Division 44

Environment and Infrastructure

Sector project "Transport Policy Advice"

Sustainable Transport:
A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
Module 4f

EcoDriving
OVERVIEW OF THE SOURCEBOOK
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-Makers in Developing Cities
What is the Sourcebook? Modules and contributors
ftis Sourcebook on Sustainable Urban Transport Sourcebook Overview and Cross-cutting Issues of
addresses the key areas of a sustainable transport Urban Transport (GTZ)
policy framework for a developing city. fte
Sourcebook consists of more than 20 modules. Institutional and policy orientation
Who is it for? 1a. The Role of Transport in Urban Development
fte Sourcebook is intended for policy-makers in Policy (Enrique Peñalosa)
developing cities, and their advisors. ftis target 1b. Urban Transport Institutions (Richard Meakin)
audience is reflected in the content, which 1c. Private Sector Participation in Transport Infra-
provides policy tools appropriate for application structure Provision (Christopher Zegras, MIT)
in a range of developing cities.
1d. Economic Instruments
How is it supposed to be used?
(Manfred Breithaupt, GTZ)
fte Sourcebook can be used in a number of 1e. Raising Public Awareness about Sustainable
ways. It should be kept in one location, and the
Urban Transport (Karl Fjellstrom, GTZ)
different modules provided to officials involved
in urban transport. fte Sourcebook can be easily Land use planning and demand management
adapted to fit a formal short course training 2a. Land Use Planning and Urban Transport
event, or can serve as a guide for developing a
(Rudolf Petersen, Wuppertal Institute)
curriculum or other training program in the
area of urban transport. GTZ is elaborating 2b. Mobility Management (Todd Litman, VTPI)
training packages for selected modules, being Transit, walking and cycling
available since October 2004.
3a. Mass Transit Options
What are some of the key features?
(Lloyd Wright, University College London;
fte key features of the Sourcebook include: Karl Fjellstrom, GTZ)
A practical orientation, focusing on best 3b. Bus Rapid Transit
practices in planning and regulation and, (Lloyd Wright, University College London)
where possible, successful experience in 3c. Bus Regulation & Planning (Richard Meakin)
developing cities.
3d. Preserving and Expanding the Role of Non-
Contributors are leading experts in their fields.
motorised Transport (Walter Hook, ITDP)
An attractive and easy-to-read, color layout.
Non-technical language (to the extent Vehicles and fuels
possible), with technical terms explained. 4a. Cleaner Fuels and Vehicle Technologies
Updates via the Internet. (Michael Walsh; Reinhard Kolke,
How do I get a copy? Umweltbundesamt – UBA)
Please visit http://www.sutp.org or http://www. 4b. Inspection & Maintenance and Roadworthiness
gtz.de/transport for details on how to order a (Reinhard Kolke, UBA)
copy. fte Sourcebook is not sold for profit. Any 4c. Two- and Three-Wheelers (Jitendra Shah,
charges imposed are only to cover the cost of World Bank; N.V. Iyer, Bajaj Auto)
printing and distribution. You may also order 4d. Natural Gas Vehicles (MVV InnoTec)
via transport@gtz.de. 4e. Intelligent Transport Systems (Phil Sayeg, TRA;
Comments or feedback? Phil Charles, University of Queensland)
We would welcome any of your comments or 4f. EcoDriving (VTL; Manfred Breithaupt,
suggestions, on any aspect of the Sourcebook, by Oliver Eberz, GTZ)
e-mail to transport@gtz.de, or by surface mail to:
Manfred Breithaupt Environmental and health impacts
GTZ, Division 44 5a. Air Quality Management (Dietrich Schwela,
P. O. Box 5180 World Health Organisation)
D - 65726 Eschborn / Germany 5b.Urban Road Safety (Jacqueline Lacroix, DVR;
Further modules and resources David Silcock, GRSP)
Further modules are anticipated in the areas of 5c. Noise and its Abatement
Financing Urban Transport; Benchmarking; and (Civic Exchange Hong Kong; GTZ; UBA)
Car Free Development. Additional resources are
being developed, and an Urban Transport Photo Resources
CD-ROM is available. 6. Resources for Policy-makers (GTZ)
Module 4f

EcoDriving

Findings, interpretations and conclusions

expressed in this document are based on infor-
mation gathered by GTZ and its consultants,
partners, and contributors from reliable sources.
GTZ does not, however, guarantee the accuracy
or completeness of information in this document,
and cannot be held responsible for any errors,
omissions or losses which emerge from its use.

About the authors

VTL is the largest specialised training institute
in the Netherlands for the transport and logis-
tics sector. It provides professional and voca-
Written and compiled by:
tional training for entrepreneurs, managers and VTL
employees in the sector for goods and passenger Manfred Breithaupt (GTZ)
Oliver Eberz (GTZ)
transport by land, water and air. For a large part
of the vocational education programmes VTL Editor:
Deutsche Gesellschaft für
also acts as collective employer. Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
P. O. Box 5180
Manfred Breithaupt received his Masters in D - 65726 Eschborn, Germany
Economics in 1975. After working as Transport http://www.gtz.de
Economist for a German consulting company
Division 44, Environment and Infrastructure
in Europe, Africa and Asia he joined GTZ in Sector Project "Transport Policy Advice"
1981 and has since served as Senior Transport
Commissioned by
Advisor. His experience covers transport plan- Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche
ning, transport sector policy and restructuring, Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung (BMZ)
Friedrich-Ebert-Allee 40
mode specific technical assistance (including D - 53113 Bonn, Germany
urban transport), and privatisation and com- http://www.bmz.de
mercialisation. He also works as an Assistant Manager:
Professor for transport planning and policy. Manfred Breithaupt

Oliver Eberz studied Geography in Frankfurt Editing:

and Roskilde/Denmark and is a specialist for Manfred Breithaupt, Oliver Eberz
urban transport, urban planning and inter- Cover photo:
national aviation geography. He joined GTZ Jürgen Meissner, ÖkoMedia PR
Driver training in Querétaro, México, April 2005
as a freelance expert for Sustainable Urban
Transport Development in 2002 and has also Layout:
Klaus Neumann, SDS, G.C.
contributed to other work in the area of urban
transport. Eschborn, June 2005

i
 1. Introduction 1 4. How to achieve and sustain
an economic and safe
2. What is EcoDriving? 2 driving style 14
Results of selected
2.1 External factors 2 GTZ-courses 16
2.1.1 Traffic conditions 2
4.2 Results of other projects 17
2.1.2 Road conditions 2
2.1.2.1 Gradient resistance 3 4.3 Incentives for vehicle drivers
2.1.3 Weather conditions 3 to adopt a more economical
and defensive driving style 18
2.2 The vehicle 3
2.2.1 Tyres 3
4.4 Some selected manuals for
economic and defensive
2.2.1.1 Tyre tread 3 driving 18
2.2.1.2 Tyre pressure 3
2.2.2 The engine 4 5. Resources 19
2.2.3 Aerodynamics 4

2.3 The driver 5 Literature 19

2.3.1 Trip preparation 5 Websites 20
2.3.2 During the trip 5
2.3.2.1 Starting and moving off 5
2.3.2.2 Speed 6
2.3.2.3 Anticipation 6
2.3.2.4 Gear changing 6
2.3.2.5 Braking and coasting 6
2.3.3 Joining and leaving
the traffic flow 7

2.4 Defensive driving 7

2.4.1 The working procedure and
defensive driving behaviour 7

2.5 Common hazards 8

2.5.1 Driver behaviour 8
2.5.2 Stress and emotions 8

2.6 Fleet management 9

2.7 Road users requiring special

attention 9
2.7.1 The disabled 9
2.7.2 Children and young people 9
2.7.3 The elderly 10
4.1
3. Advantages of driving
economically 11

3.1 Advantages for the business 11

3.2 Advantages for the environment 11

3.3 Advantages for the driver 12

3.4 Advantages for the passengers 12

ii
 Module 4f: EcoDriving

1. Introduction
In cities in developing countries, public
transport is often the only affordable way of
transportation for the majority of people. Only
a few cities in these countries operate a subway
system, and public transport most often relies
on buses. Even in Bangkok, for example, a city
with meanwhile two railbound urban public
transport systems (BTS and MRT), still over
90% of all public transport is handled by buses.
ftese buses, often old and fuel-intensive, are a
major contributor to the negative environmental
impacts in the urban areas, and due to their
age, operating costs (fuel consumption, main-
tenance) are high. A reduction of costs can be
reached by various measures, among them an
upgrade of the fleet to new and more fuel-effi-
cient vehicles, and/or by a change of the driving
style of the vehicles’ drivers.
However, the reduction of fuel costs is not the
only effect of an economical driving style. It
also means
 a reduction of variable costs (fuel, repairs,
maintenance, tyres),  specific fuel consumption, Fig. 1
 an increase of effectiveness (less down times  external factors affecting fuel consumption, Mongolia: Responsibility
due to repair work and maintenance), such as weather conditions, road conditions and efficiency starts by
learning beyond usual
 a decrease of negative environmental impacts, and traffic conditions, practice.
 increased road safety,  the vehicle and its fuel economy features, Photo: Anton Thomas,
DaimlerChrysler, 2005
 stress reduction for the driver and the  the driver’s influence on fuel consumption,
passengers.  general hazards (driver behaviour, vehicle,
fte driver of a vehicle is directly responsible load, weather),
for a more economical driving style. But he is  stress, and
not the only one in the chain of actors involved  customer-oriented behaviour.
in transport to influence fuel consumption.
Manufacturers, legislators, driving schools and fte second topic deals with the advantages of
vehicle holders – they all can influence the fuel economical driving for the operator, the driver
consumption of vehicles in various ways. and the environment.

ftis module mainly covers three topics: fte third topic (how can this be achieved?)
deals with different options to convey this driv-
 What does “driving defensively and economi-
ing style to drivers and operators of commercial
cally” mean?
vehicles.
 What are the benefits of a more economical
and defensive driving style? fte basic source of information for this module
is the course reference guide “Het Nieuwe
 How can this driving style be achieved?
Rijden (A new approach to coach driving)”
fte first topic “driving defensively and eco- published by the “Stichting Vakopleiding
nomically” will cover the following subjects: Transport en Logistiek VTL” (fte Netherlands
 cost savings to be achieved through driving Institute for Professional Training in Transport
economically (see also section 3.1), and Logistics).

1
 Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

2. What is EcoDriving? to predict what other participants in city traffic

are about to do and how to react accordingly.
Economical and defensive driving not only Anticipatory driving is safe driving but also
depends on the habits of the driver (see section economical driving.
2.3) but it is also dependent on various external Table 1 shows the relation between driving
factors such as weather conditions, road condi- styles and fuel consumption:
tions, vehicle technology and traffic conditions.
Most of these factors can normally not be fte different driving styles assumed in this
example are:
influenced – but drivers can adjust their driving
style accordingly. fterefore, it is important to A: an aggressive driving behaviour: rapid accel-
be aware of these factors. eration, driving close to the vehicle in front and
heavy braking
2.1 External factors B: a normal driving behaviour
2.1.1 Traffic conditions C: a gentle driving behaviour, with gentle accel-
Traffic conditions obviously have a major influ- eration, anticipation and minimal braking
ence on fuel consumption. In heavy traffic, e.g. fte figures in Table 1 are averages of bus jour-
during the rush hour, the driver has to acceler- neys along different routes:
ate, brake and change gear more often. ftis  driving in urban traffic at an average speed of
significantly increases fuel consumption. As a 30 km/h,
matter of fact, a single driver cannot change  driving on a secondary road at an average
these circumstances but planners and decision- speed of 60 km/h,
makers could change this situation, e.g. by in-  driving on a highway at an average speed of
troducing bus lanes, bus priority at traffic lights 90 km/h.
and other innovations. Examples are described
Unsurprisingly, fuel consumption is much
in Module 4e: Intelligent Transport Systems.
higher when the driving style is more aggressive.
Fuel consumption is in part determined by In this case fuel consumption is 45% higher
the degree of acceleration resistance. ftis oc- than the consumption of the “normal” driver.
curs when the speed of a vehicle is raised. To On the other hand, a more gentle style of driv-
put a vehicle into motion or to raise the speed ing can reduce fuel costs significantly, in the
requires energy while at a constant road speed study the “gentle” driver saved 22% compared
the acceleration resistance is zero. fte accelera- to the normal driver.
tion resistance is dependent upon the increase
in speed and the total weight of the vehicle. A 2.1.2 Road conditions
gentle acceleration and, above all, the avoidance Two aspects of the road conditions influence fuel
of unnecessary acceleration and braking can consumption: the surface and the inclination.
save an enormous amount of fuel. fte road surface has an effect on the rolling
Anticipating traffic is a major factor reducing resistance. Relevant surface conditions include:
fuel consumption. But what is an anticipatory  metalled or unmetalled road,
driving style? First of all, the driver should learn  dry or wet road surface,
Table 1: Fuel consumption at different driving styles  smooth or rough, uneven road surface,
 clean or dirty road surface (including snow).
Light bus (8.8 tons) Heavy bus (24.5 tons)
High rolling resistance increases fuel consump-
Driving style l/100 km indexed l/100 km indexed tion. As can be seen from the list above, rolling
A: aggressive 37.8 143 101.5 145 resistance is influenced by weather conditions,
which is therefore determined by a combination
B: normal 26.5 100 69.9 100 of different factors. But it is also affected by
C: gentle 21.0 79 54.5 78 other factors such as:
Source: VTL 2002  the weight of a vehicle,

2
 Module 4f: EcoDriving

 tyre profile, speed is doubled air resistance increases by the

 tyre pressures, factor 4.
 wheel positions.
2.1.2.1 Gradient resistance
It is self-evident that a vehicle driving up a hill
requires more energy than a vehicle driving on
a flat road. ftis results from the gradient resist-
ance, which is dependent upon the percentage
gradient and the total weight of the vehicle. Fig. 3
Air resistance
Source: Evobus 2001

Other meteorological factors are temperature

(higher temperatures may lead to a slightly
lower fuel consumption unless air condition is
used inside the bus) and the precipitation (wet
and snowy surfaces increase the rolling resist-
ance and lead to higher fuel consumption).
In this section we have seen that fuel consump-
tion is influenced by a variety of external factors.
Fig. 2 ftese factors are determined by various resist-
Gradient resistance ances (air, rolling, gradient and acceleration
Source: VTL 2002 resistance). fte value of these resistances is
determined by weather, road and traffic condi-
Although it is not possible to influence the gradi- tions. fte technical specifications and the
ent resistance, drivers can take account of it. An equipment of vehicles also have an effect on
economical driving style on a hill consists of: these resistances. ftese effects will be the sub-
 selection of the correct engine speed, ject of the next section.
 correct shifting technique (change gear as
little as possible when ascending), and 2.2 The vehicle
 use the increase in speed on a descent to 2.2.1 Tyres
mount the next rise.
2.2.1.1 Tyre tread
2.1.3 Weather conditions fte tread of a tyre has the following purposes:
fte influence of weather conditions on fuel con-  to transfer forces between the vehicle and the
sumption is mainly determined by three factors: road surface,
air resistance, temperature and precipitation.  to carry off water and contamination, and
fte main meteorological influence on fuel con-  to cool the tyre.
sumption is air resistance (see Figure 3). Air is Tyre conditions are often neglected and only lit-
not touchable or viewable but it is present – and tle attention is paid to their maintenance. Legal
how strong this factor is can be felt when you requirements for minimum tread depths vary
hold your arm out of a moving vehicle and try from country to country, however, a sufficient
to push the arm forward, or when crosswinds depth should not only be seen as a legal require-
hit a vehicle and push it aside. fte vehicle has ment but also as a factor that influences driving
to “cross” the air barrier and to do so it needs comfort, fuel consumption and – last but not
energy and consumes fuel. Air resistance is least – traffic safety.
dependent on the front shape of the vehicle,
i.e. buses with the relatively large and flat front 2.2.1.2 Tyre pressure
surface have a high air resistance. Air resistance Tyre pressure is the most significant factor in
increases raises in quadratic form, i.e. when the tyre wear. With low tyre pressure (Figure 4, left

3
 Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

Figure 4: Tyre pressures

Pressure too low Pressure too high Correct pressure

• Tread is deformed • Poor contact with road surface • Driving, braking and
• Temperature soars • Risk of damage lateral forces are optimally
transferred to the road surface
• Carcase may fail • Springs and dampers are
overloaded • Braking distance is at its
• Rapid and uneven wear shortest
• Poor ride stability • Tyre durability is at the
maximum
Source: VTL 2002

part), the carcass of the tyre collapses and the  overloading, and
tyre shoulders wear rapidly. Deformation raises  inaccurate wheel alignment.
the temperature to such levels that the tread
may be separated from the tyre. Low tyre pres- 2.2.2 The engine
sure also has a negative effect on ride stability. fte engine is the heart of a motorized vehicle.
Furthermore, when pressure is too low, tyres fte diesel engine supplies power to drive the
do not maintain optimal contact with the road vehicle and all its accessories. fte performance
which negatively affects rolling resistance. of the engine may be enhanced with the use of
If the tyre pressure is too high (Figure 4, middle a turbo compressor and intercooling without
part), only the middle part of the tyre wears and increasing fuel consumption. Modern diesel
contact with the road is poor. ftis also leads to engines are far cleaner than it was the case in
an overload of springs and dampers and thus the past, i.e. a modernization of the fleet with
affects driving comfort and safety. new buses will decrease average fuel consump-
tion significantly and pay off in the long run.
Excessively low tyre pressures cause higher fuel
consumption than do high pressures. When the Regular maintenance is important for all
pressure of all tyres of a vehicle is too low by engines – both old and new ones – in order to
15-20% fuel consumption increases by 5-8%. ensure an economical operation. For example,
correct injection timing and the changing of
Besides tyre pressure and the depth of the tread, inlet air filters should be done according to the
other factors influence the wear of the tyre as recommendations of the engine manufacturer
well: as these recommendations result in the best
Fig. 5  an aggressive driving style, e.g. heavy braking compromise between performance, emissions
Aerodynamic bus design and acceleration, and fuel consumption.

2.2.3 Aerodynamics
Air resistance has been introduced in sec-
tion 2.1.3. A streamlined bus can thus be a
contribution to reduced fuel consumption.

4
 Module 4f: EcoDriving

2.3 The driver Table 2: Fuel consumption when starting with a cold or a warm
engine
As we have seen, external factors can have a
huge influence on fuel consumption. But all Light bus (8.8 tons) Heavy bus (24.5 tons)
these measures can be worthless if the driver has
an aggressive, fuel consuming driving style. in l/100 km indexed in l/100 km indexed

In the next sections we will elaborate on the Cold 21.6 100 49.6 100
different measures that a driver can carry out Warm 18.5 86 42.8 86
before and during the journey to reduce fuel
Source: VTL 2002
consumption and to increase both the comfort
and the safety of the passengers and himself. has not yet expanded, the pistons and cylinders
do not fit together so well and extra wear results.
2.3.1 Trip preparation A VTL study showed that driving with a cold
Before the commence of the trip, the driver engine uses about 15% more fuel than with a
should check his vehicle carefully. Even though warm engine. Table 2 presents results from tests
most buses should be maintained by technicians at an average speed of 40 km/h.
on a regular base, the driver is also in charge When the vehicle is stationary, the engine
of regular basic checks. A proper check will warms up only very slowly. A gentle driving
include the following: style brings the engine to its operating tem-
 Fluids: perature much more rapidly. Depending on the
• engine oil specific circumstances, a vehicle must be driven
• coolant for about 30 km before its engine is properly
• screen wash warmed up. fte driver should move off in the
 Tyres: first gear with few gas or – when driving a
• check for rips and stones newer model – without gas.
• tyre pressures If the driver has to stop and wait for a longer
• spare wheel time (e.g. at a railway crossing), it is wise to
 Braking system
switch off the engine. ftis is not only better for
• check pressure and pressure drop the environment but it also saves fuel. A rule
• bleed off condensation water of thumb is to switch off the engine when the
 Lighting and mirrors
vehicle has to stand still for more than a minute.
• check and clean as required Fig. 6
In more and more cities, the duration of the red
2.3.2 During the trip phase at traffic lights is displayed on little moni- Bogotá: Bus driver at
TransMilenio bus.
ftough pre-trip checks can already save a certain tors next to the traffic lights. Photo: Lloyd Wright 2002
amount of fuel, the major part of fuel savings
can be realised by a reasonable driving style.
2.3.2.1 Starting and moving off
When starting the engine for the first time of
the day, the driver should allow the engine to
run at a moderate speed until the correct oil
pressure has built up. fte cold (and therefore
thick) oil must reach the various lubrication
points in the engine before the driver can move
off without causing damage.
Once the oil pressure has built up, the driver
should move off gently. A cold engine wears
faster than a warm engine – particularly at high
engine speeds. ftis is due to the fact that pistons
and cylinders are designed to fit best with a
warm engine. When the engine is cold the metal

5
 Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

Fig. 7 suming than a constant speed of 40 km/h. fte

Bogotá: To drive difference in fuel consumption at an average
consciously is a speed and at a constant speed may amount up
prerequisite for an
economic driving. to 20% (VTL 2002).
Photo courtesy of TransMilenio 2002
2.3.2.3 Anticipation
An anticipatory driving style involves matching
the driving behaviour to the road and traffic
conditions. Points to consider include:
 traffic in front of the own vehicle,
 traffic behind the own vehicle,
 oncoming traffic,
 traffic at intersections,
 overtaking, and
 reversing.

It also means, that the driver

 looks as far ahead as possible,
 drives with concentration,
2.3.2.2 Speed  brakes deliberately,
To drive economically means to drive at a con-  looks out for the vehicle in front,
stant road speed as often as possible (although  keeps an adequate distance,
Fig. 8 this is difficult to realize in urban traffic). A
 drives smoothly at a constant speed,
Argentina: After the constant speed is not the same as the average
 adapts in good time to changing conditions,
theoretical driver speed. Driving an average speed of 40 km/h
training the acquired might consume much more fuel than a constant  uses his knowledge of the route,
knowledge and skills  takes account of road damage and of possible
are checked in the speed of 40 km/h as an average speed of 40
practice. km/h with an aggressive driving style and a lot errors of other drivers.
Photo: Julio Brizzi 2004 of acceleration and braking is far more fuel-con- 2.3.2.4 Gear changing
To change the gear correctly is a fundamental
part of an economical driving style. Changing
up must be carried out in such a way that the
engine can deal with the new gear. In practice,
this means to allow the engine speed to pass
through the green zone on the rev meter and
then change. Conversely changing down should
be done when the rpm needle reaches the bot-
tom of the green zone.
Changing gears economically also means:
 it is not necessary to drive off in the lowest
gear,
 changes to a higher gear should be carried
out as soon as possible,
 it is sometimes possible to skip a gear.

2.3.2.5 Braking and coasting

fte driver should avoid braking when it is pos-
sible to ease off the accelerator in good time and
he should allow the coach to coast. Coasting

6
 Module 4f: EcoDriving

means releasing the accelerator pedal and using Decision: to decide the correct action (solution)
the engine as a brake, e.g. when approaching Action: the (re-)action the driver will execute.
red lights or the end of a traffic jam.
Defensive driving begins by acting in accord-
When using the engine as a brake, the fuel ance with these steps. But of course this does
supply is cut off. ftis saves fuel and prevents not mean that the driver should park his vehicle
unnecessary wear to brakes and tyres. In section and take a time-out to thoroughly follow this
2.3.2.2 have already been discussed the effects procedure step by step. fte idea is rather that
of frequent braking on fuel consumption. the driver should simply be aware of these
steps – but when he actually takes a decision
2.3.3 Joining and leaving the traffic flow
this happens so quickly that with experienced
In urban traffic, it is sometimes difficult to drive
drivers it may appear to be an automatic proc-
economically when joining and leaving the traf-
ess. fte foundation of defensive driving can be
fic flow. Often it may be necessary to accelerate
described with “think before you act”.
stronger to join the traffic flow, e.g. when turn-
ing into a major road or merging with a “faster” 2.4.1 The working procedure and
lane. In this case road safety has priority. defensive driving behaviour
fte traffic speed requires the driver to (re-)act
2.4 Defensive driving quickly and without lengthy consideration. ftis
In the previous sections we have elaborated makes defensive driving so important. fte
mainly on the technical measures to save fuel. driver has to be continually alert to risks, such
ftese actions may lead to an economical style of as weather conditions, the behaviour of oth-
driving (and a reduction of fuel consumption), ers, the capabilities and limitation of the bus,
but this does not necessarily lead to a more de- fatigue and so on. fte driver has to be able to
fensive style. Stated briefly, driving defensively “foresee upcoming situations”, for instance he
can be described as: Predicting what others may should keep in mind that his range of vision
do and reacting accordingly. behind or alongside his bus is limited, that Fig. 9
In order to adopt a defensive driving style, it is cyclists may turn off without signalling, that Jakarta: Stopping
important that the driver knows his vehicle and children may suddenly run on the road or that far from the curb
motorcyclists sometimes travel too fast. Taking makes embarking
that he takes into account his own situation, and disembarkung
the capabilities and limitations of his bus, the these factors continually into account can be
of the bus unecessary
road conditions and possible errors of others. expressed in a single word: anticipation (see uncomfortable.
A defensive driving style will not only avoid section 2.3.2.3 and Figure 9). Photo: Karl Fjellstrom

accidents, but it will also lead to a reduction in

maintenance costs and fuel consumption, as
well as to a more comfortable working environ-
ment for the driver and increased customer
satisfaction.
fte basic rule for a defensive driving style is to
react accordingly. fte “normal” working proce-
dure of a vehicle driver is as follows:
Observation ➮ prediction ➮ evaluation ➮ deci-
sion ➮ action.
Observation means: to look consciously and to
process whatever information is necessary to
solve the traffic problem
Prediction: what will the driver do and what will
others do?
Evaluation: to estimate the effects of an action
(pro and cons)

7
 Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

fte aim of defensive driving is to be one step 2.5.2 Stress and emotions
ahead of the other road users, using the driver’s External factors can be hazards (as seen in the
road sense and experience to anticipate his driv- previous section), but also stress and emotions
ing behaviour and thereby avoiding hazardous can be hazardous for the driver. fte pressure
situations. on the driver is considerable: passengers must
But this anticipation makes certain demands on be picked up and delivered on time, the traffic
the driver: is busy and the driver bears a weight of respon-
 concentration, sibility for the passengers. For bus drivers, a lot
 good observation,
of external factors can cause stress: crowded
buses with unsatisfied passengers, heavy traf-
 consideration, and
fic which causes delays, heat, bad weather or
 constant alertness
personal problems. All these factors might lead
(which allows more time for taking decisions). the driver to rush, to drive faster than is safe,
to overlook things, to become aggressive in his
2.5 Common hazards driving or to become impatient for other road
A driver of a vehicle can drive defensively and users’ errors.
carefully, nevertheless there are common haz-
It is thus important for vehicle owners and
ards occurring on the road.
operators to allow the drivers enough time
2.5.1 Driver behaviour between the stops so that they do not have
fte driver should take into consideration that to rush and bring passengers, the vehicle and
not every driver is as educated and experienced themselves into danger. A driver who is not
as a commercial bus driver. A driver of a normal under stress the whole shift drives smoother,
car, a bicycle, a motorbike or a pedestrian does more economically and defensively.
not have the knowledge of the special features Emotions might also be a hazard for the driver.
of a bus. fte stopping distance of a 10 tonne A happy, angry or sad mood may influence the
bus is far longer than that of a car, the manoeu- driving style. It is important to teach the driver
vrability is limited and the range of vision for to keep these moods out of the everyday work-
the driver is restricted in certain directions. ing procedure.
Fig. 10
Jakarta: New buses
consume less fuel than
older models.
Photo: Manfred Breithaupt

8
 Module 4f: EcoDriving

Box 1: Fleet Management Systems in Hamburg

(http://www.ressourcenschutz-hamburg.de)

In Hamburg, companies that save energy by us- their driving style. The Hamburg Senate calculated
ing fleet management systems receive financial a reduction in fuel consumption of 5-10%.
grants from the Senate. These fleet management The financial grant can be up to 30% of the costs
systems consist of two parts: of the installation of the fleet management systems
• monitoring equipment, installed in the vehicles and the costs for the driver training courses.
to measure fuel consumption, speed and ac-
celeration; and The following table shows the possible amortiza-
• driver training courses. tion of the implementation of a fleet management
system:
With the data gained from the monitoring equip-
ment, the drivers are urged to change and optimize

Fleet Reduction of emissions

40 vehicles “Ford Sprinter” Fuel reduction 8% 12,400 l Diesel
Mileage 25,000 km/driver Avoidance of CO2 31,612 kg
Total mileage 1,000,000 km
Total fuel consumption 155,000 l Diesel

Costs/amortization Grant
Investment for 40 monitoring 30% of investment (incl.
systems 40,000 € Training courses) 16,080 €
Investment for 80 training cours-
es (2x40) 13,600 €
Total investment 53,600 €
Cost saving Diesel 12,152 €
Amortization: 4.4 years Amortization with grant: 3.1 years

2.6 Fleet management 2.7.1 The disabled

It is obvious that the vehicle should be in the We can distinguish many different types of dis-
best technical condition for the daily use. It abilities: poor hearing, poor vision or blindness,
does not make sense to teach the driver to drive difficulties in walking or a complete inability to
defensively and economically when the vehicle walk. ftese disabilities are often not identifiable
has technical insufficiencies and the savings at a glance, which is problematical not only
reached by implementing the new driving style for other road users but also for the disabled
are overcompensated by an increased fuel con- themselves. ftey are aware of their limitations
sumption caused by an inadequately maintained and conscious that other road users may not
vehicle. Proper fleet management will ensure take account of them. fterefore, if the driver of
that vehicles are in a good condition, as well a vehicle sees that someone has a disability, he
as that the size of the buses is always adapted should be patient and give them a chance to go
according to passenger demand.
on their way.

2.7 Road users requiring special 2.7.2 Children and young people
attention Children and young people, just like the disa-
In many cities, pedestrians build a huge group bled and the elderly, have problems with traffic,
of traffic participants. Some groups need special often caused by their lack or absence of road
attention: sense due to their age. For this group a defen-
 the disabled, sive driver should always expect the unexpected,
 children and young people, as these young people are far away from being
 the elderly. able to do what is necessary in traffic. ftey

9
 Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

Fig. 11
Bangkok:
Pedestrian and
cyclist on a bus lane.
Photo: Karl Fjellstrom

cross the street without looking out for traffic, journey there may be a few wobbles. fterefore,
they play and they follow their friends without it is important for drivers of motor vehicles to
noticing the traffic. allow a little more room when older cyclists
head off. Besides these problems, turning off
2.7.3 The elderly on a bike can be more complicated for older
Elderly road users, either walking, cycling or people than it is for younger cyclists. Older
driving, need special attention. Older people cyclists may have difficulties to look around. So
do still fully participate in traffic although they if they turn off the road they might indicate but
have certain restrictions such as: then don’t dare look around. ftey are afraid of
 they may see less clearly, falling und just press on regardless. fte same
thing can apply to indicating as some older
 they sometimes walk less easily,
people are afraid to cycle using one hand only,
 they are more easily surprised,
so they may not indicate at all.
 they are more vulnerably to serious injuries in
Older people usually have a different concept
accidents.
of speed. In a car, they often drive slower than
Although most older people are aware of the other motorists do. ftis holds true for urban as
dangers in city traffic, it is necessary to pay well as for rural areas and on motorways. It is
special attention to their behaviour as they may important to be patient, however, and to pass
act and react in unexpected ways. them only when it is safe to do so. In addition,
In some big cities in developing countries, the the driver should not drive close up behind
bicycle is a popular mode of transportation. Not them as chasing them with a huge bus only
only in these countries many older people use makes them more nervous.
the bike as this may be easier for them than
walking. When older people mount a bike
they need more time, and when they start their

10
 Module 4f: EcoDriving

3. Advantages of driving Repairs and maintenance: Driving economi-

cally does not only reduce the costs for fuel
economically
and tyres but also affects the overall expenses
3.1 Advantages for the business for repair and maintenance. A defensive and
economical driving style results in fewer repairs
"Driving economically can save and leads to reduced maintenance costs and an
extended lifetime of the vehicle.
a considerable amount of money,
Insurance: A more economical way of driv-
especially regarding fuel, tyres, ing indirectly leads to the adoption of a safer
repairs and maintenance." style of driving, which will reduce the overall
frequency of accidents. With the decreasing
Fuel: Fuel costs can be reduced considerably amount of accidents, insurance costs will fall
by an economical driving behaviour. Although in the long term and no-claims bonuses may
the share of fuel costs differs considerably from rise considerably. ftis is another saving result-
country to country (fuel prices in developing ing from economical and defensive driving
countries can vary from 2 US-Cent to 90 US- (although not in every country insurances offer
Cent), an economical driving style in general no-claims bonuses).
can save a significant share of operating costs.
Tyres: Besides the expenses for fuel, the cost 3.2 Advantages for the environment
to replace tyres is another important factor of As we have seen by now, an economical and
expenses. With an economical way of driving defensive style of driving leads to a reduction
(which means first of all smoother acceleration of operating costs for the owner of commercial
and braking), tyres wear less rapidly and thus (and private!) vehicles. But that is not the only
have to be replaced less often. ftis leads to positive effect: it also leads to a reduction of
significant cost reductions. If the vehicle is environmental pollution. Road transport is
driven more economically, the lifetime of tyres worldwide seen as a main source of negative
can be extended from 60,000 km to more than environmental impacts, and environmental
140,000 km. groups put increasing pressure on governments
Fig. 12
Jakarta: Poorly
maintained bus with a
breakedown, causing a
traffic jam.
Photo: Manfred Breithaupt

11
 Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

Box 2: Substances chiefly

involved in air pollution
Hydrocarbons (HC)
HC appear in the exhaust gases as a result of
incomplete combustion in the engine.

Carbon monoxide (CO)

CO is a toxic gas which displaces oxygen in the
blood during respiration. Emissions are highest
in low speeds and therefore in city traffic. CO
is odourless and colourless and can hence not
be directly perceived by humans.

Particulates
Particulates are extremely small particles. They
consist largely of soot to which cancer-produc-
ing substances may be attached. Particulates
may be deposited in lungs, airways and eyes.
Nitrous oxides (NO x)
NOx play an important role in the creation of
summer smog. Nitrous oxide is converted in the
Fig. 13 to draw up and implement stricter legislation
atmosphere to nitric acid which is a significant
Surabaya: Bus causing on exhaust emissions and noise. component of acid rain.
heavy air pollution.
Photo: Karl Fjellstrom Carbon Dioxide (CO 2)
3.3 Advantages for the driver
CO2 does have environmental effects not on the
fte benefits for the operator of a commercial local but on the global level by contributing to
vehicle and for the environment might not the man-made greenhouse effect.
Fig. 14 provide an incentive for the driver to drive
Jakarta: Better working economically (unless owner and driver are the fte financial benefits mentioned above (reduced
environment when new, same person). However, there are also direct costs for fuel, maintenance, repairs etc.) can
well maintained buses
are used. benefits for the driver to adopt a more economi- indirectly result in better working conditions,
Photo: Manfred Breithaupt cal style of driving. higher salaries and a higher job security.
As driving economically automatically means
driving more safely, this results in smoother and
more relaxed working conditions. fte driver
will feel less exhausted and will be less prone
to work-related stress. More incentives for the
driver will be discussed in section 4.3.

3.4 Advantages for the passengers

An economical style of driving contributes
directly and indirectly to the satisfaction of
passengers. A less aggressive driving style with
gentle acceleration and braking leads to an
increased comfort for the passengers and hence
to a higher satisfaction with public transport
(which in the long run will attract more
customers).

12
Module 4f: EcoDriving

Fig. 15
Bogotá: TransMilenio,
a BRT system with new
equipment and well
trained drivers makes
public transport attrac-
tive for passengers.
Photo: Klaus Banse

Fig. 16
Bogotá: Old buses and
poorly equiped bus stops
make boarding the bus
dangerous and public
transport unattractive.
Photo: Klaus Banse

13
 Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

4. How to achieve and sustain an clubs calculated that for a medium-sized car
with an average annual mileage savings in petrol
economic and safe driving style
of up to 500 € per year can be realised.
ftere is no doubt that economical driving leads In view of this cost saving potential, an increas-
to considerable energy savings, reduces operat- ing number of courses on economical and save
ing costs for vehicles and leads to a reduction of driving techniques for drivers of commercial
greenhouse gas emissions. Experiences world- vehicles are offered in Europe but also in the
wide show that cost reductions of up to 25% U.S., Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and
can be achieved. On average, reductions of 10 increasingly in developing countries as well.
Fig. 17 to 20% are realistic. fte higher the petrol prices, ftese courses are predominantly targeted at bus
Latin America: Bus the higher the absolute cost savings that can
driver training and truck drivers but also at owners of private
be achieved (for example in Germany current vehicles. Courses in Germany, for example, are
publicity page on the
Internet site of VRS prices are approximately 1,20 €/litre for gasoline offered by major car manufacturers, automobile
Source: VRS and 1,05 €/litre for diesel). German automobile clubs, driving schools, environmental organisa-
tions, but even by churches and NGOs. ftere
bus driver are hundreds of different opportunities.
training
Regarding commercial vehicles, DaimlerChrys-
ler, Volvo, Ford and other vehicle manufacturers
are providing courses and offer related material.
Acelerando con nuevos métodos
CBT, un programa de aprendizaje a base de nuevas tecnologías, ofrece métodos multi- Box 3:
media para la capacitación básica y avanzada de los conductores de autobús. El pro-
grama consiste de varios módulos: aspectos técnicos de conducir y el conducir de una Computer based training
manera económica. Los conductores que han tenido una formación bien fundada (Verband Region Stuttgart)
manejan de una manera más segura, protegen al medio ambiente y reducen los costos.
http://www.busdriver-training.info

The “Verband Region Stuttgart (VRS)” is a public

Reduciendo los costos authority representing the Greater Stuttgart area.
It takes responsibility for the public transport,
Se puede economizar en el con-
sumo de la gasolina por un 10%
o más mediante la formación CBT
para conducir de una manera eco-
nómica.
the regional planning and the economic devel-
opment in the Stuttgart metropolitan area. In
cooperation with the European Union, Verband
10 % Mejorando el aire
Reduciendo las emisiones vehicula-
Region Stuttgart aims at promoting the applica-
tion of Computer Based Training (CBT) in the
res por un 10% contribuye a la pro-
tección del clima y al mejoramiento
de la calidad del aire en los centros
training of European and Latin American bus
urbanos.
drivers on economical and environmentally-
friendly driving (see Figure 17).

Reduciendo los accidentes

La formación continua de conduc-
10 % Training courses are based on Computer Based
Training (CBT) which offers advantages such
as:
30 Comienzo de la capacitación CBT tores de autobús usando el pro-
29 grama CBT logró la reducción de
30
los accidentes en una empresa de

 individualized learning with a high rate of

autobús en Alemania por un 33%.
27

success,
Cantidad de accidentes

25

 easy implementation and better distribu-

21
tion of knowledge,

33 %
20
2000 2001 2002 2003  environmentally friendly, and
Año

 increased traffic safety.

The main objective of the project is to improve

VENTAJAS
the qualification of bus drivers by providing
newly developed training course material, ad-
- Municipio de Querétaro - Prefeitura Municipal - Regione Autonoma Coordinación
vanced learning techniques and traditional
didactic models. In particular, the focus is on
de São Vicente della Sardegna
- Prefeitura Municipal - Provincia di Treviso
de Florianópolis - Commune di Trento

safe, economical and environmentally-friendly

- Prefeitura Municipal
- Alcaldía Mayor de Criciúma - Verband Region Stuttgart
de Cartagena - Prefeitura Municipal - combus training GmbH

driving.
de Porto Alegre

www.busdriver-training.info

14
 Module 4f: EcoDriving

It is important to raise awareness at all levels.

ftis can be done via TV-spots, radio features, Box 4: Results from a pilot project in Santiago de
newspaper articles, flyers, articles in technical Chile (by Frank Dursbeck)
literature, signboards at motorways etc. It is also Eleven drivers of urban public transport buses have been trained during one
required that such undertakings receive the full week on EcoDriving. The training was based on a manual developed by GTZ
in a corresponding project in Argentina.
commitment of the Government.
The results were quite impressive. Fuel consumption decreased by between
In Germany, for example, it is mandatory for 8 and 32% with an average of nearly 20% (Figure 18). At the same time,
driving schools to teach environmentally ori- braking could be reduced between 3 and more than 50% (Figure 19). The
ented and economical driving techniques since average reduction of braking is more than 25%.
1999. It is part of the driving test and a precon-
dition for obtaining the driving-license. Ap- Fuel Consumption

proximately 1.3 million applicants join a driving 35

school annually to receive a driving-license.
30
In Argentina, GTZ has executed a project on
environmentally sustainable transport, includ- 25

ing pilot courses on energy-saving driving

improvement (%)

20
techniques. fte Argentinean Government
has decided to include energy-saving driving 15

techniques into the process of obtaining a driv-

10
ing license. ftis should go along with proper
inspection and maintenance schemes and a 5

strict regulatory framework to ensure periodic

0
inspections. For details, please see Module 4b:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 average
Inspection and Maintenance of this sourcebook. driver

Energy-saving driving techniques are not yet

broadly established in developing countries. Figure 18: Decrease of fuel consumption
ftere is a variety of reasons for this. In some
countries, fuel prices are very low (below world Brakings
market prices), so that potential savings are
60
limited. Other reasons are unawareness of the
importance and relevance of the subject, but 50
also legal and institutional deficiencies exist.
International organisations acknowledge the 40
improvement (%)

importance of energy-saving driving techniques

30
and stress the potential for microeconomic and
macroeconomic savings, reductions of vehicle 20
related local pollution and the reduction of
CO2 emissions. For example, the World Bank 10
supports energy-saving driving in some of their
programmes and also through the Clean Air 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 average
Initiative for Latin American Cities and Asian driver
Cities (CAI).
GTZ has worked in this area in Indonesia (Ja- Figure 19: Reduction of braking
karta and Surabaya), Argentina (Buenos Aires
Besides these expected effects the improvement of environmentally important
and Mendoza), Chile (Santiago de Chile, see aspects like exhaust gas and noise emissions have been evaluated. Figure
Box 4) and Costa Rica (San Jose). ftese GTZ 20 clearly shows the reduction of RPM after the training program. As can be
projects proved that the participants of energy- seen from the figure, the percentage of high RPM was reduced significantly
saving driving courses achieved fuel savings of with the effect of lower noise emissions. 
up to 20%. Details on these pilot projects are

15
 Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities




RPM distribution Bus operator with 30 buses
• annual mileage 105,600 km per bus
25%
• 30 buses = 3.168.000 km for the fleet

20%
• Actual fuel consumption: 2,409 km/l
• Total fuel consumption before training
1.315.068 litres
15%
• Fuel consumption after training: 2,886 km/l

10%
• Total fuel consumption with EcoDriving
1.097.713 litres
• Difference 217.354 l
5%
• Total savings CLP 43.470.800 (equiv. 62,100
USD) without taking into account possible
0% savings in maintenance and repair costs.
500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500
rpm (min-1)

before after 4.1 Results of selected GTZ-courses

Figure 20: RPM distribution before and after training GTZ has supported courses in Jakarta and
Surabaya (Indonesia) for bus drivers of public
The effect on exhaust gas emissions also was very impressive. For the
Santiago bus fleet emission factors have been developed. Based on these municipal operators as well as for drivers of
data it was possible to calculate the difference in exhaust gas emissions as buses of private bus companies. A manual used
an effect of EcoDriving. The results are shown in Figure 21. for those courses in Indonesian language has
been elaborated by the Swiss Development Aid
Reduction of exhaust gas emissions and can be made available by GTZ. Energy
savings were in the range of 7-15%.
28%
In Buenos Aires, seven courses were held in
1999, with average fuel savings of 14.2% (see
27% Table 3).
fte courses also resulted a reduced use of
26%
brakes (-32.1%) and a reduction of gear changes
(-22.9%). And as a surprise to many partici-
pants, the average speed increased by 7.3%.
25%
GTZ also supported a private bus operator
(with a fleet of 50 vehicles) in monitoring and
24% supervising fuel consumption and operating
CO VOC NOx MP
Exhaust gas components costs over a period of one year.
Figure 21: Reduction of exhaust gas emissions In 2003 two urban bus lines in Mendoza/Ar-
gentina (Line 100 and Line 160) received
These figures clearly show that by economical driving techniques alone sig-
technical support for the improvement of fuel
nificant improvements with respect to air pollution and noise emissions can
be achieved – and all this does not involve any costs for authorities and the efficiency and for the reduction of vehicle op-
public. On the contrary this is a classical win-win-situation as the reduction erating costs. Some main results of the project
of fuel consumption and the reduction of braking significantly decrease the are summarized in Table 3. Again, average fuel
operating costs of the vehicles. An example is given in the following table. savings were in the range of between 15 and
18% (see Table 4).
presented in section 4.1. GTZ has developed In Argentina, with high diesel prices, the sav-
manuals in Spanish (“manual de conducción ings resulting from the training courses and,
racional”) in the context of the projects in Ar- more specifically, from the extended monitoring
gentina and Chile. ftese can be obtained from of fuel consumption (over a period of 6 to 12
the GTZ transport devision (transport@gtz.de ). months) were considerable. ftey outweighted

16
 Module 4f: EcoDriving

Table 3: Result of GTZ-courses in Buenos Aires 1999

Average Fuel
speed Gear consumption
Course # Round [km/h] % Brakes % changes % [l/100km] %

1 First 16.4 44 68 38.0

Last 18.7 14.0 35 -20.5 60 -12.4 32.0 -15.8
2 First 20.5 62 65 38.4
Last 19.6 -4.6 37 -40.7 55 -15.4 32.6 -15.1
3 First 18.8 27 63 38.5
Last 19.5 3.8 18 -31.6 49 -22.0 32.6 -15.1
4 First 19.2 31 61 37.7
Last 19.9 3.6 18 -40.0 39 -35.7 32.4 -14.0
5 First 17.9 33 56 38.1
Last 20.5 14.6 25 -25.0 43 -23.8 33.4 -12.3
6 First 19.0 31 55 38.0
Last 20.5 8.1 22 -29.0 43 -21.5 32.7 -14.1
7 First 18.1 33 58 37.3
Last 20.2 11.5 20 -37.8 42 -28.2 32.4 -12.9

by far the costs for consulting and training, start when the lights change. With improved ef-
even when the respective losses of production ficiency in starters and batteries, turning off the
during the time the drivers were trained were engine for a short time poses almost no problem.
included into the calculations. fte results But even then many drivers find it a heavy
proved that this was a classical win-win-situa- psychological burden to deliberately turn off the
tion for the operators, the drivers, the passen- engine by using the key. Toyota incorporated an
gers and the environment. "idling stop system" in the 1300-cc Vitz car it
marketed in 2003. If the driver brakes with the
gearshift in "drive," the engine automatically
4.2 Results of other projects
stops, and when the driver removes his foot
In Japan, a study examined the effect of auto- from the brake pedal, the engine will restart.
matic “idling stop” devices in buses and other fte car has a high-power battery so that the
commercial vehicles. It showed significant fuel air conditioning will keep running while the
savings when vehicles were equipped with the engine is in "idling stop" mode. Toyota has also
system. fte test run covered a distance of about equipped other cars with the system. Similar
3,700 kilometres from Cape Soya in Hokkaido systems have been employed in vehicles of
to Cape Sata in Kagoshima Prefecture. fte other automakers, such as Volkswagen, Honda
use of “idling stop” devices also resulted in and Daihatsu. Idling cut-off devices have also
considerable reductions in carbon dioxide been installed in trucks and buses produced by
emissions. In cities, the saving was 13.4%. On Hino Motors Ltd, Isuzu Motors Ltd and Nissan
intercity connections savings in fuel consump- Diesel Motor Co.
tion were lower but even then a vehicle with the Table 4: Result of GTZ technical support in Mendoza 2003
idling-prevention device used 3.4% less gasoline.
Between cities, the time a vehicle spent at a halt % Reduction of
% Increase of % Increase of the the particulate
was 7.9% of the running hours, compared with Bus Line energy efficiency average speed emission
25.9% within cities. However, impatient drivers
100 15.1 2.4 27.3
do not like to turn off their engines at traffic
light stops because they want to get off to a fast 160 18.0 4.2 35.7

17
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

In Switzerland, the results of the Eco-Drive@ Vakopleiding Transport en Logistiek VTL (fte
courses where also quite impressive. Vehicle Netherlands Institute for Professional Training
drivers who did not attend the courses had in Transport and Logistics)” and is available
an average fuel consumption that was 11.7% from VTL.
higher than that of drivers who attended fte manual “EconoDrive”, primarily published
the courses. fte average speed of the course for private car users by the New Zealand “En-
participants was even slightly higher than the ergy Efficiency and Conservation Authority
average speed of non-participants (48.21 km/h (EECA)” (http://www.eeca.govt.nz), a govern-
compared to 47.02 km/h). mental organization, is recommendable as well.
EvoBus, a subsidiary of DaimlerChrysler,
4.3 Incentives for vehicle drivers to published excellent training material for urban
adopt a more economical and buses. Unfortunately these are available in
defensive driving style German only.
It is one thing to educate vehicle drivers (who GTZ has elaborated a manual for its training
are not the owners) to adopt a more defensive courses in Argentina (“Manual de Conduccion
and economical style of driving, but it is an- Racional”) and a slightly revised version for
other question if they will actually apply this Chile (“El Estilo de la Conduccion Eficiente”).
style in their day-to-day work. ftose manuals are only available in Spanish.
fte advantages for the driver have been de- fte Spanish “Ministerio de Hacienda” has
scribed in section 3.3. But an employee who has published a training manual for drivers of state-
developed a personal driving style over years owned vehicles (e.g. police, military vehicles),
or decades might not easily be convinced that entitled “Manual de Conducción Eficiente para
changes really make his work life easier. Conductores del Parque Móvil del Estado”. It is
In some developing cities, especially in Asia, available in Spanish only.
drivers sometimes rent vehicles from the owners In Portugal, the Energy Agency (Agência para a
for a fixed fee on a daily basis and operate it on Energia – AGEEN) has published an EcoDriv-
their own account. In this case the driver ben- ing manual in Portuguese language.
efits directly from fuel savings.
In Indonesia, SwissContact has produced train-
When this is not the case and drivers are ing material in Indonesian language, while both
employees of the bus company, companies may SwissContact and GTZ have developed specific
establish premium systems offering financial course programmes on energy-saving driving
incentives to drivers whose fuel consumption is techniques
below average fuel standards (experience values
fte U.S. Transportation Research Board (TRB)
of the bus companies). Premiums can also be
has published a research report on commercial
provided to drivers who have not caused ac-
truck and bus safety (“Training of Commercial
cidents for a certain period of time. To provide
Motor Vehicle Drivers”). Although it primarily
monetary incentives to drivers seems to be
deals with safety issues, it is worth reading.
the most effective way to assure sustainability.
Furthermore, it is also important to pay drivers Most of these manuals in various languages
a fixed salary instead of payments based on the plus additional material and documents have
number of passenger. fte latter would lead to a been compiled on an Annex CD-Rom and will
“chase for passengers” and an economical and de- be available from http://www.sutp.org together
fensive driving style could not be implemented. with this module.

4.4 Some selected manuals for

economic and defensive driving
A recommendable course reference guide, titled
“Het Nieuwe Rijden – A new approach to
coach driving”), is published by the “Stichting

18
 Module 4f: EcoDriving

ENERGY RESEARCH CENTER OF THE NETHER-

5. Resources
LANDS (2003): International CO 2 Benchmark
Literature for the Road Transport Sector. fte Hague.
AF WÅHLBERG, A. : Fuel efficient driving EVOBUS GMBH (2002): Wirtschaftliches
training - state of the art and quantification of Fahren. Mannheim.
effects. Uppsala.
FEDERAL MOTOR CARRIER SAFETY ADMINIS-
AGÊNCIA PARA A ENERGIA – AGEEN (2001): TRATION (2004): Minimum Training Require-
Econmia de Energia na Condução e Utilização ments for Entry-Level Commercial Motor Vehicles:
das Viaturas. Formação de Condutores em Final Rule. Federal Register, Friday, May 21.
Escolas Condução. Amadora
FORD-WERKE (2003): Ford Eco-Driving.
AMBÜHL, D., SCHILTER, A.(2003): Schneller schalten, weiter kommen. Cologne.
Auswirkungen von Eco-Drive bei Fahrzeugen
GOVAERTS, L. & VERLAAK, J.
(2003): ECO-
im Jahr 2010. Zürich.
DRIVING in a company fleet. Final Report
BIDING, T., LIND, G. (2002): Intelligent Speed Belgian Pilot. Mol.
Adaption (ISA). Results of large-scale trials in
GTZ (1998): Manual de Conducción Racional.
Borlänge, Lund and Umeå during the period
Bueons Aires.
1999-2002. Publication 2002; 89 E, Vägverket,
Borlänge, Sweden, September 2002. GTZ (1998); Informe Final, Cursos de Conduc-
ción Racional para Choferes del Transporte
BROCK, J. F. etal. (2001): Simulators and Bus
Público Urbano de Personas. Proyecto Mejo-
Safety: Guidelines for Acquiring and Using
ramiento de la Gestión Ambiental en el Sector
Transit Bus Operator Driving Simulators. TCRP
Transporte. Buenos Aires.
Report 72, Transportation Research Board,
National Research Council. Washington, D.C. GTZ (2002): Manual del Curso: El Estilo de la
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