Municipal Waste Management in Namibia:

The Windhoek Case Study

by

Raili Hasheela

October 2009

Universidad Azteca
 Municipal Waste Management in Namibia:
The Windhoek Case Study

Dissertation Thesis for the

Doctorate of Philosophy in Management
Management
with specialisation in
Environmental Management

by

Raili Hasheela

October 2009

Supervisor: Professor Gerhard Berchtold

Universidad Azteca

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Dissertation Examination Commission:
Commission:

DDr. Gerhard Berchtold, PGDipEDM, MBA, MPA, MA, PhD

Full Professor
Head of the School of Environmental and Waste Management
Dean of European Programmes

Dipl.-Ing. Dr. Helmut Ogulin, MBA

CEO of Baufeld Austria
Chairman of the Executive Committee of the branch of waste and waste water
management in the Federal Economic Chamber of Austria and in the Viennese
Economic Chamber
Assistant Professor

Dipl.-Ing. Dr. Peter Hodecek, MBA

CEO of AVE Czech Republic
CSO of AVE International
Head of the Legislative Working Group of the branch of waste and waste water
management in the Federal Economic Chamber of Austria
Assistant Professor

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DECLARATION

I, Raili Hasheela hereby declare that this research is my original work which to the
best of my knowledge has not been submitted to any other university for the
purpose of awarding a degree. Where the work of other authors has been used, it
has duly been acknowledged.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to give special thanks to my supervisor Professor Gerhard
Berchtold for his mentorship, support and motivation during the course of the programme.

This work could not have been possible without my parents’ financial support; therefore I
am acknowledging them for their generosity, understanding and care. I am also
particularly thanking them for their moral support and encouragement. I am further
extending my appreciation to my siblings for their support and encouragement.

I would also like to give thanks to my friends for support and encouragement, and to give
special thanks to Mr Leonard Haindongo for his assistance with data collection.

Many thanks to my respondents from the following town municipalities and councils for
their valuable contributions to my research: Lüderitz Town Council, Mariental Town
Municipality, Ongwediva Town Council, Ondangwa Town Council, Oshakati Town
Council, Otjiwarongo Municipality, Swakopmund Municipality, Windhoek Municipality, as
well as the Oranjemund Town Management Company.

I am also giving special thanks to various people from the entire Department of
Infrastructure, Water and Waste Management under the City of Windhoek, who did not
hesitate to share necessary information with me when needed. Moreover, I would like to
thank those representatives from various organizations and institutions who allowed me to
engage with them in discussions concerning waste management in Windhoek and
Namibia at large.

Above all, I would like to thank God for giving me strength, courage and wisdom until I
finished this programme.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ......................................................................................................3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................4
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..........................................................................................5
SUMMARY............................................................................................................ 10
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS................................................................... 19
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 21
1.1. Background.................................................................................................... 21
1.2. Problem Statement ........................................................................................ 23
1.3. Research Aim ................................................................................................ 24
1.4. Objectives ...................................................................................................... 24
1.6. Methodology .................................................................................................. 25
1.6.1. Research Design ..................................................................................... 25
1.6.2. Data Collection Strategy.......................................................................... 26
1.6.3. Sampling Design ..................................................................................... 27
1.6.4. Data Analysis .......................................................................................... 27
1.7. Limitations to the Research............................................................................ 27
1.8. Research Ethics............................................................................................. 28
CHAPTER 2: THEORIES OF WASTE MANAGEMENT ....................................... 29
2.1. Introduction .................................................................................................... 29
2.2. Fundamental Principles of Waste Management............................................. 31
2.2.1. Waste Management Hierarchy ................................................................ 33
2.2.1.1. Waste Prevention.............................................................................. 34
2. 2.1.2. Recycling and Re-use of Waste Materials ....................................... 35
2.2.1.3. Waste Treatment ..............................................................................35
2.2.1.4. Waste Disposal ................................................................................. 37
2.2.2. Waste Management Priorities ................................................................. 38
2.3. Responsibilities over Waste ........................................................................... 43
2.3.1. Role Players in Waste Management ....................................................... 43

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 2.3.2. Legal Framework..................................................................................... 45
2.3.2.1. Policies, Laws and Regulations ........................................................ 45
2.3.2.2. International Agreements and Conventions ...................................... 49
2.4. Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 51
CHAPTER 3: NAMIBIA ......................................................................................... 53
3.1. Introduction .................................................................................................... 53
3.2. Socio-economic Situation in Namibia............................................................. 54
3.3. Namibia’s Efforts towards National Development .......................................... 57
3.4. Waste Management in Namibia ..................................................................... 59
3.4.1. Overview ................................................................................................. 59
3.4.2. Municipal Waste Management ................................................................ 66
3.4.3. Legal Framework..................................................................................... 75
3.5. Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 80
CHAPTER 4: MUNICIPAL WASTE MANAGEMENT IN WINDHOEK................... 84
4.1. Introduction .................................................................................................... 84
4.2. Waste Prevention within the Windhoek Municipal Area ................................. 85
4.3. Waste Collection ............................................................................................ 89
4.4. Waste Disposal .............................................................................................. 90
4.5. Waste Recycling ............................................................................................ 99
4.6. Waste Treatment ......................................................................................... 103
4.7. Waste Auditing............................................................................................. 105
4.8. Legal Framework ......................................................................................... 108
4.9. Conclusion ................................................................................................... 111
Chapter 5: Areas of Improvement and Recommendations ................................. 113
5.1. Introduction .................................................................................................. 113
5.2. Waste Generation and Statistics..................................................................114
5.3. Waste Prevention......................................................................................... 118
5.4. Waste Recycling .......................................................................................... 119
5.5. Waste Treatment ......................................................................................... 121
5.6. Monitoring .................................................................................................... 123

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5.7. Legal Frameworks ....................................................................................... 125
5.8. Conclusion ................................................................................................... 125
Chapter 6: Possible Waste Management System for Urban Namibia................. 128
6.1. Introduction .................................................................................................. 128
6.1. Estimation of waste indicators...................................................................... 128
6.2. Waste Management Systems ...................................................................... 133
6.2. Waste management system used in Windhoek and its potential of
improvement ....................................................................................................... 134
6.2. Conclusion ................................................................................................... 140
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION .............................................................................. 141
9. APPENDIX I: RESEARCH STUDY QUESTIONNAIRE ON MUNICIPAL WASTE
MANAGEMENT IN NAMIBIA .............................................................................. 160

TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. Waste management hierarchy ............................................................ 33

Figure 2.2: Four priorities of waste management.................................................. 41
Figure 2.3. Five steps of ISO 14001 .................................................................... 42
Figure 3.1: The ‘3R Principle’ Hierarchy ............................................................. 633
Figure 3.2: Principles of Waste Management in Namibia ................................... 755
Figure 4.1. A 240L wheelie bin for storing household and commercial waste..... 866
Figure 4.2. A skip container for storing waste that cannot be stored in wheelie bins
and waste generated in open spaces ................................................................... 87
Figure 4.3. Average amounts of building rubbles and garden refuse disposed of at
the six satellite sites in 2008 ................................................................................. 96
Figure 4.4. Diagramatical representation of waste compositions at Kupferberg . 988
Figure 5.1. Relationship between the environment and the supply chain ........... 121

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Figure 6.1. Fractions of the different types of waste disposed of at the landfill sites
in Windhoek ........................................................................................................ 130
Figure 6.2. Diagrammatical representation of the possible system of waste
management for urban Namibia...................................................................... 13037

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1. Waste management terminologies definitions...................................... 31

Table 2.2: EU regulations related to the prevention and management of waste
............................................................................Fehler!
Fehler! Textmarke nicht definiert.8
definiert.
Table 2.3. Examples of International Conventions of relevance to waste
management ......................................................................................................... 50
Table 3.1: Gross Domestic Product by Sector: Percentage contribution ............ 555
Table 3.2. Industries that have a stake in waste management in Namibia ........... 61
Table 3.3. Identified stakeholders in various towns in Namibia............................. 62
Table 3.4. Some of the waste management companies in Namibia ................... 655
Table 3.5. Sewage treatment types used in the towns of Namibia........................ 68
Table 3.6. Types of wastes being recycled, re-used and treated in various towns of
Namibia................................................................................................................. 70
Table 3.7. Water, toilet and garbage data by region ............................................. 72
Table 3.8. Environmental law principles used in various towns of Namibia ........ 788
Table 3.9. Some of the relevant legal frameworks to waste management in
Namibia................................................................................................................. 80
Table 4.1. Types and sources of hazardous waste............................................... 87
Table 4.2. Amount of waste disposed of at the Kupferberg landfill site in 2008 .. 954
Table 4.3. Contents of solid waste in Windhoek ................................................. 966
Table 4.4. Waste compositions disposed of at Kupferberg in 2008 ...................... 97
Table 4.5. Waste indicators obtained from various waste streams in 2008 .......... 98
Table 4.6. Some of the recycling companies in Windhoek.................................. 101

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Table 4.7. Average weights of waste generated by different income groups in
Windhoek .......................................................................................................... 1066
Table 4.8. Laws, policies and regulations applicable to the City of Windhoek and
Namibia at large................................................................................................ 1099
Table 6.1. Estimated total waste generated in 2008 at town level ...................... 132
Table 6.2. Waste management system used in Windhoek and its potentia for
improvement ..................................................................................................... 1324

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SUMMARY

This research attempted to answer the following question:

How can Namibia maintain a well-managed system for municipal waste
management in future?

At the national level, the environment is threatened by unsafe waste disposal,

which is detrimental to the environmental integrity and posing health hazards.
Waste management is important aspect of environmental management in
Namibia, due to the fact that waste is a threat to the integrity of the environment.
Waste is among the so called ‘brown problems’, which strongly affects poor people
in urban areas. Challenges for managing waste in Namibia are: lack of
institutional capacities in some towns to deal with some of the serious waste
problems, limited capacity to manage waste and to control pollution, and financial
constraints.

The disposal of solid and liquid wastes is a concern in Namibia, especially that
waste has some implications in sustainable development. Therefore waste
management has become a concern for the Namibian government. The study
presented herein has investigated the current status of municipal waste
management in Namibia, using Windhoek as a case study. Namibian towns,
especially Windhoek are challenged by the increasing population, the link between
waste and socio-economic development, as well as increasing amounts of waste
generated which puts pressure on disposal facilities. At the moment, some town
management systems seem to be ineffective in addressing waste management for
the purpose of preventing and minimizing waste in order to reduce environmental
impacts that may result due to increasing waste volumes. It was deemed
necessary to develop a waste management system that could be implemented by

10
all towns. Moreover, sound waste management needs to be encouraged in
Namibia.
The overall aim of this research was to investigate how waste is being managed at
the municipal level in Namibia, in order to recommend a possible system for
handling waste across urban Namibia in future. The methodology employed for
this research comprised of: literature survey, use of questionnaire, personal
interviews, on-site data gathering and data analysis. The researcher worked
closely with various town municipalities in Namibia in order to get an idea of how
waste is being managed at the municipal level. The towns where the surveys were
conducted are: Lüderitz, Mariental, Oshakati, Ongwediva, Ondangwa,
Oranjemund, Otjiwarongo, Swakopmund and Windhoek. The researcher
conducted an empirical research that is both qualitative and quantitative,
presenting original research findings. As part of the design, a case study research
was used as an approach to establish an understanding of the concerned situation
(waste management at the municipal level) by being focused on Windhoek instead
of generalizing. Primary data were collected for this research; however, secondary
data from past studies were also used for the purpose of quantification. For the
purpose of selecting the study population, the stratified purposive sampling
method was used. Out of 31 towns of Namibia, 11 (35.5%) were selected, of which
only 9 (29.03%) actively participated in the research. Such a proportion was
deemed valid because it gave an idea of how waste is managed in Namibia in
general, particularly because a case study research design was also involved,
which presented a broader view on waste management systems. This helped the
researcher to achieve the research aim. To analyze the data, the researcher
summarized the qualitative data collected from various towns, which helped to
understand them better and interpret them. In terms of quantitative data, the
researcher gathered numerical data, particularly with respect to waste generation,
from which waste indicators were calculated. This information helped the
researcher to propose a waste management system for Namibia and to answer
the research question.

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However, the researcher could not obtain data on industrial and commercial
waste, since they are handled by private companies. Such information is not
publicly shared. Overall, waste is handled by a wide range of stakeholders i.e.
those individuals, authorities, institutions and organizations that have a stake in
waste production and management. It is also important to realize that handling of
waste is a legal issue as far as waste management is concerned. Therefore
policies, laws are regulations are developed to regulate waste management at the
national, regional and international levels

The definitions of waste as a single term vary from country to country. In the
Namibian context, waste is referred to as any matter whether gaseous, solid or
liquid or any combination thereof, which is from time to time listed by the Minister
by notice in the Gazette or by regulation as an undesirable or superfluous by-
product, emission, residue or a remainder of any process or activity (EMA, 2007).
The following waste management strategies are implemented in efforts to manage
waste and for the purpose of reducing the environmental impacts of waste: 1)
prevention of waste generation, 2) waste recovery (recycling, re-use and waste
treatment) and 3) disposal of waste in an environmentally safe manner. This is
referred to as the waste management hierarchy, and it emphasizes that waste
prevention should be an ultimate goal for any approach to waste management;
after which the other options (recycling, re-use and treatment) can follow. Waste
management being one of the approaches to environmental management should
be aiming towards sustainable development, the development that aims to meet
the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generation to
meet their own needs through sustainable use of natural resources.

The management of waste is now moving towards a more holistic and sustainable
approach, with much emphasis being placed on the environmental impacts of
waste materials and products throughout their lifetimes. Sustainable use of

12
resources as an approach to waste management is promoted by the Namibian
Environmental Management Act No. 7 of 2007. As a result of this approach,
volumes of waste generated are reduced through improved waste prevention
measures, improved resource efficiency and a shift to more sustainable
consumption patterns. With responsible waste management stakeholders and
legal frameworks in place, implementation of waste management strategies can
be a success story.

Municipal waste is the waste collected by municipalities independently of the

source of waste. It includes waste originated from households, small businesses,
institutions and communities. Knowing the statistics on municipal waste being
produced and managed from various sources of origin is therefore essential for the
purpose of monitoring, decision-making as well as for the development of waste
policies.

In terms of recycling, at least 88.9% of the towns that were surveyed practice
recycling of waste materials. Those are mainly the towns that have recycling
companies or projects. The towns that do not have recycling companies do a local
collection of waste materials that are sent to other towns or abroad for recycling.
Although re-use is one of the waste recovery strategies, not all towns use it.
Treatment of waste as a waste management principle is practiced in all the towns
that were contacted for this study. The common type of waste being treated is
wastewater/sewage. Apart from wastewater treatment, medical waste is also
treated in Oranjemund and Windhoek through incineration. In Windhoek,
incineration of medical waste is done by the Ministry of Health and Social
Services, after which the Windhoek Municipality takes care of the residue.

In all the towns that were contacted, there are organized methods of collecting
waste from households, which are transported to landfill sites for disposal.
Noteworthy, the landfills differ in types, sizes and in potentials to threaten the

13
environment. Waste materials being disposed of at the disposal sites in various
towns include: household waste, building rubbles, garden refuse, industrial waste,
hospital waste and general waste. Hazardous waste is disposed of at specially
engineered landfill sites. Given the fact that handling of waste is a legal issue, the
Environmental Management Act of Namibia has set a law that no waste should be
discarded at any waste disposal site that has not been declared or approved by
the Minister of Environment and Tourism.

Namibia´s economy depends largely on the wealth and exploitation of natural

resources. Thus it is important to promote sound environmental management,
which is essential for the protection of resources. South environmental
management is also necessary for reducing negative environmental impacts and
in fact for economic growth. In terms of the socio-economy, high unemployment,
poverty, income inequality, pandemic HIV and AIDS, and lack of skills are the
major challenges in Namibia.

In essence, waste should be managed in Namibia in order to reduce waste

generation and to avoid negative environmental impacts. This is mainly due to the
increasing population and economic activities, which play a role in waste
generation. Waste management in Namibia is a responsibility of all residents, local
authorities, government ministries, private sector and businesses. This study has
identified a number of waste management stakeholders identified in different
towns of Namibia. Nevertheless, waste management remains a priority for the
government, with different government ministries being involved in formulating
policies and strategies for dealing with waste and its management. The municipal
waste is handled by town municipalities and councils, with support from private
contractors.

The Division of Solid Waste Management within the City of Windhoek is

acknowledged for keeping Windhoek the cleanest town in Africa. It ensures that

14
all waste generated is collected, transported and disposed of. Waste generated
from households is collected by this division. Business waste is collected by both
the Solid Waste Management Division and private companies, while the waste
generated from industrial areas and from open spaces is specifically collected by
individual contractors and private companies.

In terms of waste disposal in Windhoek, there are six general landfill sites that are
referred to as ‘satellite sites’. Garden refuse and building rubbles are disposed of
at those sites. The satellite sites located in various locations within the Windhoek
municipal area, namely: Havana, Khomasdal, Pioneerspark, Eros, Olympia and
Ludwigsdorf. Approximately 169,915.4 tons (84,957.2 m3) of building rubbles and
26,442.23 tons (88,170.75 m3) of garden refuse were disposed of at the satellite
sites in 2008. On average approximately 14,159.54 tons (7079.77 m3) of building
rubbles and 2,204.27 tons (7347.56 m3) of garden refuse were disposed of per
month. In addition, approximately 119,916 tons (59,958 m3) of sand and fill were
disposed there in 2008, with an average of 10,970 tons (5,485 m3) disposed per
month.

Apart from the disposal of garden waste and building rubbles, general and
hazardous wastes are disposed of at a specially engineered landfill site known as
Kupferberg that is located about 11 km from the city centre. At this site, two
separate cells are used for the purpose of waste disposal. The general wastes
generated from households, commercial and industrial activities are disposed of in
the general cell; while the hazardous wastes are disposed of in the hazardous cell.
In order to prevent any leakage of leachate from contaminating the soil and ground
water, the site is lined with some layers. This study has found that roughly an
amount of 229.48 kg of the general waste was disposed per capita per year in
2008, while the amount of hazardous waste disposed per capita per year was 16.8
kg.

15
Recycling as a waste management strategy is practiced in Windhoek. Various
recyclable materials are collected from the landfill sites, including: papers, cartons,
plastics, glasses and cans. These are compacted and weighed, then transported
to the recycling companies. The recycling companies have to ensure that all
recyclable materials are semi-processed, after which they are packaged and send
to South Africa for recycling, since there is currently no recycling plant in Namibia.
The recyclable materials collected at the Kupferberg landfill site have been divided
into fractions as shown in the diagram below. Approximately 55% of the general
waste is made up of non-recyclable materials, however, there is a potential for
recycling other types of waste, for example, garden refuse that is accidentally
disposed there. The diagram below presents the fractions of the recyclable
materials being disposed of at Kupferberg, compared with the amount of non-
recyclable materials.

9%

14%

Paper
4% Glass
55%
Metal
6%
Carton
4% Plastics (hard)
7% Plastics (soft)
1%
Wood
Non-recyclables

Recently a recycling initiative has been started in Windhoek, that is being

managed by the private sector. Such an initiative could potentially be replicated in
other towns, however challenges associated with costs and transport have been
experienced.

Wastewater treatment in Windhoek is essential, particularly because water is a

scarce commodity. For this reason, the City of Windhoek has adopted a policy of
treating wastewater in order to meet the water demand needs. Currently there are

16
three water treatment plants in Windhoek, which are used to treat wastewater for
consumption. At least 35% of drinking water in Windhoek is reclaimed.

Waste auditing is one of the important practical aspects of waste management.

The City of Windhoek conducts waste audits a bi-annual basis. Based on the
household waste audits performed in 2004 and 2008, the average amount of
waste generated per person per day was 0.37 kg and 0.49 kg respectively.
However, according to the waste data collected from Windhoek households
between July 2006 and March 2007, the amount of waste generated per person
per day ranges between 0.604 – 0.813 kg, which is quite high and is expected to
increase. Such an amount needs to be reduced. The audits conducted in 2004
and 2008 were compared, after which not so much difference was found. This led
to a recommendation that waste audits should be performed every 5 years.

This study identified some weaknesses concerning waste management in the

towns of Namibia. Such weaknesses can be used as opportunities for
improvement. In addition, reliable waste data need to be provided, as they play a
significant role in waste management. Availability of such data contributes to
decision-making processes, as well as to the implementation of waste
management strategies. Waste indicators such as waste generated per capita
need to be determined, as they are necessary to point out the problematic areas
and possibilities of improvement.

This study has come up with a waste indicator model, based on different waste
streams in Windhoek in 2008 (see Table below). Based on this model, the amount
of waste that was disposed per capita per year in Windhoek was 1,315.51kg. This
indicator was used to extrapolate the amounts disposed in other towns, as well as
the total amount of waste disposed in overall urban Namibia. Given the high
estimates of waste disposed per year, recycling was recommended as the best
strategy for reducing such amounts.

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 Estimated
Waste indicator Estimates indicators Units

General waste per year 67,925.52 tonnes

General waste per month 5,660.46
General waste per capita 230 kg/capita/year
Hazardous waste per year 4,970.58 tonnes
Hazardous waste per month 414.22
Hazardous waste per capita 17 kg/capita/year
Construction waste per year 169,914 tones
Construction waste per month 14,160.00 tones
Construction waste per capita 574.03 kg/capita/year
Garden refuse per year 26,451.30 tones
Garden refuse per month 2204.4 tones
Garden refuse per capita 89.36 kg/capita/year
Sand & fill per year 119,916
Sand & fill per month 10,970 tones
Sand & fill per capita 405.12 Kg/capita/year

Capita 296000

Total waste per capita and year 1315.51 kg/capita/year

The findings of this study suggest that the waste management system currently
being used in Windhoek can be used as a model for the entire Namibia, as it has
made it the cleanest city in Africa. Such system still have a potential to be further
improved, however, it can still be considered the best-practice waste management
system in Namibia.

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AIDS Acquired Immuno deficiency Syndrome

BAT Best Available Techniques
BATNEEC Best Available Technology Not Entailing Excessive Costs
CBD Central Business District
CBO Community Based Organisation
COBA Cost-Benefit-Analysis
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
DEA Directorate of Environmental Affairs
EEuP Eco-design of Energy-using Products
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
ELVs End-of-Life Vehicles
EU European Union
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GWTP Gammams Wastewater Treatment Plant
HIV Human Immuno deficiency Virus
ISWM Integrated Sustainable Waste Management
ICT Information Communication Technology
MAWF Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry
MDG Millenium Development Goal
MET Ministry of Environment and Tourism
MFMR Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources
MME Ministry of Mines and Energy
MOHSS Ministry of Health and Social Services
MRLGH Ministry of Regional, Local Government and Housing
MTI Ministry of Trade and Industry
MWTC Ministry of Works, Transport and Communication
NBL Namibia Breweries Limited
NDP National Development Plan
NEWS Namibia Environment and Wildlife Society
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
NGRP New Goreangab Reclamation Plant

19
NMA Namibia Manufacturing Association
NPC National Planning Commission
OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
OGRP Old Goreangab Reclamation Plant
OWTP Otjomuise Wastewater Treatment Plant
REB Responsible Environmental Behaviour
RoHS Restriction of the Use of certain Hazardous Substances in electrical
and electronic equipment
UWTP Ujams Water Treatment Plant
WEEE Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1.
1.1. Background
Waste management is one of the important aspects of environmental
management in Namibia (EMA, 2007). Waste on its own is a threat to the integrity
of the environment, as it can have negative environmental impacts which result
from environmental threats such as air pollution, illegal dumping of waste, littering,
poor sanitation, emission of greenhouse gases, urbanization and poverty
(Moningka, 2000; Henry et al., 2006; Hope & Lerokwe, 1999; UNCHS, 1996a).
Negative environmental impacts that may result include groundwater
contamination, health hazards, smell nuisance and environmental degradation
(Moningka, 2000; WBG, 1998a). In addition, factors such as increasing population
and human activities contribute to environmental problems such as poor access to
safe water, poor waste management practices, poor health and environmental
degradation (Henry et al., 2006; Hope & Lerokwe, 1999; UNCHS, 1996a;
Walmsley & Bottem, 1994). Such problems can be a consequence of increasing
waste volumes. According to Hope & Lerokwe (1999), the above are referred to as
‘brown problems’, and are said to be strongly affecting current generations, more
especially the poor people living in urban areas. Living in such conditions threaten
people’s standards of health, security and even life itself (UNCHS, 1996b). Despite
the necessity to address the environmental problems, challenges are often
experienced, particularly because some towns are lacking institutional capacities
to deal with some of the serious problems, for example, controlling of hazardous
waste (SoER, 2001; UNCHS, 1996a).

The degree of environmental impacts of waste as a result of increasing

populations in urban areas is a matter of concern. Of particular concern is the
disposal of solid and liquid wastes, which can have negative environmental
impacts such as pollution and diseases (UNCHS, 1996a). Waste products in
general have negative effects on natural resources and the environment at large,

21
and may constitute health hazards (CSA & Smith, 2007; Walmsley & Bottem,
1994).

Consequently, waste has some implications in sustainable development. In terms

of development, nations across the globe nowadays are aiming towards
sustainability, whereby the concept of sustainable development needs to be
applied in all aspects of development, including environmental management.
Namibia is not an exception to this (EMA, 2007). In the view of urban
development, the concept being promoted is ‘urban sustainability’, herein defined
as the level of urban development reached in an approach to development,
whereby the natural and social urban environments are not compromised
(Camagni et al., 1998; Hope & Lerokwe, 1999).

Given its high importance and the severity of its need, waste management has
become a concern for the Namibian government. For this reason, local authorities
are placing increasing efforts in the management of waste across the country. To
ensure urban sustainability in the towns of Namibia, various measures need to be
in place, in response to the challenges posed by environmental threats, one of
which is the increasing waste volumes. In the view of development, the following
elements are considered as being of essence in the developmental approaches:
use of policies and legal frameworks, stakeholder involvement as well as all
relevant principles (Anschützi, 1996; Aziegbe, 2007; Camagni et al., 1998; EMA,
2007; Thomas-Hope, 1995; UNCHS, 1996a). Such elements involve actions
needed to reduce the most serious problems, for example the handling of
hazardous wastes from dangerous sites. They also contribute to strategies
required to promote healthy and safe environments, as well as dealing with
specific environmental aspects of concern in general. It is important to note that
the environmental problems resulting from specific towns do not only impact those
towns alone, they also affect other areas at different levels, for example at the
regional and global levels (Camagni et al., 1998).

22
The study presented herein has investigated the current status of municipal waste
management in Namibia, using Windhoek as a case study.

1.2. Problem Statement

Namibia is still in its early stages of development, therefore all its developmental
efforts should be considered crucial. As part of environmental management in
Namibia, waste management should be placed as a priority in order to reduce
negative environmental impacts. However, capacity to manage waste and to
control pollution is limited (SoER, 2001). Apart from the management capacity,
financial constraints are some of the limiting factors to effective waste
management across the country. Namibia is arid to semi-arid, with variable rainfall,
and has limited water sources; mainly ground and surface water (Dirkx et al.,
2008; Menge, 2006). These sources are at risk of contamination as a result of
uncontrolled pollution and poor waste management practices. At the national level,
the environment is threatened by unsafe waste disposal, which can be detrimental
to the environmental integrity and can pose health hazards (CoW, 2008a; CSA &
Smith, 2007; SoER, 2001; UN, 2002). Not only health and environmental damage
can result, unattended waste can present poor aesthetic view, causing the
environment to be less visually appealing despite the fact that Namibia is a tourist
destination. Furthermore, poor waste management is a threat to sustainable
development and can have long-term impacts if no improvement is made (SoER,
2001).

The Namibian towns, especially Windhoek are challenged by the increasing

population, mostly because of people from rural areas who are searching for better
standards of living (CoW, 2008a). Urban population growth in Namibia is also
influenced by the migration of people from other countries, for example, the
neighbouring countries of Angola and Zimbabwe, and other countries such as
China that invest in business. It is clear that there is a link between waste and
socio-economic development; therefore as the population increases, the amount
of waste generated increases too (Henry et al., 2006; SoER, 2001; SWMD, 2008).

23
This further puts pressure on the disposal facilities (CSA & Smith, 2007).

There are a number of relevant waste management principles that contribute to

reduced waste volumes (Christiansen, 1999; EMA, 2007; Fatta & Moll, 2003;
Guiao, 2008; Jacobsen & Kristofferson, 2002; STC, 2008; NEMWA, 2008; SoER,
2001; Vito & Reibstein, 2008; Winchester et al., 2002). However, it is questionable
whether their values have been realized. And if so, it is questioned as to whether
they are being implemented in Namibia, particularly because some town
management systems seem to be ineffective when it comes to addressing waste.
Individual towns need to place more efforts in the management of waste in order
to prevent and minimize waste for the purpose of reducing environmental impacts
that may result due to increasing waste volumes (Jacobsen & Kristoffersen, 2002;
WGB, 1998a). If at all possible, a waste management system that could be
implemented by all towns needs to be developed. After all, Namibia can only be a
better place to live provided that sound waste management is encouraged.

This research attempted to answer the following question:

How can Namibia maintain a well-managed system for municipal waste

management in future?

1.3. Research Aim

The overall aim of this research was to investigate how waste is being managed at
the municipal level in Namibia, in order to recommend a possible system for
handling waste across urban Namibia in future.

1.4. Objectives
The specific objectives were to:

1. identify the principles of waste management being used in Namibia;

2. identify the stakeholders of waste management in Namibia;

24
 3. establish an understanding of the waste management system in Windhoek;
4. identify areas of improvement in terms of waste management in Namibia.

1.6.
1.6. Methodology
The researcher worked closely with various town municipalities in Namibia in order
to get an idea of how waste is being managed at the municipal level. The towns
where the surveys were conducted are: Lüderitz, Mariental, Oshakati, Ongwediva,
Ondangwa, Oranjemund, Otjiwarongo, Swakopmund and Windhoek.

1.6.1.
1.6.1. Research Design
The researcher conducted an empirical research that is both qualitative and
quantitative, which presented original research findings (Maree, 2008; Mouton,
2001). It is qualitative in the sense that it aimed to explore the real situation
concerning waste management in various towns of Namibia. Two types of
qualitative research designs were involved: action research and case study
research. Action research is acknowledged as a research method that is
collaborative and participatory, focusing on a practical problem experienced by
participants for whom a practical solution is sought (Maree, 2008). The action
research is qualitative particularly because it strongly focuses on understanding
the problem and is explicitly committed to the empowerment of the participants,
and will in the end contribute to changing their current situation (Mouton, 2001).

The case study research was used as an approach to establish an understanding

of the concerned situation (waste management at the municipal level) by focusing
on a specific town instead of being general. Windhoek was selected as a case
study for this research. Such an approach aimed to investigate, describe and
explain the phenomenon of interest through obtaining different view points as the
researcher interacted with various participants (Maree, 2008). This approach
helped the researcher to develop an understanding of the dynamics of waste
management systems for Windhoek, and in general.

25
Apart from obtaining the qualitative data, the research also involved an objective
process, which aimed to collect numerical data from a focal population
(Windhoek), in order to generalize them at a broader scale i.e. for the entire
country; hence quantitative. This type of research was non-experimental since it
only aimed to describe the situation at hand without being manipulative (Maree,
2008).

1.6.2. Data Collection Strategy

Primary data were collected for this research. These are new/original data
collected through the self-administered questionnaire, interviews (face-to-face and
telephonically) and through personal observations as described by Maree (2008)
and Newman (1999). However, secondary data from past studies were also used
for the purpose of quantification.

Each of the surveyed town was provided with a self-administered questionnaire

that presented questions concerning the required information. These were shared
with respondents electronically. When necessary, follow up questions were asked
through emails or over the phone. Prior to the development of the questionnaire,
the researcher approached the selected towns with a question: How is waste
being managed in your town? This question was rather broad, which caused many
people to find it difficult to respond. As a result, the researcher rather simplified the
main question, by breaking it down to many different questions that were rather
straight to the point (see Annex I).

The interviews aimed to obtain rich descriptive data that helped the researcher to
get broader inputs based on the participants’ knowledge (Maree, 2008). Direct
observations also helped the researcher to gain some insight on the issues of
interest concerning waste management, for example, how waste is collected,
transported, recycled, treated and disposed. This included on-site visits. Such an
approach helped to validate the data collected through other methods (Mouton,
2001).

26
1.6.3. Sampling Design
For the purpose of selecting the study population, the stratified purposive sampling
method was used. This method was used because the researcher was interested
to work with participants who are knowledgeable about the waste management
systems in their respective towns at the municipal level (Maree, 2008). Given their
equal selection probabilities, the surveyed towns were randomly selected in order
to provide the required data. Out of 31 towns of Namibia, 11 (35.5%) were
selected, of which only 9 (29.03%) actively participated in the research. The
researcher therefore used a proportion of 29.0% as a representative sample to
generalize its results to the entire population. Such a proportion was deemed valid
because it gave an idea of how waste is managed in Namibia in general,
particularly because a case study research design was also involved, which
presented a broader view on waste management systems. This helped the
researcher to achieve the research aim.

1.6.4. Data Analysis

The qualitative data collected from various towns were summarized to help the
researcher to understand and interpret what could be deduced from them. With
such data the researcher was able to get an insight of how waste is being handled
as well as to identify the areas that need improvement. In terms of the quantitative
data, the researcher gathered numerical data, particularly with respect to waste
generation, from which waste indicators were calculated. This information helped
the researcher to propose a waste management system for Namibia and to
answer the research question.

1.7.
1.7. Limitations to the Research
Getting an overview of waste data from different sources such as industrial waste,
commercial waste and household waste, particularly the quantities of wastes
generated, treated, recycled or disposed of would have added value to the findings
of this study. However, the researcher could not obtain data on industrial and
commercial waste, since they are handled by private companies. Such information
is not publicly shared.

27
1.8.
.8. Research Ethics
This research was conducted as response to the current situation of the need to
effectively manage waste as an approach to promoting urban sustainability in
Namibia. The research attempted to collect all the relevant data regarding waste
management in Namibia, and specifically in Windhoek which was used as a case
study. The aim was to come up with recommendations on a possible system that
can be applied across Namibia in future. In the end, the research findings will be
shared with all relevant waste management stakeholders.

The ethical issues of consideration for this research are:

• the identities of the questionnaire respondents have not be revealed;
• the dissertation has not revealed the towns that have demonstrated some
weaknesses in terms of waste management practices, instead, statistics were
used to present the proportions of those towns;
• most relevant stakeholders were consulted; and
• the use of other people’s work has been acknowledged (Maree, 2008;
Mouton, 2001).

28
CHAPTER 2:
2: THEORIES OF WASTE MANAGEMENT

2.1.
2.1. Introduction
On a global scale, waste management is a serious environmental concern. This is
due to the fact that waste is a threat to the environment, as it can have negative
impacts when not managed. In fact, most cities in Southern Africa are challenged
by the increasing volumes of waste (Hope & Lerokwe, 1999). Waste can cause
health hazards, smell nuisance, pests, diseases and other environmental
problems if not well managed (Moningka, 2000). Waste from various sources such
as sewers, septic tanks, pit latrines and disposal sites can also contaminate
surface and groundwater, and this can adversely affect public health (CoW,
undated; DWAF, 2004; Henry et al., 2006; Winblad & Simpso-Hébert, 2004).
Consequently, it has become crucial for waste management to be placed as a
priority especially that it is an environmental, social and economic issue (Aziegbe,
2007).

Responsible waste management promotes environmental quality, contributes to

sustainability and provides support to economic productions (Henry et al., 2006). It
involves implementation of measures that afford protection of human health and
the environment at large, including: collection, transportation, processing,
recycling, disposal, onsite handling, storage, treatment and monitoring of waste
(Starkey, 1998). Waste management also involves prevention and minimization of
waste (Jacobsen & Kristoffersen, 2002). Furthermore it involves handling of solid,
liquid, gaseous or radioactive substances that may originate from domestic,
commercial or industrial activities. Overall, waste is handled by a wide range of
stakeholders i.e. those individuals, authorities, institutions and organizations that
have a stake in waste production and management (Anschützi, 1996; Aziegbe,
2007; Berchtold, 2002; STC, 2008). It is also important to note that handling of
waste is a legal issue as far waste management is concerned. Eventually,
handling of waste has been placed as a priority by legal frameworks at the national
and international levels.

29
The definitions of waste as a single term vary from country to country. For the
European Union (EU), waste is regarded as all items that people deem no longer
have any use for them, which they either intend to get rid of or already discarded
(Anon a., undated). Waste in the EU also refers to all items which people are
required to discard, for example by law because of their hazardous properties.
According to the South African Environmental Management Waste Act 59 of 2008,
waste means any substance, whether or not that substance can be reduced, re-
used, recycled and recovered that is surplus, unwanted, rejected, discarded,
abandoned or disposed of; which the generator has no further use of for the
purposes of production; that must be treated or disposed of; or that is identified as
a waste by the Minister by notice in the Gazette, and includes waste generated by
the mining, medical or other sector, but a by-product is not considered waste; and
any portion of waste, once re-used, recycled and recovered, ceases to be waste
(NEMWA, 2008). In the Namibian context, waste is referred to as any matter
whether gaseous, solid or liquid or any combination thereof, which is from time to
time listed by the Minister by notice in the Gazette or by regulation as an
undesirable or superfluous by-product, emission, residue or a remainder of any
process or activity (EMA, 2007). More other definitions exist in individual countries;
however, they are all making a common point, that waste is unwanted, and should
therefore be managed.

Different types of wastes are produced by day-to-day human activities. Such

waste can be classified as: municipal waste, commercial waste, industrial waste,
household waste, hazardous waste, radioactive waste and other wastes. These
are all in dire need of effective management. For the purpose of this dissertation,
some waste management terminologies have been defined for clarification (see
Table 2.1).

30
Table 2.1. Waste management terminologies definitions
TERM DEFINITION
Municipal waste Waste collected by municipalities independently of the source of waste.
Industrial waste Type of waste produced by industrial activities.
Household waste Waste normally generated from houses.
TYPES OF WASTE

Commercial waste Waste generated by commercial activities.

Hazardous waste Waste that could be an immediate threat to either human health or the
environment.
Radioactive waste Waste containing radioactive elements.
Other wastes Unclassified discarded materials that have no value to the user.
Waste reduction Reducing waste in terms of quantity.
Waste minimization Reducing waste at its source, before it is even generated and through
environmentally sound management practices.
Waste prevention Measures aiming at reducing the quantity and the harmfulness of wastes
to the environment.
Waste treatment Processes (physical, thermal, chemical or biological) that change the
WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

characteristics of waste in order to reduce its volume or hazardous

nature, facilitate its handling or enhance recovery.
Waste disposal Any waste management operation serving or carrying out the final
treatment and disposal of waste without any intention to negatively
impact the environment.
Recycling Reprocessing of waste materials for the original purpose or for other
purposes.
Re-use Any operation by which products are used on more than one occasions
for the same purpose for which they were conceived or for other
purposes, without the need for reprocessing.

2.2.
2.2. Fundamental Principles of Waste Management
In order to avoid adverse impacts of waste in the environment, various waste
management strategies that afford the protection of human health and the
environment are implemented. Such strategies present the waste managers with
challenges and opportunities of handling waste, as each strategy is applied based
on the nature and amount of waste being handled (Christiansen, 1999). Waste
management strategies are prioritized by individual choices, and this contributes to

31
achieving other priorities such as issues related to health, urban governance,
employment, tourism development and resource recovery (RMG, undated; Soni,
2005). Moreover, responsible waste management requires a development of legal
frameworks that set out laws and regulations specifically geared towards
responsible implementation of the waste management strategies. The following
waste management strategies are implemented in efforts to manage waste and for
the purpose of reducing the environmental impacts of waste: 1) prevention of
waste generation, 2) waste recovery (recycling, re-use and waste treatment) and
3) disposal of waste in an environmentally safe manner. In fact, this is the waste
management hierarchy.

In essence, the principles of waste management aim to promote sound

environmental management. Consequently, if applied appropriately, important
issues of concern such as protection of human health, protection of the
environment at large, protection of resources for future generations as well as
reduction of burdens for future generations will be addressed (Christiansen, 1999;
Fatta & Moll, 2003; Jacobsen & Kristoffersen, 2002; STC, 2008) . Apart from the
waste management strategies highlighted above, more other principles for
responsible waste management have been developed, including: 1) the “polluter
pays principle”, which requires the waste producers to pay for the waste generated
or the damage caused; 2) the “user pays principle”, which requires the user of
resources to pay the service providers for services offered on the management of
the resources; 3) the “product-stewardship principle”, which requires the waste
producer or importer of a waste product to take responsible steps towards the
minimization of environmental impacts of the product; 4) awareness raising
principle, which alerts the public of the consequences of irresponsible waste
management and promotes the reduction of waste; and 5) the sustainable use of
resources principle, which contributes to the reduction of waste in the environment
(Vito & Reibstein, 2008; EMA, 2007; Guiao, 2008; NEMWA, 2008; SoER, 2001;
Winchester et al., 2002). Such principles, along with the waste management

32
hierarchy are implemented as efforts to fight the increasing waste volumes,
wasting of resources and the negative environmental impacts.

2.2.1.
2.2.1. Waste Management Hierarchy
The waste management hierarchy (as shown in Figure 2.1) emphasizes that waste
prevention should be an ultimate goal for any approach to waste management;
after which the other options (recycling, re-use and treatment) can follow (STC,
2008). Thus if the hierarchy is effectively implemented, the waste to be disposed
of after the first three hierarchical levels will be minimal.

Figure 2.1.
2.1. Waste management hierarchy

The waste management strategies presented in Figure 2.1 should be viewed as being
interconnected. Ultimately their hierarchy can be compared to the web of life where the
members of species communities are interconnected within ecosystems (Capra, 1996;
Capra, 1999). Communities operate as networks and are well organized. According to

33
Capra’s interpretation, ecosystems do not generate any waste. One species’ waste is
another species’ food. This relationship can be related to the hierarchy of waste
management, in which waste is passed between different hierarchy levels. What is
discarded as waste in the first level is regarded as a resource in the second hierarchy
level, while what is produced as waste from material recovery is fed into the third level
for treatment; whereas the residue resulting from waste treatment is finally disposed of
in the fourth level. Waste that cannot be treated or recycled can as well be disposed
(Rousta, 2008).

2.2.1.1.
2.2.1.1. Waste Prevention
In general, good waste management should start with preventing waste from being
generated (Jacobsen & Kristoffersen, 2002). This waste management strategy is a
crucial aspect of sustainable urban management, as it reduces the amount of waste
being produced, while at the same time providing environmental protection. Reduction
of waste is essential, given the fact that waste causes some pressure on the
environment, including; leaching of nutrients, use of land for landfills, emission of
greenhouse gases, air pollution, water pollution and secondary waste streams
(Christiansen, 1999; STC, 2008; SWMD, 2008). According to Jacobsen & Kristoffersen
(2002), waste prevention should be placed as a high priority in waste management,
particularly because it is the best way to stop the accumulation of waste and to reduce
loss of resources. Preventing waste can be made possible through implementation of
legal frameworks. However, forecasting the accuracy of such frameworks, for example
policies is not possible (Christiansen, 1999). It is advisable that waste prevention
should start at the source; which includes changing the mindset of handling waste, for
example, shifting to cleaner production processes, using fewer resources in products
and influencing consumer choice and demand in the market place in favor of less
wasteful products and services (CEC, 2001). Berchtold (1995) has demonstrated
proven profits from clean technologies for production industries. Responsibility over this
waste management strategy lies in the hands of governments, local authorities and
businesses (Botten & Walmsley, 1994).

34
2. 2.1.2. Recycling and Re-
Re-use of Waste Materials
Waste materials can be recovered through recycling and re-use processes. Recycling
is a strategy used to recover value from waste for consumption (Starkey, 1998). Re-use
refers to making use of discarded waste material products. These are waste
minimization strategies that are implemented in order to reduce the amount of waste
being generated (Jacobsen & Kristoffersen, 2002). They are essential, particularly for
the fact that they reduce the impact of waste in the environment. Even so, they are not
100% efficient. Recycling for example causes negative impacts on the environment
through emissions as a result of waste material processing (Christiansen, 1999). As a
strategy to reduce the life-cycle impacts of products, the use of materials that can easily
be recycled is practiced (STC, 2008). Practically, recycling benefits the environment by
reducing the use of virgin materials as well as toxicity in some instances (Rousta,
2008). In addition, recycling recovers a lot of waste while causing less waste to be
disposed (Lorek et al., 2001).

In the view of re-using waste materials, discarding of materials to the waste stream
is avoided, as this strategy does not require processing. As a result, re-use of
waste materials can be of environmental benefit. Nevertheless, in any case the re-
use of non-hazardous waste should consider the potential risk to human health and
the environment at large (Townsend & Carlson, 1997).

2.2.1.3.
2.2.1.3. Waste Treatment

Third ranking in the waste management hierarchy, waste treatment is considered

for the purpose of reducing the waste volume or its hazardous nature (Jacobsen &
Kristoffersen, 2002; Menge, 2009; WIP, 2009). Such a waste management
strategy enhances energy recovery from waste through physical, chemical,
biological or thermal processes. Any waste management method or technique that
has been designed to change the physical, biological or chemical character of
waste composition or recover/reduce the toxicity of waste in order to minimize the
impacts of waste in the environment plays a role in waste treatment (WIP, 2009).

35
Treatment of waste is made possible through the use of various technologies, one
of which is incineration. In this technique, waste is converted to gases or residues
by thermal means. Incineration has been acknowledged as a useful way of
recovering energy, while at the same time reducing the negative environmental
impacts components, for example methane (Farah, 2002). According to Farah,
approximately 70% of waste mass can be reduced, while about 90% of waste
volume can be reduced through incineration. Despite its positive impacts,
incineration can have negative environmental impacts, which can result from the
emissions and solid residues produced and through the utilization of solid residues
(Lorek et al., 2001). Apart from incineration, other waste treatment means can also
have negative impacts on the environment for example soil pollution, which can
cause groundwater pollution in the end.

In situations where water is scarce, wastewater can be treated and re-used to

meet the water shortage and increasing needs (du Pisani, 2006; FAO, 2003;
Menge, 2006). Wastewater treatment is a process through which contaminants are
removed from wastewater and household sewage. Such a process may involve
physical, chemical and biological processes to remove physical, chemical and
biological contaminants (Menge, 2006; Wikipedia, 2009a). Through various stages
of treatment, floating materials such as grease and oil are skimmed off; while the
biological contents, for example, those derived from human waste, food waste,
soaps and detergent are degraded. The organic materials and suspended solids
are also removed. In the end, a liquid sludge is produced, which is further treated
before the final disposal (Oaeb pers. comm., 2009). So far there is no process that
completely eliminates the need to dispose of solid residues/biosolids. In fact,
wastewater treatment without residues would break the web of life, as described
earlier, based on Capra’s interpretation of the web of life. Biosolids can be of
advantage because they can be used for other purposes, such as fertilizer or as
energy carrier for incineration. Some wastewater treatment plants also use biogas
from anaerobic treatment for plant operations or electricity production or both
(Berchtold pers. comm., 2009).

36
Treated water can then be used for some purposes such as domestic
consumption or for irrigation (du Pisani, 2006; FAO, 2003; Menge, 2009). If well
managed, wastewater can have positive impacts on the environment and health.
All the same, waste water can also have adverse effects on the environment and
can have negative effects on soil, ground water, surface water bodies, crops and
animal health (Mara & Cairncross, 1989).

2.2.1.4.
2.2.1.4. Waste Disposal
The least prioritized strategy of waste management is waste disposal. In this
method, waste is buried, deposited, discharged, dumped or released in places
where they remain for the long-term. In many cases, urban solid or hazardous
wastes are deposited or dumped in specially engineered landfills (DWAF, 1998).
This method is used as a final step to dispose the waste that cannot be recycled or
treated, together with the residue that comes from the collection, separation and
other waste management activities (Rousta, 2008). Landfills are designed in such
a way that they protect the environment. For this reason, landfill constructions
include elements which control undesirable results, for example landfill leachate
and greenhouse gas emissions (DWAF, 1998; McCreanor & Reinhart, 1997). The
landfill method can however have negative impacts, given its potential to result in
leaching of toxic substances and nutrients if practiced without proper
environmental protection (Lorek et al., 2001). Furthermore, dumping of waste in
open spaces is said to be a poor waste management approach especially that it
can have harmful effect to the water, land and air resources. Although disposal
can be successful, it is only a temporary solution to the problem because when the
lifespan of the landfill´s barriers against leaking of hazardous waste comes to an
end, disastrous results are likely (Rousta, 2008). In order to enhance proper
disposal, appropriate regulations need to be in place and implemented (Townsend
& Carlson, 1997).

37
2.2.2.
2.2.2. Waste Management Priorities
Priorities of waste management differ from country to country. This is due to the
fact that every country does its things differently, has its own goal for waste
management and has its own capacities of managing waste (Bogucka et al., 2008;
Brunner & Fellna, 2007). In this dissertation, four issues have been considered as
priorities of waste management in general.

Waste management being one of the approaches to environmental management

should be aiming towards sustainable development. According to Namibia’s
Environmental Management Act No. 7 of 2007, “sustainable development means
human use of a natural resource, whether renewable or non-renewable, or the
environment, in such a manner that it may equitably yield the greatest benefit to
present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and
aspirations of future generations including the maintenance and improvement of
the capacity of the environment to produce renewable resources and the natural
capacity for regeneration of such resources” (EMA, 2007). In fact, this Act has
emphasized that all aspects related to the environment should promote
sustainable development. Therefore, sustainable development should be seen as
the number one priority of waste management.

Considering the integrity and the fragility of the environment, environmental

protection is indispensable. As a result, establishing common policies along with
standard implementation systems to promote a harmonious, balanced and
sustainable development of economic (including waste management) activities
contributing to a high level of protection and improving the quality of the
environment should be placed as one of the top priorities; herein referred to as the
second priority (EC, 2002). Most importantly, the environmental protection
requirements must be integrated in the definition and implementation of such
frameworks. Essentially this is what is being promoted by the legal frameworks
currently in place and waste management principles, along with the waste

38
management hierarchy. It is important to note that waste management efforts are
linked to the economy. Therefore, any waste management framework or system
must take into account the status of the economy, since the quantity and
composition of waste generated can impact on the costs involved in the
management of waste (SoER, 2001; Mbande, 2003; Urio & Brent, 2006). Evidence
is available, which proves that developed countries produce more waste than the
developing countries, estimated at 1.5kg/person/day compared to 0.3 -
0.8kg/person/day in the developing countries (SoER, 2001). However, one needs
to be careful when it comes to the waste statistics because they are uncertain.
This is due to the fact that every country analyses the waste generated differently.
Furthermore, promotion of sustainable development of waste management
activities must consider stakeholder involvement in the process of identifying the
priorities that are worthy of consideration in the implementation processes (WBG,
1998). In fact the stakeholders have a crucial role in the implementation of the
political frameworks.

On the other hand, it becomes a challenge that in attempts to manage waste,

some environmental problems such as pollution, emission of green house gases
and health related problems are experienced (Christiansen, 1999). Consequently,
taking into consideration the environmental impacts of any approach to waste
management and that of the waste management systems is essential. Therefore,
conducting environmental impact assessments of any waste management system
is considered as a priority. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process
by which the effects of any operation on the environment are identified, assessed
and taken into account (Jacobsen & Kristoffersen, 2002). Here, EIA is referred to
as the third priority. Selection of landfill sites for disposal for example is one of the
issues to be considered for EIA processes (Chipashvili, 2009). This should be
done to eliminate or mitigate the possible impacts in the long-term.

39
Noteworthy, successes of the waste management systems in the long-term is not
guaranteed. Therefore, keeping an eye on the waste management systems is
essential, which can be made possible through thorough environmental monitoring
processes (DWAF, 1998; Maynard et al., 2009). Environmental monitoring
includes a collection of environmental data and assessment of the environment
itself, which allows one to take note of any change after a certain environmental
management approach has been carried out. Of particular importance is the fact
that unexpected consequences of implementing waste management strategies in
place can be experienced in the environment (Christiansen, 1999). Environmental
monitoring in this dissertation is therefore considered as the fourth priority of waste
management.

Having the above four priorities in mind, sound management of waste

management in the long-term is likely. After all, effective waste management will
contribute to sustainable development. Figure 2.2 below shows a connection of
the four priorities of waste management considered by this dissertation.

40
 SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT Caring for Future Generations
1

Waste Management
Principles & Hierarchy
COMMON POLICIES
2 & Economic Status
STANDARD
IMPLEMENTATION Legal Frameworks
SYSTEMS
Stakeholder Participation

3 ENVIRONMENTAL
Assessing Possible
IMPACT
Environmental Impacts
ASSESSMENT

ENVIRONMENTAL Keeping an Eye on the State of the

4 MONITORING Environment

Figure 2.2:
2.2: Four priorities of waste
waste management

Ensuring sound waste management also demands that the environment should be
effectively managed. This may require the use of ISO 14001* standard, which aims
to bring about continual improvement over time, as demonstrated in Figure 2.3.
below (Starkey, 1998). Such a standard can be used as a benchmark to
implement sustainable practices of waste management (STC, 2008).

*
ISO 14001 is a standard for environmental management systems that is to be implemented in
any business, with an aim to reduce the environmental footprint for that business and to decrease
the pollution and waste the business produces (Wikipedia, 2009b).

41
Figure 2.3. Five steps of ISO 14001

(Source: Starkey, 1998)

The five steps in the above diagram can be interpreted as:

Step 1: A policy for the target environmental aspect should be in place.

Step 2: Planning for relevant aspects (as listed) should be considered.
Step 3: Relevant tools for implementing environmental management systems
should be in place.
Step 4: Procedures for checking and taking corrective action should be in place.
Step 5: Management reviews should be conducted, which are to address the
possible needs for changes in the policies and other environmental management
systems.
(Starkey, 1998)

42
2.3. Responsibilities over Waste
Waste
As mentioned earlier, waste management has become an environmental concern
particularly due to the fact that waste is an environmental threat. It is worthwhile to
note that any environmental concern is the context of everything else, including
human lives, business and politics (Capra & Pauli, 1995). Therefore in any
approach to environmental management including waste management, it is
essential to integrate social, political, economic and environmental issues.
Integration of such issues can be achieved through the engagement of various
stakeholders in waste management and the use of legal frameworks.

2.3.1. Role Players in Waste Management

Management
Responsible care of the environment should not only lie in the hands of one entity,
it should be participatory. In fact, responsible care of the environment can be
termed as ‘responsible environmental behavior (REB)’. Agbarachi (2009) has
referred REB to as a behavior that is concerned with what is right; meaning that
the behavior towards waste management should consider what is right about
managing the environment. Participation as part of REB is an approach to
development that has been defined as an organized activity of the people
concerned (Theron, 2005). Such an approach brings together various
stakeholders such as donors, governments, non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), popular organizations and communities; while at the same time opening
doors for them to learn from each other (Blackburn, 1998). Eventually when
considering the issue of waste management, it is crucial to identify the
stakeholders in the waste management systems. Stakeholders in waste
management should include the waste producers, waste management institutions,
environmental management institutions and organizations, donors and policy
makers. Examples of waste management stakeholders are: local authorities, city
councils, central government, NGOs, CBOs, members of the public, private
informal sector, private formal sector, businesses and donor agencies (van de
Kludert & Anschiitz, 2000). Such stakeholders contribute to creation, management

43
and disposal of waste, thus it is essential that they recognize the benefits of waste
management and their roles in dealing with waste (STC, 2008).

Having identified the role players in waste management, one can go to the extent
of putting into practice the concept of integrated sustainable waste management
(ISWM), which refers to a waste management system that best suits the society,
economy and the environment in a given location (van de Kludert & Anschiitz,
2000). The ISWM approach takes into account various aspects including technical,
environmental, financial, social, institutional and legal; which all have roles to play
in the management of waste. Therefore the waste management stakeholders each
have a stake within the above aspects, which contributes to achieving meaningful
and sustainable ISWM (Henry et al., 2006). Stakeholders’ roles include: use and
waste recovery or disposal, offering financial support through capital investments
or granting of loans and insurance services; being part of awareness raising
campaigns, participating in consultations, administration, decision-making,
management of waste services and development of policies (Anschützi, 1996;
Aziegbe, 2007; Berchtold, 2002; Berstein, 2004; EC No. 761, 2001). Waste
management primarily lies in the hands of local authorities; however, not all of
them meet the needs of businesses (Hope & Lerokwe, 1999; STC, 2008). Thus it
is advised that local authorities focus on the coordination and monitoring of the
services that they provide, while other stakeholders concerned with collecting,
processing, treatment and disposal of waste should collaborate on all aspects of
the waste management hierarchy.

The Municipality of Windhoek in Namibia has recognized the importance of

involving a wide range of stakeholders. Overall, municipal waste across Windhoek
is managed by the Solid Waste Management Division and the Division of Bulk
Water and Waste Water within the City of Windhoek. However, the Solid Waste
Management Division employs people, contractors and volunteers to work as

44
custodians for solid waste (CoW, undated). Hazardous waste is handled by private
companies as well as concerned government ministries (UN, 2002).

2.3.2. Legal Framework

With the sustainable development concept in mind, plans for future waste
management should be included in the political agenda, particularly considering
the fact that politics has a big role to play in sustainable development. Today,
national policies reflecting waste management systems are developed and
adopted to serve as legal frameworks in efforts to contribute to sustainable waste
management. In essence, such frameworks should incorporate the waste
management hierarchy, while at the same time maximizing social, economic and
environmental benefits (RMG, undated). They address issues related to integrated
waste management; including all aspects of waste management, waste
management systems and the roles of stakeholders. In addition they set long-term
aspirations with regard to waste management legislations and activities (EMA,
2007; Fatta & Moll, 2003; NEMWA, 2008; STC, 2008). Overall, legal frameworks
are needed to minimize the impacts of waste and waste management in general,
as some waste management strategies contribute to waste generation in the
implementation process (Christiansen, 1999). Responsibilities over the
establishment of regulatory frameworks lie in the hands of the authorities
(Jacobsen & Kristoffersen, 2002).

2.3.2.1. Policies, Laws and Regulations

At the national and regional levels, policies, laws and regulations are put in place
in an attempt to regulate waste management. Such legal frameworks are
developed and implemented in order to promote environmental management in
general, as they are concerned with reducing the impacts of waste and waste
management on the environment. They provide guidelines on the handling of
waste; including the waste service standards, institutional and planning matters,
priorities of waste management, waste management measures, dealing with
different types of waste, aspects of the waste management hierarchy as well as

45
penalties pertinent to any damage caused by mishandling of waste (EMA, 2004;
EMA, 2007; NEMWA, 2008; KV3, 2006; STC, 2008; Tjela, 2006). It is however
argued that policies geared towards reducing waste are meaningless if they are
not based upon the waste streams involved (STC, 2008). For this reason, it should
be worthwhile to make amendments on the legal frameworks currently in place, in
order to base the management of waste on the waste streams involved. Policies
specifically are subject to change, based on the conditions of the issues to be
addressed (Meyer & Cloete, 2000).

The management of waste is now moving towards a more holistic and sustainable
approach, with much emphasis being placed on the environmental impacts of
waste materials and products throughout their lifetimes (STC, 2008).
Consequently, waste management is being integrated in the legal frameworks that
are promoting sound environmental management, including a sustainable
management of resources. This is evident in the EU, where waste is increasingly
being integrated into the policy field of sustainable resource management. Such
an approach is viewed as a shift from an ‘end-of-pipe’ treatment of the waste
towards the front of the waste policy hierarchy i.e. waste being prevented through
efficient use of resources (Fatta & Moll, 2003). Sustainable use of resources as
an approach to waste management is also promoted by the South African
Environmental Management Waste Act 59 of 2008 and the Namibian
Environmental Management Act No. 7 of 2007. As a result of this approach,
volumes of waste generated are reduced through improved waste prevention
measures, improved resource efficiency and a shift to more sustainable
consumption patterns (Fatta & Moll, 2003). Given its high priority in the waste
management hierarchy, waste prevention is regarded as a key element in the
waste management policies; especially due to the fact that waste volumes are
ever increasing (CEC, 2001).

46
Policies, laws and regulations vary from country to country, based on the issues of
priority. However, these can be successful if properly implemented. A lesson of a
good legal framework can be learned from the EU waste regulations, which are
applied by the Member States (see Table 2.2).

47
Table 2.2: EU regulations related to the prevention and management of waste
Source:: STC, 2008

Directive Description
Waste Framework Directive Provides a legislative framework for collection,
transport, recovery and disposal of waste for all EU
Member States.
Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive Obliges businesses which have a turn over of more
than £2 million and handle at least 50 tonnes of
packaging in a year to recycle and recover a
prescribed proportion of their packaging waste, with
minimal environmental impact after disposal.
End of Life Vehicles (ELVs) Directive Requires vehicle manufacturers and importers to
set up networks of authorized treatment and
facilities to provide free take back schemes for
vehicles, so that at the end of a vehicle’s life, the
vehicle can be re-used, recycled or recovered.
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Require producers of certain categories of electrical
(WEEE) Directive and electronic equipment to register with a producer
compliance scheme and pay the compliance
scheme to dispose of their waste products
appropriately, including the treatment, re-use,
recovery or recycling of components where
necessary.
Restriction of the Use of certain Hazardous Restrict the use of some hazardous substances
substances in electrical and electronic (e.g. lead, cadmium, hexavalent chromium,
equipment (RoHS) Directive mercury, polybrominated biphenyl ethers) in
electrical and electronic products, as they may have
negative impacts at the end of their lives.
Eco-design of Energy-using Products (EuP) Allow the setting of requirements for designers to
Directive consider the energy efficiency and environmental
impacts of their producers at the design stage.
Batteries and Accumulators and Waste Obliges producers to meet the cost of collecting,
Batteries Accumulators Directive treating and recycling waste batteries and
accumulators, with the aim of reducing their lifetime
environmental impacts and promoting the recovery
of materials within them.

48
Co-operation on legal frameworks such as this can work well between countries if
well maintained. The same could potentially work for the countries in the southern
African sub-region. Such a co-operation can either be established through a
development of regulations on handling common waste or through a
harmonization of environmental laws. With such an approach, countries in
cooperation can effectively manage waste through the use of standard guidelines.
In particular, for those countries that do not have formal means for handling some
types of waste, it would be an advantage to be involved in cooperation such as the
one being implemented by the EU Member States. Lesotho for example, up to
2006 did not have any formal means of dealing with hazardous waste (Tjela,
2006). It would have been beneficial if there were standard regulations or a
standard policy or law for the Southern African countries for dealing with
hazardous waste, which Lesotho could adhere to.

2.3.2.2. International Agreements and Conventions

Apart from regulating waste at national and regional levels, international
agreements have been put in place to address the issue of waste management at
the international level. Such agreements each have a role to play in the
management of waste and the environment at large, as they emphasize certain
laws, rules and regulations as well as guidelines to be followed by all countries
that are signatory to them. Examples of international agreements and conventions
that are of relevance to waste management are given in Table 2.3 below.

49
Table 2.3.
2.3. Examples of International Conventions of relevance to waste
management

Convention Description
Basel Convention on the Control of Agreed to ensure environmentally sound
Transboundary Movement of Hazardous management of hazardous waste and other
Wastes and their Disposal, 1992 wastes through the reduction of their
movements, for the purpose of reducing their
impacts on human health and environment.
London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Agreed to promote the effective control of all
Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other sources of marine pollution and to take all
Matter, 1972 practicable steps to prevent pollution of the sea
by dumping of wastes and other matter.
International Convention on Oil Preparedness, Agreed to promote the use of precautionary
Response and Cooperation, 1990 measures for maritime safety and to prevent oil
pollution and marine pollution.
Washington Declaration on Protection of Marine Agreed to protect and preserve the marine
Environment from Land-based Activities, 1995 environment from all land-based activities that
may threaten human health and well-being, as
well as the integrity of coastal and marine
ecosystems and biodiversity.
UN Convention on the Law of the sea, 1982 Agreed to protect and preserve the marine
environment including the seabed, ocean floor,
subsoil and the resources in the environment.
International Convention on the Prevention of Agreed to prevent sea pollution by oil
Pollution of the Sea by Oil, 1954 discharged from ships.
International Convention on the prevention of Agreed to prevent pollution of the marine
pollution from ships (MARPOL), 1978 environment by ships from operational and
accidental causes
International convention for the Control and Agreed to prevent, minimize and eliminate the
Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and
Sediment, 2004 pathogens through the control and management
of ships’ ballast water and sediments.

50
Furthermore, agreements can be strengthened between countries through the use
of Treaties to establish Communities (formed by countries in agreement); as
practiced by the European countries (EU, 2002). Through such Treaties, the
Communities can establish common policies promoting environmental protection
and sustainable development, while at the same time incorporating important
development matters such as socio-economic issues, for example, poverty
reduction, employment creation, social protection, inequality reduction, protection
of human health and the wise use of natural resources. In addition such policies
should consider the measures that need to be in place to deal with regional and
international environmental problems. As part of such policies, the environmental
protection requirements must be integrated into the definition and implementation
of the Community policies, considering the diversity of situations of among the
Member Countries of the Community. The Member Countries should then be
expected to cooperate at the community level and internationally, in terms of
economic, financial and technical aspects. All agreed policies should be adopted
by a selected Council, while the Community and Member Countries should
coordinate their policies on development cooperation and must keep consulting
each other on any important matters.

2.4.
2.4. Conclusion
Waste management is a serious environmental concern. There is no standard
definition of waste; definitions vary from country to country, and different types of
waste are produced by daily human activities. As an approach to waste
management, a four level hierarchy is followed when dealing with waste. In the
order of priority; waste prevention, material recovery, energy recovery and
disposal are the different levels of the waste management hierarchy. The first
three levels of the management hierarchy are aiming at reducing the waste
volumes, while the fourth level is the final disposal of waste products from the
other levels. Further to the hierarchy, other guiding principles are in place to
promote sound waste management. In addition, this dissertation has considered
four priorities of waste management as: sustainable development, avoidance of

51
negative environmental impacts, environmental impact assessment, and
environmental monitoring. Ensuring sound waste management also requires
effective environmental management, which can be made possible though the
implementation of the ISO 14001 standard. In actual facts, all waste management
strategies are aiming towards contributing to waste reduction and environmental
protection. Even so, despite their good intentions, negative impacts are
experienced. Nevertheless, with responsible waste management stakeholders and
legal frameworks in place, implementation of waste management strategies can
be a success story.

52
CHAPTER 3:
3: NAMIBIA

3.1.
3.1. Introduction
Namibia is located in southern Africa, sharing boundaries with Angola, Botswana,
South Africa and the Atlantic Ocean to the north, east, south and west
respectively. Its surface area covers approximately 825 814 km2, while its
population has been estimated at 2.1 million inhabitants (PRB, 2008). Namibia is
blessed with abundance of natural resources, both renewable and non-renewable,
in which its economy almost entirely depends. It is rich in mineral resources,
fisheries resources and has a diversity of terrestrial flora and fauna. Given its
prosperity in resources, Namibia is classified as one of the resource-rich countries
in southern Africa, and is not classified among the poorest countries in the world
(Fosu & O’Connell, 2006; Marope, 2005). According to Gaomab (2005), Namibia
is classified as a middle-income country, with per capita income of just over
US$2,000.00.

As it is the case elsewhere in the world, environmental management is one of the

developmental challenges in Namibia. This is particularly due to the fact that
Namibia is faced by many environmental threats, which are in dire need of
management. Generally, environmental threats are those factors that impact the
environment negatively, in many cases resulting in environmental problems. Such
threats include: pollution, food insecurity, population growth, heavy dependence
on agriculture, increasing pressure on resources, land-use changes and
urbanization (Hope & Lerokwe, 1999; Nyang’oro, 2001; Walmsley & Bottem,
1994). When not managed, such threats pose negative impacts on the
environment, resulting in disasters such as: biodiversity loss, deforestation,
desertification, species decline and extinction, health problems and diseases,
climate change, land degradation and soil degradation (Miller, 2007; Nyang’oro,
2001; Troni, 2008; Walmsley & Bottem, 1994). On top of the above threats,
poverty is another environmental threat on its own, as it plays a role in contributing

53
to environmental problems (Camagni et al., 1998; Nyang’oro, 2001; UNFPA,
2001). This is due to the fact that the livelihoods of people living in poverty mainly
depend on the environment.

Consequently, environmental management has been placed as a priority in

Namibia. Environmental management is herein defined as the management of
those activities that have or can have impacts on the environment (MET, 2008). It
is a priority for the government ministries, NGOs, local authorities, private sector
and communities. This is in line with what has been stressed by the Namibian
Environmental Management Act No. 7 of 2007 that participation of all interested
and affected parties in the management of the environmental issues of concern
should be encouraged (EMA, 2007). Environmental issues being dealt with
include: communal land management, protected area management, land
degradation, water resources management, pollution control, waste management,
biodiversity conservation, energy use, coastal management and climate change.
The environmental issues of concern in Namibia are further addressed using
alternative approaches to development i.e. through environmental management
programmes and projects. Nonetheless, for the purpose of this dissertation, the
focal environmental issue is waste management.

3.2.
3.2. Socio-
Socio-economic Situation in Namibia
Namibia is currently faced by the following challenges: high unemployment,
poverty, income inequality, health issues and lack of skills (BoN, 2009a). These
need to be addressed in order to put the national economy on the path of long-
term growth. Namibia’s economy depends on three major economic sectors: 1)
primary (agriculture & forestry, fishing & fish processing, and mining & quarrying);
2) secondary (manufacturing, electricity & water, and construction) and 3) tertiary
(including, wholesale & retail trade, hotels & restaurants, transport &
communication, health, and education). In the view of the economic growth status,
there has been a fluctuation in the economic growth performance on the economic
sectors over the years. This is due to poor performance in the primary and tertiary

54
sectors, which contributed to the deceleration of growth in the real sector (BoN,
2009a). On top of that, Namibia’s economy is affected by changes in the global
economy.

In terms of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), the government is the greatest
contributor to GDP in Namibia (BoN, 2001; BoN, 2009a). Looking at the three
major economic sectors, the tertiary sector makes great contribution to GDP,
followed by the primary and secondary sectors respectively (see Table 3.1).
Individual sectors in Namibia that make major contributions to GDP are: mining &
quarrying, manufacturing, public administration & defence, education and
agriculture & forestry (BoN, 2009b). Of these, mining is the greatest contributor to
GDP in the private sector, mainly due to diamond mining. The above mentioned
sectors also contribute to employment. The GDP per capita grows over the years.
In 2004, the GDP per capita was N$21,328.60 millions, and has grown to
N$23,596.30, N$27,117.00, N$30,304.00 and N$34,483.00 millions in 2005, 2006,
2007 and 2008 respectively (BoN, 2009a).

Table 3.1: Gross Domestic Product by Sector: Percentage contribution

Sector Year
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Primary 18.7 19.6 22.0 20.1 24.4
Secondary 17.3 17.5 19.7 21.8 18.9
Tertiary 56.9 55.6 51.9 51.8 50.8
Source: BoN, 2009b

In the view of health, Namibia is challenged by the spread of the pandemic HIV
and AIDS, reportedly wide-spread across the country. This pandemic is said to
have greater implications in the national development, thus its spread has to be
reduced, along with its effects (NPC, 2008). The vulnerability of HIV and AIDS is
attributed to social factors such as: poverty, migrations, alcohol abuse and the
social inequalities between men and women (LeBeau, 2009). Despite this

55
predicament, the Namibian health system has reportedly made greater progress
when it comes to primary health care delivery (Gaomab, 2005).

Poverty in Namibia is more concentrated in the rural areas, mainly among the
previously disadvantaged groups (NPC, 2002). As measured using data on the
Namibia’s household income and expenditure survey of 2003 and 2004, two
poverty lines have been established for the “poor” and the “severely poor”;
whereby the consumption levels per adults per month are lower than N$262.45
and N$184.56 respectively (CBS, 2008). Based on the above definitions, the
household expenditure rate of the “poor” and the “severely poor” households has
been estimated at 27.6% and 13.8% respectively. Given the poverty situation, a
large number of people have limited access to basic services such as education,
health, markets, public transport and schools. Part of this is the fact that poor
households are generally further away from a wide range of administrative and
infrastructural services; on average 14 km from hospitals and clinics, 7 km from
the market, 32 km from the secondary school, 34 km from combined school, 6 km
from primary school and 7km from public transport (CBS, 2008). However, major
differences are obvious from region to region. Research has found that there is a
gap between the rich and poor people in Namibia, and this needs to be closed
(Gaomab, 2005; NPC, 2008). High levels of poverty in Namibia are also
exacerbated by the high rate of unemployment, which is estimated to be over 30%
(Vision 2030, 2004). One of the factors contributing to the high levels of
unemployment is the lack of formal education opportunities, which is also
attributed to high rates of drop outs in schools as well as poor quality education
(Gaomab, 2005). Furthermore, the fact that there are only a few people with
secondary education and fewer with tertiary education in the poor households has
contributed to the high rate of poverty (CBS, 2008). Eventually, lack of skills leaves
the uneducated people unable to be mainstreamed into the employment sector,
due to the mismatch of skills with the available jobs (Vision 2030, 2004).

56
In its effort to develop the national economy, Namibia is now promoting the optimal
and sustainable use of resources concept, in order to provide for the needs of its
people (NPC, 2008). In terms of environmental management, Namibia is striving to
ensure environmental sustainability through strengthening the management of its
natural resources.

3.3.
3.3. Namibia’s Efforts towards National Development

Namibia is committed to promoting sustainable development; the development

that aims to meet the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of
future generation to meet their own needs (Glazewski, 2005). It has been clearly
stipulated by the national Environmental Management Act of Namibia that
sustainable development must be promoted in all aspects related to the
environment. Sustainable development is of high importance in Namibia,
especially due to the fact that many people are living in poverty and that the
national population is growing. Population increase in Namibia has become a
challenge because along with it competition over resources has increased (Ashley,
1994). Socio-economic factors such as slow social development, extreme poverty,
environmental degradation and inadequate investment in human resource
development also have impacts on sustainable development (NPC, 2008; UNDP,
2008; World Bank, 1990). Consequently, sustainable development will minimize
the impacts of the competition over resources and will promote sound
environmental management. In general, the sustainable development concept was
developed as a result of the increasing human basic needs (food, clothing, shelter
and employment), as well as the environmental problems affecting the planet due
to human activities (Glazewski, 2005). Noteworthy, sustainable development is
more concerned with the future generations (Currie & De Waal, 2005).

It is crucial that sustainable development should contribute to the needs of people,

and to the national economy at large. Nonetheless, relying on economic growth
solely is not enough to achieve sustainable development; institutional
development, social development and natural resource management are also

57
essential (UNDP, 2008; World Bank, 1990). Furthermore, using policy and legal
frameworks as well as stakeholder involvement in environmental management
contribute to achieving sustainable development (Camagni et al., 1998; UNCHS,
1996; Walmsley & Bottem, 1994).

In its attempt to achieve sustainable development, Namibia has developed some

frameworks which serve as guiding steps towards achieving the sustainable
development goal. For the purpose of reducing poverty and inequality, a poverty
reduction strategy has been developed, whose implementation is being guided by
the National Poverty Reduction Action Programme (CBS, 2008; Vision 2030,
2004). Furthermore, Namibia is a global partner to the world’s Millenium
Development Goals (MDGs), the eight goals that have been agreed world-wide
with an aim of responding to the world’s main developmental challenges; targeted
to be attained by the year 2015. The first of these goals aims to reduce poverty by
half by the year 2015 (CBS, 2008).

One of Namibia’s development frameworks is the 5 year national development

strategy that has invested in developing what is referred to as ‘National
Development Plans (NDPs)’. Such plans focus on reviving and sustaining the
economic growth. They also outline policies that are bringing together different
economic sectors and are addressing Namibia’s developmental challenges and
sustainable development at large (LAC, 2004). The Namibian government has
also formulated a long-term development framework called Vision 2030, whose
goal is “that the people of Namibia are well developed, prosperous, healthy and
confident in an atmosphere of interpersonal harmony, peace and political stability;
and as a sovereign nation, Namibia is a developed country to be reckoned with as
a high achiever in the comity of nations. Namibia enjoys: Prosperity, Interpersonal
Harmony, Peace and Political Stability” (LAC, 2004:183). Namibia also has a
formalized Constitution, the Supreme Law of Namibia, against which all other laws
are tested. Furthermore, in its commitment to the concept of sustainable
development, Namibia is a signatory to many international environment

58
conventions. Such conventions each has a role to play in the management of the
environment and they all support the political will and commitment to the
implementation of Namibia’s obligations with respect to international treaties.
Furthermore, Namibia as a global partner to the world’s MDGs is aiming towards
achieving the seventh goal ‘ensuring environmental sustainability’ that is aiming at
promoting sound environmental management (Karuaihe et al., 2008). Namibia is
working towards achieving this goal at the national level through a number of
projects and programmes.

When it comes to making decisions on matters related to the environmental

management and sustainable development, the government through its ministries
(e.g. MET, MAWF, NPC, MFMR, MRLGH, MME & MTI)†, NGOs and UN agencies
engage. The Directorate of Environmental Affairs (DEA) under the MET is the
leading agency for promoting sustainable development (UN, 2002).

3.4.
3.4. Waste Management in Namibia

3.4.1.
3.4.1. Overview
As much as environmental management has been prioritized in Namibia, the
waste management approach has not been left out. Waste in Namibia needs to be
managed especially because the national population is increasing, technologies
are advancing and because there are many economic activities taking place;
which all contribute to the production of waste. Additionally, waste needs to be
managed in order to reduce waste production, reduce waste volumes, reduce
negative environmental impacts and promote environmental health (CoW,
undated; Henry et al., 2006; EMA, 2007; OECD, 2008; UNCHS, 1996). It is also
crucial to collect data on waste, as they can be used in planning, decision-making

† MET – Ministry of Environment & Tourism; MAWF – Ministry of Agriculture, Water & Forestry;
NPC – National Planning Commission; MFMR – Ministry of Fisheries & Marine Resources; MRLGH
– Ministry of Regional, Local Government and Housing, MME – Ministry of Mines & Energy; and
MTI – Ministry of Trade & Industry

59
and to design effective policy measures (ETC/RWM, 2008). Data on waste can
also be used in the preparation of the state of environment reports on waste
management. Equally important is pollution control. Pollution needs to be
controlled in order to reduce negative environmental and human health impacts
resulting from the accumulation of waste volumes. Noteworthy, waste reduction by
all means is a crucial aspect of sustainable development (Walmsley & Bottem,
1994).

In Namibia, waste management is a responsibility for all residents, local

authorities, government ministries, private sector and businesses. As listed in
Table 3.2, so far over 30 industries have been identified, that contribute to waste;
therefore each having a stake in waste management (Mbendi, 2009).

60
Table 3.2.
3.2. Industries that have a stake in waste management in Namibia
Industry Industry
• Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing • Media
• Arts and Crafts • Mining
• Automotive • Miscellaneous
• Building, Construction and Civil • Oil and Gas
Engineering • Packaging
• Chambers of Commerce • Professional Services
• Chemicals • Public Utilities
• Computers and Communications • Pulp and Paper
• Development • Real Estate
• Electrical Power • Security
• Energy • Textiles and Clothing
• Engineering • Trading
• Equipment • Transport and Storage
• Exchanges • Travel, Tourism and Recreation
• Exhibitions, Trade Shows and • Wholesale and Retail
Conferences • Material Handling
• Financial Services • Food, Beverages and Tobacco
• Health Services • Government
• Leather
• Manufacturing

Source: Mbendi (2009)

To be specific, the stakeholders listed in Table 3.3 below have been identified as
having significant roles in waste management (apart from municipalities and town
councils), in towns that were contacted for the purpose of this dissertation.

61
Table 3.3.
3.3. Identified stakeholders in various towns in Namibia
Town Stakeholders
Lüderitz Residents Businesses
Institutions e.g. schools Recycling companies
Household owners Fishing companies
Lüderitz Refuse Management Project Commercial companies
Mariental Various Businesses
Ondangwa Residents Namibian recycling teams
Refuse removal contractors Vully Cleaning services
Cross-country cleaners Move-a-Mess
Ongwediva Residents
Businesses
Oshakati Businesses Schools
Namibia Beverages Financial institutions
Namibia Breweries Limited
Oranjemund Enviroserv
Oranjemund Recycling Company
Namdeb
Otjiuarongo None was identified
Swakopmund Enviro-Fill
Refuse Solutions
West Coast Recyclers
Scrap Metal
Windhoek Schools and high learning institutions Enviro-Fill
Rent-a-Drum Kleen Bin
Namibia Breweries Limited METRA
4H Namibia Project Khomas Recycling
Collect-a-Can Businesses
The Glass Recycling Company, etc.

Despite the fact that there are many stakeholders for waste management in
Namibia, waste management is priority for the government. Consequently, various
government ministries (MET, MRLGH, MME, MAWF, MOHSS‡ & MWTC§) have

‡ MOHSS – Ministry of Health and Social Services

62
responsibilities over the management of waste, and are therefore committed to
formulating policies and strategies regarding waste management and pollution
control in Namibia (UN, 2002). Nevertheless, the overall responsibility over the
management of urban waste lies in the hands of local municipalities and town
councils. Such authorities work closely with the private sector and businesses
(Schenck, 2009). Given the fact that different types of wastes exist (as defined in
Chapter 2), they are dealt with differently by different ministries and organizations.
Some of the wastes, such as hazardous wastes that cannot be handled by the
local authorities are dealt with by the government and private companies (UN,
2002). Solid waste is primarily dealt with by the MRLGH through town
municipalities, village authorities and local authorities. The hazardous waste and
solid waste and sanitation are coordinated by MME, MRLGH and the MOHSS.
Nevertheless, safe handling and disposal of waste has been identified to be a
challenge in Namibia.

Furthermore, the ‘3R principle’ has been placed as a priority in Namibia (see
Figure 3.1). This is a principle that promotes the reduction, re-use and recycling of
waste; whereby waste reduction is the first priority, followed by re-use and
recycling of waste materials (Schenck, 2009; UN, 2002).

Figure 3.1:
3.1: The ‘3R Principle’ Hierarchy

§ MWTC – Ministry of Works, Transport and Communication

63
The government and the private sector use the media and primary schools to
promote the concept of the ‘3R principle’ through waste management awareness
campaigns (Schenck, 2009; UN, 2002). This concept is essential because it aims
to minimize waste volumes and their impacts. Reduce refers to the reduction of
waste by all means. Re-use is a preferred waste management strategy since it
does not involve processing, while recycling involves processing of waste
materials to be used again. For the purpose of promoting recycling, various
partners from the private sector, particularly the recycling companies have recently
started up an initiative that encourages the use of bins for collecting recyclable
products (Schenck, 2009). With such an initiative, recycling stations have been
placed infront of various shopping centers, where the following types of waste
products: cans, glass, papers and plastics are collected for recycling purposes.
Today, this initiative is only operational in Windhoek, where it has been proven to
work well. Plans are to spread it across to other towns of Namibia, however, some
challenges associated with costs, waste transportation and management of
services have been identified. Such challenges still need to be dealt with. The
partners to this initiative are: Rent-a-Drum Group of Companies (Rent-a-Drum,
METRA, Khomas Recycling and Kleen Bin), 4H Namibia Project, The Glass
Recycling Company, Collect-a-Can, Namibia Manufacturing Association (NMA),
the Namibia Environment and Wildlife Society (NEWS) and the Namibia Breweries
Limited (NBL). This initiative has been acknowledged by the Department of Solid
Waste Management within the Windhoek Municipality (Aloe, 2008). Overall, some
of the companies dealing with waste in Namibia are presented in Table 3.4. below.

64
Table 3.4. Some of the waste management companies in Namibia
Company/Project Role
Collect-a-Can Recycling
Cross Country Cleaners Refuse removal
EnviroServ • Hazardous waste assessments
• Refuse removal
• Waste minimization and recycling
• Landfill site development and operation
• Equipment and plant hire
• Composting
• Container customization for all types of
waste
• Industrial cleaning
Enviro-Fill Landfill site operation and monitoring
The Glass Recycling Company Recycling
4H Namibia Recycling
Lüderitz Refuse Management Project Refuse removal
Move-a-Mess Landfill monitoring
Oranjemund Recycling Company Recyclable waste management
Refuse Solutions Refuse removal
Rent-a-Drum Group of Companies • Waste management audits
(Rent-a-Drum, Kleen Bin, METRA, Khomas • Recyclable waste management
Recycling) • Waste collection
• Shredding of confidential documents
• Cleaning and sanitizing containers
• Skip removals
• Fat trap removal
• Medical waste removal
• Tank oil & sludge collection
• Frame Platform waste collection
Scrap metal Recycling
Vully Cleaning Services Refuse removal
West Coast Recyclers Recycling

65
3.4.2.
3.4.2. Municipal Waste
Waste Management
Municipal waste as defined in Chapter 2 is the waste collected by municipalities
independently of the source of waste. It can also be defined as the waste collected
by or on the order of municipalities (Sheshinski, 2001). Municipal waste includes
waste originated from households, small businesses, institutions and communities.
Knowing the statistics on municipal waste being produced and managed from
various sources of origin is therefore essential for the purpose of monitoring,
decision-making as well as for the development of waste policies (SWMD, 2004;
SWMD, 2008). In addition, availability of regular and comparable data on
recycling, re-use and disposal of waste plays a role in the implementation of waste
management policies (SEPA, undated). However, of those towns contacted for the
purpose of this dissertation, very few towns in Namibia have reliable waste
statistics. At least the Ondangwa town has recorded that approximately 746.4 tons
of waste is produced from 3000 households annually. Using the overall amount of
waste generated annually in Ondangwa, it can be estimated that at least 0.14kg of
waste is generated per person per day. This figure was calculated by dividing the
total amount of waste produced per year in kilograms by the estimated population
of 15,000** people in the town, which was further divided by 365 days. Based on
the waste audit conducted in Windhoek in 2004, a total of 24,861 tons of waste
was generated by households (SWMD, 2004). On average, the average amount of
waste generated per person per day ranged between 0.19kg and 0.7kg,
depending on the level of household income Further details on waste statistics in
Windhoek are presented in Chapter 4.

In Namibia, the waste prevention principle has been placed as a high priority over
recycling, treatment and disposal of waste by almost all towns of Namibia. This is
evident through the responses from those towns that were consulted to provide

**
The total population of Ondangwa residents is estimated at 14,000. However, approximately
15,000 people are engaged on day-to-day activities in town during the day, some of which do not
reside in town at night.

66
information required for this dissertation. As an approach to prevent illegal
dumping of waste and littering, town municipalities and contractors provide
garbage bins to households, while others are distributed across the central
business areas, near shopping centers and in streets; for people to dispose the
unwanted materials. Further to that, skip containers are allocated in open areas for
use by people in the vicinity, to prevent increasing waste volumes in the
environment. Such practices are prioritized by all towns that were contacted, which
suggests that most of the Namibian towns if not all are investing in distributing
garbage containers. Other principles used to prevent waste and to promote waste
reduction are: awareness campaigns on reduction, re-use and recycling of waste
materials, clean up campaigns and the law enforcement. These are practiced in
many towns of Namibia.

At least 88.9% of the towns that were surveyed practice recycling of waste
materials. Those are mainly the towns that have recycling companies or projects.
The towns that do not have recycling companies do a local collection of waste
materials that are sent to other towns or abroad for recycling. Some towns for
example, Lüderitz recycle both locally and abroad. Towns such as Oranjemund
and Windhoek collect recyclable materials, semi-process and transport them to
South Africa for recycling. The type of waste being recycled in the towns of
Namibia include: cartons, cans, papers, plastics, bottles, beverage cans, glass,
card boards and scrap metals. Nevertheless, pursuing recycling initiatives in most
towns of Namibia is challenged by financial constraints (Benade pers. comm.,
2009; Cotzee pers. comm., 2009; Tjaronda pers. comm., 2009).

Although re-use is one of the waste recovery strategies, not all towns use it
(perhaps for valid reasons). Of the towns that were contacted, 22.2% do not re-
use waste materials. However, others (77.8%) do, re-using materials such as
bottles, cans and metals. An interesting case of a re-use strategy has been
discovered in Oranjemund, where a certain gentleman re-uses used cooking oil as

67
fuel for his truck. In addition, the mine in Oranjemund uses used engine oil for
machinery operations. Furthermore, several residents in some towns for example
Otjiwarongo use waste materials to construct their houses, particularly the informal
settlements.

Treatment of waste as a waste management principle is practiced in all the towns

that were contacted. The common type of waste being treated is
wastewater/sewage. Treated water can be used for domestic purposes as well as
for irrigation of parks and sport fields. Windhoek specifically makes use of treated
water for drinking and irrigation (du Pisani, 2006; Menge, 2006). Treated
wastewater is re-used in the drinking water system of Windhoek particularly
because the town Municipality has more advanced treatment facilities compared to
other towns i.e. anaerobic digesters, activated sludge plants and bio-filters; which
produce high quality water (CSA & Smith, 2007; Menge, 2006). With the exception
of Swakopmund, other towns that were contacted only have waste pond systems
for treating wastewater that can be only used for irrigation. At least Swakopmund
has an activated sewage plant (CSA & Smith, 2007). Having 100% of the
surveyed towns practicing sewage treatment suggests that the majority of
Namibian towns if not all, treat sewage. In fact the Namibia’s Greenhouse Gas
Inventory for year 2000 has confirmed that all towns of Namibia practice sewage
treatment (see Table 3.5.).

68
Table 3.5. Sewage treatment types used in the towns of Namibia
Namibia
Region Town Sewage
Sewage type(s) Region Town Sewage type(s)
Caprivi Katima Mulilo Ponds Kunene Khorixas Ponds
Erongo Walvis Bay Activated Sludge Plant Kunene Outjo Ponds
Erongo Swakopmund Activated Sludge Plant Kunene Opuwo Ponds
Erongo Omaruru Ponds Ohangwena Eenhana Ponds
Erongo Arandis Ponds Omaheke Gobabis Ponds
Erongo Karibib Ponds Omusati Outapi Ponds
Erongo Henties Bay Ponds Oshana Oshakati Ponds
Erongo Usakos Ponds Oshana Ondangwa Ponds
Hardap Rehoboth Ponds Oshana Ongwediva Ponds
Hardap Mariental Ponds Oshikoto Tsumeb Biofiltration plant
Karas Keetmanshoop Ponds Otjozondjupa Otjiwarongo Ponds
Karas Luderitz Ponds Otjozondjupa Grootfontein Ponds
Karas Oranjemund Ponds Otjozondjupa Okahandja Ponds, activated sludge plant
Karas Karasburg Ponds Otjozondjupa Otavi Ponds
Kavango Rundu Ponds Otjozondjupa Okakarara Ponds
Khomas Windhoek Anaerobic digesters, activated
sludge and bio-filters, industrial
waste ponds

Source: CSA & Smith, 2007

68
Apart from wastewater treatment, medical waste is also treated in Oranjemund
and Windhoek through incineration. In Windhoek, incineration of medical waste is
done by the MOHSS, after which the Windhoek Municipality takes care of the
residue. Table 3.6. below shows the type of waste being recycled, re-used and
treated in different towns of Namibia that were conducted during this study.

69
Table 3.6. Types of wastes being recycled, re-
re-used and treated in various towns of Namibia

Luderitz Mariental Ondangwa Ongwediva Oshakati Oranjemund Otjiwarongo Swakopmund Windhoek

Town

• Cartons • Bottles • Bottles • Iron • Bottles • Bottles • None • Glass • Glass

• Cans • Scrap metals • Tins • Tins • Plastics • Papers • Papers • Papers
• Papers • Papers • Papers • Bottles • Cans • Cans • Plastic • Metals
• Plastics • boxes • Metals • Card boards • Carton boxes • Metal • Plastics
• Bricks • Scrap metals • Carton boxes
• Etc. • Textile
Recyclables

• Wood
• Bricks
• Etc.
• None • Bottles • Plastics • Cans • Bottles • Cooking oil • Cans • None (products • Cans
• Bottles • Bottles • Cans • Engine oil • Bottles are only • Bottles
• Tins • Aluminium • Treated water • Recyclables collected to be • Scrap metals
• Papers (only collected • Corrugated iron re-used in other • Corrugated iron
• Metals and send to • Wood towns) • Bricks
• Bricks Windhoek) • Treated water • Treated water • Treated water
Re--used
Re

• Sewage • Sewage • Sewage • Sewage • Sewage • Sewage • Sewage • Sewage • Sewage

• Medical • Medical waste
waste
Treated

70
In all the towns that were contacted, there are organized methods of collecting
waste from households. On a weekly basis, refuse trucks go from house to house
using the ‘door-to-door system’ to remove household waste from the provided
bins. Most of such trucks belong to contractors; being contracted by town
municipalities and councils. Nonetheless, some of the waste generated by
households, for example, building rubbles are collected on an ad hoc basis, upon
request. Additionally, in some towns, for example Swakopmund and Windhoek,
individuals and companies also take their wastes to the waste disposal sites. The
same will be practiced in Oranjemund in future. Waste generated by businesses is
also collected by refuse trucks, at least more than once a week, depending on the
volume of waste produced. Such an arrangement prevents people getting to dump
their own waste and get exposed to unhealthy environments at the disposal sites.

Using data collected at the regional levels, there are high percentages of garbage
collection from household in the Erongo Region, followed by Khomas, Karas and
Otjozondjupa Regions respectively (Table 3.7). However, when looking at the
proportions of people living in urban areas, high percentages of people living the
Khomas Region reside in the urban areas, followed by Erongo, Karas and
Otjozondjupa. Despite the fact the data presented in Table 3.7 does not present
the actual situation in individual towns, it suggests that the majority of households
is not connected to waste collection systems. Nonetheless, for those towns where
waste is collected from all households and collection points in neighbourhoods, for
example skip containers, there is a match between the percentage of garbage
collection from households and the percentage of urban population. Windhoek in
the Khomas Region is a good example among others.

71
Table 3.7. Water, toilet
toilet and garbage data by region

Region Water (m3) Water Toilet, flush Toilet, Garbage No.

No. of Population No. living in % living in
(m3/head) % of bush% of collected, % households main urban main urban
households households of areas areas
households
Caprivi 2,622,191 33 13.3 83.4 31.5 16,839 78,785 22,134 28.1
Erongo 8,742,045 85 80.3 11.5 87.7 27,496 103,180 86,091 83.4
Hardap 3,160,883 48 49.6 34.0 58.3 15,039 66,028 31,144 47.2
Karas 3,707,581 58 57.8 26.0 76.8 15,481 64,039 37,599 58.7
Kavango 3,331,759 17 7.3 81.3 30.6 30,467 198,963 36,964 18.6
Khomas 13,130,931 54 75.3 20.2 87.3 58,580 243,585 233,529 95.9
Kunene 2,317,043 35 26,2 65.5 45.6 12,489 66,385 17,004 25.6
Ohangwena 360,097 2 3.2 88.8 45.3 35,958 226,416 2,814 1.2
Omaheke 1,092,173 16 32.2 62.2 34.5 12,590 66,779 13,856 20.7
Omusati 781,319 3 3.3 83.0 42.4 38,202 226,337 2,640 1.2
Oshana 3,478,191 22 19.2 49.2 53.3 29,557 158,181 49,897 31.5
Oshikoto 488,767 3 15.9 70.2 43.1 28,419 158,352 14,929 9.5
Otjozondjupa 3,924,677 34 47.8 42.7 64.5 25,338 116,205 55,011 47.3
Total 47,137,656 27 34.4 54.2 42.4 346,455 1,773,235 603,612 34.0
The water data presented in the above Table was obtained from NamWater (for those towns that have their own systems, data from such systems was not
included). In addition, the population, garbage, toilet and urban distribution data were based on the 2001 Population and Housing Census
The garbage collection data includes the sum, regular and irregular collection as well as roadside dumping, mainly skip collection (CSA & Smith 2007).

72
For the purpose of waste disposal, only two of the towns that were contacted
dispose waste at open dumping sites, the rest use landfill sites for disposal.
However, one of those two towns has considered using a landfill in future, and an
EIA for the site has already been contacted. A landfill site can either be a hole in
the ground which is filled with waste, or an engineered facility that is designed to
dispose waste (DWAF, 1998). Landfills differ in types, sizes and in potentials to
threaten the environment. They are covered with a layer of soil at the end of each
day’s operation by trash compactors. Waste materials being disposed of at the
disposal sites in various towns include: household waste, building rubbles, garden
refuse, industrial waste, hospital waste and general waste. Hazardous waste is
disposed of at specially engineered landfill sites. So far, only Windhoek and Walvis
Bay have suitable sites for disposing hazardous waste (SoER, 2001). Some of the
towns that have engineered landfill sites for example Windhoek and Oranjemund
dispose waste of in different landfill cells, based on their classifications.

Of the towns that were contacted, 33.3% of them considered conducting EIAs
upon the selection of disposal sites. However, 33.3% of the respondents were not
sure whether EIAs were contacted for their towns or not. The remaining 33.3% did
not conduct EIAs upon the selection of their sites at all. However, according to the
minimum requirements for waste disposal by landfill for South Africa, EIAs should
be conducted for both medium-sized general waste landfills and hazardous waste
landfills (DWAF, 1998).

Essentially, waste disposal sites (both the open dumping and landfill sites) should
be monitored. Monitoring of waste disposal sites needs to be carried out in order
ensure that any environmental impact is identified and rectified (DWAF, 1998). Of
the towns that were contacted, at least 77.8% monitor their disposal sites. This
gives an impression that disposal sites in most towns of Namibia are monitored.
For those towns that do the monitoring, they mostly monitor the type waste being
disposed of and basically ensure that the site is in an acceptable condition. A few

73
of them, for example, Windhoek monitors the amount of waste being disposed of,
using the weighbridge method of measuring waste weight; whereby the vehicle
carrying waste load is weighed upon entry into the site and after waste disposal.
The difference in the truck weight before and after waste disposal is then recorded
as the amount of waste being disposed of (Haindongo, pers. comm., 2009).
Monitoring of waste at disposal sites is a responsibility of site care takers and
contractors such as Enviro-Fill, Move-a-Mess and Rent-a-Drum; done on a regular
basis, mostly once a week. However it can be more than once a week. Some
towns for example Ongwediva, Ondangwa and Windhoek do the monitoring of
waste disposal as often as waste is being disposed of.

In terms of security, most of the disposal sites are fenced off and are guarded.
The guards direct people of where to dispose waste. However, some of the
disposal sites are being vandalized by scavengers, who survive on collecting and
selling waste materials (SoER, 2001). Thus, guarding the disposal sites does not
guarantee vandalism prevention.

Overall, the waste management practices for Namibia are summarized in Figure
3.2 below.

74
 RECYCLING/ TREATMENT
RE-
RE-USE
PREVENTION

WASTE MANAGEMENT DISPOSAL

IN
NAMIBIA

STAKEHOLDER
USE OF LEGAL
INVOLVEMENT
FRAMEWORK

Figure 3.2:
3.2: Principles of Waste Management in Namibia

3.4.3.
3.4.3. Legal Framework
In improving its performance in environmental management, Namibia is continually
placing efforts in developing legal frameworks in order to ensure implementation of
best environmental management practices to maintain a healthy environment.
Article 95 of the Constitution of the Republic of Namibia has clearly pointed out
that the state shall actively promote and maintain the welfare of people by
adopting inter alia policies aimed at maintenance of ecosystems, ecological
processes, biological diversity of Namibia and the utilization of living natural

75
resources on a sustainable basis for the benefit of all Namibians both present and
future generations (NC, 1990). This includes a development of policies
contributing to improved environmental management practices for the benefit of
the present and future generations. Specifically in terms of waste management,
Article 95 has made it clear that the state shall provide measures against the
dumping and recycling of foreign nuclear and toxic waste on Namibia’s territory.
The Namibian Constitution should therefore be viewed as the driving force behind
the development of the policies and all laws currently in use.

Furthermore, environmental management in Namibia is being promoted by the

Environmental Management Act No. 7 of 2007 (EMA, 2007). This Act has set out
some principles that must be adhered to when it comes to applying environmental
management measures. Many of such principles apply to the management of the
environment as a whole; however, there are those that are specifically of
relevance to waste management (see Box 3.1 below). In terms of waste
management and pollution control, a Bill was passed in 1999 that emphasizes the
prevention and regulation of air, water and land pollutants, as well as an
establishment of an appropriate framework for integrated pollution prevention and
control, regulation of noise, dust and odour (MET, 2006). It has also stressed the
need for establishing a system of waste planning and management. The Pollution
Control and Waste Management Bill is currently in a process of being promulgated
into an Act (Nghitila pers. comm., 2009).

76
 Box 3.1.
3.1. Environmental Management Principles of Relevance to Waste Management in
Namibia (Adapted
(Adapted from EMA, 2007)
Renewable resources must be used on a sustainable basis for the benefit of present
and future generations.
Assessments must be undertaken for activities which may have significance on the
environment or the use of the natural resources.
Sustainable development must be promoted in all aspects relating to the environment.
The option that provides the most benefits or causes the least damage to the
environment as a whole, at a cost acceptable to the society, in the long-term as well as
short-term must be adopted to reduce the generation of waste and polluting
substances at source.
The reduction, re-use, and recycling of waste must be promoted.
A person who causes damage to the environment must pay the costs associated with
rehabilitation of damage to the environment and to human health caused by pollution,
including costs for measures as are reasonably required to be implemented to prevent
further environmental damage.
Where there is sufficient evidence which establishes that there are threats or serious
or irreversible damage to the environment, lack of scientific certainty may not be used
as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental
degradation.
Damage to the environment must be prevented and activities which cause such
damage must be reduced, limited or controlled.

Handling of waste is a legal issue. Consequently, it has become a law in Namibia

that no waste should be discarded at any waste disposal site that has not been
declared or approved by the Minister of Environment and Tourism (EMA, 2007;
MET, 2008). For this reason, it is an offence to discard or to cause waste to be
discarded in an unapproved site. Anyone who commits such an offence will
therefore be liable of a fine that does not exceed N$500,000.00 or to an
imprisonment for a period not exceeding 25 years or to both fine and
imprisonment. As an environmental law, it is essential that the ‘polluter pay’s
principle’ should be applied to avoid undesirable environmental consequences.
With such a principle, individuals, companies and public authorities involved in any
polluting activities are held responsible for costs involved in preventing or dealing

77
with pollution caused by such activities to ensure that the environment is in an
‘acceptable state’ (Birnie & Boyle, 2002; Glazewski, 2005). This principle is only
applied by in a few of the towns (44.4%) that were contacted (see Table 3.8). In
addition, there is another principle known as ‘user pays principle’, which requires
the users of waste resources to pay the service providers for the services
rendered for the management of such resources. This principle is only applied in a
few towns in Namibia, including Lüderitz and Windhoek. Furthermore, another
principle known as the ‘product-steward principle’, a principle that requires the
waste producers or importers of waste products to take responsibilities towards
the minimization of environmental impacts by the products is not much applied. Of
the towns that were contacted, only Mariental and Windhoek apply such a
principle.

Table 3.8
3.8. Environmental law principles used in
in various towns of Namibia
Town Polluter Pays Principle User Pays Principle Product-
Product-stewardship
Principle
Luderitz No Yes No
Mariental Yes xx Yes
Ondangwa No No No
Ongwediva No No No
Oshakati No and Yes No No
Otjiwarongo xx xx xx
Swakopmund Yes Yes No
Windhoek Yes Yes Yes
xx – no information was provided

As far as environmental law is concerned, it is important to have some sorts of

guidelines or a legal framework that guides the management of waste (OECD,
2007). At least all the towns that were contacted use some guidelines, policies or
regulations for waste management. Based on these results, it is assumed that the
majority of towns in Namibia, if not all, use some guiding frameworks to manage
waste. Worth mentioning, the Environmental Management Act No. 7 of 2007 has
made it clear that no waste and sewage disposal or chemical treatment should be

78
undertaken without an environmental clearance certificate (EMA, 2007). Anyone
who goes beyond this law is charged a fine not exceeding N$500,000.00 or to an
imprisonment for a period not exceeding 25 years or to both fine and
imprisonment. An environmental clearance certificate is a certificate that may set
conditions for carrying out activities that have potential environmental
consequences (MET, 2008). Such activities may fall into the following categories:
land use and transformation, water use and disposal, removal of resources
(including natural living resources), resource renewal, industrial processes,
agricultural processes, transportation, waste and sewage disposal, energy
generation and distribution, and recreation.

The legal frameworks of relevance to waste management in Namibia are

described in Table 3.9 below.

79
Table 3.9
3.9. Some of the relevant legal frameworks to waste management in
Namibia
Framework Emphasis
Atmospheric Pollution Prevention of pollution of the atmosphere.
Prevention Act No. 45 of 1965
Basel Convention on the Environmental sound management of hazardous waste and
Control of Transboundary other wastes through the reduction of their movements, for the
Movement of Hazardous purpose of reducing their impacts on human health and
Wastes and their Disposal, environment.
1992
Hazardous Substances Control of toxic substances (including manufacture, use,
Ordinance No. 14 of 1974 disposal, import and export).
Pollution Control and Waste Prevention and regulation of air, water and land pollutants;
Management Bill of 1999 establishment of an appropriate framework for integrated
pollution prevention and control, regulation of noise, dust and
odour, as well as an establishment of a system of waste
planning and management.
Pollution Prevention Ordinance Prevention of air pollution.
No. 11 of 1976
Prevention and Combating of Prohibits the discharge of oil from ships, tanker or off-shore
Pollution of Sea by Oil Act No. installation and gives the state certain powers to prevent such
6 of 1981 pollution and deal with removal of oil spills.
Prevention and combating of Prevention of sea pollution by oil.
pollution of the sea by oil Act
24 of 1991
UN Convention on the Law of Protection and preservation of the marine environment
the sea, 1982 including the seabed, ocean floor, subsoil and the resources in
the environment.
Water Resources Management Prevention of water pollution.
Act No. 24 of 2004

3.5. Conclusion
Namibia´s economy depends largely on the wealth and exploitation of natural
resources. Sound environmental management is essential for the protection of

80
resources, for reducing negative environmental impacts and in fact for economic
growth. Environmental management in Namibia is a priority for the government,
NGOs, local authorities, private sector and communities. Stakeholder participation
in environmental management is encouraged by the Environmental Management
Act of Namibia.

In terms of the socio-economy, high unemployment, poverty, income inequality,

pandemic HIV and AIDS, and lack of skills are the major challenges in Namibia.
The national economy depends on 3 major sectors: primary, secondary and
tertiary; with the tertiary sector being the biggest contributor to GDP. The mining
sector under the primary sector is the greatest contributor to GDP in the private
sector, due to diamond mining. Over the years, an increase in the GDP per capita
has been experienced. Notable in terms of economic development, the national
economy is affected by changes in the global economy. For the purpose of
developing the national economy, Namibia is promoting the sustainable use of
resources while at the same time meeting people’s needs. Furthermore, Namibia
would like to ensure environmental sustainability through strengthening the
management of its natural resources.

Today, Namibia is promoting the concept of sustainable development in all

aspects of environmental management. In its effort to achieve sustainable
development, it is promoting institutional development, social development and
natural resource management. Namibia also makes use legal frameworks both at
the local and international levels, and it encourages stakeholder involvement in all
aspects striving towards sustainable development. At the national level, Namibia
has also developed some frameworks such as the National Poverty Reduction
Action Programme, National Development Plans and Vision 2030. It is also a
global partner to the MDGs and is a signatory to many environmental conventions.
The DEA under MET is the leading agency for promoting sustainable development
in Namibia.

81
Waste management in Namibia is needed to reduce waste generation and to
avoid negative environmental impacts. This is of essence particularly due to the
increasing population and economic activities, which play a role in waste
generation. Waste management in Namibia is a responsibility of all residents, local
authorities, government ministries, private sector and businesses. A number of
waste management stakeholders have been identified in different towns of
Namibia. Even so, waste management is a priority for the government, with
different government ministries being involved in formulating policies and
strategies for dealing with waste and its management. The municipal waste is
handled by town municipalities and councils, with support from private contractors.

The ‘3R principle’ is being promoted in Namibia, whereby reduction is more

prioritized, followed by re-use and recycling. Waste is being prevented in all towns
of Namibia through the provision of bins and skips to households, in business
areas and in streets; as well as through awareness campaigns on waste reduction,
re-use and recycling. The recycling principle is being practiced by many towns of
Namibia, however not in all. Common waste products being recycled are: bottles,
cans, papers, metals and plastics. Although not all, some towns re-use waste
products such as bottles, cans and plastics. When it comes to the treatment of
waste, sewage treatment is a common aspect in all towns that do waste treatment,
in fact all towns of Namibia. Medicinal waste is treated in some towns.

Waste is collected on a regular basis by refuse trucks from households and

business areas. However, some wastes such as building rubbles are collected on
an ad hoc basis, upon request. Waste disposal is done at open dumping and
landfill sites, with more landfill sites than open dumping sites in different towns.
Most of these are being monitored and most are fenced off and guarded, however
many are being vandalized by the scavengers.

82
In terms of legal frameworks, the National Constitution of Namibia is promoting
sound environmental management as well as a development of policies. Further to
that, the Environmental Management Act of Namibia is promoting sound
environmental management and has set out some laws regarding the handling of
waste, including charging of fines and imprisonment of waste producers. Despite
its importance, the ‘polluter pays principle’ is only applied in a few towns in
Namibia. Most importantly, there are many legal frameworks of relevance to waste
management that are used in Namibia, including international conventions. Legal
frameworks are essential to ensure sound management of waste as well as
reduction of negative environmental impacts.

83
CHAPTER 4:
4: MUNICIPAL WASTE MANAGEMENT IN WINDHOEK

4.1.
4.1. Introduction

Windhoek the capital city of Namibia is located between Khomas Highland, Auas
and Eros Mountains (Map 4.1). With a population of approximately 296,000
people; Windhoek is home to various traditional groups: Hereros, Owambos,
Damaras, Namas, Caprivians, Kavangos, Sans, Tswanas, Basters; and the
western groups comprising Germans, Afrikaner, English and Portuguese (CoW,
undated; SWMD, 2008). Windhoek offers a range of unique experiences that do
attract tourists. Features such as national monuments, historical buildings,
museums and the general environment have made Windhoek a tourism
destination. Today, Windhoek is said to be the cleanest city in Africa.

MONTE
MONTE CHRISTO
MONTE CHRISTO
CHRISTO

DOBRA
DOBRA
DOBRA
DOBRA

ONGOS
ONGOS
ONGOS

NUBUAMIS
NUBUAMIS B
NUBUAMIS B
B HOFFNUNG
HOFFNUNG
HOFFNUNG

NUBUAMIS
NUBUAMIS
NUBUAMIS
NUBUAMIS
GAMMAMS
GAMMAMS
GAMMAMS

AUGEIGAS
AUGEIGAS
AUGEIGAS

KLEIN
KLEIN WINHOEK
KLEIN WINHOEK TOWN
WINHOEK TOWN AND
TOWN AND TOWNLANDS
AND TOWNLANDS
TOWNLANDS

WINDHOEK
WINDHOEK
WINDHOEK TOWN
WINDHOEK TOWN AND
TOWN AND
TOWN TOWNLANDS
AND TOWNLANDS
AND TOWNLANDS
TOWNLANDS

Map 4.1.
4.1. Map of Windhoek (Source: City of Windhoek)
Windhoek)

84
The Windhoek Municipality, csommonly known as ‘City of Windhoek’, is committed
to the management of the environment through making use of the principles of
sound environmental management in all development efforts and in the promotion
of improved quality of life for all residents of Windhoek (CoW, 2008a). It renders
environmental practices that aim to ensure a healthy, clean and secure
environment for all residents; while at the same time creating an environment for
socio-economic and sustainable development. In the view of environmental
management at large, the Department of Planning, Urbanization and Environment
within the City of Windhoek plays a major role. Specifically in terms of waste
management, the Department of Infrastructure, Water and Waste Management
plays a significant role.

Environmental management in Windhoek is however challenged by the flocking of

people from rural areas in search of better standards of living. Consequently,
problems such as unemployment, low-incomes, poverty, resource exploitation,
poor quality of life and urbanization are experienced (CoW, 2008a). Generally,
factors such as increasing population, urbanization and industrialization are known
to contribute to waste production and pollution, which further threatens the
environment (UNFPA, 2001). Windhoek is not an exception to this. As a result,
suitable waste disposal sites have to be sought. In addition, all applicable waste
management principles need to be applied. This chapter has discussed how the
municipal waste is dealt with in Windhoek. It has also briefly elaborated on how
other stakeholders other than the Windhoek Municipality deal with waste.

4.2.
4.2. Waste Prevention within the Windhoek
Windhoek Municipal Area

The Division of Solid Waste Management within the City of Windhoek is

acknowledged for keeping Windhoek the cleanest town in Africa (CoW, 2008a). It
ensures that all waste generated is collected, transported and disposed of
(Benade pers. comm., 2009). Through this division, the City of Windhoek provides
households and business areas with 240L containers referred to as ‘wheelie bins’

85
to serve the waste management needs (see Figure 4.1). Such bins are only meant
for some types of waste such as food waste, domestic refuse, commercial waste
and all light materials that may not cause any damage to the containers. Other
types of waste such as stones, wood, bricks, iron sheet, sand, heavy metals, tree
branches and grass are not to be stored in the wheelie bins. These can be stored
in big containers called ‘skips’, that are distributed in some residential areas,
including informal residential areas where illegal dumping of waste has been
experienced (Figure 4.2). The informal residential areas are those areas where the
basic residential services such as proper housing, water, sewerage and electricity
are lacking (Quilan & McCarthy, 1995).

Figure 4.1.
4.1. A 240L wheelie bin for storing household and commercial waste
(Source: City of Windhoek)

86
Figure 4.2.
4.2. A skip container for storing waste that cannot be stored in wheelie bins
and waste generated in open spaces
(Source:
(Source: City of Windhoek)

In addition, black garbage bags are provided on a weekly basis to store waste
generated in informal settlements and in open spaces, based on the need. These
are provided by private contractors for the Solid Waste Management Division.
Smaller garbage bins are also distributed along the streets by the Solid Waste
Management Division, to prevent littering. Provision of garbage bins and skips
within the residential area and central business district (CBD) is mainly a
responsibility of the City of Windhoek. However, this job is shared with private
contractors, one of which is the Rent-a-Drum Group of Companies; which also
goes beyond providing services within residential areas and business areas to
industrial areas. Most importantly, the Solid Waste Management Division has to
ensure that waste is disposed in a safe and acceptable manner (Haindongo pers.
comm., 2009).

Apart from solid waste prevention, it is essential that pollution should be prevented
by all means. Research has shown that air pollution in Namibia is not as significant
as in other countries (CoW, 2008a). However, waste in general emits greenhouse
gases. Specifically in Windhoek, the Gammams sewage plant digesters emit
methane (CH4), which is related to the mass of organic matter (CSA & Smith,
2007). Therefore, taking into consideration the negative impacts of pollution and

87
the need to protect the environmental integrity, pollution has to be prevented in
Windhoek by all means. Consequently, the City of Windhoek’s Division of Bulk
Water and Waste Water is committed to controlling pollution resulting from
industries, whereby effluents generated from industries such as breweries, meat
companies etc. are continually monitored to ensure they don’t contaminate the
usable water (Iiputa pers. comm., 2009). For this reason, water samples are taken
on a monthly basis to test for chemical parameters, mainly the Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD). The COD tests measure the amount of oxygen absorbed, which
indirectly indicates the amount of pollution in a water sample (BD, 2009). The test
results indicate the amount of oxygen dissolved in water that has been consumed
by the contaminants. Should the volume of oxygen absorbed exceed 70mg/L, it
means water is contaminated. As a result, industries are charged a fee because of
the contamination. The amount of oxygen absorbed is calculated using the
following formula:

[ ]
Qeff = 306,81 1+ 0.2 OA – 70 cents
70

The Scientific Services Division of the City of Windhoek also plays a role in the
monitoring of water pollution. This division places efforts in monitoring various
parameters that determine the water quality (Menge pers. comm., 2009).
Parameters being monitored are: aesthetic (e.g. pH, conductivity, temperature,
turbidity, alkalinity etc.), bacteria & viruses (e.g. total coliform, faecal coliform, E
Coli typtone, faecal streptococci etc.), protozoa (Giardia & Cryptosporidium),
organics & micropollutants (e.g. DOC), disinfection by-products (e.g. free chlorine,
total chlorine, total trihalomethane, chloroform, bromoform etc.), stability (CaCO3
precipitation), natural & effluent organic matter (e.g. Ammonia, Ortho phosphate,
Nitrate etc.), and inorganics (Potassium, Sodium, Chlorine, Sulphate, Fluorine,
Bromine, Magnesium and Iron). These are tested in boreholes, surface water,
reclaimed water and in reservoirs, tested against specific concentration standards,
which if exceeded indicate some degrees of contamination. The concentrations of

88
the dissolved substances are expressed as mg/L and µm/L, which could be easily
detected by the current systems in place. It is however a concern that some
concentrations of dissolved substances may not be detected, particularly those
that may be present in unmeasurable concentrations (e.g fg/L or pg/L). This is now
the challenge facing the division in terms of water pollution monitoring.

4.3.
4.3. Waste Collection
Waste generated from households is collected by the Solid Waste Management
Division. Business waste is collected by both the Solid Waste Management
Division and private companies, while the waste generated from industrial areas
and from open spaces is specifically collected by individual contractors and private
companies. The responsibility over skip removal is shared between the Solid
Waste Management Division and a private company, Rent-a-Drum. In addition,
contractors employ individuals to do the collection of waste from business areas
and informal areas, to pick litter, and to clean open spaces (Haindongo, pers.
comm., 2009; van Wyk pers. comm., 2009). Collection of waste is basically done
to avoid overloading of garbage bins and skips, to improve the aesthetic view, to
minimize health impacts and to avoid surface and groundwater pollution. In
principle, all types of waste, both hazardous and non-hazardous waste can have
negative impacts on the environment. Thus, collecting them has been placed as a
priority (CoW, 2008b).

In general, increasing population is a challenge to waste management. As the

number of people increases, the rate of waste generation increases too (DWAF,
1998; UNFPA, 2001; Walmsley & Bottem, 1994). Nonetheless, the amount of
waste generated may also depend on the living conditions, particularly due to the
fact that rich people generally generate more waste than the poor people (CoW,
2008a; SoER, 2001; SWMD, 2008). Having a high concentration of poor people in
an area can however also increase the amount of waste generated (Henry et al.,
2006). Consequently, poor people suffer the consequences of waste as they often
live in the worst conditions.

89
Given the above challenges associated with waste, it makes sense that the
collection of waste has been placed as a priority by the City of Windhoek. This is
one of the main reasons that the Solid Waste Management Division has
commissioned various contractors to take care of waste collection and disposal.
On a weekly basis, waste is collected from all households within the municipal
area (Haindongo pers. comm., 2009). Bulky waste generated at the household
level can be collected on an ad hoc basis, upon request. Waste generated from
businesses is collected weekly, based on the amount generated. Waste from skip
containers is collected on a daily basis, as long as they have reached their
maximum capacities. Nevertheless, collection of waste from informal residential
areas can be problematic, given the increasing population there (CoW, 2008a).

4.4.
4.4. Waste
Waste Disposal
In Windhoek, there are six general landfill sites known as ‘satellite sites’ where
garden refuse and building rubbles are disposed of. These are located in various
locations within the Windhoek municipal area, namely: Havana, Khomasdal,
Pioneerspark, Eros, Olympia and Ludwigsdorf. As defined earlier in Chapter 3, a
landfill site is an engineered facility that is designed to dispose waste. The general
objective of a landfill is to avoid both long-term and short-term environmental
impacts such as odour, flies, air pollution, wind-blown litter, groundwater pollution
and landfill gas generation (DWAF, 1998). For this reason, it is essential that
public acceptance of landfills is ensured, by ensuring environmental acceptability.
Landfills are therefore operated to avoid creating nuisances or hazards to public
health and to prevent negative environmental impacts. To reduce the amount of
wastes disposed of in landfills, waste is compacted using an earth-moving
machinery, referred to as a trash compactor. Compaction of waste is essential, as
it saves space on the landfill, while at the same time controlling wind-blown litter
(DWAF, 1998). Landfills are covered with a layer of soil at the end of each day’s
operation to improve the visual appearance of the site and to reduce odour.

90
Apart from the satellite sites, general and hazardous waste is disposed of at a
specially engineered landfill site known as Kupferberg that is located about 11 km
from the city centre. Some landfills are designed in such a way that they are
divided into cells which allow segregation of incompatible wastes (DWAF, 1998;
WBG, 1998b). Such a division is based on their potential to generate significant
leachate, with an unacceptable high pollution possibility (DWAF, 1998). The same
applies to the Kupferberg landfill site, where two separate cells are used for the
purpose of waste disposal. General wastes generated from households,
commercial and industrial activities are disposed of in the general cell; while the
hazardous wastes are disposed of in the hazardous cell (Haindongo pers. comm.,
2009). The two waste disposal facilities are adjacent to one another but separated
by a mesh wire fence. Hazardous wastes are a threat to public health and to the
environment at large, therefore they need to be properly managed and well
regulated (WBG, 1998b). For this reason, landfills designed to accommodate
hazardous waste are lined, often with double or triple layers, and have leachate
collection facilities (DWAF, 1998; WBG, 1998b). Specifically at the Kupferberg
landfill site, there are lining layers that prevent any leakage of leachate from
contaminating the soil and groundwater. Table 4.1 below presents the sources and
types of hazardous wastes.

91
Table 4.1.
4.1. Types and sources of hazardous
hazardous waste
Type of hazardous waste Source
Inorganic waste Acids and alkalis, cyanide waste, heavy metal
sludges and waste containing appreciable
proportions of fibrous asbestos
Oily waste Waste from the processing, storage and use of
mineral oils
Organic waste Halogenated solvent residues, non-halogenated
solvent residues, phenolic waste, paint and
resin waste and organic chemical residues
Putrescible organic waste Waste from the production of edible animal and
vegetable oils, slaughter houses, tanneries and
other animal and vegetable based products
High volume/low hazardous waste Waste that contains small quantities of highly
dispersed hazardous substances e.g. sewage
sludge, building rubbles which are contaminated
by heavy metals, oils and other pollutants
Miscellaneous waste Infectious waste such as diseased
human/animal tissues, medical waste,
laboratory waste and waste from manufacturing

Source: DWAF, 1998

Monitoring of landfill sites is an important mechanism that is applied throughout

the operations of the sites. It includes being on the look out for the impacts of the
landfill on the receiving environment such as gas production, water pollution,
leachate generation and health impacts (DWAF, 1998). At the Kupferberg landfill
site, groundwater is monitored on a quarterly basis by the Scientific Services
Division of the City of Windhoek, whereby water quality is tested to see whether
there is any contamination (Iiputa pers. comm., 2009). A consultant has been hired
to monitor the water quality in the boreholes around the site. If any contamination
is detected, the Scientific Services Division acts, either by determining whether
groundwater has been polluted or advise on the frequency of sampling as well as
the on specific parameters to be monitored.

92
Monitoring also includes taking records of the type and amounts of waste being
disposed of at the landfill sites. Such a practice is applied at all landfill sites in
Windhoek. At the sites, masses of waste disposed of are measured using the
weighbridge method as described in Chapter 3. Records for the City of Windhoek
have shown that approximately 20100 m3 of waste is managed per month at the
satellite sites, of which 59% (11850 m3) is building rubble while 41% (8250 m3) is
garden refuse (Uvanga pers. comm., 2009). Assuming the two types of waste are
not compacted, the amount of building rubbles handled at the satellite sites per
month is roughly 23,700 tons; while the amount of garden refuse handled is
roughly 2,475 tons. These weights were calculated using the following average
tonnages per cubic metre:

1 m3 of building rubbles ~ average 2.0 tons/m3

1 m3 of garden refuse ~ average 0,3 tons/m3

The average amounts of building rubbles and garden refuse disposed of at the
satellite sites per month in 2008 are presented in Figure 4.3. Of the six satellite
sites, Eros received the largest amount of building rubbles, followed by
Pioneerspark and Olympia respectively. The Havana site received the largest
amount of garden refuse, followed by Pioneerspark and Eros respectively.
Altogether, a total of 84,957.2 m3 (approx. 169,915.4 tons) of building rubbles and
88,170.75 m3 (approx. 26,442.23 tons) of garden refuse were disposed of at the
satellite sites during 2008, whereby approximately 7079.77 m3 (approx. 14,159.54
tons) of building rubbles and 7347.56 m3 (2,204.27 tons) garden refuse were
disposed of per month. In addition to the building rubbles and garden refuse,
unwanted sand is also disposed at the satellite sites. The total amount of sand
disposed of at the satellite sites in 2008 was 59,958 m3 which is approximately
119,916 tons, using a conversion factor of 2tons/m3. On a monthly basis, an
average of 5,485 m3 was disposed of at all six sites. This is more or less

93
equivalent to 10,970 tons. Between the six satellite sites, most sand was disposed
of at Pioneerspark and Eros, while the least sand was disposed of at Ludwigsdorf.

3500
A v erage amount dis pos ed of per

3000

2500
month (m 3)

2000

1500

1000

500

0
Khomasdal Havana Eros Ludwigsdorf Olympia Pioneerspark

Landfill s ite loc ation

Building rubbles Garden refuse Sand & fill

Figure 4.3. Average amounts of building rubbles and garden refuse disposed of at
the six satellite sites in 2008
(Source: City of
of Windhoek)

At the Kupferberg landfill site, approximately 93% of general waste and at least
7% of hazardous waste are managed per month (Uvanga, pers. comm., 2009).
The exact amount of waste that was disposed of at Kupferberg between January
and December 2008 are presented in Table 4.2 below.

94
Table 4.2.
4.2. Amount of waste disposed of at the Kupferberg landfill site in 2008
Month General waste Hazardous waste
(tons)
(tons) (tons)
(tons)
January 4,950.06 304.18
February 5,654.88 463.30
March 5,522.50 573.76
April 5,218.40 466.90
May 5,121.52 411.90
June 5,687.24 422.38
July 5,803.04 353.16
August 5,461.35 344.54
September 5,976.24 411.74
October 6,525.36 524.48
November 5,877.60 304.28
December 6,127.33 389.96
Total/year 67,925.52 4,970.58
Average/month
Average/month 5,660.46 414.22

Using the estimated Windhoek population of 269,000, the above data suggest that
roughly an amount of general waste that was disposed of at Kupferberg in 2008
was 229.48 kg per capita per year, while the amount of hazardous waste disposed
per capita per year was 16.8 kg. Looking at the average amounts that were
disposed of per month, 19.12 kg and 1.4 kg of general waste and hazardous
waste were disposed per capita respectively. However, it would have been better
to have the exact amounts of weights generated from various sources, for
example households, industries and commercial activities, since the amounts of
waste presented in Table 4.2 are not from one source. The more sophisticated the
system is in being aware of how much waste is generated from which source, the
more the data processing would be able to produce detailed outcomes. The
method used by the researcher to calculate the amount of waste being disposed
per capita is due to the available data and was suggested by the research
supervisor (Berchtold pers. comm., 2009).

95
In order to determine waste compositions from the overall general waste disposed
of at Kupferberg in 2008, calculations were made based on the waste fractions
presented in Table 4.3 below, that were worked out in a study conducted by the
Windhoek City Engineers in 2004 (CSA & Smith, 2007).

Table 4.3. Contents of solid

solid waste in Windhoek
Windhoek
General Waste % Weight % Volume Kg/day/town Tonnes
dwellers
Metal 4 6 10,498 3,800
Glass 14 7 36,742 14,400
Ceramics 0 0 0 0
Plastic containers 4 14 47,239 17,200
Plastic (soft) 7 14 10,498 3,800
Organic food products 15 7 39,366 14,400
Garden refuse 32 16 83,981 30,700
Wood/timber 1 1 2,624 1,000
Paper (plain) 9 14 23,620 8,600
Paper (carton) 6 15 15,746 5,700
Total 92 94 24,
24,1445 88,1
88,100

Source: CSA & Smith (2007)

Table 4.4 below presents the estimated compositions of waste disposed of at

Kupferberg in 2008, calculated using the percentage weights for various waste
compositions presented in Table 4.3. In addition, the percentage weights that were
calculated during the household waste audit of 2008 for the Solid Waste
Management Division were used to estimate the compositions of waste disposed
of at Kupferberg, for comparison.

Out of the total amount of waste disposed of at Kupferberg in 2008, it was

estimated that garden waste, unclassified waste, organic food products and glass
were disposed in large amounts, based on the fractions that were calculated in the
Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report of 2007 and the Household Waste Audit Report

96
of 2008 (CSA & Smith, 2007; SWMD, 2008). Both reports determined that metals
do not make large contributions to the overall waste generated or disposed of.

Table 4.4. Waste compositions disposed of at Kupferberg in 2008

2008

General Waste % Weight Estimated % Weight Estimated

(based on the GHG weight (based on the weight
inventory)
inventory) (tonnes) audit report) (tonnes)
Metal 4 2,717.02 2.8 1,901.92
Glass 14 9509.50 15.8 10,732.23
Ceramics 0 0 1.7 1,154.73
Plastic containers 4 2,717.01 8.6 5,841.59
Plastic (soft) 7 4,754.79 4.9 3,083.35
Organic food products 15 10,188.83 9.8 6,166.70
Wood/timber 1 679.26
Paper (plain) 9 6,113.30 8.6 5,841.60
Paper (carton) 6 4,075.53 4.7 3,192.50
Garden refuse 32 21,736.17 19.4 12,207.55
Others 8 5,434.04 23.8 16,098.33
Total 100 67,925.45 100 66,220.5
66,220.50
.50

Using the waste compositions shown in Table 4.4., the fraction of the non-
recyclable materials can be calculated, which together with the recyclable
materials fractions can be diagrammatically presented in Figure 4.4. This diagram
breaks the waste into two general groups: non-recyclable 55% and recycling
fractions 45%.

97
 9%

14%

Paper
4% Glass
55%
Metal
6%
Carton
4% Plastics (hard)
7% Plastics (soft)
1%
Wood
Non-recyclables

Figure 4.4. Diagramatical representation

representation of waste compositions at Kupferberg

Altogether a total of 1,315.51 kg was disposed per capita in 2008 in Windhoek

(Table 4.5). This was determined by combining different waste indicators that were
calculated based on the amounts of different types of waste that were disposed of
at the landfill sites in Windhoek.

Table 4.5. Waste indicators obtained from various waste streams in 2008
Estimated
Waste indicator Estimates indicators Units
General waste per year 67,925.52 tonnes
General waste per month 5,660.46
General waste per capita 230 kg/capita/year
Hazardous waste per year 4,970.58 tonnes
Hazardous waste per month 414.22
Hazardous waste per capita 17 kg/capita/year
Construction waste per year 169,914 tones
Construction waste per month 14,160.00 tones
Construction waste per capita 574.03 kg/capita/year
Garden refuse per year 26,451.30 tones
Garden refuse per month 2204.4 tones
Garden refuse per capita 89.36 kg/capita/year
Sand & fill per year 119,916
Sand & fill per month 10,970 tones
Sand & fill per capita 405.12 Kg/capita/year

Capita 296000

Total waste per capita and year 1315.51 kg/capita/year

98
It is important to note that operations at the landfill sites in Windhoek are carried
out based on the South African Minimum Requirements for landfill sites (DWAF,
1998). Operations at the landfill sites are mainly responsibilities for private
companies. Specifically for the Kupferberg landfill site, management and
operational activities are carried out by Enviro-Fill Namibia, contracted by the City
of Windhoek (Haindongo pers. comm., 2009). Other landfill sites, the satellite sites
are also taken care of by private contractors for the City of Windhoek.

According to the minimum requirements for waste disposal by landfill for South
Africa, all sites must be adequately fenced or secured (DWAF, 1998). This is the
case for all landfill sites in Windhoek. All sites are fenced, mainly at the entrance,
since the rest of the sites are not accessible from any angle. The satellite sites are
guarded on a daily basis between 7h30 am and 7h30 pm by gate controllers, so
called ‘spotters’ i.e. those people who direct others as to where to dispose their
waste of (Haindongo pers. comm., 2009). At the Kupferberg landfill site, there are
security guards, guarding the site on a 24 hour basis, in fact residing there.

All Windhoek residents are allowed to dispose their wastes at the disposal sites by
themselves. Disposal of waste at the satellite sites is done at no cost, however, a
certain fee is charged for disposing waste of at the Kupferberg landfill site - based
on the amount of waste. Such a fee is used for the maintenance of the site
(Haindongo pers. comm., 2009).

4.5.
4.5. Waste Recycling
Recycling as a waste management strategy is practiced in Windhoek. This
strategy is essential particularly because recycling of waste products has some
environmental benefits, including saving space in the landfills where the recyclable
materials are accommodated, which may contribute to increasing the their lifespan
(SWMD, 2008). Consequently, efforts are placed in collecting recyclable materials
from the landfill sites. So far about 45% of waste that is disposed of at Kupferberg
is recycled, while approximately 55% of the disposed waste is not recycled (Figure

99
4.4.). However, there is a potential for reducing the amount of waste disposed of at
Kupferberg through recycling. This can be made possibly by identifying other
possible recyclable materials, including garden waste.

Although the City of Windhoek is the main custodian for solid waste within the
municipal area, it does not do recycling on its own. Recyclable materials collected
in Windhoek are handled by recycling companies such as: Rent-a-Drum Group of
Companies, Collect-a-Can and The Glass Recycling Company. These companies
collect, semi-process and package the following types of waste: paper, glass,
plastics and cans (see Table 4.6 for further details). The semi-processed
commodities are then transported to South Africa for recycling. This is due to the
fact that there is currently no recycling plant in Windhoek (Benade pers. comm.,
2009; Tjaronda pers. comm., 2009; van Wyk pers. comm., 2009).

100
Table
Table 4.6
4.6. Some of the recycling companies in Windhoek
Company Description Materials recycled Remarks
Rent-a-Drum Group of Company offering a spectrum of waste management Boxes, cans, papers, • Offers employment opportunities
Companies services that collects, transport, recycle and dispose glass and plastics • Saves space in the landfill
(Rent-a-Drum, waste of. In terms of recycling, it is responsible for the • Promoting cleanliness and reducing
METRA, Khomas semi-processing of recyclable commodities, which are waste
Recycling, Kleenbin) transported to South Africa for recycling (van Wyk pers. • Trying to take recycling to a high level
comm., 2009). • Works closely with partners

Collect-a-Can Recovery company that recovers cans from the Cans • Creates and offers employment
environment. It emphasizes on recovering metal (steel opportunities
and alumunium), which can be detrimental to the • Saves space in the landfill
environment. It collects cans, compacts and package • Strives to create awareness on the
them, then transport them to South Africa for recycling. value of materials that make up the
It is also dedicated to ensure that the used cans are in cans
harmony with the environment (Tjaronda pers. comm., • Creates awareness among youth on
2009). reducing negative environmental
impacts through can collection
• Works closely with partners
• Trying to take recycling to a high level
The Glass Recycling Non-profit organization promoting recovery of glass Glass • Saves space in the landfill
Company from the environment for recycling. In Namibia, this • Works closely with partners
company collects and transport glass to South Africa for • Create awareness about the
recycling (GRC, 2009). importance of glass recycling
• Create employment opportunities
• Striving to reduce waste
• Trying to take recycling to a high level

101
For the purpose of collecting recyclable materials, individuals known as ‘litter
pickers’ are formally employed and trained by private contractors on how to sort
out recyclable materials from the unwanted waste disposed of at the landfill sites
(CoW, 2008a; van Wyk pers. comm., 2009). At Kupferberg, there is currently an
individual contractor who has been contracted by Rent-a-Drum for the past 10
years, mainly doing the collection of recyclable materials at the site. This
employee has so far employed 15 other people to support with the collection of the
recyclables. Given the fact that picking recyclable materials from a disposal site
can be hazardous, all employees at the site are provided with protective materials
i.e. gloves, breath masks and boots. Apart from the employee at the landfill sites,
other people have been employed/contracted to collect recyclable materials in
other areas, for example in the informal residential areas and at the brewing
industry. These are paid based on the amounts of materials that they collect.

The recyclable materials collected at the landfill sites are classified into categories,
for example, papers, plastics, glasses and cans; after which they are compacted
and weighed, before being transported to the recycling companies. The recycling
companies have to ensure that all recyclable materials are semi-processed, after
which they are packaged and send to South Africa for recycling (Tjaronda pers.
comm., 2009; van Wyk pers. comm., 2009). According to the City of Windhoek’s
State of Environment Report for 2008, on average 6.5% of the total waste
collected between March 2006 and January 2007 was for the recyclable materials.
However, this data does not include the proportion of waste recycled by the
recycling companies out of the city waste stream (CoW, 2008a).

Recently, a recycling initiative has been started in Windhoek, a joint venture

between partners from the private sector that encourages collection of recyclable
materials through recycling stations. This initiative is being driven by the Rent-a-
Drum and Collect-a-Can companies (Schenck, 2009). Three companies:
Woerman & Brock, Olthaver & List Group and Joseph & Snyman have set up

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recycling stations at four shopping centres: AeGams, Auas, Wernhill Park and
Maerua Mall as part of this initiative. At these stations, the following materials can
be recycled: cans and tins (e.g. drinking cans, spray cans, aluminium food
containers), papers (e.g. office paper, packaging paper, newspaper, magazine),
plastic (e.g. plastic bags, juice bottles, cleaning liquid bottles, cream cups), and
glass (e.g. food glass, drinking glass, bottles, glass jugs, glass cutlery).

The above mentioned recycling companies and partners (such as City of

Windhoek, Namibia Breweries Limited & 4H Namibia Project) in Namibia have
also taken an initiative to implement the idea of recycling in schools. Such an
initiative encourages learners to take home recyclables such as papers, bottles,
sweet wrappers along to schools; which are recorded by an assigned teacher as
part of a competition. The learners that collect most recyclables and the schools
with most tons of recyclables get prizes. Such an initiative is contributing to
establishing an understanding of the value of waste materials and to waste
reduction at the household level (Tjaronda pers. comm., 2009).

4.6.
4.6. Waste Treatment
Waste treatment as discussed earlier in Chapter 2 is one of the energy recovery
strategies. One of the ways in which waste is treated in Windhoek is through
incineration. Medical waste from hospitals is incinerated by the MOHSS, after
which the residue is collected by the City of Windhoek for disposal at the
Kupferberg landfill site (Uvanga pers. comm., 2009).

Apart from the incineration of medical waste, wastewater is treated in order to be

re-used. Wastewater treatment in Windhoek is essential, particularly because
water is a scarce commodity, especially due to the growing population and the fact
that Namibia is an arid country (du Pisani, 2006). For this reason, water demand in
Windhoek is quite high. Consequently, the City of Windhoek has adapted a policy
of treating wastewater in order to meet the water demand needs (Brinkman pers.

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comm., 2009). Today, there are three water treatment plants in Windhoek, namely:
Gammams Wastewater Treatment Plant (GWTP), Otjomuise Wastewater
Treatment Plant (OWTP) and Ujams Water Treatment Plant (UWTP), which are
used to treat wastewater for consumption (Menge, 2006; Menge pers. comm.,
2009). A large proportion of wastewater from the Windhoek residential areas is
received at the GWTP, where it is initially treated, then further processed at the
New Goreangab Reclamation Plant (NGRP), to be fit for domestic consumption
(CoW, 2008a; Oaeb pers. comm., 2009; Menge pers. comm., 2009). The treated
water from the NGRP is then blended with water from Omatako, Swakkopport and
Von Bach Dams as well as from boreholes before finally distributed for use
(Menge pers. comm., 2009; Menge, 2006). According to du Pisani (2006),
domestic sewage can be successfully re-used for potable purposes, and at least
35% of drinking water in Windhoek is reclaimed. Water from the newly developed
residential areas in Windhoek is received at the OWTP, where it is initially treated,
after which it is purified at the Old Goreangab Reclamation Plant (OGRP) to be fit
or domestic purposes as well as for irrigation (Menge pers. comm., 2009; Menge,
2006; Oaeb pers. comm., 2009). One third of the waste streams of NGRP is also
pumped into the OWTP (Menge, 2006). The UWTP is used to treat industrial
effluents, which is used for irrigation. Through the treatment process, pollutants
such as organic surrogates, dissolved particles, bacteria and viruses are removed
(Menge, 2006).

The NGRP only became operational in 2002. It has a capacity of 21,000m3/day

and is operated by the Windhoek Goreangab Operating Company known as
WinGOC (du Pisani, 2006; Menge, 2006). This plant has a goal to provide safe
water, provide aesthetic pleasing water and to ensure that the technology applied
does not create further problems. Prior to the establishment of the NGRP, the
OGRP has been in use, after being operational since 1968. The old plant is
currently used to treat effluents received at the OWTP, which are used for
irrigating public parks and sport fields (du Pisani, 2006; Menge, 2006). The two

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Goreangab reclamation plants have been established due to past experiences i.e.
water shortage as a result to limited supplies and drought. It is important, however,
to note that wastewater treatment can be of interest to users, as it can have many
advantages such as using bio-solids (i.e. organic matters produced from waste
water treatment) as fertilizers or as covers for landfills (EPA, 1999). However, bio-
solids also have a potential for environmental risks due to organic contaminants
from various sources (Bright & Healey, 2003).

To ensure that treated water is safe to drink and is fit for any other use, it is
continually monitored (du Pisani, 2006; Menge pers. comm., 2009). For this
reason, parameters such as physical, inorganic, organic, microbiological and viral
contents are tested (Menge, 2006). The aim is to ensure that treated water does
not have health implications, neither environmental or nuisance impacts (EPA,
1999). This work is done in the City of Windhoek’s laboratory. However, there is a
Health Risk Programme that performs more advanced tests externally, looking at
aspects such as viruses, parasites, pesticides, toxins, odour compounds and
others (Menge, 2006).

4.7.
4.7. Waste Auditing
Waste auditing is one of the important practical aspects of waste management. In
essence, waste should be audited in order to collect valuable waste statistics, for
the purpose of establishing an understanding of the real situation regarding the
composition of waste generated in a specific area. With reliable waste statistics,
the waste management processes can improve, waste can be minimized, and
trends on waste generation can be established (CoW, 2008a; EUROPEN, 2009;
SWMD, 2004; SWMD, 2008). Regular waste statistics are also relevant for
implementing waste policies (EC, 2002). The City of Windhoek has adopted a
system of waste auditing, currently conducted on a bi-annual basis. Waste audit in
Windhoek is however performed only for formal households, leaving out the
informal households and industries that are taken care of by private companies
(SWMD, 2008).

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According to the audits performed in 2004 and 2008, the amount of waste
generated by high-income households ranges between 16kg and 20kg per week,
while the amount of waste generated by the medium-income households ranges
between 9kg and 13kg per week. For the low-income households, the waste
generated per week ranges between 7kg and 14kg. On average, 3.4, 5.4 and 5.7
persons live in high, medium and low income households respectively (SWMD,
2004; SWMD, 2008). Based on this information, the estimates of waste generation
per person are presented in Table 4.7.

Table 4.7
4.7. Average weights of waste generated by different income groups in
Windhoek
Year Income Persons/ Average Average kg/ Average kg/
Group household kg/house person/week person/day
hold/week
2004 High 3.4 16.5 4.85 0.70
Medium 5.4 9.0 1.6 0.23
Low 5.7 7.5 1.3 0.19
2008 High 3.4 19 5.59 0.80
Medium 5.4 13 2.41 0.34
Low 5.7 13 2.28 0.33
Source: SWDM, 2004; SWMD, 2008

Overall, the average amount of waste generated per person per day in 2004 and
2008 was 0.37 kg and 0.49 kg respectively, based on household data. The 2004
waste audit data agrees with the study conducted by the Windhoek City Engineers
in 2004, which revealed that an amount of 0.35 kg is generated per person per day
(CSA & Smith, 2007). However, such data includes waste data from other waste
streams. In addition to the above information, data collected from Windhoek
households between July 2006 and March 2007 indicated that an amount ranging
between 0.604 – 0.813 kg was generated per person per day in general, which is
quite high and is expected to increase (CoW, 2008b). Such an amount should
however be reduced.

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The amount of waste generated at the household level in 2008 can be determined
using a waste indicator of 2.14kg/household per day (calculated from Table 4.7
above), by multiplying it with the number of days in a year (365) and by the
number of households in Windhoek (50 000). This gives an estimate of 39,055
tons that was generated from households, which means that the difference
between the overall city waste estimate and the household waste estimate was
generated from other sources (e.g. industries and commercial activities).

Based on the 2008’s household audit, of all the types waste generated by
households that were surveyed, the largest volume of waste is made up of
unclassified wastes♦ (1033.2 m3), followed by plastic bottles (617.4 m3), papers
(615.2 m3), carton (542.7 m3), organic garden waste (514.8 m3), plastic bags
(497.4 m3) and glass (355.3 m3) respectively. The least generated type of waste is
medical waste, generated at 0.8m3 per week on average. Other types of waste
generated are: metals (246.3 m3), organic food (202.4 m3), sand and stones (33.4
m3), textile (60.6 m3) and chemicals (104.8 m3). The conclusion that one can draw
from this is that most households generate the unclassified waste in large
quantities compared to specific waste types.

After comparing the audits conducted in 2004 and 2008, there was not so much
difference found in the amounts of waste generated, therefore the 2008’s waste
audit has recommended that audits should be conducted every 5 years. The
auditors however noticed that results can vary depending on the time of the year
when auditing is conducted, as the amount of waste generated may be determined
by the season during which the audit is performed (SWMD, 2004).

♦
The type of waste that could not be classified include: electronic equipment, shoes, rubber,
leather, carbon sheets, foam cups ceramics and light bulbs.

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4.8.
4.8. Legal Framework
As emphasized by the Constitution, Namibia has adopted various laws, policies
and regulations that guide the implementation of various activities regarding waste
management. Windhoek specifically makes use many of those, some of which are
listed in Table 4.8. Of the listed frameworks, some are only applicable to the City
of Windhoek.

The Windhoek Municipality has placed the ‘polluter pays principle’ as a priority,
therefore it strictly enforces such a principle in order to avoid and reduce negative
environmental impacts. To reduce environmental pollution by industries, the City of
Windhoek’s Division of Bulk Water and Waste Water is committed to the
monitoring of industrial effluents generated on a monthly basis and charge them
fees in cases when the absorbed oxygen is above 70mg/L. The Solid Waste
Management Division also charges individuals that dispose general and
hazardous waste at the Kupferberg Landfill site based on the amount of waste
disposed. In addition, removal of refuse from the wheelie bins is also charged a
monthly fee per household, and in cases when refuse is collected more than once
per week, additional fees are charged. Furthermore, businesses that pollute the
environment are charged fees for that. The idea of the polluter pays principle is
appropriate because the costs of pollution are taken care of by the pollution
generator rather than the entire society (Glazewski, 2005).

At the moment, the Ministry of Environment and Tourism is in the process of

transforming the Pollution Control and Waste Management Bill of 1999 into an Act
(Nghitila pers. comm., 2009). This Bill is concerned with the prevention and
regulation of air, water and land pollutants; establishment of an appropriate
framework for integrated pollution prevention and control, regulation of noise, dust
and odour, as well as an establishment of a system of waste planning and
management. In addition, the City of Windhoek has adopted the Model Drainage
Regulations that have been provided by the Ministry of Regional, Local

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Government and Housing, applicable at the national level. However, at the local
level the City of Windhoek has drafted Sewerage and Drainage Regulations which
are concerned with the water disposal within the city. It is crucial that industries
comply with those regulations. These are in a process of being promulgated into
an Act (Iiputa pers. comm., 2009).

When it comes to the implementation and development of relevant laws and

regulations regarding waste management, many stakeholders that were consulted
indicated that there has been a slow progress. All laws, policies, regulations that
have to do with pollution control, waste management, drainage and sewerage
have to be implemented as soon as possible to ensure sound waste management.
However, many of such are still new and still need to go through some stages
before they can be implemented.

Table 4.8.
4.8. Laws, policies and regulations applicable to the City of Windhoek and
Namibia
Namibia at large
Framework Description/Emphasis Applicability
Environmental Emphasizes sound waste management and safe Nationally (yet to
Management Act No. 7 disposal get into force)
of 2007
General Health Control water pollution, refuse removal and disposal Nationally
Regulations and emphasizes cleanliness in general, particularly
on matters which could be detrimental to health
Hazardous Substances Provides for the prevention of dumping of hazardous Nationally
Ordinance 14 of 1974 matter that may be detrimental to the environment
Labour Act 15 of 2004 Stresses taking precautions against dust in, or about Nationally
any premises or in connection with any operation
Local Authorities Act 23 Empowers local authorities to regulate the Nationally
of 1992 maintenance of services such as waste removal and
disposal, and those of sewerage works and
drainage systems
Model Sewerage and Regulate the provision of sewerage pipelines, Nationally
Drainage Regulations effluent control and drain layers registrations
Pollution Control and Emphasizes the prevention and regulation of Nationally

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Waste Management pollutants, pollution prevention and control,
Bill of 1999 regulation of noise, dust and odour, and sound
waste management
Pollution Prevention Provides for the prevention of atmospheric pollution, Nationally
Ordinance 11 of 1976 emphasizing on the following: control of offensive
gas, atmospheric pollution by smoke, dust control
and air pollution by vehicles
Sewerage and Prepared to regulate the provision of sewerage Locally
Drainage Regulations pipes, control of effluent and drainage within the City
of Windhoek
Street and Traffic Control noise pollution, environmental pollution and Locally
Regulations deals with sweeping of streets in front of businesses
Town Planning Provides for town planning schemes and the Nationally
Ordinance No. 18 of provision, management and closure of public open
1954 spaces
Town Planning Responsible for the control of disposal of refuse, Locally
Scheme rubble or hazardous substances that may pollute
groundwater except at designated waste disposal
sites
Water Act 54 of 1956 Deals with the purification of industrial water and Locally
effluents, based on the SABS standards that
prescribe the use and restriction of boreholes, and
the protection of the aquifer
Water Demand Policy Controls the provision of, and undue wastage of Locally
water supply within Windhoek
Water Resource Stresses that permits should be obtained for the Nationally
Management Act 24 of purpose of discharging effluents or construction of
2004 effluent treatment facilities
Water Supply Regulate the prevention of undue water Locally
Regulations consumption and supply of non-portable water to
the council, private boreholes and the laying of
pipes in streets and public places

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4.9.
4.9. Conclusion
The Division of Solid Waste Management is acknowledged for keeping Windhoek
the cleanest city in Africa. Other departments and divisions: Planning,
Urbanization and Environment; Scientific Services; and Bulk Water and Waste
Water are placing efforts on environmental management at large and have roles to
play in waste management and pollution control. Waste production in Windhoek is
influenced by the increasing population as well as the level of income.

For the purpose of waste prevention and storage, ‘wheelie bins’, street bins, skip
containers and black garbage bags are distributed to households, businesses and
informal residential areas. Private contractors through the Division of Solid Waste
Management do the collection of waste from garbage containers for disposal.
Pollution by industries is controlled by the Division of Bulk Water and Waste
Water. Garden refuse and building rubbles are disposed of at six satellite sites in
different locations within Windhoek, while the household, commercial and
industrial waste; including hazardous wastes are disposed of at the Kupferberg
landfill site. The sites are monitored to ensure environmental acceptability. They
are also guarded. All landfill sites in Windhoek are operated according to the
minimum requirements of landfills for South Africa. The City of Windhoek contacts
waste audits on a bi-annual basis to get valuable waste statistics on household
waste. Industrial and commercial waste is audited by private companies.

Various recycling companies exist in Windhoek, some of which have recently

established a recycling initiative for recycling paper, glass, plastics and cans, using
recycling stations placed at various shopping malls. The intention is to recover
energy and to reduce waste. In terms of treatment, medical waste and waste water
are the only types of waste that are treated in Windhoek. Treated water is used for
domestic consumption and for irrigating parks and sport fields.

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There are many legal frameworks that are of relevance to waste management and
pollution control in Namibia, many of which are used by the City of Windhoek.
However, some of the frameworks are only specific to the Windhoek city. In
addition, a slow progress has been experienced in the development and
implementation of relevant laws. This issue needs to be addressed.

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Chapter 5: Areas of Improvement and Recommendations

5.1. Introduction
High level of environmental protection is essential to promote healthy
environments in Namibia, which will contribute to the quality of life for all citizens
(MET, 2008). Currently there is an increasing demand of waste management in
Namibia, as a result of the growing population and industrial development.
Consequently, increased efforts in making use of the existing waste management
strategies are necessary, as they will contribute to environmental protection
through the reduction of waste volumes. Increased efforts in waste management in
all towns of Namibia will also promote urban sustainability.

As pointed out earlier in the previous chapters, managing waste on its own is a
challenge, because it can result in negative environmental impacts, for example,
use of land for landfills, emission of greenhouse gases from landfills, air pollution,
water pollution and generation of secondary waste streams from recycling plants
(Christiansen, 1999). Regarding this notion, the negative consequences that can
occur in the process of managing the target waste should not be ignored.
Therefore, placing efforts in waste management should still remain a priority, while
at the same time trying to avoid the possible consequences.

Having an understanding of how the web of life operates, as described by Capra

(1996; 1999), can contribute to improved waste management; such that all levels
of the waste management hierarchy should remain interconnected. As a result,
environmental impacts such as high volumes of waste generated, poor aesthetic
views, smell nuisance, health hazards and shortened life spans of landfills will be
reduced. Such an understanding needs to be established all over Namibia.

Apart from the waste management hierarchy, other principles of waste

management described in Chapter 2 are necessary, and should be put into
practice. In addition, engagement of relevant stakeholders for waste management

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in different towns of Namibia is essential, and cooperation between them should
be encouraged. On top of these, the use of legal frameworks in terms of waste
management should be given a high priority. In essence, the notion of basis of
informed decision-making is the knowledge about waste streams. Furthermore,
other aspects of waste management such as information availability, limited
management capacities, an urgent need for training and awareness building
measures on the part of public administrations and commercial enterprises
combined with insufficient budgets should be emphasized. The fact that recycling
can reduce disposal cost and that it has been proven to be cost-effective also
need to be realized.

This chapter has considered the practical aspects of waste management in

various towns of Namibia and has identified some of the areas that need
improvement.

5.2. Waste Generation and Statistics

In theory, waste generation depends on how resources are consumed, on the
population density, on GDP, as well as on the income levels (Christiansen, 1999;
Henry et al., 2006; OECD, 2002; SoER, 2001; SWMD, 2004; SWMD, 2008). It is
crucial to have comprehensive and reliable data on waste, as it contributes to
improved knowledge on potential trends of waste levels, and their composition will
provide background information especially when it comes to the identification of
waste problems, in the process of developing waste management strategies or
policies (Christiansen, 1999). Lack of such data also makes it difficult to assess
whether negative environmental impacts associated with waste management are
improving or deteriorating (Fatta & Moll, 2003).

Reliable data obtained during this study were mainly for household waste, general
waste, as well as data from the satellite sites in Windhoek. However, in future,
waste data from other sources, such as industries and businesses also need to be
collected, as it can give a clear picture of waste generation and management in a

114
specific town. In fact, most of the waste data availed for this study were obtained
from Windhoek, followed by Ondangwa. This study has found that not many
towns are collecting waste data at the moment. Therefore in terms of waste
statistics, Namibian towns are well advised to learn from Windhoek.

Knowing the composition of waste as well as the total waste generated at the town
level is indispensable, as it helps to determine the waste indicators (Broderson et
al., 2002). At least the Greenhouse Gas Inventory of 2000 has provided an insight
on solid waste composition in Windhoek. In essence, waste indicators such as
waste generated per capita or overall waste generated at the town level need to
be determined, as they point out the problematic areas and possibilities of
improvement (Fatta & Moll, 2003). These may be determined by the type of waste
produced. They also provide an overview of the waste situation for a specific
source in order to change the rate of waste generation. Waste statistics cannot
only be applied at the town levels, they can as well be applied at the national level
as informative tools which integrate environmental data with economic aspects
(Fatta & Moll, 2003). It is essential that all towns should be in positions of providing
detailed data on the composition of wastes.

Waste data are also needed in the implementation of environmental auditing

systems (Starkey, 1998). Therefore, waste audits need to be emphasized in all
towns of Namibia, for the purpose of making environmental decisions regarding
waste management. It is required by ISO14001 that audits should be undertaken
to check whether environmental management systems meet their requirements
(Starkey, 1998). Town municipalities and councils in Namibia therefore need to
familiarize themselves with such a system, as it can help them to measure both
their environmental performances as well as their efforts to improve performance
in the management of waste at town levels.

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Windhoek is to be acknowledged for being in a position to provide reliable waste
data. Nevertheless, most of the data collected in Windhoek that is presented
publicly is from the municipality. It is imperative that private waste management
companies should report the type, amount, origin and destination of waste
collected and handled to public waste statistics from various waste streams. Such
data should be included, and those stakeholders (private companies) should be
involved in the development of policies geared towards waste management, as
well as in decision-making concerning environmental activities.

Generally, all types of waste have environmental impacts. There are high
possibilities that environmental impacts will increase if waste is not well handled,
especially for the fact that the Namibian population is increasing. Such impacts
can be reduced by placing increasing waste management efforts, including
implementing better technologies for dealing with waste (OECD, 2002). Namibia
could also adopt some of the recommendations for the OECDf countries that have
been proposed in the Guidance Manual on Environmentally Sound Management
of Waste (OECD, 2007). Overall, governments of the OECD countries have been
recommended “to implement policies and/or programmes to ensure that waste is
managed in an environmentally sound and economically efficient manner” (OECD,
2007:20). Implementing such a recommendation requires governments to engage
in activities that are promoting sustainable development; such as use of
regulations, recycling of materials, use of less/non-hazardous substances, use of
cost-effective materials; and considering other factors such as geographical (e.g.
climate, geology, population density etc.), industrial structure (number and size of
enterprises), characteristics of waste (e.g. less or more hazardous), type of
operation (collection, disposal, recycling), legislation at different levels (national or
local) and economic utility of resources and products involved, as well as the use
of market incentives.

f OECD – Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

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Out of this recommendation, a total of eleven specific recommendations have
been derived and made to the governments of such countries, one of which
Namibia can make use of.

3 “Member countries should ensure that waste management

Recommendation 3:
facilities are operating according to the best available techniques, while taking into
consideration the technical, operational and economic feasibility of doing so, and
work towards continually improving environmental performance” (OECD, 2007:23).
Using the Best Available Techniques (BAT) should be seen as a tool for ensuring
that waste is managed in an environmentally sound manner within a particular
waste management facility (OECD, 2007). Considering the fact the use of BATs
brings about environmental benefits, its implementation should consider using
national or international regulations. Such benefits can be derived through various
initiatives such as promotion of existing techniques, use of incentives,
development of waste management programmes, improving the current operating
practices and updating of data related to waste management techniques etc.
Through such an approach, environmental performances of waste management
facilities are likely to improve. This can be made possible with reliable waste
statistics in place.

With the waste management hierarchy in mind, waste managers should be in a

position to tell as to what proportion is generated in total, what proportion out of
that is recycled, how much is treated and how much is disposed of. Consequently,
all towns need to realize that availability of regular and comparable data on
recycling, re-use, treatment and disposal of waste plays a role in the
implementation of waste management strategies (Fatta & Moll, 2003). Such
information needs to be known since each of the existing waste management
strategies may have its own negative impacts, and each may need to be dealt with
in its own way. Therefore, such a hierarchy needs to be applied in all towns.

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5.3. Waste Prevention
The fact that Windhoek is the cleanest city in Africa has given Namibia so much
credit in terms of waste management. However, such credit is due to the Division
of Solid Waste Management within the City of Windhoek. Similar efforts need to be
placed in all towns of Namibia. The City of Windhoek has contracted some
companies which are responsible to keep the city clean. At the same time, the
Solid Waste Management Division keeps being on the outlook for the unattended
waste and works closely with such contractors, to make sure that the city is clean
(Haindongo pers. comm., 2009). Despite the fact that other town municipalities
and councils also have contracted companies to deal with waste, some towns still
appear to be untidy. This could mean that the town municipalities are not strict
when it comes to waste prevention, or the management capacities are still lacking.
Consequently, action needs to be taken to overcome the waste problems in other
towns. Based on my personal observations, lack of training and awareness is one
of the factors that contribute to filthiness in some towns of Namibia. Some people
tend to dispose waste (litter) in open areas despite the fact that garbage
containers are in the vicinity. Such a practice needs to be stopped, possibly
through creating awareness on the environmental impacts of waste. In addition, all
opportunities that will lead to environmental improvement in terms of waste
management need to be identified in all towns.

Minimization of waste should be prioritized by all towns. This is possible through

the application of the waste management hierarchy, which has given preference to
waste prevention, followed by recycling/re-use, treatment and disposal
respectively (Jacobsen & Kristoffersen, 2002). Once the waste is generated at a
source, it can be passed on to other companies that can use it to avoid the costs
of waste disposal (Starkey, 1998). Useful waste materials can also be re-used for
other purposes. Waste that cannot be recycled can be treated, which can reduce
the amount that can be disposed of. It is also essential to shift the current waste
management strategies from collection and disposal to the waste management

118
hierarchy approach, mainly emphasizing waste prevention, followed by recovery
and finally environmentally sound disposal only for non-recoverable waste (OECD,
2002). At the moment, the towns that were surveyed mainly collect and dispose of
some waste materials, for example garden refuse, while placing no efforts on
recovery. In such a way, the web of life is broken.

Waste minimization is also possible through the reduction at a source, re-use of

products and quality improvements such as reduction of the hazardous waste
(Jacobsen & Kristoffen, 2002). Increasing waste quantities can cause pressure on
treatment facilities, which makes it difficult to reduce landfilling but rather raise the
recycling rate. For this reason, waste prevention, recycling and re-use of waste
materials must be encouraged in all towns, which will reduce the volumes of waste
that may be treated before the final disposal.

For the purpose of preventing and minimizing waste, Namibian towns should strive
to adopt the BATs. In essence, they should aim to use low-waste technologies,
use less hazardous substances, recover and recycle substances, treat waste,
minimize the negative environmental impacts of waste and make use of
technologies which have been tried with success (OECD, 2007).

5.4. Waste Recycling

Recycling can be of environmental, technical and economic benefits (Jacobsen &
Kristoffersen, 2002). In addition, it reduces usage of space in the landfills and
lengthens their life spans. For this reason, the benefits of recycling need to be
realized by all towns in Namibia. At the moment, the recycling systems may be
poor, and there could be lack of economic capital to improve the infrastructure and
technology for more environmentally sound waste management; however, that
cannot be an excuse for not recycling (OECD, 2002).

The recycling initiative in Windhoek has demonstrated that recyclables can easily
be collected at collection stations, which is convenient for all the people in those

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areas. From this, lessons can be learned by other towns of Namibia in order for
them to endorse similar initiatives. Nevertheless, there are currently some
challenges associated with costs, waste transportation and management of
services. In order to influence the development of similar practices in other towns,
such challenges need be addressed at a speedy rate. For this reason, sources of
funding towards recycling need to be sought. Once the recyclables are collected,
they need to be packaged and transported (Starkey, 1998). Therefore,
negotiations with companies that transport goods between towns also need to be
made, as they can possibly help to transport recyclable materials to Windhoek
(Tjaronda pers. comm., 2009). Most importantly, there should be cooperation
between various companies that support recycling. All such efforts will contribute
to reduced waste volumes.

In essence, the government in collaboration with private sector and municipalities

should support existing recycling schemes and encourage the development of new
and environmentally sound ones, through providing incentives to potential
recycling participants (OECD, 2007). Communities should therefore be
encouraged to participate in recycling and should start to ‘see waste as money’ -
meaning that for every waste being collected, or for a certain composition of waste
being collected, a certain price should be paid to the collector (Tjaronda pers.
comm., 2009).

It is also worthwhile to consider the fact that business activities also contribute to
waste generation, which as a result have impacts on the environment. Therefore,
businesses should realize the relevance of re-using and recycling materials as an
approach to reducing environmental impacts. Business activities involve extracting
raw materials from the environment, which in return generate waste that is fed
back into the environment (Starkey, 1998). Consequently, there is a relationship
between business and the environment. Nevertheless, not all businesses extract
raw materials from the environment, as some are only supplied by other firms

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through supply chains. Thus, the supply chain has a link with the environment (see
Figure 5.1).

Figure 5.1. Relationship between the environment and the supply chain
(Source: Starkey, 1998)

5.5. Waste Treatment

Treatment
Waste treatment is not really a common practice in the towns of Namibia. The
types of waste being treated are mainly medical waste and wastewater. Treatment
of wastewater has been proven useful for providing potable water in Windhoek (du
Pisani, 2006). If this method can be applied in other towns in Namibia, the needs
of water provision can be met; especially that Namibia is an arid country. Any

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challenge to this strategy such as financial constraints and capacity to do it need
to be identified. Alternatively, Namibian towns (those that can) may opt to use the
water from the Atlantic Ocean, which can be made possible by making use of solar
energy (steam driven) to pump the water from the ocean, de-salinate it and pump
it into the country. This would also mean a lasting investment into the
infrastructure. Since such a system can easily break, towns may invest in the
treatment plants to treat the sea-water before pumping into municipal water
networks.

Based on the findings of this study, not many towns are currently practicing solid
waste treatment; however, such a waste management strategy can reduce the
amount of waste being disposed of, as well as negative environmental impacts.
Garden refuse is one of the types of solid waste that is disposed of in landfill sites,
however it can be used for other purposes if treated. In actual facts, garden refuse
can take up much space in the landfills despite the fact that they can be
compacted, which can shorten the life spans of the landfill sites. Depending on its
composition, garden refuse can be composted, possibly along with other
biodegradable waste such as kitchen organics etc. Composting of biodegradable
waste can reduce the total volume of waste being disposed (OECD, 2002). In this
case, a wood shredder and a caterpillar would be required to move the piles while
composting. The compost may be a useful fertile resource in the arid and sandy
Namibia, especially in soils with low nutritional content (Habitat Namibia, 2008).
The proposal for this method agrees with the recommendation made by the waste
audit for the City of Windhoek performed in 2008, particularly for the fact that high
composition of garden waste was observed during the audit, especially from the
high income and medium income households (SWMD, 2008). Through
composting, garden refuse can as well be used as humus for (re)cultivation or as
energy carrier/wood-biomass (Berchtold, pers. comm., 2009).

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In terms of waste water treatment, the end product is the sewage sludge. Treated
sludge can be used as fertilizer (SC, 2001). Specifically in Windhoek, sludge is
used as compost by gardeners and farmers, and can simply be disposed of in
case no one uses it (Brinkman pers. comm., 2009; Menge pers. comm., 2009;
Oaeb pers. comm., 2009). Using sewage sludge as fertilizer can reduce the
requirements for artificial fertilizers and can contribute to soil conservation through
humus build-up and prevention of land erosion (Mara & Cairncross, 1989).
Although soil and ground water can potentially be polluted by agricultural use of
human excreta, negative impacts can be minimized through scientific sound
planning and effective management of fertilization regimes (Mara & Cairncross,
1980). Nevertheless, there are plans to start using sewage sludge from the
treatment plants in Windhoek as commercial fertilizer since agriculturalists need it
for their agricultural practices (Menge pers. comm., 2009). Sewage by weight is
heavy, thus it is planned to transform it into pellets, which can be easily
transported between towns. The same could be done in other towns.

Other types of waste being disposed of in open dumping sites and landfill sites
such as hospital waste, may not be safe for the environment within which they are
disposed, especially if there are no strict operations for such disposal sites. Such
types of waste therefore need to be treated, not only to reduce waste volumes, but
mainly to reduce negative environmental impacts such as health hazards. Apart
from the treatment of solid waste, treatment of liquid waste for example
wastewater can reduce negative environmental impacts, for example, pollution
(OECD, 2002). If only the positive side of treatment can be realized in the towns of
Namibia, negative environmental impacts are likely to be reduced in the long-term.

5.6. Monitoring

However, having 33.3% of the towns contacted during this study, and possibly
more which did not consider conducting EIAs for the disposal sites means that the
environment around such sites is threatened. Those towns represent
approximately 2.6% of the total Namibian population and 6.4 % of the urban

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Namibian population, made up by a population of just over 830 000 people. The
above proportions represent the populations being at risk of environmental
impacts of the disposal sites according to the study. While the environment around
the site is threatened, groundwater is also threatened, as it can get polluted.
However, Namibia cannot afford to contaminate groundwater, the main source of
water in a water scarce country. Not only water contamination, other likely impacts
such as health hazards and smell nuisance can be experienced. As a result,
monitoring of the disposal sites is essential (DWAF, 1998).

This study has found that monitoring of the disposal sites needs to be placed as a
priority. Improvement needs to be made in the monitoring of the disposal sites,
particularly because monitoring is a valuable environmental management tool. So
far the monitoring of disposal sites being done in most towns mostly considers the
types of waste being disposed of and to ensure that the site is in an acceptable
condition. However, that is not quite enough, more needs to be done. Windhoek is
a good place to learn from. Ideally, all towns should have some standard
monitoring and operation guidelines for their disposal sites.

Open dumping sites are more vulnerable to vandalism and pose health hazards
and smell nuisance due to soil, groundwater and air pollution compared to the
operated landfill sites. Monitoring them strictly is therefore essential to ensure their
safety and to reduce negative environmental impacts. In fact, such a practice
needs to be stopped in all towns so that they can make use of landfill sites for
disposal. It is essential that monitoring should go beyond the superficial features to
other parameters such as the soil, soil vapours and groundwater quality.
Nevertheless, the operated landfill sites are also vandalized. For this reason,
security around the disposal sites needs to be strict, as vandalism still persists
despite the fact that sites are currently guarded. Those sites that are only guarded
during the day need to be guarded on a 24 hour basis.

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5.7. Legal Frameworks
In political reality, good governance and sustainable development cannot be
separated. Therefore the use of policies, laws, and regulations towards the
management of waste in various towns on Namibia is acknowledged, as they are
elements of governance for promoting sustainable development. At the moment, it
is a bit discouraging that there is a slow process in implementing some of them,
despite the fact that they are the guiding frameworks for the implementation of
various environmental activities (EMA, 2007; MET, 2008). Such a process needs
to be speeded up. In addition, relevant laws such as the Pollution Control and
Waste Management Act and the Sewerage and Drainage Act for the City of
Windhoek need to be in place as soon as possible. Furthermore, it would be ideal
for all town municipalities and councils to develop their own laws and policies for
local use. While some towns still present poor aesthetic views, they need to be
strict in terms of environmental law. Windhoek is a good place to learn from.
Should the Namibian towns decide to implement new technologies (BATs), such
technologies should be part of the national regulations.

5.8. Conclusion
The identified weaknesses concerning waste management in the towns of
Namibia can be used as opportunities for improvement. Reliable waste data need
to be provided, as they play a significant role in waste management. Availability of
such data contributes to decision-making processes, as well as to the
implementation of waste management strategies. So far, waste data readily made
available is on household waste; however, other data such as industrial and
business waste also need to be collected. Through the application of the waste
management hierarchy, waste is likely to be minimized. Data from all levels of the
hierarchy i.e. the amount of waste generated, recycled, treated and disposed of
need to be collected. Windhoek is currently doing a great job in waste data
collection and in maintaining cleanliness. Other towns should just learn from it.

125
Waste indicators such as waste generated per capita are needed to point out the
problematic areas and possibilities of improvement. These can be calculated
through waste audits. All towns in Namibia need to practice conducting waste
audits, to fulfill the ISO14001 requirement. This will help to ensure that their
systems for waste management are meeting their environmental management
requirements.

Waste needs to be minimized as much as possible, particularly through the

application of the waste management hierarchy. Minimization of waste is also
possible through the reduction of waste at a source as well as through quality
improvement, which includes the reduction of the hazardous wastes. In addition,
the benefits of recycling need to be realized, and recycling needs to be promoted
to attain those benefits. Through implementing the recommendation for the OECD
countries, as quoted: “to implement policies and/or programmes to ensure that
waste is managed in an environmentally sound and economically efficient
manner”, improvement in the waste management practices in Namibia is likely.
This can be made possible through the use of BATs as well as the use of market
incentives to ensure environmentally sound recycling.

The recycling initiative in Windhoek can be replicated in other towns of Namibia.

Current challenges for having similar practices in other towns only need to be
addressed. Funding opportunities to support the recycling initiatives need to be
sought. In addition, Cost-Benefit-Analyses (COBA) may demonstrate the
profitability of waste prevention and recycling. Further to that, means of
transporting recyclables between towns need to be in place. Moreover,
cooperation between various recycling stakeholders needs to be developed and
strengthened.

The relationship between the environment and business needs to be understood,

as this can enhance the re-use and recycling practices in Namibia. It should be

126
noted that disposing waste is not a solution to reducing waste volumes, using
other alternatives for dealing with waste such as composting garden refuse and
placing more efforts on recycling, re-using and treatment of waste materials can
be a solution. Handling waste in such a way can lengthen the life spans for the
landfills, while at the same making use of waste materials.

Monitoring of disposal sites should be placed as a priority. Such a tool should

consider aspects such as the general conditions of the site, security of the site and
other important parameters such as groundwater quality. Further to that, treatment
of waste reduces negative environmental impacts, and this needs to be realized all
over Namibia. Additionally, wastewater and sea water can be treated to meet the
water demands in Namibia.

In terms of governance, the implementation and enactment of relevant laws

towards pollution control and waste management should be speeded up. It is also
essential to have legal frameworks at town levels. To ensure that waste producers
and importers take responsible steps towards the minimization of environmental
impacts of the waste products, particularly those chemicals that have certain
hazardous properties; the “product-stewardship principle” should be practiced
across Namibia. Further to that, having inventories for such products and
substances may form the basis for producers/importers’ liability frameworks and
orderly collection and treatment of resulting wastes.

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Chapter 6: Possible
Possible Waste Management System for Urban Namibia

6.1. Introduction
In terms of waste management, Namibia can only be a better place if appropriate
waste management technologies are being implemented in all towns across the
country. So far the local town councils and municipalities are doing their utmost
best to manage waste in their respective towns; however, to some extent there are
some areas that still need improvement. Issues such as waste minimization,
landfill site monitoring and reduction of negative environmental impacts still need
attention. Furthermore, systems for collecting waste statistics need to be in place
in order to ensure that relevant data on waste are collected to inform decision-
making. Most importantly, the use of legal framework and law enforcement should
be regarded crucial. Through the development of a standard waste management
system, the current weakness can be addressed, and should in fact be seen as
opportunities for improvement.

This chapter serves to introduce a possible system for handling waste in the urban
Namibia. Such a system will involve the use of a waste indicator model.

6.1.
6.1. Estimation of waste indicators
Organized reporting systems for waste data need to be developed for all towns in
Namibia. To ensure all types of waste being generated by different towns are
identified, it is essential that registers for recording different types of waste should
be in place. Registers can be used to record different types of waste collected,
which can as well be categorized as: recyclable materials, re-usable materials,
hazardous waste, general waste etc. Composition of waste from different waste
streams such as house holds, industries, agriculture, veterinary services etc. need
to be recorded. Such data is essential for estimating statistical waste indicators,
which can be calculated using the following formula.

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Waste indicator = total amount of waste generated/local population per time series
(yearly, monthly or daily)

(KV3, 2003; Scheshinski, 2001)

Waste indicators can be estimated for the types of waste generated over a certain
period of time, such as: sewage sludge, recyclable materials, hazardous waste
and the overall general waste. Waste statistics are needed to raise awareness
among decision-makers within the local authorities, the government and all
relevant stakeholders so that they can address the main problem (Scheshinski,
2001). They can also be used in the development of policies.

The above formula can be applied at the town level, as well as the national level.
Table 4.5. in Chapter 4 has provided an estimate of the total waste generated per
person per year in Windhoek, based on data collected from different waste
streams i.e. households, industries and commercial activities. That Table can be
referred to as a waste indicator model. Based on the calculations, it was estimated
that an amount of 1,315.51 kg was generated per person per year. However, this
figure excludes the amount of waste that was collected independently by private
companies for recycling. It also excludes the amount of sludge produced from
wastewater treatment, which could not be obtained during this study. Nonetheless,
it is worthwhile to note that the screened materials from the treatment plants are
also disposed of at the Kupferberg landfillsite (at least 2 skip loads per week),
whose amounts are included in the general waste. Assuming this is the amount of
waste generated per person across all towns of Namibia, the amounts of waste
generated in individual towns can be calculated, in order to determine the national
urban waste generated in a given year (Table 6.1).

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Based on the findings in Table 4.5, the amount of waste disposed person per year
is quite high, however it needs to be reduced. In order to reduce the amounts of
waste being disposed of and to create space in the landfills, it is essential that the
BATs should be applied where possible. At the moment, large proportions of
waste disposed of in the landfills in Windhoek are made up by general waste
(comprising recyclables and non-recyclables), garden refuse, building rubbles and
sand (see Figure 6.1). Nevertheless, the Solid Waste Management Division is
doing its best to collect all recyclable materials such as bricks, woods, metals,
plastics, papers, glass etc.; which actually reduces the amount of waste disposed
per capita per year. So far, garden waste is only disposed of without considering
the alternative options to make use of it. Therefore, composting should be
considered as an alternative for handling garden refuse rather than diposal,
whereby waste should be collected for degradation purposes and be used for
gardening or agricultural purposes. Alternatively, garden waste can be jointly
biodegraded with sewage sludge.

8%

10%
31%
1%

Recycling

7% Non-recycling
Hazardous w aste
43% Buidling rubbles
Garden refuse
Sand & fill

Figure 6.1. Fractions of the different types of waste disposed of at the landfill sites
in Windhoek

130
With the exception of the non-recycling fraction going that is landfilled and the
hazardous waste, the above diagram visualizes the total recycling potential.
Building rubbles can be recycled almost 100%. The same applies to sand and
garden refuse, as they can be used for some purposes.

Table 6.1 below presents the amounts of waste generated in individual towns of
Namibia, after which the national urban estimate for 2008 was calculated. The
amounts generated in individual towns were calculated by multiplying the total
population with the waste indicator of 1,315 kg per capita per year that was
calculated for Windhoek. Two different populations were used to estimate the
amounts of waste generated, one of which was based on the 2001 Census, while
the other was more recent, which was obtained from internet websites, reports and
through personal communication. Based on the two different populations, the
estimated amount of waste generated in 2008 in the Namibian towns ranges
between 788,841.24 and 1,096,130.64 tons. Large proportions of that estimate
were contributed by Windhoek, followed by Walvis Bay, Rundu, Oshakati and
Swakopmund respectively; whose populations are relatively high. The least
contributions were made by the small towns with small populations, for example,
Outapi, Okakarara, Karasburg and Henties Bay.

Nonetheless, all towns need to make use of the waste management strategies will
contribute to waste reduction, in order to reduce the amount of waste generated
both at the town and national levels. Such efforts will make urban Namibia clean.

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Table 6.1.
6.1. Estimated total waste generated in 2008 at town level
Town Population
Populationg1 Populationh 2 Total waste 1 (tons)
(tons) Total waste 2 (tons)
Katima Mulilo 22,134 25,027 29,216.88 33,035.64
Walvis Bay 43,611 65,000 57,566.52 85,800.00
Swakopmund 23,803 25,047 31,419.96 33,062.04
Omaruru 4,761 6,792 6,284.52 8,965.44
Arandis 3,974 5,000 5,245.68 6,600.00
Karibib 3,726 11,784 4,918.32 15,554.88
Henties Bay 3,285 3,000 4,336.20 3,960.00
Usakos 2,926 9,147 3,862.32 12,074.04
Rehoboth 21,308 21,378 28,126.56 28,218.96
Mariental 9,836 13,380 12,983.52 17,661.60
Keetmanshoop 15,778 16,800 20,826.96 22,176.00
Luderitz 13,295 15,137 17,549.40 19,980.84
Oranjemund 4,451 8,496 5,875.32 11,214.72
Karasburg 4,075 6,054 5379 7,991.28
Rundu 36,964 58,172 48792.48 76,787.04
Windhoek 233,529 296,000 308,258.28 390,720.00
Outjo 6,013 6,557 7,937.16 8,655.24
Khorixas 5,890 12,021 7,774.80 15,867.72
Opuwo 5,101 12,000 6,733.32 15,840.00
Eenhana 2,814 24,000 3,714.48 31,680.00
Gobabis 13,856 16,000 18,289.92 21,120.00
Outapi 2,640 4,577 3,484.80 6,041.64
Oshakati 22,255 42,649 29,376.60 56,296.68
Ondangwa 10,900 15,000 14,388.00 19,800.00
Ongwediva 10,742 10,000 14,179.44 13,200.00
Tsumeb 14,929 20,000 19,706.28 26,400.00
Otjiwarongo 19,614 21,224 25,890.48 28,015.68
Grootfontein 14,249 24,099 18,808.68 31,810.68
Okahandja 14,039 20,879 18,531.48 27,560.28
Otavi 3,813 10,620 5,033.16 14,018.40
Okakarara 3,296 4,562 4,350.72 6,021.84
Total 597,607 830,402 788,841.24 1,096,130.64

gPopulation based on the 2001 census

hRecent population estimates from various sources: www.population.mongabay/population/namibia, www.otc.iway.na, www.eenhanatc.org.na,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Namibia, SWMD, 2008 and personal communications

132
6.2. Waste Management Systems

This research has found that the waste management system currently being used
in Windhoek can be used as a model for the entire Namibia, as it has made it the
cleanest city in Africa. Although not perfect, the current waste management
system in Namibia has a potential of being improved, and can therefore be
considered the best-practice waste management system in Namibia. Table 6.2
below presents the current system being applied in Windhoek, including
suggestions of improvement.

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6.2
6.2. Waste management system used in Windhoek and its potential for improvement
Waste management strategy Remarks Possibility of improvement
Waste prevention and - There are legal frameworks in place, while some are - The use of clean technologies
minimization underway that aim to regulate the management of waste. should be promoted.
- The Solid Waste Management Division is committed to - Policies currently not in force need
controlling, monitoring and preventing waste across to be implemented.
Windhoek. - Pending Acts need to be
- City of Windhoek is continually exploring new ideas and promulgated and implemented as
identifying better and advanced waste management soon as possible.
technologies in other countries in order to keep the city
clean.
- The Education Division within the City of Windhoek is
committed to educating and creating awareness among the
community members, physically and through the use of
monthly newspapers.
Waste recycling/re-use - There are various recycling companies in Windhoek that - Recyclable materials can possibly
are committed to collecting recyclable materials. be recycled using the Best Available
- The recyclable materials are collected from the disposal Technology Not Entailing Excessive
sites (separated from unwanted waste by waste pickers). Costs (BATNEEC).
- Valuable waste materials such as bricks, metals, etc. are - Regulatory frameworks that can
re-used. potentially support recycling activities
- Currently there is a recycling initiative operating at can be developed (e.g. environmental
shopping malls, aiming to reduce the amount of waste being taxes, waste taxes and tax deductions
disposed, to reduce litter and to promote material recovery. for best practices).

134
 - Waste collection, storage and transport systems are in - Cost Benefit Analyses can be
place. applied in the recycling initiatives.

Waste treatment - Waste water is treated and reclaimed. - Sewage sludge can be treated and
- Medical waste is treated. be used as commercial fertilizer
- Sewage sludge is used by the community as compost (for (plans are underway).
gardeners). - Garden refuse can be composted.
Waste disposal - Landfill sites are used for waste disposal. Windhoek has - Landfill life spans can be lengthened
landfill sites specifically used for garden refuse and building by reducing the amounts of waste
rubbles, and a special site for disposing general waste and being disposed using all possible
hazardous waste. approaches as possible e.g.
- Recyclable materials are collected from the disposal sites. composting of garden refuse.
- Waste pickers are provided with protective gloves, breath
masks and boots.
- EIAs were conducted for the disposal sites.
- Landfill sites are continually monitored.
Waste data collection - Data on waste are continually collected from various waste - Available data should be used in
streams. policy development on future waste
- Auditing is performed bi-annually. management. Private companies
handling waste data should work
closely with the Municipality, share
data and should be involved in policy
development.

135
In the view of the findings presented in Table 6.2 above, other towns can make
use of the waste management system being used in Windhoek to improve their
own systems currently in place. Such a system can work hand in hand with the
proposed system for dealing with waste in urban Namibia presented in Figure 6.1
below.

136
 • Use regulative frameworks (i.e. control of substances and
PREVENT WASTE products, end-of-life liabilities for producers, importers &
dealers)
• Promote clean technologies (i.e. use of regulative
framework, incentives, best-practice)
• Product design (increase the material transfer coefficient)
• Production processes (re-design processes to eliminate or
reduce production of wastes)
• On-site re-use or recycling of waste generated
• On-site utilisation of energy content of wastes generated
• Awareness creation

• Waste minimization
RECYCLE/RE-USE • Provision of waste containers
& • Waste collection, storage and transport systems
TREAT • Recycle all recyclable materials using Best Available
Technology Not Entailing Excessive Costs (BATNEEC)
• Use of regulative frameworks (e.g. environmental taxes,
waste taxes, tax deductions for best practices) to support
recycling measures
Waste data collection
• Apply COBA in the recycling practices
• Treat waste

Application of the waste

indicator model
• Use landfill sites instead of open dumping sites for waste
Recycling fractions (% weight)
disposal
Paper = 9 % Plastic containers = 4% DISPOSE • Dispose all non-reusable/recyclable/treatable materials
Glass = 14 % Plastics (soft) = 7% • Collect all recyclable materials from the landfills
Metal = 4% Wood = 1%
Carton = 6 %
• Create awareness
• Monitor disposal sites

Figure 6.2.
6.2. Diagrammatical representation of the possible
possible system
system of waste management for urban Namibia

137
The diagram presented above depicts the possible system that could be used by
all towns of Namibia. To ensure effective implementation, an understanding of the
waste management hierarchy needs to be established. With that in mind, all levels
of the hierarchy will be given considerable attention, hence keeping the web of life
functional. In essence, waste should be prevented through the use of regulatory
frameworks (including control of substances and products, end-of-life liabilities for
producers, importers and dealers); promotion of the use of clean technologies (i.e.
using regulative frameworks; incentives and all applicable best practices),
embarking on product designs (i.e. increasing the material transfer coefficient),
pay attention to the production processes (i.e. re-design processes to eliminate or
reduce production of wastes); promote on-site re-use or recycling of waste
generated; promote on-site utilization of energy content of waste generated as well
as awareness creation.

As part of the waste management hierarchy, waste materials should be re-used

and recycled or else treated. Therefore, town municipalities and councils should
place efforts in minimizing waste by all means, providing waste containers,
developing waste collection, storage and transport systems to ensure sound waste
material and energy recovery. To ensure environmentally sound recycling, the use
of regulatory frameworks, for example, environmental taxes, waste taxes, tax
deductions for best practices, should be priorities in order to support recycling
measures. In addition, Cost Benefit Analyses should be applied in the recycling
initiatives. Furthermore, all treatable waste should be treated.

In terms of disposal, landfill sites should be used instead of open dumping sites,
considering the negative impacts of the open dumping sites. All those materials
that cannot be reused nor recycled, neither treated must be disposed in the landfill
sites. Awareness regarding the negative impacts on open dumping, advantages of
landfilling, and the positive side of monitoring should be created. It is essential that
landfill sites should be continually monitored.

138
In the process of handling waste, data on waste generated can be collected, which
can be used to estimate waste indicators. This is due to the fact statistical data are
important for decision-making and policy development processes. Specifically for
recycling, the waste compositions for recyclable presented in the diagram can be
useful in estimating the amounts of recyclable materials from the total waste
generated.

139
6.2.
6.2. Conclusion
Implementing appropriate technologies for waste management in Namibia can
improve the current waste management practices.

For the purpose of determining the waste indicators, waste data need to be
collected and calculated using the waste indicator model described in the text.
Such a model can be use at the town level as well as to estimate the amount of
waste generated at the town level. The current waste management system used in
Windhoek can potentially be improved, yet can still be used as the best practice by
other towns. In addition, the waste management system presented in Figure 6.1 is
a ‘one size fits all’ and is therefore applicable to all towns.

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CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION

The current status of waste management in Namibia indicates a need for

improvement. In spite of the identified weaknesses, this study concludes that at
least all towns in Namibia are to some extend managing their waste. The
weaknesses only need to be addressed.

Among other towns, Windhoek has placed so much effort in strengthening its
waste management system; which has placed it in a position of being the cleanest
city in Africa. Nevertheless, there is still a potential for the waste management
system in Windhoek to improve. Despite this fact, its current system should be
seen as a model for other Namibian towns.

Regarding the question as to how Namibia can maintain a well-managed system

for municipal waste management in future; if all towns are to become committed to
implementing the ‘one size fits all’ proposed system in this thesis, a well-managed
system for urban Namibia can be maintained.

141
8. REFERENCES
Agbarachi, O. J. 2009. Urban Waste Management in Port Harcourt Metropolis of
the Niger Delta Region in Nigeria. PhD Thesis. Universidad Central de Nicaragua,
Nicaragua.

Aloe, 2008. Recycling in Namibia Pilot Project. Aloe Newsletter of the City of
Windhoek Municipality. November 2008. Windhoek, Namibia.

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159
9. APPENDIX I: RESEARCH STUDY QUESTIONNAIRE ON MUNICIPAL WASTE
MANAGEMENT IN NAMIBIA

This questionnaire presents the questions which the towns that were contacted
had to answer. The aim was to get an idea of how such towns are managing their
waste.

1a). Is waste being prevented in your town? (Yes/No)

b). If yes, how? (e.g. through provision of bins, awareness campaigns, etc).

2a). Does your town recycle some waste materials? (Yes/No)

b). If yes, which type of waste is recycled? (e.g. bottles, papers, etc.)

3a). Does your town re-use some waste materials?

160
b). If yes, which type of waste is re-used? (e.g. cans, bottles etc.)

4. a) Is the waste in your town disposed at a landfill site(s)? (Yes/No)

b) If yes, which type of waste? (e.g. household waste, hazardous waste etc.)

c). Was an environmental impact assessment (EIA) conducted before your landfill
site was selected? (Yes/No/Don’t know).

d) Is the landfill monitored? (Yes/No)

e) How many landfill sites/dumping sites are in your town?

f). Are these collection sites secured or open to garbage miners living on the
residues of other people?

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5a). Is waste in your town treated? (Yes/No)

b). If yes, which type of waste is treated? (e.g. wastewater/sewage etc.)

6. Does your town use the “polluter pays’ principle” (Principle which requires the
waste producers to pay for the waste generated or the damage caused)? (Yes/No)

7. Does your town use the “user pays’ principle”, (Principle which requires the user
of waste resources to pay the service providers for services offered on the
management of such resources)? (Yes/No/Don’t know)

8. Does your town use the “product-stewardship principle”? (Principle which

requires the waste producer or importer of a product to take responsible steps

162
towards the minimization of environmental impacts of the product) (Yes/No/Don’t
know)

9. Does your town council/municipality use any waste management policy?

(Yes/No)

10. Who are the stakeholders of waste in your town? (I refer to all the
people/companies/organizations/institutions that have a stake in waste
management)

11). Is there an organized collection of waste from households or do people bring

their wastes to collection sites?

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12). What are the provisions for business wastes? Are they dealt with differently
from household wastes?

13). Do you have some statistics on waste data e.g. how much waste is disposed
per year/per person/per household etc.

164