphincter, capsule, distal resection limit), providing a starting point for each
successive cutting series.
8. Optimal Hemostasis
The technique of resection should be directed toward immediate hemostasis.

We have found a good solution to this problem in the cutting of marking
grooves and in starting at the capsular margin (see presentation of our own
technique, p. 248). Under no circumstances should hemostasis be relegated to
second place simply to accelerate the removal of tissue and only to be carried
out when this is completed.
Nesbit Technique 247
9. Determination of Blood Loss
Whenever one 10-1 bucket has been filled with irrigating fluid, the running
blood loss should be determined. Although the method of NESBIT and CONGER
(1963) is still in use in the USA, its inaccuracy in the face of large blood
volumes is quite unacceptable (HARTUNG et al. 1976).
The anesthetist must be informed of the blood loss as soon as it is known.
This requires an accurate method suitable for use in the operating room itself
and taking account of the patient's own preoperative hemoglobin value.
10. Encumbrance of the Surgeon
Teaching attachments should only be used by very experienced surgeons when

operating on large glands, since some degree of encumbrance is unavoidable.
11. Nesbit Technique
In his 1943 monograph NESBIT devotes several pages to the massive intracapsular
adenoma.
His method consists of subdividing adenoma tissue by concentric circles,
first of all circumcising a more central tissue cone around the urethra and
then ablating it from ventral to dorsal. This maneuver is repeated two or three
times until all tissue has been removed to the level of the urethral floor (Fig. 172).
This dorsal tissue bulk is then undercut on either side and resected in the
usual fashion. Illustrations describe the technique better than words.
I have often attempted to imitate this technique without ever finding it
to have substantial advantages. Its chief disadvantage, compared to NESBIT'S
Fig. 172. Resection of an outsize adenoma after NESBIT. A series of trenching cuts deprive the adenoma
of its blood supply. Once each area of tissue has been encircled and resected, a further encircling
trench is cut more laterally. (After NESBIT t 943)
basic method, lies in the loss of his original brilliant concept of first dividing
vessels along the capsule. Certainly one area of tissue is devascularized (after
circumcision) after another, but the process of dividing and coagulating vessels
needs to be repeated two or three times, depending on the number of trenches.
12. OUf Own Method
Our own technique for the resection of outsize adenomas is now to be described.
We employ it wherever more than 50 g of hyperplastic tissue is to be removed
(Fig. 173). The procedure derives from the trenching cut of ALCOCK and FLOCKS.
a) Phase 1
a) Step 1. A marker groove is first cut at 6 o'clock and all endovesical median
lobe tissue is removed as already described. This phase will also expose capsule
in the dorsal area, although a wider groove is naturally required for this. The
initial creation of broad working surfaces is a general principle in the resection
of outsize adenomas, since it permits free drainage of irrigating fluid and the
easy transfer of resection chips into the bladder cavity. This principle is analo-
gous to the technique of ALCOCK and FLOCKS already described.
Fig. 173. Resecting an outsize adenoma (our own technique). By analogy to the method of ALCOCK
and FLOCKS the adenoma is subdivided into a series of " storeys." This is not difficult to accomplish
employing the previously described technique of horizontal trench cuts. The tissue thus encircled
can subsequently be resected with an entirely acceptable blood loss. Advantages of this procedure:
subdivision of the operation into a number of easily manageable stages and maintenance of full
orientation. Left, the direction of further resection for complete tissue removal is shown (small
arrows); on the right the direction of trenching cuts is indicated (large arrows). j--fJ: Sequence of
individual stages
Phase 2 249
~) Step 2. Wherever there is marked lateral lobe development the prostatic

urethra will be extensively flattened and broadened in the dorsiventral plane.
Depending on the apparent' height' of the urethral cleft the lateral lobes are
now subdivided into two or more portions by marking trenches. This principle
has also already been described and is applied to the resection of large volumes
of hyperplastic tissue in the following way: radial cuts are placed from the
urethra toward the capsule until sphincter fibers appear at the internal meatus.
The first trench should be fairly dorsal to be followed by more ventral ones
as the operation proceeds, until only a ventral tissue block remains. The trench
has three purposes:
1. A large tissue bulk is subdivided into individual parcels.
2. By first dissecting out the floor of the cavity one allows the lobe to drop
in a dorsal direction. The tissue may thus be removed plane by plane in
a series of horizontal cutting runs, the instrument being held in the usual
fashion.
3. The first few cuts of each plane along the capsule expose vessels entering
the adenoma, and these may then immediately be coagulated. Always start
laterally!
Here, as already described in the technique for resecting small adenomas, I
like to maintain a symmetrical procedure. As soon as one step has been com-
pleted it is repeated on the opposite side.
y) Step 3. Depending on the size of the gland the procedure of Step 2 is repeated
once or twice. The technique is always the same: a trench is cut down to
the capsule and the tissue then removed, with the modification that in more
ventral regions tissue may be removed from medial to lateral and it is no longer
necessary to maintain a horizontal cutting plane (" vertical plane "), the reason
being that I have occasionally separated entire fragments of lateral lobe in
toto so that these then fell into the bladder. As everyone knows, such fragments
are difficult to extract (see p. 156, 241).
ii) Step 4. The resection of ventral tissue concludes this phase of the procedure,
the main tissue bulk now having been removed.
b) Phase 2
The capsule is now excavated by the extended cutting technique until only
apical tissue remains. This is achieved by radial cutting, starting ventrally (al-
though one might equally start dorsally) and dissecting out the cavity in its
entire circumference cut by cut. It is for this phase that the expression "tea-
spooning" was coined as an accurate description of the procedure.
Total mastery of extended cutting technique is an absolute prerequisite if
reasonable amounts of tissue are to be removed in a short time. Because starting
and end point are already clearly visible this should be quite simple. Whoever
is able to complement simple proximo-distal cutting with lateral (or dorsiventral

as appropriate) excursions so as to follow the curvature of the capsule will
gain considerable time (" submerging" the loop).
c) Phase 3
Once again, Phase 3, resection of apical tissue, concludes the operation. This
is exactly the same as for small adenomas, except that here the urethral cleft
is longer than usual. The paracollicular region has exactly the same appearance
as in smaller glands, being curved and lying around the verumontanum in an
arch.
13. Conclusion
The resection of outsize adenomas has not been presented in this degree of
detail solely to encourage urologists in the transurethral removal of such glands.
The intention was simply to give those surgeons whose own operative technique
has matured to a point permitting such extensive transurethral surgery without
hazard to the patient the benefit of my own experience. I cannot pretend that
an adenoma is not occasionally approached transurethrally that, from its size
alone, would perhaps better have been removed by enucleation. This is usually
the result of incorrect preoperative assessment. The remarks in the present
chapter may be equally helpful in such cases.
Statistics from our own clinic show clearly that even our younger colleagues
are capable of removing quite large adenomas in a reasonable time, i.e., within
an hour, and with an acceptable blood loss, if they are properly trained.
It should also have become clear that the resection of large adenomas is
a systematic procedure which can be taught and learnt just like that for small
glands.
Chapter F
Hemostatic Technique
I. Blood Loss During Transurethral Prostatic Surgery
I wish to begin this chapter with some remarks on the estimation of blood
loss, since it is a matter of experience that all surgeons tend to underestimate
the blood loss during operations they perform themselves. This danger arises
particularly whenever the surgeon cannot himself inspect the drained irrigating
fluid, as is the case in any resection employing either the Iglesias method, trocar
drainage or our own evacuation port on the sheath. There are good psychologic
reasons for this. The surgeon concentrates on achieving the best possible tissue
clearance, and particularly in large glands, he often has to work against time.
As a result of bad habits or bad training, hemostasis is not undertaken until
visibility deteriorates. It is one aim of this chapter to expose the fallacy of
approach. However that may be such an accurate method of estimation is
indispensable if one is to know the actual loss.
We suggested as the subject of a doctoral thesis that the various published
methods of blood loss estimation be reproduced and compared one to another. I
The accuracy of estimation was tested simply by comparison to a standard.
This was prepared by diluting blood of known hemoglobin concentration with
a known volume of the irrigating fluid routinely used for transurethral surgery.
Most methods proved to have extremely wide margins of error.
Thus the method of NESBIT and CONGER (1941) gave far too low values
as soon as the blood loss rose substantially. We thus encouraged the develop-
ment of a blood loss estimator based on the particularly reliable cyanohemoglo-
bin principle. The instrument was to be simple and reliable, occupy little space
and have a facility for calibration with the patient's own preoperative hemoglo-
bin concentration. The design of such an instrument was published in 1976
(HARTUNG et al. 1976). Since then we have used it routinely for the measurement
of blood loss during all transurethral operations. As a result, a variety of interest-
ing data emerged, e.g., a relationship between excision weight and blood loss,
as well as a 'personal touch' of each individual surgeon in our clinic.
252 Chapter F Hemostatic Technique
2 0
a
4 0
Hb .... ~
""It"... (}l'\In.,.,.,.1 13mtloHo L~'cl'l,"
;\bt, 1101"0 ... ,111 " KOTt l.pl
"1..;- --- -- - - ----

~ "-.. "'.1-,·.t,li.~ ~
Fig. 174a, b. Blood loss determination. a Diagram of the method. 1 Aliquot taken from the collecting
bucket as soon as 10 I of irrigating fluid have accumulated (l-ml micropipette); 2 irrigating fluid
pipetted into a test tube; 3 addition of 9 ml cyanide reagent by autopipette from a stock solution;
4 mixing of irrigating fluid and reagent ; 5 introduction of sample into measuring chamber. b The
instrument used in our clinic
The Significance of Blood Loss Determination 253
2. A Method for Blood Loss Estimation
During open surgical procedures, blood loss is usually estimated by measuring

the sucker volume and weighing wound swabs. Such a rough estimate is not
available during transurethral surgery if irrigating fluid is allowed to drain away
unmeasured.
Drained irrigating fluid must therefore be collected. In units where an assis-
tant holds a receiver under the outlet of the resectoscope sheath, these receivers
must be emptied into a collection bucket. A stainless steel pail marked 1-10
in liters is very suitable. Our own estimation apparatus is geared to this 101
volume. In addition we have had our bucket fitted with a drainage cock to
allow its rapid emptying down the floor gulley each time the 10-1 mark is
reached.
As soon as 101 of irrigating fluid have been used, an aliquot is collected
from the bucket and blood loss determined with our special apparatus (Fig. 174).
Preliminary experiments have shown that in the wake of substantial hemor-
rhage, blood may coagulate despite dilution with irrigating fluid. For this reason
we add 100 g sodium citrate to the bucket after each emptying. This ensures
that all the blood is subject to our estimation.
We chose a 10-1 bucket as a collecting vessel to make quite sure that blood
loss would be estimated several times during any extensive resection. The result
of this estimation is included on the anesthetic record and the total volume
recorded in the operating note.
The accuracy of the method and a description of the instrument developed
by us were both published in 1976 (HARTUNG et al.)
If blood loss becomes excessive, the surgeon is notified.
3. The Significance of Blood Loss Determination
A surgeon will only become "blood loss conscious" if he regularly finds out
the quantity of blood his patient has lost. This is an excellent educational exer-
cise, encouraging bloodless technique among both young urologists and their
older colleagues.
Furthermore, if blood loss becomes substantial (see p. 270), further tissue
removal should immediately cease and attention be paid to better hemostasis.
The third benefit of running blood loss determination is for the anesthetist,
who is thus able to take early measures to stabilize the circulation and request
blood from the bank.
Even as a seasoned transurethral surgeon one continues to be surprised
by the extent to which one underestimates blood loss.
II. Arterial Bleeding
The previous chapters were concerned mainly, and in great detail, with the
technique of resection. The problems of hemostasis were consciously excluded.
In any real operation, of course, resection and hemostasis go hand in hand,
since the transection of any arterial vessel should be followed as quickly as
possible by its coagulative closure. Hemostasis presents its own particular techni-
cal problems and for this reason is now considered separately from the other
elements of transurethral surgery.
I have modeled the following presentation on a variety of monographs.
Such imitation seems justified not only on methodologic grounds but also by
the high importance of the procedure. Accurate hemostasis is one of the funda-
mental factors on which the value of the entire transurethral approach is
founded.
Fortunately, the modern instruments nowadays available greatly facilitate
the detection and coagulation of major arterial bleeds. The excellent irrigating
power of these resectoscopes permits good visibility even when three or more
large arteries are spurting into the resection field. A variety of endoscopic cine-
films, photographs and video recordings document this state of affairs.
There are nevertheless a number of colleagues who find difficulty in control-
ling hemorrhage during electroresection. This may result either from inadequate
practice, inadequate training, or the use of an instrument no longer up to modern
standards.
Transurethral techniques are, furthermore, available for the control of reac-
tionary and secondary hemorrhage following transvesical or retropubic adenom-
ectomy. This is true of both the prostatic cavity itself and of the bladder incision
after suprapubic approaches. I remember a case occurring over 20 years ago
in which a patient suffered secondary hemorrhage 14 days after transvesical
adenomectomy, resulting in so severe a circulatory collapse as to prohibit further
surgery. We nevertheless were able to evacuate the tamponade with the resecto-
scope and coagulate a vessel spurting from the bladder vault incision, thus
saving the day.
2. Surgical Anatomy
There has been no shortage of attempts to study the arterial blood supply
to the adenoma and adapt resection technique to the ususal arrangement of
vessels. The often quoted work of FLOCKS (1937) is certainly the most thorough.
He studied the problem by first filling the blood vessels of cadaveric bladders
with a barium sulphate solution, dehydrating the specimen in serial alcohols
and then developing it in oil of wintergreen (methyl salicylate). This well-known
Fig. 175. Arterial blood supply of the prostate. Diagrammatic coronal section through bladder and
prostate. The prostatic artery enters the vesico-prostatic junction and divides into external capsular
and internal urethral branches. The urethral branch supplies the adenoma, an anatomical fact of
which there is ample clinical confirmation. The largest arteries always occur in the proximal cavity
close to the internal sphincter. (After FLOCKS 1937)
and often used method of anatomic investigation gives a far more three-dimen-
sional impression that the alternative of radiologic examination. FLOCKS' results
must therefore be regarded as more significant than those of KRAAS (1935).
FLOCKS arrives at the following conclusion (see Fig. 175 and 176):
1. Two groups of arteries supply the prostate.
2. The external, capsular group mainly supply the capsule.
3. The internal, urethral group pervade the gland. They enlarge pan passu
with the adenoma.
4. The arteries enter the organ in the vicinity of the vesico-prostatic junction.
5. Placed on a clock dial, the point of entry of the arteries lies between 1
and 5 o'clock on one side and 11 and 7 on the other.
6. After entering the gland, the urethral group of vessels at first run medially
and then turn distally to more or less follow the urethral axis.
These results are frequently confirmed by clinical observations during surgery.
Unfortunately, however, the arterial blood supply is quite variable. One thus
regularly comes across vessels, occasionally quite substantial ones, in the ventral
region, as described by MITCHELL (1972). They tend to be encountered as one
is clearing the roof of the cavity. HAYEK also describes vessels entering ventrally
Fig. 176. Blood supply of the prostate. Diagrammatic cross section through the cavity showing radial
arrangement of blood vessels. The majority of arteries is encountered in the 3 to 5 o'clock region.
Smaller groups appear at 12 and 6 o'clock
and arising from the internal pudendal artery. A few, usually small, vessels
may also be encountered in the left and right paracollicular regions.
Naturally the floor of the prostatic cavity also possesses an arterial blood
supply, but the vessels are usually of modest caliber.
3. "Anatomical" Operative Techniques
There are two methods of operation aimed at a primary interruption of the

arterial blood supply, i.e., that of NESBIT and that of ALCOCK and FLOCKS.
a) The Nesbit Technique
The method of NESBIT is without any doubt the most logical response to the
anatomical situation. It is no coincidence that his monograph is preceded by
a chapter from the pen of FLOCKS and concerned with the arterial blood supply
of the prostate and its role in resection technique (NESBIT 1943).
His concept was a primary interruption of the arterial blood supply to the
adenoma. By encircling the adenoma tissue with a trench cut close to the capsule,
he aimed to interrupt all the arteries supplying hyperplastic tissue. The latter
would be then virtually avascular and could be excised with minimal blood
loss (Fig. 177).
b) The Technique of Alcock and Flocks
The method proposed by ALCOCK and FLOCKS (see FLOCKS and CULP 1954;
FLOCKS 1937) is perhaps less logical in its subdivision of the lateral lobe at
Other Techniques 257
Fig. 177. Prostatic blood supply during operation by the Nesbit technique. Diagrammatic cross section
through the prostate. A trench has been cut between capsule and adenoma thus extensively interrupt-
ing the blood supply to the adenoma. Further resection of this tissue may now proceed in a more
or less bloodless fashion
3 and 9 o'clock by deep grooves. One will always encounter large vessels in
these positions. As devascularization of the tissue is incomplete, removal of
the latter will not be so bloodless as the technique previously described.
The preliminary devascularization of the median lobe is nevertheless signifi-
cant, for with few exceptions its arteries always enter from lateral to medial.
c) Other Techniques
All other methods, having the initital removal of a central tissue cone in
common, start by exposing the region of the internal sphincter and an area
immediately distal to it. This will in itself lead to a relatively early encounter
with the feeding vessels. Although the method of NESBIT is undoubtedly the
most logical from the point of view of preliminary devascularization, all other
techniques that start with exposure of the internal sphincter and immediately
distal tissues also guarantee reasonable prophylactic division of main arteries.
Considerable experience has also been gained with preliminary interruption
of the vessels supplying a large isolated median lobe. This procedure is based
on the fact that the majority of arteries entering the median lobe do so from
its lateral aspect. By placing a deep groove at the junction between median
and lateral lobes this blood supply may be substantially interrupted. During
the rest of the operation only a few insignificant vessels will be found entering
the median lobe, usually dorsally through the internal sphincter. Figure 178
clarifies this situation.
Resection thus starts on one side with the placement of a trench deep enough
to reach the internal sphincter. One or more vessels will then be divided along
the lateral aspect, i.e., at the base of the lateral lobe as they run latero-medially.
They may then be coagulated. The same process is repeated on the opposite
side, and ablation of the adenoma nodule may then continue without substantial
hemorrhage, apart from the few dorsal vessels already mentioned.
Fig. 178. Technique of resecting a pronounced median lobe. Diagrammatic cross section through the
prostate. A channel is cut between median and lateral lobes extensively devascularizing the former.
After coagulating the divided vessels, the median lobe may be excised under avascular conditions
4. Detecting Hemorrhage
There is little agreement in the literature on this point, almost certainly a conse-
quence of the variety of instruments and operative techniques in use.
This must certainly be true of MITCHELL (1972), who advises closely ap-
proaching the field of resection with the instrument to gain a better view of
the bleeding point. BAUMRUCKER (1968) suggests that profuse arterial hemor-
rhage may be overcome by temporarily raising the irrigator and making use
of the additional irrigating channel in the electrotome of the Stern-McCarthy
instrument. In his view, uncontrollable arterial hemorrhage may even require
suprapubic cystotomy and packing of the resection cavity. Likewise, BLANDY
(1971) occasionally sees no other means of controlling arterial hemorrhage than
that of opening the bladder and underrunning the bladder neck. On the other
hand, CONGER (1963), a pupil of NESBIT'S, recommends a systematic search
for the responsible vessels, which may always be found . Under these circum-
stances visibility may become so poor that nothing further can be seen in the
'bloody swirl.' This brief survey of differing opinions should reveal the variabili-
ty of various authors' experience. The great pioneers of resection made only
brief mention of the detection and control of arterial hemorrhage in their mono-
graphs, perhaps because they saw in it no real problem (NESBIT 1943; BARNES
1943).
Further confusion has been caused in recent years by the introduction of
the term 'hydraulic hemostasis' (IGLESIAS 1975). In the opinion of IGLESIAS,
less bleeding will occur if a continuously collapsed prostatic capsule is allowed
to maintain almost complete closure of all venous channels. A similar suggestion
A Suitable Instrument (Habituation to a Preferred Instrument) 259
is made by REUTER (1980) in relation to trocar drainage. To date there is a

lack of any proper comparative study of hemostasis by these two systems.
Hydraulic hemostasis is thus so far an unproven and speculative concept.
Our own experience, based on 500-600 electroresections per year, agrees
best with the requirement made by CONGER that every, absolutely every arterial
bleeding point should be visualized and subsequently coagulated. We have been
able to demonstrate this concept to numerous visitors to our clinic by a variety
of films, video recordings and demonstration resections with a teaching attach-
ment.
There are a number of reasons for this approach:
b) Instrument Factors
With the aid of the manufacturer (Storz), we have been able to so modify
our resectoscope that adequate visibility will be maintained in the face of the
most profuse hemorrhage, so that the bleeding vessel may always be seen. The
changes in design have been mainly qualitative. The improvements were
achieved not by simply increasing the rate of irrigation flow but by improving
its collimation. No doubt other manufacturers will have found similar solutions.
c) The Value of Experience
Naturally enough, the detection of bleeding arteries was a serious problem

to be solved only by great application and patience in the early years when
we were virtually self-taught. In all the years since 1952, when I first began
to take an intensive interest in transurethral surgery, I have only once (in over
8000 electroresections of the prostate) had to open the bladder for uncontrollable
hemorrhage and pack the prostatic cavity. In fact this was for massive paren-
chymatous hemorrhage due to consumption coagulopathy, not for arterial
bleeding.
A sequence of actions during an operation frequently becomes so automatic
to the surgeon that a number of maneuvers are carried out subconsciously.
Only teaching sessions in which he supervises, and if necessary, corrects the
work of a less experienced colleague may draw his attention to various minutiae.
Thus this chapter could never bave been written in the present form had I
not been able to draw on my teaching experience.
5. Prerequisites for the Detection of Hemorrhage

a) A Suitable Instrument (Habituation to a Preferred Instrument)
Every resectoscope has its own special characteristics to which one must become
accustomed, just as when driving an automobile. Virtually all modern resecto-
scopes are of adequate quality as far as tissue removal is concerned. Problems
arise when profuse hemorrhage threatens visibility with a resulting loss of orien-
tation. By modern technical standards, therefore, a good resectoscope must
also be capable of maintaining clear visibility of the resection field under the
worst conditions of massive bleeding from one large or multiple small arteries.
The detection of one ore more arteries must always remain possible. Unfortu-
nately it would appear that not all instruments satisfy these requirements as
indicated in the literature review given above. We have come to the same conclu-
sion when testing various instruments, all of which gave excellent results at
the beginning of an operation, in fine weather, as it were. Once hemorrhage
occurred, however, further surgery was rendered so difficult by some of these
resectoscopes that in the interests of the patient we had to change back to
our tried and tested, improved instrument. No doubt, habit is a considerable
factor, but anyone who has had frequent opportunity to test a variety of instru-
ments will be well aware of true variations in quality. This manual is not in-
tended to provide propaganda for anyone manufacturer, but I would neverthe-
less wish to emphasize that any surgeon who frequently encounters difficulties
he ascribes entirely to his own technique, should at least bear in mind the
real qualitative differences between individual instruments.
a) Clear Visibility of the Resection Cavity. Blood vessels are difficult to recognize
if the resection area is irregular or fissured. The smoother the surfaces within
the wound, the more easily a spurting artery may be recognized and its location
approached. The various methods designed to maintain clear orientation within
the cavity have been discussed in Chapts. D and E in great detail.
~) Dividing the Operation into Stages. A less extensive, limited resection area
is more easily kept under control than a wound involving the entire prostatic
cavity. The resection techniques described in previous chapters aim at subdivi-
sion of the operation not only to maintain orientation but also to facilitate
hemostasis. If one makes it an absolute rule to conclude resection of one region
with scrupulous hemostasis, difficulties never arise. When vigorous hemorrhage
does occur within the sector one is working on, the artery is to be sought
within a limited area and will therefore be more easily found.
y) Matching the Irrigation Rate. The rate of irrigation flow and the severity
of hemorrhage should be carefully matched. This is particularly true for the
detection of minor bleeds. The interrelationship is easily appreciated if a small
vessel is approached first with copious and then with decreasing irrigation.
If the flow is too little, one will see a red cloud completely obscuring the view,
so that the origin of the vessel is unrecognizable. A slight increase in flow
will render the vessel and the stream of blood entering the lumen of the cavity
clearly demonstrable. Further increase in irrigation will tend to flatten out the
Fig. 179. Effect of irrigation flow on blood jets. From left to right: Regression from weak to maximal
irrigation. Gentle flow permits the formation of an obscuring cloud while overvigorous irrigation
clears the blood so rapidly as to make the bleeding point undetectable
jet of blood which then only remains detectable because its origin and direction
are known (see Fig. 179).
This interrelationship between irrigating flow and severity of arterial bleeding
is not of course valid for the recognition of particularly large arteries. These
inevitably require maximum irrigating power, but in modern instruments the
latter is always adequate for the demonstration of the very largest vessels.
The reduction of irrigation rate attains particular significance when venous
bleeding points are to be demonstrated. They may require so great a reduction
of flow as to amount to a virtual cessation of irrigation. Only thus may, e.g.,
tenuous submucous vessels around the mucosal margin of a bladder tumor
or at the distal and proximal mucosal margin of the wound cavity be recognized.
Complete closure of these vessels requires only a short burst of current, yet
their coagulation is of great significance for the reduction of postoperative bleed-
ing. They are after all so numerous that the summation of many small bleeds
may amount to substantial hemorrhage.
0) Position of Instrument and Cutting Loop. As previously suggested, individual

resectoscopes vary greatly in their ability to reveal bleeding points. Anyone
who has worked with a variety of instruments will realize that each has its
individual characteristics to which the operator must adapt.
I have therefore found it impossible to give general rules on how best to
hold the instrument or the best position of the cutting loop when searching
for bleeding points, since these factors may vary considerably from instrument
to instrument. I merely draw the reader's attention to the fact that one instru-
ment may provide the best view of a vigorous arterial bleeder if it is closely
approximated to the wound cavity, while another model may give the best
results at some distance from the bleeding point.
The same is true of the cutting loop which will always have some effect
on the irrigating performance of its instrument and thus on visibility.
The best position of instrument and loop for any given model must be
discovered by the surgeon himself and experimented with by conscious alter-
ations in technique. I have put forward these personal observations purely in
the hope of helping some readers with their own hemostatic problems.
t) Immediate Closure of aU Arteries. In conversation with colleagues one may

frequently hear how they will leave it to the end of a stage of resection to
look for and coagulate remaining vessels. I cannot give an emphatic enough
warning against such practice. The basic surgical principle of arresting hemor-
rhage as soon as it occurs applies to transurethral operations just as to open
surgery. After all, no urologist would dream of delaying hemostasis in the mus-
culature until the end of pyelolithotomy. There are a variety of important rea-
sons for closely adhering to the principle: "stop bleeding arteries immediately."
c) Rationale for Immediate Hemostasis
1. Patients should be spared avoidable and unnecessary hemorrhage.

2. Reduced hemorrhage improves visibility.
3. Reduction of bleeding prevents the formation of coagula within the field
of resection and in the bladder. Orientation within the wound cavity is thus
maintained.
4. In large adenomas considerable blood loss may occur by the summation
of minimal bleeds from multiple small vessels.
It is not infrequently said that immediate coagulation of every artery, as it
is opened, is too time-consuming a method. The very reverse is the case, since
it is at the time of opening a blood vessel that the event is immediately obvious.
The cutting loop may then be immediately applied to the site of hemorrhage
and coagulation undertaken. The entire process takes but a few seconds and
barely influences the progress of resection.
There is a single exception to this rule: if a series of cuts are being made
with the aim of exposing a given zone of the capsule, a superficial artery may
be encountered early. Nevertheless, resection should continue until the main
trunk of this artery is revealed. That is inevitably the case at the time of reaching
the capsule.
This procedure is not recommended to the less experienced resectionist who
may have difficulty in estimating whether the current cutting series is likely
to reach the capsule. He would be well advised to close the incised vessel immedi-
ately, even if it is likely subsequently to reappear at some other point in the
operation.
Finding Arteries During Resection 263
6. General Rules for the Detection of Arterial Bleeding
Arterial bleeding points may be recognized by a variety of features:
1. The actual lumen of the vessel may be seen from which blood is issuing.
2. A jet of blood may be seen squirting into the prostatic cavity.
3. The vessel itself may be seen with or without blood flow.
4. The irrigating fluid discolors rapidly, thus alerting the surgeon.
5. Under certain circumstances (a large vessel spurting straight into the sheath)
there may be rhythmic lightening and darkening of drained irrigating fluid.
6. A red cloud forms immediately at the point where an artery is opened during
a cut, since blood is not able to squirt freely into the resection cavity, being
deflected by the chip and the cutting loop. A fountain jet of arterial blood
will not occur until the chip has fallen back into the bladder.
a) Finding Arteries During Resection
One or more of the above six events will make the surgeon aware of having
opened an artery.
In the simplest case the source of bleeding will be found as follows: the
jet of blood is easily visible and with it its vessel of origin. It only remains
to lay the cutting loop across the lumen of this vessel.
A more difficult situation arises if the vessel is not immediately visible.
The basic rule is to adjust the irrigating flow to the severity of hemorrhage,
reducing it to a minimum if the blood loss is slight, increasing it to maximum
if it is profuse. Arteries are most easily found by withdrawal of the instrument
to the observation point (aperture opposite the verumontanum) and adjusting
the irrigating flow as required. An experienced operator is usually well aware
of the size of bleed. I would recommend beginners to start their search under
maximum irrigation and gradually reduce it.
Illustrations 47 (Plate VIII) and 49-51 (Plate IX) clearly demonstrate these
problems. In Illustration 47, the irrigation rate has been moderated so as to
allow the small vessel immediately beneath the large artery to remain visible.
In Illustration 49 the irrigation is just adequate to wash away blood issuing
from the larger artery. However, the jet of blood ricochets from the opposite
wall of the prostatic cavity (see Fig. 184) giving rise to a bloody cloud at the
upper border of the picture. On the other hand, in illustration 50 irrigation
is too forceful, completely washing away blood leaving the smaller artery (cf.
Fig. 179).
The problems arising from massive hemorrhage will be further discussed
elsewhere. At this point, we will discuss how to find the artery responsible
for moderately profuse focal hemorrhage. The instrument is withdrawn to the
observation point. Irrigation is then adjusted to the rate of bleeding so as to
reveal a jet of blood crossing the wound cavity. Since this jet will become
wider the more distal, and narrower the more proximal one is to its point
Fig. 180. Diagrammatic view of the operative field from the" observation point." The sheath aperture
of the instrument has been placed at the level of the verumontanum or slightly distal to it, depending
on the conformation of the resection cavity. The irrigation flow has been so adjusted as to visualize
smaller arteries. This allows blood to ooze from a venous sinus on the right-hand side of the patient
(left of the picture) so copiously as to fill that half of the cavity. A small mucosal vessel is demonstrated
at the epithelial margin in the proximal field. An artery squirts from the left lateral lobe region
at approximately 3 o'clock downward into the floor of the resection cavity
of origin, the latter is found simply by tracing the jet backward to its exit
point from the tissues (Fig. 180). For the sake of clarity, this process has been
described in great detail, but in practice it takes merely a few seconds.
b) Appearance of the Vessel Stump
The lumen of virtually any transected vessel is easily recognized within the
field of resection. This has been facilitated both by the increased resolving
power of modern telescopes and by the improved illumination available with
fiber optics. That is particularly true of small arteries, visible through previous
operating telescopes only by the associated jet of blood. Nothing larger than
the precapillary lumen is nowadays invisible to modern optical systems.
This is best illustrated by a series of endoscopic photographs showing vessels
of varying caliber (Illustration 47, Plate VIII, Illustrations 49 and 50, Plate IX).
These show the way in which larger vessels always protrude somewhat above
the surrounding plane of dissection, an effect due in part to the mechanical
toughness of the arterial wall, and in part to the constant presence of a periarter-
ial fat sheath. The flexibility of the latter allows adenomatous or capsular tissue
to slide back and leave the more rigid vessel protruding like a tree stump from
the resection field. Illustration 47 (Plate VIII) gives a good view of such a
periarterial sheath. Fat droplets may be seen shimmering through between fine
capsular fibers. The vessel stump can be seen after coagulation in Illustration
48 (Plate VIII), projecting into the center of the picture just above the large
air bubble. The smaller an artery, the less it will project beyond the surrounding
plane of section. Larger vessels have a more or less oval cross section, while
smaller ones are round.
The Technique of Coagulating Vessels 265
c) Multiple Arteries
The main branch of an artery supplying the urethral field does not always
appear as a single vessel, and it not infrequently occurs that a number of arteries
are divided at one point, often by a single cut (e.g., Illustration 47, Plate VIII,
Illustration 51, Plate IX). This state of affairs results from early branching of
some vessels, a helpful variation, since the individual vessels are more easily
seen and sealed than would be one large profusely bleeding trunk.
7. The Technique of Coagulating Vessels
The vast majority of all surgeons use the resectoscope loop for hemostasis.
In bygone years a variety of special probes were popular and are still available
in most manufacturers' catalogues. One such accessory is fitted with a broad-
surfaced rolling ball intended to be used for generous crusting coagulation of
wide areas of the resection field.
In only a few specific cases is the use of such an electrode sensible. In
general, such a procedure is harmful and gives rise to unnecessary necrosis
in the operating field. One of the few indications for superficial coagulation
is parenchymatous bleeding from the bed of a prostatic or bladder carcinoma.
Apart from its undesirable side-effects, the use use of broad-surface probes
is also considerably less effective than carefully aimed point coagulation.
There is a further important reason for using the cutting loop in hemostasis:
coagulation of a vessel will then not require a change of instrument (loop to
probe) and can be rapidly carried out without interrupting the general working
pattern.
How is contact to be made between loop and vessels? For small arteries
it is enough to briefly touch the bleeding point with the loop for hemorrhage
to be immediately arrested.
Larger arteries up to 1.5 mm, rarely even up to 2 mm outside diameter,
are only reliably closed if excellent contact is achieved between artery wall
and loop. I prefer side-to-side contact between loop and artery (Fig. 181). The
hemostatic process consists of a reticular disintegration of the elastic coat which
then bulges so firmly into the lumen of the vessel as to close it. Cases of partial
vessel closure will sometimes occur when the center of the vessel has been
coagulated but blood continues to spurt from either corner. Only further coagu-
lation will bring about complete hemostasis. Finally, to round off the process,
I run across the vascular lumen from above several times so as to be quite
certain of avoiding subsequent reactionary hemorrhage.
Toward the end of the resection, the cutting loop will often have become
so thin at its midpoint as to sink into the tissues when coagulation is at-
tempted. This results from current concentration due to the thin cross section
of the wire. If it arises, this problem may be easily solved without having to
change the loop by using its less eroded end portion for vessel coagulation
(Fig. 182).
Fig. 181. Diagram showing coagulation of a large artery. During resection of large adenomas it is
not uncommon to come across arteries of 1-2 mm diameter which need to be carefully sealed.
Our technique, which has stood the test of time, coagulates first one side and then the other of
the elliptical vessel, finishing with further coagulation of the cut surface itself. This results in intimate
fusion of the inner surfaces of the vessel and produces a low incidence of secondary hemorrhage
due to opening up of the coagulation point
Fig. 182. Coagulating a vessel with the lateral portion of the loop. Toward the end of a lengthy
resection, the central portion of the cutting loop is not infrequently considerably consumed. It then
produces too intense a current density to provide adequate coagulation or prevent a cutting action
in the tissue. This may be avoided by using the thicker, virtually untouched lateral portions of
the loop for coagulation. The only alternative to this technique is to change the loop
8. Special Problems of Hemostasis
Control of bleeding is sometimes rendered difficult, either by the invisibility

of the vessel, or because the direction of the jet of blood itself is so unfavorable
as to obscure visibility. That is particularly prone to occur if the vessel is directed
straight into the sheath or if blood rebounds off the opposite capsular wall
with such force as to inhibit irrigation. These problems are now discussed indi-
vidually together with the methods for their control.
Arteries Spurting into the Instrument 267
Fig. 183a, b. Large artery spurting toward the resectoscope. a This situation may cause difficulties
if the irrigating flow is inadequate to keep the front lens clear of the blood that squirts toward
it, with marked impairment of visibility. Rather than undertaking virtually blind, uncontrolled at-
tempts at coagulation the operator should change the position of the instrument so as to avoid
the direct blood jet. b The resectoscope sheath has been retracted and the cutting loop maximally
extended so as to reach the vessel. Although visibility may still be somewhat worse than usual,
contact with the vessel may be detected as a sudden change in quality and direction of the blood
jet. Cutting current is applied and contact with the vessel repeatedly made so as to bring about
provisional closure. This allows the proper conditions for definitive coagulation under full vision
according to the technique shown in Fig. 181. Incomplete coagulation of a large vessel not infre-
quently so narrows the central portion of the lumen that the jet is divided into two with a figure 8
configuration of the lumen
a) Arteries Spurting into the Instrument
This problem arises whenever an artery is so incised that the blood jet is directed
toward the verumontanum. The latter is after all the site of the resectoscope
sheath. In unfavorable cases the vessel may squirt straight into the lumen of
the sheath. The nearer one comes to the artery the more forcefully blood will
spray against the front lens, thus preventing orientation at close quarters
(Fig. 183).
Solution
1. The axis of the instrument is turned away from the "firing zone" of the
artery. This is achieved by trial and error.
2. The instrument is now retracted as far away from the spurting artery as
possible and coagulation undertaken with the loop fully extended.
3. Pressure by the instrument sheath on tissue surrounding the vessel will at
least partly compress the latter (see Fig. 191).
4. In regions accessible to rectal palpation (i.e., dorsally) the same may be
achieved by a finger in the rectum (possible combination of Steps 3 and
4).
Fig. 184. "Ricochet" bleeding. Diagrammatic cross section of the lower bladder seen from above.
An artery on the right-hand side of the prostatic cavity squirts through the wound across the floor
of the prostate. The stream of blood is then reflected and dispersed so as to give the observer
an initial impression of poorly detectable venous sinus. Careful inspection of the entire periphery
of the cavity by conical movements associated with advancing and retracting the instrument will
at some stage encounter a blood jet. Coagulation of the vessel is then rendered simple : the jet
is simply traced back to its point of origin which is then coagulated
b) Ricochet Bleeding
The site of an artery squirting straight across the resection field to the opposite
side of the cavity may be masked by a "ricochet" effect. There will then be
a dense cloud of blood on one side of the cavity which may be erroneously
attributed to a venous sinus or some other unidentified bleeding point (Fig. 184).
Solution
1. Retract the instrument to the observation point (approximately level ofveru-
montanum). From here, inspect the cavity under various irrigating condi-
tions. The instrument should scan a conical region of the cavity, and this
movement may be compounded with cautious retraction and advancement
of the instrument. At some point the primary, i.e. not the reflected blood
jet will be identified and may then be traced back to its point of origin.
2. Desist from inspecting the "cloudy" side and concentrate contralaterally.
In this region, inspect the circumference of the cavity in radial segments
until a spurting artery is detected.
c) Bleeding from Behind a Tissue Eminence
Occasionally an arterial lumen remains undetected behind a protuberant piece

of tissue. Bleeding is clearly observed in a given region, but the bleeding point
itself cannot be located (Fig. 185).
Bleeding Under Coagula 269
a
.- .
~ -.:
Fig. 185a, b. A vessel behind a tissue hillock rendered visible. a The vessel cannot be located with
certainty because a small tissue bulge obscures its outlet. Only its direction can be determined.
Rather than executing blind and ineffectual coagulation, it is safer to ablate the obscuring tissue.
b Arrangement after correction of the tissue surface. The projection has been ablated and the vessel
is now easily visible and coagulated
Solution
A few smoothing cuts are undertaken in the region of bleeding. The responsible
artery will then rapidly be exposed and may be coagulated.
d) Bleeding Under Coagula
Whenever the rule of immediate hemostasis is abandoned, clots may form.

During final hemostasis at the end of the operation, irrigating water will repeat-
edly be returned strongly blood-stained although no bleeding point can be de-
tected. Under these cirumstances a covered bleeding point under a blood clot
should be suspected (Fig. 186).
Solution
The clots should be removed by use of the loop, either as a blunt curet or,
if the coagula are strongly adherent, with current applied. The bleeding point
may remain invisible if thin, firmly adherent layers of clot deflect the blood
flow , and in such cases two further measures will help to reveal the vessel:
1. Undertake a smoothing cut at this point
2. Inspect the region under minimal irrigation
Fig. 186. Blood oozing from under a blood clot. This situation not infrequently occurs on the floor
of the cavity. Blood clots have become attached to the basal region of the cavity by coagulation.
They cover the vessel whose blood was initially responsible for forming this clot. Blind coagulation
is pointless in this situation since there is no chance of accurately contacting the vessel and the
blood clot will so dissipate high frequency current from the surrounding tissue as to render it ineffec-
tive. Only blunt curetting or, if necessary, sharp resection of this region with a few shallow slices
followed by accurate coagulation of the vessel will be of any use
Fig. 187a, b. Method of staunching profuse hemorrhage. a It is frequently quite difficult to locate
exteme1y large vessels with accuracy. The sheath aperture lies in a dense cloud of blood of uncertain
origin. b The instrument is withdrawn from the densest zone of hemorrhage. The extended loop
is moved back and forth across the tissue surface. A point will be found at which the blood flow
suddenly divides in two around the loop. If the loop is then lowered onto the tissue surface it
will come into contact with the vessel. Frequently, light pressure from the loop onto the tissue
surface is enough to briefly compress the vessel and arrest hemorrhage. Coagulation and closure
are then rendered easy (see also Fig. 183 and 191 a, b)
e) Massive Hemorrhage
Occasionally, mainly during the final stages of operation, so large an artery

may be opened that the entire operating field turns dark red and impenetrable
from one moment to the next (Fig. 187).
Ventral Bleeds from the Vesicoprostatic Junction 271
Solution
Despite making a dramatic impression on the beginner, this situation is easily

brought under control. Note the general direction of the source of bleeding
and empty the bladder. Irrigation of an empty bladder is always considerably
more powerful than when it is full. While draining the bladder, direct the instru-
ment toward the source of bleeding, so as to lose no time when irrigation
recommences. An instrument with a central irrigating cock is of great value
(see instrument descriptions, p. 17, 145). The further procedure is then similar
to that for vessels directed toward the field of view.
The instrument we use has such excellent irrigating power that the direction
and approximate site of the bleeding point is always recognizable. The fully
extended loop may then be used to "search" (see p. 267) for the vessel in this
region. Contact with the loop will be evident by a brief interruption of the
hemorrhage, or by a change in its direction. If, and only if, this occurs the
vessel may then be coagulated by a series of passes with the energized loop
across the area of bleeding. Such massive hemorrhages are rare and with a
little patience they may always be brought under control within 1-2 min. This
blind coagulation will occasionally only partly close the vessel and more precise
localization will then be required for complete hemostasis.
Within the prostatic cavity, arteries are always visible as prominent stumps
projecting into the lumen, and it is therefore possible once hemostasis has been
secured to recoagulate them by several seconds close contact with the cutting
loop. This gives protection against reactionary hemorrhage.
t) Ventral Bleeds from the Vesicoprostatic Junction
If an artery is incised in the transitional region between bladder and prostatic

capsule, it may be withdrawn from the field of view by distension of the bladder
and thus become inaccessible to coagulation. The blood jet is seen but its source
cannot be attacked with certainty (Fig. 188).
Solution
1. Empty the bladder keeping the instrument directed toward the vessel. An
instrument with central irrigating cock is most useful (see instrument descrip-
tion, p. 17, 145). As the bladder empties, the roof of the cavity sinks dorsally,
and the vesicoprostatic junction comes into view. Carefully metered, gentle
irrigation with the patient in head-down tilt will allow the vessel to be visual-
ized and coagulated.
2. The same result may be achieved if the vault of the empty bladder is pressed
down toward the instrument (by the surgeon or by an assistant).
Although it is frequent mentioned in the literature, this type of hemorrhage
is rare, since resection does not proceed into the bladder but remains limited
by the internal sphincter. If points 1 and 2 are carefully observed, bending
Fig. 188a, h. Detecting hemorrhage at the vesico-prostatic junction. a Inspection of the bladder neck
reveals a bleeding point in the 12 o'clock region, but of uncertain origin, since the artery is spurting
into the lumen of the distended bladder where it is obscured from view from the bladder neck.
b The artery is easily brought into view if the bladder is emptied and/or pressed down dorsally
from above. The arterial channel can be easily seen and coagulated. Once again, blind coagulation
is occasionally successful but takes time and may cause unnecessary tissue damage. It is more appro-
priate to use a suitably specialized technique
of the resectoscope loop as advocated by BAUMRUCKER (1968) is quite unneces-

sary.
WEYRAUCH (1959) has suggested that in this situation the bleeding area
be inspected during drainage of the bladder. The reason behind this suggestion
is no doubt that experience has shown that the vault of the bladder and roof
of the prostatic cavity sink as the bladder empties, thus revealing the vessel.
g) Poor Hemostasis in Previously Coagulated Tissue
Occasionally a clearly visible bleeding point proves difficult to coagulate when

the surrounding tissue has already been diathermied. Blood continues to ooze
Arterial Bleeding at the Margin of a Venous Sinus 273
a b c
Fig. 189 a-c. Incomplete hemostasis in previously coagulated tissue. Final inspection at the end of
resection occasionally reveals areas of coagulation which are still bleeding despite extensive crusting.
Sometimes the bleeding point is rather vaguely localized but appears more clearly on a further
inspection of the area. Reduction of irrigation to an absolute minimum may reveal a trickle of
blood to one side of the coagulated area (a). The only solution to this problem is to freshen the
coagulated area with a shallow cut into the tissues (b), if the anatomical location allows. Coagulation
is easily achieved in fresh and clearly visible tissue (c)
or squirt out of dark areas of coagulated crust. Even extensive coagulation

without thought for the resulting tissue necrosis may not arrest such bleeders
(Fig. 189).
Solution
Nothing will help except freshening of the cut surface by excision of the entire
coagulated area. The current will often have a poor cutting effect, necessitating
short-term increase in power settings. The vascular lumen is easily identified
in freshly sectioned tissue and may be closed by a short burst of current.
If proximity of the capsule prohibits any further cutting, control is always
achieved by means of a conical coagulating probe at the point of which a
highly effective current density is generated.
h) Arterial Bleeding at the Margin of a Venous Sinus
Prior to the introduction of Hopkins and other modern optical systems with
their high resolving power, these small vessels, probably vasa vasorum of a
venous sinus, were not easily detectable (Fig. 190).
Fig. 190. Arterial bleeding at the margin of the venous sinus. In the final phase of hemostasis, it
is easy to overlook small arteries that were divided along the margin of the venous sinus. Blood
flowing from the venous sinus under minimal irrigating conditons may then obscure the fact that
arterial vasa vasorum are frequently present along its margin. During any final check of hemostasis
careful attention should therefore be directed toward these vessels so easily overlooked along the
margin of the sinus
Solution
The sinus is brought into view and the irrigating flow is so regulated as to
just prevent any further bleeding from the vein. A small artery may then not
infrequently be seen along the margin of the vein and found amenable to coagu-
lation in the usual fashion.
i) Pseudohemostasis
This term applies to the following phenomenon. From the observation point,
a vessel is clearly seen spurting into the resection cavity. As the instrument
is directed toward the vessel in an attempt to visualize it more closely, the
bleeder is suddenly lost to view despite correct location of the instrument. The
cause for this lies in compression of these usually small arteries by the resecto-
scope sheath with consequent arrest of hemorrhage (Fig. 191).
Solution
1. The problem is often difficult to overcome since angulation and gradual
withdrawal of the sheath will first be required to re-establish bleeding. The
sheath must be moved in such a fashion as to reverse its compressing effect
on the vessel. Retraction of the sheath sometimes helps to free the tissue
from pressure effects. Once this has occurred, the loop alone is gradually
Pseudohemostasis 275
Fig. 191 a-c. "Pseudohemostasis." Pressure by the resectoscope sheath on the tissues may so compress
arteries as to prevent them from bleeding; this process is known as pseudohemostasis. a Diagram
showing the mechanism of this phenomenon. The end of the sheath presses on the tissues and
subjacent vessels. Although the arterial lumen is clearly seen, no blood emerges. b A converse move-
ment (lifting the sheath away from the tissue) relieves the pressure allowing the artery to bleed
once more. Further attempts at coagulation will lead to renewed pressure of the sheath on the
tissues and cessation of hemorrhage. c The solution is simple. The sheath is withdrawn so that
the intervening tissue may bulge up between aperture and loop. The bleeding point is now easily
seen and coagulated by this maneuver. Occasionally, the intervening tissue obscures the line of
view and will then need to be ablated as described in Fig. 185 in order to restore visibility
readvanced toward the vessel without any other movement of the sheath.
This should avoid renewed pressure on the vessel.
2. If the artery is of such a lumen as to be visible within the local tissue structure,
it may be coagulated in the absence of evident hemorrhage. The success
of this maneuver should be checked from the observation position.
FigA92a, b. Detecting bleeding points at the distal resection margin. a During final inspection of
the- wound cavity for bleeding points at the end of the operation, It occurs from time to time
that the cavity appears entirely dry of blood and yet the irrigating fluid nonetheless returns blood-
stained. In this situation a careful search should be made along the distal margin of resection.
Alternatively, there may on occasion be a blood cloud of uncertain origin . b The spurting artery
may be easily visualized by carefully inspecting the entire circumference of the distal margin of
resection. This requires considerable distal retraction of the sheath. Coagulation of the vessel, once
recognized, affords no problems
j) Hemorrhage in Distal and Proximal Extremities

of the Field
Such bleeding points may be difficult to locate if not expressly looked for.
During inspection of the cavity, the instrument is usually held slightly proximal
to the verumontanum. Any vessels further distal to this point will be invisible
(Fig. 192). The same is true of arteries at the proximal margin of resection
The Submucous System 277
an area which is often neglected because attention centers on the resection

field proper, not on peripheral areas.
Solution
Withdraw the sheath distally beyond the verumontanum and inspect the resec-
tion margin under minimal irrigation, since the vessels involved are usually
small. The same is true of the proximal margin. Once again, there may be
numerous minute arteries, the sum activity of which may constitute substantial
bleeding.
III. Venous Bleeding
For the sake of clarity I have subdivided this discussion on operative bleeding
into arterial and venous hemorrhage. As in any systematic discussion, this ar-
rangement does not correspond to the operative realities, since of course arteries
and veins are often opened simultaneously. However, venous bleeding will only
be appreciated during the procedure if the irrigating flow is markedly reduced
once arterial hemostasis has been achieved. Furthermore, the bladder should
not be completely filled so as to prevent hydrostatic pressure within the wound
cavity exceeding the venous pressure. Small veins in the vicinity of the mucosa
are of little significance, but those within the field of resection are important
since they represent a portal of entry for irrigating fluid into the circulation,
resulting in the well-known clinical pictures of dilutional hyponatremia or TUR
syndrome.
Greater operative significance attaches to the venous sinuses, which appear
in the field of resection as voluminous, thin-walled clumps of vessels (see Illustra-
tion 53, Plate IX). The sinuses may be the source of profuse bleeding that
tends to be overlooked by the inexperienced surgeon until the end of the opera-
tion. Furthermore, considerable quantities of irrigation fluid may be "infused"
into them during the procedure, resulting in the already mentioned clinical
events.
2. Surgical Anatomy
There are two venous systems of clinical importance.
a) The Submucous System
A submucous venous plexus may be easily recognized on inspection of the

bladder neck. The degree of distension of these vessels varies considerably.
If compression by a rapidly enlarging adenoma interferes with venous drainage,

they may occasionally be engorged to the point of varicosity. BARNES (1943)
believes the distension of these veins to be an index for anticipated hemorrhage
during surgery.
b) The Deep System
Venous sinuses are always encountered as the capsule is exposed and partially
incised during resection. These vessels are extremely thin-walled and lie embed-
ded in loose connective tissue. Not infrequently, a small accompanying artery
may be recognized adjacent to the transected venous channel. The most frequent
location for venous sinuses are the regions between the 3 o'clock and 5 o'clock
and 7 o'clock and 9 o'clock respectively. They lie approximately in the center
of the bladder neck.
Calibers may vary between 1-2 mm for small vessels and 3-5 for larger
ones (see Illustrations 52 and 53, Plate IX).
3. Detection of Venous Bleeding During Surgery
As already observed at the outset, venous hemorrhage is barely or not at all

noticeable so long as the resection field is irrigated under pressure in excess
of that in the peripheral veins. Hydrostatic pressure within the full bladder
is considerably higher than the venous pressure and far from blood then escaping
from the venous system, irrigating fluid may enter it. Furthermore, even when
the intravesical pressure is quite low the dynamic pressure seen by veins under
full irrigating flow in the resection field may be so great as to render venous
bleeding undetectable.
a) Inspection of Irrigation Drainage
Bleeding from larger venous sinuses will become apparent as discoloration of

drained irrigating fluid. If initial drainage of the bladder yields fairly pale and
lightly blood-stained water followed by more heavily colored, bloody fluid at
the end of drainage, there is a high probability that a venous sinus has been
opened. If this observation is continued to the point of complete bladder empty-
ing one may even see pure, dark red, venous blood dripping out of the resecto-
scope sheath. These signs will be the more apparent the less the bladder was
overfilled. Beginners frequently overfill the bladder with the result that irrigating
fluid runs into the vein, only to return when the bladder is empty. This effect
may be corroborated by examining an open venous sinus under different condi-
tions of bladder filling. If the sinus is kept under view while fluid is drained
(particularly easy to achieve by means of the central stopcock on Storz instru-
Inspection of the Resection Field 279
ments), a few seconds will elapse before blood reappears in the lumen. Earlier
and more vigorous hemorrhage occurs if the bladder has been more slowly
and only partially distended, e.g., during inspection of the resection field for
bleeding points.
An explanation is thus provided for the following phenomenon:
Resection is undertaken with apparently slight blood loss. After removal
of the instrument, the catheter then proceeds to yield dark, almost pure blood.
What has happened is that at the end of the operation the surgeon unwittingly
incised a venous sinus. Since there was little or no arterial bleeding the instru-
ment was removed once the bladder had been filled. The extent of hemorrhage
only becomes apparent from the heavily blood-stained irrigating fluid draining
down the catheter.
b) Visible Blood in the Resection Field
Bleeding from venous sinuses will only become apparent during operation if
the irrigating flow is minimal and the bladder not filled to capacity. Even under
these conditions a fountain of blood like that due to arterial bleeders will never
be seen: the bleeding far more resembles gentle cloud formation. After all blood
does not squirt out of a sinus, it trickles, albeit in a quantity unmistakable
under correct observation conditions.
The search for and discovery of venous channels is considerably more diffi-
cult than for arteries, since even a slight irrigating jet may be enough to wash
blood away and irrigate into the lumen, so rendering the channel invisible.
It is thus essential to reduce irrigating flow to an absolute minimum and begin
inspection after complete emptying of the bladder. This should be slow and
extremely cautious. If the region of a blood cloud is gently approached, blood
will be seen to issue in dense streamers. Additional certainty of having discovered
a venous sinus may be gained by then increasing the irrigating flow and directing
the jet toward the suspicious area. First of all, blood will be washed away,
and the venous channels subsequently demonstrated by the entry of irrigating
fluid.
c) Inspection of the Resection Field
Experienced operators generally have little difficulty in detecting venous sinuses

during inspection of the operative field. The appearance of their slit-like, rather
irregular lumen is quite typical. That one is dealing with a venous sinus may
be definitely confirmed by observing the channel under gentle irrigation and
slow bladder filling.
Generally speaking, venous sinuses are incised toward the end of resection
and chiefly when the main bulk of adenoma has already been removed and
the capsule is being cleaned of glandular residues. At this stage arterial hemosta-
sis is already so far advanced that the irrigating fluid has only the slightest
pink discoloration. Visibility and field of view are therefore excellent within
the already virtually empty cavity.
If a venous sinus is incised under these conditions it is usually apparent
at the time of opening the channel itself.
4. Closure of Venous Sinuses
The coagulation of venous sinuses succeeds only in rare individual cases, mainly
due to the extremely tenuous wall of the vessel and the absence of an elastic
coat that could be so changed by coagulation as to close the vessel.
Attempts at coagulation usually merely render the lumen of the vessel wider
without in any way arresting bleeding, although it is reasonable to attempt
to "weld" the edges of smaller vessels together by tangential pressure. Some
years back I tried using a conical coagulating probe but once again I was
successful in only a few cases. HERTEL (1974) has published a technique which
is promising for certain cases, although only the most experienced operators
may find it easy to practice. A piece of tissue is resected close to the sinus
and placed in the lumen rather like a cork in a bottle. This idea sounds extremely
simple but actually harbors considerable technical difficulties, since first require-
ment is the "customization" of a tissue fragment to fit the lumen. The second
difficulty is to then so maneuver the chip into the lumen that it remains there,
even while the margins are being coagulated to retain it. Occasionally one suc-
ceeds in pressing a pedunculated tissue fragment, still attached by its base,
into the aperture. I have succeeded only a few times with this technique and
its broader application is doubtlessly hindered by its extreme technical sophisti-
cation.
Apart from the above two methods there is no instrumental or operative
way of closing venous sinuses. Other maneuvers must be undertaken immediate-
ly following operation, and these are still to be discussed (see Chap. N).
IV. Final Inspection of Hemostasis
After evacuating all resection material, a further inspection of the operative

field must always be made to ensure that complete hemostasis has been achieved.
The pumping action involved in evacuating the bladder may, after all, have
restarted hemorrhage from some small vessels and even occasionally from a
thoroughly coagulated large one.
The quality of hemostasis may be appreciated chiefly from the color of
the irrigating fluid. If it is returned from the bladder with merely a pale pink
tint one may always assume that hemostasis has been thorough. Whenever,
on the other hand, irrigating fluid is returned darker than "red gravy" a further
inspection of the operative field is required. It is an absolute rule that every
Summary 281
last arterial vessel must be closed by coagulation. No balloon catheter, whatever

its irrigating arrangement, will be capable of arresting arterial hemorrhage.
Only accurately placed coagulation will achieve this. Other techniques such
as running over the field with a roller or mushroom probe are quite unsuitable.
v. Summary
The preceding sections have given detailed descriptions of individual hemostatic

technique. The following is a summary of the fundamental rules:
1. Inspect the operative field under minimal irrigation.
2. Evacuate or scrape away all clots that impede the view.
3. Carefully clean the operative field, if necessary by means of small, smoothing
cuts, so as to achieve optimum visibility.
4. Coagulation of veins should only be attempted when all arteries have been
closed. Confine this to large veins, since unnecessary necrosis results from
an attack on barely perceptible oozing.
5. Make a final inspection of distal and proximal margins of the operative
field to be sure nothing is overlooked.
6. If one or more venous sinuses have been detected, an even more careful
search must be made for residual arterial bleeders, since the quality of arterial
hemostasis can no longer be measured by the color of the irrigating fluid.
7. Never depend on spontaneous or pharmacologic hemostasis or on technical
gadgets.
If these rules are carefully observed an uneventful postoperative course may
be anticipated.
Chapter G
Transurethral Bladder Surgery
I. Introduction
NITZE was the first to attempt removal of bladder tumors by the endoscopic
route. In 1909 BEER undertook the first electrosurgical destruction of a bladder
tumor. MCCARTHY and ALCOCK were the first to remove tumors of the bladder
using a resectoscope. In 1967 BARNES et al. were able to record that 80% of
all bladder tumors were better treated endoscopically than by open surgery.
Up to the 1950s electrocoagulation remained the treatment of choice for papil-
lary tumors of the bladder in a number of European centers. In the last 20
years American urological practice has had an increasing influence, so that
electroresection of bladder tumors is nowadays generally accepted. One principal
reason for this shift in emphasis was the uncertain fate of the tumor base
following coagulation. Furthermore, resection is considerably less time consum-
ing than coagulation, since the latter often required several sittings to destroy
large papillomas. Tumors of this type, up to the size of pigeon or chicken
eggs, can nowadays be rapidly removed in a single sitting.
Coagulation only remains justified for extremely small papillomas of less
than 1-2 mm diameter, which should first be removed with a small forceps
for histologic examination. The base of these tumors may then be destroyed
by coagulation. The technique is only briefly mentioned in this text for this
reason and since it has already become medical history apart from a few limited
applications. Equally, the suction method of HENNIG and LECHNIER (1932) is
now hardly ever practiced, and our younger colleagues have never encountered
it.
Resection is the only technique for the treatment of bladder tumors offering
potential cure of carcinoma. In addition, it is so much more rapid as to have
completely supplanted both coagulation and suction. The limits and suitability
of resection in the treatment of bladder carcinoma give rise to continuing contro-
versy. The battle lines are still in flux between those who advocate early cystec-
tomy and those who reserve it for special cases. Some degree of agreement
has recently been made possible by an accurate system for grading the malignan-
cy of a tumor and staging its depth of penetration. I hope to show in the
ensuing text that correct assessment of the indications and proper technique
still allow for some improvement in the results of transurethral surgery.
Laser coagulation, which has seen considerable development in the hands
of SCHMIEDT and HOFSTETTER and their Munich group remains in its infancy
284 Chapter G Transurethral Bladder Surgery
(HOFSTETTER et al. 1979). It is impossible to say at this present trial stage whether
the technique will prove to be superior to resection for the treatment of bladder
tumors, or whether it will become an aid to the achievement of greater radicality.
So far, there is good evidence for the efficiency of the laser at destroying bladder
tumors, so that we have now also begun trials with this new technique which
has such numerous advantages beside its single great disadvantage of financial
and technical cost.
II. Morbid Anatomy
There can only be reason to hope for a curative result from transurethral resec-
tion of a malignant bladder tumor if certain pathologic, anatomical and opera-
tive requirements are fulfilled.
The endoscopic method of operation is justified by the several millimeters
of muscle coat in the bladder wall, resulting in the technical feasibility of excising
a tumor with a surrounding margin of healthy tissue.
The chances of cure following an endoscopic procedure can only be assessed
if the tissue fragments are subsequently examined histologically for depth of
penetration. The morbid anatomist thus has a key role. His task is made consid-
erably more difficult by not receiving the operative specimen en bloc but in
numerous fragments. He can only decide whether the tumor has been excised
with a healthy margin, or only incompletely, if he receives the fragments in
a suitable directional arrangement or potted separately according to depth.
Only if he diagnoses the outer surface of the fragment, or tissue from deeper
layers, as being free of tumor can any likelihood of cure be assigned to the
operation.
Depth of penetration is easy to assess whenever the tumor has not invaded
the bladder wall extensively. The easiest cases are those in which the lamina
propria has not been breached and a fairly definite assessment can also be
made where early infiltration affects only the most superficial muscle layers,
since preservation of a directional arrangement in the specimen or tissue samples
from deeper layers will make it plain whether or not there is a tumor-free
margin.
An almost insoluble diagnostic problem confronts clinicians and pathologists
alike if the muscle coat is extensively infiltrated. It then becomes virtually impos-
sible to differentiate between T 2 and T 3a tumors (B2 and C in the classification
of Jewett).
Assessment becomes more clear-cut in cases where either clinical or physical
methods (radiology, ultrasound) have suggested perivesical infiltration.
The curative value of a transurethral tumor operation can thus only be
assessed when the histology report is available. Nevertheless, an experienced
and practiced endoscopic surgeon will make at least a tentative diagnosis at
the time of operation, since a large part of intramural operative technique is
concerned with the macroscopic distinction between infiltrated and tumor-free
Morbid Anatomy 285
Gl G2 G3
(n= 124) (n =183)
91 5 58 31 9 2 '/, 7 26 30 37'/,
Fig. 193. Malignant grade and penetration depth (in %) for papillary carcinoma (simplified). These
numerical data from our own clinic substantiate the well-known clinical impression that well-differen-
tiated papillary carcinomas tend to penetrate less deeply (and vice versa). (From MAUERMAYER
et al. 1978)
tissue. Naturally, such distinctions are extremely rough, although the suspicion
of deeply infiltrating carcinoma can often be confirmed by a carefully placed
biopsy in the appropriate area. The excellent magnifying power of endoscopic
optical systems has rendered macroscopic diagnosis considerably more certain
at the transurethral than by the open route. In the wake of a transurethral
tumor resection aimed at cure there may, therefore, arise the requirement either
for a further endoscopic operation involving deeper layers of the bladder, or
else for a more radical procedure such as partial or total cystectomy. In this
light, it is reasonable to look on a proportion of transurethral bladder tumor
resections as excision biopsies. This remark naturally excludes all those cases
in which preoperative investigations have already ruled out the possibility of
curative transurethral treatment.
A histologic grading of malignancy or of tumor type is more easily arrived
at if an adequate tissue sample is obtained both from the surface and the base
of the tumor. The vast majority of bladder tumors are transitional cell carcino-
mas among which 'true' bladder papillomas are rare. The malignant grade
of transitional cell carcinomas correlates to some extent with their depth of
penetration in the bladder wall. As shown in abbreviated form in Fig. 193 the
depth of penetration increases with malignancy, and vice versa. The vast majori-
ty (91 %) of all G, tumors in our practice had not crossed the lamina propria,
whereas 95% of all GIll tumors belonged to the stages T 2 _ T 4'
The long-standing clinical experience is thus confirmed that fronded papil-
lary tumors grow mainly toward the bladder lumen whereas sessile undifferen-
tiated tumors have a tendency to early infiltration.
III. Further Aspects of the Assessment

and Classification of Bladder Tumors
1. Site Within the Bladder
From a therapeutic point of view, tumors may be divided into those in surgically
accessible free parts of the bladder and those arising where the bladder is firmly
fixed to surrounding structures. The boundary between these areas is shown
by the oblique line in Fig. 194. This question of location within the bladder
is of less significance for transurethral treatment than for open surgical ap-
proach. The terms 'free' and 'fixed' portions of the bladder derive from the
ease of access to the bladder vault and the difficulty in reaching the more
fixed basal parts of the bladder. At least two-thirds of all tumors occur in
this latter basal area of the bladder (see Fig. 195). The location of a tumor
within the bladder will thus influence the preferred therapeutic modality. A
GIl to GIll tumor lying isolated in the vault will be better treated by extensive
partial cystectomy (even in an unfit patient). Because of the increased operative
risks, tumors of the bladder base of equal or similar grade will tend to be
treated transurethrally, all the more since this area is amenable to second look
resection including' controlled perforation.'
2. Tumor Morphology
Under the overall heading of tumor morphology we should consider two ana-
tomical aspects of the growth: its surface structure and its direction of growth.
Fig. 194. Free and fixed zones of the bladder. Above the broken line the bladder is mainly covered
by peritoneum or loose perivesical fat. Beneath the line it is firmly connected to surrounding structures
allowing resection by the correct technique to penetrate deeply into the muscular wall
Surface Structure 287
a b
Fig. 195 a, b. Percentage distribution of bladder tumors by site in various regions of the bladder.
a dorsal, b v entral. (After MOSTOFI 1956)
a) Surface Structure
The surface appearance will provide the experienced surgeon with some clue
as to whether histology will reveal a well-differentiated papillary or poorly differ-
entiated carcinoma (see Fig. 196). The dominant characteristics are delicacy
and pronouncement of the tumor villi. The finer their formation and the more
gently they float in the irrigating flow, the more likely they are to belong to
a well-differentiated carcinoma. Coarse lobular villi are likely to relate to a
higher grade of malignancy. The most malignant development from the basic
papillary type consists of a virtually solid growth with an irregular surface,
its variations in thickness being the sole remnant of papillary structure
(Fig. 197).
Illustrations 64-66 (Plate XI) and 67 (Plate XII) show the appearance of
individual types of bladder tumor. The lowest grade was that of the tumor
in Illustration 64 whose freely mobile and well-pronounced villi float gently
in the irrigating flow (histology: papillary carcinoma G,). The tumor in Illustra-
tion 73 (Plate XIII) was of somewhat higher grade malignancy; although its
papillary structure remains easily recognizable, individual villi arise in close
proximity and are partly united (histology: papillary carcinoma G, _II)' The
tumor in Illustration 67 is the most malignant: although some papillary struc-
tures remain visible in the foreground, a barely organized growth may be seen
behind (histology : papillary carcinoma GIl -III)'
The appearance of solid tumors is quite different. If they arise in basal
layers of the epithelium they are often difficult to recognize since they have
a macroscopically intact surface and may only be revealed by local rigidity
Fig. 196a, b. Diagrammatic representation of typical growth forms for G, and Gill carcinomas. a The
fine-structured growth has a mainly exophytic character. Infiltration of deeper layers is only rarely
seen. b Typical habit of a Gill carcinoma. Even quite modest-sized tumors infiltrate the bladder
muscle early. 1 Submucous and 2 intramuscular infiltration
1 1
Fig. 197. Growth habit of aggressive, highly malignant tumors such as squamous cell and undifferentiated
carcinomas. The endovesical portions of such tumors are often barely visible, while (1) submucous
and (2) intramuscular infiltration predominate. Endoscopic treatment of this type of tumor is only
possible in a few exceptional cases
of the bladder wall. With increasing size they tend to rise above the level of
the surrounding mucosa, although in the initial stages they will have a flattened,
rather unimpressive shape. Their margin is occasionally raised around a central
depression, reminding one of a crater, particularly if there is central ulceration.
Other types of growth also occur such as the classic 'cauliflower' in which
Direction of Growth 289
small spherical groups of tumors are united in an organized mass. Occasional

satellite lesions occur in the vicinity.
Submucous infiltration around the periphery of the growth deserves particu-
lar attention. This frequently appears merely as a slight elevation of the mucosa,
the latter appearing somewhat rigid during cystoscopy as the bladder fills and
empties and as the mucosa is scanned with the irrigating jet of the instrument
(dynamic cystoscopy, see p. 298). Such a rigid surrounding was demonstrated
for example around the margin of the tumor in Illustration 67 .
b) Direction of Growth
Papillary tumors as a group behave in a mainly' exophytic' way, i.e., they

tend to grow toward the lumen of the bladder and fortunately have, early
in their natural history, little propensity to infiltrate.
'Iceberg' behavior is certainly the most appropriate description for the way
solid tumors grow (see Fig. 198). Their chief bulk is intramural, even when
they appear superficially small. They grow not only unidirectionally in depth
but also outward around the periphery, even if this is hard to recognize. Not
infrequently, these solid growths extend deeply penetrating pegs into the depth
of the bladder wall. If the tumor is excised layer by layer, these pegs may
eventually be found penetrating perivesical fatty tissue. This phenomenon is
without exception highly malignant and markedly limits curability. In the same
context, early intralymphatic spread is of great significance.
Modes of Infiltration by Carcinoma of the Bladder
70% 27% 3%
Compact infiltrating Tentacutar Intramural

Mass Infiltration Lymphatic seedlings
Fig. 198. Modes of infiltration by carcinoma of the bladder. 70% of all tumors behave as a compact
infiltrating mass. 27% send tentacular processes between muscle fiber bundles in the bladder wall,
and 3% exhibit early intralymphatic seeding. (After JEWETT 1950)
3. Tumor Size
Once again two aspects need to be considered: the endovesical tumor bulk
and diameter at the tumor base.
a) Endovesical Tumor Bulk
Exophytic papillary growths not infrequently achieve extraordinarily volumi-

nous development, occasionally almost filling the bladder. They may be techni-
cally difficult to ablate and require considerable endoscopic operating experi-
ence. Tissue quantities of 100-200 g and more have been described (REUTER
1963), and we have had similar experiences. Illustration 66 (Plate XI) is represen-
tative of such a situation in which the bladder is virtually filled by tumor mass
and normal mucosa only visible in a few regions which then form the starting
point for endoscopic tumor resection. Carcinomas of this type are frequently
treated by excision of the tumor or even by cystectomy, despite the fact that
their usually low infiltrating potential makes them eminently suitable for cura-
tive endoscopic therapy. Surprisingly enough, the majority of these tumors have
little invasive tendency and develop on a narrow base. The endovesical bulk
of solid tumors is generally slight.
b) Diameter of the Tumor Base
The base of the tumor is only easily appreciated cystoscopic ally when no longer
covered by exophytic masses.
For solid tumors the base diameter correlates well with the depth ofpenetra-
tion.
The term 'tumor base' cannot be applied to large carpets of papillary neo-
plasm. The latter are an extensive form of growth arising in a wide area of
mucosa.
4. Solitary and Multiple Tumors
Whereas isolated papillary tumors are easily treated, mUltiple papillomatosis

makes considerable demands on the transurethral surgeon. The most difficult
situation arises where the bladder contains but a few islands of normal mucosa.
5. Recurrence Rates
The proliferative behavior of the urothelium is immensely variable. Among

our patients with recurrent bladder tumors there are some who develop new
growths every 6-8 weeks, whereas others remain disease free for many years
History 291
following a single operation. What is more, this behavior may change suddenly
for reasons unknown to us. Patients who were' regular customers' to our clinic
suddenly cease to form further tumors, yet some others whose check cystoscopies
had been clear for years suddenly start to have recurrences. This unpredictability
of bladder tumors is one of the factors necessitating the repeated assessment
of patients at intervals which should be adjusted to their personal recurrence
rate. Changes in grade of malignancy are just as unpredictable as the recurrence
rate. Patients with previously well-differentiated tumors present, for no apparent
reason, poorly differentiated recurrences. We have been unable to find any
definite relationship between changes in recurrence rate and in malignancy grade
(TAUBER and MAUERMAYER 1979).
On the other hand we concur with RUBBEN et al. (1978) in the view that
sinister changes in malignancy behavior and depth of penetration should lead
to an alteration of therapeutic strategy toward a more radical program of treat-
ment.
IV. Assessing the Patient
Preoperative assessment should deal with 4 sets of questions:

1. Where is the tumor located?
2. What is its histologic nature?
3. Is a transurethral or an open surgical approach to be preferred (depth of
infiltration, grade, site)?
4. What form of treatment will the patient's condition best allow him to toler-
ate?
A proportion of this information can be provided by suitable radiologic exami-
nation. Endoscopic examination under anesthesia together with bimanual palpa-
tion of the true pelvis retains a central position despite all advances in imaging
techniques. We hope in future to hear more of ultrasound diagnosis, both exter-
nal and endovesical.
Wide excision biopsy remains the mainstay of diagnosis and in a proportion
of cases is also curative treatment (see the above morbid anatomical aspects,
p.284).
2. History
Taking the case history forms an essential part of any clinical assessment, yet
it is of little interest when considering the indications for treatment. Only if
a patient complains of long-standing hematuria may one assume a tumor to
have been present for a considerable period. Pain in the flank may suggest
partial or complete obstruction of a ureter by tumor, and general cachexia

will point toward advanced tumor invasion. Painful frequent micturition not
infrequently occurs in relation to tumor necrosis and/or infection. Yet all these
features of the history are only of value in so far as they arouse suspicion
in advance of physical examination and investigation.
3. Radiologic Investigation
The various forms of radiologic examination combine with cystoscopy and bi-
manual palpation of the bladder to provide the bulk of information on size,
extent and type of bladder tumor.
a) Excretion Urogram
The greatest value of this investigation lies in its delineation of the upper urinary
tract where, apart from coincidental findings, interest will center on the freedom
or obstruction of urine flow to the bladder. Obstruction of one or both kidneys
or indeed unilateral nonfunction should always be regarded as of serious prog-
nostic significance. The problem may lie either in obstruction of flow by a
tumor adjacent to the ureteric orifice or in infiltration of the bladder base
by a distant lesion. Even small solid tumors adjacent to the orifice may interfere
partially or completely with urine flow and should be considered to have limited
curability, since they frequently have already penetrated the bladder wall in
the pre-existing tissue plane along Waldeyer's sheath, thus achieving a T 3B
stage. Growth within the ureter itself (see Illustration 76, Plate XIII) can only
be detected by the protrusion of tumor villi from the ureteric orifice, or if
at resection of the vesical end of the ureter, tumor infiltration is visible within
the lumen.
The bladder shadow is frequently displaced or distorted by filling defects
due to tumor. Such filling defects are particularly easy to see if the bladder
is only partially filled.
Maximum information may be extracted from this investigative technique
by the addition of oblique and after-micturition films.
b) Cystogram
Suspicious areas in the radiologic bladder image seen on IVU may be further
investigated by cystogram. Rigidity of the wall due to tumor infiltration can
be detected by step cystogram if the patient can be so positioned as to ensure
a tangential beam. We only rarely undertake this investigation since it has
few advantages over dynamic cystoscopy (see p. 296). The same is true of double
contrast cystogram despite the impressive pictures obtained.
Lymphangiogram 293
c) Cystourethrogram
The extent and degree of infiltration of a tumor adjacent to the internal meatus
and related deformity and infiltration of the urethra may be accurately detected
and assessed by this method. Its value is purely documentary, since the same
findings will be available from endoscopic examination.
d) Pelvic Angiogram
This complicated and invasive technique has failed to provide information which
was not available by the far simpler means of endoscopic examination under
anesthesia and bimanual palpation of the bladder with full muscle relaxation.
Once again, this investigation is only of diagnostic value if the tumor and
contrast-filled vessels are shown tangentially. The method fails to provide any
useful information on the depth of tumor penetration within the bladder wall.
On the other hand, perivesical infiltration is easily visualized, lying as it does
within the tangential beam. For these reasons, little is now heard about this
technique despite the excitement with which it was hailed a few years ago.
e) Computer Tomogram
This method is excellently suited for the diagnosis of perivesical infiltration.

On the other hand, infiltration of the bladder base or vault is less well seen
than if it affects the lateral walls. The method is not an aid to early diagnosis
but remains an excellent way of documenting extramural perivesical spread.
In this respect, computer tomogram is superior to the pelvic angiogram, since
areas of bladder wall may be assessed that are hidden to angiogram because
they lie out of reach of any possible tangential beam. The method is noninvasive
and well tolerated by patients.
1) Lymphangiogram
We do not generally employ this technique during the workup to transurethral

operations. Even its value prior to cystectomy is debatable, since first-level
lymph nodes of the obturator and internal iliac group are frequently not visual-
ized. Under typical circumstances where TUR of a bladder tumor may be indi-
cated (usually endoscopic clearance of a highly differentiated, noninvasive
tumor), the likelihood of positive lymph node metastases is, furthermore, so
slight that the diagnostic effort involved is out of all proportion to its benefit
for the patient.
If, on the other hand, stepwise resection of a tumor reveals that organ-
preserving methods are unable to control the disease, lymph angiogram should
be performed for preoperative staging of the tumor prior to radical surgery.
Lymphangiography cannot be repeated, and its application to papillary

bladder tumors is, therefore, ruled out in view of the high recurrence rate of
the disease.
4. Ultrasound in Diagnosis
Ultrasound is the most recent imaging technique. At the time of completing

this manuscript, results were not yet available from large, well-documented
series, neither for external nor intraluminal examination (late 1980).
Experience so far (NAKAMURA and NIIJIMA 1980) suggests that the technique
of endovesical bladder wall scanning may be capable of providing good informa-
tion on depth of penetration.
5. Cystoscopy
Carried out under general anesthesia, with muscle relaxation, and combined
with bimanual palpation of the true pelvis, preoperative cystoscopy remains
the fundamental and decisive investigation. No other method has been able
to replace direct inspection of the diseased organ.
Since anesthesia is essential for this examination, biopsy of the tumor -
or even complete ablation of small growths - may and should be undertaken
in the same sitting, thus saving the patient a further anesthetic.
b) Diagnostic Cystoscopy
Since examination of the bladder may now be undertaken with a series of

telescopes of varying angles of view, the likelihood of overlooking a bladder
tumor has become negligible (Fig. 199). Minute papillary proliferation of the
mucosa was occasionally invisible to earlier telescopes of poor resolving power.
We always inspect the bladder with a variety of telescopes from the available
range of Hopkins systems with viewing angles of 30°, 70° and 120°. The moder-
Fig. 199a-c. Examination ofthe bladder with telescopes ofvarying angle ofview. a This mainly forward- I>
viewing telescope is well able to visualize large areas of the bladder. However, a tumor in the
bladder neck region is obscured from view by an endovesical adenoma. b Even a wide-angled 70°
telescope is unable to see the tumor in this example. although the field of view comes very much
closer to it. c Only the 120° retrograde viewing telescope is able to make the diagnosis. This example
shows clearly that complete examination of the urinary bladder frequently requires the use of several
different telescopes. In particular, inspection of the bladder neck region in the presence of an endovesi-
cal prostatic adenoma may require a retrograde system
Diagnost ic Cystoscopy 295
c
ate angulation and enlarged image obtained for a given distance from the object
(by comparison to wide-angled systems) make the 30° telescope particularly
suitable for the inspection of local detail.
The 70° telescope is intended as a general diagnostic system, and its wide
angle of view has a partly retrograde segment if one accepts any field of view
beyond a right angle as retrograde.
The 120° system is a truly retrograde-viewing telescope allowing inspection
of otherwise invisible regions of the bladder adjacent to the internal meatus,
even in the presence of an endovesical bulge of prostatic adenoma.
The use of a variety of telescopes is thus obligatory if all areas of the bladder
are to be accurately seen.
Such a requirement is of particular importance in relation to tumors present-
ing as microscopic hematuria. Unless the mucosa of all areas of the bladder
and bladder neck has been carefully inspected the bladder should not be pro-
nounced tumor free.
c) Examination of the Internal Meatus
In the male this region can only be properly examined if good anesthesia allows
free movement of the instrument in terms both of lateral abduction and of
dorsal depression of the eyepiece, so as to visualize the ventral transition from
prostatic urethra to bladder vault. Examination of this region is rendered consid-
erably easier by a 120° retrograde-viewing telescope, since the usual wide excur-
sions are then no longer required (see Fig. 199).
This does not, however, solve the problem which will arise at operation,
where a 0° or 30° telescope will have to be employed. For this reason, it is
usual to start by ablating obstructing areas of the prostate so as to render
visible the otherwise blind zone in the immediate vicinity of the internal meatus,
whence tumor is then easily removed as necessary. Patients should be informed
of this requirement prior to operation.
Illustration 65 (Table XI) demonstrates this situation. A carpet of papillary
tumor spreads from the bladder vault down toward the internal meatus and
is only visualized by counterpressure on the vault. A small, isolated papillary
tumor is visible at the transition from posterior wall to vault.
d) Dynamic Cystoscopy
Cystoscopy is usually undertaken in a static fashion. By this I mean that the

bladder is cleared by irrigation and then inspected in a given static state of
distension. By contrast, dynamic cystoscopy employs two further factors avail-
able with most modern instruments:
1. Examination of the bladder during influx and egress of irrigating fluid.
2. Scanning of the bladder wall with a collimated jet of irrigating fluid. This
principle was first realized in the water-jet cystoscope of MAY (1953).
Examination of the Ureteric Orifices 297
The same principle is employed in step cystogram, a radiologic technique for

detecting immobile regions of bladder wall adjacent to tumor.
Cystoscopic examination has the great advantage over radiology that the
diseased organ itself can be carefully examined from within and that the surgeon
himself receives direct information on the field of the planned operation. This
is why we desist from extensive radiologic investigation of the bladder, since
the resulting information would still have to be corroborated cystoscopically.
Technique of Dynamic Cystoscopy
1. Examination of the bladder under varying conditions of filling.

The basic principle is simple. The bladder is examined as irrigating fluid
runs in and drains away, the instrument being somewhat retracted during
drainage so as not to interfere with the process. Certain areas of the bladder,
e.g., the vault, but also regions of the lateral wall, are better seen when
the bladder is not overfilled. Furthermore, the vault of a partially filled
bladder is more easily visualized with counterpressure from above. The mech-
anism of' kissing' metastasis from a tumor on the opposite side of the bladder
will then be easily appreciated. Rigidity of the bladder wall around the periph-
ery of a tumor may also be demonstrated. Only thus may the true extent
of a tumor in the submucous and intramural plane be detected optically.
Regions of the bladder normally hidden to inspection, e.g. the bladder vault
in the presence of an endovesically extensive adenoma, are more easily offered
up to the telescope by external pressure (Figs. 200 and 201).
2. Examination by scanning of the bladder wall with the irrigating jet.
A collimated irrigating jet enables the bladder wall to be palpated from
within. With the bladder only moderately filled, it may be seen how soft
areas bulge away while tough, infiltrated zones remain rigid and immobile.
This internal palpation of the bladder allows the detection of submucous
infiltration even where the mucosa itself appears innocent (Fig. 202).
e) Examination ofthe Ureteric Orifices
Whenever a tumor occurs in the vicinity of the lower ureter, the orifice itself
should be carefully identified prior to surgery. If a papillary tumor lies close
to the orifice, the latter may be demonstrated by washing away the villi. Some
models of resectoscope will accept an operating element allowing catheterization
of the ureters. A ureteric catheter can then be placed within the ureter and
left there during surgery if the instrument is withdrawn and reintroduced beside
the catheter. The landmark thus provided is frequently useful.
The same device may be used either diagnostically or for urinary drainage
at the end of resection when the ureteric orifice has been dissected clear. If
a dense carpet of papilloma covers the orifice, indigo carmine should be injected
in an attempt to detect the point whence the blue dye issues. Infiltrating carcino-
mas frequently render such efforts pointless, since intravenous urogram will
Fig. 200a, b. Dynamic cystoscopy: detection of tumor infiltration by observation of the bladder wall
under different fIlling conditions. a With the bladder tensely full, rigidity in one area of the bladder
wall goes unnoticed. Only the exophytic part of the tumor is visible. bAs the bladder slowly empties
the region rendered rigid by submucous and intramural infiltration becomes more obvious. The
same principal applies to examination of the bladder wall by step cystography. Cystoscopic examina-
tion however is of greater value to an endoscopic surgeon, since it provides additional data for
subsequent surgery to the diseased organ
already have revealed ureteric obstruction or nonfunction of the kidney. Occa-

sionally, small villi of papilloma may be seen protruding from the orifice itself
and they are rendered more obvious by a bolus of urine. Alternatively, the
orifice may be 'inflated' with the irrigating jet and this occasionally reveals
such papillary growths.
1) Determining the Size of the Tumor Base
The surface appearance of the tumor has already been mentioned. It remains
here to discuss methods for determining the size of its base. This value has
Determining the Size of the Tumor Base 299
Fig.20la, b. Dynamic cystoscopy: inspection of the full and empty bladder. a Appearance of the
full bladder. It is easy to miss the small tumor on the anterior wall of the bladder adjacent to
the bladder neck at a superficial inspection and if the examiner is mesmerised by the impressive
tumor on the posterior wall. b As the bladder empties the large tumor approaches the anterior
wall. In fact, both tumors touch. This may lead to discovery of the smaller tumor as well as providing
a possible explanation for some types of implantation metastasis
a clinical significance in relation to infiltrating carcinomas whose depth of pene-

tration may thus be estimated. The experienced examiner will have no difficulty
in this determination while the beginner may wish to make use of a ureteric
catheter with a centimeter scale. This can be advanced into the bladder and
angulated to lie across the bladder wall beside the tumor. In our experience,
solid tumors with a base diameter of greater than 1 em have already infiltrated
the muscle coat and should be regarded at least as T 2 _ T 3 B tumors, if not
as stage C.
Stepwise resection in individual layers (extended excision biopsy) will then
be strongly indicated.
Fig. 202. Dynamic cystoscopy: scanning the bladder wall with the irrigating jet. In the upper part
of the figure it may be seen how the bladder wall is gently impressed by the irrigating jet. Below,
note the rigidity of the infiltrated wall
The situation is different with papillary tumors whose low infiltrating poten-
tial we have already mentioned. Conversely, measurement of their base diameter
is often difficult, since clouds of tumor villi tend to overhang. Once again,
the rule holds good that broad-based tumors of this type are likely to be more
malignant and more deeply infiltrating than those on a thin stalk (fine tumor
carpets are an exception to this rule).
g) Examination of Diverticula
A bladder diverticulum frequently contains tumor invisible to superficial exami-

nation. This preference of tumors for diverticular mucosa must surely arise
from the increased contact time of suspected carcinogens in the urine with
the mucosa. The increased frequency of tumors of the bladder base is also
often mentioned in support of this causal theory (KNAPPENBERGER et al. 1960;
GOBEL 1966).
Cystoscopy should, therefore, never be terminated without inspection of
the diverticulum or diverticula. Occasionally, a minute villus of papilloma may
be seen protruding from the mouth or over the margin of a diverticulum, provid-
ing a clue that tumor lies within. If the opening into the bladder is narrow
it may have to be incised endoscopically at one or more points until it is wide
enough to accept the instrument and allow it adequate freedom of movement.
This is the only protection against missing tumors within diverticula, which
constitute 7% of the overall frequency.
Illustration 78 (Plate XIII) demonstrates the results of resecting a bladder
tumor on the margin of and within a diverticulum. The diverticular orifice
was widened at operation by incision and the portions of tumor within the
diverticulum were then removed. Subsequent cicatrization has somewhat nar-
rowed the diverticular orifice again.
Resectoscope Biopsy 301
h) Vaginal (Rectal) Palpation

During Cystoscopy
A combination of cystoscopy and palpatory exploration of the bladder base

in a single examination is sometimes informative, e.g., when a region of infiltra-
tion is seen on the base of the bladder. It may then be possible to decide
whether one is dealing with an inflammatory or neoplastic change. Biopsy,
particularly of deeper layers, is more easily carried out if combined with vaginal
(rectal) palpation. The same combination may be of use in elucidating the con-
verse situation, where vaginal (rectal) thickening is felt, and one wishes to know
which area of the bladder base it is related to.
6. Bladder Biopsies
Since, for the above reasons, diagnostic cystoscopy should always be undertaken
under anesthesia, biopsy may be carried out at the same time. Two methods
are available.
a) Biopsy by Endoscopic Forceps
If the initial examination is by cystoscope rather than resectoscope, the viewing

element should be exchanged for an endoscopic biopsy forceps. The largest
possible tissue samples are obtained from the surface and base of the tumor
and fixed in formalin. This maneuver may be quite difficult in some regions
of the bladder, e.g., around the internal meatus. Difficulty may also arise in
the vault. The biopsy forceps have the disadvantage that subsequent hemorrhage
may require further work with a coagulating probe. Tissue fragments thus ob-
tained are considerably smaller than those available by excision with the resec-
toscope loop. The tumor base can only be excised with considerable difficulty
by the forceps.
b) Resectoscope Biopsy
We prefer to inspect the tumor with a resectoscope. Because of the wide variety
of available inserts and telescopes this brings no disadvantages of thoroughness
or visibility. Biopsy is then undertaken with an electrotome inserted in place
of the diagnostic telescope. Since the majority of our patients undergo this
examination under anesthesia with a pre-existing diagnosis of bladder tumor,
we are able to combine a thorough preoperative cystoscopy with tumor resec-
tion. Not only is the patient thus spared an additional anesthetic, but his stay
in hospital is also considerably shortened.
It is then also possible to resect areas of prostate and widen the internal
meatus as required for better visualization of concealed regions of the bladder,
as discussed above. Diverticular orifices may be incised at the same sitting.

The patient should, therefore, be completely prepared and informed of all possi-
ble consequences of the procedure.
Naturally, surgery is undertaken in our transurethral operating room.
If it is planned to follow on with resection immediately after examination
under anesthesia, bimanual palpation is carried out prior to tumor ablation;
if only biopsy is planned, palpation concludes the procedure.
Forceps biopsy is sometimes followed by persistent trickling hemorrhage.
We therefore, advise careful hemostasis with a coagulating probe and inspection
of the result with irrigation fully turned off. If proper hemostasis cannot be
achieved in a villous tumor, it may be better to proceed directly to its complete
removal or to pass an indwelling catheter with closed irrigation for 12-24 h,
despite the minor nature of the procedure.
7. Bimanual Examination Under Anesthesia
The desired information will only be gained if the patient is fully relaxed
(Fig. 203). In the male, examination is via the rectum, just as for the prostate.
Tumors of the bladder base are palpated for separability from or fixation
to the prostate. Unless the patient is excessively obese, these bladder base infil-
trations are easily palpable above the prostate.
Fig. 203. Bimanual examination under anesthesia. Rectoabdominal (vaginoabdominal in the female)
bimanual palpation gives valuable information on the degree of infiltration of a tumor. Complete
muscle relaxation is required
Tumors of the lateral bladder wall are easily palpable between two hands
and their size may be estimated by rolling them between the fingertips. Their
mobility may be examined by attempting to move them from side to side.
Perivesical infiltration fixing the bladder to the lateral pelvic wall will be equally
palpable by the same token as infiltrations of the fascial sheath, described by
JEWETT (1950) as the 'inferolateral ligament,' palpable only if infiltrated by
tumor.
MARSHALL (1952) reports an exceptionally firm correlation (81 %) between
the presence of palpable induration on bimanual examination, persisting after
transurethral resection, and the presence of a deeply infiltrating tumor (stage
B2 and C) rather than a superficial one (A or Bl)'
Bimanual examination yields particularly impressive results for primarily
infiltrating carcinomas where the cystoscopic finding is merely one of a flat
ulcerating tumor. Yet palpation may reveal extensive perivesical infiltration.
By revealing deep penetration of the tumor and fixation of the bladder, bimanual
examination may, therefore, save the patient a trial of excision or a frustrated
attempt at partial resection.
V. Operating on Bladder Tumors
The simplicity of the technique may occasionally seduce some surgeons into
coagulating 'bladder papillomas' in their consulting rooms. No doubt, this
procedure has certain closely defined indications, which will be discussed later.
Generally, however, the removal of a bladder tumor is an operation requiring
careful preparation of the patient, availability of an operating room and access
to its entire range of instruments. Unfortunately, patients repeatedly appear
in our clinic having been 'burnt' several times by their urologist in his own
rooms without any impression having been made on the tumor base. A further
factor militates against such outpatient treatment: following coagulation of a
'papilloma,' all possibility of histologic classification is lost. However small
a tumor, therefore, it should always be excised. This may be possible under
local anesthesia on an outpatient basis.
F or small tumors, the duration of inpatient stay is usually only 1, maximally
3 days. The procedure can then be performed under aseptic conditions in an
operating room.
2. Coagulation of Bladder Tumors
At the time of my training in the mid 1950s, this was the method of choice.
Large 'papillomas' had to be removed in several sittings with a coagulating
Fig. 204. Miniaturized biopsy forceps for diagnostic cystoscopes. Such a biopsy forceps of only 5-Ch
diameter is even available for the 15.5-Ch instrument we use. Thus biopsies of small tumors may
be carried out through fine caliber instruments. This is the prerequisite for coagulating small recur-
rences, which should not be treated without histologic diagnosis
probe, frequently under poor visibility since the limited irrigating power of
operating cystoscopes was at that time quite inadequate to maintain visibility
once hemorrhage occurred.
If I repeatedly place the word 'papilloma' in quotation marks this has a
good reason. True papillomas are a much less common form of tumor than
one usually imagines. The majority of so-called papillomas are already early
carcinomas. Their true nature can, therefore, only be recognized if an adequate
fragment is available for histologic investigation. Precisely this is rendered im-
possible if small papillomas are coagulated, unless of course coagulation is
preceded by forceps biopsy of the tumor, the wound in the bladder then being
coagulated for hemostasis. Frequently recurring tumors are the very ones with
a tendency to increase their grade of malignancy, and this seems to me to
represent a further hazard of' automatic' coagulation. A small pea-sized papil-
loma is seen at check cystoscopy and is immediately coagulated so as to save
the patient hospital admission. In all likelihood, viable proliferative cells will
be left behind.
Coagulation should, therefore, be restricted to a few exceptional cases. Only
small, really finely villous tumors of truly papillomatous appearance should
be destroyed by coagulation. The limit lies at a diameter of 1-3 mm, and even
here flexible biopsy forceps should be used to remove a small piece for histology,
since this represents no additional burden on the patient. For this purpose,
we use a forceps capable of passing the 5-Ch operating channel of diagnostic
instruments (Fig. 204).
b) Technique of Coagulation
The technique of coagulating these small tumors is simple. The probe is brought
into contact with the tumor and coagulating current applied by the footswitch.
Repeated dabbing at its surface will destroy the tumor down to its base within
Local Anesthesia for Coagulation and Small Resections 305
Fig. 205a, b. Technique of coagulating small papillomas. a The coagulating probe is laid against
the base of a small papillary tumor and cutting current applied. b A wiping movement pushes
the small tumor off the base of its stalk. This base will require further thorough coagulation with
a small button probe
a few minutes, the tissue turning progressively white and being partly disinte-
grated by the current into fine flakes. The tumor base itself should then be
exposed to prolonged coagulation. Previous current has compacted the tissue
and crusted its surface, thus markedly reducing conductivity. This is one reason
why tumor cells may survive in the base of a papilloma. Toward the end of
the procedure, if I ever perform it, I employ a small 5-Ch probe giving increased
current density. This enables me to destroy the stalk below the level of the
surrounding bladder. The method of 'wiping off' is considerably simpler and
more rapid. The probe is applied straight to the base of the papilloma and
cutting current (not coagulating) used to divide the stalk and thus wipe away
the tumor in toto (Fig. 205). This maneuver is frequently successful in thin
stalked tumors. The growth is then evacuated and its base further coagulated,
this time with a somewhat wider probe.
It has been our practice to follow coagulation of bladder papillomas with
the instillation of 1% silver nitrate solution into the bladder, where it is left
for 5 min and then cleared by irrigation with physiologic saline. The effect
of this therapy has never been proven, but it is based on the concept that
some cells may have survived coagulation without devitalization and may thus
be capable of giving rise to new papillomas. I have never seen adverse effects
from this additional treatment, but I am quite unable to prove whether my
belief in it is justified.
c) Local Anesthesia for Coagulation and Small Resections
Under some circumstances, local anesthetic techniques may be suitable. Certain

requirements must be fulfilled:
1. The histologic diagnosis must be known or else secured by biopsy prior
to coagulation.
2. A papillary tumor should be small and have a thin stalk.
Fig. 206 a-f. Technique of local anesthesia for small papillary tumors. a, c Inserting the injection
needle at the base of the tumor. b, d Injection of local anesthetic lifts the tumor above bladder
level to form a small hillock. This facilitates its removal, even with a resectoscope loop. e, f The
same technique in relation to a small carpet tumor. Once again, local anesthesia can be employed
without difficulty, although it may be necessary to inject in several places
Healing After Coagulation 307
3. The tumor should be within easy reach of the endoscope. Growths on the
bladder vault or close to the internal meatus are unsuitable because of the
wide excursions of the instrument needed during surgery. The latter are fre-
quently more painful than the operation itself.
The candidates are frequently patients whose recurrent tumors repeatedly have
the same appearance and in whom previous examinations have always revealed
the same degree of histologic differentiation (true papillomas or G, tumors).
Local anesthesia is simple (see Fig. 206). An endoscopic needle is used to
inject 1%-2% novocaine or scandicaine solution under the mucosa close to
the base of the tumor, but well clear of its visible extent, so as to raise a
bleb of a few milliliters. During injection submucous edema may be seen to
raise up the tumor. Coagulation should then commence immediately. For these
small tumors, I use the finest possible probe so as to achieve the greatest in-depth
effect. Once the surface is completely destroyed, I further coagulate the center
of the stalk with additional pressure on the probe. This can be done without
any fear of perforation, since the liquid bleb under the tumor has adequately
separated the site of operation from the deep tissues.
Under the above circumstances, coagulation under local anesthesia on an
outpatient basis is entirely acceptable.
Resection under local anesthesia is equally possible if the tumor is in a region
easily accessible to the instrument, i.e., mainly on the bladder base. Local anes-
thesia is induced in the same fashion as described above for coagulation. Resec-
tion, however, requires considerable care. Before starting to cut, one should
test for the completeness of anesthesia using coagulating current in order to
prevent uncontrolled involuntary movement on the part of the patient. Only
after this check should the tumor be excised in the usual fashion with the
cutting loop. It goes without saying that the indications for this procedure
are extremely limited. It should be reserved for small tumors on the base of
the bladder and undertaken with an instrument of the smallest possible diameter,
since large caliber instruments cannot be introduced in the male without pain
or at least considerable discomfort. We have achieved good results with the
new resectoscope after ENGBERG of only 20-Ch diameter (ENGBERG 1980, per-
sonal communication).
The minor nature of the procedure allows it to be performed on an outpatient
basis. Coagulation under local anesthesia is painless, the only discomfort being
due to movement of the instrument within the urethra. The prophylactic admin-
istration of antibiotics is unnecessary with good surgical technique.
d) Healing After Coagulation
In the days when larger papillomas were treated by coagulation the stalk would
occasionally be sloughed and urinated out or in rare cases become encrusted
and form the nucleus of a phosphatic calculus. Similar encrustations of necrotic
tissue are sometimes seen following resection but are usually passed spontane-
ously. Small papilloma wounds heal so well within a few weeks that the scar
can only be detected as a whitish area on most careful inspection of the mucosa.
Coagulation of large papillomas and resection of bladder tumors alike will
give rise to a radiate whitish scar which is poorly vascularized. It is rare to
find recurrences within this scar.
3. Electroresection of Bladder Tumors
It was probably ALCOCK who first removed a bladder tumor by electroresection

rather than coagulation. This method has now become the general rule, since
the operation is considerably simpler and more radical, once the technique
has been mastered. Large tumors and papillomatosis of the bladder may equally
be controlled by resection, although the danger of perforating the bladder is
undeniably greater than with coagulation.
Since the operative technique for papillomas and carcinomas differs only
in the depth to which carcinoma tissue must be traced within the bladder muscu-
lature, I have not subdivided the discussion into separate sections on papilloma
and carcinoma. Indications and technique of resection in relation to bladder
carcinoma will be discussed along with controlled perforation and resection
within the deeper layers of bladder musculature.
b) Anesthesia for the Resection of Bladder Tumors
Quite apart from local techniques, as described above, regional (lumbar, epi-
dural) or general anesthesia may be employed. For many years we preferred
intubation and muscle relaxation, hoping thus to prevent muscle contractions
due to stimulation of the obturator nerve. High-frequency cutting current tends
to initiate such sudden and forceful jerks during surgery on the lateral wall
of the bladder.
According to FLACHENECKER (1978), these faradic stimulating currents arise
by the rectification of high-frequency current (itself incapable of nerve stimula-
tion) in the arc burning between cutting loop and tissue, thus exposing the
obturator nerve to dc components. Among the many muscles receiving a motor
supply from this nerve, it is chiefly the adductors and the obturator externus
that give rise to the much-feared twitches. Since the lateral wall of the bladder
is in close proximity to the obturator nerve, stimulation may occur whenever
high-frequency current is employed in this vicinity. The hopes placed by our-
selves and others in the effect of muscle relaxants have unfortunately not borne
fruit (HOBIKA and CLARKE 1961). From the point of view of avoiding such
contractions, it is, therefore, of no import whether regional or general anesthesia
are employed.
Instruments for Resection of Bladder Tumors 309
c) Methods of Avoiding Obturator Stimulation
The only certain way to avoid such muscle contraction is to interrupt nerve
conduction by local block. Various techniques have been suggested:
1. Injection by a perineal approach (CREVY 1969)
2. Injection through the obturator foramen, a routine technique in local anesthe-
Sia
Good results have been reported for both methods. I would attach importance
to testing the completeness of nerve block, as advocated by TAUBER et al. (in
press) by means of a measuring probe. One will otherwise find oneself working
with a false sense of security in a region where muscle contractions may still
be initiated and be completely surprised by a muscle contraction due to failure
of the block.
All other techniques, such as the use of spark gap current, continuous nerve
stimulation prior to resection or the use of high doses of muscle relaxant are
not guaranteed to be effective. By the present state of our knowledge, local
anesthesia of the obturator nerve should be regarded as the most effective tech-
nique.
d) High-Frequency Current for the Resection of Bladder Tumors
We use the same apparatus as for prostatic resections but reduce the cutting
current as far as possible so as to avoid initiating muscle contractions (seen
with vacuum tube and solid-state generators alike) in the lateral wall regions
of the bladder. Strangely enough, muscle contractions are considerably less
frequent if cutting is by means of the spark gap generator actually intended
for coagulation. Modern diathermies do not employ a spark gap and their
coagulating current has too poor a cutting power to be useful for surgical
dissection.
The instrument designed by FLACHENECKER (1979, personal communication)
may bring some improvement since an integrated control circuit allows one
to work with minimal current intensity, giving rise only to rare and weak con-
tractions.
e) Instruments for Resection of Bladder Tumors
We use the same resectoscope as we employ for prostatic surgery, i.e., a 24-Ch
instrument. Patients having frequent recurrences and therefore needing frequent
follow-up examinations benefit from the use of a 22- or 20-Ch resectoscope
because of the reduced likelihood of urethral trauma.
ENGBERG (1980, personal communication) has developed an instrument
mainly for the treatment of tumor recurrences and satisfying all these require-
ments. Its diameter is only 20-Ch, its irrigating power is more than adequate
and it has an operating channel able to accept a needle for local anesthesia.
The cutting loop should also be of thinner gauge than for prostatic resection
so as to cut more sharply with lower current intensities. We frequently resect
bladder tumors using cutting loops eroded during a number of previous prostatic
resections. The wire has been consumed along the central portion of the loop,
thus rendering them extremely fine. Such loops are stored in special containers
and reserved for the present purpose.
4. Technique of Bladder Tumor Resection
a) Horizontal Approach
The simplest case will be the removal of a solitary papillary tumor on the
bladder base at a safe distance from the ureteric orifices. The technique to
be employed in such cases is the one most easily explained and most suitable
to be practiced by a beginner under supervision. By analogy to the NESBIT
(1943) technique of resection, the tumor is ablated in layers from above down-
ward (Fig. 207 a), avoiding subdivision of the tumor by any excessively deep
cut (horizontal technique) (see also SCHMIDT and ANWAR 1979).
b) Vertical Approach
A second possible technique is to ablate the tissue from above downward along
one margin of the tumor (Fig. 207 b), then proceeding to an adjacent portion
until the whole tumor has been removed to the level of the bladder mucosa
(vertical approach).
We tend to use the first method, the horizontal approach, for more or
less spherical tumors extending mainly upward toward the lumen of the bladder.
A vertical approach is recommended for broadly extensive growths.
c) Dividing the Stalk
A third technique consists of dividing the stalk of small tumors and then evacuat-
ing the main growth in one piece (Fig. 207 c).
In practice, one will tend to instinctively combine all three methods into
a single fluid process rather than systematically dividing them.
Very large, overhanging 'mushroom' tumors may be resected in quite large
pieces if individual cuts are placed from above downward toward the side of
the stalk. Because of their great flexibility there is rarely any difficulty in evacuat-
ing these tissue lumps. They are easily moulded.
The Resection of Large Exophytic Growths 311
a b
Fig. 207 a-c. Principal forms of operative technique. a Horizontal approach. The tumor is ablated
from its surface downwards in successive layers until the base is reached. This technique is suitable
for medium large tumors that are easily visualized. In this type of resection blood vessels cannot
be coagulated until the tumor has been completely removed , since coagulation will be unsuccessful
in the soft tumor tissue. b Ablation in a radial direction. This is the typical approach to large
tumors, the margin of which is not easy to see endoscopically. After removal of each individual
segment careful hemostasis is carried out at the base of the tumor. It is occasionally difficult to
maintain orientation during this technique, since residual tumor floats into the way. c Ablation
of a large tumor at its stalk. Easily visualized tumors with a pronounced stalk can be removed
very much more rapidly if the stalk is divided at the level of the surrounding mucosa by a series
of cuts. The evacuation even of large fragments becomes simple employing a glass syringe with
a metal piston and attached in an airtight fashion to the sheath
d) The Resection of Large Exophytic Growths
This operation makes considerable technical demands on the transurethral

surgeon. It should, therefore, only be undertaken by those with appropriate
experience. On preoperative examination, the situation within the bladder is
often so difficult to visualize and so unclear that doubts arise as to the resectabi-
lity per se of the main tumor bulk by the endoscopic route. Only full distension
of the bladder will finally reveal a zone of intact unchanged mucosa. The appear-
ance is particularly impressive in cases where tumor masses bulge into the field
of view immediately around the internal meatus (see Illustrations 66, Plate XI,
and 17, Plate III). The basic rules for all such cases are as follows:
1. Start operating at one place at a time. Wherever tissue ablation is com-
menced - where is frequently immaterial- the operation should be contin-
ued. The first step is to make room for movements of the loop as surgery
progresses.
2. Operation should continue where it was begun until resection reaches the
base of the tumor.
3. The experienced surgeon will tell from the appearance of the tumor villi
that he is approaching the base - they become progressively less organized.
Shallower slices should be taken in this region.
4. Shallow cuts are used to smooth the base and are immediately followed
by careful hemostasis.
5. Once such a free zone has been created, it forms a starting point from
which to clear a further area of the bladder.
6. If the tumor partly or completely involves the internal meatus this region
should be cleared first, since orientation is easy at the transition to normal
mucosa in the bladder neck. The internal meatus is best exposed in a seg-
mental fasion starting on the surface of the tumor and working toward
its base. Only when one segment is complete should a second one be at-
tacked.
7. If a tumor stalk comes into view one should not hesitate to divide it, even
if this means creating a large, free floating tumor mass within the bladder.
It is nearly always easy to evacuate.
8. Fragments of tumor growing on the ventral aspect of the bladder will sink
down into the bladder base and create the impression of further tumor
in that region. Regular evacuation of resection debris with a glass pistoned
syringe is required. Only such syringes create enough suction to draw large
tumor fragments through the resectoscope sheath. Evacuators of the Ellik
type are too weak.
9. Tumor masses on the vault are often easier to excise if an assistant presses
down on the abdominal wall. Muscle relaxation is required.
10. In some regions of the bladder wall a scythe loop is useful. To accelerate
the changeover from normal to scythe loop and back, have 2 electro tomes
ready, each fitted with a different loop.
11. After l-h operating time, final hemostasis should be commenced and contin-
ued until the irrigating fluid returns with only the merest pink discoloration.
Reactionary hemorrhage is often difficult to control under the poor visibility
in the operative field.
12. If the procedure cannot be concluded within an hour it is better to consider
a second sitting.
Such rules can naturally never replace years of experience, but they may never-
theless provide helpful suggestions in a variety of situations.
A well-practiced surgeon can easily remove 100-150 g of tumor tissue within
the hour, more under favorable conditions. Mere exophytic extent is not an
indication for any well-trained transurethral surgeon to open the bladder supra-
pubically and remove the tumor by that route.
e) Hemostasis
The smaller the tumor, the more one may defer hemostasis until the tumor
is completely removed and the supplying vessels easily seen at its base. With
Hemostasis 313
Fig. 208. Diagrammatic representation of hemostatic technique during a bladder tumor operation. The
feeding vessel is frequently difficult to see between individual muscle fibers. The technique is identical
to that for prostatic resection. The vessel is coagulated with the cutting loop
larger tumors resected by the vertical approach it is advisable to take hemostatic

measures at the base each time resection reaches the level of the bladder mucosa.
The self evident truth that good visibility is the result of good hemostasis was
mentioned in relation to prostatic adenomas but is no less applicable to bladder
tumors.
It is almost impossible to coagulate arteries within the tissue of a papillary
tumor since the entire growth tends to float away from the loop. Hemostasis
is thus most safely and most simply secured in the mechanically resistant tissue
of the tumor base. Spurting arteries are easily recognized there and coagulated
by carefully aimed application of the loop. In practice, this means that removal
of each piece of tumor is followed by hemostasis at its base. The rules that
apply to the control of bleeding within the prostatic cavity are again to be
applied (Fig. 208). Always search for the vessel with suitably adjusted irrigation,
start by coagulating large vessels and progress to ever smaller ones with corre-
sponding reduction in irrigation rate. Finally, coagulate small veins virtually
without irrigation.
When resecting a bladder tumor it usually proves of value to use the ener-
gized cutting loop to 'hem' the entire margin of the resection area along the
boundary between bladder mucosa and muscle (Fig. 209), just as a tailor places
a selvage along the cut edge of his cloth. A fine white line will then be seen
marking the boundary of bladder mucosa and resection field. It is along this
margin that fine submucous venous plexuses may be found in the bladder.
Since they are not individually visible they are best dealt with by this summary
technique.
Difficulties may arise with the closure of arteries that lie deep between
bladder muscle fibers. One of the rare cases in which I use a conical coagulating
probe is when such vessels lie at the bottom of a narrow cleft, since they are
then easily reached and subjected to spot coagulation.
Problems of venous bleeding analogous to those arising from prostatic ve-
Fig. 209. Diagram ofthe 'hemming' technique of final hemostasis at the mucosal margin. This simplified
diagram demonstrates the method of final hemostasis after resecting a bladder tumor. Numerous
submucous vessels pour into the area of resection and are best closed by applying a weak coagulating
current to the loop and then running this continuously around the cut margin of the mucosa so
as to coagulate it. This phase of operation should be carried out under minimal irrigation so that
even the smallest trickle of blood from the mucosa is easily recognized
nous sinuses do not occur during the resection of bladder tumors, unless the
loop should accidently enter deeper layers of the muscle coat. Large perivesical
veins may then be opened and prove extremely difficult to coagulate. It is
difficult to maneuver the cutting loop within the deep cleft occasionally resulting
from accidental muscle contraction, so that accurately placed hemostasis is hard
to achieve. The only solution is to boldly yet carefully widen this incipient
perforation so as to gain control of the vein in its depth. Apart from this
rare problem, the resection of bladder tumors tends to present few difficulties
of hemostasis, as long as the latter is undertaken immediately at the end of
each stage of resection. This rule is of particular importance when dealing with
extensive papillomatosis of the bladder. Before moving to a second region of
the bladder, the first must be entirely dry of blood.
5. Special Types of Tumor Resection
a) Resecting Tumors on the Posterior Wall of the Bladder
Tumors on the posterior wall are difficult to reach for mechanical reasons.
The loop is normally used to cut tissue as it is withdrawn into the sheath.
In its standard form, it is, therefore, unsuitable for cutting by side-to-side excur-
sions. If a loop is designed to project endwise out of the sheath it may used
to execute 'mowing' movements from side to side as when a scythe or sickle
is used to cut grass. Over 20 years ago, I used to create this type of loop
by bending normal ones, since HEYNEMANN with whom I used to work on
Resecting Tumors on the Posterior Wall of the Bladder 315
Fig. 210a-c. Diagram of resection with the 'mowing' loop. In this technique the cutting loop projects
freely from the end of the sheath. Cutting is no longer by advancing and retracting the loop but
by a lever movement of the entire resectoscope. This renders it possible to take long slices across
the posterior wall of the bladder. As shown in a, the direction of cut may also be from above
downwards (ventral-dorsal) as well as from lateral to medial to lateral, as shown in b. c Shows
the movements required for a horizontal cut. In order to match the curvature of the bladder a
forward-and-back movement of the sheath must be added to lateral excursions of the loop
the design of instruments was always against such a construction. He felt it

was far too dangerous, but in the meantime all the main German manufacturers
offer such loops in their catalogues. I am not able to tell how frequently they
are used since there are no appropriate publications. I myself first described
such a loop in 1962 after many years of experience with it (MAUERMAYER 1962).
Fig. 2l1. The 'mowing' loop. The loop always projects somewhat from the end of the sheath, even
when the electrotome is fully retracted. Great caution is therefore required when using this instrument!
The fully extended loop is an extremely dangerous instrument in the hands of an inexperienced
urologist. On the other hand, it so greatly facilitates work on the posterior wall that we would
not be without it
A certain amount of practice is required to work with this instrument.

Cutting movements are made with the loop extended and projecting freely
beyond the end of the sheath (Figs. 210 and 211). A sheath with a long protective
beak is unsuitable; an oblique one is needed. Cutting is achieved by simply
passing the instrument medially across the center of the tumor toward the oppo-
site side. 'Mowing' is the best description of this movement. Illustrations 73
and 74 (Plate XIII) demonstrate this technique in relation to a small tumor
nodule.
This type of loop is not for beginners!
The technique of cutting is best practiced by passing the loop backward
and forward across the tumor as described above without applying current.
It will then be seen that 'mowing' movements have more than one compo-
nent, i.e., the path of the loop must match the curvature of the bladder. This
requires the instrument to be advanced and retracted in the urethra during
cutting. Beginners may find this difficult to carry out, however easy it is to
Resecting Tumors Close to the Internal Meatus in the Male 317
visualize simultaneous 'mowing' and 'back and forth.' Coordination is only

achieved by practice.
When training young urologists we start by allowing them to excise small
papillary tumors requiring only lateral excursions of the loop. Nevertheless,
working with this loop belongs to the last phase of their training. With adequate
practice, the use of the mowing loop presents no problems, and we have yet
to experience an inadvertent perforation.
This method reveals its full value in the resection of extensive tumor carpets
and when exophytic tumors of the posterior wall project far into the bladder.
Extensive cuts reaching well to either side considerably simplify and shorten
the procedure.
Hemostasis must be undertaken immediately after opening any vessel, since
the mowing loop so interferes with the irrigating flow as to impair visibility.
b) Resecting Tumors on the Lateral Wall of the Bladder
Unless the tumor has grown down into the immediate vicinity of the internal
meatus this region of the bladder presents few difficulties purely in terms of
operative technique (see Sect. c). The difficulties in this region arise because
of the likelihood of initiating muscle contractions with their danger of inadver-
tent perforation (see p. 329).
Local anesthesia of the obturator nerve will avoid such spasms. It is, howev-
er, indispensable to check the success of this maneuver by transvesical faradic
stimulation.
Only thus will the surgeon be protected from unpleasant surprises, the results
of which might be all the more severe if blind faith in local anesthesia leads
to all the normal precautions being abandoned (e.g., only slightly extending
the loop from the sheath, firm grip on the instrument, small slices with minimum
current, occasional use of a weak spark gap generator).
c) Resecting Tumors Close to the Internal Meatus in the Male
As noted earlier, the treatment of tumors in this region may occasionally require
partial resection of the prostate. Since this widening of the bladder neck has
the sole purpose of facilitating access to the tumor, it is limited to the absolute
minimum, particularly in the case of young, still sexually active men in whom
retrograde ejaculation should be prevented as far as possible (Fig. 212). In cases
of infiltrating tumor, close to the meatus, it is nonetheless necessary to resect
the prostate or bladder neck adenoma as far as possible so as to improve
the radicality of the operation.
Prostatic resection may be required anywhere around the internal meatus,
but particularly in the region of the lateral lobes and the vault (Fig. 213).
In occasional cases, and only with the patient's prior consent, we resect
a transverse bar or the median lobe of a prostatic adenoma to facilitate instru-
mentation at the frequent follow-up cystoscopies that will be required. In older
Fig. 212a, b. Diagram showing resection of a circular tumor around the internal meatus in a male.
Tumors of this type can frequently only be removed with proper radicality after partial resection
of the prostate. a Arrangement prior to surgery. b Arrangement at the end of surgery. Depending
on the macroscopic suspicion of infiltration as seen through the resectoscope, the operation will
have to proceed to a greater depth. A good safety layer is provided by removing the prostate
down to the capsule. Once again individual tissue samples from various depths should be sent
to the laboratory (perhaps from various segments) (see Fig. 215)
men with incipient adenoma formation we combine eXClSlon of the bladder

tumor with generous resection of their prostatic adenoma in a single sitting,
thus saving a second operation.
d) Resecting Tumors Close to the Internal Meatus in the Female
Tumors of this region should be excised as shallowly as possible, since deep

resection in the vicinity of the sphincter may give rise to incontinence. In cases
of papilloma or early papillary carcinoma this requirement is easily fulfilled,
since the tumor may be cautiously ablated, completely sparing the sphincter.
The problem becomes considerably more difficult in the presence of infiltrating
carcinoma. The dangers of incontinence and of inadequate radicality will need
to be carefully and accurately weighed against one another. This particular
Resecting Tumors Close to the Internal Meatus in the Female 319
Fig. 213 a-c. Resecting tumors on the bladder vault and around the internal meatus. a Initial arrangement
prior to external counterpressure on the bladder vault. b The tumor close to the summit of the
bladder has already been removed. The tumor around the internal meatus is rendered visible by
counterpressure. Its complete removal requires ablation of part of the internal meatus. c Arrangement
after complete removal of tumor
form of bladder cancer may restrict the indications for transurethral surgery
and hasten cystectomy.
In our experience, vaginally palpable infiltration destroys any hope of a
curative outcome to transurethral surgery.
e) Resecting Tumors on the Bladder Vault
In this region, resection is not fundamentally more difficult than elsewhere

if one is used to single-handed control of the instrument. Rapid operative tech-
nique is helpful, since increasing distension of the bladder withdraws the vault
out of range of the instrument.
The resectoscope should be held 180 inverted and controlled with one hand.
0
The left hand presses the bladder down from above toward the instrument.
The simultaneous control of irrigation is provided by pinching the inlet hose
between thumb and index finger of the left hand. In this way, four fingers
of the hand remain available to press the bladder down toward the instrument
while varying pressure on the hose maintains control of irrigation (see Fig. 95).
The assistance of a nurse or auxillary may be valuable in obese patients
where one's own strength is inadequate. On the other hand, it is more difficult
to coordinate the actions of two people in such a subtle technique.
The gas bubble formating within the vault is often a considerable hindrance
to surgery in this region. Under these conditions, a resectoscope sheath with
central irrigating cock is invaluable (MAUERMAYER 1973; KAPLAN 1977), since
the gas bubble may be evacuated under direct vision and the operation then
immediately continued (Fig. 214) (see also p. 138).
The closer a tumor approaches the internal meatus, the more frequently
concomitant resection of part of the prostate will be required in the male.
Marked, head-down tilt of the patient and counterpressure on the bladder vault
are extremely helpful (see Fig. 213).
: ,,,, ~, ; I.: .: :. \ ., .
Fig. 214. Resecting tumors in the bladder vault. In such cases the gas bubble in the vault may cause
difficulties. This is easily solved with a resectoscope with central stopcock, since gas may be evacuated
under direct vision. After refilling the bladder with fresh irrigation the operation may proceed in
the absence of gas
Resecting Tumors of or Around the Ureteric Orifice 321
The manufacturers of endoscopic instruments have developed special angled

resectoscopes and flexible coagulating probes for the treatment of tumors in
this region. That would suggest that tumor surgery around this area presents
special difficulties. For my part I wish to emphasize that no point within the
male or female bladder is inaccessible to the standard resectoscope (which is
perfectly suitable for careful resection of a tumor just as anywhere else in the
bladder). The following techniques will provide a solution to any operative
problem occurring in the vicinity:
1. Abdominal counterpressure on the bladder
2. Minimal filling of the bladder
3. Head-down position of the patient
4. Evacuation of the air bubble under direct vision
1) Resecting Tumors of or Around the Ureteric Orifice
An excretion urogram showing ureteric dilatation or nonfunction of a kidney

will suggest even before cystoscopy that a ureter is invaded by tumor. Alterna-
tively, a tumor adjacent to the ureter may be obstructing the urine flow. Tumors
in this situation frequently appear as filling defects within the bladder shadow
on IVU.
Noninfiltrating tumors around the ureteric orifice may be ablated without
damage to the orifice itself. Careful shallow slices are the best technique and
it is essential to first mark the position of the ureter either by passage of a
ureteric catheter or injection of indigo carmine. Comparison with the healthy
orifice on the opposite side may also be of help, since the bladder is usually
symmetrical.
The generally held fear of the ureteric orifice is quite unjustified. When
weighing the dangers it is obvious that tumor infiltration is of far greater signifi-
cance than the possibility of subsequent stenosis or reflux. Either of these might
later be corrected by further surgery. Controlled perforation is also entirely
possible in the vicinity of the orifice. Carcinomas of this region should therefore
be resected deep into the muscle as anywhere else. During such operations,
the origin of the ureter within the muscle coat may be clearly seen, demarcated
from the bladder wall musculature by Waldeyer's sheath. It frequently protrudes
somewhat above the plane of section (see Illustration 75, Plate XIII). Once
the muscle coat has been perforated, the ureter may be seen within the perivesical
fat. Whether or not the ureter itself has been exposed can be tested by passage
of a ureteric catheter.
In cases where the ureteric lumen itself is infiltrated by tumor (Illustration
76, Plate XIII), the ureter will again be seen lying within the bladder muscula-
ture. Tumor villi may be seen growing inside. Passage of a ureteric catheter
will again prove that the transected structure truly is the ureter. This maneuver
is easily accomplished through the resectoscope sheath by the insertion of a
suitable operating unit in place of the electrotome. In the postoperative phase,
this ureteric catheter will allow further diagnostic information to be gained
by radiologic imaging of kidney and ureter.
The complications of such ureteric orifice resections may be either cicatricial

stenosis or reflux (see Illustration 77, Plate XIII). Operative correction of stenosis
is required whenever the free drainage of urine is obstructed with consequent
ureteric dilatation. It should be dealt with as demanded by the further course
of the illness, e.g., if a tumor with a tendency to recurrence is controlled by
transurethral measures. Should the necessity of cystectomy arise, the problem
solves itself during this second operation. In incurable cases undergoing pallia-
tive treatment, progress of the carcinoma and the condition of the opposite
kidney will determine the course of events.
Reanastomosis of ureter and bladder should be achieved by some method
obviating mucosal pouches such as inevitably occur in the BOARI flap tech-
mque.
Ureteric reflux is certainly not a harmless phenomenon (SCHMIDT et al. 1976;
RIlES 1969). In our own practice, we have seen two cases of refluxing ureter
with tumor spread to the upper tract, one of them associated with generalized
metastasis. It is, of course, hard to prove whether such tumor behavior is due
entirely to the implantation of seedlings or to multifocal change in the urothe-
lium. HINMAN (1956) describes a case of metastatic implantation in the bladder
neck during simultaneous prostatic and bladder tumor resections, and MAR-
BERGER (1978) has described intraperitoneal seeding after perforation of the
bladder. One must, therefore, conclude that tumor fragments such as are gener-
ated during any endovesical operation are capable of implantation. Our practice
of instilling 1% silver nitrate is based on this concept. Due to the low overall
probability of metastasis by this route it is hard to prove any beneficial effect.
Other authorities recommend the use of cytotoxic substances such as thiotepa
or mitomycin.
6. Tissue Recognition During Resection of Bladder Tumors
The appearance of the bladder muscle has already been described. In this section
we shall concentrate mainly on recognizing tumor infiltration.
Bladder muscle is easily recognized endoscopically. Coarse muscle fibers
are joined by scanty connective tissue. The fibers interlock markedly around
the trigone forming a dense network of muscle.
It is quite easy to distinguish whether tumor infiltration belongs to a basically
papillary or a basically solid carcinoma.
In purely tumorous regions, muscle tissue is completely replaced by tumor
and nothing is seen except whitish, sometimes greasy, homogenous tissue. Bleed-
ing is restricted to a few larger arteries.
As deeper layers are reached, muscle fibers appear initially sporadically and
then in greater profusion but still embedded within the homogenous mass of
carcinomatous substance. As one reaches a region macroscopically free of infil-
tration, the muscle regains its usual appearance of a loose arrangement of fibers
without firm connection.
The situation is similar in papillary carcinomas, but the amorphous mass
surrounding or replacing the muscle fibers is no longer homogenous but has
Sampling in Tissue Layers 323
a rather reddish color and is crumbly with a granular surface. Transection

of such a mass not infrequently causes it to spill out between the muscle fibers
as though it were under some pressure.
The transition from infiltrated to 'free' muscle is then somewhat more diffi-
cult to recognize. The telescope should, therefore, be closely approximated to
the tissue in order to be quite certain of having reached an area free of infiltra-
tion.
The individual stages of tumor resection within the bladder wall are repro-
duced in Illustrations 68-72 (Plate XII). An explanation is provided by the
detailed legend to each illustration.
7. Systematic Tissue Sampling as a Guide

to Complete Resection
The above description is concerned with the macroscopic appearance of tissues.

Such endoscopic observations during surgery remain nothing but supposition
so long as carefully planned and placed tissue samples have not been made
available for histologic analysis.
Tissue biopsies should, therefore, be taken according to a predetermined
plan.
a) Single Sample with Directional Orientation
This method may be applied whenever one or more samples are removed from
the depths of a resection zone to test whether the deepest point is clear of
tumor. They thus are frequently taken from the apex of a crater dissected
out of the bladder wall.
Individual fragments are removed by stopping the irrigation immediately
after completing the cut and simultaneously removing the electrotome from
the sheath. The bladder should first have been inspected to ensure there were
no other floating fragments. Usually the tissue sample adheres to the loop
and can be picked off. Care should be taken not to confuse luminal and adventi-
tial aspects of the bladder. A pin is pushed into the fragment so that its point
faces outward.
b) Sampling in Tissue Layers
This method consists of collecting samples from different tissue layers in the
resection zone and then potting and despatching them individually (Figs. 215
and 216). This technique seems to be preferred in our clinic. When a papillary
exophytic tumor is resected, the main tissue bulk down to mucosal level is
first of all excised and potted. A subsequent sample comprises a deeper layer
around the base of the tumor, and a third piece consists of the tumor margins
together with adjacent mucosa and superficial muscle coat.
- - ---------- -.-=-----------
Fig. 215. Diagram of various biopsy zones. 1 Superficial parts of the tumor. 2 Progress of tumor
resection to a region of macroscopically apparently normal musculature. 3 Excision of an additional
layer, both for reasons of safety and for better appreciation of the tumor stage. 4 Peripheral resection
in a circular fashion around the tumor base to detect possible submucous infiltration
Fig. 216a, b. Diagram explaining the procedure for biopsying tumors around the bladder neck of the
male. a Cross section through the bladder looking towards the bladder base and internal meatus.
If the tumor lies all around the internal meatus it is helpful to send biopsy material from individual
sectors separately (I-VI) so as to allow locally deeper resection (2nd layer) to increase radicality
at an individual point. If deep penetration is proven, more radical open surgical procedures should
be considered. b Same situation as a in sagittal section. If deep prostatic tissue is infiltrated, a
second, more distally placed tissue cone should be biopsied for analysis. Only thus can one prove
that resection has extended into healthy tissue. The cutting technique is the usual one for excavating
the prostatic cavity
One will thus get quite a good idea of the degree of radicality achieved
by the operation as well as detecting submucous tumor extension which is not
infrequently present. If necessary, a directionally orientated biopsy may still
be obtained from the depths of the resection crater as described under a) above.
It goes without saying that this technique can be applied separately for
each one of multiple tumors whenever they exceed a certain size.
Biopsy Technique for the Diagnosis of Carcinoma in Situ 325
A different procedure should be adopted for tumors encircling the internal

meatus. In such cases, it is advisable to arrange samples segmentally in a clock-
wise direction and to repeat this procedure as required in deeper layers. Only
thus can any statement be made as to the completeness of resection down
to uninfiltrated tissue. If anyone segment still contains residual tumor within
the deeper layers, a further locally deeper excision may be made.
It is advisable to document the site of origin of all such biopsy samples
on a preprinted bladder diagram. BREssEL et al. (1968) have made a detailed
study of these problems.
The tissue fragments should be collected by directing the drainage hose
into a collecting sieve which is emptied at the end of each individual sampling
phase (see Fig. 102). It goes without saying that repeated endoscopic inspection
is required to ensure the bladder is completely clear of fragments from previous
biopsy sites.
This may all sound somewhat complicated but in practice such tissue sam-
pling is simple. All the surgeon needs to do is to tap out the collecting sieve
on a sterile cloth which he hands to an assistant, who will mark the source
of the biopsy on the diagram and label it accordingly.
The surgeon himself will gain most from this procedure since he will be
able to correlate the endoscopic appearances with the subsequent histologic
finding and thus sharpen his eye for macroscopic tissue characteristics.
c) Biopsy Technique for the Diagnosis of Carcinoma in Situ

and Other Early Urothelial Carcinomas
Rather than arising during endoscopy, the suspicion of such a diagnosis is

likely to have come from preoperative urine cytology following the typical com-
plaints of hematuria or dysuria. This section is not concerned with immunologic
or epidemiologic problems associated with such precancerous change. We shall
discuss only matters of operative technique.
Since the areas of change are nearly always small and it is, therefore, not
necessary to biopsy large quantities of tissue, the use of forceps is nearly always
adequate. On the other hand, mucosal samples should be provided from as
many zones of the bladder as possible, and this will require adherence to a
definite system. Only if close inspection of the mucosa with modern telescopes
of high resolving power revealed suspicious areas such as erythema, or the
characteristic depression of' nests of Brun' should additional biopsies be taken.
The reason for the low probability of primary localized endoscopic diagnosis
probably lies in the fact that these areas of atypia arise in the basal cell layers
(T ANNENBAUM and ROMAS 1978). Probable sites of election are the trigonal
region and the posterior wall of the bladder, particularly in its medial parts
(ZINCKE 1978). Biopsy should be taken with a forceps designed to cause
minimum tissue damage, best of all with an instrument of the Liier gouge
forceps pattern. Only the edge of the jaws is involved in cutting, so the tissue
sample lies freely within, without being subject to pressure and is of adequate
size for histologic examination. Minor hemorrhages from the mucosal margin
should be immediately coagulated, since they will otherwise so impair visibility

as to render continued topographic orientation impossible. Because a large
number of biopsies is always required, general anesthesia is advisable.
8. Controlled Perforation
lowe my knowledge of this technique to a demonstration by FLOCKS, although

in the early years we nonetheless had to fell our way toward the limits of
the possible. We are thus all to some extent self-taught.
The anatomical basis for this procedure is the subdivision of the bladder
into two zones, the 'free' and 'fixed' (see Fig. 194). In the free zone of the
bladder the presence of the peritoneum, the Cave of Retzius and the looseness
with which fatty tissue surrounds superolateral parts of the bladder prevent
the use of this technique. The result would be free perforation requiring immedi-
ate surgical treatment.
The fixed zone of the bladder, however, is surrounded by fat closely adherent
to the bladder wall.
A second factor facilitating this procedure for infiltrating tumors is the fact
of perivesical infiltration of the fat around the tumor. This is not a carcinoma-
tous change, it is inflammatory. The fatty tissue is tougher, rather more edema-
tous and of homogenous consistency.
Finally, this procedure is made possible by the fact that the site of bladder
tumor resection develops a perivesical leucocyte infiltration after only a few
days, even if the bladder was not perforated. This results in the fat becoming
firm and solid. It adheres to the bladder wall and prevents irrigating fluid
required for resection from escaping from the bladder via any controlled perfora-
tion.
There are three prequisites for this maneuver. First of all the tumor must
be ablated and traced down as deeply as possible into the muscle coat. If one
is uncertain whether the deepest layers of the wound cavity are macroscopically
free of tumor, a separate sample may be taken from the base of the crater
and sent for histologic analysis. In the few days that elapse until the report
is available, perivesical infiltration will occur enabling deeper penetration with-
out mishap. If the biopsy shows residual tumor tissue, surgery must proceed
to a greater depth. We call this "resection of the second layer." Anybody prac-
ticed in this technique may, however, proceed out into the fatty tissue at the
first sitting without such a pause.
b) The Technique of Controlled Perforation
This special operative procedure commences when the tumor has been ablated
down to the level of bladder mucosa. First of all a further tissue layer is resected.
Irrigation During Controlled Perforation 327
Fig. 217 a-d. Diagram showing resection of a T 1 _ 2 tumor. a Initial situation. b Arrangement after
ablation of the exophytic part. c Excavating the bladder wall until a deeper, tumor-free zone is
reached. d Resection of a marginal layer
Even at this early phase of the operation, scrupulous control of bleeding is

indispensable. The irrigating fluid should never be allowed to take on more
than the merest blush. When removing a carcinoma there is absolutely nothing
to be lost by coagulating wide zones around each vessel so as to staunch even
the slightest parenchymatous bleed. The same process should be used to remove
a second layer, thinner than the first on grounds of caution. Since only the
appearance of the tissue can now decide whether progress is required to greater
depths, it should be closely examined at maximum magnification by bringing
the telescope right up to the cut surface. It is usual for perivesical fat tissue
to appear in the center of the crater, heralded initially by thinning out of the
muscle layer (Fig. 217). Once again, as in all phases of this operation, the impor-
tance of scrupulous and immediate hemostasis cannot be adequately empha-
sized. For an illustration of the technique see Illustrations 68, 69, 71, 72, Plate
XII.
c) Irrigation During Controlled Perforation
The influx of irrigating fluid should be reduced to the minimum possible. Be-
cause of the high quality of hemostasis, the irrigation needs only to clear the
field of fine floating particles. Even the minutest bleed will be immediately
staunched before operation proceeds. Thus the bladder will only slowly fill,
and strict adherence to this procedure will keep intravesical pressure so low
that irrigating fluid would be unlikely to escape even if the fat were not adherent.
The three pillars of this technique are then in summary:
1. Careful dissection guided by tissue appearance
2. Immediate hemostasis after every cut
3. Slow and restricted filling of the bladder
As long as these three rules are observed controlled perforation is an excellent
technique for the excision of tumor pegs penetrating deeply into the bladder
wall. It is a matter of necessity that this technique can only be justified when
guided by histologic analysis. This was emphasized at several points in the
chapter. Any evidence of deep or even perivesical infiltration with tumor should
lead to an alteration of therapeutic strategy.
9. Resecting the Periphery of a Tumor

During our discussion of the modes of spread of carcinoma of the bladder,
it was pointed out that tumors not only infiltrate downwards through the"muscle
but also in a peripheral direction. Resection technique must take account of
this behavior.
There are two types of peripheral spread: submucous, visible is endoscopical-
ly as a tough margin surrounding the base of the tumor, and intramural, both
as endolymphatic and as tentacular extension.
Just as open surgical partial cystectomy would not aim to excise the tumor
immediately around its base but must also excise a safety margin, endoscopic
surgery must remove a margin of muscle extending beyond visible tumor and
provable infiltration. Limits to this procedure will naturally arise in extensive
carcmomas.
In this regard histologic guidance is once again the only measure of radica-
lity.
10. Palliative Resection

As stated at the outset, electroresection of bladder tumors may be indicated
either with a view to cure or for the simple palliation of certain symptoms,
such as hematuria, dysuria and frequency or urgency. The aim of operation
then becomes the most extensive possible removal of all accessible tumor tissue
(MARBERGER 1978).
Technique of palliative resection. In most cases there will be large necrotic
tumor masses. Once again, resection should start on the surface of the tumor
by removal of the irregular necrotic portions until a smooth, clean surface
is achieved. Further resection is then identical to curative procedures. In most
such cases the operation is technically easy and layer after layer should be
removed in whatever direction seems most accessible. Whenever one of the
rather infrequent arteries is transected there will be vigorous hemorrhage. The
extended cutting technique, i.e., cutting by simultaneous movements of loop
Intraperitoneal Perforation 329
and sheath is often of value. Resection chips may be just as difficult to evacuate
as in cases of prostatic carcinoma, since they tend to be rigid and get stuck
within the sheath.
The bladder base may be deeply dissected without fear of mishap so long
as a previous rectal (vaginal) examination has demonstrated deep infiltration.
Around the periphery of the tumor as much tissue should be removed as
possible. At the end of the procedure there will be a large deep wound cavity.
If there is tumor around the internal meatus as much prostatic tissue should
be removed as possible.
The procedure is the same whether it is for the treatment of hematuria,
dysuria or reduced bladder capacity due to the presence of tumor.
Postoperative treatment is just as for any other tumor resection. These tumor
masses are frequently infected and antibiotic treatment is recommended. It is
not usually possible to completely eliminate infection, yet it may be brought
under control and the symptoms thus reduced.
It may be necessary to repeat palliative treatment several times whenever
the patient's condition demands it.
VI. Accidents During Resection of Bladder Tumors
The most important, and indeed almost the only operative complication arising
during bladder tumor resection is perforation. Such unintentional free perfora-
tion is something fundamentally different from the intentional controlled vari-
ety. It occurs whenever resection is carried deeply into a region of the bladder
wall unsuitable for deep dissection in an attempt to achieve maximum radicality.
Such a 'transurethrallaparoscopy' is an extremely impressive if somewhat terri-
fying experience. Luckily it is rare, occurring among our patients with an overall
frequency of approximately 1: 1000, in some years more frequently, but never
more than 1 : 700, despite the fact that we are a teaching unit. Any transurethral
surgeon must be equiped to deal with this event however rarely it may occur.
The appropriate provision to be made in the operating room has already been
discussed in the appropriate sections.
Free perforation immediately recognized and appropriately treated barely
influences the patient's hospital stay or his recovery.
2. Types of Perforation
a) Intraperitoneal Perforation
This accident will occur whenever the surgeon attempts to excise a tumor too
deeply from the posterior wall of the bladder. The tumors are generally actively
infiltrating, and the surgeon tries to reach the full depth of infiltration. Actual
perforation cannot be mistaken: the tissues suddenly give way, there is loss
of resistance to the instrument and it slips through into the peritoneal cavity,
where loops of intestine are visible.
The diagnosis is thus made and the operation must be immediately inter-
rupted.
The senior nurse in the operating room should be informed and the anesthe-
tist alerted. A surgical assistant must immediately make himself available.
Since we have an operating lamp fitted above every table and a suitable
instrument set is always ready, the only delay consists of the time taken to
paint the abdomen and for the assistant to scrub up. Once the suprapubic
operating field has been draped, the peritoneum should immediately be opened.
Early recognition of the complication greatly reduces the entry of irrigating
fluid into the abdomen. The site of perforation is found, the intestines packed
away and the hole in the bladder closed in two layers. First of all the muscle
coat is closed in a through and through fashion, and this stitch line is then
buried under the peritoneum, which has been somewhat mobilized from the
bladder. Both sutures are of chromic catgut, continuous on the peritoneum.
If, as usual, the perforation is a small one, no suprapubic bladder drainage
is necessary. Larger or more inferiorly placed perforations may be more difficult
to close and demand suprapubic bladder drainage by a 16-Ch balloon catheter.
The peritoneal cavity is washed out with antibacterial solution and the wound
closed in the usual fashion, with a drain. As a result of such rapid intervention
intraperitoneal perforation is a minor event for the patient. Postoperative treat-
ment demands the use of prophylactic antibiotics. The catheter is removed
in the usual fashion after approximately one week.
b) Extraperitoneal Perforation
Extraperitoneal perforation not infrequently results from sudden muscle con-

traction in the distribution of the obturator nerve. Local anesthetic block of
this nerve is an excellent means of preventing such sudden movements, and
the techniques involved were described at the beginning of this chapter.
It is not quite so easy with this type of perforation to decide whether immedi-
ate surgery to close the hole is indicated, but it will in any case be less urgent.
We assess the indications for surgical treatment in terms of two observations:
1. Appearance of the perforation
2. Contrast radiology of the bladder
The perforation site should first of all be carefully inspected according to the
same basic principles as already described for various types of prostatic perfora-
tion. In just the same way one may distinguish widely open, free perforations
of the bladder from perforations covered by firmly adherent fatty tissue. In
a case of free, uncovered perforation the free effiux of irrigating fluid through
the opening and its partial return on draining the bladder may be easily seen.
Under these circumstances contrast cystography should immediately be under-
taken and any further procedure made dependent on its outcome. A large pool
Check Cystoscopy Following Transurethral Resection of Bladder Tumors 331
of contrast outside the bladder will suggest a wide opening requiring surgical
exposure, closure of the hole and drainage of the area. On the other hand,
modest extravasation associated with an endoscopically small hole may be
treated conservatively by antibiotic cover and prolonged indwelling catheteriza-
tion. At a second sitting after the wound has healed it will have to be decided
whether a further resection should be attempted to completely remove the
tumor.
c) Gas Detonation
During any electro resection oxyhydrogen gas is formed by thermal decomposi-

tion (FLACHENECKER 1978). Under some circumstances this gas may be deton-
ated with consequent perforation of the bladder. We have occasionally seen
such explosions, always without perforation and have subsequently modified
our technique accordingly.
Detonation only occurs if a spark generated during cutting passes through
the gas mixture and ignites it. Since gas rises upwards, ventrally if the patient
is in the normal position on the operating table, it will accumulate in the bladder
vault and is thus only a hazard during operations in that region.
If a tumor is being resected in this vicinity care should be taken to evacuate
gas from the vault every time the bladder is emptied. This may be easily checked
by an initial inspection of the area with minimal irrigation. Evacuation of
bladder vault gas is rendered particularly simple by the use of a sheath with
a central irrigating cock, permitting evacuation under direct vision.
Theoretically transurethral operations of modest extent could equally be
undertaken in an air-filled bladder. On the rare occasions one attempts this
it immediately becomes apparent that a very much lower intensity of cutting
current is required, since there is no longer any high-frequency diversion through
the irrigating fluid (the latter is not entirely free of electrolyte because of blood
contamination). If one does operate within such a gas bubble in the bladder
vault, the cutting loop frequently smoulders away after only a few slices. For
this reason the gas bubble in the vault should be evacuated every time the
bladder is emptied.
VII. Check Cystoscopy Following Transurethral

Resection of Bladder Tumors
The intervals between check cystoscopies should be adapted to the malignancy

of the tumor, its potential for recurrence and one's expectation of the operative
result. Cases of palliative resection will remain under supervision because of
their symptoms. Cystoscopy will be repeated as dictated by the clinical picture,
e.g., increasing complaint of dysuria, further hematuria or other symptoms
arising from the tumor.
For patients undergoing surgery in the hope and expectation of cure the
histologic grade of the tumor is the most important factor governing the fre-
quency of cystoscopy. Papillomas or highly differentiated papillary carcinomas
with proven infiltration should first be re-examined approximately 3 months
after surgery. All cases of carcinoma, particularly if there is superficial muscle
infiltration should be reviewed after no more than 6 weeks. Unexpected symp-
toms such as hematuria or renewed dysuria are an indication for earlier cysto-
scopy.
Since the bladder neck of male patients will already have been prepared
for repeat examination by the removal of possible obstacles to cystoscopy
(transverse bar, median lobe, adenoma) these check examinations are usually
unproblematic. They are undertaken on an outpatient basis under urethral anes-
thesia.
If no recurrence is found at the first review and the operative wound is
well healed, 3 months may elapse before the next cystoscopy. Occasionally
a further growth is found at the first check and subsequently removed. Freedom
of recurrence may then ensue from this second procedure. Such findings may
be interpreted to mean that the first operation left a small island of carcinoma-
tous tissue within the bladder wall detectable only at subsequent cystoscopy
because of its additional growth.
In the course of repeat check cystoscopies and supplementary resections
we not infrequently notice a decrease in grade of malignancy in some patients
and an increase in others. The intervals between cystoscopies should vary ac-
cording to these observations. Whatever else, a patient who had a papilloma
or G, tumor and remained free of recurrence after the first operation should
nevertheless be cystoscoped yearly. It is a recurring experience that for reasons
unknown new growths may arise even after several years without tumor recur-
rence.
Two things should be emphasized to the bladder tumor patient:
1. Regular check cystoscopies are a safety procedure which should not arbitrari-
ly be abandoned
2. Cystoscopy may be unpleasant but should never be painful and under no
circumstances should infection result
The surgeon should attempt to establish a special human relationship with
his bladder tumor patients, in which they can find a sense of safety and security
by undergoing regular re-examinations.
VIII. Concluding Remarks on Bladder Tumor Resection
Transurethral therapy is ideal for the treatment of certain types of bladder

tumor once the surgical technique has been mastered. It is certainly not the
ideal solution to every problem. Anyone who has experienced the changing
face of medicine will well know that certain methods remain on the fringe
Operative Technique 333
for a while, then become 'fashionable' and finally lapse into oblivion. The
description of bladder tumor resection given in this chapter is the outcome
of my personal experience as a urologist over the last 30 years. Indeed, it may
be something more, something of a declaration of faith in the transurethral
method of treatment, the results of which will only be excellent so long as
certain technical requirements are satisfied. I would ask anyone who finds my
suggestions too didactic to consider that there may be many seeking exact
instructions, having not had the good fortune to train in a high-class teaching
unit.
IX. Other Transurethral Bladder Operations
Litholapaxy is discussed in Chap. I under individual headings of mechanical,

shock wave and ultrasound litholapaxy. The Zeiss loop is considered in detail
in Chap. K. There thus remain only a few minor bladder procedures to be
considered, all of them having the use of cutting current or a resectoscope
in common with electroresection. In this sense transurethral treatment of bladder
diverticula may usefully complement suprapubic operation. Incision of the ure-
teric orifice has rightly been abandoned because of the high incidence of asso-
ciated reflux. This procedure is therefore no longer described.
1. Incising the Neck of Bladder Diverticula
a) Preliminary Considerations and Indications
Diverticulum is a not infrequent complication in patients with bladder outflow

abnormalities. Transurethral treatment may be a simple supplementary proce-
dure during resection of the prostate. Particularly in cases where an extremely
narrow diverticular orifice impedes emptying of the diverticulum, incision of
the neck may so improve drainage as to obviate formal excision (Fig. 218).
Where the diverticulum is of greater capacity than the bladder, fluoroscopy
frequently reveals how the patient urinates into his own diverticulum. The result
is a considerable residual volume within the diverticulum despite complete emp-
tying of the bladder proper. Such cases, characterized by an extremely thin-
walled diverticulum, are best treated by excision. All others in whom micturition
in front of the image intensifier reveals good contractility of bladder and diverti-
cula alike, with equal distribution of residual urine between the two, are suitable
for transurethral therapy.
b) Operative Technique
The procedure is basically simple. The resectoscope sheath is passed into the
diverticulum and an increasingly deep groove is cautiously cut at one point
Fig. 218a, b. Incising the neck of a bladder diverticulum. Left : Diagram of the endoscopic view.
Right: Diagrammatic section. a Site of incision. If the neck is very narrow, several incisions may
be made at various points. The opening then gapes more widely. The line of incision is indicated
in the section. b Arrangement at the end of incision. Note in the section that the cut does not
completely penetrate the muscle coat, leaving deeper layers intact
through the diverticular neck. The sole problem of operation is early recognition
of the moment at which the bladder wall is penetrated and perforation becomes
imminent. The experienced surgeon will soon recognize this point by the attenua-
tion of the muscle coat and the presence of copious connective tissue. Although
in bygone days this procedure was frequently undertaken with a wire probe
in the operating cystoscope, we nowadays prefer to use a resectoscope.
This has the advantage that the same techniques may be used as applied
to prostatic and bladder tumor resections. The incision can thus be broadened
and increased in depth or repeated in several places as required. As a result
the opening may be made so large that the diverticulum simply becomes a
zone of the bladder. Hemostasis is also considerably simpler with the resecto-
scope than with any other instrument.
Where two diverticula share a common wall the latter may be excised,
making one diverticulum out of two and finally so widening the mouth of
both diverticula as to make them part of the bladder in general.
This operation is occasionally required for diagnostic purposes, particularly
if a narrow-mouthed diverticulum requires cystoscopic inspection to exclude
the presence of a bladder tumor (diverticular tumor).
The procedure is concluded by scrupulous hemostasis. Subsequent cystogram
provides for follow-up of the operative result.
Injecting Drugs into the Bladder 335
2. Injecting Drugs into the Bladder
The chief indication for this procedure is simple ulcer, in which considerable
improvement may be achieved by the direct injection of hydrocortisone acetate
into the ulcer. Although no method is capable of achieving complete healing,
this is a relatively simple technique usually suitable for outpatient use without
anesthesia, which may give considerable symptomatic relief for several months.
The technique is simple. An operating cystoscope with a wide instrument
channel and a flexible injection needle is directed towards the ulcer. The syringe
is operated by an assistant, 0.1 ml being applied to each injection site. Patients
whose ulcer has a marked tendency to spontaneous hemorrhage require a rapid
operative technique, since increase in bleeding will soon so impair vision that
the operation cannot be continued.
The injected solution consists of 25 mg hydrocortisone acetate in 1 ml, drawn
up in a tuberculin syringe allowing the precise injection of 0.1 ml at a time.
If such a syringe is not available the solution may be diluted in 4 ml physiological
saline, thus once again permitting precise dosage.
The injection points should be uniformly distributed around the ulcer. Large
ulcers will require correspondingly more injection points, one per square centi-
meter.
Chapter H
Special Resection Procedures
Around the Bladder Neck
I. Introduction
So far we have discussed resection of small, moderately large and outsize ad-
enomas. In addition to this there are a large number of individual clinical
problems requiring a degree of variation and adaptation in resection technique.
The basic rules of cutting and hemostasis remain the same, yet a number of
individual technical features are worthy of special mention. They appear in
the following in the order of relative frequency.
II. Electroresection of Prostatic Carcinoma

1. Preliminary Considerations and Indications
The sole aim of electroresection in prostatic carcinoma is the re-establishment

of free urine drainage for the longest possible period of time. A number of
authors (ARNHOLDT 1973; REUTER 1980) have suggested 'radical' electroresec-
tion as a cure for carcinoma, by analogy to radical perineal or retropubic sur-
gery. The small numbers of cases they report are not, however, likely to invali-
date the arguments against such procedures. Lack of radicality is certainly the
chief one, since neither seminal vesicals nor lymph nodes can be resected trans-
urethrally. Furthermore, the procedure is difficult even for the most experienced
surgeon. The only possible successes of this method are likely to be in the
rather isolated cases that are really FLOCKS (1943) stage A, and these are surely
the ones most deserving truly radical treatment.
Transurethral surgery, on the other hand, may emerge as a blessing for
the patient if it is employed to re-establish free drainage of urine. Equally,
dysuric symptoms due to tumor necrosis and recurrent hemorrhage may be
an indication for surgery. The occasionally insufferable symptoms of infected
and necrotic tumors may be markedly improved by bladder neck 'toilet.'
Surgery should only be undertaken if the patient's life expectancy is such
that he will be able to enjoy its fruits in the form of a period of normal or
only mildly abnormal micturition, and if his general condition permits. Unless
338 Chapter H Special Resection Procedures Around the Bladder Neck
these prerequisites are satisfied the question of suprapubic cystostomy or in-

dwelling catheterization should be discussed with the patient. In my experience
patients prefer cystostomy.
2. Operative Technique
This operation does not differ fundamentally from the technique for adenomec-
tomy, apart from the following special points:
a) Commencing the Operation
In many cases the prostatic urethra has been so constricted by carcinoma as

to severely impede movements of the instrument. A funnel-shaped area of tumor
must first be removed to allow free drainage of irrigating fluid into the bladder
and evacuation of resection material. Only thus will the instrument gain freedom
of movement. Initially it may appear that no further tissue can be removed,
yet the more one proceeds with the operation the easier it becomes to dissect
juxtacapsular tissues.
b) Hemorrhage
There is frequently less bleeding than usual, but one should not depend on
this as a rule. Especially during attempts to remove the carcinoma as far down
to the capsule as possible, one may come across numerous arteries, some of
them of considerable caliber. Venous sinuses are extremely rare.
c) Evacuation of Chips
Resection chips are often tough, just like their tissue of origin. They may be
difficult to extract, particularly if one has cut them large and long.
d) Resection of the Prostatic Apex
Particular care should be taken in cases where definite identification of the

verumontanum is rendered difficult by endourethral infiltration (often pseudo-
papillary). If the verumontanum cannot definitely be demonstrated, even with
rectal support, residual tissue must be left in the appropriate area as a safeguard
against injury to the external sphincter. This is all the more advisable whenever
rectal palpation suggests tumor growth distally into the external sphincter
region. For these cases we rely on the sphincter test of TAMMEN as well as
the hydraulic technique of HARTUNG (see p. 116, 117), using a faradic current
in the resectoscope loop to stimulate muscle contraction or rhythmically com-
pressing and releasing the irrigating tube.
Resection for Recurrent Hemorrhage 339
Repeated resection is more likely to benefit the patient than a single daring
operation ending in urinary incontinence.
Such second-look operations allow one gradually to approach the limits
of the possible and are usually so brief as to represent a minimal insult, even
to patients who are poor operative risks.
In fact, such cases are rare. The seasoned surgeon will in many cases, recog-
nize the remains of the verumontanum where an inexperienced surgeon sees
only an irregular urethral floor.
e) How Much to Resect?
There is considerable difference of opinion as to how much tissue should be

removed. Some advocate resecting only the amount required to guarantee ade-
quate micturition (CIFUENTE DELATTE 1969; BLANDY 1971), while others suggest
the most extensive possible excavation of the cavity (DENIS 1959). A number
of authors remain silent on the subject. To enable patients with prostatic carcino-
ma to urinate, it is probably adequate to simply cut a channel through tumor
tissue around the bladder neck. This channel through the rigid unresilient tissue
might provide for good micturition for some time, but the frequently rapid
growth tendency of some carcinomas would require frequent repetition of the
procedure. It is therefore preferable always to clear the bladder neck as far
as technically possible. It is quite frequently surprising how much tissue can
be removed even when rigid tumor hardly allows any movement of the instru-
ment at the outset. Capsular tissue is frequently involved in tumor and may
not be endoscopically recognizable, but that is of little significance as long
as one continues resecting all recognizable tumor tissue accessible to the resecto-
scope loop.
The rationale for thus excavating the cavity even in carcinoma cases must
lie in an attempt to save the patient numerous subsequent resections, or at
least to reduce their number.
Such an assessment of the indications is naturally tied to a corresponding
life expectancy and a good general condition. The concept of such extensive
resection of carcinomas should not be confused with an attempt at radical
transurethral surgery for carcinoma of the prostate.
Palliative resection should be employed whenever the patient's general condi-
tion is so poor that he will only tolerate a minor procedure in the attempt
to spare him indwelling catheterization.
1) Resection for Recurrent Hemorrhage
Recurrent hemorrhage nearly always arises from fairly advanced carcinomas.

Attempts at controlling bleeding by coagulation of visible vessels are only likely
to be successful in the case of an individual and clearly visible artery.
The procedure is indicated whenever hemorrhage is so profuse as to give
rise to clots or when its duration or frequent recurrence is the cause of severe
anemia. Occasional minor hemorrhage should not be regarded as an indication.
The problem is usually one of multiple parenchymatous oozing incapable of

spontaneous arrest in the crumbling necrotic tissue.
Only resection of all accessible tissue will help, and this should be continued
until mechanically more solid and better nourished tissue levels are reached.
Hemostasis will present no problems at this depth.
g) Resection of Necrotic, Infected Tumors
Just as for carcinomas of the bladder, removal of decaying, necrotic tumor

moities may provide considerable transient relief of severe dysuric symptoms
related to some forms of carcinoma of the prostate. The maximum possible
quantity of tissue should be resected compatible with avoiding incontinence.
h) Resecting Tumor Infiltrating the Bladder
Infiltration of the bladder may be so dominant in some carcinomas as to prevent

clinical differentiation from bladder tumors of the internal meatus. In any case,
extensive resection will be required and should include all endovesical extensions.
These tumors are frequently poorly differentiated carcinomas difficult to classify
histologically with any certainty. Tissue phosphatase levels should therefore
be estimated in order to determine the origin of the tumor, since definite prosta-
tic carcinoma will always be suitable for a trial of endocrine therapy. We have
on several occasions attempted resection of ureteric orifice infiltration, but
always without lasting success.
III. Resection for Bladder Neck Fibrosis
The literature abounds in a variety of names for this condition. 'Median bar,'
'bladder neck fibrosis,' 'prostatisme sans prostate,' and 'Marion's disease' are
all applied to more or less the same clinical picture. The dominant feature
is marked bladder outlet obstruction with normal rectal findings, often affecting
young people, but occasionally found in elderly men.
Because of its slow initial progress this disease frequently remains unnoticed
for a considerable time and this may result in bladder atony. Resection should
therefore be particularly thorough, since only thus may the disturbed equilibri-
um between detrusor and bladder outflow resistence be restored. For this reason
a number of important details must be mentioned in relation to operative tech-
mque.
The bladder neck is usually no longer than normal. The only endoscopic
abnormality is occasionally a marked upward protrusion of the internal
sphincter ring. The term' median bar' generally used in the Anglo-Saxon litera-
ture is most appropriate for this situation. Sometimes the internal meatus may
be constricted. The transverse bar is of a tough consistency and cuts as a rigid

fibrous ring.
It is never adequate to merely excise a groove from this ring; a properly
planned resection should be carefully executed. Tissue of the fibrous ring should
be serially removed until softer layers are reached. This procedure should encom-
pass the entire circumference of the internal meatus, rather than being limited
to the dorsal area.
Prostatic glandular tissue never occurs around the internal meatus. It is
limited to the region of the verumontanum but needs to be removed with the
same care lavished on adenomectomy. There are two reasons for this:
1. Glands partially devascularized during initial surgery may subsequently
become infected. Because of the poor blood supply such infections are vir-
tually untreatable.
2. Numerous cases of bladder neck fibrosis result from chronic infection. It
is therefore mandatory to remove already infected glandular tissue.
The only technical difficulty in this part of the procedure arises from the re-
stricted space. Slices should be shallow and short. I frequently find that steadying
the little finger of my left hand against the patient's thigh improves my accuracy.
Rectal support is often of value.
Strangely enough one nearly always removes 6-8 g of tissue from such cases,
although it seems at the outset that just a few cuts will suffice to clear the
prostatic cavity of all tissue.
Special care is required during resection of the paracollicular regions. A
particularly wide and smooth transition from prostatic cavity to membranous
urethra should be created. Whenever I am uncertain whether I have really
removed enough tissue, I carry out trial micturition by first filling the bladder
to capacity and then expressing irrigating fluid by suprapubic pressure. Unless
the urinary stream is satisfactorily forceful the instrument is reintroduced and
a careful search carried out for residual removable tissue. The sphincter tests
of TAMMEN and HARTUNG are invaluable in this situation in indicating with
absolute certainty the limits of possible resection. Only when trial micturition
results in a massive stream is final hemostasis carried out and the instrument
removed.
IV. Resection for Outflow Obstruction

in the Female Bladder
The clinical picture of female bladder outflow obstruction has been recognized
for some time. NELSON et al. (1957) quoted AMBROSE PARE, who described
bladder neck stenosis of women in 1575, as well as DE GROOF (1672). Despite
their medical historical interest, these initial clinical reports have left no lasting
impression in medical literature.
CAULK (1921) was the first to describe this syndrome and treat it endoscopi-
cally. For a bibliography up to 1951, see NELSON. He quotes 29 publications
containing a total of 341 cases, to which he adds 123 of his own.
NELSON'S review of the literature alone demonstrates the widely varying
frequency with which this condition is reported. The majority of publications
are concerned with a small number of individual cases.
The numbers involved reflect our own experience. In my 30 years of urologic
practice I have only encountered a very few cases exhibiting the classical symp-
toms of this outflow disorder, although I initially encountered it during my
first year as a urologist under MAY. After a considerable period of suprapubic
drainage an elderly woman was restored by MAY (1957) to spontaneous micturi-
tion through repeated incision of the internal meatus in several sittings. This
procedure was undertaken with a hook-shaped wire probe in the v. LICHTEN-
BERG-HEYWALT resectoscope. A previous case was published by MAY in 1936.
My interest in such problems was therefore aroused, but nevertheless I have
rarely come across such cases. These few observations contrast with case reports
suggesting a far greater incidence. Thus POWELL and POWELL (1958) report
234, EMMETT et al. (1950) over 76, and NELSON 123 cases.
SMITH and KAUFMAN (1976) on the other hand consider the diagnosis to
be made far too often, a criticism also cautiously voiced by UBELHOR (1962).
The current section can therefore only be concerned with directing attention
to this clinical picture and with the elaboration of criteria by which cases may
be selected for surgery and with a corresponding assessment of the strict indica-
tions.
2. Symptoms of Female Bladder Outflow Obstruction
The clinical picture is very similar to that of bladder neck obstruction in the
male. Suspicion therefore centers on the presence of this disorder whenever
a women complains of poor urinary stream, frequency and prolonged duration
of micturition. Considerable straining is required during urination. Acute reten-
tion is naturally suggestive of bladder neck stenosis, particularly if it frequently
occurs. The most common symptom was that of recurrent urinary infection,
this being the presenting symptom in 91.8% of the 234 cases presented by
POWELL. Local treatment achieved transient improvement in every case. In the
publication of POWELL and POWELL 'local treatment' encompasses urethral dila-
tation and coagulation of polypoid lesions around the bladder neck. 'Conserva-
tive treatment' is used by NELSON et al. to describe a wide range of treatments
for cystitis, including the prescription of sedatives and urinary antiseptics, ure-
thral dilatation and instillation of silver nitrate into the bladder. NELSON et al.
do not consider the mere presence of bladder neck stenosis as such to be an
indication for surgery, the latter only arising in the presence of typical symptoms.
EMMETT et al. include a sudden urge for micturition and incontinence among
the symptoms which may finally lead to this diagnosis. Note that these and
other authors frequently quote symptoms which we consider to be typical hall-
Urodynamic Investigations 343
marks of cystitis. This is one possible explanation for the fact that a syndrome
so rarely described by many authors is reported with such unusual frequency
by others.
3. Diagnosis of the Disorder
The diagnosis of female bladder neck stenosis can only be made if every female
patient complaining of one or more of the above symptoms is subjected to
a full diagnostic assessment.
Apart from laboratory investigations, including complete bacteriological
screening (urethra, vagina, urine), most clinicians would request an initial excre-
tion urogram. Signs of advanced outflow obstruction, such as ureteric dilatation
or hydronephrosis will then become apparent. Such changes are, however, ex-
tremely rare since the associated severe symptoms will usually have long resulted
in the diagnosis being made.
a) Cystoscopy
In typical cases cystoscopy reveals a tough sclerotic ring around the internal
meatus. NELSON et al. described this ring particularly clearly: it is best seen
through a 90° telescope as the cystoscope is gradually withdrawn away from
the trigone towards the exterior. During this maneuver the bladder neck will
appear in the field of view suddenly, not in the typical gradual way seen in
the normal tract. A forward-viewing telescope provides a different image: the
bladder neck bulges up into view on all sides.
EMMETT et al. are somewhat more sceptical in their evaluation of cystoscopic
findings. Far from there being a typical pathognomonic appearance, they believe
that such a seemingly rigid sphincter is found with equal frequency in normal
women. Apart from this typical sign of a fibrotic sphincter, whence the illness
takes its name, they frequently find pseudopapillary tags and erythema of the
mucosa as evidence of chronic inflammation, bladder muscle hypertrophy being
a particularly important sign. This general picture is of high diagnostic value,
occurring almost invariably in typical cases.
b) Urodynamic Investigations
Urodynamic studies may also be of considerable value, generating useful numer-

ical data on the actual impairment of urinary flow, especially if measurements
can be repeated serially. Ohm's law may be used to calculate bladder neck
resistance from simultaneous measurements of intravesical pressure. The sim-
plest way of establishing a reduction in urinary flow would be for the patient
to measure the duration of micturition in seconds with a stopwatch and divide
the volume of urine passed by the time elapsed. A slightly more complicated
method requiring the availability of apparatus is the method of uroflowmetry,

e.g., employing the uroflowmeter of TAMMEN developed in our clinic. The result
is a curve corresponding to the quotient of urine volume and time (gjs).
In a typical case the curve will show periodic variations in urine flow with
maxima, minima and intermittent complete interruption of urine flow. In the
presence of true sphincter fibrosis most cases will display an increased bladder
opening pressure. By measuring intravesical pressure through a transurethrally
placed 5-Ch ureteric catheter, the resistence at the bladder outlet is easily derived
electronically or by calculation. Since normal values have not yet been described
in the literature this investigation alone is not capable of influencing the indica-
tions for surgery.
Sphincter fibrosis should be carefully distinguished from the functionally
similar disorder of detrusor-sphincter dyssynergy, in which increased activity
of pelvic floor musculature at the onset of micturition also results in high bladder
opening pressures and poor flow rates. A pelvic floor electromyogram will nearly
always make this differential diagnosis. The urethral pressure profile is also
unhelpful in assessing operative indications, since this investigation often fails
to yield reproducible results.
The diagnosis itself thus rests on rather uncertain foundations, and the
woman's subjective symptoms may remain among the most important diagnostic
factors. The variability with which these symptoms correlate with measurable
values is a continuing source of surprise.
The cases we investigated had very considerably higher flow rates than one
would suspect from the descriptions given of poor micturition.
c) Differential Diagnostic Considerations
In view of the discrepancy described above between individual reports on its

incidence, the condition should only be diagnosed with the greatest caution.
Since the diagnosis cannot be made on endoscopic criteria alone, careful exclu-
sion of differential diagnoses is required.
Both neurological and gynecological factors should be carefully considered.
Subtle neurological conditions such as early multiple sclerosis, myelitis, tumor,
neurovascular disorders and diabetic neuropathy are rather more likely differen-
tial diagnoses than obvious gross traumatic disorders of the spinal cord and
cauda equina. Nerve injury during eradication of carcinoma of the rectum or
radical surgery for carcinoma of the uterus belong in the same group.
On the gynecological front, abnormal anatomy of uterus, vagina and bladder
may give rise to a degree of retention, although incontinence is of course a
far more common problem.
Drug-induced outflow disorders should finally be included in the differential
diagnosis. Impaired voiding of urine is a well-known phenomenon in male pa-
tients on antihypertensive treatment, and atropine and its synthetic analogues
used in the treatment of parkinsonism have similar effects. The influence of
pharmacologically active substances on bladder outflow disorders is best tested
by a transient interruption of the appropriate therapy.
Transurethral Resection 345
4. Morbid Anatomical Change

and Outflow Disorders of the Female Bladder
Various authors have failed to discover a specific abnormality of the bladder

neck present in the majority of cases. EMMETT et al. provided no figures on
the incidence of their histologic findings consisting of a cellular inflammatory
reaction and granulation tissue. Hypertrophy of smooth muscle seemed to be
dominant.
Inflammatory change is also the most frequent finding in the series of
POWELL and POWELL.
The fibrosis of smooth musculature one might suspect from the name most
frequently given to the disorder occurred in only 12.7% of all cases in the
series of POWELL and POWELL. All in all, the histological findings variously
reported suggest that one is not dealing with a precise, morbid anatomically
defined disease, but rather with a syndrome of multifactorial etiology. The
majority of these women should be considered as suffering from an acquired
disease in the wake of previous pregnancy, urinary infection or gynecological
surgery.
5. Treatment of Bladder Outflow Disorders
Nonendoscopic techniques such as dilatation and internal urethrotomy with

the Otis knife are not further discussed here since they have no lasting influence
on the actual disorder, i.e., the presence of a circular band of tissue around
the internal meatus. Such 'blind' incision is the method of choice for distal
urethral stenosis, particularly stenosis of the external meatus.
a) Transurethral Resection
The technique of transurethral resection at the internal meatus is basically sim-

ple, consisting of the removal of a circular tissue ring. The loop is engaged
only superficially, and a fairly shallow layer is thus removed. There are two
reasons for such a cautious approach:
1. Deep resection carries a risk of perforating the urethra.
2. Excessively deep and extensive excision may enter the proximal urethra with
resulting incontinence.
Because of the risk of incontinence we have made it a rule in all our cases
to risk repeating the operation rather than being too ambitious.
A more experienced surgeon will naturally proceed somewhat more boldly.
The technique of resection is therefore fundamentally different from that in
the prostate, where the main aim is nearly always to remove as much tissue
as possible with the minimum number of cuts. The reverse procedure is required
here. Thin shallow slices are first removed in a circular ring around the internal
meatus. It is not infrequently adequate to confine a first sitting to the removal
of polypoid pseudopapillary tags constricting the bladder neck; their removal

in an almost cosmetic operation on the internal meatus frequently so smooths
the area as to reduce the outflow resistance. With increasing experience one
will come to recognize cases in which this ring of inflammatory tissue is more
pronounced. One or two cuts may then be required to reach a tissue layer
in which muscle fibers of the internal meatus are visible.
Hemostasis in this small clearly visible operative field is easy and follows
the rules laid down for prostatic resection.
b) Postoperative Treatment
The indwelling catheter can usually be removed on the first postoperative day,
and such a procedure is indeed advisable to prevent infection.
The success of operation usually becomes apparent after only a few days'
observation as patients lose their fear of the initial postoperative pain and
start to empty their bladders without hesitation. Particularly sensitive women
should receive liberal analgesia in the first few days, possibly in combination
with psychotropic agents.
6. Assessing the Operative Success Rate
The success of the operation may be easily assessed by uroflowmetry and residu-
al volume measurements. If the results are inadequate, the operation may be
repeated after 3-4 days.
Since surgery seldom takes longer than 10 minutes, anesthetic side effects
are few. Because of its short duration we prefer to perform this operation
under general anesthesia. Repeated epidurals would certainly be too invasive.
V. Resection and Prostatic Calculi
The calculi are formed within prostatic glandular tissue, rather than in the
adenoma which thus pushes them peripherally towards the capsule. They then
lie within the so-called surgical capsule and are only encountered as resection
approaches the dorsal paracollicular region (see Illustrations 44 and 45, Plate
VIII).
Prostatic calculi seldom present a problem during resection unless they are
extremely large or if their bed and surroundings have undergone inflammatory
change.
A large calculus occasionally represents an obstacle to continued resection,
particularly if only its tip projects into the resection field. The larger bulk then
remains firmly embedded in tissue. Its removal is sometimes facilitated by notch-
Resection and Proistatic Abscess 347
ing the immediately adjacent tissue. This is achieved by pressing the loop straight
into the tissue to one side of the stone without any forward or backward move-
ment, repeating the maneuver on either side. Calculi are occasionally so firmly
embedded that the cutting loop is not strong enough to lever them out. A
curet attached to the electrotome in place of the loop may be preferable. Some-
times calculi lie in large nests so that rectal pressure may expel several concre-
tions simultaneously when their cavity has been incised. They are evacuated
from the bladder in the irrigating fluid.
Once all calculi have been removed, the tissue in which they were bedded
must be excised down to the prostatic capsule so as to restore a smooth wound
surface.
It is always surprising how far distal to the verumontanum calculi may
occur, underlining that the verumontanum is only a landmark, not an absolute
boundary.
Great care should be taken whenever calculi are embedded in inflammatory
tissue or even surrounded by microabscesses. In these cases incision of the
cavity around a calculus releases a glairy secretion. Such cases should immedi-
ately receive a broad spectrum antibiotic intravenously to combat bacteremia,
even if the preoperative urine was sterile.
Once again the floor of the prostatic cavity should be carefully dissected
clear and all inflammatory tissue completely removed. The purpose of this is
not 'cosmetic,' since a smooth wound cavity is far less prone to postoperative
infection.
VI. Resection and Prostatic Abscess
Transurethral drainage of a prostatic abscess is rarely a planned procedure.

Usually a previously undiagnosed clinically silent abscess is incised during aden-
omectomy. Intentional planned transurethral drainage has however recently
become a routine method. It is contraindicated in young patients because of
the danger of retrograde ejaculation, since it is impossible to predict preopera-
tively how much gland will need to be resected (see Illustration 42, Plate VII).
The procedure may however be recommended for the elderly and for patients
who consent to transurethral drainage in the full knowledge of the possible
sequelae. The technique is simple and obviously particularly attractive for ab-
scesses in the immediate vicinity of the urethra.
Cystourethrogram and rectal palpation clearly indicate which side of the
prostate is affected. A single incision is usually adequate to open the abscess
as it bulges into the urethral lumen. It is then drained by moderate rectal
pressure under gentle irrigation. Once clear visibility is re-established the not
infrequently loculated abscess cavity is inspected and the incised opening ex-
tended and smoothed. Rectal palpation should exlude the presence of an addi-
tional separate loculus requiring additional drainage. The procedure takes but
a few minutes, and an indwelling catheter is left in situ 1-2 days. The abscess
cavity may continue to bleed and catheter patency should therefore be tested
by careful irrigation in the postoperative period. The entire procedure is natural-
ly carried out under antibiotic cover.
Transurethral surgery is not indicated for patients whose abscess is pointing
towards the rectum and in whom there is little or no bulge into the prostatic
urethra. Such cases are better treated by perineal drainage. Under no circum-
stance should cases of acute suppurative prostatitis be subjected to a transure-
thral procedure, be it for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes.
Abscesses should be distinguished from cases in which inspissated secretion
oozes from the transected glands in a process similar to squeezing toothpaste
from the tube. Secretion of a similar consistency escapes from cavities within
the gland as they are transected. Pressure from the rectum may accelerate this
process. Since we have never proved infection in a single such case, it is reason-
able to assume that the substance is inspissated glandular secretion or the con-
tents of an old inactive abscess. Once the secretion has been evacuated the
wall of the cavity may be inspected and excised. Illustration 42 (plate VII)
shows this material oozing out of a cavity.
VII. Resection and Chronic Prostatitis
In our experience only a few cases are suitable for this form of treatment.
It is far more frequent for inflammatory and obstructive symptoms to blend
imperceptibly. One reason may be that the connective tissue reaction involved
in chronic inflammation can give rise to a kind of secondary bladder neck
fibrosis.
Even as a last resort it is not an easy decision to advise a patient with
chronic inflammation to undergo transurethral removal of inflamed and infected
prostatic tissue. I have only rarely come across indications for this procedure,
the chief one being recurrent failure of conservative treatment, including high-
dose intravenous antibiotic therapy over several weeks. A prior proctological
and psychotherapeutic assessment should also be made to exclude either realm
as a source of symptoms. Examination of ejaculate and expressate should reveal
high bacteria and leucocyte counts.
The diagnosis is finally confirmed by cytological and histological examina-
tion of aspiration and punch biopsy materials. Many of these patients suffer
recurrent episodes of fever requiring antibiotic treatment.
Operation requires considerable technical subtlety, since success will depend
on the removal of all infected gland tissue leaving only the fibromuscular cap-
sule. The technique is identical to that for bladder neck fibrosis (see p. 340)
and is therefore not described again at this stage. Local findings may be of
interest: transected glands are often rich in secretion and occasionally contain
microabscesses. In between there may be areas of complete, normal-looking
glandular tissue in which only the pathologist will detect inflammatory change.
Palliative Resection 349
Once again the procedure should be undertaken under antibiotic cover and
followed by prolonged postoperative anti-inflammatory therapy.
The results are not always as good as patient and surgeon expect, even
if infection is completely controlled. This is one good reason for restraint in
recommending the procedure.
VIII. Resection and Prostatic Tuberculosis
In the last 20 years I have never come across this indication for surgery. The
chief reason must be that urogenital tuberculosis is nowadays exceptionally
rare. The second reason is that surgery may be even less indicated than in
chronic prostatitis.
The few cases we operated on in the 1950s all had proven cavities within
the organ, and surgery was performed in order to improve their drainage and
healing.
IX. Palliative Resection
This procedure is aimed at patients who are fundamentally inoperable for non-
urological reasons, subjecting them to the minimum operation required to rid
them of their indwelling catheter. Such' miniresection' used to be rarely indi-
cated, and is even less so nowadays since the availability of cryosurgery. This
has a variety of reasons:
1. Rapidly executed complete adenomectomy is hardly more invasive for the
patient than the excision of a urinary channel through the adenoma.
2. Incompletely removed adenomas rapidly lead to renewed deterioration of
micturition, since recoil in the capsule makes the soft tissues bulge back
again into the urethral lumen.
3. In patients with prostatic carcinoma further advancement of the growth leads
to rapid deterioration of micturition unless a large wound cavity is excavated.
4. The poor blood supply of a partially resected adenoma is often responsible
for recurrent infections and tiresome dysuria.
5. Cases in which electroresection is absolutely contraindicated, e.g., those with
severe cerebrovascular disease, are equally untreatable by palliative resection
or cryosurgery.
6. Patients with severe cardiovascular disease can nowadays be treated without
anesthesia by cryosurgery.
7. Cases of large adenoma will require the removal of large quantities of tissue
even for palliative resection and are therefore not suitable for this method.
The latter is thus reserved purely for cases of medium adenoma of 20--30 g
in complete retention who are marginally fit for anesthesia. Often, anesthetist
and internist advise the shortest possible procedure.
We carry out palliative resection in the same fashion as a normal adenomectomy,
but desist from complete clearance of the capsule. An adequately large wound
cavity is created but remains lined by a layer of adenomatous tissue. Careful
resection of the prostatic apex is indispensable for proper micturition. The oper-
ation usually takes approximately 15 to 20 min including hemostasis and the
blood loss is seldom more than 50 or maximally 100 ml.
One must work rapidly and with full concentration.
x. Electroresection in Patients with Cardiac Pacemakers,

Artificial Heart Valves or Vascular Prostheses
By w. SCHUTZ
There is both intraoperative and experimental evidence that the use of electro-
cautery during surgery may interfere with the function of pacemakers, resulting
in bradyarrhythmia, asystole or ventricular fibrillation (ACKERMANN and FROH-
MULLER 1976; FEIN 1967a, b; GREBER et al. 1970; GREENE et al. 1969; GREENE
and MEREDETH 1971; LICHTER et al. 1965; SCHUTZ 1979; SCHWINGSHACKL et al.
1971; SOWTON etal. 1970; WAJSZCUK etal. 1969; WHALEN etal. 1964; ZINK
et al. 1980).
For this reason transurethral electroresection in patients with cardiac pace-
makers requires certain pre-, intra- and postoperative measures to be taken
for the early recognition and avoidance of complications.
Preoperative measures include identification of the type of pacemaker, check-
ing its function and testing the state of charge of its batteries. Asynchronous
fixed frequency pacemakers are generally insensitive to external high-frequency
current, but the reverse is true of the far more frequently implanted synchronous
demand pacemakers: P-wave synchronized and R-wave triggered demand pace-
makers may increase their rate under the influence of high-frequency current,
albeit only up to a limiting rate given by the pacemaker refractory time. R-wave
inhibited demand pacemakers on the other hand only emit an impulse if the
spontaneous heart rate sinks below a predetermined value. Where a slow intrin-
sic heart rate is assisted by this type of pacemaker high-frequency current may
simulate cardiac activity and thus inhibit the pacemaker. The result may be
bradycardia or complete cessation of pacemaker activity.
During the operation pacemaker activity should be monitored on high-fre-
quency-proofECG equipment (Fig. 219), the advantages of which are described
below. If satisfactory monitomg is not available, the pacemaker should be
switched to fixed-rate operation by applying a small bar magnet to the skin
over the pacemaker. The pacemaker is then rendered insensitive to external
high-frequency interference. On the other hand, interaction of spontaneous car-
Electroresection in Patients with Cardiac Pacemakers, Artificial Heart Valves or Vascular Prosteses 351
Fig. 219. Above: Obvious interference with the ECG by high-frequency current. Below: Unimpaired
pacemaker ECG recorded on a cautery-proof monitor
diac rhythm and autonomous pacemaker activity may result in undesirable

hemodynamic effects.
Pacemaker patients have a limited ability to compensate for a reduction
of circulating volume as a result of intra- or postoperative hemorrhage: pace-
maker assistance of a slow idioventricular rhythm results in a preprogramed
rate rather than in that physiologically required. Careful fluid balance is there-
fore indispensable and early generous blood replacement always indicated.
Pacemaker and resection circuit are less likely to influence each other the
further apart they are physically separated. The indifferent electrode should
therefore be placed at least on the distal thigh. If these requirements are satisfied
we consider the additional implantation of a second extracorporeal pacemaker
to be unnecessary. Cables in the pacemaker and resection circuit should not
be allowed to lie parallel so as to avoid induction effects.
Experimental and operative studies have both shown that inhibited pacemak-
ers are most susceptible to interference at the time of switching high-frequency
current on and off (SCHUTZ 1979; ZINK et al. 1980), whereas regular, undistorted
pacemaker pulses continued to appear on the monitor during the cutting and
coagulating process. Cautery-hardened monitoring is therefore of advantage,
since the surgeon will immediately become aware of dysrhythmias and be able
to modify his technique accordingly, usually in favor of a less rapid cutting
sequence with longer individual cuts.
Nevertheless the availability of a defibrillator in working order within easy
reach of the operating room remains a fundamental requirement: Transients
_ ""---
I< I S S
I
Fig. 220. Inhibition (l) of the pacemaker by switch pulses from a high-frequency generator. Spontaneous
pacemaker activity during a cutting phase (S). In the ECG shown here coagulation (K) falls within
the refractory time of the pacemaker and thus does not give rise to inhibition
of over 20 V during a vulnerable phase of the cardiac cycle may lead to ventricu-
lar fibrillation (ACKERMANN and FROHMULLER 1976; GREENE et al. 1971). Pace-
maker function should again be checked in the postoperative phase, since pro-
nounced battery exhaustion has been described following the use of high-fre-
quency current (SCHWINGSHACKL et al. 1971).
The danger of specific complications should be carefully considered prior
to transurethral resection in patients with artificial heart valves or vascular
prostheses: thrombosis or embolism, infection (endocarditis) and acute heart
failure due to volume overload. Preoperatively such patients are frequently on
long-term anticoagulant therapy. On the day of resection thromboplastin activi-
ty should not be less than 60%. This generally requires interruption of anticoag-
ulant therapy but an internist's advice should be sought in every case. The
clotting status must be estimated daily and the earliest possible postoperative
recommencement of anticoagulation aimed for.
Resection for Impaired Micturition Following Rectal Surgery 353
Because of the additional infection rate, peri operative antibiotic cover is

indicated even in previously uninfected patients. Established urinary infection
should be treated as far as possible preoperatively. Postoperative pyrexia is
an absolute indication for blood culture.
The entry of irrigating fluid into the system during transurethral prostatic
resection is a special hazard to patients with artificial heart valves, since they
are far more susceptible than normal patients to acute cardiac decompensation
in the wake of volume overload. Peroperative circulatory monitoring therefore
attains special significance. Transection of a venous sinus must be followed
by immediate conclusion of the procedure, so as to minimize the inadvertently
infused. In these situations sodium-excreting diuretics (e.g., frusemide) are supe-
rior to osmotic agents, since the latter will transiently increase the intravascular
volume. Plasma sodium estimation immediately prior to and after operation
will give a good idea of the extent of irrigation fluid infusion. A variation
of more then 10 mEqjl between the two values suggests the absorption of con sid-
erable volumes (MULCAHY et al. 1975).
Transurethral resection carries an increased operative risk in patients with
cardiac pacemakers, artifical heart valves or vascular prostheses, and should
therefore be reserved for experienced surgeons.
XI. Resection for Impaired Micturition

Following Rectal Surgery
Disordered micturition, if not actual acute retention, frequently follows in the

wake of rectal surgery. Three causes may be considered for this phenomenon:
1. The operation may have extensively denervated the bladder. Complete or

partial nerve section may reduce detrusor activity.
2. The bladder falls back into the hollow of the sacrum.
3. Postoperative bedrest and the proximity of a wound and surrounding edema
are frequently enough to precipitate problems in elderly patients with incipi-
ent but clinically silent prostatic adenomas.
There is probably most often some combination of these causal factors.

Electroresection is the method of choice for the treatment of these disorders.
The problems are similar to those relating to resection for neurogenic bladder
and bladder neck fibrosis: some cases may require extensive surgery to restore
the balance between the detrusor and the bladder neck resistance. Refer to
the description of resection for bladder neck fibrosis and bladder atony.
XII. Resecting Papillary Tumors of the Prostatic Urethra
Epithelial tumors of the urethral mucosa are rare, but the technical problems
to which they may give rise are discussed in the following (see Illustration
17, Plate III).
Isolated 'papillomas' and papillary carcinomas of the prostatic urethra are
easily treated by simple excision with a few cuts. Because of the large quantity
of surrounding tissue available for dissection in depth, such procedures have
a good chance of achieving radicality. The only price will be partial removal
of the adjacent prostate.
Total papillomatosis of the prostatic urethra is a considerably more proble-
matic state of affairs. Not only is all tumor-bearing mucosa to be removed,
but electroresection should proceed down to the capsule as for adenomectomy.
The chief problems arise at the distal and proximal ends of the prostatic urethra:
the proximal transition to the bladder must be carefully inspected, since the
tumor not infrequently crosses the internal meatus to involve bladder mucosa.
Distally great care and occasionally an extremely shallow cutting technique
is required to avoid injury to the external sphincter. Particular difficulty may
arise where the tumor reaches down to or beyond the verumontanum. Superficial
and deep tissue samples from this area should be sent for separate histologic
analysis. This will be the only guide to the requirement for further deeper resec-
tion at a second sitting. Fortunately, the majority of these tumors are mainly
exophytic and have a limited tendency to infiltrate.
XIII. Resection of Bladder Diverticula
Suprapubic excision is indicated for very large diverticula, particularly in the

presence of a very large adenoma. The combination of small adenoma and
large bladder diverticulum is treated by initial open exicision of the diverticulum
followed 8-10 days later by resection of the adenoma.
The current section is more concerned with the problems of resection in
the presence of a diverticulum and with transurethral surgery to the diverticular
neck.
Two points should be borne in mind during resection of prostate and bladder
diverticula:
1. Complete evacuation of resection chips from the diverticulum or diverticula

2. The deepest possible incision of the diverticular neck where this is narrow,
so as to widen it and, ideally, convert the diverticulum into a new area
of the bladder wall (see Fig. 218).
Resection of Bleeding Adenomas 355
XIV. Resection and Bladder Calculi
We undertake litholapaxy and electroresection of prostatic adenomas at a single

session, depending on the indications. The bladder neck configuration and depth
of the retroprostatic recess will decide which of the two procedures is carried
out first. If the calculus is easily reached, litholapaxy is not delayed. If, on
the other hand, a large median lobe bulges into the bladder or a very deep
recess suggests difficult access to the calculus, the adenoma is first removed
and litholapaxy reserved until the end of the sitting, the main requirement
being adequate hemostasis during resection. Since introducing our punch litho-
.tripe we have no longer had any of the traditional problems in finding residual
calculus fragments. This instrument allows a systematic procedure under first-
rate visiblity even in the presence of hemorrhage.
XV. Resection of Bleeding Adenomas
Hemorrhage usually originates in the superficial mucosal veins of the prostatic

urethra and is to a great extent promoted by the poor venous drainage of
large adenomas. It occasionally takes on such threatening proportions as to
demand action.
We are not concerned with sporadic mild bleeding. This always demands
careful investigation of both upper tract and bladder but seldom requires any
active procedure.
The endoscopic appearance of severe hemorrhage is unmistakeable. The
mucosal veins are usually dilated, occasionally to the extent of true varicosity,
i.e., they are wide, tortuous and easily ruptured. The source of bleeding is
most easily found under reduced irrigation. If one attempts to close the veins
by direct coagulation one merely succeeds in crusting over the area but bleeding
occurs immediately alongside, usually more profusely. It is a matter of experi-
ence with many similar cases that coagulation only rarely yields results and
only immediate resection will provide a definitive solution to the problem
(NESBIT 1943).
Many such patients are admitted to hospital with bladder tamponade and
retention of urine. Attempts at evacuating the tamponade by catheter usually
fail, and rapid operative intervention is then indicated.
Under general anesthesia, or epidural if the patient is not starved, the clots
are first evacuated and an attempt is made at arresting the hemorrhage by
coagulation. In this emergency situation not more than 10 min should be spent
on coagulation. If hemostasis has not been achieved by then we immediately
follow on with resection, palliative or complete depending on the patient's condi-
tion and the size of the adenoma. Adenoma tissue is resected until a tissue
layer is exposed allowing easy coagulation. This will be the case when the entire
mucosa surrounding the bleeding area and a layer of 2-3 loop thicknesses has
been ablated. Bleeding arteries and veins around the margin of the resection
area are then coagulated. Once the patient has fully recovered and has been
prepared for surgery in the usual fashion, the operation may be concluded.
If the patient's general condition permits and the adenoma is not too large
we undertake resection in the usual fashion.
XVI. Resection in the Presence of Bladder Tumor
The resection of bladder tumors and prostatic adenomas in the same sitting
is without further problem. One occasionally hears warnings against this proce-
dure on the grounds that metastases may be implanted in the prostatic wound
cavity. In 25 years of practicing this combined technique we have never observed
a single case which would justify such reservations.
The coincidence of bladder tumor and adenoma is not particularly rare,
occurring in 7% of our patients.
We usually start by removing the adenoma, the reason being that resection
of bladder tumors on the lateral wall of the bladder and in the vault is considera-
bly facilitated by an empty prostatic cavity. The instrument is more mobile
and these regions of the bladder are more easily seen. In some cases the removal
of tumors from the vicinity of the internal meatus is only rendered possible
by simultaneous prostatic resection. This may even be true of an unenlarged
prostate rather than an adenoma. Tumors around the internal meatus invading
the prostate require extensive prostatic ablation. The tumor prognosis is thus
greatly improved because deep resection of prostatic tissue benefits the radicality
of the procedure. These deep tissue layers should be dispatched separately for
histologic examination.
XVII. Resection Following Open Adenomectomy
Enucleative surgery is occasionally followed by postoperative problems easily

amenable to transurethral correction. Mention has already been made in Chap.
F of hemostasis within the cavity (and along the bladder incision following
transvesicaloperations).
Endoscopic inspection is indicated whenever the patient experiences diffi-
culty in micturition after enucleation of an adenoma, or when there is marked
pyuria. Areas of tissue necrosis may be found and resected. Encrusted necrotic
tissue debris may also be removed in this fashion. Occasionally the HARRIS-
RHYNTSCHAK hemostatic suture does not dissolve spontaneously and needs to
be divided by transurethral resection.
The transurethral surgeon is always impressed by the appearance of the
wound cavity after enucleation. One tends to assume there will be an entirely
Resection Following Open Adenomectomy 357
smooth surface since this is the impression that presented itself to the finger
at operation. The truth is quite different. Endoscopic examination reveals an
irregular cavity covered in a ragged coating.
In a few cases where patients had a poor urinary stream following enuclea-
tion we were able to resect mucosal remnants from the paracollicular region.
A separate section is devoted to the resection of iridiform bladder neck
stenosis which may result from either endoscopic or enucleative surgery (see
p.389).
Chapter I
Litholapaxy
I. Preliminary Considerations
No single transurethral operation has undergone quite such a fundamental chan-

ge in the last two decades as litholapaxy. As recently as the 1940s and 1950s
blind litholapaxy by the Bigelow lithotrite was a common procedure in a number
of clinics. Nowadays both instrument and method are known only to a few
older urologists and their pupils. A variety of technical factors are responsible
for this development: destruction of bladder calculi by the Urat-I instrument
has had a particularly revolutionary effect. Ultrasonic litholapaxy has only re-
cently reached technical maturity. Subdivision and extraction from the bladder
of calculus debris has been so simplified by the introduction of the punch litho-
trite that the latter is likely to remain the standard technique for many years
to come. Only the basic concept just outlined will be further discussed in this
operating manual.
II. Preliminary Assessment of the Patient
All patients undergoing a urologic operation receive a full general medical and
urological workup. Because of their decisive influence on the relative indications
for surgery, particular importance attaches to the magnitude of calculus and
adenoma. Even the experienced surgeon occasionally has difficulty in estimating
the size of a calculus on endoscopic examination, and misinterpretations not
infrequently arise. The endoscopic findings should therefore always be under-
pinned radiologically, and attention must be drawn to the techniques of air
and contrast cystogram, allowing excellent demonstration of nonopaque stones.
This imaging technique is even capable of distinguishing the type of calculus
involved, at least to the point of identifying soft phosphate calculi. The presence
of the latter may represent an additional indication for transurethral treatment
since their soft consistency renders them eminently destructible despite consider-
able size.
360 Chapter I Litholapaxy
III. Indications
Bladder calculi nearly always occur in combination with prostatic adenomas

and are excessively rare in women. The etiology frequently includes foreign
bodies which become encrusted. In the male patient it is mandatory to treat
both calculus and adenoma, since there will otherwise be numerous calculous
recurrences. These remarks do not of course apply to phosphate calculi relating
to previous infection or to foreign bodies.
In the presence of an outsize adenoma best treated by enucleation the calcu-
lus may be removed during the same operation. Cystotomy alone is only indi-
cated in cases where particularly large calculi occupying the entire bladder
require emergency removal, although cases of this kind have nowadays become
extremely unusual. The requirement for access to all aspects of the calculus
is the only factor imposing an upper size limit on the transurethral approach.
A small bladder may be a more serious obstacle than a large stone. The old
rule that the calculus should be smaller than the mouth of the lithotrite is
no longer valid, but it should still be carefully considered whether open removal
of a very large stone (4- to 5-cm diameter) and a moderate adenoma is not
still the less invasive procedure for the patient. Quite apart from such considera-
tions of size, importance attaches to the surgeon's experience and personal
preference. It is a well-known fact that while soft outsize stones are easily and
rapidly removed by the transurethral route, extremely hard, quite modest stones
may represent very considerable problems. The effect on the urethra should
also be borne in mind. A narrow, strictured urethra will speak strongly in
favor of open rather than transurethral surgery.
In summary: there are no fixed and generally binding rules, although modern
endoscopic techniques have further shifted the balance in favor of transurethral
therapy.
IV. The Technique of Litholapaxy

It is not proposed to discuss blind litholapaxy with the Bigelow or some other
blind instrument in this operation manual, although I personally still occasional-
ly use such methods. With a few exceptions the more modern Urat-I and ultra-
sound techniques have led most of our younger colleagues to abandon the
traditional method, since operation under direct vision is both easier and more
rapidly learnt.
Until recently the Urat-I procedure was the only one allowing the comminu-
tion of larger calculi under direct vision. The various technical problems asso-
ciated with ultrasound litholapaxy have now been satisfactorily solved and I
therefore personally prefer this method for the destruction of calculi, since it
The' Aachen' Ultrasound Lithotrite 361
avoids most of the electrical problems and dangers involved in the shock-wave
technique. Numerous clinics will still possess Urat-I apparatus, and both tech-
niques are therefore described below. Which ever method of initial destruction
is chosen, final comminution will require the use of a mechanical lithotrite.
In 1976 I developed my punch lithotrite, which provides an ideal solution to
this problem even under conditions of the very poorest visibility (MAUERMAYER
and HARTUNG 1976).
2. Ultrasound Litholapaxy
The extensive use of ultrasound techniques in industry had long suggested their
employment in the destruction of bladder calculi. It has taken some time to
achieve a practical solution.
The' Aachen' model of ultrasound apparatus now available is technologi-
cally mature and renders the destruction of bladder calculi considerably simpler
than did the Urat-I instrument. Its chief advantage is the way in which the
calculus remains immobile in the base of the bladder, rather than having to
be looked for every time it is hurled around by a spark discharge.
a) The' Aachen' Ultrasound Lithotrite
The instrument consists of three functional units: the endoscopic instrument

proper, the ultrasound generator and the evacuation device.
a) The Endoscopic Instrument. This consists of a metal sheath and the LUTZEYER
operating element. The metal sheath of a punch lithotrite is used with its central
stopcock, since this permits complete evacuation of concretion material without
a change of instrument.
The operating element is locked into the sheath just like the electrotome
of a resectoscope. For structural reasons the optical system needs to be angu-
lated, and a special eccentric telescope is therefore provided. Its optical data
are those of a 0° HOPKINS system.
An ultrasound drill runs parallel to the axis of the instrument and is activated
by oscillations of the ultrasonic transducer. Drill and transducer crystal (actually
of ceramic type) contain a central bore through which irrigating fluid, small
fragments and drill swarf are evacuated. A connector on the instrument accepts
the evacuator hose. A simple mechanical lever system allows advancement of
the operating unit, extending the drill from the sheath and bringing it into
contact with the concretion. The ultrasound drill is fitted with a kind of' crown'
freely rotating on the transmission tube.
The following connections have to be made to the instrument:
1. Irrigation inlet
2. Irrigation drain (both controlled by central stopcock)
3. Evacuator hose
4. Light lead
5. High frequency excitation current to the transducer
The three water connections are made by a simple push fit to the instrument.
The light connection is the standard type employed by the manufacturer.
~) The Ultrasound Generator. A high-frequency generator is used to produce

electromagnetic oscillations of 27 kHz. A cable connects the generator to the
transducer. Although the actual electronic process within the generator is consid-
erably more complicated than suggested here, the simple facts just given are
adequate for day-to-day use.
y) The Evacuator. The central bore of the operating unit permits the evacuation
of small particles and of swarf. Irrigating fluid simultaneously cools the trans-
ducer, the evacuator pump being controlled by a footswitch. Activating the
switch simultaneously energizes the pump and the high-frequency generator,
thus inevitably linking drilling with evacuation and cooling.
b) Technique with the Ultrasound Lithotrite
The operative technique is simple. The drill crown presses the concretion against
the bladder wall, and after a more-or-Iess prolonged period of such' hammering'
the calculus disintegrates, frequently along several fracture lines. Care should
be taken to allow the drill bit to 'hammer' rather than exerting so firm a
pressure on the calculus as to reduce the amplitude or stroke of the drill.
Particularly helpful is the fact that fragments always remain in the bottom
of the bladder. Only the smallest particles may be washed away by the irrigating
current. Even if the drill bit comes into contact with the bladder wall, no injury
will result. By attacking the edge of small concretions chips may be broken
off which will pass through the central instrument lumen. When dealing with
larger stones it is advisable to first excavate a small crater whence bursting
of the calculus is more easily induced. The resulting fracture planes permit
further comminution more easily than rounded surfaces.
With a little practice it is quite easy to teach oneself this technique.
To save time I would recommend that the ultrasound drill only be used
for initial destruction of the concretion, and that this be continued with the
punch lithotrite.
The chief advantages of this technique over the Urat-I instrument are un-
doubtedly the relatively insignificant danger of ultrasound and the fact that
concretions remain immobile in the base of the bladder. I have never encoun-
tered hemorrhage due to mucosal injury.
It is advisable to keep the evacuator pump in operation even during drilling
intervals, since cooling of the crystal will then be maintained. Water in- and
outlet must be controlled by the central stopcock, so as to avoid excessive
distension or emptying of the bladder. This is easily monitored under direct
vision.
Anesthesia for Pressure Wave Litholapaxy 363
3. Urat-J Litholapaxy
a) Apparatus
The instrument consists of an electrical generator providing a high-tension

supply. A footswitch triggers current pulses reaching the operating probe via
a well-insulated twin lead and 2 pole connector. The flexible probe has a diame-
ter of 10 Ch and can thus be inserted into the bladder through any operating
cystoscope having a suitable channel.
b) The Probe
The probe basically consists of coaxial cable; an inner core and a thin metal
outer tube are separated by an insulating layer. The whole probe is then encased
in an elastic and mechanically resistant plastic sheath. On the application of
high tension a spark discharge occurs between the two conductors, resulting
in electro hydraulic waves which form the basis of the technique. For proper
operation the tip of the probe should be carefully serviced. After every use
it should be carefully honed flat on a fine grain stone, since every discharge
burns off a small proportion of each conductor. Poorly conducting oxide films
also inhibit discharge. Honing is most easily carried out on a small electrical
grinding wheel. The probes may be sterilized by ethylene oxide.
c) Hazards of the Technique
The method is not without dangers, but complications may be avoided with
proper care.
Electrical safety regulations should be strictly adhered to (local technical
standards authority!). The instrument should be grounded and the operating
table connected to this same ground point. Any malfunction in the equipment
should lead to immediate abandonment of the procedure. In larger units it
is therefore useful to have backup equipment.
The front lens of the telescope should never be allowed to come too close
to the probe. The result may be loosening, or even worse fracture of a lens.
The energized probe should never be allowed to touch the mucosa, since
bladder trauma would inevitably occur.
Finally, small splinters of calculus may penetrate the mucosa, although I
have never seen any adverse result of this for the patient.
d) Anesthesia for Pressure Wave Litholapaxy
The procedure should be carried out under general or regional anesthesia. Since
it will usually be followed by electroresection, the latter will probably govern
the type of anesthesia chosen. Local anesthesia of bladder and urethra alone
is not suitable for this operation, although it may suffice for ultrasound lithola-
paxy.
e) Instruments for Pressure Wave Litholapaxy
a) The Operating Cystoscope. The procedure may be undertaken with any oper-
ating cystoscope having a 10-Ch instrument channel. The problem of evacuating
debris then remains to be solved, and may present great difficulties with these
instruments, since the calculus will have to be reduced to fragments correspond-
ing to the sheath caliber. Furthermore, evacuation is then blind, although a
cystoscope sheath may be adequate for small calculi.
P) The Resectoscope Sheath. Since litholapaxy is nearly always coupled to prosta-

tic resection, comminution of the debris could also be carried out with a suitable
operating unit inserted in the resectoscope sheath.
1) The Punch Lithotrite. A simple modification allows the punch lithotrite to

be used for pressure wave litholapaxy. All that is necessary is the introduction
of a control tube for the Urat probe in place of the forceps. The technique
of litholapaxy remains the same as when using a resectoscope sheath or ordinary
operating cystoscope.
Ultrasound litholapaxy may also be undertaken through the punch lithotrite
sheath if the instrument is adapted to fit it. The ultrasound lithotrites and
punch forceps now available are fully interchangeable.
f) The Technique of Electrohydraulic Litholapaxy
Attention has already been drawn to the hazards of the method, but they are
repeated here: any contact between probe and bladder mucosa is absolutely
to be avoided. During the initial phases this hazard is small but increases sub-
stantially towards the end of the procedure, as fragments become smaller and
smaller.
Once again, the technique is simple and easily learned. The probe is brought
into intimate contact with the calculus and current applied by means of the
footswitch. Small calculi are occasionally thrown away from the probe by the
spark discharge. For this reason the probe should always exert a certain amount
of pressure on the calculus against the bladder base or posterior wall. Current
pulses should never be applied to the calculus for too long at a time, and
it is better to work with short bursts of pulses. The first sign of any effect
is superficial flaking of calculus material at the point of contact, subsequently
resulting in the emergence of a small pit or crater. It is wrong to then repeat
the same process elsewhere. After a short pause allowing for the drainage of
irrigating fluid the probe is again closely applied to the same point and repeat-
edly energized until the calculus disintegrates. Soft stones may do so during
The Punch Lithotrite 365
an initial series of discharges, but harder calculi will require more patience.
If no effect at all is seen, either a different area of the calculus should be
attacked or the pulse repetition frequency altered. Alterations in current intensi-
ty may also be tried. Since no concretion has a completely smooth surface,
one of the many pits or depressions should be chosen as an initital point of
attack on resistant calculi. Generally speaking, calculi disintegrate far more
readily than this text would suggest.
For further comminution of fragments it is preferable to apply the probe
to fracture planes rather than the curved external surface. It is rare for lithola-
paxy of a plum-sized stone to take more than 10 min. The smaller the fragments
become, the greater their tendency to be hurled away by the current. Pressure
wave litholapaxy should therefore be discontinued when the fragments have
reached the size of a cherry or plum stone, and punch litholapaxy should then
ensue in the usual fashion as described below. Whenever a substantial amount
of loose debris accumulates it should be evacuated.
4. The Punch Lithotrite
This instrument has been specially designed for litholapaxy either by the purely
mechanical route or in combination with pressure waves. The principal normally
employed for' punching' out portions of tissue has been specially adapted for
this purpose and suitably rigid and robust mechanical construction has for
the first time allowed its application to the destruction of concretions.
The instrument is introduced with an obturator to close its vesical end.
The external end bears the usual central stopcock allowing control of irrigation
in- and outflow even with the forceps in situ. After removing the obturator
the closed operating element is introduced under maximum irrigation: great
emphasis attaches to the instrument being closed, because the forceps are open
in the resting condition and the cutting internal member therefore projects into
the bladder. The forceps should therefore only be opened after direct vision
has been achieved.
Small calculi up to the size of a hazelnut are easily gripped in the forceps,
pressure wave or ultrasound litholapaxy then being unnecessary. Larger concre-
tions may require their preliminary use. The irrigating behavior of the punch
lithotrite has certain special features. If the internal cutting element is somewhat
withdrawn into the sheath it may be seen that even in the presence of cloudy
or blood-stained urine excellent visibility is maintained, although this deterio-
rates as the forceps are extended. Air bubbles occasionally become trapped
in the forceps and cannot be carried away by the irrigating current. They are
easily dealt with by rotating the forceps through 180 under maximum irrigation
0
or by evacuating them through the central stopcock.

Heavily blood-stained bladder contents not cleared by normal irrigation
require that the calculus be looked for with the inner forceps somewhat with-
drawn into the sheath. Once the calculus has been found, the forceps may
be briefly opened to seize it.
Engaging the calculus is easy. The open mouth of the forceps is applied
to the stone and the jaws closed. Either a piece is punched out of the concretion
and withdrawn into the sheath or the calculus simply fractures if pressure is
relaxed at the correct moment. Equally a fragment may splinter off. One should
always seek to apply the forceps across an edge or a projection, this will allow
the deepest engagement into the mouth of the instrument. In the presence of
several calculi frequent evacuation of debris will facilitate the recognition of
individual large fragments.
5. Technique of Evacuation
Evacuation is best achieved by holding the sheath aperture as close as possible

to the fragment. Since the latter tends to lie in the base of the bladder, the
end of the tube could be approximated under direct vision to the bladder base
and the main collection of debris, enabling the latter to be washed out on
rapid evacuation of irrigating fluid. If the bladder floor is too closely approached
it may become sucked against the aperture and close it off. In our experience
therefore the most suitable device is one by which only small quantities of
fluid are shifted but which nevertheless picks up fragments. These requirements
are best fulfilled by the Ellik evacuator, the rubber bulb of which permits quite
gentle pumping movements. At the same time, the sheath aperture is translated
from side to side across the bladder floor, as the sweeping movements of a
broom. After a series of such movements the Ellik evacuator is disconnected
and the working element of the punch reintroduced. The bladder floor is then
observed under gentle irrigation. The latter is necessary to prevent fragments
and swarf being washed up out of the field of view.
Further calculous debris is commonly found in the lateral parts of the
bladder base. The evacuation process is repeated with the sheath directed to-
wards the main collection of debris.
Not infrequently this evacuation of minor fragments leaves a few larger
chunks behind which are too large to pass the sheath. They require further
comminution by the punch. The procedure is finally brought to an end by
inspecting the floor of the bladder under virtually no irrigation. All that remains
on the bladder base is a thin layer of coagulated protein, probably fibrin, in
which fine swarf is embedded. This layer separates spontaneously. Final inspec-
tion should also detect any mucosal injury and search for calculous debris
in diverticula or pseudodiverticula. This final inspection is usually followed
byadenomectomy.
If the resectoscope sheath was used for Urat-I litholapaxy, bladder curets
may be conveniently used during evacuation of the debris. These robust wire
loops are fitted in place of the cutting loop on the electrotome and used to
push debris up into a pile. The sheath is then held at this position and the
electrotome removed, so that the outflow of irrigating fluid carries with it the
majority of the residue. Large Pieces can be drawn into the sheath by the
curet and then extracted together with the electrotome. Any instrument with
Postoperative Care 367
a central stopcock may be equipped with an Ellik bulb in the drainage hose,
as used in the resection of large adenomas. This obviates the requirement for
repeated filling of the evacuator and its attachment to the instrument. Under
direct vision the area of greatest debris accumulation is sought out and the
opening of the instrument directed towards it. This position is maintained and
the electrotome or punch unit withdrawn so as to allow gentle pumping move-
ments to evacuate the remaining debris. Calculous fragments then come to
rest in the collecting sieve.
6. Difficult Litholapaxy Due to Anatomical Factors
Technical difficulties may arise during litholapaxy whenever the bladder floor
is deeply depressed, i.e., when there is a deep recess. Equally a markedly protu-
berant median lobe may obscure the view. Quite frequently a combination of
both factors may be present.
Marked head-down tilt of the operating table may help in this situation.
The calculus or calculi then roll away from their previous position close to
the internal meatus and come to rest on the posterior wall. They must be
followed in that direction by further advancing the instrument. Sometimes even
extreme Trendelenburg will not solve this problem, and in these rare cases it
may be necessary to carry out electroresection prior to litholapaxy. I would
caution any less practiced surgeon against this procedure, since it requires
great experience. The first requirement is for absolutely first-rate hemostasis
in the prostatic capsule, and even then litholapaxy will have to be undertaken
under somewhat reduced visibility. I myself was brought up in the era of blind
litholapaxy, and in such cases I tend to use a blind lithotrite, subsequently
comminuting and evacuating fragments with the punch. To replace shock wave
litholapaxy by a blind procedure is certainly an acceptable alternative for urolog-
ists conversant with the method.
Increased hemorrhage during electroresection in the wake of previous lithola-
paxy is a recurring clinical suspicion, the fact of which we have not been able
to prove.
7. Postoperative Care
Postoperative care differs not at all from that required for prostatic surgery
on its own. The two procedures are usually carried out in combination.
In cases where, at the express wish of the patient, litholapaxy was undertaken
on its own and where the stone was small, one may attempt to leave the patient
without a catheter. Even so, there will still be some risk of acute retention.
All patients should therefore receive antiinflammatory and antibiotic treatment
prophylactically, irrespective of the duration of catheterization.
Chapter K
The Zeiss Loop and the
Placement of Indwelling Ureteric Catheters
I. Extracting Ureteric Calculi

with Endoscopic Instruments
The idea of hastening the passage of ureteric stones by some form of probe
or by the injection of liquid is as old as cystoscopy itself. A number of ingenious
instruments have been described for this purpose, but they are not enumerated
here since the majority are now only of historical interest. The decisive contribu-
tion was made by ZEISS (1939) who described the use of his loop catheter in
encircling and extracting ureteric calculi. Most metal stone extractors are based
on a different principal, e.g., BOHRINGER'S dilator and extractor, the Johnson
basket, so popular in America, and more recently the DORMIA basket.
I myself have only limited experience with any of these instruments and
am not therefore competent to give a comparative evaluation. I confine myself
in the following to a more detailed description of what I know from my own
practice.
All stone extractors have in common that force should never be employed
if the number of injuries is to stand in an acceptable ratio to the benefits.
Correct appreciation of the indications and good endoscopic technique may
combine to spare a large number of patients open surgical ureterolithotomy.
This manual selects the Zeiss loop for detailed discussion, because its action
is the most physiological, brilliantly exploiting ureteric peristalsis to facilitate
passage of the stone per vias naturales. In the USA the Zeiss loop is generally
known as the' Ellik loop' since the latter published his experience with a modi-
fied Zeiss loop in 1947. It is a matter of medical historical justice to call the
instrument by the name of the man who first had this brilliant inspiration
and published it.
The term 'extraction' unfortunately still abounds in many books, although
it may from time to time persuade endoscopic surgeons to tug harshly on the
stone. Such misplaced maneuvers would be best avoided by the term being
banned altogether.
370 Chapter K The Zeiss Loop and the Placement of Indwelling Ureteric Catheters
2. Indications for Using the Zeiss Loop
Use of the loop is ideal for small calculi showing little or no tendency to pass
despite mild obstruction and several episodes of colic. A smooth concretion
not impacted in the ureteric wall by any sharp or barbed crystals may almost
certainly be helped on its way with this instrument. Because of the greater
distance to be overcome, calculi in the upper third of the ureter are less suitable
for this technique than those in the middle or lower thirds.
Special indications occasionally recommended, such as the extraction of
calculi from the renal calyces or pelvis, are not discussed here. Any calculus
leading to marked obstruction or pyonephrosis is an absolute contraindication
to use of the loop, since these should always be removed surgically without
further delay. The calculus in an only kidney is a much debated indication,
as sepsis following use of the loop might expose the patient to grave risks.
Unfortunately there is no simple and generally valid set of indications -
personal experience will playa major role. The above remarks should therefore
only be looked on as general guidelines rather than a rigid norm.
3. Description of the Zeiss Loop
Any understanding of the'mode of action of the Zeiss loop will require some
knowledge of its design (Fig. 221).
The loop consists basically of a specially modified ureteric catheter. A nylon
filament attached to the tip enters the lumen through a side hole and protrudes
through the lower end. Traction on this filament forms the catheter into a
loop. Placing the aperture at various levels alters the size of loop. The diameter
of the loop, corresponding to approximately half the distance from tip to side
hole, should suit the size of calculus to be removed. Small calculi require small
loops and larger calculi large ones.
To prevent its kinking into an acute angle, the point of curvature of the
loop is mechanically reinforced so as to maintain a smooth contour.
Loops are available from a variety of manufacturers and may consist either
of plastic or of coated silk fabric.
In addition to his plain loop, ZEISS also described a so-called tilting loop
(Fig. 222). A second filament enables the loop, once formed within the ureter,
to be tilted on its side. This allows calculi to be caught in the loop that would
Fig. 222a-c. The tilting loop. This loop allows calculi to be grasped which the standard loop would I>
usually slide past. It has a twin mechanism under the control of different colored filaments permitting
its various movements to be induced from without, even when it is invisible. This is of particular
importance where an image intensifier is not available. a Appearance of the uncoiled loop. The
two filaments are easily seen. The upper one re-enters the catheter at approximately the point where
the lower one emerges. b The upper loop proper is closed, c and traction on the second filament
then tilts it within the ureter to suit the precise configuration of the calculus
Description of the Zeiss Loop 371
Area of
Reinforcement Apex of
---- the loop
Entry of the Traction "" Base of the

filament filament loop
into the
catheter
Traction filament
a b c
Fig. 221a-c. Three steps in coiling the Zeiss loop. a Gentle traction on the filament initiates curvature
of the loop. As this progresses the filament is drawn out as a bowstring, being attached to the
tip of the catheter and entering it through a side hole. This entry point subsequently becomes
the base of the loop. b Curvature of the loop is now well advanced. The midpoint of the loop
has a built-in reinforcement to prevent kinking of the loop within the ureteric lumen. c Completely
closed loop
a b c
a a b c d
Fig. 223a-d. Davis loop. This loop differs from the original Zeiss loop by the attachment of the
cord some centimeters away from the tip of the catheter, its re-entry point being correspondingly
lower. The advantage is that the catheter tip may be made finer and may have a preformed curvature
to encourage it pass the stone. Its disadvantage is the poor shape of the loop which cannot be
completely closed. This type of catheter is seldom used in Europe. a Alternative catheter tips. b
Uncoiled catheter. c Early loop formation. d Completely closed loop
otherwise remain in local diiatations of the ureter. ZEISS originally intended

this loop for long, pointed calculi which the standard loop might otherwise
slide past.
A variety of loops were subsequently described in which the folding segment
followed on a nose piece of several centimeters length (Fig. 223). The latter
may be conical, slightly curved or spiral. These variations occasionally facilitate
advancing the catheter past the stone. Unfortunately they do not fold into
such a smooth outline as the original Zeiss loop.
No further mention is made of the various derivatives of the Zeiss loop,
since they offer no substantial advantage over the original type.
4. Introducing the Zeiss Loop
a) The Standard Loop
In typical cases the Zeiss loop is easily passed (Fig. 224). The catheter is passed
into the ureteric orifice in its straight configuration and then advanced past
the calculus, often noticeable only as a slight resistance, to be closed into a
loop above the stone. A metal cone on the external end of the catheter prevents
the nylon filament from slipping back and allowing the loop to open in the
ureter. Where the stone lies particularly low the external end of the loop may
The Standard Loop 373
Fig. 224a-e. Coiling the Zeiss loop within a ureter. a The catheter approaches the calculus. b The
tip of the loop has passed beyond the calculus into the upper ureter. Gentle traction on the cord
bends the catheter into a curve. c Early loop formation. During this process the curvature of the
catheter somewhat stretches the ureter. d The loop is almost closed and encircles the calculus. e
Completely closed loop. Note: The size of the loop must suit that of the calculus. An ideal fit
is shown here
be coiled up and fixed in the shape of a ring by adhesive tape, thus preventing
the patient from himself tearing or pulling out the whole length of the loop
by an inadvertent movement.
Optical control by image intensifier screening greatly facilitates the process
of loop placement. Closure of the loop around the stone may then be directly
observed. We generally prefer to coil up the loop in the renal pelvis and retract
it under video control until it reaches the calculus within the ureter. The great
advantage of this procedure is the availability of enough space so as to render
virtually impossible accidental injury to the ureter during coiling of the loop
(Fig. 225).
In rare cases it may be impossible to advance the catheter past the stone.
The best procedure is then to first pass a 5-Ch ureteric catheter with a curved
tip past the calculus and make a renewed attempt to pass the Zeiss loop alongside
this seeker. Occasionally even this method fails to allow the loop past the calcu-
lus. One or two days should then be allowed to elapse before a further attempt
is made. If this is again unsuccessful ureterolithotomy should be considered
as a simpler alternative.
Fig. 225a-d. Coiling the Zeiss loop in the renal pelvis. a The loop is most easily formed within
the renal pelvis, because of the available space. b Once closed, the loop is withdrawn down the
ureter. c Loop approaching the stone from above. Further traction may be discontinued at this
point since the loop then usually advances over the stone of its own accord. d Snug fit of loop
and calculus
Techniques of Calculus Extraction 375
b) The Tilting Loop
This vanatlOn on the basic pattern which dates back to ZEISS himself may
be employed whenever a normal type of loop cannot be brought into contact
with the calculus. Such a state of affairs is easily verified on the image intensifier.
If one or more attempts to engage a normal loop around the calculus are
found to fail by the latter sliding past the calculus rather than capturing it,
it may be indicated to make an attempt with a tilting loop.
, Slim' pointed calculi are frequently the ones whose shape allows normal
loops to slip past. Such calculi are more easily grasped in a tilting loop.
Once again the loop is coiled up above the calculus and retracted into its
immediate proximity. Traction on the second nylon wire then initiates tilting
of the loop. Further retracting the loop and if necessary increasing its angle
of tilt may allow the calculus to be grasped so that its point passes into the
aperture of the loop (Fig. 226).
The remainder of the procedure is the same for tilting and standard loops.
An indwelling loop or the traction technique may be employed.
c) Checking Loop Position
For most cases a simple radiograph is adequate, tomograms only being required
where the calculus is shielded by bone. This latter problem is particularly likely
to arise in relation to smaller calculi within the bony pelvis, where the bone
may be so dense as to permit demonstration of the loop but not of the calculus
on plain radiograms. Cuts at 11-13 cm will provide a good image. Such addition-
al radiology is not usually needed where the calculus lies opposite a transverse
process. Superimposition of intestinal gas or feces may also necessitate tomo-
grams.
We only take pictures at the beginning of treatment to ensure that the
loop is properly closed and the calculus engaged within it. Further progress
of the procedure may be simply monitored by the catheter markings appearing
at the external meatus. It may be psychologically beneficial to entrust the task
of documenting this to the patient himself, so that he can follow the progress
of his treatment. Loop progress should be recorded on the observation chart.
5. Techniques of Calculus Extraction
Once the calculus is well engaged in the loop, a fact easily demonstrated on
plain X-ray, somewhat less so on screening, there are two basic methods for
extracting loop and calculus.
<l Fig. 226 a, b. Use of the tilting loop. a The loop is precoiled in the ureter above the calculus. The
second filament has been used to achieve a slightly tilted position. b Careful traction (best performed
under image intensification) brings the loop into contact with the calculus. Difficult cases may
require adjustment of the angle of tilt, depending on the situation
a) Traction Technique
The original idea behind this technique was that it would permit removal of
the stone by more or less forceful traction on the loop. Apart from the slight
advantage of rapid removal this method harbors a number of disadvantages:
1. The loop may slip off the stone. Besides representing an additional burden
on the patient, further attempts at introducing the catheter may not succeed
in passing the stone.
2. Calculus and loop may become so impacted in the ureter as to be irremoval
except by a degree of brute force posing an unacceptable risk of injury.
3. Ureteric injuries may occur.
We only employ this technique in the final stages, i.e., when the base of the
loop is already visible at the ureteric orifice. In these circumstances calculus
and instrument lie in the intramural portion of the ureter which is well buttressed
by robust bladder muscle. After a few days a lubricant layer of fibrin and
leucocytes will anyway have formed at this level so as to greatly facilitate final
extraction. It should not then be necessary to traverse a distance of more than
2-3 cm by traction.
b) The Indwelling Loop
This form of treatment makes ideal use of normal ureteric peristalsis and thus
facilitates stone extraction by physiological means.
As shown in Fig. 227, a space opens up between loop, calculus and ureteric
wall through which urine is able to drain. The truth of this may be seen in
the reduction of ureteric dilatation which usually follows on placement of a
Zeiss loop. This free or only moderately obstructed drainage of urine combines
Fig. 227. Diagrammatic cross section through a ureter containing a calculus and encircling loop. The
Zeiss loop passing around the calculus opens up a number of clefts through which urine is able
to leak past the stone down into the bladder. Normal peristalsis may thus continue, being finally
responsible for onward transport of calculus and loop
Hazards 377
with increased diuresis to permit the passage of peristaltic waves down the
ureter, whilst the inferior taper of the loop progressively dilates the ureter,
permitting its advancement. If the loop fails to descend spontaneously, its pro-
gress may be accelerated by attaching a small weight, usually under 50 g and
maximally 100 g.
A properly placed loop virtually never gives rise to pain or other symptoms
requiring analgesic medication. Patients should be encouraged to drink and
not be allowed to remain in bed. In selected cases a loop may be inserted
by the specialist in his consulting rooms and the patient is then seen once
daily on an ambulant basis to check its position.
6. Hazards
Properly employed the Zeiss loop is an entirely safe instrument, and only in
the rarest of cases have we come across injuries resulting from its use. Attempts
to advance the catheter past a long arrested calculus might result in the ureteric
wall giving way at a point of advanced inflammatory change, with consequent
perforation. I am personally aware of a single case in which perforation of
the renal pelvis was noted some days after a loop had been coiled within it.
Although this event subsequently resulted in legal proceedings its cause was
never established with any certainty.
Urinary infection is a further source of complication. Strictest asepsis should
therefore be observed during catheterization, which should always be proceeded
by urine culture. There are no reliable figures on the benefit of prophylactic
antibacterial therapy.
Despite the low complication rate, the procedure should always be carefully
discussed with the patient prior to carrying it out, and his attention should
be drawn to the dangers of perforation and infection.
Loops which come to rest at the site of previous chronic inflammatory
change or of scars due to previous ureteric or adjacent surgery may be unable
to proceed further. They should then be removed surgically along with the
calculus at ureterotomy. On rare occasions I have experienced separation of
the loop at the point of entry of the nylon filament. The procedure may usually
nevertheless be brought to a satisfactory conclusion because further traction
on the nylon is still able to draw both loop and calculus down towards the
bladder. There is a theoretical risk of forceful traction rupturing the ureter,
a disastrous complication of which I know only by hearsay.
Impaction of the loop in the ureteric orifice. Very occasionally the ureteric orifice
may be so oedematous as to prevent passage of loop or calculus. Although
repeatedly recommended, incision of the ureteric orifice may give rise to vesi-
coureteric incompetence and reflux. Local intramural injection of hyaluronidase
is an excellent alternative and softens the tissues in the same way as when
used for the reduction of paraphimosis.
II. Placement of Indwelling Ureteric Catheters

1. Passing Plain Catheters
This purpose is best achieved by ureteric catheters of 6- to 8-Ch caliber upwards.

The previously popular soft rubber catheter of PFLAUMER, which required a
special introducer, has now fallen into disuse. We always specially prepare our
own ureteric catheters by nibbling out additional holes near the tip with a
small Luer forceps. These holes are placed over a distance of 4-6 cm, depending
on the exact purpose (Fig. 228).
After punching out the holes it is necessary to briefly immerse the catheter
in boiling water so as to separate the crushed edges of the walls. The catheter
is then packed in the routine fashion and resterilized by ethylene oxide.
The passage of such catheters occasionally requires one or more of the
special maneuvers described below.
Fig. 228a, b. Plastic ureteric catheter (8-Ch). a A straight catheter showing additional holes punched
out with Luer forceps in a 'customized' arrangment prior to catheterization. b Curved ureteric
catheter. Sterile gloves were used to immerse the catheter in boiling water and subsequently hold
it in the required configuration. Customized curvature can thus be achieved
Indications for Indwelling Ureteric Catheterization 379
It is frequently advisable to bend the tip of the catheter to suit curvatures

of the ureter identified on previous retrograde ureterogram or on IVU. The
catheter may be simply immersed in boiling water and subsequently held in
the desired configuration by means of a sterile glove until it has cooled off
again. Any catheter may thus be adjusted to its particular purpose.
Wherever possible, metal stylets should be avoided since they tend to make
the catheter too rigid to follow the normal course of the ureter.
Axial rotation of the catheter during instrumentation frequently facilitates
its introduction. Occasionally it is helpful to inject small quantities of contrast
medium under image intensifier control. Cues then become available for further
manipulation.
Head-down tilt helps to correct curvatures in the ureter. The introduction
of large (e.g. 8-Ch) catheters is sometimes facilitated by previous passage of
one or two smaller catheters (5 or 6-Ch), which are then withdrawn pari passu
as the large caliber catheter is advanced.
Catheters are best held in place by fixing them to a small balloon bladder
catheter passed alongside them.
2. Indwelling Ureteric Catheters
Catheters have recently become available which enable continuous drainage

of urine over long periods of time. The first practicable instrument for this
purpose was the Gibbons catheter (GIBBONS et al. 1976), but the sharp barbs
designed to retain it within the ureter frequently render its retrograde removal
through the bladder extremely difficult. For this reason we have ceased using
it.
The technical problems of indwelling ureteric catheterization have been
largely solved by the introduction of double-J catheters. We have considerable
experience with this type of indwelling catheter over a long period of time
and for this reason it alone is described in further detail.
3. Indications for Indwelling Ureteric Catheterization
A variety of syndromes may demand permanent ureteric drainage.

One of the most frequent indications in our practice is unilateral or bilateral
ureteric obstruction by urate stones, which can be dissolved chemically under
antibiotic cover in the presence of an indwelling catheter.
Second in frequency are stitch line dehiscences following pyelo- or uretero-
lithotomy. This group of indications also includes prophylactic drainage in rela-
tion to such surgical procedures.
Finally we also use this type of urine diversion in cases of partial or complete
occlusion or compression of the ureter by infiltrating tumors. The majority
of these are gynecological or rectal carcinomas.
4. The Double-J Catheter and Its Properties
The catheter is composed of radiopaque silicone elastomer (Fig. 229). This mate-
rial has a minimal tendency to become encrusted and may be left in the renal
pelvis, ureter and bladder for several weeks, at least six in our experience,
without fear of encrustation. Both ends of the catheter are curved into a three-
quarter circle. A metal introducer holds the catheter straight during placement.
Catheters are available packed as sterile sets comprising four lengths from
16-30 cm and two calibers, 7 and 8.5 Ch. These are quite expensive and their
use is therefore only justified for cases requiring prolonged treatment.
a) Technique of Catheterization
The catheter is first straightened by introducing the stylet. Catheterization is

then no more difficult than with ordinary ureteric catheters. Once in the renal
pelvis, the tip of the catheter is allowed to assume its intrinsic curvature by
withdrawal of the guide wire.
a b
Fig. 229a, b. Double-J catheter. View of one end of the catheter. Both ends are bent into a three-
quarter circle. They return to this curvature whenever the introducing wire is withdrawn. a Catheter
in curved configuration. Curvatures within the renal pelvis and bladder secure the catheter in position.
b Catheter straightened out
Side Effects 381
b) Difficulties During Catheterization
Whatever the etiology, any case of ureteric obstruction may require prior pas-
sage of a fine (4 or 5-Ch) catheter as a dilator. Under some circumstances
it may be necessary to pass a further ureteric catheter alongside the first, and
this may be delayed for several days if the flow through the first one is adequate.
Removal of the fine 'dilating catheter' should be followed as soon as possible
by passage of the double-J catheter, the one ideally being withdrawn as the
other is advanced.
5. Side Effects
All patients suffer vesicoureteric reflux. Calculus patients suffer no ill effects
because the short period of catheterization, and in carcinoma cases the underly-
ing disease itself, determines the outcome.
As with any ureteric catheter, infection may be a significant factor. Clinical
infection should be kept under control by additional antibiotic therapy, but
the presence of the catheter as a foreign body will always prevent its complete
eradication.
During short periods of catheterization encrustation is unlikely to become
a problem, since several weeks are usually required for anything to accumulate
on silicone material. Where the indication is chemical dissolution of obstructing
urate stones or the drainage of postoperative leaks in the renal pelvis or ureter,
the period of catheterization is likely to be so brief as to prevent this complica-
tion occurring.
Chapter L
Endoscopic Procedures in the Urethra
By R. HARTUNG
I. Introduction
Operative procedures in the urethra have been carried out blind since the mid-
nineteenth century. Bouginage as a conservative treatment of urethral strictures
was undertaken long before.
The introduction of urethrotomy marks the beginning of true urethral sur-
gery, since bouginage of strictures is not strictly speaking an operative proce-
dure. In 1854 MAISSONNEUVE presented the urethrotome which bears his name
(see HELM STEIN 1964) and in 1872 OTIS described a different instrument which
was adjustable in caliber. Both instruments are still in use with only minor
modifications to the original design over 100 years later. Only in this century
has it become possible to carry out urethral operations, such as the incision
of strictures, under direct vision. In recent years a few authors have described
use of the laser beam as a transurethral technique for the correction of strictures.
Stricture surgery represents the bulk of all urethral endoscopic procedures,
and the excision of urethral tumors is by comparison an extremely rare indica-
tion for endoscopy. Coagulating probes or a laser beam may be used for the
destruction of such tumors where the danger of surrounding tissue damage
precludes the use of a resectoscope loop.
In most cases the bladder will also be affected and radical cystourethrectomy
should be preferred to transurethral treatment.
On the other hand a bladder neck stricture following transurethral or supra-
pubic prostatectomy is easily amenable to treatment with the viewing urethro-
tome or with the resectoscope.
A recent addition to the repertoire of endoscopic urethral surgery is submu-
cous infiltration of the bladder neck with teflon in an attempt to relieve various
types of urinary incontinence, chiefly stress incontinence in women and iatro-
genic incontinence following prostatectomy in men.
384 Chapter L Endoscopic Procedures in the Urethra
II. Internal Urethrotomy Under Direct Vision
1. History of the Procedure
FISCHER described the notching of short urethral strictures under direct vision
in 1937. In his technique a wire hook was used as an electrical cutting instrument.
RAVASINI (1957) and ELSASSER and SCHMIEDT (1970) have subsequently described
a similar approach. It was the high recurrence rate following electro surgical
treatment of such strictures that led to the idea of cold incision using a sharp
knife under direct vision. In Germany SACHSE (1964, 1978) and MATOUSCHEK
and MICHAELIS (1975) and various others have repeatedly published reports
on this technique. SACHSE in particular has made great efforts to standardize
and improve the technique of operation as well as developing special instru-
ments. The outcome of this has been the viewing urethrotome that bears his
name. Similar instruments designed to work in a comparable way are associated
in Germany with the names of SOKELAND and DETTMAR.
2. Diagnosis of Urethral Stricture in the Male
Typical symptoms will direct attention towards the possibility of stricture, and
a diagnosis may be confirmed by cystourethrogram or by urethroscopy. Uro-
flowmetry will reveal a typical plateau flow curve, confirming the symptomato-
logy (Fig. 230).
3. Indications for Urethrotomy Under Vision
The indications for any corrective treatment of a urethral stricture must be

seen in relation to the severity of the patient's symptoms, urine reports (bacteri-
ology and microscopy) and the extent of the stricture (result of cystourethro-
gram, micturating cystogram, uroflowmetry and endoscopy). Any decision on
the relative merits of plastic correction or viewing urethrotomy must equally
be related to the extent of the stricture, the patient's age and whether the stricture
is primary or recurrent.
The chief advantages of viewing urethrotomy are that it is a minor procedure
allowing precise incisions to be made around the stricture under direct vision.
The procedure is repeatable and may be carried out under local, regional or
general anesthetic.
Instruments 385
Fig. 230. a Cystourethrogram demonstrating a stricture of the bulbar urethra. b Typical plateau
urine flow curve. Volume 300 ml. maximum flow rate 6 mIls, micturition time: 40 s
4. Undertaking Surgery
a) Instruments
A viewing urethrotome does not greatly differ from a resectoscope, consisting

as it does of a 20-Ch urethrotome sheath and obturator and of an operating
element, which bears the knife and also has a channel for the passage of sounds.
A 0 °telescope is generally used.
The standard knife used in the instrument of SACHSE has a cutting edge
around its blunt tip and along the upper margin, allowing it to cut both forwards
and upwards. Alternative blades with a circular or undulating profile are also
available. A special channel is provided to accept ureteric catheters.
The optical urethrotome as modified by DETTMAR has the knife attached
at something of an angle away from the 12 o'clock position, thus permitting
a free view of stricture and scalpel blade at the same time. Furthermore this
instrument allows a guide catheter to be passed through a small loop on the
knife itself, so guaranteeing that the knife is guided along the catheter.
The sheath of either instrument will accept a further sleeve around their
exterior. This is intended to facilitate the subsequent passage of balloon cathe-
ters, the external sleeve being left in the urethra when the urethrotome is with-
drawn.
The SOKELAND instrument also has the curved scalpel blade set at something
of an angle.
Like all endoscopic instruments, the urethrotome requires a fiberoptic light
cable, a light source and suitable inlet and drainage hoses for irrigation. REUTER
(1980) has exploited the continuous irrigation principal of IGLESIAS to design
an irrigating urethrotome.
Instruments of 10-Ch diameter are available for dealing with paediatric prob-
lems.
b) Preoperative Preparation of the Patient
The patient is placed in lithotomy and anesthetized by spinal, epidural or general

anesthesia. A number of surgeons also undertake the procedure under local
anesthesia after instillation of some suitable locally acting preparation. Sterile
drapes are placed in the usual fashion as for any transurethral procedure.
c) Operative Technique
The sheath, closed off by its obturator, is introduced through the external meatus
and passed some centimeters into the urethra. The obturator is then removed
and replaced by the operating unit. If a more distally placed stenosis prevents
passage of the viewing urethrotome, meatotomy must first be carried out as
an aid to instrumentation. Under direct vision the urethrotome is now approxi-
mated to the stricture. The exact direction of longer strictures is best explored
and demonstrated by passage of a suitable leader (5-Ch ureteric catheter). The
line of incision then follows this sound. The majority of surgeons recommend
restricting incision to the 12 o'clock direction, thus avoiding damage to the
corpora cavernosa (Illustration 79, Plate XIV). Incisions at other points around
the urethral circumference, e.g., at 8 o'clock and 6 o'clock, may give rise to
diverticula and occasionally to fistulation. The incision advances millimeter by
millimeter towards the bladder as the scalpel blade is extended out of the sheath
and brought into contact with the stricture itself (Illustration 80, Plate XIV).
The aim is to achieve a lumen of 24-26 Ch in the region of the stricture. The
first hurdle is to get the viewing urethrotome itself with its 20-Ch diameter
to pass the stenosis easily.
Minor hemorrhage from the scar tissue may be disregarded, but more vigor-
ous bleeding points may occasionally require treatment with a coagulating
probe. Isotonic irrigating solutions should be used, since the irrigation fluid
absorbtion syndrome may occasionally occur.
Operative Complications 387
Once the stricture has been so widely opened as to allow easy passage of
the urethrotome into the bladder, we generally recommend that the same instru-
ment be used for a brief cystoscopy. In addition to simply incising the stricture
some authors recommend infiltrating the surrounding scar tissue with cortisone,
some of them before and some after urethrotomy.
d) Operative Difficulties
Where a stricture ends in a number of pinholes, and where the guide catheter
cannot be advanced into the bladder through the correct passage, it may be
helpful to give indigo carmine, either intravenously or directly into the bladder
through a pre-existing suprapubic fistula. Pressure on the bladder will then
eject blue dye from the real lumen of the stricture.
Strictures, particularly recurrent ones, are occasionally so ragged that their
anatomy is difficult to understand. In such cases it is probably more advisable
to discontinue internal urethrotomy and to attempt the passage of a fine catheter
into the bladder. Alternatively the bladder may be drained suprapubically, but
in either event a way through is then re-explored in a second sitting. On repeated
occasions we have first had to leave these cases with an 8- or 10-Ch catheter
in situ in the hope that the anatomy will be plainer at a second attempt at
urethrotomy.
In cases of complete urethral obliteration by stricture a curved metal sound
must first be passed through a suprapubic cystotomy down the bladder neck
and into the urethra as far as the point of obliteration. Digital rectal support
and gentle movement of the curved sound by an assistant will give rise to
movement or bulging in the endoscopic field. The surgeon then slowly cuts
towards this point. Particular caution is required in the sphincter region of
the membranous urethra (Illustration 81). In this region the stricture should
only be incised up to the caliber of the instrument if a sphincter lesion is to
be avoided. The indications for viewing urethrotomy in the treatment of com-
plete urethral occlusion should be considered extremely carefully, since open
surgical procedures may frequently be more attractive. Urethral stones lying
above the stricture may usually be pushed back into the bladder and dealt
with there.
e) Operative Complications
Careful technique, irrigation with isotonic solution and strict observance of

purulent urethritis or urethral abscesses as a contraindication generally result
in a low complication rate. Profuse hemorrhage is usually controlled by the
passage of a 24-Ch catheter, occasionally in combination with a penile pressure
dressing. Penile or scrotal edema may occur but usually is reabsorbed within
1-2 days. Potency is unimpaired. Ill-advised incision in the 6 o'clock region
occasionally gives rise to urethral fistulas.
5. Postoperative Treatment Following Viewing Urethrotomy
Whatever agreement there may be on operative technique, there is none on

the best course of postoperative treatment. The following measures are presented
for discussion:
1. Passage of a balloon catheter or no postoperative catheterization
2. Instillation of antibiotic and steroid gel
3. Hydraulic self-dilatation
4. Prophylaxis of infection
Like SACHSE (1978) we would recommend that short strictures of less than
5 mm be treated without postoperative catheterization but by the instillation
of cortisone gel thrice daily for 14 days. A tape around the penis or a Cunn-
ingham clamp is used to retain gel in the urethra. The first dose is instilled
on the operating table.
Hydraulic self-dilatation is aimed at dividing urethral adhesions occurring
between micturitions. The patient is encouraged to have a liberal fluid intake,
resulting in frequent micturition and a good dilating effect.
Strictures over 5 mm long are treated for 3 weeks by catheterization with
a 20-Ch silastic catheter, following which they are treated by instillation as
described above. Patients being treated for complete stricture need to have
a catheter for 6 weeks.
We reserve antibiotic therapy for proven urinary infection. It is not our
practice to prescribe antibacterial agents to patients with sterile urine.
III. Endoscopic Laser Surgery to Urethral Strictures
BULOW and BULOW (1979) have described experimental studies on the ablation
of scar tissue around urethral strictures by means of the laser beam. These
initial studies using a 'Neodyn-Yag' laser were not followed by any broad
clinical application. ROTHAUGE (1979) has reported his more extensive experi-
ence using an Argon laser. Operative technique is described as directing the
laser beam at the scar tissue, starting at the edge of the stricture. The scar
tissue is evaporated with a resulting improvement in the strictured lumen.
Only experience over some time will show whether this technique represents
a true alternative to cold internal urethrotomy.
Introduction 389
IV. Endoscopic Surgery for Urethral Tumors
1. The Problem
In the presence of extensive papillary tumors or urethral carcinoma, urethrec-

tomy is the only radical approach. Only small, noninvasive papillary tumors
of the urethra are suitable for electrosurgical excision. The same may be said
of condylomata. Because of the high incidence of cicatrization and stricture
formation following the use of high frequency current in the urethra laser coagu-
lation may represent a true advance in this field.
2. Technique of High-Frequency Surgery
A coagulating probe may be used to destroy papillary tumors and condylomata.

Larger tumors should be removed with biopsy forceps or by means of the
resectoscope loop without current. This should be followed by coagulation of
the tumor base with the minimum necessary current intensity. Hemostasis may
be secured following limited coagulation by passing a 24-Ch catheter.
3. Technique of Laser Coagulation
The laser beam is used to coagulate the tumor, white necrotic tissue is then
removed with the biopsy forceps and the tumor base recoagulated with the
laser. The same procedure is suitable for urethral condylomata.
Experience in the ablation of urethral tumors and condylomata by laser
coagulation is still limited but the risk of subsequent stricture formation appears
less than following high frequency diathermy.
V. Endoscopic Correction
of Cicatricial Bladder Neck Stenosis
1. Introduction
Cicatricial stenosis of the bladder neck almost exclusively follows transurethral

resection of the prostate, only occasionally occurring after retropubic enuclea-
tion. The etiology of this syndrome is not entirely clear, although our own
work suggests that the majority of patients have had a small 8-15 g prostate
resected. In these cases resection was possibly carried too deep around the
internal sphincter. There was no correlation with patient age, duration of opera-
tion, duration of catheterization or urinary infection. Other workers have found

an above average incidence of inflammatory change in resection material.
The resulting bladder neck stenosis may be so pronounced as to virtually
occlude the bladder neck, a lumen of only 8-10 Ch remaining. The symptomato-
logy of these patients is frequently enlightening: with the recurrence of a poor
stream following previous surgery patients often notice a revival of normal
prograde ejaculation.
2. Diagnosis
The diagnosis may be made radiologically by cystourethrogram, yet urethro-

scopy is preferable. Beyond the verumontanum lies the prostatic cavity, often
well cleared of adenoma, ending proximally in a wall of scar tissue. In its
center remains a hole too small to be passed by the instrument (Illustration
82).
3. Indications for Surgery
The demonstration of cicatricial bladder neck stenosis too tight to be passed

by a diagnostic instrument is in itself usually an unequivocal indication for
operative correction.
4. Operative Technique
In previous years it was our rule to treat these cicatricial stenoses by electroresec-
tion and subsequent infiltration of the resection zone with steroids. Because
only approximately half the patients had a good long-term result we now use
the technique of cold incision. Since the etiology of these stenoses may be
tissue damage by high-frequency current with a subsequent tendency to cicatriza-
tion, a clean, cold incision free of necrotic tissue would seem more likely to
result in cure. The recurrence rate following cold incision of cicatricial bladder
neck stenosis is considerably lower.
The viewing urethrotome is introduced up to the stenosed bladder neck
(Fig. 231) and incisions are made in a stellate pattern, beginning at 12 o'clock,
then 9, 3, 6 o'clock (Fig. 232). Even deep incision into this avascular scar tissue
results in very little hemorrhage. The scar tissue soon splits apart to leave a
considerably wider bladder neck. The point of incision may once again be in-
jected with cortisone, but there is no proof for the effectiveness of this additional
therapeutic maneuver. Postoperatively urine is drained by an indwelling catheter
for 1-2 days. Antibiotics are only given in the presence of proven infection.
Introduction 391
Fig. 231. Diagram showing transurethral resection of cicatricial bladder neck stenosis. The loop being
advanced into a full bladder (see also Illustrations 26 and 27, Plate V)
Fig. 232. The principle of viewing urethrotomy for cicatricial bladder neck stenosis. Stellate incisions
of the scar plate
VI. Endoscopic Submucous Bladder Neck Infiltration

with Teflon in the Treatment of Urinary Incontinence
1. Introduction
The method is based on the principle of narrowing the sphincter region and
thus improving bladder control in patients previously incontinent because of
inadequate bladder neck closure. Infiltration aims at creating a submucous cush-
ion of nonresorbable material. The principle indications for this procedure are
iatrogenic sphincter damage during TUR of the prostate or during retropubic
enucleation, on the one hand, and certain types of stress incontinence in the
female on the other. LAMPANTE et al. (1979) and HEER (1977) have described
both operative technique and results. The former author also describes a special
instrument of his own design.
2. Operative Technique in the Male
The following procedure is recommended, whatever instrument is employed:

deposits of teflon paste are injected through a cannula at the level of the upper
bladder neck, around the prostatic apex and around the sphincter, the aim
being to constrict the urethral lumen at all these sites. Four to six deposits
should be placed around the entire circumference, leaving a 'starfish' configura-
tion of the lumen. At the suspected level of the sphincter a particularly large
deposit should be placed in the 12 o'clock position, since this is frequently
the site of the lesion, and this' gap' is then closed. Catheterization is initially
omitted, postoperative retention being treated by the passage of a thin (14-Ch)
catheter. Our own so far somewhat limited experience of this technique may
be summarized as follows: a definite improvement in continence could be
achieved in cases where stimulation of the sphincter region gave rise to some
degree of contraction, and where only the' gap' just mentioned therefore needed
to be filled. We had no success with the procedure in cases of rigid, scarred
bladder necks, i.e., in patients with an extensive sphincter lesion, in whom fi-
brotic change of the submucosa made submucous injection difficult or impossi-
ble. A number of cases only improved after a second or third repetition of
the procedure. Results should not be assessed less than 4-6 weeks following
surgery, since initial edema around the operating field often gives rise to tran-
siently somewhat better continence than is achieved in the long term.
3. Operative Technique in the Female
Teflon should be infiltrated in the submucous plane chiefly as close as possible

to the bladder neck around its entire circumference. A particularly large deposit
should be placed at 6 o'clock, with the aim of achieving a more acute bladder
neck angle.
Chapter M
Urethral Dilatation
I. Preliminary Considerations
Despite the great advances in operative treatment, both open and endoscopic,
there remains a considerable proportion of strictures needing to be kept open
by repeated dilatation. Patients are frequently elderly and refuse more aggressive
surgery. Furthermore there are some patients whose stricture may be kept widely
open by dilatation at quite infrequent intervals and who therefore have no
need of any more active treatment.
II. Bougies and Dilators
Dilators may be rigid or flexible. Rigid metal dilators are available in a curved
or straight pattern. Flexible instruments are likewise available with straight
or curved tips. The curved tip variety is usually similar in shape to a Tiemann
catheter, being hollow and opening near the tip. If necessary, they can therefore
be left in the urethra as and indwelling catheter.
III. Patient Assessment
Cystourethrogram is the most important investigation in any patient suspected

of a urethral stricture. It is however usually only necessary for initial assessment
or for reassessment after a prolonged period of time should a stricture have
become so narrow as to make the passage of sounds difficult or impossible.
Suitable views will give excellent information on position, caliber and deviation
of the stricture.
394 Chapter M Urethral Dilatation
IV. Dilating the Urethra
There are two fundamental types of dilatation procedure:

Initial dilatation in cases being treated for the first time for a previously
undiscovered stricture on the one hand, and dilatation for the maintenance
of adequate urethral caliber on the other.
Initial dilatation may be undertaken either blind or under direct vision.
First class urethral anesthesia in combination with adequate lubrication is the
sine qua non of success.
1. Blind Dilatation
Blind bouginage depends on adequate radiologic demonstration of urethral

anatomy. For long, narrow tortuous strictures it is best to use a thin plastic
Tiemann catheter (Fig. 233) substituting a curved ureteric catheter of 4 or 5-Ch
where the smallest Tiemann catheter (6 Ch) will not pass. Gentle rotation of
the curved tip generally allows the stricture to be entered. A great deal of
patience, but no force should now be employed to pass the bougie up into
the bladder.
Sometimes it helps to pass the catheter down the central bore of a straight
metal bougie of MAY pattern (Fig. 234), since this may make it easier to direct
the tip of the bougie into the inlet of the stricture. High viscosity lubricating
agents may also be injected down the straight bougie into the direct proximity
of the stricture.
The passage of this first bougie has both therapeutic and diagnostic impor-
tance, and the individual twists and turns of the stricture should be carefully
noted so they can be imitated when passing the next size of dilator.
On occasion it will be clear from the great hardness and rigidity of the
stricture that the next bougie will be impossible to pass. In such cases no attempt
at further dilatation should be made. The last bougie should be firmly secured
Fig. 233. Plastic Tiemann dilators. This bougie has a great advantage over rubber Tiemann catheters
in the extreme surface smoothness of the plastic material. The tip of the instrument may be twisted
so as better to enter a stricture. A further advantage over rigid dilators is their suitability to be
left in situ for several days as an indwelling catheter and dilator
Fig. 234 a, b. Diagram showing stricture dilatation with a May bougie. a May bougies of various
caliber. The central bore of the bougie allows a ureteric catheter to be passed and guided by the
instrument. The central bore is also useful for the injection of lubricating agents around and into
the stricture. Twisting the tip of a curved ureteric catheter enables it to follow the tortuosity of
the stricture. b The straight bougie is brought up against the stricture. Some lubricant is then injected
into the urethra and through the stricture. This provides for initial dilatation of the narrow pathway
and coats it in lubricant. By twisting and shifting the orifice of the metal bougie the ureteric catheter
will eventually find its way into the stricture. A curved tip, 5-Ch ureteric catheter is most suitable
(even if only a 4- or 5-Ch ureteric catheter) and a further attempt made the
following day. One or two days later there is usually little difficulty. This pro-
gressive dilatation of urethral strictures almost certainly avoids any trauma
in the shape of mucosal tears. Hence an 8- or 10-Ch catheter can be passed
through the stricture into the bladder. There will be no obstacle to further
urethral dilatation by a daily change of indwelling catheter progressing upwards
in 2-Ch steps.
2. Dilatation Under Direct Vision

This technique requires an efficient urethroscope. It was FISCHER in 1937 who

first employed the urethroscope named after him for the passage of sounds
through urethral strictures. No further mention is made here of his electrosurgi-
cal incision of strictures, since this was already done in the section on viewing
urethrotomy. We are concerned here only with his method of sounding urethral
strictures and with their subsequent dilatation with the bougies described by
DUTTMANN (1938). Only little space is devoted to this description, since the
method is to some extent superseded by the SACHSE technique of viewing ure-
throtomy.
The technique has furthermore been modified by the introduction of straight

bougies by MAY in 1949, and we now also have considerably more effective
urethroscopes at our disposable. There has nevertheless been little change in
the basic technique.
b) Technique
The stricture is brought into view with the urethroscope and with irrigation
on. A 5-Ch ureteric catheter with a curved tip is then introduced down the
operating channel. Irrigation is maintained (!) and the catheter advanced, if
necessary with a twisting motion, until it reaches the bladder. Entry into the
bladder is denoted by urine dripping from the end of the ureteric catheter.
For safety the catheter is then advanced a little further into the bladder
and the endoscope withdrawn off it. Next a Mayor Diittmann bougie is passed
over the catheter and up to the stricture.
I personally prefer May's bougie because the absence of any curvature makes
it easier to maneuver within the urethra. A No.7 bougie should be selected
first for very narrow strictures. The left hand holds the tip of the bougie and
tests the guide catheter from time to time for freedom of movement, as well
as tensing it and withdrawing it slightly, whilst the right hand extends the
penis and slides the bougie through the stricture. As long as the rule of only
advancing the metal tube over a freely mobile guide catheter is observed, acci-
dental injury is impossible. Once the metal bougie has entered the bladder,
it should be left there for a period of time so as to enhance its dilating effect.
The guide catheter is then passed as far as possible into the bladder and the
metal bougie removed. The next size of metal dilator is passed over the guide
catheter in the same way. There is usually little difficulty at this stage.
The technique requires a certain amount of practice, ever more difficult
to gain in the era of viewing urethrotomy. Even since SACHSE'S recent description
of his technique I have repeatedly had cause to employ the above method,
always successfully and not infrequently in acute emergencies.
Once a bougie of 20 Ch has been reached, further lubricant is injected around
the guide catheter (which remains in the bladder), and an open-ended catheter
passed up the urethra. This should be 2 Ch smaller then the previous metal
bougie, thus avoiding difficulties in its passage. It is then secured as an indwelling
catheter. The rest of the procedure follows that for progressive dilatation by
indwelling catheter.
This method should no longer be used routinely, since it gives rise to consid-
erable urethral tears which may themselves cause further strictures in the future.
If the urethra is inspected immediately after the passage May's bougies a number
of deep tears will always be seen. The technique is highly traumatic and the
indications for its use are therefore limited to emergency situations.
Golden Rules of Dilatation 397
3. Repeated Dilatation as Definitive Treatment
As stated at the outset, there will always be a number of patients in whom

long-term patency of the urethra may aptly be secured by repeated dilatation.
Rigid metal or flexible plastic dilators are suitable for this treatment and
I usually prefer plastic Tiemann catheters, since their surface is exceptionally
smooth and their curved tip allows easy entry into laterally placed stricture
orifices.
For smooth strictures with no or only insignificant urethral deviation I tend
to use a curved metal sound, e.g., of the DITTEL pattern. In particular these
are less unpleasant for the patient, since they avoid pronounced downward
traction on the penis for the dilatation of strictures around the bulb.
4. Golden Rules of Dilatation
The technique of dilatation must be carefully learned, but is difficult to describe.

A few important rules should always be observed:
1. Force should never be employed during dilatation.

2. Dilatation should be undertaken so gently and carefully as to avoid any
hemorrhage.
3. Where excessively resistant scar tissue is encountered it is preferable to leave
an indwelling catheter for 1 or 2 days than to 'split' the stricture by force.
4. Good anesthesia and lubrication must be guaranteed by the instillation of
a suitable combined preparation. At least S min should be allowed for this
to work.
S. The passage through perineal strictures is occasionally more easily found
with the help of external pressure in the perineum.
I should here add two further important rules:
Avoid excessive dilatation. Older textbooks tend to recommend dilating strictures

up to 26 or 30 Ch. I consider such a rule to be incorrect and illogical. Such
excessive dilatation is bound to give rise to new mucosal tears, themselves en-
hancing any stricture tendencies. I am quite satisfied to achieve 12-14 Ch and
only proceed further in particularly soft and resilient strictures. A urethral cali-
ber of 12 or 14 Ch allows quite adequate micturition.
Dilate as infrequently as possible. Frequent dilatation means frequent urethral

trauma. Furthermore it is tiresome for the patient. The correct time for the
next treatment is best decided by asking the patient to pay special attention
to changes in his stream, and if necessary by suggesting that he make simple
measurements with a measuring cylinder and the seconds hand of his watch.
Rationale of this approach. Any treatment of strictures except the operative

implantation of a broad epithelial strip is bound to give rise to further scarring
and stenosis. The same may no doubt be said of internal urethrotomy, but
the hope is then that the new scar will be somewhat less tight than was the
stricture prior to urethrotomy. If one succeeds in keeping the stricture patent
for a' substantial period of time, a stable scar may form having little or no
noticeable stricture tendency. The patient may thus achieve an acceptable condi-
tion, although the esthetic appearance of his cystourethrogram may still be
extremely offensive. However, the aim is not internal cosmetic surgery but simply
to enable a man to pass urine properly, who feels himself too old for plastic
reconstruction and has become fed up with repeated urethrotomy. Dilatation
is an excellent alternative in such cases. By the same token it is not a suitable
technique for treating strictures in younger patients and certainly not for the
initial treatment of any stricture. It is however an acceptable alternative to
repeated or unsuccessful urethrotomy. Such cases are unfortunately not all that
uncommon, both following surgery in our own clinic and elsewhere.
Whether or not the results of dilating strictures may be improved by long-
term instillation of steroid preparations is the subject of a current investigation.
No conclusive results have so far emerged.
Chapter N
Postoperative Management
I. Management Following Normal Conclusion of Surgery
1. Passing the Indwelling Catheter
Catheterization brings the operation to its final close. There are as many views
on the most suitable type of catheter as there are models of catheter. Any
catheter manufacturer can tell a tale of woe on this subject. Individual experience
frequently suggests that one particular model is superior, but the wish to hand
one's name down to posterity, attached to some special type of catheter, may
also playa part. The only important distinction is between balloon and nonbal-
loon catheters.
FOLEY, to whom we owe both the brilliant invention of the balloon catheter
and also an unusable resection instrument, originally designed his balloon cathe-
ter as a hemostatic device. The vast majority of balloon catheters are nowadays
used for reasons of convenience because the balloon retains the catheter without
external attachment.
In the absence of any uniform view on catheterization we simply present
our own preference with a brief consideration of the indications for individual
types of catheter.
b) Catheterization After Satisfactory Hemostasis
In our experience balloon catheters are not necessary in this situation. We

use a 24-Ch Tiemann catheter which guarantees good drainage and allows the
evacuation of coagula.
Catherization is sometimes rendered difficult by the catheter tip coming
to rest against a high internal meatus, i.e., against the highly placed margin
of the internal sphincter. This is particularly likely to occur where a chiefly
endourethral adenoma had mainly developed towards the rectum. The simple
maneuvre of pressing the catheter tip upwards with a finger in the rectum
usually solves this problem (Fig. 235). This always needs two people, the surgeon
placing the index finger of his left hand in the rectum and advancing the catheter
400 Chapter N Postoperative Management
Fig. 235a, b. Catheterization following prostatic resection. a The catheter tip catches on the high
posterior fold of the bladder neck and is prevented from entering the bladder. b By elevation of
the prostatic capsule the catheter tip is lifted and slides into the bladder. Intravesical position of
the catheter is confirmed by ease of irrigation. Gas from the bladder vault is usually also evacuated
as the bladder completely drains through the catheter. The passage of gas is therefore also a sure
sign that the catheter is intravesical
with his right. The assistant straightens and elevates the penis. As the catheter
is advanced its entry into the prostatic cavity is 'anticipated.' If difficulties
persist, pressure may also be exerted on the bulb so as to facilitate entry of
the catheter into the prostatic cavity.
Usually only gentle pressure is required to lift the catheter tip over the
obstacle. It is extremely rare that a Tiemann catheter cannot be passed into
the bladder at all. In these circumstances a Mercier catheter may be helpful.
A hollow-tipped catheter on a metal introducer is only necessary in the presence
of, e.g., a subtrigonal perforation.
One should not confuse correct placement of the catheter within the bladder
with its merely being in the prostatic cavity. Irrigating fluid will still drain
but rather more slowly. Above all the characteristic drainage of bladder vault
gas (frequently copious following electro resection) will fail to occur. Emptying
of the bladder is only followed by the passage of gas when the tip of the
catheter is correctly placed in the bladder. This position will also allow easy
irrigation and drainage.
The returned irrigating fluid should only be the color of' red gravy.' Fixation
of the catheter is easy. As far as I know the method I use dates back to von
Lichtenberg's unit in Berlin.
Chateterization After Satisfactory Hemostasis 401
Fig. 236. Securing the indwelling catheter. We frequently use a plain Tiemann catheter without balloon
for postoperative drainage. It is secured as follows: the catheter is passed and its position adjusted
in the usual way. A stainless steel safety pin is tied to the catheter close to the external meatus.
Gauze is placed between glans and pin and a split strip of adhesive tape fixed longitudinally over
the pin onto the dorsal and ventral aspects of the penis. This strip is then subsequently fixed by
a loose encircling tape. the end of which is fold ed to facilitate its removal
The catheter is withdrawn until it ceases to touch the posterior wall, where
it might otherwise cause bladder spasm. Its correct position is revealed by deteri-
oration of drainage if it is drawn out any further, followed by improvement
when it is readvanced. Flow is optimum at the boundary point and the catheter
is then well tolerated without giving rise to pain or spasm. Once its position
has thus been 'regulated' it is now secured. A length of thread is used to
attach a stainless steel safety pin to the catheter 0.5 cm distal to the glans
penis. A sterile keyhole gauze is placed under the pin and a split strip of adhesive
tape then passed over gauze and pin to be attached ventrally and dorsally
on the penile shaft. A circular strip is next placed loosely around the penis
to secure the longitudinal tape and the ends of all tapes are folded under to
facilitate their removal (Fig. 236).
This method has the advantage of allowing the gauze to be changed daily
or whenever it becomes soaked in secretion. The catheter remains firmly fixed
and is easy to clean since no tape adheres to it.
There are a variety of reasons why we do not routinely use balloon catheters:
1. The balloon may obstruct the flow of secretions from the cavity into the
bladder.
2. A vulcanized rubber Tiemann catheter has a wider lumen than a balloon
catheter of the same size.
3. The walls of the catheter are more rigid, rendering it easier to evacuate
occasional coagula. Softer catheters may easily collapse.
Any mild encumbrance by the somewhat rigid catheter is easily outweighed
by its advantages.
c) Catheterization in the Presence of Venous Hemorrhage

(Venous Sinuses)
In this situation we use a balloon catheter for the purpose originally intended
by Foley, i.e., hemostasis. This will only be successful if the venous sinus lies
within the prostatic cavity where it can be compressed by inflation of the
balloon. I am unable to see the logic behind the suggestion by BAUMRUCKER
(1968) that the balloon be placed at the upper margin of the cavity. Neither
the margin of the cavity nor the internal meatus, in fact no part of the internal
sphincter region, is the site of bleeding. Wide caliber veins within the cavity
are the culprits, and only if these are compressed will balloon catheterization
be of any avail. The truth of this is easily seen if one attempts to follow BAUM-
RUCKER'S instructions, which we did repeatedly after reading his book. After
several attempts, characterized by unabated continuation of bleeding, we were
forced to return to our old ways.
At the same time our technique of passing the catheter and retracting it
into the prostatic cavity follows a strict set of rules which I have found to
be foolproof and therefore give in the following:
The balloon catheter is passed into the bladder (in the same fashion as
described for Tiemann catheters). Its position is then regulated in the usual
way and the balloon filled with 20 ml of water. The catheter is next gently
withdrawn into the cavity and progressively inflated further, 1 ml of water being
added for every gram of tissue resected. For small adenomas therefore an addi-
tional 5-10 ml are added, for larger adenomas of over 30 g, 15 or maximally
20 ml, whereas for an adenoma of 70 or 80 g, the total volume could be
85-100 ml (Fig. 237). Inflation of the balloon is accompanied by traction on
the catheter, a synchronized procedure requiring two people. One hand main-
tains gentle tension on the as yet incompletely inflated catheter, the spigot
is removed and the bladder drained. It is then twice irrigated with 50 ml sterile
isotonic solution (TUR irrigating solution) and on each occasion completely
emptied by suprapubic pressure. Only thus can the hemostatic effect of the
catheter be tested. As a rule irrigating fluid will be returned virtually clear,
but if it is still unacceptably blood stained, traction or the inflation volume
may be increased slightly, but not excessively. An undesirable effect may other-
wise arise as traction causes the overinflated balloon to fold against the inlet
holes of the catheter and obstruct the drainage of urine (Fig. 238).
Chateterization in the Presence of Venous Hemorrhoge 403
Fig. 237 a, b. Inflating a catheter balloon within the cavity in the treatment of venous sinus hemorrhage.
a The catheter has been correctly placed in the cavity and the balloon slightly inflated. This prevents
it from slipping backwards out of the cavity. b The balloon is now further inflated, 1ml water
corresponding to a gram of resected tissue
Fig. 238a, b. Incorrect retraction of the balloon catheter. a The balloon has been overinflated within
the bladder and thus has to be drawn back through the internal sphincter into the cavity. b The
balloon will fold up around the catheter inlet holes and prevent easy drainage of urine and irrigating
fluid. Solution: partl y deflate the balloon, gently draw it back towards the external meatus and
refill it with the correct quantity of water. No traction should be exercised until the balloon has
been inflated by at least 2/ 3 of the required amount
Fig. 239. Securing a balloon catheter under traction. A plastic disc is attached to the catheter by
means of a screw cone and thus allows continuous traction on the catheter, e.g., in the presence
of venous sinus hemorrhage. Traction is released by loosening the nut. With this device the patient
is freely mobile in bed and is spared a weight and pulley or attachment of the catheter to his
thigh
There are thus two variables involved in hemostasis: traction on the catheter
and the degree of balloon inflation. The catheter itself must of course be suitable
for the required volume. There is no point in trying to inflate a 5 ml balloon
with 50 ml or a 50 ml balloon with only 10.
Various suggestions have been made on how best to fix the catheter under
traction: attachment of the catheter to the thigh with adhesive tape, traction
on the catheter by a weight and cord hanging over the end of the bed, wrapping
the catheter with a thick gauze tape at the glans. We employ a special plastic
disc developed by a senior nurse at our clinic, which allows traction to be
relaxed or increased by means of a locking device at its center. This is released,
tension on the catheter adjusted, and the disc then locked in position once
more (MAUERMAYER and ZIERER 1976). This device is also a great help to our
ward staff. After 2 h of traction a quantity of fluid is removed from the balloon
and traction somewhat relaxed. If the sinus then starts to bleed again, traction
and inflation are easily restored to their previous configuration (Fig. 239).
I should emphasize once more that we use the balloon catheter only as
a hemostatic device, and it could therefore be changed once bleeding has ceased.
The short duration of catheterization seldom makes this necessary. If one
tests the position of the balloon within the prostatic cavity by inflating it with
contrast medium rather than water, its perfect adaptation to the shape and
size of the prostatic cavity is easily seen. Subsequent removal of half the inflation
volume to some extent allows secretions to drain from the cavity, but not as
well as would a Tiemann catheter. Before the patient leaves the operating room
the catheter is connected to a closed, sterile irrigating system, so that this particu-
lar risk of infection is taken care of under optimal conditions.
Vigorous Reactionary Hemorrhage on the Day of Operation 405
2. Irrigating the Bladder
Bladder irrigation usually serves only as a check on catheter function. In closed

systems this is achieved simply by opening the inlet and closing the outlet hose
and vice versa. Small clots are freed by pumping the tube. If the patient is
properly monitored it is quite rare for a catheter to become blocked.
Should this nevertheless occur, various procedures may be undertaken. Irri-
gating systems are commercially available with a built-in rubber bulb powerful
enough for the evacuation of quite firm clots.
3. Evacuating Clots from the Bladder
On occasion, however, this system may be inadequate. The catheter then needs
to be disconnected from the irrigating device and the clot evacuated with a
bladder syringe. Naturally aseptic technique should be observed. Tamponade
of the bladder may arise whenever a more or less vigorous hemorrhage goes
unnoticed, so that the blood coagulates into large clots within the bladder,
in which case the same technique may be employed. First 50 ml are injected
into the bladder under pressure. This has the effect of breaking up clots which
may then immediately be evacuated by vigorous suction with a 100 ml syringe.
Experienced nurses who have spent some time on a urological ward develop
considerable dexterity in this technique. The rate of bleeding will not decrease
until the bladder has been completely emptied of coagula, and only then will
the closed irrigating system be adequate. It is therefore preferable to use the
irrigating system rather frequently and evacuate small clots by pumping the
tubes rather than to wait until a large quantity of clot has accumulated, which
can then only be extracted by opening the closed system.
4. Vigorous Reactionary Hemorrhage on the Day of Operation
Correct estimation of the rate of blood loss frequently presents difficulties to

the inexperienced. It is quite pointless to expect to control a reactionary hemor-
rhage of any proportion merely by irrigation. For some time now we have
taken to operative hemostasis at the earliest possible time in such cases. Al-
though such a procedure will only be necessary in a small number of patients,
they will lose far less blood and suffer considerably less discomfort than arises
from continuous irrigating and manipulating of the catheter. In these cases
one nearly always finds a spurting artery. Over the past years I have seen
a number of cases where an artery was bleeding which I was absolutely certain
of having previously coagulated and closed. This impression was confirmed
by the finding of crusted periarterial tissue. The patient is anesthetized and
the resectoscope passed. There is nearly always clot retention and this should
first be evacuated. A large number of blood clots may be found in the field
of resection, frequently so firmly attached to the tissue as to be irremovable
by the resectoscope loop unless current is applied. This cleaning of the bladder
and the resection field is the most time consuming part of the revision procedure,
and the bleeding vessel is frequently hidden under particularly dense coagula.
All clots should be removed, either by the use of cutting current or with the
cold loop, and then evacuated from the bladder. The last remnants are more
easily extracted by first visualizing them and then removing the electrotome
whilst keeping the sheath steady and then attaching the evacuator. The re-
mainder is simple. The bleeding vessel is easily seen in the otherwise bloodless
field and is once more closed by a more profound and extensive coagulation
than usual. The returned irrigating fluid should then become macroscopically
free of blood, since all the small veins will already have closed. The whole
operation rarely takes more than a quarter of an hour and should be preferred
at an early juncture to frustrated attempts at bladder irrigation.
5. Postoperative Fluid Intake

(Management of Irrigating Fluid Overload)
We generally like to enhance diuresis by intravenous fluids and the administra-

tion of frusemide. Since a certain quantity of fluid always enters the circulation
through open veins in the operative field during any resection, particularly
its final phases, there will be a certain reserve volume of fluid available. The
excretion of this fluid performs the task of' internal irrigation' of the bladder.
Thus any additional intravenous fluid, half of which should always be physiolog-
ical saline, will combine with absorbed irrigating fluid to give rise to a very
considerable postoperative fluid excretion, tending to counteract the formation
of clots. The standard dose of 20 mg frusemide should not be exceeded, and
further treatment only initiated if laboratory investigations reveal hyponatremia,
or if there are other signs of pronounced hemodilution (raised central venous
pressure, raised systolic and diastolic pressures) (p. 412).
Fluid intake and loss should be carefully recorded. Special attention should
be paid to potassium replacement, since frusemide is kaliuretic. Special medical
problems arising in the high-risk patients who constitute an increasing propor-
tion of our practice will need to be managed in close collaboration with the
advising physician. Because of the frequent reports in the literature both we
and our anesthetists are constantly on the watch for dilutional hyponatremia.
It appears to be subclinical in our practice.
6. Management of Urinary Infection

We only prescribe antibiotics if there was a preoperative urinary infection or

the patient is at particular risk, e.g., in the presence of upper tract damage
following prolonged retention. Previously infected patients are treated for 2
Cavernitis 407
days preoperatively with high-dose infusions of the appropriate antibiotic, once

sensitivity reports are available. We do not indulge in prophylactic vasectomy
except after a prolonged period of catheterization on an outpatient basis. Where
chronic retention makes such management unavoidable, vasectomy is under-
taken prior to catheterization, also on an ambulant basis. Because of our trend
towards suprapubic puncture these cases have become progressively rare.
Serious urinary infection, epididymitis, paraurethral abscess and severe urethritis
have become so rare that we look on their occurrence as a great event. We
had feared that increasing use of internal urethrotomy to facilitate passage
of the resectoscope would be complicated by urethritis, but this never seems
to happen. At the same time it should be said that we never cease to seek
improvement of the general standards of hygiene in our unit, and the two
spheres of surgery and ward care are subject to continuous bacteriologic moni-
toring.
For completeness, however, infective complications are nevertheless dis-
cussed in the following.
b) Paraurethral Abscess
This syndrome virtually only occurs where the catheter has for some reason
had to stay in the bladder for a prolonged period of time, and it is usually
restricted to debilitated patients. The clinical picture is usually one of unex-
plained pyrexia without local symptoms, and the site of election is the penoscro-
tal angle.
Once considered, the diagnosis is easily made by palpation and milking
of the urethra, and by superficial inspection of penis and scrotal root. Milking
the urethra produces copious secretion.
The therapeutic attack should be two pronged. Bacteriologic examination
of urethral secretion will provide data for specific antibacterial therapy. The
catheter should be removed and an antibiotic solution instilled twice daily into
the urethra, where it should be kept for 20 min by a penile clamp. If the patient
requires a urinary diversion this should be by suprapubic puncture, thus short-
circuiting the urethra.
c) Severe Urethritis
This ailment may occur in advance of paraurethral abscess and its treatment
is therefore the same. Internal urethrotomy allows such good drainage of ure-
thral secretions that urethritis has virtually disappeared from our unit since
its introduction.
d) Cavernitis
In rare cases inflammatory change of the urethra may spread to the corpora
cavernosa. The syndrome is unmistakeable and is also extremely painful, requir-
ing both high-dose antibiotic therapy and the administration of an anti-inflam-
matory agent with local compresses of dilute alcohol. The prognosis would
appear to be good, and in the few cases of which I have personal experience
there was always complete regression and subsequently normal erectile capacity.
e) Epididymitis
Although it has now for many years been our practice to restrict vasectomy
to the cases already mentioned, epididymitis has become rare. Perhaps the
reverse statement would be more accurate: we no longer undertake routine
vasectomy because epididymitis is so rare.
Early epididymitis is occasionally successfully treated by novocaine block
of the cord. In more advanced cases our first line of treatment is the application
of leeches. Three or four are placed on all reddened areas of the scrotum,
starting with the cord if this is involved. The response is frequently remarkable.
Pain and swelling rapidly subside and pyrexia abates. This leeching should
always be combined with the administration of antibiotics and anti-inflammato-
ry agents. Epididymectomy may be a good early treatment to prevent the exten-
sion of inflammatory change into the periorchium in some cases (age, septic
condition, reduced resistance in elderly men).
For completeness it should be pointed out that epididymitis may also occur
in vasectomized patients.
7. Postoperative Mobilization
In principle patients could get out of bed on the evening of operation and
walk around their room. We rather discourage this because it would mean
opening the closed irrigating system and spigotting the catheter. The longer
this system remains closed and 'protected from the outside world' the more
easily postoperative wound infection is avoided. For this reason our patients
mobilize on the postoperative day and usually sit out at the breakfast table.
They get out of bed thrice daily and take short walks, limited to 15-20 min
by spigotting of the catheter. The extent to which the procedure thus takes
on an outpatient character surprises even us. Quite elderly patients who were
fully mobile and mentally active prior to surgery respond just as the younger
ones. The extent of resection appears to be of no influence as long as blood
loss is minimized.
8. Removing the Catheter
In the majority of cases we remove the catheter on the second postoperative

day, very rarely on the first. The duration of postoperative bleeding is the
main determinant factor, and even patients who required a balloon catheter
Recatheterization 409
because of an open venous sinus are treated in the same fashion. Prior to
removal of the catheter the bladder is given a final irrigation, to prevent residual
clots in the base of the bladder obstructing subsequent micturition. The catheter
may safely be removed even if the urine is not entirely clear of blood: a mild
pink tinge is not a contraindication as long as the patient dilutes his urine
by maintaining a brisk diuresis (' internal irrigation ').
9. Assessing the Result
The absence of residual urine following micturition may be confirmed in two

ways: firstly the bladder may be filled with a known volume prior to removal
of the catheter. The patient then urinates into a volumetric vessel, and the
missing volume will correspond to the residual. The second method is recatheter-
ization after micturition.
We prefer the first test, since it obviates repeat catheterization of the patient.
Sensitive patients may take some time to become accustomed to micturition
without a catheter. Fear of pain causes them to activate the sphincter frequently
and they drink little in an attempt to avoid painful and unaccustomed micturi-
tion.
The administration of psychoactive drugs may improve this situation, im-
ipramine (Tofranil) being very suitable in our experience. Micturition is nearly
always mildly painful on the first few days although this improves if the urine
is kept dilute. A mild pricking sensation in the glans is also frequently reported.
There is initially always some frequency, both day and night.
The most important criterion of successful surgery is the quality of the
urinary stream, so we measure this with a TAMMEN uroflowmeter 3--4 days
after removal of the catheter. A poor stream and frequent micturition are almost
invariably signs of a residual urine.
10. Recatheterization
Very few patients have such severe trouble with micturition as to require fine
catheter drainage for a further 2-3 days. The surgical wound may be unusually
inflamed or edema around the new internal meatus may be a true obstacle
to micturition. We cover this period of renewed catheterization with antibiotics
(according to sensitivity report) and anti-inflammatories. To exclude further
clots as the source of micturition problems, the bladder is irrigated yet again.
After this 2- or 3-day period of further catheterization the vast majority
of patients are able to pass urine with a good stream and leave the clinic a
few days later.
11. Postoperative Medication
Absence of pain is one of the chief characteristics of transurethral surgery.

Patients are always surprised to feel no wound pain, and if pain should occur
during the first few days while the catheter is still in situ, one should reach
for the bladder syringe rather than the injection syringe, since catheter blockage
is more likely to be the cause. Typically there will be clot retention with over-
distension and catheter blockage. Re-establishing free drainage and thus empty-
ing the bladder then dispels pain without the need for analgesia.
Acute infection occasionally gives rise to pain which is usually felt in the
perineum or around the glans penis. In such cases dipyrone remains indispens-
able. Daytime frequency and nocturia with a good stream and in the absence
of residual urine should be treated with the appropriate antibiotic (sensitivity
report) and a suitable agent to 'rest' the bladder. We have found 'Urispas'
to be satisfactory and have taken to giving a suppository at night. More nervous
patients occasionally need to check at frequent intervals that they can still pass
urine freely and so they go to the lavatory every 10-20 min, upsetting both
themselves and their surroundings. Once again we have no compunction in
prescribing psychoactive agents, and in this situation Limbatril tablets are our
usual choice because of the ease in adjusting the dose.
Opiates and similar powerful drugs are not usually required, except for
carcinoma cases, and should only be employed under exceptional circumstances.
12. Repeat Resection for Poor Stream
Patients should only be allowed home when they can pass urine in a good
stream (measured!) and eIl}.pty their bladder without residual. If this is not
the case, if there is pronounced frequency, residual urine or a poor stream
it is wrong to console oneself and the patient with excuses such as 'it will
go on improving, it will all come right, there's just a little swelling.' The patient
was frequently able to pass urine quite satisfactorily on the first and second
day after removal of the catheter, and his stream only subsequently deteriorated.
These patients should have their bladder neck inspected under anesthesia and
any small tissue residue or even remaining apical tissue should be removed.
It is frequently patients with small adenomas or bladder neck fibrosis who
require this second look.
Sometimes the bladder neck gives the impression of complete dissection
and the absence of any further removable tissue. Nevertheless there must be
a reason for the poor stream.
If the paracollicular region of these patients is inspected more carefully,
a 'trial cut' may reveal a thin residual band of adenoma tissue left behind.
Once this has been removed in one place, it is more easy to see where it remains
elsewhere.
Postoperative Management of Intraperitoneal Perforation 411
This apparent poor assessment of the bladder neck at the first operation
arises as follows: resection was undertaken properly, but in the apical region
of the prostatic cavity a thin layer of tissue was left behind, and gradual retrac-
tion of the fibromuscular capsule some days after removal of the catheter gradu-
ally presses this tissue into the urethral lumen. It is therefore precisely patients
with a small bladder neck who give little room for maneuver when operating
in the paracollicular region.
Even the most careful inspection frequently fails to reveal more than 2-3 g
of removable tissue. The procedure takes only a few minutes and represents
virtually no setback for the patient, delaying discharge maximally 2-3 days.
II. Postoperative Management of Operative Complications
1. Postoperative Management of Perforation
a) Postoperative Management of Extraperitoneal Perforation
If the site of perforation in the prostatic capsule has not been sutured, treatment
being restricted to periprostatic drainage or even to no additional treatment,
bladder irrigation should be undertaken with great care, only small quantities
of fluid being used. In these cases it is mandatory to give antibiotic therapy,
even if the urine was sterile preoperatively. The catheter should be left in situ
for a week and prior to its removal a careful contrast cystogram should be
carried out under the image intensifier, in order to prove that the site of injury
is now watertight.
If surgery had to be discontinued because of a perforation it will need to
be concluded at a second sitting after a further week's delay, i.e., 14 days
after the original procedure.
If perforation occurred at the end of the original procedure after the removal
of all adenoma tissue, the patient may be discharged as soon as he is able
to empty his bladder without residual.
Cases requiring suture of the perforation have always suffered the more
extensive injury, and it is therefore not surprising that they take somewhat
longer to heal. Once again bladder irrigation requires great care. The catheter
should be left in situ 1-2 weeks from case to case, and a cystogram performed
prior to its removal as described for the previous situation.
b) Postoperative Management of Intraperitoneal Perforation
I have only come across this type of injury in relation to the resection of bladder
tumors, not of the prostate. The sequence of events, however, is the same.
The site of perforation always requires suture, and depending on the presence
of urinary infection the peritoneum may need to be drained. The basic principles
of postoperative care are proper antibiotic cover of infection and standard treat-
ment as for any abdominal surgery. We have never had postoperative problems
following perforation during resection of bladder tumors and have consequently
never had a death. On the other hand MARBERGER (1978) has reported cases
of carcinomatosis peritonei following this accident: our cases have never suffered
this complication. The abdominal drain may be shortened and removed once
its output decreases, and the same goes for any other paravesical drain inserted
because of the presence of irrigating fluid. No doubt, wounds occuring during
prostatic resection heal with fewer problems than those arising from perforation
of a bladder tumor. In the latter case we have occasionally seen delayed healing
where it was necessary to suture tumor tissue and where peritoneal cover was
difficult to obtain.
2. Postoperative Management of Ureteric Orifice Trauma
Once again, any increase in intravesical pressure during irrigation should be

avoided, since vesicorenal reflux and renal sepsis might ensue. The catheter
is removed at the usual time, and check cystoscopy 14 days later usually allows
the future course to be predicted: a broadly gaping orifice nearly always indi-
cates future reflux. Whether or not such severe stenosis will develop as to require
reimplantation of the ureter can usually only be perceived after several weeks.
The majority of cases heal without complication, i.e., without stenosis or reflux,
unless the original injury consisted of several deep incisions into the intramural
ureter.
3. Postoperative Management of External Sphincter Injuries
This injury is only rarely noted at the time of surgery and usually manifests
itself as incontinence on removal of the catheter.
The single precaution to be taken following peroperative diagnosis of such
an injury is the absolute prohibition of balloon catheterization under traction.
In the theoretical situation where an external sphincter injury is vitiated by
the opening of several venous sinuses, I would prefer to pack the wound cavity
by the suprapubic route and perform temporary cystostomy rather than further
embarrassing the weakened sphincter by traction on a balloon catheter.
4. Postoperative Management of the TUR Syndrome
Some of the therapeutic problems in this situation may be so acute and urgent
as to require treatment based on a diagnosis of suspicion. Dilutional hyponatre-
mia should be suspected where the central venous pressure is raised, where
the systolic and diastolic blood pressure are simultaneously raised and, if the
patient underwent regional anesthesia, where restlessness and confusion are un-
mistakeable. Should pulmonary edema supervene, this will be apparent as dys-
pnoea, air hunger and cyanosis. General anesthesia tends to obscure a large
proportion of the otherwise pronounced subjective symptoms. The definitive
diagnosis rests on a substantially reduced plasma sodium concentration (less
than 120 mmol/l).
Treatment cannot be delayed until the availability of the sodium estimation
and standard treatment should be immediately instituted by the administration
of 250-500 ml of 5% sodium chloride solution with an initial dose of 40 mg
frusemide. Once the chemistry has returned to normal, the patient may be
treated in the standard fashion, although his electrolytes and blood pressure
should be checked more often than usual and a chest radiograph performed.
Once the excess water has been excreted and other biologic measurements have
returned to normal, the danger is over, and the patient may be returned to
an ordinary ward.
I should add that I have no personal experience of this therapy and therefore
report what is described in the literature. Despite considerable vigilance we
have never seen a typical case of this syndrome, although we undertake over
600 transurethral resections of the prostate per year.
III. Postoperative Complications

The most important postoperative complication remains hemorrhage in its var-

ious forms. Reactionary hemorrhage on the day of operation, or perhaps 1
or 2 days later due to dissolution of diathermy crust, has already been discussed.
The event is unmistakeable and requires immediate action, i.e., operative hemo-
stasis. Hemorrhage 10 or 14 days later is somewhat rarer but should nevertheless
be regarded as a dangerous situation. Once again the severity of hemorrhage
and its concomitant of clot retention renders it unmistakeable.
Particular postoperative attention should attach to any persistent ooze, even
if it is not so profuse as to require immediate action but is nevertheless too
pronounced to allow removal of the catheter. In the following we shall use
the term 'prolonged oozing.'
Three other types of hemorrhage may occur prior to discharge from hospital:
1. Severe profuse hemorrhage, as already mentioned

2. Hemorrhage of a sufficient rate to color the urine dark red but not adequate
for the formation of clots. This might be described as moderate hemorrhage.
3. Transient macroscopic hematuria, mild hemorrhage
Microscopic hematuria is a typical phenomenon of the recovery period and

may last up to 6 weeks, only being detected on appropriate testing and character-
istically limited to the initial fractions of a given voiding.
2. Persistent Oozing
If the urine fails to clear 4-5 days after electroresection there is no point in
waiting any longer, and the bladder should be examined under anesthesia, with
operative hemostasis as required. This approach of early intervention has arisen
because of our experience that further waiting is always unsuccessful and only
results in an unnecessary waste of blood and time. Examination under anesthetic
either reveals a few clots in the cavity and on the base of the bladder, or
the entire cavity is lined with tough, adherent coagula, difficult to remove except
by the use of cutting current. If one examines these clots after their removal
they may be found to be rubbery, rather like chewing gum. An actual bleeding
point is rarely found, and evacuation of the clots or clearing out of the cavity
concludes the procedure. Hemorrhage from a few small veins should be arrested,
although it is usually difficult to say whether they were opened during the
second procedure or had been bleeding all the time under cover of adherent
clots. Hemostasis will then be complete, and catheter left in for safety may
be removed on the following day.
I definitely recommend this active approach. We also employ it in the man-
agement of similar bleeds following enucleation.
3. Moderate Hemorrhage
This is characterized by the absence of clots and therefore by unimpeded micturi-

tion. Hemorrhage nearly always occurs within the first 10 postoperative days
and requires only an increased fluid intake rather than any active treatment.
I have so far been unable to prove to my own satisfaction whether the adminis-
tration of antifibrinolytics (epsilon aminocaproic acid) has any reproducible
effect. I suspect that this agent merely treats anxiety in patient and surgeon.
Hemorrhage usually ceases spontaneously after 1 or 2 days.
4. Mild Hemorrhage
It is without significance and usually disappears after several voidings. If patients

are led to expect this phenomenon, they will wait without undue anxiety for
its disappearance. This type of hemorrhage does not require any treatment
and arises during the healing process in relation to slough separation.
Drug Therapy 415
5. Microscopic Hematuria
This is only detected by microscopic or chemical urine examination. The healing

wound is covered in granulation tissue from which, quite normally, leucocytes
and red cells escape. The phenomenon ceases on completion of epithelialization.
6. Infective Problems
As far as we can tell from our own patients, these situations have become
extremely rare. Whether this is due to improved aseptic technique, to better
resistance among patients or to the prescription of routine antibiotic therapy,
will only emerge from further observation.
The principle types of infective complication have already been described
in relation to urinary infection.
7. Catheter-Induced Bladder Spasm
In a few patients the indwelling catheter may give rise to severe spasms which
become a dominant symptom. There are two separate therapeutic avenues:
optimal regulation of catheter position and drug therapy.
a) RegUlating Catheter Position
Proper adjustment of catheters is an art which I myself had to learn from

long-serving nurses in our unit. They were certainly superior to us young sur-
geons in their experience of this technique, to which they attached considerable
pride.
The most frequent cause of spasm is the catheter touching the posterior
wall of the bladder and stimulating it. The truth of this concept is demonstrated
by the degree of catheter edema to be observed on the posterior wall of many
patients' bladder after a long period of catheterization.
If an open-ended catheter is so adjusted that its tip only just projects into
the bladder, then this maneuver alone will reduce the tendency to spasm or
abolish it altogether. Patience and dexterity are indispensable.
b) Drug Therapy
Alternatively a pharmacological attack may be mounted: the simplest method

is simple local anesthesia, but this will only be safe in the absence of any
open wound through which the drug could be absorbed. Amethocaine is one
of the most effective, and should be employed in 0.5% sterile solution. 10 ml
are instilled into the bladder and the catheter then spigotted, the treatment
initially being repeated hourly. After' desensitization' has occurred this may
be stretched to once every 1-2 h and subsequently to thrice daily.
Equally one may administer Bellergal, Urispas or dipyrone. I remember
a few cases in which papaveretum was effective where all else had failed.
8. Urge Incontinence
Urgency is occasionally confused with incontinence because patients complain

they are 'unable to hold their water.' Such complaints should always be checked
by filling the bladder with a volume of fluid corresponding to the patient's
bladder capacity - perhaps 200-250 ml- and then asking the patient to cough.
Patients with urge incontinence are 'water tight' during this test, and cystoure-
throgram reveals a normal arrangement (impression by the external sphincter).
Urge incontinence nearly always results from severe inflammatory change
around the bladder neck and/or bladder and improves spontaneously following
appropriate treatment of infection and reduction of inflammation.
IV. Late Complications After Transurethral Surgery

Like any other operative technique, electroresection of the prostate and of

bladder tumors gives rise to complications specific to the method.
First and foremost is urethral stricture, with an incidence of 2%-3% (de-
pending on author), and this may result either from technique of instrumentation
or from subsequent catheterization (open prostatectomy also has a stricture
rate !). Certain types of stricture may be avoided by appropriate precautions,
and recent years have seen a revival of vigorous discussion on this topic.
The recurrence of residual volumes and the reappearance of urinary sym-
ptoms also relate to late complications.
2. Urethral Stricture
Without any doubt the urethra is considerably more delicate than was assumed
only a few years ago. Even improper catheterization may in itself give rise
to stricture.
The sites of election of postoperative stricture are:
1. The external meatus
2. The transition from the navicular fossa to the penile urethra
Treatment 417
3. The penoscrotal angle

4. The transition from the membranous to the prostatic urethra
5. The internal meatus
Attention was drawn in Chap. C (p. 94) to prophylactic maneuvers. Since rigor-
ously performing internal urethrotomy at every point the sheath was unable
to pass under its own weight, we have reduced our own stricture rate from
8% to 2%. By the same token internal urethrotomy has become the most
frequent method for the treatment of postoperative strictures, because of its
ease, its good results and its ease of repetition in recurrences (see also Chap.
L).
3. Internal Meatal Stenosis

Iridiform stenosis of the internal meatus represents a special type of urethral

stricture. It may occur months after surgery and result in progressive reduction
of a previously excellent urinary stream.
Cystourethrogram reveals a short narrowing at the site of the internal
meatus, distal to which lies a small prostatic cavity. These findings will be
confirmed on urethroscopy: proximal to a small prostatic cavity lies an almost
completely closed internal meatus, only a pinhole communicating with the
bladder.
b) Treatment
A stenosis may be corrected in a variety of ways (see p. 389).
~) Retrograde Incision with the Resectoscope Loop. Although elegant this method
is doubtless the more difficult. The resectoscope is brought up against the stric-
ture and the loop advanced into contact with the scar plate. Cutting current
is then applied and the loop pushed through the obstacle. The procedure needs
to be repeatedly interrupted for the clearance of gas bubbles arising when the
current is switched on. Because of the small cavity they are not easily washed
away. On the second or third attempt the tissue suddenly gives way and one
enters the bladder. This description of the procedure sounds somewhat adventur-
ous but is really quite safe because of the pronounced ventral projection of
the obstacle above the base of the bladder.
Once a way has been found into the bladder additional cuts are placed
to dissect out the internal meatus. The stricture consists entirely of pure fibrous
tissue like any other scar.
There is therefore little hemorrhage during this procedure.
fJ) Incision by Wire Probe. A second technique for correcting the scar is incision
by a wire probe passed through an operating urethroscope into the pinhole
of the 'iris.' Three or four radial incisions are made in a star-shaped arrange-
ment, and the instrument exchanged for a resectoscope. The rest of the bladder
neck is then dissected out as just described.
After excising the scar we inject all these cases with 2-3 ml hydrocortisone
acetate (25 mg/ml) in individual portions of 0.1-0.2 ml into the scar tissue,
the aim being to prevent further scarring.
A few of these cicatricial rings have a marked tendency to recur. After
the third recurrence YV plasty of the bladder neck may be the only remaining
solution.
y) "Cold" Incision with the Sachse Knife. The third technique is 'cold' incision
of the stenosis with the SACHSE operating urethrotome. A star-shaped incision
is made down to the sphincter margin in 3 places. Hemostasis of the usually
minute vessels should be extremely cautious if further necrosis is to be avoided.
Since employing this technique we have seldom had to proceed to YV-plasty.
The latter is rarely indicated. In 600-700 electroresections of the prostate
per year a case only arises in every 1-2 years.
4. Recurrence of Urinary Symptoms
Such an event is equally unpleasant for both patient and surgeon. There are
two possible causes within the prostatic urethra:
1. True recurrence
2. Residual bulging adenoma tissue following incomplete resection
True recurrences are rare but nevertheless occur. They may be recognized endo-
scopically by the presence of a large spherical nodule of adenoma bulging into
the lumen in the absence of any evidence of previous surgery. Such recurrence
is easier to accept after an open operation, since it is reasonable to assume
that all adenoma tissue had been removed. That may not of course be the
case. Once or twice I have had to resect one or other lateral lobe quite shortly
after previous open surgery only to find a bladder neck that looked virtually
untouched. If one previously operated on the patient oneself and a postoperative
cystourethrogram is still available, the presence of a true recurrence is easily
proven.
The second type of recurrence, due to merely palliative resection, is far
more frequent. The drainage channel within the adenoma tissue is then easily
seen, usually running along the floor of the prostatic urethra. The median lobe
has usually been removed and the base of the lateral lobes grooved.
Such cases nevertheless represent recurrences, in the sense that a previously
adequate drainage path has been narrowed or obstructed by further growth
of adenoma or retraction of the capsule.
In either case meticulous repeat resection is the only treatment.
Unyielding Urinary Infection 419
5. Unyielding Urinary Infection
Frequently a resistant germ is involved and cannot be cleared even with high
doses (15-20 g) of appropriate antibiotics, or else it recurs after a short period.
When discussing the technique of resection we drew attention to the partial
or complete devascularization of inadequately resected adenoma tissue. Such
underperfused tissue is an ideal site for infection, since proper therapeutic
concentrations of antibiotic cannot be achieved. The chronically inflamed tissue
furthermore gives rise to dysuric symptoms, particularly of urgency and fre-
quency.
A decision in favor of further surgery may be particularly difficult to make
if the patient has a good stream and is thus quite satisfied with his own micturi-
tion. In some such patients furthermore infection is inconstantly present, some-
times proven sometimes not.
The situation is rather easier where the presence of necrotic encrusted tissue
can be demonstrated within the field of resection and where there is true pyuria.
In these cases patient and surgeon will soon be agreed on a further operation.
In the former type of case histological, cytological and bacteriological analysis
of a perineal prostatic biopsy may help to clarify the problem.
Chapter 0
Learning and Teaching
Transurethral Operative Technique
There are two basic ways of learning transurethral electroresection: one may
teach oneself or learn in a training unit.
All the older urologists, i.e., all those at the peak of their profession in
the 1930s and 1940s, taught themselves to use the resectoscope. In many cases
they were themselves the pioneers of the technique and gave brilliant descriptions
of their knowledge. The monographs by BARNES (1943) and NESBIT (1943)
remain today much sought-after classics among operation manuals. Prior to
the introduction of teaching attachments clinical tuition was difficult for teacher
and pupil alike. However hard the teacher tried, the pupil was to some extent
left to his own devices. Those with a natural talent soon learned the method
despite limited teaching facilities, while the less talented got stuck at a certain
technical level and were restricted to using the resectoscope in a limited way,
e.g., for small transverse bars or for bladder neck fibrosis. Their appreciation
of endovesical surgery remained equally limited.
This autodidactic period was characterized by the fact that the teacher could
only ever allow the pupil a brief glimpse down the instrument in illustration
of a given situation. With the best will on the part of the teacher, cutting
technique had to be practised by the student on his own. Only twin eyepiece
telescopes with their requirement for difficult co-ordinated movements allowed
any direct supervision. I experienced this period both as a pupil and a teacher.
In addition to all this, the optical quality of the available instruments and
the power of the illuminating systems were at that time hardly comparable
to our modern equipment.
The period of organized teaching began with the introduction of illumination
and observation through fiberoptic bundles referred to in our clinic as the' spy.'
Proper illumination by powerful light sources and facilities for continuous
observation for the first time allowed the entire procedure to be experienced
with all the difficulties that may occur. It thus became possible to give direct
demonstrations of the elemental techniques of cutting and hemostasis.
It can be no surprise that in the pre-' spy' era various attempts were made
at teaching the beginner basic resection technique on a phantom.
One needs only to mention various experiments employing cow's udder
(HABIB et al. 1965), bovine heart (BARNES 1959), cadaveric bladders (NARWANI
and EVERETT 1969) and a clay model (CONGER 1964).
PIRKMAYER and LEUSCH (1977) have recently published an alternative tech-
nique, persuasive by its very simplicity: their idea was to replace animal tissue
422 Chapter 0 Learning and Teaching Transurethral Operative Technique
Fig. 240. Teaching model for practising transurethral surgical technique. An apple has been clamped
into the metal box so that its long axis corresponds to that of the resectoscope, which is inserted
through a rubber grommet. The core of the apple is first removed with a drill. The metal box
serves as an indifferent electrode and is connected to the high frequency generator. Irrigating fluid
flows through the resectoscope in the usual fashion and drains out of the phantom through a
special port. This device allows various maneuvers and aspects of cutting technique (but unfortunately
not of hemostasis!) to be practised. A teaching attachment is used to monitor and correct cutting
technique
by vegetable matter in the shape of an apple. This has the advantage of certain
morphologic similarities to the prostate, being encased in a skin and having
a spherical shape. It is also easily cut by high-frequency current. A very consider-
able degree of simulation is possible : excavation with all its co-ordinated move-
ments can be demonstrated and the short individual or extended cut can be
practised on this model (Fig. 240). NESBIT'S remark immediately comes to mind
that excavating the prostate down to the capsule is similar to spooning out
a baked apple.
Admittedly no amount of dexterity on the model can replace actual operative
experience. The model is nevertheless a considerable aid to learning and pract-
ising control of the instrument.
It is precisely this automatic use of the instrument with all its accessories,
such as the footswitch for various currents or for movements of the table,
that constitutes an important part of surgical routine. Since most operations
Learning and Teaching Transurethral Operative Technique 423
consist of a series of repeated maneuvers it is particularly important to facilitate

these 'resection reflexes.' The faster and more automatically they come, the
more time remains for the actual work of cutting and of hemostasis.
One further point should be considered: large departments and clinics usual-
ly have extremely experienced theater staff able to step in and help with changing
a resectoscope loop or in identifying the source of a malfunction. This might
be, for example, a burnt out lamp in a light source, poor contact on the loop
or a cutting cable with a broken core, allowing only limited or no passage
of current. The current intensity is also usually set by theater staff.
The budding resectionist must learn all these maneuvers before starting to
operate on a patient. We go even further and have our young assistants spend
2-3 weeks working in the 'instrument room' so as to learn to dismantle instru-
ments and recognize their individual parts, as well as grasping the basic princi-
ples of cleaning and decontaminating them.
Only thus will they still be able to work effectively without the well organized
personnel of a teaching unit.
Operative training proper only begins when this basic knowledge has been
acquired. At the same time as learning the technical details just mentioned,
our students receive their first endoscopic training. No one who has not studied
the bladder neck and bladder of at least 100 patients under the guidance of
a more experienced assistant can possess the necessary anatomical knowledge
to undertake transurethral operations. Learning to see endoscopically forms
the basis of all further training. Repeated discussion with older colleagues -
and of course study of the literature - should provide the trainee with a spatial
concept to which to apply a two-dimensional image. Rectal palpation is one
of the simplest additional aids during endoscopy of the bladder neck.
Only at this stage does the observation of endoscopic surgery begin. This
should not be limited to the trainee simply watching everything that happens
in the operative field. It must be explained repeatedly why this or that is being
done. No doubt this represents an additional load on the surgeon performing
the demonstration resection, but from a medical point of view it is hard to
see a true alternative. Resection with a teaching attachment requires a special
operative technique just as was the case when we learnt to operate with color
video cameras. It is not so much that the operation is carried out in a different
way: there is a continuing requirement to point out landmarks in the operative
field, for example, by visualizing the verumontanum and then going on to de-
scribe the further progress of the operation. Only thus can the inexperienced
surgeon keep track of the whole procedure. I attach great importance to demon-
strating how movements of the surgeon's body influence the endoscopic picture.
It has to be described for example, how, during excavation of a lateral lobe
down to the capsule, not only linear but also lateral movements are required
to cut deep into the tissue. During one cutting series the observer may watch
the surgeon's movements, and in a subsequent one he will see the corresponding
endoscopic situation. Extended and standard cutting should be carefully de-
scribed, to give but two examples. It is particularly important to carefully dem-
onstrate resection around the prostatic apex, and the necessary accuracy of
resection is easy to show.
424 Chapter 0 Learning and Teaching Transurethral Operative Technique
After observing at least 20-30 procedures the 'surgical pupil' (BILLROTH)

will have a good overall understanding of the general sequence. Naturally these
demonstration operations should not consist of artistic masterpieces in which
a particularly talented and practised surgeon removes 100 g of tissue in less
than an hour, they should consist of 'normal' small and medium adenomas.
The course of the operation, the techniques of cutting and hemostasis are thus
repeatedly demonstrated, just as often as one will demonstrate hernia surgery
to a young surgeon.
Only after this protracted preparation does real operative training begin.
The carefully prepared trainee now attempts his first operation under super-
vision. An adenoma with a pronounced median lobe is particularly suitable,
since its position at 6 o'clock presents the least difficulties. The first cuts may
be made at this point, the resection field being kept clear and worked on system-
atically. It is the task of the supervisor to see to this by repeatedly insisting
on adherence to the overall plan of operation. An uneven operative field is
smoothed by the teacher whilst the pupil watches. To begin with we give our
young colleagues just 10-min operating time, after which the supervisor takes
over and concludes the procedure.
After 10-20 resections, depending on talent, this period is extended to
20 min. This length of time is enough for a dexterous trainee to all but remove
a small adenoma, leaving his instructor only a few smoothing cuts and resection
of the prostatic apex still to do. Under such supervision the young surgeon
gradually develops into a skilled transurethral operator.
After a training period of about 3 months, perhaps twice as long for the
less talented, our young colleague may now be left to work more or less on
his own, except that final inspection for completeness of adenomectomy and
adequate hemostasis still remain the duty of the instructor.
As the trainee develops his abilities he may be entrusted with larger and
larger adenomas until he has one day suddenly become a mature transurethral
surgeon.
There is one important principle in our clinic which we repeatedly impress
on our trainees: from a medical point of view it is preferable, should a difficult
situation arise, to call for help early rather than endanger the patient through
a false sense of pride. The result of this rule has been that there is no difference
in success rates between our younger colleagues and the chief assistants and
chief of the clinic. On the other hand such a training system imposes a consider-
able burden on the more experienced staff, but any other method of teaching
this technique is inadequate and will eventually reflect on the establishement
where the young man trained.
Despite all enthusiasm for this method of operation it should be remembered
that here, as elsewhere, there are those who are talented and those who are
less so. The former can be regarded as 'naturals.' They show particular technical
dexterity, react rapidly and soon develop the co-ordination required for various
work sequences in response to optical cues. While their colleagues who have
trained for the same period of time are still having difficulty with 10-15 g
adenomas these young men are already resecting 25-30 g adenomas on their
own. Thirty years of teaching many generations of assistants has taught me
Learning and Teaching Transurethral Operative Technique 425
these differences. Yet the conclusion should never be to sink into apathy or
even to neglect the' slow coaches' - they simply need more effort and patience.
The same problem arises when teaching endovescial tumor surgery, which
should also not be a haphazard affair. On the contrary, excision of a carcinoma
infiltrating the bladder wall so as to clear the muscle coat is a technique requiring
careful training and expertise at recognizing various tissues. Unfortunately the
quality of image available in teaching attachments is not quite adequate for
the demonstration of fine detail. Physical limitations are imposed by the resolv-
ing power of fiberoptic bundles and structural details thus sometimes remain
invisible. For such purposes a lightweight and freely mobile articulated viewing
attachment is available, and we now use this routinely.
Apart from the teaching of transurethral technique in this type of class,
textbooks and monographs also provide a way of learning to operate. This
method is particularly suitable for improving the knowledge of those who al-
ready have some basic understanding. Experienced surgeons will derive particu-
lar benefit from such publications, and sadly a number of colleagues still depend
entirely on the literature as a source of operative technique, since the number
of training establishments is far below the actual requirement. It goes without
saying that these various books are a valuable supplement to practical experience
for anyone fortunate enough to be in a good training post.
Surgical courses involving video transmission of transurethral operations
are also effective and reach a large number of practitioners. Articulated beam
splitters, very bright optical systems and powerful illumination nowadays render
any endoscopic transurethral operation immediately reproducible live in color.
Our department is equipped for such transmissions on a routine basis, and
magnetic tape recording has resulted in an archive on which we can draw for
teaching purposes in addition to live transmission.
It is reasonable to ask whether such courses should use video projectors
to allow the maximum number of participants to both see and hear the progress
of a transurethral operation in a separate lecture theater, or whether it is better
to restrict oneself to teaching a small number of people in a more individual
fashion. After almost 5 years' experience we have come to the conclusion that
small groups are preferable.
These thoughts on the methods of teaching electro resection clearly show
just how difficult the technique is. At the same time we are not seeking to
propagate a secret art known only to a few' high priests' after suitable devotions.
What we actually have is a technologically advanced method which anyone
may learn who is suitably taught. Without this technique modern urology would
simply be the appendage of general surgery concerned with solving surgical
problems in the urinary system.
Color Plates
428 Plate I
lli. 1. General view of the bladder neck seen from a point distal to the vermnontanum. The transition
is easily seen from urethral crest to verumontanum, the latter bulging into the urethral lumen.
From a case of transverse bar with virtually absent lateral lobes. Proximal to the verumontanum
the floor of the prostatic urethra rises steeply. The summit of the transverse bar is not clearly
visible, lying ventral to the field of view. On the other hand the 'gothic arch' configuration of
the transition from prostatic to membranous urethra is clearly shown. The orifices of prostatic
glands may be seen between the verumontanum and the vestigial lateral lobes
lli. 2. General view of the bladder neck. From a similar position to that of Ill. 1. The urethral
crest is strongly developed and its proximity to the front lens of the telescope leads to further
distorted magnification. The verumontanum itself is considerably more proximal and may be recog-
nized by the small pit of the utriculus lying between the lateral lobes. This picture illustrates the
proximal position of the verumontanum in relation to the distal extremity of the lateral lobes.
The transition point between prostatic and membranous urethra is once again clearly seen in the
ventral region. Moderately developed lateral lobes bulge into the urethral lumen
lli. 3. Verumontanum in a case of small. short transverse bar. The verumontanum projects into the
urethral lumen as a landmark. The arch of the transition between prostatic and membranous urethra
is again well seen. The rising fold of the transverse bar is clearly seen proximal to the verumontanum
lli. 4. General view of the transition from prostatic to membranous urethra. Ventrally, an air bubble
and beneath it the arch denoting transition from prostatic to membranous urethra. This region
is thrown into typical folds (Nesbit sign) as the sheath is advanced and retracted. As is usually
the case, the verumontanum here lies somewhat proximal to the boundary arch and between the
lateral lobes, the bases of which it forced apart. Close proximity of the urethral floor mucosa makes
it seem edematous and redundant
lli. 5. Bladder neck seen from the level of the verumontanum. The cutting loop is somewhat advanced
to give an impression of its dimension in relation to the bladder neck structures. The end of the
instrument is approximately opposite the lower border of the verumontanum. The prostatico-mem-
branous transition arch is well seen and proximal to this the beginning of the lateral lobes, with
the cleft demarcated by their medial extremity and the flanks of the verumontanum. Ventrally there
is a short area of contact between the lateral lobes (same patient as Ill. 4)
lli. 6. Further advancement of the instrument up the prostatic urethra. The lateral lobes swing apart
laterally and the large median lobe is seen rising up shortly above the verumontanum. A small
flake of fibrin has become attached to the loop and there is a small blood clot to the left on
the floor of the prostatic urethra
Plate I 429
5
430 Plate II
ID. 7. Verumontanum, close-up view. The instrument has been tilted down into the prostatic urethra
and directed dorsally. This results in the medial surfaces of the lateral lobes being pushed away
from the flanks of the verumontanum
ID. 8. Close-up view of the cleft between verumontanum (right) and the base of the right laberal lobe
(left). This cleft is an important landmark for subsequent resection of apical tissue. The boundary
line corresponds to the pronounced arcuate fold in the floor of this cleft (same situation as Ill. 6)
IU. 9. Floor of the prostatic urethra. Close-up view of the cleft between the base of the lateral
lobes and the proximal urethral cleft. The verumontanum is no longer entirely visible, lying distally.
The orifices of prostatic glands are seen as small, dark slits or dots. On the left of the picture
probably an ejaculatory duct
IU. 10. Further advancement of the instrument up the prostatic urethra in a case of typical trilobe
hyperplasia. (2 voluminous lateral lobes and 1 median lobe.) The' instrument tends to push the
two lateral lobes apart allowing a good view of the median lobe. At the top of the picture a suggestion
of the transition to the ventral commissure
111.11. Ventral commissure in a case of predominant laterallobe hyperplasia. This region is characterized
by a few small submucous hematomas which arose during instrumentation
IU. 12. Ventral commissure in a case of small adenoma with marked pseudopapillary mucosal change.
These formations are not true tumors, merely polypoid change of the mucosa, probably trophic
in nature
Plate II 431
7 8
9 10
II 12
432 Plate III
m. 13. Whitish pseudopolypoid change. The villi are poorly vascularized and thus seem pale and
transparent. They form at the point of contact between the two lateral lobes
Ill. 14. Small, spontaneous mucosal bridge between the right lateral lobe and the floor of the prostatic
cavity. In this case the urethral cleft runs obliquely forwards because of predominant development
of the right lateral prostatic lobe. The result is an asymmetrical cleft, a not infrequent observation
Ill. 15. Bladder neck after prolonged catheterization. The mucosa is erythematous and edematous,
and in this case the adenoma has pronounced asymmetry. The right lateral lobe is vestigial whilst
the left projects far into the urethral lumen. Its ventral portion is particularly pronounced and
hangs down from above
m. 16. Asymmetrical bladder neck due to bulging right lateral lobe with a distal extension. The cleft
of the prostatic urethra is thus rendered oblique and the ventral commissure is somewhat to the
left of the midline, as may be seen by comparing its position to that of the verumontanum
Ill. 17. Grade II papillary carcinoma encircling the internal meatus. The tumor has however extended
into the prostatic urethra. A tumor carpet covers the summit of the verumontanum and tumor
villi hang into the lumen of the prostatic urethra. Only in the 5 o'clock region does a small area
of the left lateral lobe remain free of tumor
Ill. 18. Varicosity in the bladder base. Findings of this type are not infrequent in cases of large
adenoma where hyperplasia has compressed and obstructed the venous drainage. Nearly all these
cases may be expected to bleed profusely at surgery
Plate III 433
13
15
17 18
4:34 Plate I V
III. 19. Engaging the loop behind a large median lobe. Previous inspection of the vesical aspect ensures
that a high interureteric bar will not be injured. In this position the loop will penetrate deeply
into the voluminous median lobe. Even its two insulated side pieces have slightly penetrated the
tissue
III. 20. Shallow initial cut. The length of cut is approximately 1.5 cm as gauged by the size of
the loop support. The typical appearance of adenoma tissue is seen, particularly on the right as
small dots on the surface of the cut tissue
III. 21. Engaging the loop for the next cut. The sheath has been somewhat advanced towards the
median lobe and the loop passed behind the obstacle in preparation for the next cut. This cut
will also remove a considerable quantity of tissue
III. 22. Arrangement after these cuts. It may clearly seen how median lobe tissue gradually sinks
laterally, robbed of its lateral lobe support
fil. 23. Arrangement after this next cut. Fibers of the internal sphincter have now been exposed
in the region of the internal meatus. The chip from the previous cut is adherent to the loop. Orienta-
tion is nevertheless simple as demonstrated by this illustration. The loop is automatically cleaned
during a subsequent cut
III. 24. Tissue cleft between median and lateral lobes. The removal of large median lobes is facilitated
by initially cutting two deep grooves so as to isolate it from its blood supply. The boundary between
median and lateral lobe is here clearly marked by the presence of a small fibrin flake. A tangential
view of the lateral lobe appears on the extreme left of the picture which is dominated by the volumi-
nous median lobe
Plate IV 435
19
21
23 24
436 Plate V
III. 25. Arrangement on completion of the lateral trench. To the right of the picture the large median
lobe, on the left the lateral lobe once again seen tangentially. The trench is cut even deeper in
a dorsal direction than is seen on this endoscopic picture. An equally wide and deep groove is
cut along the left hand boundary of the median lobe so as to reduce operative blood loss
III. 26. Retrograde cutting (incision of postoperative bladder neck stenosis). The loop is pressed against
the tissue ring, in this case somewhat asymmetrically against the left hand half of the poorly vascular
fibrous plate. Cutting current is applied and a cut made towards the bladder
III. 27. Arrangement after a retrograde cut. Note that tissue has not been completely separated
since these retrograde cuts are not terminated in the usual way by retraction into the sheath. The
next cut will be made in the standard fashion back towards the sheath and will completely separate
this fragment
III. 28. Typical adenoma tissue with fine dots. These result from the avulsion of glandular epithelium
by the cutting current. Lateral region of a lateral lobe
III. 29. Similar tissue to that in III. 28. Less avulsed glandular epithelium is seen. View from the
floor of the prostatic capsule in the region of the median lobe
III. 30. Copious secretion within gland ducts. In this case the glandular epithelium avulsed by the
cutting current no longer appears as dots but forms a coarsely fibrous surface
Plate V 437
26
28
29 30
438 Plate VI
m. 31. Transition from capsular to adenomatous tissue. Same patient as Ill. 30. Once again glandular
tissue bulges into the lumen in the characteristic fashion as it is removed from its normal surroundings.
The difference between the rigid capsular tissue in the background and this protuberant adenoma
tissue is easily seen
m. 32. Transition from capsular to adenomatous tissue in a case of poorly glandular hyperplasia.
Once again the cut surface of adenoma bulges into the urethral lumen. Poorly glandular, mainly
connective tissue hyperplasia
m. 33. Overall view from a retracted iustrument to show the general topography of internal sphincter,
adenoma tissue and, in the foreground, the verumontanum (same patient as Ill. 32)
m. 34. Tissue surface in a case of prostatic carcinoma without visible gland ducts. In contrast to
the tissue previously shown this surface is smooth and featureless. The rigidity of the tissue may
be appreciated from the fact that it has kept its shape after the first cut. The ridge between successive
cuts clearly demonstrates this behavior
m. 35. Prostatic carcinoma. The once again poorly vascular tissue has a smooth surface, only three
typical ducts being seen in the center of the picture. On the right running radially towards the
center of the picture note a somewhat more vascular region with a few minute vessels
m. 36. Fibrous, bladder neck stenosis following previous resection. In contrast to the two previous
illustrations of a carcinoma note the parallel fibers of the connective tissue. A certain amount of
experience is needed to distinguish these two appearances
Plate VI 439
31 32
33 34
35 36
440 Plate VII
lli. 37. Fine fibers of tbe internal sphincter at tbe transition between prostatic cavity and bladder.
The fine parallel fibers are easily appreciated in this picture. By close approximation to the front
lens of the telescope their size has been somewhat exaggerated
lli. 38. Fibers of the internal sphincter, approximately in tbe 5 o'clock region of tbe internal meatus.
In this region the parallel fibers tend to separate. At one point this may be clearly seen as a reddish
stripe. This fiber separation frequently results in the formation of true clefts
lli. 39. Internal sphincter region clearly showing separation of muscle fibers and cleft formation
lli. 40. Typical appearance of tbe prostatic capsule in the 7 o'clock region. These fibers are parallel
and appear somewhat finer than in typical cases (increased distance from the lens). This increased
distance was chosen to demonstrate the curvature of the cavity. At the front margin of the picture
between 6 and 8 o'clock note individual small yet clearly visible prostatic glands
lli. 41. Close-up view of tbe prostatic capsule. Adjacent to the cutting loop the area where a large
vessel has been coagulated. The typical coarse structure of the prostatic capsule is better seen in
this picture
lli. 42. Opening a prostatic abscess during transurethral resection. The pasty, inspissated secretiQn
of this abscess exudes from the opened cavity into the lumen of the prostatic urethra. In order
to guarantee free drainage this opening was widened by a further corrective cut. Such old, inspissated
abscesses are usually clinically silent
Plate VII 441
38
39 40
41 42
442 Plate VIII
ID. 43. Coincidental transection of seminal vesicle. In the right hand lumen brownish yellow epithelial
lining is clearly seen. It is surrounded by circular connective tissue. At the right hand margin of
the picture, somewhat higher, a few small prostatic glands
ID. 44. Prostatic calculi. Large concretions lying in a nest have been exposed by the loop which
is now being used to lever them out
ID. 45. Configuration after extracting a calculus. The bed is clearly seen, lined with only moderately
inflamed mucosa
IlL 46. ComJguration after excessively distal resection resulting in complete incontinence. In this case
the surgeon has proceeded too far distally beyond the verumontanum and carried his cut down
into the depths of the sphincter muscle. The two lateral lobes are still largely intact. Pseudopapillary
villi denoting edematous trophic change
ID. 47. Typical large artery hemorrhage in the 9 o'clock region, fairly close to the internal meatus.
Note gaping of capsular tissue in the region of this large vessel which is accompanied lower down
by a small arterial twig. Maximum irrigating flow is required to keep the operative field clear
and visible, and the blood jet is therefore washed upwards towards the bladder. The vessel is sur-
rounded by a small cuff of fatty tissue, present around virtually every large artery
ID. 48. Same region of the operative field following hemostasis. The localized crust is easily seen.
The vessel lumen lies between the three small air bubbles and the cutting loop, where it may be
seen as a white dot. The region of coagulation runs parallel to the tissue fibers and is somewhat
wider than necessary because of the diameter of the loop
Plate VIII 443
43 44
45 46
47 48
444 Plate IX
Ill. 49. Large artery in the right lateral wall of the cavity close to the internal meatus at 7 o'clock.
This shows the fat layer constantly present around large arteries particularly well. The lens has
been closely approximated to the vessel, thus giving an enlarged impression of prostatic capsular
fibers. Once again good visibility and recognizability of structural detail have been preserved. A
red cloud of blood is generated by the impact of the blood jet on the opposite side of the cavity
III. 50. Small artery in the 9 o'clock region close to the internal meatus. The irrigating flow has
now been reduced so as to maintain a good view of the vessel. This state of affairs is confirmed
by the wisps drawn out of the end of the blood jet
Ill. 51. The appearance of various sizes of blood vessel. Adjacent to the medium large artery lying
between the 2 and 5 o'clock regions of the internal meatus are also seen a few small vessels, only
visible because of marked reduction in irrigating flow. Once they have been thus demonstrated
these vessels are easily closed by touching them with the resectoscope loop
Ill. 52. Small adventitial capillaries bleeding around a venous sinus. The lumen of the venous sinus
lies open to inspection of the cleft in the middle of the picture, whilst four small minute vessels
are seen bleeding to the right. Note again the influence of irrigating flow on the appearance of
bleeding points. Pressure was exercised on the surrounding tissue with the sheath aperture to prevent
hemorrhage from the venous sinus whilst this photograph was taken
Ill. 53. Large venous sinus opened obliquely. View from above into the lumen. Once again pressure
on the surrounding tissue has temporarily halted hemorrhage
Ill. 54. Apical region as seen with the bladder empty. The resectoscope lies distal to the verumontanum.
The hiteral lobe residues closely approach each other in the mid-line. The right-hand lateral lobe
has been more or less removed but a large proportion of the left-hand lobe remains to be excised
Plate IX 445
49 50
51 52
53 54
446 Plate X
m. 55. Same patient and same resectoscope position as m. 54, with the bladder fully distended. The
apical residues have almost completely disappeared from the field of view. The left lateral lobe
has been completely pushed out of the field and no longer represents an impressive tissue bulk,
despite the considerable amount of tissue remaining to be removed. Lateral displacement of the
lateral lobe residues renders the cleft between verumontanum flank and the medial margin of the
left lateral lobe clearly visible. This cleft is partly covered by the resectoscope loop
m. 56. Inadequate dissection of the apical region. Although ventral portions of the lateral lobes
have been ablated, a bilateral apical residue remains in the paracollicular region partly covering
urethral cleft and verumontanum. This is the typical appearance of the paracollicular region prior
to its clearance. The convex configuration of the lateral lobe, clearly seen on the right is characteristic
of this stage
m. 57. Lowering the resectoscope into the cleft between verumontanum and lateral lobe. The sharp
margin of the residual apical tissue is typical for the appearance of the field through a 0° telescope
and appears here in bright contrast against the dark background of the prostatic cavity. The presence
of mucosa and the appearance of the tissue are the main landmarks for working in this region.
In this case complete removal of apical tissue required the instrument to be lowered into the cavity
by raising the eyepiece and swinging it to the right. No further mucosa may be resected, since
the capsular margin has already been reached
m. 58. Paracollicular tissue in close-up view. The two basal lateral lobe residues lie closely against
the urethral crest and the verumontanum, partly covering them. Once again the margin of resection
is clearly seen against the background of the cavity. Cutting in this region always requires 'dipping'
of the loop into the cavity with placement of cuts parallel to the capsular wall. In this region
the capsule rises up sharply to reach the level of the urethra
m. 59. Typical position of the loop during resection of this region. A small wedge-shaped piece of
tissue is removed by a 'nibbling' cut. Tissue is wedged between loop and sheath aperture
m. 60. Final inspection of the resection field. The resectoscope sheath has been retracted distally.
This allows residual tissue fragments to hang down into the field of view, as seen here at 12 o'clock
Plate X 447
55
57 58
59 60
448 Plate XI
m. 61. Final inspection of the paracollicular region with the bladder empty. A small lateral lobe
residue remains. A further cut as shown in Ill. 59 will be required for its removal
m. 62. Final arrangement at the end of resection. Note how the urethral mucosal margin almost
completely encircles the verumontanum when the bladder is empty
m. 63. The bladder is fully distended and the verumontanum sinks down onto the floor of the cavity
as the urethral ring opens
m. 64. Papillary carcinoma of the bladder on the posterior wall. Finely villous tumor (histology:
papillary carcinoma Grade I), approximately the size of a small cherry. Normal intact mucosa
surrounds the tumor
m. 65. Papillary carcinoma of the bladder neck. In the foreground around the internal meatus a
carpet of tumor of basically papillary structure covers the distal bladder vault and is growing down
into the internal meatus. In the background a second small tumor is clearly seen at the junction
of vault and posterior wall. Tumors of this type often go unnoticed if the vault is not pressed
down and inspected with a right angle or retrograde viewing telescope. They are usually resectable
without any problem under muscle relaxation with counterpressure on the vault as shown in this
picture. The small tumor on the posterior wall was also ablated and sent for histology
m. 66. Total papillomatosis of the bladder. Cases of this type in which no normal area of mucosa
is frequently visible, require considerable endoscopic experience if they are to be removed transure-
thrally
Plate XI 449
61 62
63 64
65 66
450 Plate XII
lli. 67. Papillary carcinoma Grade II-III on the base of the bladder. The surrounding mucosa is
disturbed, erythematous and thrown into folds. Dynamic cystoscopy reveals rigidity of the tissue
around the tumor base. Cases of this type must be assessed by removing a large number of tissue
samples both from the depths and the periphery of the tumor region if its true extent is to be
recognized
lll. 68. Typical appearance of bladder wall musculature during transurethral resection of a non-infiltrat-
ing bladder tumor. Loose connective tissue is seen between individual muscle fibers. There is no
trace of tumor infiltration
III. 69. Appearance after ablation of a further layer of tissue. Muscular elements become sparser.
The connective tissue assumes a cobweb appearance. This stage precedes perforation and requires
great care
lll. 70. Transurethral resection of an infiltrating carcinoma. At the lower margin of the picture note
tumor infiltration of the muscle. The tissue appears filled with putty-like substance and individual
bladder muscle fibers can no longer be distinguished, although their structure is intact. At the upper
margin the muscle remains normal, individual fibers are delicate and easily seen
III. 71. Further tumor resection. In one area perivesical fat has already been reached (at 3 o'clock)
(controlled perforation). Further dissection of this region during the first sitting would lead to free
perforation of the bladder. If tumor cells are proven to be present in the deepest layers, the procedure
could be either extended by laser coagulation of the region or by repeat resection some days later.
By this time inflammatory change will have firmly attached perivesical fat to the bladder wall (same
patient as Ill. 70)
III. 72. Typical appearance of perivesical fat. Fat is seen glinting through between residual muscle
fibers. This shimmering in the illuminating light is typical
Plate XII 451
68
69 70
71 72
452 Plate XIII
m. 73. Use of the mowing loop. The loop has been applied to the periphery of a tumor and will
be used to excise it tangentially and parallel to the bladder wall
m. 74. Appearance after tumor excision with the mowing loop. In the area shown here the mucosal
margin is being coagulated with the loop to staunch hemorrhage from fine vessels entering the
resection field
m. 75. Resection of a tumor partly infiltrating muscle close to the ureteric orifice. The orifice has
been completely cleared of tumor. The mucosal lining of the ureter bulges into the bladder in
a cuff. Most of the muscular valve mechanism is intact. Cases of this type tend to heal without
progressing to reflux, although part of the terminal ureter was ablated and sent separately for
histological examination
m. 76. Transurethral resection of a papillary carcinoma of the bladder in the region of the ureteric
orifice. Further resection reveals that the ureter contains a mass of tumor. The orifice is marked
by passing a ureteric catheter. The margin between ureter and bladder muscle (Waldeyer's sheath)
is clearly seen as a cleft. The patient was subsequently treated by nephroureterectomy and local
excision of a cuff of bladder
m. 77. Healed ureteric orifice after resection of an adjacent tumor. The region of the orifice has
healed with scar formation leaving a rigid and refluxing ureter. The significance of such reflux
will depend on general condition, age and recurrence tendency of the tumor
m. 78. Healed resection field after removal of papillary carcinoma from the margin and fundus of
a bladder diverticulum. During surgery the mouth of the diverticulum remained wide and allowed
good access into the diverticulum. Healing has led to cicatricial stenosis of the diverticular orifice.
Nevertheless endoscopic inspection of the diverticulum remains possible
Plate XIII 453
73
75
77
454 Plate XIV
Ill. 79. Endoscopic appearance of viewing urethrotomy. The scalpel is being advanced towards the
scar plate for an initial incision in the 12 o'clock position
III. 80. After incision at 12 o'clock the urethra is somewhat widened. Note whitish poorly vascular
scar tissue fibers
Ill. 81. Viewing urethrotomy around the sphincter. Division of a cicatricial ring immediately beneath
the sphincter, the latter seen posteriorly. The stricture was so pronounced as to allow the cut surface
of scar tissue to virtually encircle the lumen
III. 82. Cicatricial bladder neck stenosis following TUR of the prostate. At 6 o'clock the large verumon-
tanum, view into the prostatic capsule showing the small opening through which it communicates
with the bladder
Ill. 83. Sphincter test of Hartung. In the so-called 'hydraulic sphincter test' the suspected region
of the sphincter is kept under observation whilst the irrigating flow is abruptly interrupted and
restored. The sudden pressure changes thus provoked by variations in irrigation flow excite obvious
circular contraction in the region of the sphincter. The region shown to contract corresponds to
that responding to faradic stimulation
Ill. 84. Sphincter test of Tammen and Hartung. Prolonged stimulation with faradic current leads
to virtually complete occlusion of the urethra. This test is also of diagnostic value in relation to
incomplete sphincter trauma such as may occur following transurethral or open surgery to the
bladder neck. The test also reveals rigid fibrous segments of the urethra which arise by connective
tissue replacement of muscular elements with consequent loss of contractility
Plate XIV 455
79 80
81 82
83 84
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Heidelberg (Handbuch der Urologie. Bd VIII, pp 409)
Valleylab Complete instruction manual, Model SSE 3, Firmenschrift der Fa. Valleylab
Wajszcuk WJ, Mowry FM, Dugan NL (1969) Brief recordings, deactivitation of a demand pacemaker
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SUbject Index
Abscess, paraurethral 76 Ball electrode 24 Examination 107

Adenoma see Prostatic hyper- Balloon catheter 187,386,388, Orientation 105
plasia 399,402 Bladder neck fibrosis see
Adenoma tissue 164, 174,438 see also Indwelling catheter Sphincter sclerosis
Adenomectomy see Suprapubic Bigelow lithotrite 359 Bladder neck length 107
enucleation of prostatic hy- Bimanual palpation 291, 302 Bladder neck sclerosis see
perplasia Biopsy 291,294,301 Sphincter sclerosis
Air bubbles 30,44, 138, 145, Forceps 14,15,24,301,304, Bladder neck stenosis see
320,365 325 Sphincter sclerosis
Anesthesia 5,79,308 Technique 325 Bladder papilloma 285
Litholapaxy 363 Zones 324 Bladder pressure 152, 184
Obturator nerve 309 Bladder 100,126,283 Bladder spasm 415
Anesthetic room 5 Injection of drugs 335 Bladder syringe 143
Ankylosis of hip joints 77 Muscle fibers 177 Bladder tamponade 355, 405,
Anterior lobe 106 Technique for treatment 410,413
Antibiotic treatment 183, 188, 283 Bladder tumor 62,65,69,127,
307,329,331,347,353,367, Bladder atony 83, 150, 340 283,448
388,390,407,411 Bladder base 124 Anesthesia 308
Anticoagulant therapy 81,352 Bladder calculus 63,65,68,75, Bimanual examination 292,
Antidepressants 81 127,359 302
Antifibrinolytics 414 Anesthesia 75 Biopsy 291,301
Apical tissue 109,196,201, Bladder diverticulum 76 Biopsy technique 325
203,250 Cystotomy 75, 360 Biopsy zones 324
Argon laser 388 Electroresection of prostatic Bladder diverticulum 300,
Arterial bleeding 254, 442, 444 adenoma 355 452
Detection 263 Enucleation 360 Coagulation 303
Irrigating pressure 182 Prostatic adenoma 76 Controlled perforation
Irrigating supply 135 Radiologic examination 359 326
Venous sinus 273 Size 359 Cystoscopy 294
Arterial blood supply of the Bladder capacity 127, 137 Depth of penetration 283,
prostate 255 Bladder carcinoma see Bladder 294
Operative technique after tumor Direction of growth 289
Alcock and Flocks 256 Bladder diverticulum 63,69, Dynamic cystoscopy 296
Operative technique after 75,127,241,300,333,354, Electrocoagulation 283
Nesbit 256 366,452 Electroresection 308
Articulated viewing attach- Bladder calculus 76 Grade of malignancy 285,
ment 425 Diverticular tumor 334 291
Asepsis 1, 65, 83 Excision 333, 354 Histology 284
Aspiration biopsy 70, 348 Incision of the diverticular History 291
Asystole 350 neck 300, 333, 354 Infiltration 289, 293, 302
Autoclave 5, 8 Prostatic adenoma 75 Internalmeatus 293,311,
Bladder injury 241 356
Bacteriology 66 Bladder neck 63,65,100,105, Laser coagulation 283
Balanitis 87 107,202 Location 286
466 Subject Index
Bladder tumor Blood supply of the prostate Clotting status 352

Metastasis 356 251,255 Coagulation 11,14,24,26,36,
Operation 303 Blood vessels 217 68,72,145,221,234,246,
Palliative resection 328 Bougie 76, 393 251,265,312,355,402,442
Papillary carcinoma 287 Bouginage 383, 393 Ball electrode 265
Papillomatosis 290, 448 Blind dilatation 394 Bladder tumor 283
Penetration depth 285 Dilatation under direct Controlled perforation 326
Perforation 177,411 vision 395 Current 27,50
Prostatic adenoma 142, 317, Steroid preparations 398 Cystoscope 12
356 Bronchial asthma 79 Disorder 81
Radiologic investigation 292 Bronchitis 79 Cystostomy 84
Recurrence rate 290 Bronchopneumonia 79 Final inspection 280
Retrograde viewing tele- Bulbar urethra 90, 92, 97 Hemming technique 313
scope 294 Burns 53,57,59 High frequency current 47
Size 290 Irrigation 314
Solid tumor 287 Calculus 33, 62, 68 Laser 283
Surface structure 287 Formation 241 Previously coagulated tissue
Treatment 291 Capacitive current 57 272
Tumor base 290, 298 Capsule see Prostatic capsule Probe 301,313,383,389
Tumor morphology 286 Carcinoma Pseudohemostasis 275
Ultrasound 294 In situ 325 Ricochet bleeding 268
Ureteric orifice 292, 297 Of the bladder see Bladder Secondary hemorrhage 254
Bladder tumor resection 310, tumor Wire 12,24
314 Cardiac dysrhythmias 78 Cold incision 390, 418
Bladder vault 320 Cardiac failure 78 Cold-light source 2
Check-up cystoscopy 331 Cardiac pacemaker 5, 52, 59, Collecting sieve 142, 325
Complication 329 61,78 Colliculus see Verumontanum
Cutting loop 310 Cardiovascular disease 78, 349 Colostomy 84
Cutting technique 169 Case history 61 Commissure 106,218,430,
Gas detonation 331 Catheter 399 432
Hemostasis 312 Balloon 187 Complications 78,180,411,
Instruments 309 Fixation 404 413,416
Internal meatus 317 Incontinence 190 Computer tomogram 293
Mowingloop 315 Infection 381 Conductivity 59
Perforation, extraperitoneal Mercier 187 Blood 57,60
330 Nelaton 187 Irrigation fluid 55, 60
Perforation, free 329 Regulation 400, 402 Metal sheat 53
Perforation, intraperitoneal Securing 401,404 Condylomata 389
329 Tiemann 187 Consumption coagulopathy 81
Periphery of the tumor 328 Ureteric 187 Continuous irrigating tech-
Prostatic adenoma 317 Catheterization nique 151
Reflux 321 Intermittent 67, 80, 83 Continuous irrigation resecto-
Technique 310 Paraurethral abscess 76 scope 35
Tissue recognition 322 Cave of Retzius 85 Iglesias 35
Ureteric orifice 321 Cavernitis 407 Contraindication 61,74,87
Bladder wall musculature Central cock 18,24,131,139, Cortisone 387, 390
450 145,271,320 Instillation 398
Bleeding see Hemorrhage Central venous pressure 412 Covered bleeding 269
Blend current 50 Cerebral hemorrhage 78 Cryosurgery 79, 349
Blind dilatation 394 Cerebrovascular accidents 61 Cuffed obturator, Leusch 91
Bloodclots 148,174,241 Cerebrovascular disease 79, Cunningham clamp 388
Evacuation 155 189,349 Current distribution 54
Blood loss 5,72,74,150,191, Circumcision 5, 87 Cutting cable 51,59
217,251,262 Cleaning 7,38,40 Cutting current 27,49
Determination 191,247, see also Instrument Cutting loop 22
251,253 Illuminated magnifier 42 Cuttingspeed 171
Blood loss estimator 251 Water pistol 40 Cutting length 164
Subject Index 467
Cutting loop 21,24, 51, 56, 59 Depthofcut 169,171,228 Enucleative adenomectomy see
see Resectoscope loop Dermatoses 84 Suprapubic enucleation of
Bladder tumor 23 Diabetes mellitus 82 prostatic hyperplasia
Coagulation 24 Diabetic neuropathy 344 Enucleative surgery 356
Current 22,47 Diagnostic instruments 11 Epididymectomy 77, 86,408
Insulation 51 Diagnostic telescope 103 Epididymitis 77,86,408
Loop control 21,23 Dilatation see Bouginage Vasectomy 408
Baumrucker system 22 Dilator see Bougie Epidural anesthesia 75,79,
Nesbit system 22 Dilutional hyponatremia 146, 183,308,386
Mowing loop 23 150,277,406,412 Ethylene oxide 45
Cutting rate 171 Disinfection 2, 7, 38, 44 Evacuation 153,366
Cutting technique 129,157 Diuresis 353,406 Coagula 155,405
Body movement 170 Diverticular tumor 334 Ellik evacuator 154
Cut with predetermined end Diverticulum see Bladder diver- Metal piston syringe 155
point 157,197 ticulum Excision biopsy 11
Cut with predetermined start- Dorsal perforation 99 Excretion urography 62, 84,
ing point 160,197 Dorsal tissue volume 110 292,321,343
Cutting rate, cutting speed Double-J catheter 380 Extended cut 160, 171, 199,
171 Drain hose 141 220,225,249,328
Depthofcut 169,171,228 Drainage nozzle 141 External meatus 90,94,107
Divided cut 164 Dye test 83 External sphincter 60,99,105,
Entrapment cut 167 Dynamic cystoscopy 296 114,157,189,203,354,387,
Excavating the capsule 170 454
Extended cut 160 Anatomy 114
Retrograde cut 166 ECG 5,60,78,88,351 Faradic stimulation 217
Serial cutting 168 Eczema 84 Hydraulic stimulation 217
Single cut 167 Education 129 Incontinence 115,189,412
Smoothing cut 281 Ejaculate 70 Indwelling catheter 115
Teaspooning 170 Ejaculation, Retrograde 69 Nesbit sign 115
Cystectomy 283, 320 Ejaculatory ducts 173, 179 Postoperative management
Cystitis 87 Electrical circuit 51 of injury 412
Cystography 188,292, 330, Electrical conductivity 55 Rectal palpation 116
411 Electrolytes 89 Sphincter test of Hartung
Cystoscope 11 Electroresection see also Resec- 117
Biopsy forceps 12 tion Sphincter test of Tammen
Coagulation wire 12 Electroresection, transurethral 116
Hooked probe 12 1,193 Stimulation 112
Local anesthesia 12 High frequency current 47 Tammen stimulating unit
Operating channel 12 Suprapubic trocar 145, 149 117
Ureteric catheter 12 Electrotome 21 Extravasation 150
Cystoscopy 62,65,89,294,343 Ellik bulb 19,140,142
see also U rethrocystoscopy Ellik evacuator 31,33,144,
Dynamic 296 154,366 Faradic stimulation of ex-
Median lobe 66 Ellik loop 369 ternal sphincter 115, 207,
Prograde telescope 102 Embolism 352 454
Rectal palpation 301 Emphysema 79 Fatty tissue 177, 182, 450
Urethral stricture 66 Endoscopic instrument see In- Fibrinolytic therapy 81
Vaginal palpation 301 strument Fibromuscular tissue 176
Cystostomy 75,84,148,407 Endoscopy 61, 89 Fluid
Cystotomy 360 Endovesicallaterallobe 230 Absorption toxicity see Irri-
Cystourethrogram see Urethro- Endovesical median lobe 233 gation fluid absorption
cystogram End-viewing telescope see Pro- Intake 406
grade telescope Footswitch 5,27
Davis loop 372 Entrapment cut 167 Forceps 13
Defibrillator 351 Enucleation see Suprapubic Foreign body
Demand pacemaker 350 enucleation of prostatic hy- Bladder calculus 360
Depression 81 perplasia Forceps 13,242
468 Subject Index
Forward-viewing telescope see Hydrocortisone acetate 335, Gas sterilization 46

Prograde telescope 418 Optic 7
Funiculitis 86 Hydrodynamic pressure 151 Requirement 7
Hydrostatic pressure 151 Steam sterilization 46
Gas Hypertension 78 Sterilization 7,38,44
Bubble see Air bubble Hypervolemia 150 Instrument control 206
Detonation 331 Hyponatremia 146,150,406 Bleeding 261
Sterilization 7, 45, 59 Excavation 227
General anesthesia 386 Iglesias resectoscope 35,146 Instrument room 7
Glandular epithelium 436 Illuminated magnifier 42 Instrument set 5
Glass fibers 43 Implantation metastasis 299, Instrumentation, Trauma 98
Glutaraldehyde 44 322 Insulation 16,51,59
Glycine 145 Incision Faults 53, 55, 57
Grading 283 Cold 390,418 Internal meatal stenosis see
Groove see Trench Neck of bladder diverticu- Sphincter sclerosis
lum 333 Internalmeatus 103,107,117,
Heart Ureteric orifice 333 123,203,208,296,311,317,
Failure 352 Incontinence 79,115,189,196, 320,325,329,343,356,432
Valves 352 203,217,318,345,383,391, Small adenoma 118
Helix solution 38 412,442 Sphincter sclerosis 118
Hematuria 65, 68, 291 Cerebrovascular disease 79, Stenosis 166,417
Hemolysis 145 189 Transverse bar 118
Hemorrhage 84 Grading 190 Ureteric orifice 118,126
Coagulation 265 Iatrogenic 383 Internal pudenal artery 256
Irrigating flow 259,263,444 Indwelling catheter 190 Internal sphincter 117, 120,
Parenchymal 26 Injection of Teflon paste 123, 173, 176, 186, 195, 197,
Position of cutting loop 261 191, 383, 391 201,220,230,340,389,434,
Position of instrument 261 Prostatic carcinoma 189 438,440
Prostatic veins 68 Urge incontinence 416 Internal urethrotomy 38,90,
Resection technique 260 Indication for surgery 66 94,244,345,384,398,407,
Resectoscope 259 Indifferent electrode 52, 58, 60 417
Secondary 254,405,413 Indigocarmine 83,297,321, see also Urethrotomy
Vesicoprostatic junction 271 387 Anesthesia 386
Hemostasis see Coagulation Indwelling catheter 67,78,81, Contraindication 387
Hernia 77 83,182,185,190,302,331, Cortisone 387
High frequency cable 28 338,346,349,367,390,399, Hemorrhage 387
High frequency current 5,47, 408,411,414 Operative complications 387
49,351,362,389 see also Catheter Operative technique 386
Bladder tumor 309 Bladder spasm 415 Internal urinary meatus see In-
Cardiac pacemaker 5 Removing 408 ternal sphincter
Urethral stricture 47 Urinary tract infection 83 Interureteric ridge 126
High frequency current genera- Vasectomy 407 Intravenous fluid and electro-
tor 27,60 Indwelling ureteric catheter lyte therapy 89
Blend current 50 369,378 Intravesical pressure 150, 184
Coagulating current 50 see also Ureteric catheter Irrigating pressure 146,151
Cutting current 49 Infection 68,77,83,87,341, Irrigating resectoscope 139,
High frequency diathermy 2, 346,349,352 146,151
10 see also Urinary infection Iglesias 147
High pressure irrigation 150, Bladder calculus 360 Irrigating urethrotome 386
152 Indwelling catheter 87 Reuter
Hookedprobe 12 Prophylaxis 368 Irrigation 135, 150
Hyaluronidase 377 Treatment 68, 87 High pressure 150
Hydraulic hemostasis 149 Inguinal hernia 84 Low pressure 150
Hydraulic lithotripsy 11 Instillation 87 Irrigation flow 233, 245
Hydraulic self-dilatation 388 Instrument 7, 11, 15,38,45 Control 133
Hydraulic sphincter test 115, Cleaning 7,15,38,156 Controlled perforation 327
117,217,454 Disinfection 8, 44 Cutting technique 168
Subject Index 469
Irrigation flow Leusch cuffed obturator 91 Hyperplasia 121,123

Hemorrhage 137,260,263 Light cable 28,43,362 Resection method of Alcock
Irrigation fluid 3, 5, 11,26, 55, Light source 2 and Flocks 239
60,136 Litholapaxy 359 Membranous urethra 90, 92,
Conductivity 55,60 Blind 360 116,243
Drainage 18 Difficulties 367 Mental subnormality 80
Drainage by suprapubic Electrohydraulic 364 Mercier catheter 400
trocar 145 Evacuation 366 Metabolic disorders 61
Evacuation 139 Postoperative care 367 Metal bougie 387,393, 396
Isotonicity 3,27,145 Prostatic hyperplasia 367 May 394
Viscosity 151 Punch lithotrite 359,365 Metal sheath 16
Irrigation fluid absorption 27, Technique 360 Current distribution 54
36,74,136,145,149,152, Ultrasound 359, 361 Metal sound 89
353,386,406 Urat-I 359,363 Microscopic hematuria 415
Complication rate 146 Lithotripsy 13, 30,76,355 Micturition 61,66,72
Continuous irrigation resec- see also Litholapaxy Urethrocystogram 384
toscope 36 Hydraulic 11,31 Mitomycin 322
Death rate 146 Lithotrite 30 Mobilization 82
Isotonicity 27 Forceps 242 Monitoring room 10
Suprapubic aspiration Punch 31 Mortality 73
trocar 36 Ultrasonic 33 Fluid absorption toxicity
Irrigation of the bladder 405 Urat-I 33 146
Irrigation supply 28, 135 Liver Mowing loop 23,312,314,452
Irrigator 135,138,147 Cirrhosis 80 Mucosa 195,446
Irrigator level 136, 152 Damage 80 Mucosal change, pseudopapil-
Isotonic irrigating solution Local anesthesia 12, 15, 75, lary 430
145,386 303,305,308,330,364,386, Mucosal margin 208
Isotonicity 3, 26 415 Muscle
Cystostomy 85 Contraction 214,308,317
Laboratory investigation 66 Loop see Resectoscope loop Fibers 440
Lamina propria 284 Zeiss loop 369 Relaxants 308
Laparotomy 1 Low pressure irrigation 145, Myelitis 344
Laser 147, 150, 152 Myocardial infarct 61,81
Beam 383 Lubricant 17,27,53, 59
Coagulation 36,283, 389, Conductivity 27,55
Navicular fossa 90,95
450 Metal sheat 27
Nelaton catheter 187
Operating cystoscope 36 Teflon sheat 27
Neodyn-Yaglaser 36,388
Surgery to urethral stric- Lubrication 394
Nesbit sign 115,428
tures 388 Luer-lock connection 14,16
Nesbit technique 164
Late complications 416 Lymphangiography 293
Nesbit's trench 220
Laterallobe 65,99,101,110,
201,428,432,442,444 Malignant grade 283,331
Commissure 106 Maquet operating table 2,142 Obesity 82
Covered verumontanum 111 Marking trench 171,197,229, Obstruction of urine flow 292
Dorsal tissue volume 110 246,248 Obturator 13, 15, 18, 91, 93,
Endovesical 230 Massive hemorrhage 270 385
Hyperplasia 122 Meatal stenosis 90 Hinged 18
Perforation 99 Meatotomy 386 Leusch 21, 97
Relationship to verumon- Median bar 340 Nerve 308,317,330
tanum 113,122 see also Sphincter sclerosis Schmiedt 21,98
Resection method of Alcock Median lobe 65,74,93,105, Straight 18
and Flocks 239 111, 198, 428, 434 Timberlake 184
Resection method of Barnes Blood supply 234, 257 Viewing 18
237 Curvature of the urethra 93, Operating cystoscope 11, 13
Leakage current 16 185 Laser 36
Leeches 408 Dorsal tissue volume 111 Operating instrument after
Leukemia 81 Endovesical 233 Engberg 15
470 Subject Index
Operating room 2 Peristalsis 376 Litholapaxy 367

Instrument room 7 Piston syringe 155 Resection of bleeding ad-
Recovery area 10 Plastic Tiemann catheter 394 enomas 355
Operating table 5 Posture 131,133,201 Trilobe 122,430
Foot switch 5 Preliminary disinfection 38 Prostatic size
Funnel 5,18,140 Preoperative requirements 61 Bladder neck length 107
Operating unit 1,10 Preoperative treatment 82 Ultrasound 107
Operating urethroscope after Prepuce 87 Prostatic tuberculosis 70, 349
Sachse 37 Pressure wave litholapaxy 363, Prostatic urethra 97
Operative mortality 73 365 Prostatic veins 68
Optic see Telescope Prismatic teaching attach- Prostatitis 70, 348
Orientation 99 ments 28,30 Pseudodiverticulum 63,153,
Orifice see Ureteric orifice Prograde ejaculation 390 241,366
Otis 383 Prograde telescope 102, 121, Pseudohemostasis 275
Urethrotome 76,88,94 124 Psychosis 80
Urethrotomy 89 Prostate Pulmonary disease 79
Arterial blood supply 255 Pulmonary edema 413
Pacemaker 350 Biopsy 62, 70 Punch biopsy 70, 348
Pacemaker circuit Endourethral hyperplasia Forceps 13
Resection circuit 351 62,64 Punch litholapaxy 365
Pacemaker ECG 351 Endovesical hyperplasia 62, Ellik evacuator 144
Palliative resection 328, 339, 64 Punch lithotripsy see Punch
349,355,418 Prostatectomy see Suprapubic litholapaxy
Papillary tumors of the prosta- enucleation of prostatic hy- Punch lithotrite 31,355,359,
tic urethra 354 perplasia 361,364,365
Papillomatosis 217, 354 Prostatic abscess 70, 174, 176, Ellik evacuator 31
Paracollicular region 202 180,440 Mauermayer 31
Paraurethral abscess 76,87, Irrigator height 136 Rubberbulb 31
407 Resection 347 Punch resection 176
Cystostomy 86 Prostatic adenoma see Prostatic
Parenchymatous bleeding 265, hyperplasia Radiologic investigation 62,
340 Prostatic apex 131, 173,203, 88,292
Pelvic angiogram 293 205,207,209,211,213,215, Rasp Technique of Reuter 246
Penile clamp 190 240,338,411,444,446 Reactionary hemorrhage see
Penile urethra 90, 95 Prostatic artery 255 Hemorrhage, secondary
Perforation 1,99,150,166, Prostatic calculus 70, 173, 179, Recovery area 10
173,176,180,216,326,329, 211,216,346,442 Rectalpalpation 61,70,110,
345,450 Prostatic capsule 176,440 113, 116, 347
Controlled 321, 326, 450 Perforation 99,176,180 Rectal support 185,199,204,
Covered 182 Tissue 173,438 206,213,221,223,240,267,
Dorsal 99 Prostatic carcinoma 62, 77, 341
Extraperitoneal 330,411 142,172,178,189,217,337, Rectal surgery 353
Fatty tissue 326 349,438 Rectal tumor 178
Free 182,329,450 Electroresection 337 Rectoscopy 62
Gas detonation 331 Hemorrhage 338 Recurrent of prostatic hyper-
Intraperitoneal 191,329, Infiltration of the bladder plasia 418
411 340 Reflux 189,322,379,381,412,
Postoperative management Verumontanum 112 452
411 Prostatic cavity 195, 198 Renal insufficiency 80, 83
Subtrigonal 99,173,181, Prostatic gland 428 Repeat resection 410
184 Prostatic hyperplasia Resection
Threatened 181 Bladder calculus 355, 360 see also Electroresection
Ventral 99 Bladder diverticulum 354 Duration 74
Vesicoprostatic junction Bladder tumor 356 Resection chips 175,225,241
121,173,231 Endourethral 118 Evacuation 139,148,153,
Perineal urethrotomy 76, 93, Endovesical 120 241,245
131 Large 217, 244 Largefree fragment 241
Subject Index 471
Resection circuit 351 Resectoscope loop 157, 162, Sphincter sclerosis 26,69,75,
Resection technique 129 167,428 118,172,177,197,340,383,
Adenoma, large 217,244 Air bubbles 145 389,417,436,438,454
Adenoma, small 197 Size 169 Retrograde cut 166, 436
Bladder calculus 355 Resectoscope sheat 16,157, Treatment 390,417
Bladder diverticulum 354 160, 162 Sphincter test 112,205,217,
Bleeding adenoma 355 Insulation 16, 53 220,341
Blood loss 218 Metal sheat 16 Faradic sphincter test of
Cutting technique 157 Teflon sheat 16 Tammen and Hartung 115,
Endovesicallaterallobe 230 Residual urine 63,67, 83, 333, 189,338,454
Endovesical median lobe 346,409 Hydraulic sphincter test of
233 Respiratory failure 79 Hartung 115,338,454
Excavating the cavity 223, Retention of urine 67,80,83, Steam sterilization 7,45
225 355 Step cystogram 292, 297
Final inspection 241 Retrograde coagulating cysto- Sterile irrigation supply 3
Hemostasis 246,251 scope 14 Sterilization 5,7, 38,44
Laterallobe 200 Retrograde cut 166, 205, 436 Ureteric catheter 378
Marking groove 197,246 Retrograde ejaculation 69, Stern-McCarthy resectoscope
Muscular contraction 214 317,347 16,213
Outflow obstruction in the Retrograde-viewing telescope Stimulating unit, Tammen 116
female bladder 341 11,100,104,125,296,448 Stress incontinence 190, 383,
Palliative resection 349 Lateral lobe hyperplasia 122 391
Papillary tumors of the pros- Median lobe hyperplasia Suprapubic catheterization 67,
tatic urethra 354 121 76,80,83,85,87
Prostatic abscess 347 Retroprostatic recess 104,124, Suprapubic cystostomy 338
Prostatic apex 203, 208, 153,197,233,246,355 Suprapubic drainage 245
215 Retropubic prostatectomy 76 Suprapubic drainage trocar
Prostatic calculi 216, 346 Retzius' cavity 326 139
Prostatic carcinoma 337 Reuter trocar 36 Suprapubic enucleation of pros-
Prostatic tuberculosis 349 Ricochet bleeding 268 tatic hyperplasia 74,76, 120,
Prostatitis 348 Risk of surgery 67, 73, 78 124,244,356
Rectal support 213 Rubber bulb 144,245,366 Bladder calculus 360
Sphincter sclerosis 340 Bladder neck stenosis 389
Technique of Alcock and Hemostasis 254
Flocks 238, 256 Sachse operating urethroscope Small adenoma 197
Technique of Barnes 236 37 Suprapubic prostatectomy see
Technique of Iglesias 245 Sachse operating urethrotome Suprapubic enucleation of
Technique of Nesbit 218, 418 prostatic hyperplasia
247,256 Sachse urethrotome 97,385 Suprapubic puncture see Cys-
Wobble test 211 Scythe loop see Mowing loop tostomy
Resection time 150, 170 Secondary hemorrhage see Suprapubic trocar 145
Resectoscope 15, 24, 244 Hemorrhage, secondary Suspensory ligament of the
Ball electrode 24 Self dilatation, hydraulic 388 penis 77,93
Biopsy forceps 24 Seminal vesicle 179,442
Central cock 18,24 Serial cutting 168 Teaching attachment 30,192,
Continuous irrigation resec- Sheath see Resectoscope sheath 247,421
toscope 35 Shock-wave lithotripsy 13 Teaspooning 170,249
Cutting loop 24 Silastic catheter 388 Teflon injection 191,383,391
Electrotome 21,24 Silver nitrate solution 305,322 Operative technique 392
Engberg 12,15 Simple ulcer 335 Teflon sheat 16
Holding 130,214 Single cut 167,225 Current distribution 55
Irrigation inlet 17 Smoothing cut 281 Lubricant 17
Irrigation supply 135 Sodium bisulfite 44 Telescope 7, 11,24,26, 100,
Loop control 21 Spermatic cord 86 206,294
Mowing loop 24 Sphincter see also External 0° 102
Obturator 18 sphincter and Internal 90° 100
Telescope 24, 26 sphincter Cleaning 41
472 Subject Index
Diagnostic 103 Trocar 36 Trauma 14,18,90,91,98,

Hemorrhage 101 Cystostomy 84 170,397
Prograde 100, 102 Drainage 148,245 Urethral abscess 387
Retrograde 11, 100, 104 Tuberculosis 70 Urethral anesthesia 394
Viewing direction 100 Tumor base, size 298 Urethral artery 234
Thiotepa 322 TUR syndrome 146,150,152, Urethral cleft 108
Three-way cock 15 277 Urethral crest 105,115,216,
Thromboplastin activity 352 Postoperative management 428,430,446
Thromboembolic disease 81 412 Urethral fistula 387
Thrombophlebitis 82 Renal function 146 Urethral stone 387
Thrombosis 352 Urethral stricture 37,47,53,
Tiemann catheter 93,187,399, Ultrasound 294 55,59,65,74,76,88,91,383,
401 Ultrasound generator 362 416
Tilting loop 370, 375 Ultrasound litholapaxy 359, Bouginage 383
Timberlake obturator 92, 184 361 Cold incision 37
Tissue differentiation 172, 205, Anesthesia 364 Diagnosis 384
434,438 Technique 362 Endoscopic laser surgery
Adenoma tissue 174 Ultrasound lithotrite 361 383,388
Apex 211 Urat probe 13,33 Insulation fault 55
Bladder muscle 177 Urat stone 379 Lubricant 53
Bladder tumor 178, 284 Urat-I litholapaxy 360,363 Metal sheat 54
Ejaculatory ducts 179 Anesthesia 363 Otis urethrotome 76, 88
Fatty tissue 177 Technique 363 Plastic correction 384
Fibromuscular tissue 176 Urat-I lithotrite 33,359,363 Reconstructive operation 76
Hyperplastic tissue 173 Uremia 83 Suspensory ligament of the
Internal sphincter 176 Ureteric calculus penis 77
Papillary urethra tumor 178 Extraction 369 Teflon sheat 55
Perforation Ureteric catheter 12,187,297, Urethrotomy 88
Covered 182 321,369,373,378,394,396, Urethrotomy under vision
Free 182 452 76,384
Subtrigonal 184 Double-l 380 Urethral tumor 383
Threatened 181 Fixation 379 Coagulation 383
Prostatic abscess 176, 180 Indication 379 Endoscopic surgery 389
Prostatic calculi 179 Reflux 381 Urethrectomy 389
Prostatic capsule 173, 176 Side effects 381 Urethritis 87,407
Prostatic carcinoma 178, Sterilization 378 Urethrocystogram 61,63,190,
438 Ureteric orifice 103, 124, 160, 231,293,347,390,393,417
Rectal tumor 178 233,241,292,297,321 Seminal vesicle 179
Seminal vesicle 179 Incision 333,377 Urethral stricture 384
Sphincter sclerosis 177 Injury 188,412 U rethrocystoscopy 62, 89
Tumor of the female genita- Internal meatus 118,126 see also Cystoscopy
lia 178 Stenosis 321 Urethroscope 37,395
Transitional cell carcinoma Tumor resection 321, 452 Urethroscopy 13,390
285 Ureteric peristalsis 376 Urethral stricture 384
Transurethraladenomectomy Urethra 63,383,393 Urethrotome 383
193 Bouginage 89,383, 393 Urethrotome blade 15
Transurethral electro resection Curvature 63,89,92 Urethrotomy 38,81,90
see Electroresection, transur- Endoscopic surgery 383 see also Internal urethrotomy
ethral External meatus 90 Sachse 98
Transurethral resection syn- External sphincter 65 Perineal urethrotomy 5,76,
drome see TUR syndrome Instillation 407 93,244
Transverse bar 69, 105, 118, Meatal stenosis 90 Urethrotomy under vision see
197,428 Narrowings 89 Viewing urethrotomy
Trench 179,218,221,225,234, Papillary tumor 112, 178, Urge incontinence 416
238,246,248,257,436 354 Urinal 190
Trigone 125,184 Perforation 345 Urinalysis 66
Trilobe hyperplasia 122 Stenosis 345 Urinary bladder see Bladder
Subject Index 473
Urinary incontinence see Incon- Irrigation flow 260 Sachse 38,97,385

tinence Venous sinus 145,179,278, Viewing urethrotomy 15, 38,
Urinary infection 77,79,83, 444 76,97,454
87,241,342,419 Closure 280 Indication 384
see also Infection Irrigator height 136 Instillation 388
Bladder calculus 77 Ventral cutting position 133 Postoperative treatment 388
Management 406 Ventral lobe 133
Urinary infection, recurrent 68 Ventral perforation 99 Waldeyer's sheath 321,452
Urinary symptoms 291,342, Ventral plateau 218 Water
418 Ventral tissue 201 Connection 14,16,362
Following rectal surgery 353 Ventricular fibrillation 350 Decontamination 3
Urodynamic investigation 69, Verumontanum 101,105,107, Intoxication 146, 150
150,343 110,158,162,189,194,197, Wet disinfection 39,44
Uroflowmeter of Tammen 203,219,338,428,430,438, Wire probe 417
344,409 442,446,448,454 Wobble test 203, 211
Uroflowmetry 62,69,344,346 Covered 111
Urethral stricture 384 Free-standing 110
Urogenital diaphragm 92,98 Laterallobe 113,122 YV plasty of the bladder neck
Urogenital tuberculosis 349 Papillary tumor of the pros- 418
Utriculus 105, 112,428 tatic urethra 112,217
Prostatic carcinoma 112, Zeiss loop 369
Varicose veins 82 217 Calculus extraction 375
Varicosity 432 Rectal palpation 112,216 Coiling 371
Vas deferens 86 Vesicoprostatic angle 182 Indication 370
Vascular prosthesis 352 Video transmission 139,425 Introducing 372
Vasectomy 5,77,84,86,407 Viewing angle 100 Perforation 377
Epididymitis 408 Viewing obturator 13,18,185 Peristalsis 376
Venous bleeding 277 Schmiedt 98 Size of calculus 370
Catheter 402 Viewing urethrotome 38, 383, Urinary infection 377
Detection 278 390 Zierer disc 404

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W.

Foreword by Willard E. Goodwin

With 240 Figures and 14 Color Plates

ISBN-13: 978-3-642-81911-7 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-81909-4

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

ROGER W. BARNES, RUBIN H. FLOCKS, and REED M. NESBIT

who guided my first steps in transurethral urology

Los Angeles WILLARD E. GOODWIN

The first monographs by ROGER W. BARNES and REED M. NESBIT both

A further reason lies in the difficulty of adequately describing transurethral

I am indebted to NANCY CLIFF-NEUMULLER for the large number of diagrams

Munich WOLFGANG MAUERMAYER

Chapter A. Operating Facilities for Transurethral Surgery

Chapter B. Instruments and Their Care 11

I. Instruments for Transurethral Surgery 11

6. The Continuous Irrigation Resectoscope 35

Chapter C. Preoperative Requirements 61

I. Assessment of the Patient 61

3. Rare Indications for Transurethral Surgery 70

3. The Treatment of Urinary Infections . . . . 87

IV. Preoperative Endoscopy 89

8) The Topographic Relationship of Verumontanum and Distal Extremity of the

Chapter D. General Resection Technique 129

Cutting Methods and Techniques 129

c) The Extended Cut 160

V. The Recognition of Individual Tissues During Surgery 172

VI. Accidental Injuries . . 180

Chapter E. Special Resection Technique 193

I. General Considerations . . . . . 193

6. Barnes' Method . . . . . . . . . 236

Chapter F. Hemostatic Technique . . . . . . . 251

I. Blood Loss During Transurethral Prostatic Surgery 251

II. Arterial Bleeding 254

IV. Final Inspection of Hemostasis 280

Chapter G. Transurethral Bladder Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

Chapter H. Special Resection Procedures Around the Bladder Neck 337

e) How Much to Resect? 339

Chapter I. Litholapaxy 359

I. Preliminary Considerations 359

c) Hazards of the Technique . . . . . . . . 363

1. Extracting Ureteric Calculi with Endoscopic Instruments 369

Chapter L. Endoscopic Procedures in the Urethra. By R. Hartung 383

IV. Endoscopic Surgery for Urethral Tumors 389

Chapter M. Urethral Dilatation 393

I. Preliminary Considerations 393

Chapter N. Postoperative Management . . . . . . 399

I. Management Following Normal Conclusion of Surgery 399

9. Assessing the Result . . 409

Chapter O. Learning and Teaching Transurethral Operative Technique 421

Color Plates 427

Subject Index 465

Transurethral surgery should be undertaken in a specially designed and equipped

II. The Operating Suite for a Transurethral Unit

Special attention should be paid to the immunity of ECG equipment to

2. The Anesthetic Room

Whenever possible, anesthesia should be induced in a special anteroom in which

are administered from a small, wall-mounted apparatus, thus obviating the

3. The Instrument Room

The cleaning, maintenance and sterilization of endoscopic instruments requires

Steam and gas

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