A Hermeneutic Historical Study of Kazimierz Dabrowski

and his Theory of Positive Disintegration

Marjorie M. Kaminski Battaglia

Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy
in
Human Development

Dr. Marcie Boucouvalas, Chair

Dr. M. Gerald Cline, Research Chair
Dr. Clare Klunk
Dr. Linda Morris
Dr. Karen Rosen

March 20, 2002

Falls Church, Virginia

Keywords: Positive Disintegration, Human Development, Hermeneutic, transpersonal, TPD,

Dabrowski

Copyright 2002, Marjorie M. Kaminski Battaglia

 Abstract

A Hermeneutic Historical Study of Kazimierz Dabrowski

and his Theory of Positive Disintegration

Marjorie M. Kaminski Battaglia

The inquiry is a hermeneutic historical study of the historical factors in the life of Kazimierz
Dabrowski which contributed to the shaping of his Theory of Positive Disintegration. Relatively
little information has been written on the life and theory of Kazimierz Dabrowski. The
researcher contends that knowledge of Dabrowski, the man, will aid in an understanding of his
theory.

The journey in which an individual “develops” to the level at which “the other” becomes a higher
concern than the self, is the “stuff” of Kazimierz Dabrowski’s Theory of Positive Disintegration.
It is a paradoxical theory of human development, based on the premise that “good can follow
from bad.” Crisis and suffering act as the propellents into an internal as well as external battle
with self and environment to move out of the “what is” and travel to the “what ought to be.”
Illuminated within this study, is how the life of Dabrowski demonstrates this moral and psychic
struggle.

Data collection for this qualitative study was accomplished over a four year period through a
“deep” reading of the works of Dabrowski and a search for biographical material. The researcher
was the first to utilize a ten volume file on Dabrowski housed in the National Archives of Ottawa
in Canada which houses a plethora of Dabrowski’s books and papers. The researcher, following
a hermeneutic research approach, traveled to Poland to “walk in Dabrowski’s footsteps.” Within
this journey, the researcher utilized the facilities of many archives in Poland - at libraries, and
within prisons. Given the researcher’s Polish heritage, a basic knowledge of the Polish language
aided the researcher greatly in these endeavors. The journey served to deepen the researcher’s
understanding of Dabrowski, the man - his history and his country. Finally, the researcher
interviewed several of Dabrowski’s friends, co-authors, students and associates.

This study serves as a baseline endeavor for additional research. The researcher’s purpose was to
aid in understanding Dabrowski - the man and his theory. The research journey was an attempt
by the researcher to keep alive and renew interest in a theory of human development that is in
danger of being forgotten.

i
 Dedication

The researcher dedicates this study to Our Lady of Czestochowa - Poland’s Black Madonna.

“Jasna Gora (Polish shrine of Our Lady of Czestochowa) was “the nation’s shrine.” Here
was where one learned what Poland really was and who the Poles really were. Anyone
who wanted to “know how . . . history is interpreted by the heart of the Poles . . . must
come here” where one heard “the echo of the life of the whole nation in the heart of its
Mother and Queen” (W ojtyla, Karol (Pop e John Paul II) in Weigel, 1999, p.309 ).

ii
 Acknowledgments

This study would have proved impossible without the help of a great multitude of individuals.

Contributions from the international group of Dabrowski scholars comprised the bulk of valued

assistance. Specific thanks go out to Andrew Kawczak, LL.M., Ph.D., Michael Piechowski,

Ph.D., Thomas Nelson, Ph.D., Norbert Duda, Ph.D., William Hague, Ph.D., Marlene Rankel,

Ph.D., Dexter Amend, Ph.D., Francis Lesniak, Th.D., Ps.D., and William Tillier, M.A. A

Dabrowski family member granted the researcher permission to examine the writings and

correspondence of Dabrowski housed in the National Archives of Canada. This unlocked a gold

mine of information to the researcher. Special thanks to Ms. Elizabeth Mika, who gave so freely

of her time to help with translation. Ms. Mika opened her home in Chicago to the researcher.

Together, we spent an entire weekend translating pieces of Dabrowski’s works. This entire

group, so eager to document and preserve Dabrowski’s history and his theory of positive

disintegration, shared unselfishly in their willingness to aid the researcher in the construction of

this study. Many insights, remembrances, and private recollections surfaced and were shared

with the researcher, in the hope that Dabrowski’s message might remain alive in the minds of

scholars. The opportunity to work with such outstanding individuals was a humbling experience

for the researcher.

Extensions of this group were found in the persons of Sylvia Sheridan, Ph.D., in Canada and

Malgorzata Tatala, Ph.D., in Poland, who both contributed to the study. Dr. Tatala, professor at

Catholic University of Lublin extended meals and accommodations to the researcher while she

was in Lublin, Poland. Many Polish researchers availed themselves and their findings to the

researcher. Robert Kuwalek, Ph.D., historian at Majdanek concentration camp; Janna

iii
Yiercrynski, Ph.D., historian at the Pawiak; W. P., Ph.D.,(initials known only), under the

directorship of Jerzy Wroblewski, Ph.D., historian at Auschwitz, among others who wished to

remain anonymous gave willingly of their time and expertise. Special thanks goes out to the

archival staff at the Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C. Thanks also, to the staff

at the National Archives of Canada in Ottawa, the Rockefeller Foundation and the Ford

Foundation. Ronald Bachman, Ph.D., Polish expert at the Library of Congress in Washington,

D.C. helped greatly in directing the initial efforts of the researcher. Dr. Bachman referred the

researcher to professor Adam Zych, Ph.D., in Poland and Henry Grynberg (poet and Auschwitz

survivor) in northern Virginia. Both of these scholars graciously contributed to the study.

Brunon Holyst, Ph.D., president of the Polish Society of Mental Health took the researcher to a

lovely Polish dinner and granted her a lengthy interview in the course of her stay in Warsaw. Dr.

Holyst also had research materials delivered to the hotel of the researcher.

The researcher acknowledges the constant dedicated guidance of her advisor and committee

chair, Marcie Boucouvalas, Ph.D. Without Marcie, this study would never have been. Her

constant guidance, patience, encouragement, and direction, kept the researcher on her path. Most

of all, Marcie enabled the researcher to believe in herself, bestowing on her the capability to

fulfill her dream.

Special thanks to G. Michael Cline, Ph.D., the research chair. The researcher was privileged to

share in a tiny part of the depth of knowledge possessed by Dr. Cline. He was a continual

inspiration and source of guidance. The researcher was most honored to have her committee

members so knowledgeable and understanding of her vision. Clare Klunk, Ph.D., a friend and

soul-mate, was always there for support as well as direction. Linda Morris, Ed.D., encouraged

iv
the researcher to initiate this study. She then provided constant encouragement and assistance.

Karen Rosen, Ed.D., greatly helped the researcher to understand and appreciate the therapeutic

significance of this study.

The researcher acknowledges the family of James Moran, Ph.D., previous dean of the college of

human development, who donated grant money for research to Virginia Polytechnic Institute and

State University. The researcher was able to travel to Poland due to a grant furnished by this

family. Last, but not least, the researcher especially thanks her husband, Paul Battaglia, DBA,

for his patience and his support during this intense period. Tasks which would have remained

insurmountable to the researcher became possible due to his constant assistance. The researcher

leaves her dissertation process with a genuine appreciation for the willingness of scholars to

share in the quest for learning. She also now realizes how many scholars are represented in a

work of research.

v
 Table of Contents

Abstract i

Dedication ii

Acknowledgments iii

Table of Contents vi

List of Figures xi

Chapter I 2

Introduction and Background of the problem 2

Overview 2

Purpose of the Study 4

Significance of the Study 5

Research Questions 8

Research Plan 9

Method 11

Pawel Cienin - pen name of K. Dabrowski 13

Limitations 14

Story of the Research Process 14

Chapter II - The Theory of Positive Disintegration 19

Philosophical Roots of the Theory 19

Why is this human development theory different? 22

vi
Essential components of TPD 25

1. Overexcitability 26

2. Conflict 27

3. Multilevelness 29

4. Developmental Potential (and the third factor) 31

5. Valuation 32

Dabrowski’s Valuation Argument 33

6. The Inner Psychic Milieu 36

7. Personality Ideal 39

The Transpersonal 40

Levels within the Theory of Positive Disintegration 41

Level I 42

Level II 43

Level III 44

Level IV 45

Level V 47

One-sided Development 48

Empirical Testing of the Theory 49

Chapter II Conclusion 52

Chapter III - The Early Years 54

Childhood and Teenage Years 55

vii
Medical studies 58

The Formation of an Institute of Mental Health in Poland 65

Zagorze 72

Chapter IV - The War Years 75

German Occupation - Hitler’s Regime 76

Operation AB 76

Marriage of Dabrowski to Eugenia 78

1942 Arrest 79

Attempts to Rebuild 83

Russian Occupation and Stalinism 88

1950 Arrest 88

“Rehabilitation” after the Stalin Regime 91

Chapter V - Canada 94

“Krasnoludki” 103

“Hail to You, Psychoneurotics” 107

Chapter VI - Personality-shaping 110

The Definition of Personality 111

“Humility” 117

The Developmental Instinct 124

Methods of Shaping Personality 128

The Role of the Adviser 130

viii
Interpretation of Therapy in the light of TPD 135

Chapter Conclusion 137

Chapter VII - The “Woven Tapestry” 140

Question 1 140

1. Upbringing and Religion 141

2. Education 145

a. Philosophy 145

b. Medical education 149

c. Literature 149

3. Professional Career 152

a. The Society for the Development of Man 152

b. Social Action - An Underlying Theme of TPD 153

c. Suffering 158

“A Choir of Children Killed in Concentrations Camps” 160

Question 2 161

Love and Friendship 163

Transformation 165

Suggestions for Further Research 172

Conclusion 176

Appendix A - Glossary of Terms 180

Appendix B - Glossary of key names 188

ix
Appendix C - The Research Path 190

Reference List 196

Photos taken by the researcher on her “journey” 203

Curriculum Vitae 225

x
 List of Figures

1 Picture of Dabrowski 1

2 Diagram of The Inner Psychic Milieu 38

3 Chart of Dynamisms 51

4 Map of Poland 54

5 Dabrowski’s Grave 74

6 Cross at Dabrowski’s Grave 74

7 The Pawiak Prison 81

8 Barbed wire at the Pawiak 82

9 Dabrowski’s Grave 109

10 Photo of Mickiewicz Plaque at KUL 150

11 Dabrowski’s Grave 162

xi
 Figure 1 - Picture of Dabrowski

(Co urtesy of Francis Lesniak, Th.D., P s.D.)

1
 Chapter I

Introduction and Background of the problem

Kazimierz Dabrowski (1902 - 1980), known to his students and colleagues as a quiet, humble,

scholar, and a hard worker, authored a powerful developmental psychology theory which

touches the human heart. His theory, “The Theory of Positive Disintegration,” is one that speaks

to the suffering and misery of the human condition. It is a theory which has crisis as its very

essence, a theory of personality development, reaching and touching the theological realm. His

message is one of hope which brings meaning to suffering.

Overview

The Theory of Positive Disintegration is a theory of developmental psychology based on crisis.

The life of Kazimierz Dabrowski was one of intense crisis. Dabrowski lived through one of the

most crisis laden periods in Polish history - the tumultuous period of Polish history which

spanned the two world wars. One of Dabrowski’s most vivid childhood memories was walking

through a field near his home, gazing at the faces of dead soldiers.

“What struck him was that the faces of the soldiers in death varied as much as do
living faces- - some were shocked, some angry, some brutal, some frightened, and
others peaceful. It posed a puzzle he spent his life answering” (Nelson K., 1991 p.362).

Nazi as well as communist takeover resulted in Dabrowski being jailed twice in Nazi and

communist prisons. Dabrowski experienced the loss of his personal rights during the Nazi and

Stalin regimes; namely, he experienced the fears associated with daily living in a police state. As

a member of the intelligentsia, Dabrowski was in constant danger. Operation AB, an effort to

eliminate the Polish intelligentsia, was organized and enforced by the Nazis in 1939. (Kuwalek,

Robert Ph. D., historian and archivist at Majdanek concentration camp, personal communication,

2
August 11, 2001). Under the Nazi plan to purify the German race, individuals who were

mentally ill were prime targets for extermination. Dabrowski as a psychiatrist, found himself

within the group of Polish psychiatrists who would be drastically reduced in number. Thus,

Dabrowski found himself in the role of victim as well as protector - a role fraught with danger,

boding a grim outcome.

Aronson says that “of the 400 Polish psychiatrists practicing before the war . . . only
thirty-eight survived” ( Aronson in Dabrowski, 1964, Introduction, p.x).

“When the Nazis took Poland in 1939, their first targets of extermination were the
mentally ill. Several psychiatrists died courageously with their patients; many others
fled the country. Kazimierz Dabrowski was one of a handful of psychiatrists who
remained in Poland and survived the Nazi occupation. However, he did not escape
imprisonment- - neither under the Nazis nor communists who followed. His
Institute, Academy, and clinics were confiscated, his teaching was proscribed;
his work was publicly denounced” (Nelson, K., 1992, p.362).

Dabrowski worked in the underground, risking his life to hide his hospitalized mentally ill

patients.

“When the Nazis closed the Institute, Dabrowski removed the equipment, library,
and files to a medical care facility for children in a pine forest 20 kilometers from
Warsaw, opened earlier by the Friends of the Mental Hygiene Institute. Under constant
threat of death, Dabrowski carried on at Zagorze, adding a laboratory, facilities for
disturbed and retarded children, and a wing for war orphans which became a refuge
for Polish Jews” (Nelson, K., 1992, p.363).

Dabrowski, as a poet, was a man who felt deeply. He witnessed humans exhibiting behavior at

their worst. Dabrowski refused to compromise his principles. He paid dearly with imprisonment

and flight from the land and people he loved. Dabrowski spent the last segment of his life

teaching in Canada, separated from his native land. Disease took its toll in Dabrowski’s life as

well. His little sister died of meningitis when she was three (Dabrowski, 1977, p.x). Dabrowski

lost his first wife to tuberculosis (Lesniak, personal communication, August 30,2000).

3
Dabrowski’s own heart suffered damage due to the treatment he received during his

imprisonments (Lesniak, personal communication, October 6, 2001).

Purpose of the Study

Very little is known in the fields of Adult Learning and Human Resource Development about

Kazimierz Dabrowski and his Theory of Positive Disintegration. Although acknowledged as an

emotional development theory, few Adult Learning or Human Resource professionals admit to

even knowing about Dabrowski or his theory. Obscurity surrounds the theory, evidenced by the

handful of citations available in the Psychological or Philosophical Citation Index. The

researcher found four citations. Some psychologists apply the theory in present day therapeutic

practice. It is also currently used by educators and counselors to work with the gifted.

(International Dabrowski Conference Proceedings, 1981, 1996, 2000). Three members of the

researcher’s dissertation committee came to this study with prior knowledge of Dabrowski. Two

have introduced Dabrowski’s theory to their human development classes. Reception by students

to Dabrowski and his theory, however, has been limited. One reason for this may be the

difficulty individuals attach to understanding the theory. It has been pointed out repeatedly by

those who study TPD that the theory is best understood by those who have experienced it. Given

this background, it could be assumed that the reason the theory has not been applied in the field

is because there is a lack of understanding of the theory. TPD is difficult to grasp. Dabrowski

was a psychologist and a psychiatrist. He was writing primarily to an audience of professionals

in these fields. By psychologists, TPD is thought to be a

“developmental psychology theory, which although not explicitly a theory of religious

and moral development, has profound and far-reaching implications for the development
of persons insofar as they are “religious” and “moral”” (Hague,1986, p.115).

4
It is the view of the researcher that the life and history of Kazimierz Dabrowski had much

influence on the Theory of Positive Disintegration. In fact, the researcher contends that it is

because of the unique history of Kazimierz Dabrowski that the theory exists at all. In order to

better understand the theory of Positive Disintegration, one must first study the life of Kazimierz

Dabrowski. Likewise, aspects of the life of Kazimierz Dabrowski can be better understood

through a study of his theory (Edel, 1959).

Significance of the Study

Five individuals have assembled and written brief biographical accounts of the life of Kazimierz

Dabrowski. These include Andrew Kawczak, LL.M., Ph. D., co-author of several works with

Dabrowski; Eugenia Dabrowski, the late wife of Kazimierz Dabrowski, (this unpublished bio

was provided to the researcher by Francis Lesniak, Th.D., Ps.D., psychotherapist and student of

K. Dabrowski); Adam Zych, Ph. D., dean of the psychology department of the Pedagogical

University in Kielce, Poland; Karen Nelson, Ph.D., psychologist, Emporia State University; and

Bill Tillier, MA psychology, student of Dabrowski (unpublished). In addition, the archival files

of the Rockefeller Foundation contain biographical data on Dabrowski. All are compilations of

dates and facts. Some conflicts exist in dates, primarily in information found in the Rockefeller

Foundation file. The file reveals that Dabrowski arrived in New York aboard the SS Washington

on October 19,1933, with his wife (Fellowship card #1, RF series789, RG 1.1.2). Kawczak lists

the date of Dabrowski’s marriage as 1940 (Kawczak 1996). Tillier lists it as 1942 (Tillier bio).

Interestingly, Francis Lesniak, Th.D., Ps.D., friend and student of Dabrowski, wrote to the author

concerning this discrepancy and indicated that Dabrowski did have two wives. The first wife

died of tuberculosis. (Lesniak, personal communication, August 30, 2000).

5
Very little personal information concerning Dabrowski has been written down. The figure of

Dabrowski comes across to the community of scholars in the fields of adult learning and human

development, if they learn of him at all, as a remote European scholar who created a difficult to

understand theory of human development. This is a huge loss not only to this field, but also to all

fields who might benefit from the knowledge of the theory of positive disintegration. Dabrowski

wrote his theory for the benefit of parents, teachers, counselors, social workers, physicians,

psychologists, and psychiatrists. He tells us this in his work Dynamics of Concepts (1973).

Dabrowski dedicates a chapter of Concepts to each of the core principles of the theory of positive

disintegration. Each chapter follows the pattern of concept, explanation, definition, and

application. It is in the application section that Dabrowski lists who will benefit from study of

the theory.

“elaboration of levels of instinctive dynamisms will give educators, social workers,

psychologists, priests, psychiatrists and other workers in the fields of the humanities
fundamental methods for education and teaching” (Dabrowski, 1973,p.13).

“The consideration of the multilevel nature of joy and sadness, as well as other
emotions is important in developmental and educational psychology, in education
and in broad areas of psychopatholgy” (Dabrowski, 1973,p.21).

“ . . .the dynamisms involved in inner conflicts play a significant role in every sphere
of education, in interpersonal relations and in the study of human conflict in family
life, at school and in professional activities” (Dabrowski, 1973,p.71).

“This interpretation of the nature and role of nervousness may assist psychologists,
educators, physicians and parents to avoid the error of considering nervousness a
pathological process and to try to find a method of “medical treatment” (Dabrowski,
1973, p. 148).

Members of the group of educators, counselors and psychologists who comprise the International

Dabrowski Conference last met in July 2000 in Quebec, Canada. The researcher presented the

6
biographical information and personal history she had assembled on Dabrowski to that point.

The group emphatically agreed that biographical study on Dabrowski was desperately needed.

The group pledged to give its utmost support to such a venture.

The saddest potential scenario is that the theory of positive disintegration should die a death of

disinterest and disuse due to lack of its understanding or lack of knowledge of its existence.

Some of Dabrowski’s works are difficult to understand and require diligent reading and re-

reading. The researcher sees no difference here in the time and dedication required to read,

understand, and digest philosophical works. A graduate degree program under the heading

Human Development owes it to itself and to its students to include comprehensive understanding

of the writings of the authors of the theories of human development. Until there is a better,

deeper, more comfortable understanding of the theory of positive disintegration, the researcher

remains unsure that Dabrowski will remain one of the authors studied. The very title, positive

disintegration, sounds remote, philosophical, and difficult. Dabrowski as a formal, proper,

European scholar did choose a title which at first appears stiff and somewhat remote. When

studied, however, the theory proves to be one of beauty, hope, and positive outcome. Dabrowski

was curious since childhood as to the makeup of a truly human human being. He posed that

empathy or “human love” is the essential component. Dabrowski’s message is one which

acknowledges human suffering and gives value to it. Dabrowski witnessed man as his worst.

However, he still wrote:

“The fact that humanity survives and develops serves as evidence that the advantage
is on the side of positive qualities. . . Man’s instinct for development, which in the
broadest meaning of the word is a tendency to mental and moral perfection, sooner
or later gains power and reinvigorates and enhances the positive values. . . Even in
periods of collapse they survive in us in the form of moral readiness and yearning for

7
 their revival and full realization”(Dabrowski, 1967, pp.7,8).

This quote underscores the positive message of TPD - as a message of hope within the process of

human development. Though he witnessed society at its worst, Dabrowski was always hopeful.

Bill Hague Ph.D., contributes that when questioned as to how he was, Dr. Dabrowski would bow

slightly and reply, “I am a little depressed, but I am hopeful” (Hague, personal communication,

October 1, 2001).

Research Questions

As researcher, my plan was to study the Theory of Positive Disintegration while simultaneously

studying Kazimierz Dabrowski: the man beneath the theory of positive disintegration. This

required three steps: (a) study of the writings of Kazimierz Dabrowski with emphasis on the

Theory of Positive Disintegration (b) historical research of the life of Kazimierz Dabrowski and

(c) assimilation of the results of steps (a) and (b) in an attempt to better understand the man,

Kazimierz Dabrowski, and the relationship of this man to his theory. The following questions

served as a framework for guiding the process:

1. What historical factors in the life of Kazimierz Dabrowski contributed to the

shaping of the theory?

2. How did the life of Dabrowski demonstrate the struggle between the what is

and the what ought to be? (The phrase “between the what is and the what ought

to be, will be explained in chapter II of the dissertation. The reader may also

consult the glossary.)

The researcher immersed herself in the history and writings of Dabrowski. Framing this

immersion within the accompanying Polish history and culture, the researcher entered

8
Dabrowski’s world through a “deep” reading of his works as well as “walking in his footsteps” in

Poland. The researcher attempted to get as close as she could to Dabrowski the man, Dabrowski

the Pole, Dabrowski the scientist, Dabrowski the philosopher, Dabrowski the psychologist, and

Dabrowski the psychiatrist.

The research objective was to research and experience Dabrowski’s writings in a hermeneutical

sense, so that I, as researcher, could begin to see things through Dabrowski’s eyes and obtain

glimpses of the shaping of his personality in an attempt to understand things as he understood

them. I deepened this understanding by conducting personal interviews with co-authors, students

and close friends of Dabrowski. Most importantly, I “walked Dabrowski’s path” in Poland,

gathering archival and historical information. To augment that, I traveled to Ottawa, Canada and

spent five days researching the Dabrowski file housed in the National Archives of Canada.

Research Plan

My research plan was threefold.

(1) study of the theory of Positive Disintegration both as a theory of human development

as well as a literary work possessing possible revelations of the life of the author.

(2) historical research in the life history and writings of Kazimierz Dabrowski in order to

obtain a greater understanding of the Theory of Positive Disintegration. Deep knowledge of

Dabrowski the man is essential to understand not only the external crisis facing Dabrowski but

also the internal struggle which drove him to create a theory containing great spirituality. It is

particularly in the spiritual realm that I hoped to obtain evidence of Dabrowski’s personal unrest

with the “what is” vs the “what ought to be”.

(3) personal interviews with friends and associates of Dabrowski. The researcher

9
conducted interviews with nine individuals. Two - Andrew Kawczak, LL.M., Ph.D., and

Michael Piechowski, Ph. D. were co-authors with Dabrowski. Five were students - now

psychologists and/or professors - Dexter Amend, Ph.D., Norman Duda, Ph. D., William Hague,

Ph. D., Francis Lesniak, Th.D., Ps.D., and Marlene Rankel, Ph. D. Brunon Holyst Ph.D. is a

professor in Poland who delivered Dabrowski’s funeral address. Sylvia Sheridan Ph.D., was a

biology student when she became an acquaintance of the Dabrowski family. She is now a

professor of biology. These interviews provided the researcher with reminiscences and insights

which deepened and enriched the biography as well as the entire dissertation.

Elizabeth Mika, MA. psychology, assisted the researcher in the translation of Dabrowski’s

poetry. Mika, who has a deep interest in the writings of Dabrowski, grew up in Poland and

completed her studies there. She now resides in Chicago, where she is employed in

psychological testing of gifted children. Mika also is the poetry and creative writing editor for

Polish News, a Chicago based Polish/American magazine.

Many of Dabrowski’s papers and writings are housed in the National Archives of Canada in

Ottawa where they were placed by his family. The file at the National Archives was closed by

the Dabrowski family, not available for public inspection until the year 2000. The author had the

privilege of being the first to access the file, doing so in December 2000. Some of the sub-files

remain closed - those containing patient information and the personal correspondence files.

However, the family extended permission to the author to research the personal correspondence

files. (The patient files remain closed.) This particular search proved extremely meaningful,

since the personal notes, thoughts, pre and unpublished writings of Dabrowski are housed within

the file. The personal correspondence was a privileged peek into the life and consciousness of

10
Kazimierz Dabrowski - a “gold-mine” of research material.

This method of understanding the theory through research of the life of the man has previously

been done by Ernest Jones in his study of Freud (Jones, 1957). Barbara Hannah did a similar

study of Carl Jung (Hannah, 1976). No such study had been attempted of Dabrowski.

Method

My research method was historical- hermeneutical. I wished to reveal Dabrowski, the man - his

thoughts, ideas, prejudices, spiritual beliefs. To accomplish this I explored his world - the world

of Poland spanning the time period of the two world wars. This historical period includes Nazi

and Russian occupation, the Warsaw uprising, and Polish life in a police state. These historical

pieces served as my frame - the environment. I moved in and out of the environment while

entering and exploring the mind of Kazimierz Dabrowski through “walking his path” and study

of his writings. (The reader is urged to consult Appendix C - The Research Path.) Edel argues in

Literary Biography (1959) that the life of a subject can be viewed in his written word. The

author’s written documents stem from his/her inner consciousness ( M.G. Cline, personal

communication, May 2000). Inspiration, according to Edel does not flow in, consciousness flows

out. In the following passage in Literary Biography, Edel uses the poetry of T.S. Eliot as an

example.

“. . . the poem is the poet’s and no one else’s; the words, the structure, the poem’s
character and psychology issue from the poet’s inner consciousness; its contents
are tissued out of those memories of reading and of life that have become emotionally
charged. In saying this we reject the old and rather naive concept of the happy
artistic inspiration which just “flew” into the poet’s mind. The flight is outward,
from assimilated experience” (Edel, 1959, p. 77).

11
Lest the reader feel that certainly this concept may apply to poets, however doubt its relevancy as

to authors of non-fiction, Edel cites Ernest Jones’ biographical account of the life of Sigmund

Freud.

“In one supreme instance in recent times, the psychoanalyst and the biographer have
become one” (Edel, 1959, p.95).

Edel credits Virginia Woolf for being one of the first to see the presence of the writer within the

work.

“every secret of a writer’s soul, experience of his life, every quality of his mind is
written large in his works, yet we require critics to explain the one and biographers
to expound the other” (Woolf in Edel, 1959, p.55).

Intrigued by this concept, my plan was to augment my historical biographical framework with a

deep look at the writings of Kazimierz Dabrowski. Dabrowski was a poet as well as a

psychologist and psychiatrist. He spent a good deal of time writing as evidenced by the wealth of

published and non published documents present in the National Archives of Canada file. A man

of great sensitivity and one who experienced great suffering, my position was that Edel’s theory

may indeed find application as an aid to viewing the consciousness of Dabrowski. The theory of

positive disintegration was paramount in the mind of Dabrowski for at least forty years. Partial

evidence of this assertion lies in the following personal communication to me from Bill Hague

Ph. D., student of Dabrowski:

“my most vivid memories are of a gracious man bowing slightly as he greets you
by name, and then without chitchat getting down to something about “THE theory.”
Single-mindedness” (Hague, personal communication, January 12, 1901).

Therefore my plan was to study the theory of positive disintegration as well as other writings of

Dabrowski in order to search for clues to Dabrowski’s life.

12
 Pawel Cienin - pen name of K. Dabrowski

Interestingly, Dabrowski wrote much of his poetry under the pen name Pawel Cienin. Exactly

why Dabrowski used a pen name is not clear. However, Cienin’s preface in Fragments From the

Diary of a Madman (1972b), may shed some light on the subject.

“Could a mentally ill person write a book which would make sense - even to sane
readers - and could he also write the preface to such a book? I think so. Persons
who are mentally ill cannot be lumped into one category; they are often as incompre-
hensible as many others who are not considered, and never were considered to be
mentally ill” (Cienin, 1972b, p.7).

The researcher contends that Dabrowski was himself in the throws of internal conflict inflicted

through the developmental process. Dabrowski knew firsthand the suffering of the “afflicted”

developing individual. It is also interesting that Dabrowski chose the name Cienin. Cienin is the

Polish word for “shadow.” Was Dabrowski referring to Jung’s alter-ego, or was he simply

saying that the psychoneurotic individual struggling within the developmental process remains in

the “shadows” of this world? This certainly was the state of mental health care (hospitalization,

chemical and surgical therapy) in existence at the time - the system Dabrowski was trying to

change. Cienin would write from the madman’s point of view and bring his thoughts into the

light.

“I have already written that I am a psychologist and a schizophrenic. I do not know

which “profession” is stronger. I think that both grow stronger. Anyway, perhaps
it is more useful for the personality that the schizophrenic structure, and not the
structure of a professional psychologist, is the central dominant, disposing and directing
center” (Cienin, 1972b, p. 20).

“For ages, for thousands of years, the stigma of being dangerous, a source of shame,
defective - was attached to psychoneurotics. How could these people, who were
full complexes, inhibitions, maladjustments to reality; full of existential and unexistential
anxieties; full of hindrances and shame, and inferiority feeling, stand the pressure of
an organized opinion which treated them as lesser, handicapped, as being on the fringe

13
 (shadow?) of life” (Cienin, 1972b, p.64)?

I direct the reader to the glossary of terms in order to understand Dabrowski’s definitions of

mental health and psychoneurosis. In Dabrowski terms, mental illness and psychoneurosis are

positive signs of healthy human development, and they are thought of as desirable and good.

Schizophrenia to Dabrowski, is the state of conflict experienced by an individual pulled between

the “what is” and the “what ought to be.” These concepts will be further explored in chapter II.

Limitations

As mentioned earlier, the amount of written documentation on the life of Kazimierz Dabrowski

is quite limited. Dabrowski was “out of favor” in Poland. Any accurate accounts of historical

information housed within Poland are subject to distortion. Dabrowski lived in a country which

was in a constant state of chaos throughout Dabrowski’s life and has remained that way to the

present. Chaos in Poland is somewhat of a normal state. Records were badly kept, destroyed

purposefully or by way of the disasters of war. Concentration camp records are acknowledged to

be less than accurate. Much of the information I was looking for was akin to “looking for a

needle in a haystack.” The encouraging side to this somewhat dismal picture is the passion for

understanding the theory which exists within the small international group of Dabrowski

“followers.” This group of very scholarly and very committed individuals, Dabrowski’s students

and co-professors, teachers and psychologists, did all they could to help with my study.

Story of the Research Process

I embarked on this Dabrowski journey four years ago while in my Individual and Organizational

Development class with Linda Morris, Ph. D. In reading one of the many journal articles Dr.

14
Morris provided as text, I became intrigued by the Polish name Dabrowski and the paradoxical

title of his theory - Positive Disintegration. I had recently undergone a very painful period in my

life which entailed grave illness. I found myself now working towards a Ph. D. and reading a

theory of development which spoke to me, comforted me, seemed to tell “my story,” and left me

desperate to know more about it. In addition to exploring the theory, I wanted to know more

about this Pole who produced such a theory.

This study started with very little information. A Pole, myself, I speak the language to a limited

extent. I grew up in the era when immigrant parents were insistent that their children be brought

up as true Americans. Any accent was taboo. However, being raised a good deal of the time by

my Polish grandparents, I heard the language spoken often. As children will, I absorbed much

more than even I had ever realized. I also attended Polish elementary school, where at least half

the day was taught in Polish. So I can read Polish. I can get the “gist” of what I am reading and I

understand spoken Polish. And of course, there are very good Polish-English dictionaries

available to aid in the understanding process.

So I began. I started with a few books, some individuals to correspond with, and a firm resolve

to learn all I could. Slowly, I began to accumulate “threads” of data. I received some

biographical information on Dabrowski from Bill Tillier MA psychology - a student of

Dabrowski. From that information I contacted listed institutions and individuals for additional

information. Some came. The Rockefeller Foundation sent me copies of what they found in

their archives - files of additional biographical information and multiple letters of

15
correspondence spanning the war years. I became connected to an international group of

individuals who study Dabrowski and his theory. Composed primarily of his students, co-

authors, collaborators and close friends, this group provided me with a rich source of personal

and scholarly references. The National Archives of Canada in Ottawa, which holds ten volumes

of Dabrowski’s personal books and papers, proved to be a “gold mine” of research information.

The hermeneutic approach to this historical study challenges the researcher to “become one” with

the subject under research. Hermeneutics is a human approach to interpretation and

understanding. It stands in contrast to the empirical, scientific approach where the reader

distances himself from the author and subject matter in order to maintain objectivity. Instead,

hermeneutics draws the reader closer into the mind and surroundings of the subject, in order to

interpret by virtue of becoming increasingly “aware.” The researcher utilizes the power of the

human senses and interprets through a very human bond of researcher to subject. A

“hermeneutic circle” describes the action involved in the hermeneutic approach. It is a back and

forth “dance” between the pieces and the whole of the subject under research. A piece is

examined, reflected upon, and positioned into the whole. Then the researcher returns back to

another piece; reflects, meditates and moves away to position that piece into the whole - back and

forth, back and forth, until every available piece is examined, reflected upon, and placed into the

whole. The hermeneutic approach demands an acute sensitivity, an intuitiveness, an ability to

place oneself meditatively into the mind and environment of the subject. There is a “loss of

control” in the psyche of the researcher. The ego and will of the researcher must yield to that of

the subject and the text. Listening is crucial and demands an atmosphere of personal quiet.

16
Within this quiet “space, ” the researcher can feel, touch, taste, smell - experience - the subject

and his/her world. With each tiny gain of insight, each piece, related then back to the whole, an

image of clarity and understanding begins to break forth in the psyche of the researcher

(Boucouvalas, 1987; Watson-Franke, 1985).

In order to research hermeneutically, the researcher felt it necessary to read, re-read, and re-read

the writings of Dabrowski. Each reading enabled the researcher to discover additional “pieces”

to be examined, reflected upon, meditated upon, and placed into the “whole” of the research. In

order to experience Dabrowski’s world and environment, the researcher found it necessary to

journey to Poland and follow in Dabrowski’s footsteps. It was this researcher’s first trip to

Poland. Finding my way around an unfamiliar country by myself was daunting. But somehow, I

never felt strange or frightened. Instead, I experienced a warmth of familiarity and comfort.

Norbert Duda, Ph. D. psychologist, and student of Dabrowski, told me it was a “return to the

womb” experience. I could feel the presence of my heritage. So many tastes, smells and sounds

returned from my childhood. Traveling Dabrowski’s path, I felt “close” to him. Historical

biographical information which before was printed information on a page, now took on life and

meaning. Events and choices of Dabrowski made so much more sense. As a Pole, I could feel

and experience that “pull” to Poland - that oneness with the people and with the land. I sang the

Polish hymns, prayed the Polish prayers, traveled the Polish city and countryside roads -

experienced the horror of the prisons and the camps, and rejoiced in the Polish food and

friendship. Researching within the libraries and the archives gave me a humbling appreciation of

the Poles’ great respect for this new “access to their history” denied to them for so long. Signs

17
advertising the modern and impressive University of Warsaw as an “open library” hung proudly.

Ending my journey with Dabrowski in Zagorze was the bittersweet highlight of my stay.

Experiencing Dabrowski’s grave, isolated - away from his family, “hidden” from the world, yet

so close to his “children” and his still-functioning Institute, brought Dabrowski’s pieces all

together. His life made so much more sense to me now.

The researcher now invites the reader to accompany her on a journey - a journey through the life

of a man, his theory and his country. Together we will “walk Dabrowski’s path” in order to

better get to know and experience “the man beneath the theory of positive disintegration.”

Chapter II presents Dabrowski’s theory. Chapters III, IV, and V, present a biography of

Dabrowski, assembled by the researcher through the use of the available biographical material,

her archival pursuits, personal interviews, and her journey “in Dabrowski footsteps” through

Poland. Chapter VI presents a journey through one of Dabrowski’s published works (the

personal favorite of the researcher due to its beauty and depth) - Personality-shaping Through

Positive Disintegration (1967). Chapter VII weaves together a “tapestry” using the research

“threads” gathered in the course of the study. Suggestions for further research follow.

18
 Chapter II - Understanding The Theory of Positive Disintegration

Philosophical Roots of the Theory

Dabrowski valued education highly. This is evident in his personal pursuit of higher education.

He came from a middle to upper income family “in Klarow in the Lublin district, in an estate

administered by his father Antoni” (Lesniak, personal communication, August 30, 2000). This

quest for education carried Dabrowski abroad often. He studied, practiced, thought and reflected

on a deep level. Dabrowski was an avid philosopher.

“Dabrowski was a careful reader of Kierkegaard and Jaspers, who are among his
favorite writers, but was not acquainted with the thought of Heidegger and Sartre
at the time when the theory of positive disintegration took shape” (Kawczak in
Dabrowski, 1970,p.10).

“L’homme est condamne a se developper” which could be taken as a paraphrase of

Satrtre’s “L’homme est condamne a etre libre” (Kawczak in Dabrowski, 1970, p.10).

The despair of existential nothingness plagued Dabrowski. One sees this in his Confessions of

Faith in Thoughts and Aphorisms (n.d., circa 1970), an unpublished document the researcher

found in the National Archives of Canada file. Dabrowski wrestled with “Ideal” vs “Idea.” He

read St. Thomas Aquinas and Plato and rejected their premise that intellectualism (Idea) was

higher than emotionalism (Ideal). According to Dabrowski, St. Thomas Aquinas believed that

“The higher a man’s development, the more simple and intellectual and the less emotional he is”

(Dabrowski, n.d. circa 1970, p.13). He believed the same of Plato:

“These Platonic teachings are inhuman . . . Idea - a Platonic term - denotes a

composition for fusing or - better - unifying individual concepts, individual phenomena.
It expresses their superior, collective form; it is something very general, homogeneous,
common, above entities and individuals. Ideas are put forward as the highest
formulation of reality (Dabrowski, notes n.d. circa 1970 ,pp.36,37).

Dabrowski examined the tenets of existentialism and joins them to the concept of essentialism.

19
He creates existentio-essentialism. In his Theory of Positive Disintegration, Dabrowski gives a

reason for an individual to take his/her existence and choose to become a better (higher level in

the theory) person. Dabrowski uses the concept of “valuation” whereby the individual utilizes

the product of a fusion of higher emotions and higher cognitive function, in order to compare

his/her life to the standard of “what he/she is” vs “what he/she ought to be.” The individual is

then enabled to make a transformational choice, given the power of the third factor. The home of

this process is the individual’s inner psychic milieu. The philosophical concept of “what is” vs

“what ought to be” are the words of Hume who promulgated the “impossibility of the logical

derivation of rules from statements, of what “ought to be” from “what is””(Dabrowski, 1970,

p.123). It is a study of the roots of ethics - metaethics, promulgating moral skepticism.

(Dabrowski, 1970, p.123). The concepts of valuation, transformation, third factor, and inner

psychic milieu will be better explained in separate sections later in this chapter.

“We must see the moral sense. . . We must see some individual “essence” in
development through asceticism, suffering, fear, depression, sorrow and separation.
We must see the meaningfulness of building man’s individuality on the
foundations
of this “essence””(Dabrowski, notes, n.d. circa 1970,p.10).

“He has to take his development in his own hands; his further growth, its direction
and progress ceases to be simply a resultant of forces beyond his control. From now
on he has to choose and determine what he is to be. Consequently, the questions “What
is good for me?”, What should I do?”, “What ought to be?”, i.e. the evaluative,
normative aspect appears in all its urgency” (Kawczak in Dabrowski, 1970, p.13).

Instead of an individual succumbing to the nothingness and despair of existentialism, he/she has

the power to transcend his/her present existence and make a value laden choice to progress

his/her essence to that of a higher, better level, i.e. to transform his/her essence. In this way an

individual chooses to become a better, higher level, empathetic, authentic, Personality. This

20
formation of a unique, higher level, personality unites the doctrines of essentialism and

existentialism. The individual chooses and sculpts (“shapes”) his/her newly chosen, essence.

Since we know that Dabrowski was a lover of Jaspers, we can see seeds of TPD in Jasper’s

writing:

“ . . . there is a soaring energy in the individual responsibility of listening to the whole

of reality. A man’s humanity depends on how deeply he gains guidance through this
listening. To be a man is to become a man” (Jaspers, 1968, p.73).

Dabrowski believed that the search for true wisdom could only be undertaken if the mental

functions of the intellectual as well as the emotional were working together. Empathy, the

highest human emotion, is essential for human development within Dabrowski’s theory.

“According to our approach, the essential in human development has an equal, or -

rather - a greater importance than the existential, since the proper, autonomous and,
authentic, chosen and unique existence, i. e., of the central qualities of an individual
which change only quantitatively and not qualitatively. These qualities consist of our
lasting emotions of friendship and love and our major interest and talents, without
which a given individual cannot be imagined as such” (Dabrowski, notes, n.d. circa 1970,
p. 16).

Dabrowski views suffering as purgative and expiative, the “gift,”developmental means to self

perfection. This view of Dabrowski’s prevails throughout his writings - beginning with his

earliest work on self-mutilation. (Dabrowski, 1934)

“Each act by a person which is not in accord with the hierarchy of moral
principles, the hierarchy of good, must be cleansed, individually sublimated.
Each good act, each fulfillment of the principles of love, each activity which
purifies our primitive instincts - “counts for us”, brings us closer to perfection”
(Dabrowski, n.d. circa 1970,p.9).

“Man individually develops his higher personality and is individually responsible

for his downfalls” (Dabrowski, n.d. circa 1970, p.9).

“Perhaps frequent experiences of the dangers of death, illness, personal misfortune,

could release something honest in man, and lessen the needs of psychic “squashing”,

21
 rendering others helpless, feeling of disdain for the truth, scoffing at everything that
is truly human and authentic” (Dabrowski, n.d. circa 1970, p.23).

The concept of expiative suffering is an important point in TPD. Dabrowski appreciates and

attaches value to human suffering and crisis. Instead of suffering viewed as a meaningless

burden (Why me?), it becomes an opportunity for an individual to develop and grow. Suffering

offers the chance to choose to become.

Why is this human development theory different?

Dabrowski’s theory is a non-ontogenetic, evolutionary theory.

“The fact that the developmental approach in psychology is not recognized as a

system of thought, or paradigm, is intriguing. The roots of this appear to be historical.
For a long time development was seen as a function of age, that is as a function of
time. . . . The situation is different in biology where development for over 150 years
was known as a complex process of differentiation and sequences of changes in
structural and functional organization of living organisms” (Dabrowski, 1996b, p.4).

“In the theory of positive disintegration (Dabrowski, 1949, 1964) development is a function of

the level of organization” (Dabrowski, 1996b, p.9). It is a progression from the lower to the

higher, the simple and automatic to the complex and voluntary. Taking the nervous system as an

example, the neural tube houses all potential for the developing nervous system. Thus, it is the

simplest entity of the nervous system - a simple tubular structure; yet the most organized - since

it contains the entity from which will develop all the nerves (afferent and efferent), the brain

(cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla), and the spinal cord. From this simple tube, develops a very

complex system of nervous system components - nerves, brain and spinal cord which is

changing, branching, replenishing, growing, developing constantly; therefore least organized, yet

the most complex. It is rather in a constant state of organization. Dabrowski borrowed this

22
concept from Hughlings Jackson (1884, Evolution and Dissolution of the Nervous System).

“Jackson (1884) did not specify what the processes of evolution are and by what
mechanisms a transformation takes place from a lower to a higher level, from simple
to complex, from automatic and unconscious to voluntary and conscious. Many
mechanisms, viewed by him as “dissolution”, play a key role in evolution. We call
them processes of disintegration” (Dabrowski, 1996b, p.10).

It is a progression of mental function involving reflective consciousness and conflict. The theory

rejects the Aristolitean premise that lower human mental functioning is controlled by emotions

while higher human mental functioning is controlled by the intellect. In the theory of positive

disintegration, Dabrowski speaks of a fusion of mental functioning between the intellect and the

emotions, with higher emotions (e.g. empathy) in the controlling position. Progression through

the levels is dependent upon increased reflective awareness (consciousness), of moral and ethical

situation as well, if not even more importantly, of other. Empathy is key.

Unlike Piaget’s ontogenetic theory where an individual develops with age, in TPD age or length

of time may have little to do with level of development. Also, the individual may develop in one

aspect, say intelligence, without developing emotionally. Dabrowski has pointed out this

particular developmental pattern as extremely dangerous, and labels it “one-sided” development.

He feels this combination can result in the creation of a Hitler or a Stalin. To Dabrowski,

development of empathy empowered by the third factor - the autonomous, transformative factor -

is of prime importance.

“Thus the difference between Piaget and the theory of positive disintegration lies
primarily in the inclusion of most psychoneuroses and autonomous factors in
development” (Dabrowski, 1996b, p.14).

Four major differences comprise the distinction of Dabrowski’s theory:

1. reconciliation of the philosophical problem of essence vs existence. What has just

23
been explained above is that Dabrowski fuses developing cognitive and emotional functions, into

elements of higher mental functions. The products of this developmental fusion, stimulate the

cortex, resulting in an elevated level of consciousness which enable and direct the individual to

make higher level choices. These higher level choices can enable the individual to reach from

the “what is” toward the “what ought to be,” resulting in the creation of a new essence - a new

emerging, unique, more empathetic, more authentic, personality. This method of developmental

progression is made possible through Dabrowski’s phenomenon of multilevelness.

2. Biological and environmental endowments are transcended by the individual in the

higher levels of TPD. The emergence of the third factor, the autonomous, transformative, factor

in TPD, carries within it the potential for the new personality ideal to emerge through “inner

psychic transformation, self-awareness, self-control, education-of-onself and autopsychotherapy”

(Dabrowski, 1996,p.19). Self-perfection in light of responsibility to “other” now becomes the

goal of this emerging personality.

3. The concept of multilevelness. Multilevelness stands out as a Dabrowski hallmark.

Every concept of the theory exists in levels. Dabrowski thought in levels.

“The world of external and internal phenomena began to form itself in my experience
as a world of values arranged in a hierarchy of levels. Values appeared to represent
different levels. The span between the levels of a given phenomenon became by far
more significant than the content of the term defining the phenomenon” (Dabrowski,
1977, p.xii).

Progression through the entire theory happens in levels. Not only are there levels of the theory,

but there are levels within the levels and the levels themselves have levels. Thus, the entire

process of TPD can proceed at different levels. Dynamisms which appear in the course of the

levels, have levels. What Dabrowski has conceived of, is a theory which is unique to each

24
individual who travels within it. This is a fascinating concept, somewhat difficult to grasp, and

one I believe to be unique to Dabrowski’s theory. It essentially means that my journey through

the theory of positive disintegration is unique to me, because I alone, will travel through it at my

own level of the levels and within the levels. The levels of the dynamisms in my journey are also

unique to me. This concept gives fluidity to TPD. It also lends creativity and freshness to the

theory, preserving it as a living entity.

“One may see new levels within the Dabrowskian set up. That may lead to creativity
in refining and defining the process in one’s mind - and, one hopes, in oneself and
perhaps in new and greater ideas to come from Dabrowski’s Positive Disintegration
studied lovingly and carefully” (Hague, personal communication, March 8, 2001).

4. The concept of the inner psychic milieu, involved in continuous conflict with the

biological and environmental endowments of the individual. The directing center takes

command under the auspices of the third factor. However, within the directing center flows the

force of higher levels of developing empathy. Empathy is key. Higher level empathy, fused to

higher cognitive function, stimulates the brain, resulting in a raised level of consciousness which

enables the individual to make higher level choices and thereby change his/her human essence to

a higher level essence. This is a creative process which results in a new, unique, empathetic,

authentic, higher level, personality - one which continually seeks self-perfection.

Essential components of TPD

In the mind of the researcher, seven components of Dabrowski’s theory stand out as essential.
1. Overexcitability
2. Conflict
3. Multilevelness
4. Developmental Potential (includes discussion of the third factor)
5. Valuation
6. Inner Psychic Milieu
7. Personality Ideal

25
 1. Overexcitability

Overexcitabilities are qualities (tragic gifts) possessed by individuals which enable them to

experience life at a deeper level. There are five overexcitabilities - sensual, psychomotor,

imaginational, intellectual, and emotional. Dabrowski believed that the three which particularly

aid the developmental process are imaginational, intellectual, and emotional. . . “development in

which autonomous factors are particularly strong”(Dabrowski, 1996b, p.16). Endowed with

these “gifts,” an individual reacts much more profoundly to knowledge, tragedy, beauty, ugliness,

etc. Experience affects these individuals significantly more and deeper than it does those lacking

these “gifts.” Dabrowski called them “tragic gifts” since these individuals are condemned to feel

so much deeper. Death and suffering is much more difficult for them to cope with. Those

endowed with emotional overexcitability feel not only their own pain much more deeply, but

they experience other’s pain with the same intensity. Dabrowski explained the pain and

depression associated with artists and musicians through this concept of overexcitability. It, too,

leads to internal conflict and struggle - the heart of TPD.

“As a rule I am reluctant to indulge in personal disclosures, but I feel I must make
make an exception here. To a large extent, the conceptions of the theory grew out
out of events experienced in my adolescence and youth. Already then, I had a distinct
need to see values in a hierarchical order. In my psychological makeup, I had
heightened emotional, imaginational, and intellectual excitability. . .These
overexcitabilities had the effect of making concrete stimuli more complex, enhancing
their emotional content and amplifying every experience” (Dabrowski, 1977, p.x).

It is the concept of overexcitability which has been applied to education of the gifted.

(proceedings, International Dabrowski Conference, 1981, 1996, 2000) Gifted individuals have

been tested, and studies have shown them to possess certain overexcitabilities (Ackerman, 1997).

This endowment with overexcitability accounts for the internal struggle very often seen in gifted

26
individuals. These children and adults often deal with intense inferiority, feelings of “not

belonging,” and isolation. This pain often yields intense creativity, another concept of TPD

which will be explored.

2. Conflict

The developmental process begins with conflict - usually external, although as the progression

through the levels continues, the conflict becomes more internal. Conflict is an essential

component of the theory.

“Human development seems to be impossible without the collision between some

elements of the inner and outer milieus. The localization of conflicts in the inner
milieu according to level is very important. Conflicts are subject to psychic transfor-
mation. In this way conflicts of both kinds can be sublimated and moved to a
higher level” (Dabrowski, 1970, p. 83).

“The very concept of disintegration points out the drama of human existence; it is impos-
sible to live as man all the time in the state of blessed harmony and self-complacency;
we are human inasmuch as we experience disharmony and dissatisfaction, inherent in
the process of disintegration” (Dabrowski, 1970, p.122).

There must be conflict between the levels of development in order for dissolution and

progression to another level to begin. Dabrowski called this conflict the struggle between the

what is vs the what ought to be. As the individual develops in TPD, emotional and personality

development are taking place. The individual is advancing in his (her) humanity - becoming a

better person. With progression to each higher level, the individual becomes more aware of

his(her) relationship to others. Empathy, authentism, responsibility increase. Higher emotions

of empathy develop. With this development of higher emotions, the individual experiences even

a greater need for perfection. Thus, conflict arises between the existing level and the next higher

level. This process continues until the individual arrives at Level V and enjoys peace and

27
perfection - a level very few attain. Conflict, therefore, is almost always active. For the most

part it is an internal conflict causing the developing individual great pain and suffering. This

suffering can be much worse than the external conflict or crisis which set the process of

development in motion. Dabrowski, himself, was a great example of this phenomenon of

conflict. His external crises were many - war, imprisonment, death, humiliation, etc. However,

Dabrowski, while experiencing these external crises, was deeply experiencing the internal crisis

of development. He understood the pain that becoming a better person entailed.

“I witnessed masses of Jewish people being herded toward ghettos. On the way, the
weak, the invalid, the sick were killed ruthlessly. And then, many times, I, myself, and
my close family and friends have been in the immediate danger of death. The juxta-
position of inhuman forces and inhuman humans with those who were sensitive,
capable of sacrifice, courageous, gave a vivid panorama of a scale of values from
the lowest to the highest” (Dabrowski, 1977, xi.).

He witnessed others struggling with this same issue. They were being labeled psychoneurotics.

Treatment for these individuals entailed hospitalization, medication, even sometimes, lobotomy.

Dabrowski felt this was wrong. He knew that these individuals were actually struggling within

the what is vs the what ought to be. They were mentally healthy individuals blessed with the gift

of internal crisis, inherent within the painful journey of human development.

“In this manner the individual begins to dissociate, in his inner psychic milieu, what he
feels to be “more himself” from what is “less himself”. He divides reality in this one
which “is” and that one which “ought to be”; he manifests growing empathy, autonomy,
and authenticity. His aims and ideals undergo a change. His basic concern is no more
his own preservation, but also his growth as a human being, as well as, the preservation
and mental development of other people, as unique, irreplaceable individuals”
(Dabrowski, 1996b, p.137).

28
 3. Multilevelness

Multilevelness is Dabrowski’s new paradigm which he uses to build his theory. All aspects of

the theory utilize this principle of multilevelness - the levels of development themselves (which

will be explained later in the chapter), the dynamisms, the emotions, etc. Each dynamism -

“intra-psychic factor of positive disintegration” (Dabrowski, 1996b, p.13) is referred to in levels.

Thus, empathy, love, aggression, authenticity, joy, . . . all have levels of development. Emotions

develop into higher emotions which fuse with developing intellectual faculties to direct

conscious, reflective choices.

Dabrowski used the term level rather than stage. Since multiple levels exist within each of

Dabrowski’s established five levels in TPD, fluidity is given to the theory. An individual may

have developed to any level within each of the five main levels. In his clinical evaluations,

Dabrowski designates these levels within and between levels through the use of decimals - as 2.5

denoting a level between levels two and three (Dabrowski, 1996b, p. 230). However, what

follows in TPD is a journey towards secondary integration There is no fixed arrival as in stage

theory. An individual may dwell and act within multiple levels of TPD. Dabrowski, however,

points out that these levels will remain in conflict.

“A level is a distinct identifiable developmental structure. It is not a temporal sequence,

which makes it distinct from a stage. Thus when we use the expression “a level is
attained,” it means that the structure of a lower level is replaced by the structure of
a higher one. Here again, the use of the expression, “transition from one level to another”
is colloquially convenient but inaccurate. In the process of development the structures
of two or even three contiguous levels may exist side by side, although it must be
understood that they exist in conflict. The conflict is resolved when one of the
structures is eliminated, or at least comes under complete control of another structure”
(Dabrowski, 1996b, p. 17).

Multilevelness removes the pull toward equilibrium exhibited in Piaget’s assimilation,

29
accommodation, and organization (Crain, 2000, p.113). Instead, TPD is constant conflict of

level. This conflict is what results in the developmental progression. Without it, there can be no

movement. Instead of states of static equilibrium, multiple conflicting levels pull and tug the

individual both externally and internally. This causes great pain and suffering. It is this pain and

suffering which will pull the individual inward and result in reflective, conscious choices of

valuation. Pain and suffering act as an engine which produces the energy to propel the individual

through the developmental process. Equilibrium, until level V is attained (secondary

integration), is not valued in TPD. Equilibrium before level V would prevent further

developmental growth. This means that the individual is “condemned” to continuously deal with

conflict while on the journey of TPD.

As previously mentioned, multilevelness gives TPD a unique dimension. The entire process may

be traveled at different levels. Thus, the levels themselves have levels. Each person pursues

TPD at an individual level. One might picture this as individuals working their way through a

five dimensional, infinite limit, grid - no two individuals pursuing identical paths. This concept

is a very creative one, conceived of by a very creative individual. My journey through TPD will

be different from your journey. The level at which I travel it is unique to me since it relates to

the development of my consciousness - a progression from the instinctual to the reflective. In

higher level consciousness choices are directed by higher emotions - particularly by high level

empathy. This creative dimension of TPD, gives it life and enables it to remain alive.

“Development does not occur at an even pace. There are periods of great intensity
and disequilibrium (psychoneuroses, depressions, creative process), and there are
periods of equilibrium. Development achieves a plateau, and this may occur at any
level or “between” levels, when the developmental factors are active in shaping
behavior but are not active in carrying out further transformation and restructuring”

30
 (Dabrowski, 1996b, p.17).

4. Developmental Potential (and the third factor)

Something must be responsible for piloting this train of individual development. Dabrowski

labels it developmental potential.

“The developmental potential is the original endowment which determines what level
of development a person may reach if the physical and environmental conditions are
optimal” (Dabrowski, 1996b, p.10).

Developmental potential consists of three components:

(1) genetic - those factors which establish the physical and mental “roadmap” of the

individual.

(2) environmental - those social and physical factors which contribute to the “shaping” of

the individual. (parents, relatives, friends, neighborhood, country, school, economic

status, etc.)

(3) the third factor - the factor of choice -

“a dynamism of valuation, i.e. of developing consciously an autonomous hierarchy of

values. . . (it) is the par excellence dynamism of self-directed development . . . (it) is a
factor of internal motivation” (Dabrowski, 1996b, p.15,p.39).

The third factor is the individual’s transcendental, autonomous, power to develop beyond the

limits set by his/her genetic and environmental abilities. The third factor is a key element in TPD

which prevents the theory from being an elitist one. No matter what the genetic and

environmental endowments bestowed on an individual, he/she has the potential to transcend

these endowments through the action and power of the third factor. The individual can make a

conscious choice to change and to become a higher level individual. This opportunity is afforded

to every member of the human race within the theory of positive disintegration.

31
 “Thus the difference between Piaget and the theory of positive disintegration lies
primarily in the inclusion of most psychoneuroses and autonomous factors in
development” (Dabrowski, 1996b, p.14).

5. Valuation

“To each level of mental development there is a corresponding level of value

experience. Mental development of man and the development of a hierarchy
of values are, in fact, two names for the same process. One cannot separate the
two” (Dabrowski, 1970, p. 98).

Valuation is a difficult concept to grasp. It involves the psychology and philosophy within TPD,

exhibiting Dabrowski’s background in the two fields. It was very important to Dabrowski, and to

the future of TPD that the theory be empirically tested and proven. Dabrowski had before him

the difficult task to reconcile the problem that heretofore, there was no “discernable ontogenetic

pattern of stages of emotional growth” (Dabrowski, 1996b, p.9).

“Children gradually develop their ability to recognize emotions as a function of

age, while adults appear to gradually lose it (Dimitrovsky, 1962). The solution
to this contradiction lies in approaching emotional development as a non-onto-
genetic evolutionary pattern of individual growth. This means that the level of
emotional functioning is not produced automatically in the course of ontogenesis
but evolves as a function of other conditions . . . Thus a high level of cognitive
functioning in no way guarantees a high level of emotional functioning. The reverse
may be true” (Dabrowski, 1996b, p.9).

Dabrowski emphasizes the importance of the fusion of intellectual and emotional functioning to

produce a development of mental functioning. The fusion is what produces a reflective

consciousness which can discern and produce value judgments which are better (higher) resulting

in emotional development. Dabrowski terms this process “deliberate nervous activity”

(Dabrowski, 1970, p.102). It is based on retrospection as well as prospection, “stimuli evoked

from affective memory and prospective stimuli (looking ahead to aims, ideals and future

development yet to be accomplished” (Dabrowski, 1970, p.102). This process depends upon the

32
autonomous action of the individual which enables him to transcend the biological and

environmental milieu within which he finds himself and to ascend higher in emotional

development.

Dabrowski studied Mazurkiewicz who recognized “the significance of emotions as directing

forces” (Aronson in Dabrowski, 1964, p.xii), and that the cortex of the brain “has its own activity

in the form of electric potentials which arise independently of peripheral stimuli.” These “brain

waves” arise in states of strong emotions and in periods of interest and attention. (Dabrowski,

1970, p.111). Hess and Orbeli determined that the sympathetic nervous system (which receives

stimuli from emotions,) not only controls the inner organs of the body (as previously thought) but

the entire central nervous system, which includes the cortex. (Dabrowski, 1970, p.111).

Dabrowski’s Valuation Argument (phraseology of the researcher)

Dabrowski thus infers that because of this phenomenon, higher emotions become the directive

forces of the entire central nervous system and thereby the directive forces of reflective

consciousness used in higher decision making. This means that as development progresses,

higher levels of empathy fuse with higher intellectual functions to direct human choices. Simply

stated, as the individual develops, the higher emotion of empathy fuses with higher cognitive

function to guide the individual in making choices to benefit not only him/herself but also to be

mindful of the effect of the choice upon the other. This high level conscious, reflective choice

becomes ultimately what is better (higher) for the individual - what the individual ought to do.

The autonomous function which centers upon reflective, conscious, valuative choice, Dabrowski

labels the third factor. Dabrowski was impressed by Mazurkiewicz’s study of own forces.

Dabrowski uses the concept of own forces twice in this argument. First, he views it in context

33
with the brain waves existing within the cortex of the brain. The brain waves exist there

regardless of external stimuli. They are the brain’s own forces. These forces or brain waves are

accentuated during intense emotional or attentive states. However, the forces themselves belong

to the cortex. Dabrowski sees this concept of own forces applied in his creation of the third

factor. The third factor is an own force - unique to humans which enables humans to transcend

their biological and environmental endowments. This argument is the meat of TPD. Within it,

Dabrowski also utilizes his concept of multilevelness. As development progresses, emotional

and cognitive functions also develop. A fusion of higher emotions and higher cognitive function

occur. The product of this fusion - a product of higher development - stimulates the cortex.

Within the cortex (a cerebral “space” Dabrowski names the inner psychic milieu,) higher level

choices are made. As development progresses, the level of consciousness continues to rise. The

resulting phenomenon is movement away from selfish choices and towards unselfish choices

which benefit others. Here, Dabrowski uses Von Monakow’s theory of klisis (movement

towards) and ekklisis (movement away from.) Levels of empathy continue to rise through

development; thereby, creating a higher level consciousness which enables higher level

transformation. This transformative process is the means by which an individual chooses to

become more and more human. (Dabrowski,1970, pp.92-116; Kawczak, conference proceedings,

2000, pp.21-36; Hague, 1995).

Empirical testing of the theory was done through clinical testing, exhibiting the existence of

higher level dynamisms present within a developing consciousness. Dabrowski and Piechowski

categorized the dynamisms - psychic phenomenon consisting of emotions and cognitive

functions. They placed these dynamisms in a table illustrating the presence of certain dynamisms

34
throughout the levels of development. By testing for the presence of these dynamisms, and for

the level present of each dynamism, the individual can be categorized into a corresponding level

of development. The clinician now knows where the individual lies in her/his development.

Clinical testing has also been able to verify the presence of the dynamisms. Marlene Rankel Ph.

D., researcher, professor and student of Dabrowski described to the researcher that Dabrowski

was employing approximately seven researchers (Rankel included) to perform this clinical

research. Dabrowski expressed that his research was not complete. He felt a great need for

continued research of the theory:

“The author (Dabrowski) wishes to emphasize once more his feeling that while clinical
studies are quite advanced, experimental research with regard to this theory has not yet
progressed enough. The author is convinced that the majority of problems and
hypotheses presented here will undergo substantial modification. He will appreciate it as
an expression of the fact that this theory is “alive” and that it will be included in the
creative process of transformations and perhaps become a marginal element within some
future more complete, wider theories as well as the subject matter of creative work of
individuals better prepared for this task” (Dabrowski, 1970, p.xi).

It should be very emphatically stated within this section on valuation, that Dabrowski rejects the

concept of cultural relativism. The individual makes his value judgments independent of the

society (culture) in which he/she dwells. Dabrowski does, however, extend his theory to groups

and societies.

“The new hierarchy of values which is authentically worked out by an individual during
the process of positive disintegration, represents a standard applicable not only to
individuals, but also to societies, types of culture and their levels” (Dabrowski, 1970,
p.11).

Dabrowski does put forth the concept of ethical relativism. This in no way implies that an

individual may decide to act in whatever method best suit his interests. Decisions for actions

35
taken are made based on what is morally correct based on natural law.

“Dabrowski’s conception of valuation is in some ways similar to the doctrine of natural

law. Both assume an objective validity of moral norms, both regard self-perfection as the
task of man. Dabrowski assigns the crucial directive role to higher emotions.” (Kawczak
in Dabrowski, 1970, p.8).

“An act is morally good, inasmuch as it is a result of a thoughtful and authentic

transformation of stimuli, retrospection and prospection, empathy, identification, etc. - in
general, if it comes about from an adequate understanding of other people and
understanding of our role in relation to them” (Kawczak in Dabrowski, 1970, p.7).

Thus, the individual possessing high emotional development will possess high mental

development due to the action of empathy. (The reverse is not always true. High intellectual

without the fusion of high emotional development will yield Dabrowski’s psychopaths which is

discussed later in the chapter in the section on one-sided development.) Choices will be made

which will benefit “the other” not just merely the individual. As an individual advances in

emotional development he/she will desire to reach for yet higher levels. Here lies the seat of

intense dissatisfaction with self, guilt, introspection, and feelings of responsibility. Thus conflict

remains present and results in constant nervousness and anxiety. To outsiders this emotionally

developing individual appears neurotic, mentally ill. For Dabrowski this neurosis is mentally

healthy. It is the external manifestation of internal development. This display of neurotic

developmental behavior is Dabrowski’s basis for his claim, “Psychoneurosis is not an illness.”

6. The Inner Psychic Milieu

The inner psychic milieu is “a dynamic mental structure” (Dabrowski, 1970, p.24) which appears

in the advanced stages of mental development, usually at levels III, IV and V. (The levels will be

explained later in the chapter.) It is the home of the developmental dynamisms (mental

development signposts), which mark the level of human development attained within TPD.

36
Dabrowski mapped out a chart of the progressive appearance of these dynamisms. The

dynamisms include astonishment with onself, disquietude with oneself, feelings of inferiority

toward oneself, feelings of shame and guilt, dissatisfaction with oneself, positive maladjustment,

the third factor, subject-object in onself, self-awareness and self-control, autonomy, authentism,

responsibility for oneself and for others.

The inner psychic milieu reacts by accepting internal and external stimuli and processes the

stimuli via the dynamism mentioned. What emerges, through the control of the disposing and

directing center, is a psychic transformation of the received stimuli.

“A stimulus received by the nervous system evokes a reaction. The absorption of

the stimulus constitutes the process of its interiorization. The reaction evoked by the
stimulus constitutes the process of its exteriorization. The events that take place in the
inner psychic milieu between interiorization and exteriorization constitute the process
of transformation. This means that nothing is taken from the outside that would not
be molded by the dynamism of inner psychic transformation. . . The higher the level
of the inner milieu, the more thorough is the process inner psychic transformation”
(Dabrowski, 1970, p.74).

37
 (Figure 2 - Diagram of The Inner Psychic Milieu) (Dabrowski, 1970, p.66)

All the dynamisms within the inner psychic milieu, including the directing center (which is also a

dynamism), are subject to the concept of multilevelness. As the individual increases in

development, higher levels of each dynamism appear. The conflict experienced by the

developing individual is reflected in conflicts within the dynamisms themselves and conflict

particularly within the directing center. The directing center as previously explained acts through

38
the workings of higher emotions (particularly empathy) which fuse with higher intellectual

functions. This empowers the directing center to assist the individual in making reflective,

conscious decisions which will benefit the other and consequently, will be good for the

individual as well. This process moves the individual from the instinctive to a level of higher

consciousness which enables higher level transformation to take place.

7. Personality Ideal

Personality Ideal is the fulfillment of Dabrowski’s theory of positive disintegration. This is the

main reason why TPD can be viewed as a theory of personality development. The individual is

progressing in becoming a more human individual - one possessing higher levels of empathy and

thereby develops higher levels of consciousness. Higher level consciousness enables higher level

transformation to take place. The personality itself can be seen at any level of TPD. It is a

reflection of the level attained. Thus, low levels of development reveal a selfish, often ruthless

individual. As the individual progresses through the levels, his/her level of all the dynamisms

within the psychic milieu act together to produce a personality in constant anxious, nervous

conflict. It is not until the individual reaches levels IV and V that peace and harmony emerge

through secondary integration. The fact that the manner in which this process occurs unites the

biological, environmental, intellectual and emotional into mental function, results in a theory

which truly explores human development. That is why this theory of human development is

unique and different.

It is critical for the reader to understand Dabrowski’s definition of Personality. Personality is

NOT the concept described by Meyers Briggs. It is rather the journey to self-perfection, the

progression and change by the individual of his/her essence to that of a better, higher, more

39
empathetic, more responsible, more authentic essence. It is imperative that the reader realize this

distinction of the term Personality, when used in Dabrowskian terms. Dabrowski, always

thinking in levels, gave three definitions of Personality, in hierarchal order.

“1. Personality is a self-conscious, self-chosen, empirically elaborated, autonomous,

authentic, self-confirmed and self-educating unity of basic mental, individual and
common qualities. Those qualities undergo quantitative and qualitative changes
with the preservation of central elements.
2. Personality is a secondarily integrated set of basic mental qualities of an individual
which undergoes quantitative and qualitative changes with the preservation of
central lasting qualities.
3. Personality is the unity of integrated mental qualities of man; that is to say,
personality is the final and highest effect of the process of positive disintegration,
empirically and intuitively elaborated” (Dabrowski, 1973, p.111).

The Transpersonal

A discussion of the theory of positive disintegration would not be complete without mention of

the concept of the Transpersonal. The essence of TPD revolves about the message of

transcendence and transformation. Dabrowski uses it in the third factor, the inner psychic milieu,

the Personality Ideal, and in many of the dynamisms. Dabrowski speaks of the ability of the

individual engaged in transcendence as moving beyond the realm of self in the “here and now” to

a deeper yet higher orientation outside of self and inclusive of other. The journey propels one out

of the immediacy of the external world and into the spiritual, internal world. Here, valuative

decisions are weighed against a standard (Personality Ideal). Ego is silenced (Boucouvalas,

1997), a quieter milieu is entered. The individual is able to contemplate, think, consider, feel - to

more deeply make use of those qualities which make up the developing human being.

Dabrowski engaged often in meditation. This is evidenced by his many references to, and high

regard of meditation in his writings.

40
 “The fundamental quality shaped by the everyday effort of the individual aiming at
personality is the ability to meditate. . . Retrospection and prospection and periodic
isolation of oneself give definite results here. They clearly promote all those activities
which develop the inner environment and its hierarchy of values - that is, they promote
all the dynamisms of multilevel disintegration” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.166).

The movement which results in transcendence and transformation, because of its direction from

self to other, constitutes a Transpersonal orientation. It is Dabrowski’s movement away from the

what is, towards the what ought to be. The transformative process de-emphasizes self and

enhances other. The greater good - that which an individual ought to do - results in a choice

which changes essence to that of a higher, more empathetic, more responsible, more authentic

human essence. It constitutes the forward movement away from the interests of the ego to

responsibility for the other - the forward movement of the developmental process. Assessment,

reflection, prospection, consideration, and evaluation involved in this transformative process

require an atmosphere of internal quiet and meditation.

Levels within the Theory of Positive Disintegration

Dabrowski was an avid reader of Kierkegaard. A discussion of the levels of positive

disintegration would be lacking without returning to a passage Dabrowski cites of Kierkegaard:

“Fearless in the midst of dread, passions, and temptations of life, moving forward
along the path of faith, a path which is steep and dangerous but which leads one safely
to the goal. . . To achieve such faith, however, one must go through the wild and
ghastly forest, full of thistles and thorns” (Kierkegaard in Dabrowski, 1967, p.36).

This journey Kierkegaard speaks of prepares one for a comprehension of the struggle involved in

ascending the levels of positive disintegration. It is no easy journey. At the International

Dabrowski Conference (summer 2000), Vicky Moyle likened the journey to one through a

labyrinth. Moyle pointed out that

41
 “to walk a labyrinth is to walk a ritual, requiring the three steps of (1) purgation
(emptying and letting go), (2) illumination (reaching clarity - the center) and (3)
unification (the way out - transcending the ego)” (Moyle, Dabrowski Conference, 2000).

Moyle presented that the journey is “one of a pilgrim,” one which requires “meditation.” Her

advice was to “bring an open heart and an open mind” (Moyle, Dabrowski Conference, 2000).

Moyle compared this journey to those of the heros in Greek mythology. She pointed out that the

hero is not always conscious of the fact that what he did was heroic. Looking at these journeys,

she aptly stated, “any average individual in his right mind would never even want to take the

journey.” Moyle ended her presentation by adding the hopeful but important message that

“Dabrowski speaks to the heart and the spirit” (Moyle, Dabrowski Conference, 2000). His

message urges and encourages the individual on the journey.

I feel it is important to understand these concepts before any kind of meaningful discussion on

the levels of TPD can be presented. Dabrowski experienced and studied suffering. He gave

value to it. Dabrowski studied the human-ness which serves to promulgate and maintain the

existence of the human race. Given these premises, Dabrowski presents the world with a journey

- one which is a challenge. This journey is one not which all, not which even many, will entirely

accomplish. Accomplishment is not required. It is the journey itself which exists as a “gift,” an

invitation to partake in the struggle onward and to suffer in becoming a better (higher level)

human being.

Level I

Level I - Dabrowski named this level, Primary Integration. It is the beginning state of integration

within TPD. There is no disintegration at this level. Hence, there is no conflict. No

42
developmental dynamisms are present at level I. This level is one in which dwell the truly

selfish, uncaring, unfeeling members of society.

“The characteristic of cognitive and emotional structures and functions of primary

integration is that they are automatic, impulsive, and rigid. Behavior is controlled
by primitive drives and by externality. Intelligence neither controls nor transforms
basic drives; it serves the ends determined by primitive drives” (Dabrowski, 1996, p.18).

In this level dwell the psychopaths - those with no true human characteristics. Thankfully,

Dabrowski reminds us that there are not that many of these individuals inhabiting the planet,

although he acknowledges their existence.

“There are very few human beings whose personal character is wholly positive.
Also there are not many people of primitive, negative, expressly psychopathic
character, people who are a burden for their immediate social group, such as their
family, school, or place of employment, and whose influence on it is destructive
and who detain and obscure its development” (Dabrowski, 1967, p. 7).

Dabrowski did refer repeatedly to Hitler and Stalin as psychopaths (Dabrowski, 1964,1967, 1970,

1973). He used these individuals as examples of the result of “one-sided” development, a

concept discussed later in the chapter. Primary integration is comparable to Hughlings Jackson’s

“automatic” responses - rigid and impulsive (Jackson, 1884). Behavior is directed by primitive

external forces. Man ceases to be man in his true “human sense.”

Level II

Level II, Unilevel disintegration, is the first breaking up of the inhuman man in the journey of

becoming of a truly human individual. Dabrowski felt most of humanity inhabit this level.

Ambiguity is the key concept in level II. The individual has a vague sense that something is

missing in his life, something is not quite right. The mix of the external world and the internal

milieu of the individual cause a feeling of general unrest. Sensitivity in a reduced sense makes

43
an appearance within the individual. He/she feels unsettled, but not sure what to do about it.

“Thinking has a circular character of argument for argument’s sake. Externality

is still quite strong. . . there is continual vacillation between “pros” and “cons” with
no clear direction out of the vicious circle” (Dabrowski, 1996, p.18).

An individual feels “less happy” (settled, at rest), in level II than in level I. If he progresses on

the journey to level III, the road will become harder, but at least the individual knows he is

engaged in a process to hopefully remedy some of this un-settledness. However, should he/she

choose to remain in this very insecure state, he/she may become the victim of mental disease.

“Internal conflicts are unilevel and often superficial. When they are severe and
engage deeper emotional structures the individual often sees himself caught in a
“no exit” situation. Severe mental disorders are associated with unilevel developmental
structure” (Dabrowski, 1996, p.18).

Level III

Level III, Spontaneous Multilevel Disintegration, is an all out battle within the individual

between his/her external environment and his/her inner psyche. The journey through the

labyrinth has reached a crisis point. What sparks this battle is usually an external crisis - positive

or (usually) negative. An event in the experience of the individual becomes a developmental

event. It can include anything from job loss, promotion, marriage, divorce, illness, death of a

loved one, - any experience which causes a deep emotional response within the individual.

Conflict rages within the individual and he/she goes through a process of “self-evaluation,

reflection, intense moral conflict, perception of the uniqueness of others, and existential anxiety”

(Dabrowski, 1996b,p.19).

The individual is starting to realize that there are levels to human existence, higher and lower.

The individual struggles to reach for the higher - “the what ought to be” rather than “the what is.”

44
Level III is a critical period within TPD. To journey within this level is a nightmare - a living

hell. Any individual who has lived Dabrowski’s theory, needs no explanation of this level.

He/she’s been there. The pain is agony - not merely the pain of the external event which set off

the process, but in particular the internal pain. Here lie Dabrowski’s schizophrenics - dwellers

within level III. They yearn for the higher and live in constant internal pain. Autonomous factors

begin to emerge. Strong developmental dynamisms appear:

“positive maladjustment, astonishment with oneself, feelings of shame and guilt,

disquietude with oneself, feeling of inferiority toward oneself, and dissatisfaction with
oneself ”(Dabrowski, 1996b, p.19).

It was particularly due to the trauma experienced in this level of TPD, namely a life pulled

between the hold of the “what is” and the pull of the “what ought to be,” that Dabrowski

formulated the basic thesis of the theory of positive disintegration. The decision to move in the

direction of the “what ought to be” constitutes the development of Personality within the theory.

The reader is reminded to think of Personality in Dabrowskian terms - the self-chosen process in

becoming a better/higher unique, empathetic, authentic, responsible human essence.

“The author’s basic thesis can be stated as follows: Personality development,

especially accelerated development, cannot be realized without manifest nervousness
and psychoneurosis. It is in this way that such experiences as inner conflict,
sadness, anxiety, obsession, depression, and psychic tension all cooperate
in the promotion of humanistic development” (Dabrowski, 1967,p.vi).

Hence, this “thesis” is the basis of Dabrowski’s statement “Psychoneurosis is not an illness”. It

is the very manifestation of the process of healthy human development taking place. The

struggle and pain are well worth the growth and creativity which lie in store.

Level IV

Level IV - Organized Multilevel Disintegration - is precisely what it says - organized. The

45
chaotic mess existing in level III gives way to conscious choice. Tensions and conflicts calm

down somewhat and the individual takes a hard look at where he/she is and where he/she wants

to go. A clearer picture of the “what ought to be” emerges. The emotion of empathy strengthens

and its feelings become more important. The individual realizes that he/she has been engaged in

a raging battle within him/herself. Now there are others to think about - the family, friends,

counselors etc. who sat so patiently by waiting for this person to come out of depression, anxiety,

despair, etc. The individual is able to look at him/herself objectively - as an outsider looking in.

Dabrowski calls this ability the dynamism of subject-object. It, combined with the autonomous

ability developing within the individual, combine to form what Dabrowski named “the third

factor.” The concept of the third factor is pivotal to the understanding of Dabrowski’s theory. It

is composed of:

“conscious discrimination and choice. . . inner psychic transformation, self-awareness,

self-control, education-of-oneself and autopsychotherapy. Self-perfection plays a
highly significant role” (Dabrowski, 1996b, p.19).

“The third factor is independent from and selective with regard to heredity (the first
factor), and environment (the second factor). Its selective role consists in accepting
and fostering or rejecting and restraining qualities, inclinations, interests and desires,
which one finds either in one’s hereditary endowment or in one’s social environment.
Thus the third factor being a dynamism of conscious choice is a dynamism of
valuation” (Dabrowski, 1970,p.179).

The inner psychic milieu while still active, is taking control of the external milieu. Internal

forces are thus becoming stronger than external forces. The person (as a developing human,

unique personality) is taking form. Higher level consciousness takes place. Here higher level

emotion (particularly empathy) fuses with higher level cognitive function. This fused element

stimulates the cortex, resulting in the formation of higher level consciousness - a consciousness

46
composed of higher level reflective, transformative and empathetic capability.

Level V

The journey has reached its climax. The horrors have ended. A feeling of immense joy and

peace prevails. This is the state of Dabrowski’s level V - Secondary Integration. The individual

has reached the “what ought to be”. The “what was” is only a memory. The Personality has

developed. I think it wise to revisit Dabrowski’s definition of Personality.

“Personality . . . is a name given to an individual fully developed, both with respect

to the scope and level of the most essential positive human qualities, an individual
in whom all the aspects form a coherent and harmonized whole . . .” (Dabrowski, 1967,
p.5).

The developmental dynamisms present at level V are “responsibility, autonomy, authentism and

personality ideal” (Dabrowski, 1996b, p.20). Due to high level reflective, empathetic,

consciousness, and thereby high level transformation, the individual now is more concerned

about the welfare of others than his/her own welfare. Dabrowski used exemplars to demonstrate

this level of TPD. Two examples of exemplars are Maximilian Kolbe and Janusz Korczak.

Kolbe was a Polish priest who was imprisoned in Auschwitz. When he saw that a father of five

children had been selected for extermination, Father Kolbe offered to change places with him.

The father lived and left Auschwitz. Maximilian Kolbe was exterminated. Janusz Korczak was

a Polish physician and psychologist who established an orphanage for children in the Jewish

Warsaw ghetto. When the orders came for his approximately two hundred orphans to be taken to

concentration camp, Korczak was told he could retain his freedom. Korczak however, refused to

leave his orphans. He prepared the children, telling them they were going to a lovely place. He

47
and the children left the ghetto singing, smiles on their faces. Korczak accompanied his children

right into the crematorium. These two examples indicate the high levels of empathy,

authenticism and responsibility present at level V of the theory. Very few individuals reach level

V in TPD. Very few reach level IV. That does not matter. What does matter is that the journey

be embraced.

“In the face of these questions, I often felt broken and afflicted by their number and
overwhelming complexity. I felt that these questions demanded answers that would
be universal and that would penetrate deeply. This need to penetrate deeply became
more associated with an intuitive understanding of the multilevel nature of phenomena.
Superficiality, vulgarity, absence of inner conflict, quick forgetting of grave experiences
became something repugnant to me. I searched for people and attitudes of a different
kind, those that were authentically ideal, saturated with immutable values, those who
represented “what ought to be” against “what is.” And it often turned out that among
such persons, the “what ought to be” was already there and, at times, in its noblest
manifestations”(Dabrowski in Hague, Tremblant Conference 2000, p.4).

One-sided development

Dabrowski witnessed intense cruelty in his lifetime, particularly during the war years in Poland.

He witnessed man’s inhumanity to man at its worst. As a psychologist it seems only natural that

he would postulate as to how such inhuman humans came to be. One can see repeatedly in his

writings that he warns against the dangers of totalitarian leaders such as Hitler and Stalin.

Dabrowski came up with a solution which is a major piece of the theory. High intellectual

development without corresponding emotional development can produce inhumane humans -

humans without the necessary component of empathy to guard against the horrors of human

destruction and genocide.

“. . . grave affective retardation is usually associated with above average intelligence

subordinated to primitive drives. Leaders of criminal gangs belong to this group.
Two eminent psychopaths Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin displayed this kind of
mental structure characterized by lack of empathy, emotional coldness, unlimited

48
 ruthlessness and craving for power” (Dabrowski, 1970, p. 30).

“Why was St. Thomas Aquinas not aware that the conclusions of some of his
theological hypotheses lead to the de-humanization of man’s life by the exclusion
of emotional life” (Dabrowski, notes n.d. circa 1970,p.98).

One can see the deep feelings of horror present in Dabrowski’s writings in the following:

“The conscious working out of methods for “man hunting” in Hitler’s street round
ups, in hunting for negro slaves, in kidnaping women for work in brothels, in the
politico-economic exterminations of villages and towns, in hunting for “law” breakers
in concentration camps by means of concealed high tension wires, by means of dogs
trained to capture humans - all this represents something much more hideous and
much more tragic than when animals hunt each other” (Dabrowski, notes n.d. circa
1970,p.114).

“One cannot forget the cry of a harmed child, the sorrow of a deserted woman,
prisons, and concentration camps, death in pain and fear, loneliness and the fact
that “the dead never return” (Dabrowski, notes n.d. circa 1970, p.119).

“There have been various types of culture of a nondevelopmental, regressive nature

which deliberately aimed at decreasing human sensitivity, understanding, autonomy
and authenticity. Ancient Sparta, German Nazism and other totalitarian systems of the
present century may serve as very good examples” (Dabrowski, 1970, p. 11).

“The application of this concept by the people responsible for education and politics
could help in the early recognition of psychopaths and in preventing them from
gaining positions of power and control over their countries (Hitler, Stalin, Trujillo, etc.).
The general inability to recognize the psychological type of such individuals causes
immense suffering, mass terror, violent oppression, genocide and the decay of civilization
(Dabrowski, 1973, p.40).

High level cognitive function which is not fused with high level empathy will result in selfish

choices - choices which do not take the fate of others into account. Psychopaths result.

Empirical Testing of the Theory

The researcher includes a description of the methods used to empirically test the theory of

positive disintegration.

“Material for this part was collected at the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta,

49
 over a three-year period. During this period several tests were developed and revised;
some of them were used only in the beginning of the project for initial screening of
subject populations.
Two questionnaires, Verbal Items aimed at assessing the present stage of the subject, and
Personal Inventory (a type of forced autobiographical questionnaire,) were used in the
initial stages of investigation as screening procedures for levels of development. Subject
populations for these tests numbered 1258 and 1590 respectively. These tests are
presently undergoing revision, but were helpful in clarifying the range into which the
subjects fell. Subjects were then chosen from various points across this range, and further
tests were administered. These tests were: The Neurological Examination, The Verbal
Stimuli, and The Autobiography, which in most cases, the subjects completed at leisure in
their homes. The Autobiography pool numbers 81 subjects, the Neurological, 127, and
the Verbal Stimuli, 950. Eventually, Verbal Stimuli was administered in group settings
as well, with and without time limits. Much of this material is still awaiting analysis.
Two other tests, Faces, and Situations, have been administered to subject populations of
576 and 565 respectively. Subjects sampled included graduate and undergraduate
students, firemen, nurses, housewives, members of various religious groups, and patients
from a mental hospital. Although the general subject population was broad in terms of
age, education and profession, the selection of students, both undergraduate and graduate,
for further research, was agreed upon because of the greater ease of data collection.
Those who were not students volunteered for research after hearing of the project through
other students” (Dabrowski, 1996b, p.168).

Marlene Rankel Ph. D., professor, researcher and student of Dabrowski related to the researcher

that the research undertaken by Dabrowski and his co-researchers was extensive and intense.

They were engaged in approximately seven tests simultaneously. Rankel was taught by

Dabrowski to conduct the neurological exams on subjects (Rankel, personal communication,

November 25, 2001). Methods and cases are described in the 1996b Dabrowski text,

Multilevelness of Emotional and Instinctive Functions. Cases are quite lengthy and are primarily

written for professionals. Basically, testing reveals the presence and levels of dynamisms. These

are categorized and arranged in a chart to ascertain level of development. The researcher refers

the reader to the 1996 Dabrowski book if interested in the specifics of testing.

50
(Figure 3 - Chart of Dynamisms; (Dabrowski, 1996, p.31))

51
 Chapter Conclusion

TPD is a theory of paradox. It speaks of growth from disintegration, life from death, and peace,

happiness and love from pain and suffering, i.e., what normally is termed good from bad.

Mystery permeates TPD (Hague, Dabrowski conference, 2000). It has been said that “if you need

words to understand Dabrowski, you just don’t get it” ( Moyle, Dabrowski conference, 2000).

Bill Hague Ph.D., psychologist and student of Dabrowski says:

“I believe there is a history and individual acceptance that a “bad” thing can sometimes
in some way be good - that a falling apart can be an opportunity for restructuring the
better. Those who take time to reflect know this. Sometimes the bridge from worse to
better falls apart before you even get near better. . . some look back and say: “I now
know that sickness, that accident, that breakdown was the best thing that ever
happened to me” ( Hague, Dab conference proceedings, p. 5).

“I see it springing out in the intuition of people who may know nothing of Positive
Disintegration, but feel intuitively the hope it can bring to the hard lessons of their
lives”(Hague, Dab conference proceedings, p. 11).

There are no hard and fast answers. Dabrowski understood that in order to become a better

person, an individual must break apart and dissolve his present self and become someone better.

Dabrowski’s most concrete formula for accomplishing this was twofold:

(1) Make the “what is, what it ought to be” through self-perfection, i.e., dissolve your

present self and become a better person; more authentic, more responsible.

(2) Make the “what is, what it ought to be” through empathy and love of the “other,” i.e.,

dissolve concentration on yourself and seek out to understand, help and love “the other.”

Dabrowski saw emotional development as the key to achievement of what becomes a spiral

onward developmental path. As one develops emotionally, one loses self, perfects self, and

becomes more and more emotionally developed. Emotional development then leads one to self-

52
perfection, to loss of self and to further emotional development. Each forward advance demands

a tearing down of the previous structure and construction of the new. It is an upwards spiral

progression. For those skeptics fearing that this journey is impossible, Dabrowski said that in the

course of his lifetime, he searched for people engaged in making the “what ought to be” the

“what is,” and he found them - many times in the “noblest (of) manifestations” (Dabrowski,

1977, p.xiv). I end this chapter with a poem by Heather Slade, included by Bill Hague in his

presentation at the Dabrowski conference July 7, 2000. I feel it shares Dabrowski’s message.

Maybe tears

“Maybe tears serve to magnify our vision

that we might see into the spirit world
that we might see God
so much clearer
feel Him much more keenly
senses sharpened
honed by pain.”
(Heather Slade in Hague, Dabrowski Conference 2000)

53
 Chapter III

The early years

“I’ve been looking for a philosophy all my life,

Not so much as a rational system,
But first of all principally a philosophy of life,
A philosophy uniting the concrete with the absolute,
Without changing the affirmed and self created essence;
What’s more, a philosophy motivated and verifiable,
Not one sided but multi-dimensionally and multi-levelly
Based on dynamisms of the inner development of a man,
His personality, his wholeness, his feelings, desires and thoughts,
His wants, his immortality and love”

(excerpt of poem entitled Existential Essentialism, found within a file of philosophical poetry
(Poemat filozoficzny #172) written by Dabrowski, found in the Dabrowski file of the National
Archives of Canada, MG 30 B 88, Vol. 6; 4; translation from the Polish by E. Mika).

(Figure 4 - Map of Poland, http://www.matrade.gov.my/Laman2000/image)

54
 Childhood and Teenage Years

Kazimierz Dabrowski was born in Klarowo, Lublin, Poland on September 1, 1902. His father,

Antoni, was an agricultural administrator. The family dwelling occupied an estate which fell

within his father’s jurisdiction. Kazimierz was the second to the youngest of four children - three

boys and a girl. His little sister died at the age of three of meningitis. The memory of her death

remained with Dabrowski, as evidenced in his writings:

“I learned about death very early in my life. Death appeared to me not just as something
threatening and incomprehensible but also as something that one must experience
emotionally and cognitively at close range. When I was six, my little three-year-old sister
died of meningitis” (Dabrowski, 1977, p.ix).

Brought up in a home which put emphasis on culture and books, Dabrowski began his education

with Catholic priests. Dabrowski attended “Lublin School,” a boys’ grammar school. While

attending “Szkola Lubelska” a Lublin high school for boys, (Gimnazjum Meskie), Dabrowski

became editor of “Into the Future,” the high school quarterly. Dabrowski contributed poetry and

drama to the publication. While still in high school, Dabrowski participated in PET and ZET,

Polish underground organizations for youth (Dabrowski, E. biography, circa 1980). Michael

Piechowski, Ph. D. and co-author with Dabrowski, relates about Dabrowski’s teenage years:

“He (Dabrowski) told me about his reading of Kierkegaard and how at the age of 16 he
designed a questionnaire to ask his friends and classmates what would be the most
important thing to them in the afterlife. He found it was to have one’s loved ones there,
in other words, the enduring bonds of love were the most important for people to have
not only in this life but to be able to have them unbroken by death” (Piechowski,
personal communication, September 7, 2001).

Father Lesniak, student and friend of Dabrowski, told me about an incident which affected

Dabrowski significantly, while Dabrowski was still a teenager:

“I would like to say that the very beginning of his theory took place during the first

55
 World War when Dabrowski was an adolescent (at age 13 - 14 years.) Once - he told
me - that in the aftermath of a battle, he was shocked and horrified at the sight of the
mutilated bodies of many dead soldiers. He asked himself why so many soldiers had
been killed? Why there is so much hatred and evil in the world? What should be done
to help nations love each other? How can human beings be so inhumane to one
another? Who is man?” (Lesniak, personal communication, October 6, 2001).

As a preview of his gumption and his commitment to scholarly pursuits; while he was still in

high school Dabrowski concealed his age and enrolled as a free student at the Catholic

University of Lublin (KUL.) There he combined literature study in the department of Polish

linguistics with attendance at philosophy and psychology lectures. In 1923 Dabrowski took his

matriculation exam at KUL, and successfully completed years one and two of undergraduate

work. His appetite whetted for further study, Dabrowski continued on to Poznan University,

where in 1926 he completed his undergraduate studies in literature, psychology, and

philosophy. Dabrowski’s studied under many noted Polish scholars as Stefan Blachowski and

Stefan Szuman (psychologists,) Florian Znaniecki (sociologist,) Czeslaw Znamierowski and

Adam Zoltowski (philosophers,) and Bogdan Nawroczynski (educator,). (Kawczak in

Dabrowski1996a, Dabrowski, E., circa 1980, Zych,1988).

As an example of Dabrowski’s many interests, Dexter Amend, Ph.D., psychologist and student

of Dabrowski, points out that Dabrowski first intended to study music. “He loved to play the

piano. I heard him often play Chopin’s Piano Concerto #1" (Amend, D., personal

communication, February 17, 2002).

It is important to note at this point that Dabrowski’s literary studies were conducted following

the concepts of the Polish romantic school. Two schools of thought permeated the Polish

56
educational system at the time of Dabrowski’s education. These were the romantic and the

positivist schools. The romantic school was very concerned with the preservation of Polish

nationalism. Within the school were created many of Poland’s great literary works as Adam

Mickiewicz’s Pan Tadeusz, an epic poem of Poland’s history (Kawczak, personal

communication, June 24, 2001). Poland’s geography which consists of a rich land protected by

no natural boundaries, has lent itself to a volatile national history. Continual loss and fighting

to regain their land has resulted in a Polish tie to the land. This romantic notion of a people

“one with the land” combines with the Poles’ pride in their ability to deal with struggle. Thus,

the romantic school of Polish literature flourished and contributed to the “suffer; but survive”

spirit of Poland.

“Adam Mickiewicz insisted that history had a deep spiritual dimension in which
suffering prepared the soul for glory. It was a familiar Christian theme - redemptive
suffering as a personal spiritual discipline. For Mickiewicz, though, redemptive
suffering was also the national destiny” (Weigel, 1999, p.34).

Elizabeth Mika, MA psychology, who helped me greatly with translation, was born and raised

in Poland. She feels this historical suffering for country has meshed with Polish personal

heritage.

“This sense of historical tragedy permeating personal lives is very typical for Poles. We
have been almost conditioned to view our lives as determined by powerful, negative
forces that need to be opposed with all possible (inner) might. Hence the emphasis on
patriotic and moral duty in our up-bringing and culture. The geographical placement of
Poland - between huge and hostile world powers, trying to snatch the country away from
its people - has made Poles tough, proud and . . . manic-depressive” (Mika, E. , personal
communication, January 26, 2000).

(Kawczak, personal communication June 24, 2001) related that this schooling in the romantic

contributed to the lyricism and beauty inherent in Dabrowski’s writing. However, it also was

57
responsible for a quality of vagueness which Dabrowski felt plagued by throughout his lifetime.

Schooled in the composition of poetry and drama, Dabrowski concentrated on the artistic value

of his literary creations. Often this comes across to the reader as a lack of articulation and

unscientific. Dabrowski found this particularly problematic when attempting to appeal to

Western readers. For this purpose, Dabrowski joined forces with Andrew Kawczak, LL. M.,

(doctor of law) and Ph. D. in philosophy of science, and Michael Piechowski, Ph. D. in

microbiology, to assist him in the writing of Mental Growth through Positive Disintegration

(1970). Kawczak an attorney, studied in the positivist school in Poland - a philosophical school

stressing logic and precision. The positivists stressed education of the masses. Many of the

great Polish scientists emerged from the positivist school. One such notable scholar was Maria

Sklodowska-Curie. Together Dabrowski, Kawczak and Piechowski produced Mental Growth.

Kawczak commented that

“Mental Growth is a very difficult to read work. Difficult because it’s very scientific
and boring. It’s of interest that Mental Growth was published in the United States, in
Canada, in England and in South America. However, the book was never published in
Poland ” (Kawczak, personal communication, June 24, 2001).

Medical studies

Completing his philology degree in1926, Dabrowski left for Warsaw, where he began his

education in medicine at the University of Warsaw under Mazurkiewicz. Mazurkiewicz, an

eminent Polish psychiatrist, impressed Dabrowski greatly with his theories on “own”

developmental forces. Mazurkiewicz’s “own” forces contain emphasis on “the significance of

emotions as directing forces” (Dabrowski, 1964, p. xii). Dabrowski later used his knowledge of

Mazurkiewicz’s “own” forces to formulate the concept of autonomous forces in TPD.

58
 “Mazurkiewicz emphasized that besides strictly mechanical determination of the activity
of the nervous system there are the so-called own forces found in lower animal
organisms but more noticeably in humans. He called these forces own because he
regarded them as not limited to proportionate responses of excitation - as more than
simple reflexes to a stimulus” ( Dabrowski, 1964, Introduction p.xii).

While he was studying medicine under Mazurkiewicz, Dabrowski worked in a pediatric

institution designed for treating orphans and children who exhibited mental problems. Here he

practiced clinically, relying heavily on observation. What interested him particularly in this

setting, was the phenomenon of auto-mutilation - children harming themselves for no apparent

reason. He theorized about the phenomenon:

“The source of the majority of self-mutilating symptoms is the wish to suffer. The
“necessity” for suffering, which at first glance may seem paradoxical, is deeply
embedded in the human soul, and is more common that it appears to the normal mind”
(Dabrowski, 1937b, p. 5).

“There is no doubt but that there exists a more or less normal necessity for suffering
following the feeling of guilt, or the possession of certain defects, suffering which is
considered a redemption, or a way of moral perfection” (Dabrowski, 1937b, p. 5).

“In respect to the “phenomenon” of self-mutilation we distinguish between the inflicting

of physical suffering and psychic self-torture. The “sphere” of physical self-mutilation
is accessible to external observation; the psychic self-torture, above all, to introspection”
(Dabrowski, 1937b, p.5).

Dabrowski introduces four key points in the above quotes which become foundational

components of TPD. First is a wish and need to suffer. Second is the linking of suffering to a

feeling of guilt, with suffering as a redemptive force. This spin on guilt differs from Freud, who

views guilt as a harmful force. Dabrowski views guilt as beneficial and necessary to

development. As an aside, it is interesting to note that it was also Adam Mickiewicz’s

historical view of redemptive suffering in the Polish epic, Pan Tadeus. Is Dabrowski linking

psychic suffering with the Polish historical (romantic) concept of suffering? The third concept,

59
is Dabrowski’s definition of psychic suffering as an inward examination of self. Here

Dabrowski somewhat deviates from Adler’s theory. Adler believes self-mutilation is largely

due to inferiority.

“According to Adler, day-dreaming about one’s own death, sickness, humiliations, and
sometimes the realization of these dreams develops itself on the basis of a feeling of
inferiority, and is a compensation for this feeling, in order to arouse pain and pity in the
parents so as to be kept deeply in mind by them” (Dabrowski, 1937b, p.22).

Dabrowski maintains Adler’s feeling that inferiority contributes significantly to self-mutilation.

His stance, however, is that the individual engaged in a developmental process experiences

inferiority toward self rather than inferiority to others within the external world.

“The feeling of inferiority, of imperfection and of bashfulness produced in him a feeling

of guilt, dislike, and hatred of certain of his own features, the need of sacrifice, torment,
and destruction of certain of his worst complexes, and the desire of working toward self-
perfection” (Dabrowski, 1937b, p.75).

Dabrowski’s fourth finding within his study of the phenomenon of auto-mutilation, forms the

basis for his TPD concept of hyper or over-excitability.

“The faculty for bearing pain in self-mutilation must probably be interpreted as some
physical or psychic hypalgesia. . . explained (as) a state of psychic tension produced by
mental, emotional, or impulsive obsession (compulsion), and finally by auto-suggestion
causing a weakening of the pain sense during self-mutilation. . . these tendencies are the
result, on one hand, of various somatic irritations, and , on the other hand, of psychic
overexcitability and tendencies to obsession” (Dabrowski, 1937b, p.11).

“The greater the ability to see the unpleasant side of life and, at the same time, to escape
beyond it and beyond the realm of death, to disregard all values, the greater will be the
restlessness and self-mutilation” (Dabrowski, 1937b, p. 32).

Dr. Tom Nelson, chairman of the department of psychology at the University of Alberta relates

an incident he witnessed while accompanying Dabrowski on a trip to Poland. In the course of

that trip (during the 1970s,) Dabrowski himself engaged in self-mutilation. He and Nelson were

60
at a psychology conference where communist sanctioned papers and viewpoints were being

presented. Dabrowski was a member of the panel; Nelson an observer in the audience. Nelson

wondered why Dabrowski was continually covering his mouth with his hand during the

proceedings. After the meeting, Nelson re-joined Dabrowski and noticed that Dabrowski’s

hand was bleeding. Dabrowski was biting his hand to the extent that he was causing it to bleed

in order to keep silent during proceedings he could not philosophically agree with (Nelson,

conference proceedings, 2000).

Dabrowski completed his medical studies in 1929. His doctoral dissertation was the

psychological conditions of suicide. This paper entitled, Les Conditions Psychologique du

Suicide (Dabrowski 1929), was published the same year. Dabrowski’s master’s thesis had also

been written on suicide (Karen Nelson, 1992).

“Prompted by the death of his best friend, it reflected “his attempt to determine why the
finest people are inclined to suicide, the least fine, homicide” (Rankel in K. Nelson,
1992, p. 363).

To better understand suicide, Dabrowski studied the writings of J. W. Dawid and included

Dawid’s findings in many of his works. Dawid was a famous Polish psychologist whose life

changed drastically after the suicide of his wife. Dabrowski writes that Dawid was an avid

member of the positivist school in Poland. His position was that of the analytical scientist who

puts no credence in the role of emotions and spiritualism.

“ . . . his work as a whole, between 1881 and 1910, reveals the calm of an accurate
investigator. He finds an explanation for the world in physiochemical phenomena. That
which could not be experimented upon was not worth the effort of thought” (Dabrowski,
1937b, p.64).

61
After the suicide of his wife, Dawid underwent a psychic transformation. He experienced

suffering, breakdown, guilt, and a belief in the spiritual. His torments resulted in physical and

mental anguish. Dawid became so physically compromised that he developed tuberculosis.

“I loved my wife deeply . . . but I loved her for myself, not for her. Afer the catastrophe
I became aware of it. The pain of losing this most beloved one is inexpressible. It is a
burning remorse that I did not do anything to save her . . . death awakened in me
something like a new organ, the ability to see or realize certain things. I only know that
last year I learned more than during my previous life, and that I never possessed such a
full knowledge of myself, the consciousness of the sense of life and duty” (Dabrowski,
1937b, p.65).

“Now the only thing which is left to me is despair, which is absolutely a deadly disease,
only death is so terribly slow in coming. . . I only know that last year I learned more
than during my previous life, and that I never possessed such a full knowledge of
myself, the consciousness of the sense of life and duty” (Dabrowski, 1937b, p.65).

Dawid underwent a transformational change. After his wife’s death he gained spiritual insight

in addition to his previous analytical orientation. At this point in Dabrowski’s account of

Dawid, we obtain an interesting Dabrowskian perspective of transformation.

“In this newly developed mental attitude, idealism takes place of materialism; in
psychologico-educational methods of work, intuition finds place beside the experiment.
Transformation through personal experiences, especially suffering, and the conscious,
active weakening and destruction of selfish impulses of an individual capable of intense
spiritual life (spirit of sacrifice, charity, suffering) becomes the aim of education.
Voluntarily accepted suffering plays a role of decisive importance in this process”
(Dabrowski, 1937b, p.66).

Dabrowski lists four components of transformation. 1. A state of idealism replaces the material

state. The individual begins to look inward rather than outwardly towards the external and

material to find answers. 2. Intuition gains worth in the scientific arena. 3. A partial death of

the selfish desires and ego of the individual occurs allowing the inner spiritual voice to gain

significance and be listened to. 4. The worth of the voluntary acceptance of suffering is

62
emphasized as a necessary tool in the educative process.

Dawid strongly believed that his suffering availed him contact with his deceased wife. To end

the suffering would sever his only available tie to her.

“I am afraid that I may lose the capacity for suffering, as this suffering keeps her alive; it
seems to me, the moment I cease to suffer, she will die again - this time for good”
(Dabrowski, 1937b, p.67).

Dawid communicated spiritually with his wife after her death. On one of his walks he was sure

he had heard her call to him. On reflection Dawid realized that the voice he heard was his own

calling himself to her. Dawid finally decided to commit the “perfect sacrifice” and join her. He

committed suicide.

“The deepest ultimate feature of mystical life is the need, the hunger for sacrifice, in one
form or another, partial or complete. The highest, most perfect sacrifice is death, and ,
as a matter of fact, from a certain point of view, one may say that the essence of
mysticism, its guiding idea, is the process of partial dying, and its final word is - death”
(Dabrowski, 1937b, p.67).

“Why are people taught to live and not to die? The one who does not know how to die
will not know how to live. To value life above all is to miss its purpose - such a life
becomes an error, a toy of external forces” (Dabrowski, 1937b, p. 68).

Dawid saw suicide as his only course of action to redeem himself from his guilt and to join her

in the afterlife. Dabrowski explains:

“Suicidal ideas usually arise when a struggle begins between complexes of opposing
tendencies, neither of which prevails over the other, or when the difference is
insignificant. The result is the destruction of both, neither of them being able to gain
preponderance, thus making impossible the creation of one predominant complex,
supported by several minor ones. As soon as one of the principal complexes gains
distinct preponderance, the philosophy of life is formed, peace ensues and the tendency
to suicide subsides” (Dabrowski, 1937b, p.69).

Confused by Dabrowski’s rather vague answer, I asked Andrew Kawczak, co-author with

Dabrowski, whether Dabrowski was indicating suicide to be a good or bad solution. Dr.

63
Kawczak explained his impression of Dabrowski’s thoughts on suicide in the following way:

There are two kinds of suicide - selfish suicide and altruistic suicide. Selfish suicide has as its

motive the desire to hurt someone, to get even or to make someone suffer. Altruistic suicide,

conversely, can have as its motive the wish to spare someone additional suffering. An example

would be someone who is very old and has discovered he or she has an incurable disease

(Kawczak, personal communication, June 24, 2001). Dabrowski himself gives an example of

altruistic suicide -

“At the time of war and occupation of a country by foreign troops, members of the
resistance movement sometimes were forced to commit suicide in order to avoid
possible betrayal of underground military or organizational secrets due to a possible
breakdown caused through tortures applied by the enemy police” (Dabrowski, 1973,
p.34).

Kawczak felt that Dabrowski was telling us:

“when someone commits an altruistic suicide, it may indeed by very developmental.

Don’t judge too hastily. That does not mean we should encourage them to do so. He
would never say that. As in Dawid’s case, (there was a) very developmental change
after his wife’s suicide - as for the suicide itself, Dabrowski never says one way or the
other.” Kawczak felt this lack of voicing a viewpoint displayed Dabrowski’s
commitment as a scholar. He would never say something unless he could somehow
back it up (Kawczak, personal communication, June 24, 1901).

Dabrowski ends his chapter on Dawid with the following conclusion,

“For types such as Dawid (introvert, self-sufficient, inclined to deep and exclusive
affections,) a new and quite different philosophy of life was the only way to hold on to
life, the necessary solution of the instinct of self-preservation. In this manner he solved
the impossibility of agreeing to the separation from his dear beloved, also the problem of
the moral role of suffering and sacrifice, and besides found new sources of the maxim:
“Love and death are the principal sources of individual knowledge” (Dabrowski, 1937b,
p.69).

64
 The Formation of an Institute of Mental Health in Poland

Dabrowski organized a clinic for nervous, retarded, and disturbed children in Warsaw in 1931.

There he practiced as a psychotherapist. In 1932 Dabrowski was granted another scholarship

from the National Culture Foundation affording him the opportunity to study psychoanalysis in

Vienna under Professor Wilhelm Stekel. In addition, he was able to also study neurology under

professor Otto Marhrburg, psychology under professor Kurth Buhler and internal disease under

professor William Schlesinger. As a result of this study, Dabrowski became certified in

psychoanalysis (Dabrowski, E., circa 1980, p.3). From Vienna Dabrowski traveled to Paris

where he studied for four months under Gerard Meyer. Here he was exposed to lectures given

by Pierre Janet, a famous psychologist and psychoanalyst. This time period made a lasting

impression on Dabrowski, as recorded in his diary.

“At this time my views on the range and multiplane and multilayer approaches to mental
hygiene began to take a definite shape. I began to see mental hygiene as a science
indispensable in every branch of psychology, psychotherapy, psychiatry and authentic
upbringing. I became to realize more and more that the psychopathological approach is
not a simple thing, that it does not express static and statistic abnormality, that this is a
meeting ground of high normality in the meaning of advanced development, creativity,
increased impulsiveness, which is closely connected with advanced development and
creativity” (Dabrowski, E. bio, p.4).

Dabrowski was awarded a grant by the Rockefeller Foundation in 1933 to study public health at

Harvard University. According to archival information from the Rockefeller Foundation,

Dabrowski arrived in New York City on October 19, 1933 aboard the SS Washington. He was

31 years old at the time and he arrived with his wife. (Rockefeller Archive Center, fellowship

card #1).

65
This documented arrival in New York with his wife presented a conflict of information to the

researcher. The Dabrowski,E., Kawczak and Zych biographies claim that Dabrowski was not

married until 1942. The researcher raised the question as to whether Dabrowski had been

married twice. An answer came from professor Lesniak by way of a personal letter.

“Moreover, I can tell you that Dabrowski was married twice. Hist first wife - as far as I
know - died of tuberculosis” (Lesniak, personal communication, August 30, 2000).

According to the archival records of the Rockefeller Foundation, on October19, 1933,

arrangements were made for Dabrowski to work at the Judge Baker Guidance Clinic with Dr.

Healy and Dr. Macfie Campbell at Boston Psychopathic Hospital from October 19, 1933 for

nine months, renewable for two months. Dabrowski’s first stipend from the Rockefeller

Foundations was issued on October 20, 1933 for $200 per month. Tuition and travel expenses

were covered. Termination of the grant was scheduled for September 19, 1934. English

lessons were approved for Dabrowski. A January 17, 1934 record stated that Dabrowski had

been working with Drs. Campbell, Healy, and Thom where he was conducting scientific

research with Dr. Campbell “on the nervosity of children and on automutilation” (Rockefeller

Archive Center, fellowship card #1). Also recorded was the fact that Dabrowski would like to

spend some time in Vienna. En route to Vienna would like to visit several centers of mental

hygiene (Hospital for Epileptics and physiological clinic in London, mental hygiene in Geneva,

Rome, Paris, Belgium, etc.) (Rockefeller Archive Center, fellowship card #1). During the

Easter vacation in 1934 (Dabrowski) visited Clark University, Worcester State Hospital and

Monson State Hospital.” (Rockefeller Foundation archives, fellowship card #1). In May 1934,

Dabrowski told the Rockefeller Foundation that it was obligatory for him to be in Geneva by

66
June 25, 1934. Dabrowski planned to spend ten days in Geneva, after which he planned to

spend three months in Vienna. He was granted a two month extension during which he

continued to receive a stipend of $200 US/mo plus charges for tuition and travel. His plan

included travel to London, Paris, Geneva and Vienna. A report of Dabrowski’s academic

progress was put into his record on June 20, 1934 by the Harvard School of Public Health. It

states

“(Dabrowski) worked only in field of mental hygiene and so was not eligible for a
(public health) degree or certificate”.

The report contained a statement regarding Dabrowski by Dr. C. Macfie Campbell:

“Dabrowski has not confined himself to work at Boston Psychopathic Hospital but has
kept in touch with work at various centers where medical psychological problems of
childhood are dealt with. Before leaving he presented to staff a systematic report of
(the) topic of Self Mutilation, Physical & Mental. (He) also presented case material in
Out Patient Dept. Showed himself intelligent, a worker of considerable initiative and
great industry.”

Dr. W. F. Dearborn added “(He) attended faithfully clinical course in Psychology of

Mentally Deficient Children, which was held at Walter E. Fernald School, as well as my
seminar course in Problems of Educational Psychology and Mental Hygiene.
(Dabrowski) did not take final exams or do clinical testing in (the) first course so that we
were unable to assign him a grade. In seminar class, because of language difficulties,
another member of the class undertook to translate from French and to digest his
doctorate thesis. Have no hesitation in giving him a grade of B. If he had felt a little
more at ease in English language, I should have found plenty of grounds for rating him
higher” (Rockefeller Archive Center, fellowship card #1).

Dabrowski left Boston on May 23, 1934. He spent a few days in New York City, Baltimore and

Philadelphia and then sailed to Europe with his wife aboard the SS Olympic on June 8, 1934,

hopeful that the Rockefeller Foundation would help to fund his upcoming psychiatric endeavors

in Warsaw (Rockefeller Archive Center, fellowship card #2).

67
Dabrowski was named a Privat Dozent at Geneva University in recognition of his American

research. Dabrowski moved on to Vienna where he wrote an article on Parkinsons disease.

Znaczenie wieku w klinice i patologii parkinsonizmu pospiaczkowego (Significance of age on

the clinical and pathological condition of Parkinsons) in Neurolgia Polska (1933)Vol 1 p. 52-

59. In addition he studied psychoanalysis there and worked in a pediatric clinic housed within a

neuropathic and psychopathic institute. (Rockefeller Foundation, Nelson, K. bibliography,

Dabrowski, E. bio)

Dabrowski returned to Warsaw in 1934. From 1935 to1936 he used the $15,000 allocated by

the Rockefeller Foundation to begin the Institute of Mental Hygiene and he became its

president. In addition Dabrowski gave birth to the Polish League of Mental Hygiene in

Warsaw, assuming the responsibility of secretary. This organization still exists today as

evidenced by my interview with Brunon Holyst, the current president.

“Thirty years ago, I met professor Dabrowski at a private reception of the society. After
15 minutes of conversation, professor Dabrowski proposed me (sic) to be vice president
of the society. . . Our society have (sic) a long history. . . Now our society have (sic)
1000 members - special men of pedagogics, psychologists, sociologists and some
students . . . And we have quarterly mental health (meetings) founded by professor
Dabrowski. I am the literary chief. Then we publish some papers devoted to mental
health, psychology, dedicated to self improvement; the aim to improve myself and
environmental. So we also have scientific conferences devoted to mental hygiene. The
last symposium was in Poznan devoted to the aggression and violence and mental
health” (Holyst, personal communication, August 7, 2001).

In 1935 Dr. George Strode from the International Health Division of the Rockefeller

Foundation filed a report following a visit to Warsaw to evaluate progress on Dabrowski’s

Institute of mental health.

68
 “As a result of my study I feel prepared to submit the attached proposal with a request
for approval. . . We are so inexperienced in this field of work and the hazards are so
much greater than those we customarily encounter, that I prefer to go slowly. I
recommend support for but one year at the outset. . . We are not only dealing with a new
subject but with a new man. He may or he may not be the right one for the job. The
reports from Boston on his work as a fellow were good but one cannot always be sure of
a man on that basis alone. In some respects he is ideal; he is young, full of enthusiasm
and push; his academic training is favorable since, before studying medicine at Warsaw
and Geneva, he graduated from the University of Poznan with a diploma in pedagogy
and later got his degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The one year of trial will serve to
demonstrate his ability as an organizer and coordinator.
If we find Dabrowski is the right man to back then we shall want to carry on for
sometime. Poland is entirely devoid, so far as I know, of preventive psychiatry or
mental hygiene, whichever be the better term, and the same thing is true of most eastern
and central Europe. A successful piece of work would have repercussions in other
countries” (Strode, letter to F. F. Russell, Rockefeller Foundation, February 27, 1935).

Attached to this letter appeared a proposal to aid in the development of a division of Mental

Hygiene in Warsaw, Poland. Seventy - five thousand zlote were to be allocated as aid during

the period April 1, 1935 to March 31, 1936. Included in this proposal was “preparation of the

man intended to develop the activity” (Strode, letter to F. F. Russell, Rockefeller Foundation,

February 27, 1935). This preparation had already predominantly taken place during

Dabrowski’s fellowship period in Boston.

“The present project, if approved, would carry us into a new field and being one in
which the Foundation has expressed a major interest, it has an unusual appeal. There
being no similar activity in Poland, it will be easier to measure its influence and success
than would be possible in countries with related, if not identical, activities” (Mental
Health proposal, Strode letter to F. F. Russell, Rockefeller Foundation, February 27,
1935).

On April 13, 1935 it was:

“RESOLVED that the proposal for co-operation with the National Health Department,
Poland, in the development of a division of mental hygiene in the Warsaw School of
Hygiene as outlined below, be, and it is hereby approved” (Rockefeller Foundation, RF
RG1.1, S.789 1:7).

69
A sum of $15,000 was designated by the Rockefeller Foundation to be spent on this program

during the period of April 1, 1935 to March 31, 1936. The sum was deemed to cover this first

“experimental” year. If results from this experimental year proved promising, additional

funding would be provided. A budget followed, designating 34,200 zlote for salaries to be

divided as 13,000 zlote from local funds and 21,200 zlote contributed by the Rockefeller

Foundation. For equipment and supplies a total of 61,600 zlote was decided upon, 11,000 zlote

coming from local funds and 50,000 zlote supplied by the Rockefeller Foundation. Dabrowski

requested that 4600 zlote from salaries be allocated to supplies for the purchase and installation

of an x-ray for diagnostic purposes. This request was honored and the budget was approved.

Dr. R. M. Taylor conducted an inspection of the project in early September 1936. Although

construction work was still in progress, Taylor reported that patients were being seen and

nurses and teachers were being trained. His impression was that the project was proceeding

according to plan. Among his recommendations appeared:

“Dr. Dabrowski will be appointed consultant (without salary) in Mental Hygiene for the
city of Warsaw and will be given authority to supervise the work of two school
physicians assigned to the special schools for mentally sub-normal and psychopathic
and morally delinquent children” (RF RG1.1 3.789 1.7, p.2).

In addition, Dr. Taylor proposed a sum of 8.020 zlote to be contributed to the Institute of

Mental Hygiene at Warsaw for the period April 1, 1937 to March 31, 1938. In June of 1937 the

archival record indicates that Dr. Taylor wrote to GKS;

“D., the Director of the Institute of Mental Hygiene, while doubtless well trained in his
subject, lacks administrative ability and the faculty to visualize the practical application
of mental hygiene in a general health service. Dr. Wielawski (asst. In the Div. of Mental
Hygiene, Inst. of Hygiene, and applicant for fellowship) appears to have a much more
practical turn of mind and it is felt his association with the Institute should prove
exceedingly helpful” (Rockefeller Archive Center, fellowship card #2).

70
What led to the inclusion of this entry is unclear. The original letter is missing from the file.

Therefore, no explanation is available. The outcome of this entry is also unclear as no other

entries appear in the Rockefeller archival file until December 1940. The entry points out the

lack of confidence the Rockefeller Foundation placed in Dabrowski’s administrative

capabilities. In later years, Dr. Tom Nelson - University of Alberta; Edmonton, Canada also

expressed Dabrowski’s lack of awareness of practical matters. “He was intensely impractical.

He always thought someone would come up with a limitless donation to establish his Institute”

(Nelson, T., conference proceedings, July 2000). Dabrowski described the phenomenon of

impracticality as a characteristic of an individual engaged in the creative process.

“This kind of . . . mental infantilism can be noticed in some great creative individuals
such as: Chopin, Shelley, Slowacki, . . . Van Gogh, Kierkegaard, . . . and others. . . They
set up ideas, approaches and conceptions which are later creatively applied and
developed by others and, thus, paved the way toward further outstanding achievement in
arts and sciences” (Dabrowski, 1973, p.154).

A Report Upon the Activities of the Mental Hygiene Institute by Kazimierz Dabrowski was

published in the proceedings of the International Mental Hygiene Congress held in Paris, July

19 - 23, 1937. The Institute, part of the National Hygiene Institute was located at Pulawska

Street 91, in Warsaw. Forty patients - children and adolescents age 2 to 16 were being seen.

Dabrowski’s confidence in education as a prime component in the healing process appears in

the proceedings. Dabrowski indicates that wellness needs to be encouraged, nurtured and

maintained by individuals who relate to the child - parents, educators, counselors as well as the

clinical staff. Dabrowski offers child guidance clinics, lectures and classes for parents and

teachers. An attempt is made to return children to the most normal environment possible as

71
soon as possible. A holistic approach to therapy is evident in this 1937 publication.

“The diagnosis having been established and proper methods of medical pedagogy
worked out, the child is sent to a proper educational establishment or special school or it
is returned to a normal school, but both parents and school teachers are instructed how
to deal with the case. Children leaving the clinic do not lose contact with it but are
periodically recalled for examination” (Dabrowski, 1937a, p.2).

“During their stay at the clinic children receive individual school teaching. Therapeutic
work is also applied (gardening, workshop, etc.). None less important are the activities
of the Child Guidance Clinic for children and adolescents with mental and nervous
troubles. . . in 1936 the number of consultations was 600. . . Children are directed by
schools, educational establishments and are frequently brought by their parents. At the
Guidance Clinic they undergo a physical and mental examination and in each case
investigations are made to ascertain their social environment” (Dabrowski, 1937a, p.2).

“ . . . other activities (as) . . . Popular lectures for parents, teachers and educators,
concerning hygiene. It is understood that many infantile mental troubles are due to
improper pedagogical methods of parents and teachers. Mental hygiene courses are
organised for social workers and educators. . . Similar courses are foreseen for
physicians. . . the Institute undertook to publish a collection of pamphlets, written for
educators and containing rational methods helping to understand and educate the child .
. . Popular booklets, of about 12 pages each, are published for the propaganda of mental
hygiene among the larger public” (Dabrowski, 1937a, p.2).

Zagorze

Within the same document, A Report Upon the Activities of the Mental Hygiene Institute by

Kazimierz Dabrowski, mention is made of a “hidden” Institute in the woods (Tillier bio,

Nelson, K.(1992).

“One of the Institute’s latest undertakings is the organisation of a Center of Family Care
for psychopathic children from 7 to 16 years old. This Center will be organised amidst
the forests of the Marianska Puszcza (virgin forest), in agreement with the Department
of Social Welfare of the City of Warsaw. The children will be under the care of a social
worker, of a physician and a psychologist” (Dabrowski, 1937a, p.2).

The facility in mention is the Institute located in Zagorze, which Dabrowski used to hide

patients, war orphans - Jews and non-Jews, priests, Polish soldiers, and members of the

72
resistance.

“He told me he had saved many Jewish children in his clinic in Zagorze. Once or twice
he also mentioned that he had been twice in direct danger of being executed. He linked
his chronic heart disease with those situations” (Lesniak, F., personal communication,
October 6, 2001).

The researcher was privileged to visit this still very much operational Institute in August 2001.

I spoke with a psychologist who I found walking through the quite dense forest surrounding the

facility. With a huge smile on her face, she was proud and happy to tell me that Dabrowski’s

methods and principles are still used today in the Institute. I saw children, mothers and social

workers amidst surroundings which could only be described as beautiful and peaceful. The

children appeared happy and content. Two teenagers - one smoking, were having a discussion

in the rear courtyard. They seemed deep in thought and also appeared to be at peace. It was

after many hours of searching and hiking yet deeper into the woods, quite a distance beyond the

Institute, that I found Dabrowski’s grave. It is located in an isolated spot surrounded by trees.

(see photograph) A member of the Dabrowski family explained to me that Zagorze was

deemed the proper place to lay Dabrowski since this Institute was so dear to his heart and so

much a part of his history (personal communication, July 29, 2001).

73
(Figure 5 - Dabrowski’s grave) (Figure 6 - Cross at Dabrowski’s grave)

74
 Chapter IV

The War Years

Introduction

A Prayer

“How to pray after the experience of Auschwitz, Treblinka, Gros Rosen, Lublinka,
the Soviet camps,
Why pray in these treacherous times, in these cruel times?
Amidst the disturbing tragedy, hopelessly sad.
Should we ask after all this for mercy?
For mercy over what, and is this at all possible?
Or should we pray for resurrection,
And resurrection of what?
Because not of the unchangeable and the abstract united in God?
For what should we pray, to whom?
Should we howl like dogs whom no one can hear within a mile?
Or should we helplessly raise our arms,
Toward the one who did not notice;
All this is so dark, trembling with fear,
All this is not human and is not divine;
Maybe all of this is very remote and maybe it’s good that it’s only understood by a few,
unnamed, fearfully passed over in silence,
With the exception of a few.”

(Cienin, Poemat filozoficzny (philosophical poetry) #152 in poetry manuscript found in

Dabrowski file, National Archives of Canada, series 789, MG 30 B88, Vol 6,1; translated from
the Polish by Elizabeth Mika).

Historian, Norman Davies speculates an interesting beginning to the second world war in God’s

Playground - A History of Poland Vol II.

“The Second World War was started by Sturmbanfuehrer Alfred Helmut Naujocks of the
Nazi Security Service. At 8 p.m. on 31 August 1939, he led an attack on the German
radio station at Gleiwitz in Upper Silesia. His men included a dozen convicted criminals
referred to in his orders by the code-word Konserwen (Tin Cans), who had been promised
a reprieve in return for their co-operation. After a brief encounter with the station guards,
they burst into one of the studios, broadcast a patriotic announcement in Polish, sang a
rousing chorus, fired a few pistol shots, and left. Once outside, the “Tin Cans” were

75
 mown down by the machine-guns of the SS. Their bodies, carefully dressed in blood-
soaked Polish uniforms, were abandoned where they fell, to be found in due course by the
local police. Before the night was out, the world was awakening to the astonishing news
that the Polish Army had launched an unprovoked attack on the Third Reich” (Davies,
1982, p.435 as cited in Washington 1948; deposition of Naujock).

German Occupation - Hitler’s Regime

With the advent of World War II and the Nazi occupation of Poland, Dabrowski’s world

changed. Gone were the days of freedom to travel whenever and wherever he wished. Gone

were the days when he could study, research, and practice psychiatry without someone

continually peering over his shoulder. Confidence was now accompanied by fear. Poles had

suffered centuries of repeated take-overs of their land and they had always survived. Dabrowski

was determined to survive and, within the process of surviving, continue in his goal to establish a

mental health system in Poland .

Operation AB
In 1940, according to the archival files of the Rockefeller Foundation:

“Dabrowski has written Dr. Campbell (Boston Psychopathic Hospital) that he wishes to
come to the U.S. but cannot obtain the consent of the U.S. Dept. of Labor unless he is
assured of a definite position. Dr. Campbell is interested and requests information from
the RF about D.’s history” (letter of Dr. Campbell to RAL, December 16, 1940;
Rockefeller archives, fellowship card #2).

“December 18, 1940 Request for information re D. and possibility of helping him secure
a position in U.S. D. has a cousin who is a priest who would assume some financial
responsibility for him. It is doubtful whether D. would be allowed to leave Poland and if
he will live much longer. (HM replies that it is doubtful that the RF could help)” (S.P.
Mizwa, Sec. of Kosciuszko Foundation to AG; Rockefeller archives, fellowship card #3).

The letters from which these file card entries came do not appear in the Dabrowski file of the

Rockefeller Foundation archives. However, the notations bear witness to the grave situation

Dabrowski was facing in Poland at the start of World War II. Operation AB, a Nazi plan in

76
effect during 1939 and 1940, was an order to eliminate the Polish intelligentsia. The intelligentsia

was defined as those Poles involved in professional roles; as professors, doctors, lawyers, priests.

As a professor and as a physician, Dabrowski definitely fit the requirements established for

membership in the intelligentsia. The Nazi effort was to wipe out Polish culture - art, music,

education, religion; and thereby wipe out Polish nationalism; replacing it with allegiance to

Germany (personal conversation Robert Kuwalek Ph. D., Majdanek historian, August 11, 2001).

“And Nazi interest in occupied Poland has one avowed aim: the total extermination of
Jews and Poles. Therefore any sign of loyalty to country, religion, or tradition, and any
expression of respect for the nation’s heroes or sympathy with the victims of German
cruelty may be deemed a crime according to the Nazi conception of justice in the
conquered territories” (Polish Labor Group, 1944, p.23).

The mentally ill were prime targets of the Nazi purification plan. Those who cared for them -

doctors, nurses, therapists, counselors, were in grave danger.

“During the German occupation no practice of psychiatry was permitted. As part of an

attempt to eliminate all Polish cultural life, Polish schools were closed and Polish
intellectuals exterminated. Most Polish psychiatric patients and psychiatrists were killed.
Of the four hundred Polish psychiatrists practicing before the war only thirty-eight
survived. No psychoanalyst has been in practice in Poland since 1939" (Aronson in
introduction to Dabrowski, 1964).

When the Nazis closed operation of the clinic and Institute in Warsaw, Dabrowski moved what

he could to his remotely located Institute in the woods in Zagorze. The Institute at Zagorze was

enlarged to 200 beds to accommodate occupants of the Warsaw Institute. It became a hiding

place and shelter for children designated for Nazi medical experimentation, as well as orphans

and Jewish children.

“He (Dabrowski) told me he had saved many Jewish children in his clinic in Zagorze”
(Lesniak, F, personal communication, October 6, 2001).

Dabrowski started classes at the Institute in mental hygiene. These classes were given academic

77
sanction by the Polish underground. In reciprocation, Dabrowski authorized the Institute to

become a shelter for Polish soldiers and members of the underground (Kawczak in Dabrowski,

1996a).

Marriage of Dabrowski to Eugenia

In 1940 Dabrowski married Eugenia. Their marriage, which resulted in two daughters - Joanna

and Anna, seems to have been a happy one. An acquaintance of the family, Sylvia Sheridan - a

student at the time - now a Ph. D. in Biology, attests to the enjoyment she felt on visits to the

Dabrowski home. Sheridan commented that Eugenia was “very sweet and a wonderful Polish

cook.” To Sheridan, Dabrowski seemed happy in his marriage - very proud of his daughters -

Joanna, the smart one, and Anna, the artistic (Sheridan, personal conversation, July 4, 2001).

Professor Brunon Holyst, friend of Dabrowski who delivered Dabrowski’s funeral address,

relates that Eugenia had been a nun before she married Dabrowski (personal interview, August 7,

2001). Kawczak tells us that Eugenia curtailed her psychological studies upon her marriage to

Dabrowski. He portrays her as a very loyal, devoted wife, dedicated to Dabrowski’s theory

(Kawczak in Dabrowski, 1996a). Many of Dabrowski’s students have memories of sharing food

and drink at the Dabrowski home. Eugenia is fondly remembered as a very cordial hostess who

cooked, baked, and graciously served, assuring that Dabrowski’s guests were well attended.

“Mrs. Dabrowski, at that time was simply the lady back in her home kitchen making great
Polish food for us and smiling when Dabrowski brought her out to accept the applause for
her and for the daughters. Later, after Dabrowski’s death when I was in Warsaw at one of
the PD conferences. I was invited to go to her home where she with the help of a Polish
priest who could speak English, brought out some family albums. We had a grand
evening of reminiscences - and some great Polish liquor !” (Hague, personal
communication, August 1, 2001).

Eugenia was also a scholar. Interested in her husband’s work, Eugenia and Dabrowski spent

78
much time discussing “the theory” (Dabrowski family member, personal communication,
February 12, 2002).

History reveals yet another side of Eugenia - a brave, tough, determined side - a woman who put

her own life in jeopardy in order to save her husband’s. The following section on Dabrowski’s

1942 arrest, will further enlighten the reader.

1942 Arrest

In 1942 Dabrowski was arrested. The details are highly unclear. However, his membership in

the Polish intelligentsia, his position as psychiatrist, plus his activity with the underground,

certainly provide a variety of good reasons. Kawczak mentions an Olzewski, also arrested, who

was the organizer of a resistance plan involving Dabrowski. When questioned by Gestapo,

Olzewski corroborated whatever story Dabrowski told the Gestapo. I would speculate that this

“cover” story had been well rehearsed beforehand in order to protect other individuals and plans

involved in the resistance. Tortuous methods were used by the Nazis to reveal names, places, and

plans of the resistance from their prisoners.

“At the time of war and occupation of a country by foreign troops, members of the
resistance movement sometimes were forced to commit suicide in order to avoid possible
betrayal of underground military or organizational secrets due to a possible breakdown
caused through tortures applied by the enemy police” (Dabrowski, 1973, p.34).

Dabrowski and Olzewski held on to their alibis, and Dabrowski was released (Kawczak in

Dabrowski, 1996). The researcher has been unable to unearth the details of the story, or the alibi

associated with this arrest. The researcher speculates that Dabrowski might never have spoken of

it to anyone.

“In the spring of 1942, Dabrowski was arrested by the Gestapo in a group organized by
Olzewski. He (Dabrowski) was first taken to Warsaw for imprisonment. He was later
transferred for further imprisonment to Krakow and a prison in Montelupich. His wife

79
 Eugenia, conducted heroic acts of bravery to secure his release. She obtained the aid of a
Polish physician. The professor (Dabrowski) told me several years later that he will
never forget the courage she had going to the Gestapo, since it was common that these
acts usually had a tragic ending” (Kawczak in Dabrowski, 1996a).

“Dabrowski did not mention in his conversation with me his involvement as a guerrilla in
the Polish resistance movement. But I am sure he had been involved in it, in one way or
another” (Lesniak, F., personal communication, October 6, 2001).

Dabrowski was first imprisoned in Warsaw (Kawczak in Dabrowski,1996a; Dabrowski, E., circa

1980). The Pawiak and Szucha prisons are both mentioned in the Lesniak biography. The

researcher was able to verify imprisonment at the Pawiak from February 20, 1942 until release on

February 25, 1942 (Pawiak records - Wiezienie Gestapo Kronika 1939-1944, Ksiazka Wiedza

Warzawa 1978, pp. 203, 204). As no archive office exists at the Szucha prison, no records were

available. Both the Pawiak and Szucha have museums with remnants of the original prisons.

The Pawiak museum which is essentially a very forbidding wall with some original remaining

barbed wire, contains one underground room. The original structure was destroyed during the

Warsaw Uprising of 1944. Both prisons attest to the horror and suffering experienced by the

inmates. In the main corridor of Szucha prison stands a very large radio. There is a sign on it

indicating that the set constantly remained on - turned to the loudest volume, in order to muffle

the moans and screams of the prisoners. A room is set up to re-construct what was known as

“the tram room.” In it all wooden bench seats are bolted to the cement floor so that they face the

rear cement wall. A sign indicates that prisoners were forced to silently sit on the benches,

without food or water, many times for over twenty-four hours. Any movement or conversation to

another waiting prisoner could result in execution. After this extended waiting period,

interrogation began. The prison cells have doors with peep holes. A sign is posted on one of the

80
doors indicating that the peep holes were used by the Nazi guards to shoot the prisoners dwelling

within. Blood on the rear cell wall at head level, serves as testament (Szucha prison museum

information).

(Figure 7 - The Pawiak Prison)

Joanna Yiercrynski Ph. D., historian at the Pawiak gave me the following written information.

“During German occupation Pawiak was the largest German political prison in the
territory of occupied Poland. From 2 October 1939 to 21 August 1944 approximately 100
thousand prisoners (over 10% of the population of Warsaw) were kept here. Out of this
number about 37 thousand were murdered while the remaining part was transferred to
concentration camps and other isolation places in Germany. On average, once or twice a
month a transport from Pawiak was sent to concentration camps; every day 20 prisoners
(men and women) were killed . . .”(with permission, written documentation from the
Pawiak).

81
Records from the Pawiak itself could not ascertain where Dabrowski went after Pawiak. The

Kawczak biography indicates Krakow - Montelupich prison.

“He [Dabrowski] had been [a] prisoner at Montelupich” (Lesniak, personal

communication, October 6, 2001).

Montelupich, located in Krakow, is another prison similar to Szucha and Pawiak. Written

documentation and inscriptions on walls attest to the horrors inflicted on those imprisoned

within. Both the Kawczak and Dabrowski, E. biographies attest to Dabrowski enduring an

imprisonment of at least several months. The Montelupich prison archive has no record of

Dabrowski’s imprisonment. The researcher visited the Montelupich archive. Papers are stacked

from floor to ceiling. Research there is just beginning to be organized by actual archivists.

During German and Russian occupation, Polish archival records were kept by individuals who

were not archival experts. These individuals did not know (and probably did not care) about the

value of the historical documents for which they had responsibility. Documents were maintained

in poor order and under poor conditions. Consequently, many records were damaged, lost,

(Figure 8 - Barbed wire at the Pawiak)

82
destroyed or given away (Kuwalek, R., Ph.D., Polish historian assigned to Majdanek camp,

personal communication, August 11, 2001).

While the researcher was conducting research at the archives in Oswiecim (Auschwitz), the

historian there, (WP, under the directorship of Jerzy Wroblewski,) indicated that he found a very

unclear notation that Dabrowski had been transferred from the Pawiak to Gross-Rosen

concentration camp. Gross-Rosen is not far from Krakow, in the area of Wadowice. The

researcher wrote to the archives at Gross-Rosen. The response letter from Gross-Rosen indicated

no record of imprisonment of a Kazimierz Dabrowski 1902.

“In reply to your letter of August 19, 2001, we inform you that in the reconstructed by us
files of the inmates of KL Gross-Rosen there is no card for the name Kazimierz
Dabrowski born 1902" (Braiter, Leslaw, director of the Muzeum Gross Rosen, personal
communication, October12, 2001).

“In the spring of 1942 Dabrowski was arrested by the Gestapo in a group organized by
Olzewski. He was first taken to Warsaw for imprisonment. He was later transferred for
further imprisonment in Krakow and a prison in Montelupich. after several months of
imprisonment and the benefit derived from the confrontation (with Olzewski), Dabrowski
was released and (he) returned to his work in Zagorze” (Kawczak in Dabrowski, 1996a).

Dabrowski’s return to Zagorze illustrates his determination and willingness to take risk.

Attempts to Rebuild

After his release, Dabrowski returned again to his Institute and research in Zagorze. The E.

Dabrowski biography indicates that once more Dabrowski housed Home Army soldiers, fugitives

from the Warsaw ghetto, physicians, and priests. It seems that to Dabrowski dedication to his

profession and to Poland surpassed worries about his safety. This attitude was common in
Poland

and led to the establishment of a very secure network of Polish resistance.

83
 “The Resistance Movement flourished from the start. . . The Poles were given the stark
choice: to submit completely, or to resist. When it was seen that no advantages were
gained by submission, increasing numbers turned to resistance. In the early months of the
war, scores of separate partisan bands took to the woods; hundreds of conspiratorial cells
were formed spontaneously in the towns. They took their orders from no one: but they
knew their task without telling; to harry and distract the enemy, both Nazi and Soviet, at
every opportunity” (Davies, 1982, p.464).

“For a long time, the achievements of the Resistance were of necessity rather modest.
With illegal assembly or the possession of arms punishable by instant death, the utmost
caution was required. Even so, trains were derailed. Enemy convoys were ambushed.
Prisoners were rescued from their Nazi guards. National art treasures were spirited to
safety. . . All the main Polish universities, in Warsaw, Cracow, Lwow, and Wilno,
officially closed by the authorities restarted on a private, conspiratorial basis” (Davies,
1982, p. 465).

In 1945 Dabrowski wrote from Zurich to Mr. Taylor at the Rockefeller Foundation:

“I am writing to tell you that I am alive and that I once again have my former position as
director of the Institute of Mental Health in Warsaw and that I am trying to rebuild and
reorganize this Institute. . . As a member of a Polish delegation I am in Switzerland for
three weeks to take part in international conferences on aid to children who are victims of
the war S.E P.

R.M. Taylor responded from the Rockefeller Foundation in a letter dated October 29, 1945:

“I was greatly pleased and gratified to receive your letter and learn that you have
personally escaped the catastrophe which befell your country and have plans to re-
establish the functioning of your Institute. . . I have been assigned to our central
laboratories in (New York). Dr. Leach has been designated as representative . . . I can
only say at this time that I wish you entire success in rehabilitating the Institute and
carrying on your investigations which, as you pointed out, will no doubt find a fertile field
in the adjustment of people who have been seriously affected by the recent events” (RF
RG2-1945 S.789 311:2110).

These letters indicate that Dabrowski began immediately to re-build his Institute in Warsaw. He

must have been exhausted from the hardships of war, yet it seems his first priority was to return

to where he had left off in terms of his plan for mental health in Poland. It is evident from

Taylor’s response letter from the Rockefeller Foundation that conditions in Poland were difficult.

84
In the

following letter dated April 15, 1946, Dr. Strode writes to Dabrowski:

“Since Dr. Leach is now responsible for our program in the European area, I am referring
your letter to him. It may interest you to know that Dr. Leach is planning to visit Warsaw
just as soon as he is able to and I know that, upon that occasion, he will see you” (RF
RG2-1946 S:789 361:2378).

Dabrowski writes back to Dr. Strode June 10, 1946 expressing his gratitude at the news that Dr.

Leach will visit the Institute. He must have been feeling proud of his accomplishments thus far

and hopeful that this visit held promise of financial support.

“The news that Dr. Leach will visit our country fills us with hope that various problems
as regards psycho-medical treatment and equipment will have been settled on the proper
ground” (RF RG2-1946 8.788889 351:2378).

The next letter that follows is a letter from Dr. Leach to Dr. Strode dated December 31, 1946.

Leach indicates that Dabrowski has requested a travel grant and that he will recommend

favorable action, provided that Dabrowski travel to England and the U.S. but not add Switzerland

and France. Why exactly Dabrowski wished to return to Switzerland is unclear. However,

Dabrowski did have connections there in the way of professors and physicians who may have

been helpful to the success of his Institute.

“I happen to know that Dabrowski was in Switzerland last year and I can see no logical
reason for another visit there at our expense. . . He also states that he would like to leave
next month. This is rather short notice and I am writing him that, if granted, it is not at all
certain that we can arrange for him to get away in January” (RF RG2 1946 S.789 L
362:2378).

March 20, 1947 Dr. George C. Payne writes a letter to Dr. Osinski:

“Your telegram addressed to Dr. O’Brien concerning Dr. Dabrowski’s travel grant has
been referred to me for reply. The following is a quotation from the letter sent by us to
the Paris Office concerning the application of Dr. Dabrowski:

85
 “After due consideration we feel that with the present limitation of fellowship funds,
preference should be given to cases of more urgency and more direct bearing on
reorganization of health work” (RF RG2-1947 S.789L 392:2639).

Dabrowski must have received this denial with frustration. He was attempting on his own to

create a system of mental health in Poland. Given Polish economic conditions, this task must

have been daunting. The following letter dated August 30, 1948 from Dabrowski to Dr. Strode,

emphasizes Dabrowski’s sense of urgency to acquire necessary assistance in the way of medical

supplies, equipment and monetary support.

“Referring to our conversation held during my sojourn in the United States, I beg to
mention, that the representative of the Rockefeller Foundation did not appear in Warsaw
and did not visit us in the Institute of Mental Hygiene. Owing to this fact it was
impossible to me to address myself to the Rockefeller Foundation for help. Subsidies are
yet very important to us to enable us to purchase apparatus destroyed by war and to set
into operation some most indispensable scientific laboratories and clinics. . . I take the
liberty to ask by this letter for a subsidy of $30,000 - to be spent in the following way: 1.
purchase of apparatus . . . 2. Adaptation of premises for some scientific laboratories. . . ”
(RF RG.1.1 S.789 1:8).

The final letter in the Rockefeller Foundation archival file on Dabrowski is dated September 13,

1948 from Dr. Strode to Dabrowski:

“Your letter of August 30 has just arrived and I hasten to advise that our European
representative did visit Warsaw this summer; I think it was in early August. I regret that
you did not see him. He certainly visited the Institute of Hygiene and will doubtless
revisit it in the not too distant future” (RF RG1.1 s.789 1:8).

Dabrowski must have read this letter with pain and frustration. His great hope for monetary

assistance was thwarted by virtue of bad connections. Dabrowski was trying so hard to re-build

the Warsaw Institute of Mental Health which existed in 1945. One can almost feel his sense of

urgency. In addition to his efforts in Warsaw, Dabrowski was attempting to re-establish the pre-

war branches of the Institute and the School of Advanced Studies attached to the Institute. In

86
spite of frustrations, by 1948 Dabrowski had twelve branches and twenty dispensaries in

operation (Dabrowski, E., circa 1980). He was once more on track in the realization of his dream

to bring the discipline of Mental Health to Poland. This was a determined individual. The

School of Advanced Studies grew to a four-year program of studies including the disciplines of :

“ medicine, biology, anthropology, sociology, psychology, logics, political economy,

social policy, didactics and vocational guidance. In the academic year 1949/50 there were
over 500 students there” (Dabrowski E., circa 1980, p.6).

Dabrowski recruited the best faculty he could from the Polish community of scholars to establish

and maintain high standards. In the spring of 1946 Dabrowski held a conference at Zagorze - the

Scientific Convention of Mental Hygiene. Its mission was to establish concern for mental health

in Poland and create a social movement. Significant at the conference were the words of

Dabrowski:

“. . . the mental hygiene has its own autonomous range, which does not include any other
sciences related to it and it uses its own methods. The mental hygiene deals with
distempers on the borderline of health and sickness. The faster and fuller growth of an
individual cannot exist without the states of imbalance, internal antynomies,
disintegration. The goal of the mental hygiene is to intervene, to make sure that different
distempers do not become more serious; and not to get rid of them” (Dabrowski, E., circa
1980, p.7).

Dabrowski obtained his specialty as a psychiatrist in June 1948 from Wroclaw University. In the

same year, the Polish Society of Mental Hygiene was founded. The organization still exists

today according to its president, Dr. Brunon Holyst.

“Dabrowski was the president of our society. Our society have (sic) a long history - 28
yrs ago, I was approached by professor Dabrowski who was founder. He also was
working in the Ministry of Health and he organized a special section for Mental Health.
Now our society have 1000 members - special men of pedagogics, psychologists,
sociologists and some students” (Holyst, B., personal communication, August 7, 2001).

In December 1948 Dabrowski received notification that he had been awarded a Ford Foundation

87
Fellowship for study in the United States. Dabrowski traveled to New York, Harvard, and

Illinois Universities where he studied mental health, neuropsychiatry and child psychiatry. From

the United States he went to Paris. There he conducted research in pediatric psychiatry at the

Centre National de Recherches Scientifiques (National Center of Scientific Research).

Russian Occupation and Stalinism

Meanwhile political conditions in Poland were again in turmoil. Stalin was now in power.

Deviance from the state philosophy was once again hazardous to one’s personal life.

“For many Poles, the main traits of Stalinism, which owe much more to ancient Russian
traditions than to Marx or Engels, were all too familiar. Middle-aged people born and
reared in Warsaw or Wilno in Tsarist days experienced a strong sensation of the deja vu”
(Davies, 1982, p.577).

Davies describes three phases to the establishment of the communist regime in Poland.

“The first, from 1944 to 1948, witnessed the gradual construction of the communist
Peoples’ Democracy; the second, from 1948 to 1956, saw the imposition of Stalinism; the
third, since 1956, has seen Poland ruled by a native, ‘national Communist’ regime”
(Davies, 1982 Vol II, p.556).

“Contrary to what was assumed at the time in western countries, there was never a period
in Poland when free competition between the communist movement and the non
communist parties was permitted. Power passed directly and smoothly from the German
Occupation Forces to the Soviet Army, from the Soviet Army directly to the Soviet-
controlled Provisional Government, and , at the time of Elections in 1947, from the TRJN
to the PPR. For this reason, it is quite out of place to talk of a communist ‘seizure of
power’ or a ‘communist takeover’. The communists were handed Poland on a platter,
and successfully obstructed all attempts to share power thereafter. . . all the elements
which might conceivably have mounted organized resistance in Poland, had already been
eliminated. They had been discredited by pre-war or wartime failures; deserted by the
Allied Powers; or destroyed by the Warsaw Rising... Stalin was given what he wanted
without a struggle” (Davies, 1982, Vol II pp. 575,576).

1950 Arrest

In April 1949 the Institute of Mental Hygiene was once again closed down. In 1950 the Polish

88
Association of Mental Hygiene was disbanded. Dabrowski was forced to take a position “in

servitude” as the director of a psychiatric hospital in Swiecin (Kawczak, Dabrowski, E. bios).

Shortly thereafter, Dabrowski and his wife were arrested.

“ . . . He was deceived; people came and offered him passage to Denmark or Sweden. He
fell for it without knowing these people well enough. . . Like often happens, he just didn’t
see it” (Piechowski, M., personal communication, September 3, 2001).

“Years later he told me of the poor physical condition of the jail, and of the physical
treatment he received, and mockery by the jail guards. Denial to see his wife forced him
to a hunger strike. After 18 months he and his wife were released from prison, and he
was given a mandatory assignment to work as an ordinary in a psychiatric hospital in
Kobierzynie. After various appeals, he was transferred to Rabki where he remained until
1955, working as a consultant in three pediatric tuberculosis hospitals” (Kawczak in
Dabrowski 1996a, p.11).

The researcher was not able to ascertain the location of Dabrowski and Eugenia’s imprisonment.

What we do know from the Kawczak 1996 preface (quote above,) is that prison conditions were

very poor and that Dabrowski must have been very devoted to Eugenia. Dabrowski describes the

poor sanitary environment of the prison, the harsh, cruel, degrading treatment he received from

the guards; yet he worried so about Eugenia, that he chose to go hungry if not permitted to see

her. As a physician he realized very well that he needed nourishment to sustain himself amongst

such stressful surroundings and treatment. Prisoners were known to steal bread from other

prisoners in order to sustain hope of survival. Yet Dabrowski rose beyond this physical need and

nourished a “higher” need - the need to care and to love. As evidence of this, the researcher cites

quotes from Dabrowski’s last chapter entitled A Little Bit More About Love in his unpublished

work - Confessions of Faith in Thoughts and Aphorisms, n.d., circa 1970. The researcher found

this document in the Dabrowski file of the National Archives of Canada.

“Next to physiological needs, common to the whole kind or species, there is generated

89
 and formed another need - continually -more human, exclusive, continually richer,
continually more strongly based on the principles of uniqueness, on the history of
common experiences, prospect, common goals - love in a truly human form” (Dabrowski,
n.d. circa 1970, p.130).

“In authentic development, next to the possession of a healthy personality and strong
universal dynamisms of the sexual instinct, these (needs) enter themselves and complicate
higher individual elements. This is expressed - among others - by faithfulness to one’s
partner despite his illnesses, growing old and so called getting ugly. And this not only
from a sense of duty, of responsibility, but from a profound attitude of the emotion of
loyalty and a great spiritual need for permanence and a feeling of betrayal at the thought
of any other behaviour.

There pushes its way here to the fore, an emotional memory of experiences lived through
together and an actual, lasting, spiritual closeness. There acts here the ideal of uniqueness
of the bond and the feeling of essence in the realm of this emotion. There gains the
advantage a continually stronger need for authenticity, unrepeatability and uniqueness in
contrast to the most superficial conditions of exclusively sexual attraction” (Dabrowski,
n.d. circa 1970, p.131).

And in the same document on suffering:

“We suffer ourselves and we look at the suffering of others: harmed - we think of the
harms done to others. We can do little, there is little we can do to help. Perhaps by
experiencing, sympathy, an understanding smile, an awkward attitude of helpfulness we
can help to some small extent.

We identify ourselves with cosmic sorrow, with cosmic adversity. We are together in a
great, sorrowful throng of persecuted, misunderstood, finding themselves in hopeless
conditions, and that to a continually greater extent, continually more profoundly as our
consciousness grows” (Dabrowski, n.d. circa 1970, p.120).

In the midst of his own personal suffering, Dabrowski’s concern was for his wife. His suffering

provided him connection to the suffering of others.

Then in 1952 the School of Advanced Studies in Mental Hygiene was closed (E. Dabrowski bio).

Life in Poland changed in emphasis, by order of the government, from cultural to industrial. The

“college town” atmosphere in Krakow was now polluted by the chimneys of the Lenin Steel

90
Works in Nowa Huta. Farms were made into collectives. The Roman Catholic Church became

the victim of harassment and attack. Clergy were imprisoned. The Polish governing body - the

Sejm - was now appointed by the party (Davies, 1982, Vol II). Freedom for Poles appeared

increasingly grim. Dabrowski again experienced pain, frustration of his efforts, deteriorating

health and worry for his wife and daughters. After trying so hard to re-build what was lost during

the Nazi regime, his spirits must have experienced loss and grief.

“Rehabilitation” after the Stalin Regime

By 1956 Stalin was dead and Khrushchev was in power. There existed a “rehabilitation” of

victims of the Stalin regime. Dabrowski was granted the title of Assistant Professor by the

Central Qualification Board for Research Workers and made chairman of the Committee for

Children. Dabrowski was named chairman of the psychology department at the Academy of

Catholic Theology in Warsaw. In 1958 he organized another Institute of Mental Hygiene and

Child Psychiatry at the Polish Academy of Science. As a professor here, Dabrowski studied

individuals “gifted” with over-excitabilities - intellectuals, artists, etc.(Kawczak in Dabrowski,

1996a ; Dabrowski, E., circa 1980).

“ . . . the theory was made from gifted people because he did research on students who
were in drama, students who were in art school; his lifelong interest was in writers and
artists, people who were searching; the majority of examples that he quotes are from very
sensitive children, gifted children, children who were very bright; so his theory has a
natural fit with gifted education” (Piechowski, M., personal communication, September
3, 2001).

In1962 Dabrowski reactivated the Polish Society of Mental Hygiene becoming president of the

organization. The same year he again received a fellowship from the Ford Foundation granting

91
him some months of travel and research within the United States and France. Records of the

Ford Foundation validate the fact that an award was granted to Dabrowski through the

administrative agency of the IIE (International Institute of Education). Whether or not

Dabrowski was able to use this grant, however, is unclear. Records indicate that Dabrowski had

passport problems. A Ford Foundation memorandum dated 1961 indicates the following

information:

Dabrowski’s name appears on a list of “POLISH SCHOLARS INVITED TO THE

UNITED STATES. Dabrowski, Kazimierz, Warsaw, Polish Academy Mental Hygiene;
Specialist; 1959; length of stay - 3 months, $1,016.30” (Ford Foundation records, June
11, 1959).

“DABROWSKI, Kazimierz - Passport case. Has been asking confreres in Western

Europe to write IIE to request intervention with the Polish Government in his case. No
action taken” (The date 1959 is written in next to the entry.) (Ford Foundation
memorandum to Stanley Gordon from IIE - Anita McGrath, RE: Report on Polish
Grantees Who Have Not Yet Arrived in the United States, February 8, 1961).

“DABROWSKI, Kazimierz - Letter of award August 14, 1959. Correspondence to IIE

dated March 28, 1961 indicated that conditions for obtaining a passport had become more
favorable than previously. We understood that the Foundation would reply to this letter
and keep us informed” (Ford Foundation records, Polish Exchange Program Grantees
Selected Prior to 1961 still to come to U.S.).

Dabrowski secured a professorship at the Catholic University of Lublin. Here, Dabrowski

attempted to re-initiate the Institute of Mental Hygiene and the School which was in operation

before the war. His attempts, however, were futile. Dabrowski’s hopes and dreams for the

establishment of Mental Health care and prevention in Poland must have been at a low point.

Dabrowski’s “war years” paint a picture of pain and suffering. Not only was he imprisoned at

least twice, his Institute in Warsaw was closed twice and his third attempt thwarted. His School

92
of Advanced Studies was closed. He was unable to teach what he wanted, the way he wanted to.

Dabrowski was demoted to a very low status within his profession - the profession for which he

had invested a lifetime of study and research. His high hopes for the future of mental health as

he saw the profession, were dimming to the point of non-existence. Dabrowski was living his

own theory. This period of the war years was Dabrowski’s “ night of the soul.” As in Level III

in the theory of positive disintegration, Dabrowski’s “world” was in the chaotic, disintegrative

state where depression and suffering reign supreme.

In 1964 Dabrowski’s O Dezyntegracji Pozytywnej (On Positive Disintegration) was published in

Poland and in the United States. At long last Dabrowski had a book on his theory published in

the United States. The same year, Dabrowski was presented with a way of leaving Poland by

way of an invitation from the Ministry of Health in Quebec. Although he was honored by the

invitation, the decision to leave Poland had to have been one of the most painful decisions of

Dabrowski’s life. Poland was so precious to him. Dabrowski was following in the footsteps of

so many Poles before him. Like Chopin, Dabrowski tragically carried his deep love for Poland to

foreign soil.

93
 Chapter V

Canada

Broken Dolls

“Big heads and little heads

Birdlike faces crooked, wrinkled,
Paralysis, spasms and convulsions -
Small, sad, broken toys.

Screaming, shouting without sense,

Into the emptiness,
Crooked little travelers,
Lost in time and space.

Directed by a broken compass,

Faces caught in sudden convulsions, stopped in a weird dimension,
Hit, unexpectedly, and secretly -
Small, pale, twisted lives.

Sitting, walking, grabbing doorknobs,

Wanting to open doors that are closed shut,
Violently, clumsily, without a plan
Always the same - the same thing, the same way.

And sometimes they looked surprised,

dumb, sad, as if abandoned.
They are looking into a far away hurt,
Unknown, incomprehensible and painful, like a wound.

Little boys and little girls -

broken Christmas dolls,
Heads twirling on springs,
In a swinging movement.

Big heads and little heads

Birdlike faces, crooked and wrinkled,
Paralysis, spasms and convulsions -
Small, sad, broken toys.

(Cienin, Bajki dla dzieci in niektorych doroslych (Fairy Tales for Children and Certain Adults),
pp.12,13; n.d. National Archives of Canada; translated from the Polish by Elizabeth Mika)

94
The year 1964 brought monumental change to Dabrowski’s life. Responding to an invitation

from the Ministry of Health in Quebec, Dabrowski traveled to Montreal, Canada with his wife

and daughters. Dabrowski had made significant accomplishments in Poland. His most recent

book Positive Disintegration, Little and Brown, was being published in Boston, Massachusetts.

Dabrowski saw a future for his theory in the West. When presented with the opportunity,

Dabrowski left Poland. His heart remained in his homeland. However, he recognized that

survival and promulgation of the theory lay in the West. The following letter to Dabrowski from

Henry P. David, Ph. D, Associate Director of the World Federation For Mental Health, attests to

the level of Dabrowski’s accomplishment in Poland.

“On return to Geneva, it gives me much pleasure to thank you and the Polish Society for
Mental Hygiene for your most generous hospitality in Warsaw. It was very informative to
visit the Institute and Zagorze . . . in the Conference on the Prevention of Juvenile
Delinquency. On Saturday afternoon I met with Drs. Bojakowski, Jus, and Godorowski
at the Ministry of Health to discuss plans for the report on the organization and
administration of mental health services in Poland. There was agreement on our
arrangement that the Polish Society would prepare a brief statement on the historical
development of the mental hygiene movement in Poland, which would form an important
part of the report. . . I have also asked Canada’s Mental Health to place the Library of the
Polish Society on their mailing list. . . With best wishes for the New Year and your stay in
Canada,” (letter dated November 30, 1964 from Henry P. David, Associate Director of
the World Federation for Mental Health to Dabrowski, National Archives of Canada, MG
30 VI, B88 p.62).

On the same date Henry P. David also sent a letter to Dr. Noel Mailloux, at the Center for

Research in Human Relations in Montreal, Canada.

“While visiting Warsaw last week, I met Prof. Kazimierz Dabrowski, President of the
Polish Society for Mental Hygiene, and a newly elected Executive Board member of the
World Federation. Professor Dabrowski has been invited to spend a year in Canada, . . .
where he will be associated with the Mount Providence Hospital. . . In view of Professor
Dabrowski’s particular interest and experience in working with children, including
juvenile delinquents, it seemed to me that you might enjoy meeting him” (National
Archives of Canada, MG 30 V I, B88p, 63 ).

95
1964 also was the year that Dabrowski met Andrew Kawczak, LL.M., Ph. D., co author with

Dabrowski of Mental Growth Through Positive Disintegration (1970). At the time Kawczak was

a professor of philosophy in Concordia, Montreal. Dabrowski was in Montreal speaking on his

theory. A friend told Kawczak that he (Kawczak) “just had to meet him” so the friend arranged a

meeting. Kawczak relayed that the meeting took place at a family’s home for dinner. Kawczak

spoke of being “very impolite to all the other guests because they only spoke to each other for

three hours.” As a result of this conversation, Dabrowski told Kawczak that “he was just the

person he needed to co-write a book - someone with a background in Philosophy of Science”

(Kawczak, personal communication, June 24, 2001). Kawczak confided to me that he was afraid

that Dabrowski would not like him because of Kawczak’s education in the positivistic school in

Poland - that of analytic philosophy requiring very clear and precise writing. Dabrowski came

from the romantic school, based on the study of Polish literature - very metaphorical and

beautiful; however lacking precision in its style of presentation. In Poland there existed a long-

standing rivalry and distrust of works produced between scholars of opposite schools. Kawczak

was fearful that this feeling would mar a chance of friendship with Dabrowski. However,

Kawczak related that just the opposite was true. He describes Dabrowski as being “very open .”

Kawczak felt that Dabrowski knew his writing tended to be vague, as judged particularly by

Western standards. Dabrowski’s romantic writing style remained with him and plagued his

scientific writing his entire lifetime. Dabrowski had never studied philosophy of science.

Knowing Kawczak to be an expert in the field, Dabrowski was clever enough to see that success

in North America hinged on his theory written in precise, scientific language. He needed

96
Kawczak.

Dabrowski had been granted a stay in Canada of one year. Wishing to extend his stay in the

West, Dabrowski sent resumes to several universities within the United States and Canada.

Within the National Archive file of his correspondence, Dabrowski retained his response letters.

One can almost feel the disappointment he must have felt when, in spite of his qualifications, he

was not offered a teaching or research position in the United States.

“I have checked with the research laboratories of the National Institute of Mental health
about the possibility of your having an appointment here for some period during your
stay. Unfortunately, visiting scholar appointments are made one or two years in advance
and I am told that all those for the current year have been long filled. I am also told,
however, that if you once have a base of operation in the United States the laboratory
would be interested in inviting you down for a lecture” (letter of William F. Soskin, Ph.
D., National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Maryland to K. Dabrowski, January 25,
1965; Nat Arch of Canada, MG 30 B88 Vol 1).

“I brought up your name to the Council meeting of the Polish Institute of Arts and
Sciences about a week ago. Dr. Rytel and the others were very interested in what you had
to say and we would like to do everything possible within our abilities to see if anything
can be worked out here. At Northwestern University we have very few full-time
individuals and you would need an appointment of a full-time nature since you could not
practice here without going through the ordeal of serving in the hospital for a year for
additional training. This fact rather limits the possibilities here. Many of the people are
on grants which are given to citizens of this country ” (letter of G. K. Yacorzynski, Ph.
D., professor and head , division of psychology, Northwestern University to K.
Dabrowski, March 29, 1965, Nat Arch of Canada, MG 30 B88 Vol 1).

“Following our conversation in New York on May 6, 1965 and a request of Dr. K.
Dabrowski who is still in the U.S., I enclose his curriculum vitae and other relevant
material. Professor Dabrowski is very seriously interested in the position at your
University and would appreciate very much further news from you” (letter from
Kawczak, A. to Professor R. A. Senescu, M.D., School of medicine, University of New
Mexico, May 14, 1965, Nat. Arch of Canada, MG 30 B88 Vol 1).

The frustration Dabrowski experienced must have been akin to the same frustration felt by any

educationally over-qualified foreign immigrant to the United States. What finally materialized

97
was an offer from Joseph R. Royce, Ph. D., professor and head of the psychology department at

the University of Alberta, Canada.

“This is to confirm our offer made by telephone on Friday, July 30th. I am authorized by
the Vice-President to inform you that the Board of Governors has approved my
recommendation that you be appointed Visiting Professor Psychology for a period of one
year (i.e., 12 months) beginning September 1st, 1965 at a salary of $16,000" (Royce to
Dabrowski, July 30, 1965, Nat Arch of Canada, MG 30 B88 Vol 1).

Thomas Nelson, Ph. D., who was a professor of psychology at the University of Alberta explains

that the University of Alberta was a “most unlikely place” and it had difficulty recruiting good

staff. To remedy this situation, Dr. Royce, then department chairman, developed a well funded

department whose budget included a number of visiting professorships. Dr. Royce also came up

with a plan to initiate a center for advanced studies to recruit outstanding individuals.

“There was a great promise in the center and it could attract outstanding individuals. It
was modeled after a similar center at Princeton University. We had continual funding for
visiting professors” (Nelson, T., conference proceedings, July 7, 2000).

Nelson was appointed professor at the University of Alberta in 1964. After ten months he

became acting department head. Royce was away and it was during that time period that Nelson

appointed Dabrowski. Nelson admits that his first impressions of Dabrowski were

“superficial. He did not speak English fluently. I found him very intent, very direct. I
was not originally convinced of the research he outlined. But I remained open since he
had good credentials. He was teaching material that was unique in my experience . He
was extending himself to undergraduates, to graduate students, conducting research. I
was getting excellent reports back from him. Later our friendship developed” (Nelson,
T., conference proceedings, July 7, 2000).

Dr. Nelson and Dabrowski worked together and relaxed together with their families.

“I spent a good deal of time with him and his family. He had two daughters and a wife. I
had three children. We spent time together and I saw him in a different context. As time
went on I would write the Polish government and ask for his continued presence in
Canada. Often times we went to the house. We would talk for about two to two and one

98
 half hours. At the end of that he would usually play the piano. At one time he had
considered being a musician - either in piano or guitar. I found out what he was planning
and what he was fantasizing as a professional. It was in this setting that the need for an
Institute repeatedly arose. He sought an Institute to teach a developing understanding of
what it should mean to be a human being and how one might actually decipher the status”
(Nelson, T., conference proceedings, July 7, 2000).

Writing a letter of support for Dabrowski and petitioning for Dabrowski’s planned “Institute for

the Authentic Development of Man” Nelson points out:

“Finally, I should like to say a few words in support of Dr. Dabrowski as a person. I am
sure you realize that you are dealing with one of the top clinical psychologists in the
world. He was included within a group of twelve clinical psychologists considered to be
the most outstanding in an article published in Psychology Today, (no date or volume
given) which is the “slick” publication of the American Psychological Association. He
has a tremendous amount to offer Canada and should be given the opportunity to do so
now. His mental facilities are unimpaired by age and he is extremely vigorous in action”
(letter from Nelson, T. to Dr. A. Desmarais, April 20, 1972, Nat Arch of Canada, MG 30
B 88 Vol 1).

Nelson managed to keep Dabrowski from 1965 until 1979. During that period, Dabrowski kept a

rigid schedule. “Driven” as he was described by many, Dabrowski spent his mornings writing.

The enormous amount of Dabrowski’s written work maintained in the file of the National

Archives of Canada bears witness to that. Dabrowski taught, and according to several students

and faculty interviewed by the researcher, carried out his scholastic duties in a caring manner.

“Dabrowski comes in . . . I’m listening to him - Psychoneurosis is not an illness . . . We

just clicked. . . He was like a father figure for me. Dabrowski was an accepting
gentleman with a Polish background . . . So I took all the classes Dabrowski was offering
and I went to him for psychotherapy. He was wonderful. And I’ve been using his
methods ever since with all my patients. He gave me a completely different attitude
about mental illness and about helping people to reprogram their lives” (Duda, N.,
personal communication, October 20, 2001).

“As a teacher Dabrowski was single-minded. He had studied and worked with the
‘greats’ of psychology in his time and built upon that. His experiences in the wars were a
unique contribution to a psychology of his own. It was always foremost in his mind. He
was eager to teach it, and did teach enthusiastically to his students despite his accent in

99
 English. For example: He would say, - it seemed - “That is a bicycle idea” - meaning
“that is a basic idea. Some staff and students gave up on him and his beloved theory as
“strange.” Many others who dug deeper into his always-developing theory found not only
theory but illumination and fit: Aha, so that’s what he’s driving at. That’s very
interesting. Let’s build on that. Let’s see if we can go deeper into what he is saying, now
that we have this man with us” (Hague, W., personal communication, October 1, 2001).

“He was extremely dedicated. He had a full schedule at work. He usually was up at five
a.m. and he was working almost every possible moment. He was very productive. He
had a steady output of books, monographs, study materials, tests. He was very generous.
He never had any lack of time if someone needed him. He would always provide time for
someone. The family told me that after a long day at work, he would come home for
dinner at eight p.m. Someone comes to see him who has a problem - a student, or
someone in therapy with him. He would immediately forget supper and go out for a walk
with him” (Nelson, T., conference proceedings, July 7, 2000).

“We had meetings of the Society for the Development of Man which bought together
lawyers, business people, artists and scholars in an effort to develop and publicize the
theory. At one initial session the idea was brought up to address one another in more
relaxed terms by using first names. When it came to Dabrowski he said: “Just call me
‘Caz.’ The nickname didn’t fit. This was different from his usual formal greeting by
surname and academic position” (Hague, W., personal communication, October 1, 2001).

Dabrowski was quite aware of his strengths and weaknesses. He knew his literary style was

often judged as “vague” by Western standards. In order to strengthen his writing style to a style

of more precision, Dabrowski enlisted the help of Andrew Kawczak, LL.M., Ph.D. and Michael

Piechowski, Ph. D. The researcher has already spoken of Dabrowski’s meeting and enlisting of

Kawczak. Piechowski, a microbiologist, was similarly recruited by Dabrowski.

“When I finished my doctoral degree in molecular biology in 1965, I had a post-doctoral

fellowship in Alberta in the department of microbiology. The temperature in Edmonton
in the middle of winter in Alberta was twenty below. I went to a store that dealt with
Poland. When the proprietor of the store realized that I was Polish, he said that I must
meet professor Dabrowski. So then I met him. I had read translations of his work and I
told him whoever was translating for him was not doing a very good job. Being an
opportunist, he said, “You want work?’ So we started having meetings on Sundays at 2
p. m. And then I asked him sentence by sentence what he meant and he would explain it.
And that was how we went through Mental Growth. I was doing the translating, and I
was actually learning his theory. So that was the beginning of the work, but working with

100
 him was so intense that after a couple of hours, I often had a headache” (Piechowski,
personal communication, September 3, 2001).

In 1965, Dabrowski became associated with Laval University in Quebec.

“I was a student at Laval University in Quebec, Canada. I was working for a license in
psychology. Well, in about my third year one of the my professors in psychology - his
last place of employment was in Edmonton, Alberta. So he talked to the head of the
psychology department - Dr. Henry Willet - about Dabrowski. Dr. Willet wrote to
Dabrowski and asked him if he would teach at our university. Our class was one of the
first classes to have him” (Duda, N., personal communication, October 20, 2001).

“I saw the immediate validity of what his theory is about. I read about overexcitabilities,
developmental potential. It has been an integral part of my life and my practice. I just
don’t deal with the gifted. I use it for everybody. They’re either stuck on the first level
under the power of the biological urges or they’re under the pressure of their
environment. . . Some people come in for therapy who are in the process of
disintegrating. . . They’ve been taking pills for one to ten years. Modern psychiatry gives
medication to mask depression. Dabrowski validates why they’re depressed - the
existential problems they’re going through and why they have to choose again and make
the third factor come alive - choosing and re-programing your own personal
psychological structure - your own personality” (Duda, N., personal communication,
October 20, 2001).

“Dabrowski showed that mental illness had a developmental potential. Dabrowski

brought this process together. Dabrowski’s genius is that he saw these ideas of
disintegration and integration and saw mental illness as a sign of mental growth. They
have to choose again and re-program their life. . . It takes the shame out. Psychiatry
promotes pills. What’s your body telling you? The body is telling the brain, “Hey,
you’ve got to choose again.” In Dabrowski, free will is the ability to choose again. It
makes you free” (Duda, N., personal communication, October 20, 2001).

“The psychopath - his morality consists of no morality - no rules except me and mine.
Well, it might take something like a trauma or a crisis. . . They might begin to reflect on
their life. . . Eventually, with God’s grace - like the good thief on the cross ready to die; in
a moment he sees the light. He had a whole life of social evil like his brother. They were
both being executed. In that one brief moment of insight, he saw himself in regard to
other people - in relationships” (Duda, N., personal communication, October 20, 2001).

Even though he was out of the country, Dabrowski was elected president of the Polish Society of

Mental Health. He felt he was needed in Poland to assume some of his duties. Dabrowski

101
enlisted his department chairman, Thomas Nelson, Ph. D., to accompany him on his return to

Poland. Nelson explained that Dabrowski needed him for credibility, displaying to the

government that he had found support in the West.

“He needed to go back to Poland and play a prominent role in the mental health activities.
So he asked me if I would accompany him. I was a supporter in the West. So he thought
it would look like besides looking for personal perfection he was looking for credibility. I
saw Poland through his eyes. My first day we went to a government building. I had
meetings in Denmark the week before and I noticed the roses were still blooming in
Denmark in December. That was very unlike Alberta. I was very impressed with that
and with the pansies blooming in Warsaw. I said something about it, and Dabrowski
showed no interest whatever in roses or pansies. He was on his way to make a point with
some governmental official” (Nelson, T., conference proceedings, July 7, 2000).

“I remember going to Slowacki cemetery with him. He showed me the graves of persons
he particularly respected in Polish history. . . There was an area there where the boy
scouts are buried. Now the boy scouts were those who took part in the Polish
insurrection at the time the Nazi occupation was ending, before the communists came in .
The communists allowed them to be slaughtered and so there sits a field of graves. . .
Dabrowski had a great deal of reverence for these boys. At the same time there was a
military funeral in process. Dabrowski felt this cemetery was very special and it should
not be defiled by party functionaries. They didn’t belong. They were not a good part of
Polish history. And so the two of us ignored the funeral procession and simply walked
through it and kept talking as though no one was there. His wife, who was with us, was
horrified. She thought something terrible would happen to us”(Nelson, T., conference
proceedings, July 7, 2000).

“I found him very spontaneous in an emotional sense. He had a very expressible face that
registered every idea. . . Also, he had a great love of children. And children responded to
him spontaneously. He was very gentle, had an intense interest in them. And they
communicated with looks. It was kind of a reciprocal activity that would be generated”
(Nelson, T., conference proceedings, July 7, 2000).

So the reader might experience Dabrowski’s communication with children, I enclose a poem on

fairies from his unpublished poetry collection for children found in the National Archives of

Canada.

102
 Krasnoludki (Good Little Goblins)

Little Barbara and Celine

And Peter and other children asked me;
They asked - and wanted to know -
Are there good little goblins in the world?

What was I to say

To the curious little ones,
Those Barbaras and little Elas,
And Adalberts and other tattlers?

Well, simply what I felt,

What I knew and saw,
That goblins, little good goblins,
And their little world,

are true - exist indeed,

work, laugh in happiness,
and most of all, bring children
help in their worries and sorrows,
bring help, smiles and hope.

And not only to children,

But to birds and little hares,
And to little crickets and bees,
And to froggies and chubby hedgehogs,
And to doggies - to furry doggies too.

Because who else would take care of a limping hare?

Who else would help lost children across the street?
Who else would cover birds with leaves when they get cold?
Who else, if not good little goblins?
You see, you see for yourself.

When little Ela cries,

And then starts to laugh,
It is because a little good goblin,
Kind goblin in a hood
Looks into her eyes and holds her hand,
And smiles and makes her laugh,
And collects the child’s tears into his big bag

103
 And cheers her up.
You often don’t know yourself,
That when you’re content, peaceful and joyful,
When you giggle and play,
You don’t know yourself
That in front of you, behind you, all around you
Are running and looking at you
colorful, bearded creatures -
little good goblins.

(Pawel Cienin, Bajki dla dzieci i niektorych doroslych (Fairy tales for children and certain
adults), National Archives of Canada, Dabrowski file, MG 30 B88, Vol 6, pp.3,4) (translated
from the Polish by Elizabeth Mika.)

“Dabrowski was driven because he had so much to do; to explain this complex and
unorthodox theory; to further the theory and develop it; to make it understood and
actually practiced; to recruit disciples. He was “religious” in more than one sense. Life
and death danced together in his theory - and in his life” (Hague, W., personal
communication, October 1, 2001).

“He never mentioned his personal suffering to me, except on one occasion when I went
unannounced to see him in the hospital. Lying in bed he said to me: Dr. Hague, you
should not see me like this.” When I came back the next day a nurse told me that I was
not on the list for visitors. I had to walk away. That was the last time I saw him” (Hague,
W., personal communication, October 1, 2001).

“I think so that we can find some practical elements in this theory. But as a whole this
theory is idealistic. But in many cases it is far from realization (sic) - especially in the
time of the civilization revolution when the system of value is not idealistic - is now
materialistic - in developing countries - in Poland, in Germany, in Japan, USA, the man
would like to have, not to be - always to have, many, many, things - not to be - not to
develop - not to improve myself. I think that this theory was useful in the beginning of
the 20th century - in the beginning it was a new approach to new times. But now it is
very, very difficult to realize. . . It is a very beautiful theory but I think that the future
belongs to this theory - the future. But not now. Nowadays it is a period of revolution”
(Holyst, B., personal communication, August 7, 2001).

“I think it will reverse from the materialistic stage to the idealistic. I think that in forty
years when the (sic) mankind will drop material values and the people will look to the
idealistic system of value. I think the people will render to the God and to some different
kind of ideas. When the man will have the possibility to look myself into, not outside”
(Holyst, B., personal communication, August 7, 2001).

104
The researcher asked the question, “Did Dabrowski emulate his theory”

“He emulated his theory but not perfectly, of course. At a reception he stood talking to a
pregnant woman about the theory without offering a more comfortable place for her to sit.
- a small thing, but perhaps enthusiasm for the great theory sometimes overclouded the
person. Dabrowski was, I think, practicing in himself the core of Positive Disintegration:
inner growth - pain, disintegration is the inevitable route if there is to be reintegration on
a ‘higher’ and better level. “Higher” is a way of saying “better”” (Hague, W., personal
communication, October 1, 2001).

“No. He had bad connections with other people. He was very sensitive - over sensitive.
And therefore, he had not so good connections with collaborators, with friends, but I
think so that he had good connections with his wife who was in cloister (convent). . . But
professor Dabrowski was a very religious man. He trusts God. He had good connections
with bishops, with priests, different priest and so on. But in private he don’t (sic) realize
this theory. The theory was for another people. My evaluation is, of course, very positive
of professor Dabrowski. He was a good man. He will give another people money and so
on. He was idealistic type. But he didn’t realize his theory. But I think so that it was
very difficult.

. . . I think that professor Dabrowski had been suffering and taking into consideration the
actual situation in Poland. It was slavery and it was for him a big problem. And
therefore, he are going (sic) very often to leave Warsaw for Canada. It was a main
problem. Of course he didn’t think the prospects of developing his theory here. I think
so that now he had some troubles with applications, the books, it was some problems
with teaching concerning the theory and mental hygiene. Our society was liquidated in
this time. And so the Institute of mental hygiene also has been liquidated. Many political
and social conditions to develop this theory - in theory and so in practice. And I think
that some people have had negative attitude to professor Dabrowski and his theory. And
therefore he was alone in this time. It was a difficult situation. Yes. In order to develop
this theory” (Holyst, B., personal communication, August 7, 2001).

“Dabrowski was - in as much as I have known him - a neurotic with good insight of
himself. He very probably experienced personally all the developmental dynamisms that
he speaks of in his theory” (Lesniak, F., personal communication, October 6, 2001).

Dabrowski’s lifelong undertaking was his quest to establish a system of mental health in Poland,

and to center that system within a positive atmosphere of appreciation of the individual engaged

in the developmental process. True mental illness defined within such a context, exists in very

105
few individuals. All of Dabrowski’s writings bear testimony to this premise. While in Canada,

Dabrowski devoted an entire book to this subject - Psychoneurosis Is Not An Illness (1972).

“In this small book I wish to show that so-called nervousness and psychoneuroses are, in
most cases, positive developmental phenomena. . . Successful treatment of patients is
impossible when they are deprived of their own rich, creative endowment and where the
possibility of accelerated development is blocked. Hence, “treatment”, in our view, is not
properly conceived as “taking away” the psychoneurotic symptoms and dynamisms.
Rather, it is understood as the assistance given to a person by encouraging and promoting
his development and his carrying on the process of autopsychotherapy. Among the
principal obligations of the physician, psychologist and educator, then, is to comprehend
in each individual case the congeries of positive functions served by the psychoneurotic
dynamisms, and to provide conditions conducive to their development. This too involves
providing for the development of creativity, which is closely related to the psychoneurotic
structures and functions” (Dabrowski, 1972, pp. vii, viii).

“It is being contended here that up to our days we have not moved far from the total
misinterpretation of psychoneurotic symptoms which prevailed in the Middle Ages.
Although we do not believe today in psychoneurotics being possessed by devils, we
condescendingly consider psychoneurosis in terms of mental illness, or at least mental
instability. This view seems on the surface to be highly humanitarian; it assumes an
analogy with somatic illness. The social status of psychoneurotics is “raised” to the rank
of sick people. However, it is in fact a denigration; psychoneurotics are still considered
something worse than average, something lower, defective, a failure” (Dabrowski, 1972,
p. x).

At this point in the chapter, the researcher presents to the reader a poem written by Dabrowski,

translated from the French by Michael Piechowski Ph. D.

106
 Hail to you, psychoneurotics!

Hail to you, psychoneurotics!

You who see sensitivity in the insensitivity of the world,
uncertainty among the world’s certainties.
You who so often experience others as yourselves.
You who sense the anxiety of the world,
its narrowness and boundless self-assurance.
Hail to you!

For your phobia of washing your hands from the dirt of the world,
For your fear of being locked in the world’s limitations,
for your fear of the absurdity of existence.
For your subtlety in not telling others what you see in them.

For your awkwardness in dealing with everyday things,

but deftness in handling the unknown,
for your transcendental realism but lack of everyday realism,
for your exclusiveness and dread of losing those you love,
for your creativity and ease of wonder,
for your maladjustment to that “which is” but
adjustment to that which “ought to be,”
for your great but unutilized abilities.

For the belated recognition of your greatness, and of those like you
who will come later, and will also not be recognized.

For your being treated instead of treating others;

for your heavenly power forever being pushed down by brutal force;
for that which is prescient, unsaid, infinite in you.

For the loneliness and strangeness of your ways.

Hail to you!

(K. Dabrowski. Psychoneurosis is not an Illness. London: Gryf, 1972; translated from the
French by Michael M. Piechowski. Revised, 1996).

107
Before we end this chapter, the researcher wishes to introduce to the reader some of Dabrowski’s

Confessions of Faith in Thoughts and Aphorisms (n.d., circa 1970) found in the Dabrowski file,

National Archives of Canada).

From chapter LIII - A Little More About Love -

“Like many instincts and emotional states - love has its levels. It goes from the needs for
simple physiological release, in which the factor of psychic selection, of exclusivity, of
permanence, of responsibility plays no role whatsoever or a minimal role, through
continually greater psychologization of this impulse, to a continually greater
consciousness, exclusivity, responsibility. Love becomes continually more individual,
continually more differentiated, exclusive, autonomical and authentic (Dabrowski, circa
1970, p.130).

Chapter L - A Little Bit More About Friendship

“And perhaps that greatest loneliness of dying, of leaving, can be interrupted by the
approach of somebody closest, of a friend in that moment. Perhaps the smile of many
dying people is not only a “muscular expression” of release, when it already “stops
hurting,” when the “pain centre” has already stopped functioning. . . Perhaps among “the
bright flowers of my valley” we will catch glimpses of the faces and figures of our
friends, those, who were loyal, did not betray and in leaving us for eternity - did not leave.
Probably one cannot be so entirely alone. What sort of immortality would it be without
love and without friendship: Certainly for sensitive people it would be valueless or almost
valueless” (Dabrowski, circa 1970, pp. 124, 125).

To Dabrowski human love has always been prime. He began thinking about it in childhood and

pondered its meaning and significance all his life.

In 1979 Dabrowski experienced a heart attack. His heart had been weakened by his harsh

existence and imprisonment in Poland. Dabrowski recuperated sufficiently to continue some

teaching. However, still in 1979, Dabrowski left Canada to return to Poland. On November 26,

1980, life ceased for Kazimierz Dabrowski.

108
(Figure 9 - Dabrowski’s Grave)

109
 Chapter VI

The researcher now takes the reader on a journey through a work of Dabrowski. In the opinion

of the researcher, the chosen work is a prime example of the depth and beauty inherent within

Dabrowski’s writings.

Personality-Shaping Through Positive Disintegration

The Dabrowski work which seems best suited to an understanding of the theory of positive

disintegration is Personality-Shaping Through Positive Disintegration. It remains the favorite

work of the researcher due to its depth and its beauty. All of the major themes of Dabrowski’s

theory are explored in this work. In this chapter the researcher will attempt an in-depth

exploration of this major work. For simplicity I will follow Dabrowski’s headings and

progression through this chapter. Dabrowski himself felt this work appropriate for individuals

“active in the field of human development” (Dabrowski, 1967, p. vii).

“Personality-shaping Through Positive Disintegration is intended for readers with a

synthetic approach to the humanistic development of man and society. The author hopes
that through this book psychologists, educators, social workers, and physicians active in
the field of human development, who find around them and in themselves symptoms of
positive maladjustment, will be aided in their work and personal striving toward higher
values” (Dabrowski, Preface, 1967, p.vii).

The reader is reminded that the intent of the researcher is to render this Dabrowski work more

understandable to scholars within the field of Human Development.

Dabrowski begins with an assertion that personality is not an endowment. It is rather the end

110
product of a difficult journey laced with suffering.

“Personality is not a ready gift but an achievement. This achievement is a very difficult,
even painful, process. The aim of this book is to describe and to discuss this process. . .
Our personality is shaped throughout our lives; our inborn characteristics constitute the
basis determining our potential for inner growth. The shaping of personality occurs under
the influence of various external milieus. However, it is in the inner psychic milieu that
the formative process takes place. The role of the inner psychic milieu is most significant
in the accelerated development of psychically richer and more creative individuals”
(Dabrowski, Preface, 1967, p. v).

The journey to Personality takes effort and involves conflict and pain. Dabrowski defines

personality as the decision to change the what is to the what ought to be through a conscious,

reflective change of human essence which results in a new, unique, better, higher, more

empathetic, more authentic human being. These are difficult concepts to grasp. Dabrowski has

written Personality-shaping so that individuals can better understand the process by which this

transformation occurs.

The Definition of Personality

It is good to begin this section with a review of what personality is not. Personality in a

Dabrowski context, is not the metaphysical ego manifesting itself in a recognizable pattern of

behavior as categorized by Myers-Briggs. To understand personality in Dabrowski terms, one

must realize that personality is not a quality manifested by a person or a manifestation of a trait

or set of traits accounting for a qualitative pattern of recognizable behavior - extrovert, introvert,

etc. Personality in Dabrowski terms is perfection. The journey to personality is a journey to

perfection. It is the journey from the “what is” to the “what ought to be.” Although constantly

exposed to external stimuli, personality is basically an internal journey involving an internal

struggle.

111
Dabrowski begins Personality-shaping with a discussion of basic human values. He argues that

very few individuals display all positive values. Very few display all negative. Most individuals

are composed of a mix of good and bad. Personality, however, is made up of all positive values.

The journey to personality comprises a shed of the negative attitudes and behaviors acquired

through poor or mis-guided human choices, with a conscious reflective change to replace them

with positive values. As explained to me by psychologist Norbert Duda Ph. D., student of

Dabrowski, some individuals are somewhat pre-disposed to negative attitudes and behaviors by

virtue of their biological or environmental endowments. They have been raised in a climate

where immorality is the norm, or perhaps they have been traumatized by some event in their

lives, such as parental abuse. Dabrowski’s theory emphasizes the third factor by which an

individual can transcend his/her biological and environmental endowments, and choose again.

“I have people who were brought here by the police. They may have any of the
overexcitabilities, but they got frozen in time on their morality. It’s just a big “me.”
Everything is for me. Do everything so they win. People could have been traumatized
into that situation. Sometimes the law catches them and then society tells them - “Hey,
you can’t do what you want to do when you feel like doing it”. . . Well, it might take
something like a trauma or a crisis. They might begin to reflect on their life. . . If you
were bought up as a gypsy, success is determined by how many pockets you can pick. Or
if you were brought up in a drug dealing family, you become a drug dealer too, to make
money. . . The instinct to develop - it’s probably there but maybe he/she was traumatized,
or because of environment - it’s probably there and maybe it can be awakened. In a
moment - in a flash . . . like the good thief on the cross ready to die, in a moment he sees
the light. . . The third factor is making choices. God made us free in order to choose
again. In Dabrowski, free will is the ability to choose again. It makes you free” (Duda,
N., personal communication, October 20, 2001).

As more and more negative attitudes and behaviors are replaced by positive values, the

individual moves closer and closer to perfection (personality.) The journey is not an easy one.

Struggle and conflict are ever present. This external and in particular, internal struggle can

112
manifest itself in signs of nervousness, tension and depression - outward signs of the internal

conflict. To Dabrowski these manifestations are positive signs - indicating positive development.

The individual has an internal standard (personality ideal) against which he/she measures the

positivity or negativity of an action, determining whether that action will bring him/her closer or

further from his/her perfection (personality.)

“. . .personality has only positive constituents. . . if a person possesses personality he

embraces with his intellect, sensitivity, and activity all the truly essential problems of
mankind. . . the work upon himself, upon his mental and character traits, is of paramount
importance. . . the person characterized by personality enhances his qualities and powers
in order to offer them in the service of mankind” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.5).

This journey to perfection is a moral one encompassing decision making which results in choices

regarding the goodness or badness of an action. Dabrowski claims that there are lasting,

universal, absolute human values. These values endure regardless of human behavior. They may

be suppressed or even seem to temporarily disappear. Even when suppressed, a basic human

yearning for positive values endures. Dabrowski states that humans have a basic instinctual need

to seek moral perfection in the manifestation of these human values.

“The fact that humanity survives and develops serves as evidence that the advantage is on
the side of positive qualities. True, there are periods in the lives of individuals and
epochs in the life of communities in which the domination of positive characteristics is
disturbed, in which the negative traits of man awaken, mobilize, come to power, and
reveal their destructive influence. This happens when an individual finds himself, or the
community finds itself, in conditions liberating or even intensifying the most primitive
driving forces of man, such as the brute instinct of self-preservation, instincts of fighting,
cruelty, primitive sexual drive, aspiration for power, and a desire to subdue other
individuals or societies by force. However, the periods of downfall usually do not last
long. Man’s instinct for development, which in the broadest meaning of the word is a
tendency to mental and moral perfection, sooner or later gains power and reinvigorates
and enhances the positive values . . . Even in periods of collapse they survive in us in the
form of moral readiness and yearning for their revival and full realization. As they
constitute the foundation and prerequisite of the cultural and moral existence of
humanity, these values are indestructible” (Dabrowski, 1967, pp. 7,8).

113
Examples of such absolute values are justice, religiosity, social responsibility, courage, honesty,

sensitivity and open-mindedness. “Personality is a synthesis of the most essential human values

embodied in an individual” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.9). The reader may be struck by how an

individual who suffered imprisonment by the Nazis and the Communists could make such a

claim. One possible explanation is that Dabrowski witnessed evidence of just such phenomenon

while imprisoned. Perhaps it is the reason he survived at all. Dabrowski does not write about

these horrors save in his poetry. One brings to mind Viktor Frankl’s Man’s Search for Meaning

(1946, 1959, 1962, 1984,1985):

“It is apparent that the mere knowledge that a man was either a camp guard or a prisoner
tells us almost nothing. Human kindness can be found in all groups, even those which as
a whole it would be easy to condemn. . . I remember how one day a foreman secretly gave
me a piece of bread which I knew he must have saved from his breakfast ration. It was
far more than the small piece of bread which moved me to tears at that time, It was the
human “something” which this man also gave to me - the word and look which
accompanied the gift” (Frankl,1985, pp. 107,108).

In order to understand what components comprise personality; how we might recognize

personality when we see it, Dabrowski describes attitudes and qualities of personality. Basic to

the concept of personality is multilevelness. We will always encounter multilevelness in

studying Dabrowski. Multilevelness is central to his theory. Dabrowski thinks in levels. The

first quality Dabrowski describes in recognizing personality, is understanding. Rather than

simply knowing, which Dabrowski classifies as unidimensional, personality entails an attitude of

understanding.

“Scientific research in a given special field should be linked to related fields . . . it should
proceed from basic premises to knowledge wider in scope, to a point at which we pass
from an unidimensional “I know” to a multidimensional “ I understand.” Knowledge is
usually unidimensional and understanding multidimensional; knowledge is based on

114
 perception and judgment, understanding involves also experience and intuition which add
a depth to the perception and judgment” (Dabrowski, 1967, pp.11-12).

The researcher hopes that her dissertation might lead the reader beyond knowledge, towards an

understanding of TPD through an experiential journey “ in the footsteps” of Dabrowski.

Dabrowski explains that narrow viewpoints of subjects or persons will never characterize the

individual who has traveled to personality. Along this journey the individual struggling for

perfection will seek out many points of view and will embrace multiple disciplines to study

phenomena. In Dabrowski’s eyes the true specialist is one who has taken the time to experience

his field of study through many channels. This probably accounts for Dabrowski studying human

development through the eyes of physician, psychologist, psychiatrist, educator, philosopher and

poet.

The next sign of personality is an individual’s separation of himself from his environment and

from his lower tendencies. It is a breaking free in order to make moral decisions based solely on

their relation to basic human values. Dabrowski labels it Independent value judgment, feeling,

and action. Just as few individuals reach perfection, Dabrowski acknowledges that few

individuals exhibit this self dependency of judgment, feeling and action.

“Observation of everyday life and of environments at various cultural levels leads to a

conclusion that self-dependency in feelings, judgment, and action is a very rare faculty
among people. There are very few people among us who are consciously independent of
the external environment and of the lower layer of their internal environments. To make
oneself independent of both these environments one must go through the process of
disintegration, which develops the faculty of using the moral judgment by resorting to a
true sense of morality, and instills in one the readiness to act accordingly. A moral
judgment not backed by the sense of morality and by the ability to effect its realization is
nothing but conformity and reveals our superficial attitude toward a given phenomenon”
(Dabrowski, 1967, pp 12,13).

According to Dabrowski, in this way an individual cultivates a sensitivity toward the feelings and

115
attitudes of others - seeing things through different lenses. It is a relinquishment of the

superficial in favor of truth. Public opinion no longer has a great influence. The individual is

capable of forming opinions and judgments based on the moral good. The inner psychic milieu

evaluates options in accordance with the personality ideal - the standard of internal decision

making. As development progresses, the individual possesses high levels of emotional and

cognitive development. These functions fuse to form a product of development which stimulates

the cortex of the brain. Stimulation results in a raising of consciousness. Since the stimulation is

caused by the product of fused higher levels of emotional and cognitive development, an increase

in the level of consciousness occurs. In TPD, a prime emotion which undergoes development is

empathy. Raised consciousness due to higher levels of empathy result in concern for others.

What is higher, better - what the individual ought to do - is to choose less mindful of self and

more mindful of others.

Self-knowledge is the next characteristic of personality. To attain self-knowledge, the individual

must look within himself. He/she must measure where he is against where he is going; what he

is against what he must become. Dabrowski describes this process of inner examination as a very

humbling process. The individual realizes his/her smallness; his/her limitations. This internal

knowledge also involves knowledge of others. “Self-knowledge is positively correlated with the

knowledge of others” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.15). It is a sincere appreciation of the plights and

efforts of others - a coming away in awe and respect.

Here it might be wise to visit Dabrowski’s poem entitled Humility found among his writings in

116
the National Archives of Canada.

Humility

“Humility is courage
but not servility;
Courage because it must be so,
Not due to an impulse,
Not due to temperament,
But because of truth;
Humility is the lack of demonstrativeness,
It is love without complications,
It is autonomy not only from others,
But also within oneself and against oneself
It is identification in understanding, in kindness, but without approving of wrong;
It is modesty not preoccupied with itself
It is the sense of mission without grandiosity,
It is cooperation without domination and without subordination.
It is independence from what people could say,
But at the same time intense attention to what others say and do in truth.
Humility - is a union with truth within oneself and beyond oneself.
A union one can intuitively sense without seeing,
A union one is searching for,
A union one is desiring.
It is the silent understanding that we don’t know anything,
That we don’t understand anything,
Although we have the compulsion to know and to understand, the compulsion to
see,
That we have the responsibility to remember or to forget the hurt;
It is the awareness that nowhere exists perfect greatness, perfect love, perfect
certainty and wisdom”

(Cienin, Poemat filozoficzny #166, n.d. circa 1970, National Archives of Canada, series
789, MG 30 B88, Vol 6,1; translated from the Polish by Elizabeth Mika).

Dabrowski goes on to extend self-knowledge to a multi-level transformative self-cognizance.

When the individual reaches a level of self-cognizance, he/she has combined his/her intellect

with higher level emotions to reach a transformative level of self awareness. Elevated levels of

consciousness due to stimulation by fused higher cognitive and higher emotional (primarily

117
empathetic) functions result in higher levels of transformation. This process requires

prospective, reflective, contemplation and meditation.

In addition to the above characteristics of personality, there also are moral and social qualitites.

Dabrowski lists these attributes of personality as truthfulness and honesty toward oneself and

other people. Although very much akin to independence of judgment, feeling and action,

truthfulness and honesty toward oneself and other people involve

“an internal struggle between the self-preservation instinct and the instinct to propagate
the species; they point to the shaping of one’s moral structure, to a conviction that the
chosen direction is right, and to a will determined to remain at the attained level”
(Dabrowski, 1967, p.16).

Dabrowski emphasizes that this truthfulness and honesty begin with a personal decision to

choose the moral path. Dabrowski cites Kierkegaard:

“In states of highest spiritual tension man feels that he himself must know something,
decide something, do something, and that in this no one can replace him . . . Some people
think that the essential thing in mysticism is the ardent seeking of absolute truth. They
are wrong. The first, deep motive is always personal and moral, namely the salvation of
life, the problem of suffering in the spiritual order of things. . . When a man suffers, feels
his guilt, and worries about his own redemption, then the problem of being and its
purpose becomes a personal issue for him” (Kierkegaard in Dabrowski, 1967, pp. 36,37).

Dabrowski reminds us that not only is it necessary to look inside oneself, it is necessary to

evaluate our behavior against a moral standard. This standard is the personality ideal. The

honesty portion of this attribute safeguards against false moral behavior. Dabrowski lists

examples of false moral behavior as treating strangers with openness, kindness, and

understanding, while we mistreat loved ones. Although in the public eye the individual may

appear a good person, in truth, he/she is exhibiting dishonesty to oneself and others. The others

simply are not in the public view.

118
Courage is the next characteristic of personality. Dabrowski differentiates it from

aggressiveness. Courage is the loyalty of an individual to his/her personality ideal. It involves

non-compromise of principle. Actions are not judged in the light of personal gain. Attention is

paid to effect upon others.

“The greater our experience in life, the greater our sensitivity; the more intensive and
through our elaboration of experiences the clearer our ideal of personality; and the more
we are apt to sacrifice, to subordinate our instinctive needs in favor of personality, the
stronger is our disposition to the attitude of courage and heroism” (Dabrowski, 1967,
p.19).

Dabrowski again speaks of the worth of suffering and sacrifice in an individual’s life. A life
“rich”

with suffering, will favor personality development.

“. . . The absolute selection of my own self is my freedom . . . The moment of my own

selection has remained for me as a solemn and venerable moment, though when I made
my choice, I was under the influence of others . . . (a man should be) fearless in the midst
of dread, passions, and temptations of life, moving forward along the path of faith, a path
which is steep and dangerous but which leads one safely to the goal. Furthermore, his
faith should be silent, humble, ready for sacrifices, sufferings, and hardships. Silence,
fear, and trembling, these are signs which point to genuine faith” (Kierkegaard in
Dabrowski, 1967, p.36).

Dabrowski clearly differentiates the next attribute of personality - love - from the sexual drive.

Here Dabrowski speaks of the union of marriage. He states that although drawn into union

primarily through a sexual attraction, the bond of matrimony goes beyond sexual love to

encompass “concern, responsibility, devotion to, and esteem” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.21). Not only

does Dabrowski speak of these components of love in regard to the spouse, but also in relation to

offspring. He speculates that children conceived within a bond of such love, will “inherit”

tendencies to these qualities. Beyond love within the family bond, Dabrowski extends love to

others. Necessary in this extension is sacrifice of oneself for the other without motivation of

119
personal gain. In addition, Dabrowski lists love of enemies as a requisite to personality.

“By looking at a man, not as someone who is our personal enemy, but as someone who
acts erroneously because of inherited inclinations, environmental influences, and low
level of self-educating consciousness, we assume an impersonal attitude toward that man.
Such an attitude toward an enemy is a clear sign of one’s advance toward the ideal of
personality” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.22).

The expression of empathy and human love surface as key to Dabrowski’s TPD. Dabrowski’s

message emphasizes this expression of empathy and human love as the core of the truly human,

human being. Dabrowski spent a lifetime attempting to understand what set humans apart as

humans. He clearly points out that without empathy and human love, an individual who is not

truly human inhabits the planet. To Dabrowski, no matter how intellectually gifted, without the

components of empathy and human love, the resulting individual remains “less than human” and

capable of harm to society.

The last moral attribute Dabrowski describes in personality is the desire to perfect ourselves and

others. Here Dabrowski speaks of the importance of self-education. “We can change and

improve the group in which we live, only if we know how to develop ourselves” (Dabrowski,

1967, p.22). Self-education becomes a very important part of Dabrowski’s therapeutic

application of TPD. Dabrowski feels the clinician or therapist acts a guide/advisor to the

individual - helping him/her so that the individual might “heal him/herself” through a process of

self-education.

“The help of an adviser must be increasingly more imperceptible, ever more subtle, ever
more “helpful,” so as not to interfere finally, injudiciously, and too distinctly in the
developmental process of an individual” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.151).

To Dabrowski, self-remodeling must go hand in hand with assisting our neighbors in this goal.

120
This is not a proselytizing or an imposition of power or will over others. It is a genuine concern

to extend help when needed and/or requested. In no way should this extension of help be for our

own gratification. This is a sincere effort to empower others.

“An act is morally good, inasmuch as it is a result of a thoughtful and authentic

transformation of stimuli, retrospection and prospection, empathy identification, etc. - in
general, if it comes about from an adequate understanding of other people and
understanding of our role in relation to them” (Kawczak in Dabrowski, 1970, p.7).

Personality extends to religious qualities and attitudes. “Such an attitude is based on an intuitive

feeling that the meaning of life depends on higher values” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.23). These

religious qualities draw the individual to the higher. They enlighten the path to a better way of

acting and thinking - one which is more in line with absolute moral values. Lest the reader shy

away from a discussion of Dabrowski’s theory because of religious qualities, I feel the subject is

introduced with less intimidation by William Hague Ph. D., a student of Dabrowski who explores

the moral dimension to Positive Disintegration in his book, Evolving Spirituality.

“Positive Disintegration is a general theory of development and, as such, would not be

considered a specialized theory of religious development. However, its themes are those
of religious development, and the insights it gives are creative, profound, and unique,
offering a synthesis that no other theory seems to have either the depth or breadth to
encompass. The source of this can be traced directly to its founder, Kazimierz
Dabrowski, who was himself deeply religious with a great respect for God and for his
neighbor” (Hague, 1995, p.161).

Dabrowski indicates that a religious attitude can assist the individual “in the most trying

moments of life” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.25). Again, Dabrowski envisions this religious attitude

within the context of multilevelness. Here, artistic creativity to formal religious commitment is

encompassed within Dabrowski’s realm of religious attitude.

“. . . religion at its best is the best of humanness; that the best humans are truly religious,
and it is therefore, with the highest-level human beings that we will get the clearest,

121
 sharpest focus on the picture of religion. . . Dabrowski’s eminent human beings are
religious in the sense that their consciousness is profound, their peace is deep and lasting,
their perspective on life is vast, and their relationships with the universe, with their fellow
man, and with God are real and deeply personal” (Hague, 1995, p.165).

I am reminded here of Rev. Mychal Judge, the New York city fire department chaplain. Rev.

Judge sacrificed his life to rescue and bring consolation to victims in the September 11, 2001

terrorist attack of the World Trade Center. As brought out in his eulogy, Rev. Mychal was happy

and at peace with his ministry. His thoughts were not for his own safety but for the consolation

of fellow human beings.

“This is the attitude exhibited by such individuals as: Socrates, Lincoln, Father Kolbe, Dr.
Korczak, etc. The limits of responsibility are determined here by syntony, by conscious
love and prospection, the level and scope of which grows in proportion to all-around
mental development and is increasingly associated with the drive toward realization and
readiness to sacrifice. Individuals of this kind feel responsible for the realization of
justice and for the protection of others against harm and injustice” (Dabrowski, 1973, pp.
96, 97).

Dabrowski lists feelings of reverence, inferiority, guilt and humility as religious attitudes of

personality. Reverence includes a hierarchal grasp of values which loom above us - those which

we do not posses but which we are journeying toward. We acknowledge those who have

surpassed us in practice of higher values. At no time does it ever include tyranny over those

weaker than ourselves. Dabrowski’s concept of inferiority with TPD always consists of

inferiority toward oneself. Rather than feelings of inferiority to others or to the external

environment, inferiority to oneself is an inward self-examination wherein we recognize the what

we are now and the what we ought to become. It is an internal measurement of ourselves against

our personality ideal. Until we reach perfection there is always room for improvement. Humility

in the religious sense is an “awareness of dependence upon the Infinite Transcendental Wisdom”

122
(Dabrowski, 1967, p.29).

Again, lest the reader feel that Dabrowski presents us with the impossible, I enclose a message I

received from Dr. Hague (student of Dabrowski):

“. . . But nothing in this world is “perfect” and thereby we are turned back to “striving for
perfection.” “There is a flaw in everything - that’s how the light shines through” (Hague,
personal communication, December 8, 2001).

Adapting oneself to suffering and death seems very foreign to us as an attribute of religiousness

in personality. It appears contrary to self-preservation. TPD gives value to suffering. From

crisis and suffering can emerge growth and new life.

“He, who has never known sorrow, will not be able to cope with great sorrow. He, who
has not experienced depression and does not know what depression is, is neither able to
bear heavy depression, nor to help others in bearing depression” (Dabrowski, n.d. circa
1970, Confessions of Faith in Thoughts and Aphorisms, National Archives of Canada).

“Suffering and even death may, . . . give birth to higher values; this a manifestation of the
law of conservation of energy, of the law of the transformation of one value into other
values. Hard experiences do not always dissolve psychic life, they often strengthen and
improve it” (Dabrowski, 1967, p. 31).

“It is also well known that individuals who show more or less distinct dispositions toward
positive development accelerate and deepen their development under the impact of
mental traumas” (Dabrowski, 1973, p. 42).

Dabrowski tells us here that crisis and suffering are essential for us to appreciate and to

understand the crisis of another. Crisis and suffering act as the impetus to begin the journey from

the what is to the what ought to be. For those who have already begun the journey, crisis and

suffering serve to deepen and perhaps to accelerate the process.

Dabrowski states that sometimes death must be embraced for the greater good. An example

given by Dabrowski is the instance of Polish resistance members committing suicide so as not to

123
give away secrets during torture (Dabrowski, 1973, p.34). Others include Janusz Korczak who

willingly accompanied his orphans to the gas chamber and Maximilian Kolbe - a priest who

exchanged places with a father of five selected for extermination. Here death embraces the

greater good - empathy toward the other.

“Father Kolbe voluntarily replaced one of the prisoners of the extermination camp in
Auschwitz and, thus, saved him from certain death through the sacrifice of his life. Dr.
Korczak accompanied his pupils to the gas chamber and died with them, although it was
easy for him to escape” (Dabrowski, 1973, p.79).

The final religious attribute Dabrowski uses to characterize personality is Contemplation and

mysticism.

“Contemplation. . . implies a passage from sensual to mental life, from external to

internal experiences, from reactive emotional life to deepened emotional life coupled with
the intellect . . . it is a sign that a man is becoming harmonized at a higher level”
(Dabrowski, 1973, p. 32).

Dabrowski views contemplation as an opportunity for solitude. It can serve as a purification

process to rid ourselves of actions which do not measure up to our personality ideal and to

concentrate on that which will enable us to continue on the journey to perfection. Mysticism is a

union with that which is higher. It can consist of a higher level of intuitive knowledge and

understanding. Also, it can denote oneness with a supreme being. In any case, mysticism is a

transformative attribute encompassing intellect and higher emotion. Contemplation and

mysticism are necessary for higher level consciousness to develop. Development of higher level

consciousness then enables higher levels of transformation to occur.

The Developmental Instinct, Primary Integration and Disintegration

“ . . . there are people, not few in number, in whom, besides the schematically described
cycle of life, there arises a sort of a “sidetrack,” which after some time may become the
“main track.” The various sets of tendencies tear away from the common biological cycle

124
 of life. The self-preservation instinct begins to transform and exceed its proper
tendencies, attaching ever more importance to preservation of a man as a spiritual being,
and to moral action, even to the detriment of man’s physical side” (Dabrowski, 1967,
p.48).

Dabrowski points out that contrary to the “common life cycle, ” there exist individuals who view

their needs as unsatisfied by the biological and environmental factors governing their existence.

They have a deep yearning to reach beyond self-preservation, seeking a “higher” fulfillment than

that afforded to them otherwise. Dabrowski claims that these individuals possess a quality which

he terms developmental instinct. In Dabrowski terms, developmental instinct is the wish to

become higher, better, more spiritual. This instinct can actually draw one in conflict with the

biological survival instinct. Dabrowski believes that in order for this developmental instinct to

act, a process of disintegration must first occur within the individual.

“When a man oversteps the normal, common life cycle there begin to act such new
tendencies and aims, and such attractive values, that without them, he sees no more
meaning in his own existence. He must leave his present level, lift himself to a new,
higher one and, on the other hand, must, . . . retain the continuity of his psychophysical
life, his self-awareness, and identity” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.49).

Dabrowski studied the writings of Swedish psychiatrist, C. Von Monakow. Von Monakow

theorized that there exist instincts within individuals. He labeled “horme,” described as

“agitation, force, internal drive” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.50) central to these instincts. “This is a

tendency,” writes Von Monakow,

“for creative adaptation of oneself to conditions of life, in all its forms, in order to ensure
oneself a maximum security, not only at the present moment, but also for the long, long
future” (Von Monakow in Dabrowski, 1967, p.50).

Von Monakow explains that very basic instincts appear in organisms with nervous systems,

guarding the balance between internal and external protoplasmic stimulation. This process aids

125
in the adaptation of the organism and its species, working towards survival. Von Monakow

describes “hormeters (the instincts proper) and noohormeters (instincts coupled with the

intellectual function” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.50). Hormeters first appear which in the human

infant, manifest themselves in the need for “warmth and food.” Later, due to conflicts and

differentiating emotions, these hormeters expand to include attachment to the mother,

socialization with others, and “gnostically” with the intellect to include aims and goals.

Noohormeters manifest themselves in religious commitment along with love and concern for

others. Von Monakow explains this commitment as a higher form of the sexual drive.

Dabrowski was impressed by Von Monakow’s work. He felt it needed to be “complemented,”

however, by the notion that for the developmental instinct to result in activities of love for the

other and self-less concern for others, a breaking apart or loosening must occur within the

individual. This breaking apart must be accompanied by a transformative process.

“Our considerations of the developmental process (positive loosening and disintegration

of the instinctive structures and functions) are based to a considerable extent on the
theory of the structure and functions of instincts presented by Von Monakow with
considerable modifications of our own. At the root of the instinctive dynamisms Von
Monakow sees the mother dynamism of all instincts, namely horme (agitation, force,
internal drive)” (Dabrowski, 1967, p. 50).

Dabrowski explains that the developmental instinct is biologically determined within the embryo

through heredity. This living biological structure dwells within an external environment. In the

first level of development, there is no conflict with the environment. The second level is

characterized by the appearance of creative instincts. A dissatisfaction with the external

environment begins to take place. This becomes accompanied by a lack of satisfaction with the

internal milieu and a gradual lack of adaptation with the external milieu. Guilt can result. There

126
is movement toward and away - consistent with Von Monakow’s concept of “klisis - movement

toward objects, and ekklisis - movement away from objects” (Dabrowski, 1967, p. 53). A conflict

and breaking apart become concentrated in the internal milieu where they turn into rage.

Dabrowski terms this rage multilevel disintegration. He lists seven characteristics of this level.

(a) a breaking apart of the psychic structure into parts (b) these parts which are hierarchal in

nature remain in permanent conflict (c) the disposing and directing center takes part in this

conflict resulting in its taking place in the highest level (d) the disposing and directing center

evaluates the position of the individual within the levels, thereby establishing lower and higher

moral values (e) the functions which occur during multilevel disintegration are “volitional,

conscious, and refashioning functions” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.74) (f) these functions are based on

the individual’s evaluation of him/herself as to how he/she is reaching and/or aspiring to higher

moral values and her/his personality ideal (g) multilevel disintegration embraces transformation

(Dabrowski, 1967, pp.73,74).

In TPD the transformative force - the power to change - is the work of the third factor. It

transcends the first and second developmental factors, namely the biological and the

environmental factors/endowments of the individual; to avail an individual the power to make

value choices which correspond to the moral hierarchy - the power, in the words of psychologist

Norbert Duda, “ to choose again” ( Duda, personal communication, October 20, 2001).

“The internal environment becomes dominated by a “third factor” (a dynamism of

conscious direction of one’s development) which goes beyond the innate biological
structure and beyond the reaction to the external environment. This level is characterized
by the expansion of the action of creative dynamisms over the entire psychic structure.
The inner environment, the picture of one’s own personality ideal becomes ever more
clear, the cognitive functions are increasingly connected with the attitude of a Samaritan
sacrifice, social work, love , and with moral independence from the external

127
 environment” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.54).

“However, as soon as the third factor emerges, as the processes of inner psychic
transformation gain in intensity, as soon as the dynamisms of autonomy and authentism
start operating, the situation changes essentially, a new quality arises. Things cease to
remain under exclusive control of biological and social determinants. Self-conscious,
autonomous choice between alternatives becomes real. From this point on further
development is no longer an outcome of the play of factors heteronomous to the
individual. He has to take his development in his own hands; his further growth, its
direction and progress ceases to be simply a resultant of forces beyond his control From
now on he has to choose and determine what he is to be” (Kawczak in Dabrowski, 1967,
pp.12,13).

In TPD, as development proceeds, higher levels of consciousness form through stimulation of

the brain by the fused product of higher emotional and cognitive development. This higher

consciousness enables the individual to choose what is better - what he/she ought to do. The

power to choose what is better/higher - to transcend biological and environmental endowments -

is what Dabrowski labels the third factor.

One might ask the obvious question - If all individuals possess developmental instinct, why do

some not develop? Why are there psychopaths (at Level I in TPD) in the world? The researcher

posed this question and received a poignant response from psychologist/Dabrowski’s student,

Bill Hague.

“Regarding your questions on the lower levels of development, I would think that people
at Dabrowski’s lower levels have opportunities for growth (physical and mental) and in
most cases use them in a variety of ways including, sadly, inhibiting others’ growth for
their own ends” (Hague, personal communication, January 24, 2002).

Methods of Shaping Personality

Dabrowski emphasizes that self-education is “the fundamental method for the development of

personality” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.146). Self-education is a grasp of a multi-level concept of

128
moral values - of what is lower and what is higher. Key are the dynamisms of inferiority in

relation to oneself and subject-object in oneself. These dynamisms afford an individual with the

ability to evaluate his/her progress in reaching his/her personality with clarity, humility and

objectivity. Self-education is usually a slow process, though it can go through periods of spurts.

It is a conscious process which can be affected by unconscious, environmental factors.

“Beginning from the unconscious dynamic attitudes of a small child, expressed by the
attitude “I by myself,” through the more conscious but poorly calculated attitude of a
young man, expressed by the saying, “Although this is very difficult, I shall get through it
myself, “ we pass to a clearly developing personality, in which the main dynamisms are
realized and affirmed, difficulties better calculated, and one incessantly makes determined
efforts to develop oneself. The process of self-education is a trying process of
humanizing oneself through positive disintegration” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.147).

Dabrowski feels that personality-shaping is an adult process. However, signs of personality

development can be evident in the child. Dabrowski maintains that the two forms of over-

excitability most inclined toward positive disintegration and the shaping of personality are

imaginational and emotional. Dabrowski also indicates that the process is more often seen to

occur in introverted individuals. Personality-shaping requires a “psychic-plasticity” - meaning an

ability to re-focus, re-think, re-group, and to change internal psychic paths according to the

dictates of the disposing and directing center.

“The fundamental conditions for the shaping of an individual’s personality are what fate
brings to him, what injuries befall him, what errors are made in his education, the
presence and influence of somebody from the environment who is qualified to help him
in the development of personality” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.149).

Dabrowski maintains that children and adults exhibiting outstanding abilities in the emotional,

imaginational and intellectual realms are most likely to embark on and participate in the process

of personality-shaping. They also are the individuals who show outward signs of psychoneurosis

129
- nervousness, inferiority, guilt, shame.

“Our most recent extensive investigations of the correlation between outstanding

capabilities and psycho-neurotic symptoms show that a higher level of intellectual and
artistic interests and capabilities correlate positively to about 80 per cent of subjects with
light psychoneurotic sets” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.149).

The Role of the Adviser

Dabrowski maintains that the adviser must be an individual who has a concept of multilevelness

- who him/herself is involved in the process of positive disintegration and personality-shaping.

He/she should possess a “rounded” education with emphasis on philosophy, psychology,

education and autopsychotherapy. Dabrowski emphasizes that most important is

“a knowledge of the fundamental directions and achievements of philosophic thought

which link themselves to the essential needs and experiences of a man moving along on
the road to the development of his personality” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.153).

Advisers may be “parents, tutors, teachers, physicians, and others . . . provided they themselves

are advanced in the development of their own personality” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.153).

Professionals are essential only when the process of personality-shaping causes the individual to

experience deep conflicts accompanied by difficulties in dealing with them. Then Dabrowski

recommends a team approach of parents, teacher, physician, and psychologist.

“There comes into play, therefore, one of the most fundamental requisites for mental
health, the “team” requisite” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.154

Dabrowski suggests three key points in advising an individual on the path of personality-shaping:

1. assisting the individual to observe him/herself - to look at him/herself objectively

2. helping the individual to understand the process of “fighting back” his/her own

tendencies to justify and affirm his/her own interests, to be open to the concept that change may

130
be necessary in order to move to a higher level of personality. This encompasses subordinating

one’s intellect to the developmental instinct - “treating the former as a tool of the latter”

(Dabrowski, 1967, p.161).

3. assisting the individual in developing his/her ability to organize his/her internal milieu

in a hierarchal fashion, organizing values from lower to higher.

Dabrowski describes the difficulty encountered by advisers when intervention is necessary within

the self-educative process.

“Such intervention is not easy. It requires clear apprehension of the psychic structure
with which development of personality is concerned, of the phase in which the
development occurs, of how the educational process appears here - what its intensity is, to
what degree the individual is conscious of it, in what area this intensity is weak and in
what area it is strong, what shortcomings and what positive sides in disintegrative activity
this process represents, and finally, what critical states are revealed in the development,
that is, states which on the one side show its acceleration and, on the other, are often
almost pathological” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.155).

Dabrowski highlights meditation as the chief ingredient for successful personality-shaping. The

individual must enlist him/herself in a habit of quietly retreating into him/herself. Introspection

and prospection ensue enabling the individual to honestly and objectively examine his/her

progress toward his/her personality ideal. Spirituality is very helpful in this process. An

individual brings to the forefront of his consciousness, a picture of the drama of his life - its past,

present, and possible future. Choices, plans and decisions can be made to work harder in the

quest toward the higher. The individual must train him/herself to think of values in a hierarchal,

multilevel framework. This meditation process may occur simply during quiet available

moments or in times of formal prayer. Commitment to the process and to the goal are

paramount. Essential is the willingness to dissociate, shake away, disintegrate from the lower

131
and reach to the higher.

“The fundamental quality shaped by the everyday effort of the individual aiming at
personality is the ability to meditate. . . a predisposition for deep meditation, the ability to
interrupt one’s daily activity, and the need for frank “philosophizing”” (Dabrowski, 1967,
p.166).

Other qualities which Dabrowski claims aid in the process of positive disintegration, include

“the capacity for unselfish love and friendship, for taking responsibility for persons
closely and remotely associated with us, . . . (and) the adaptation of oneself to suffering
and death” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.165).

Dabrowski explains “the adaptation of oneself to suffering and death” as an introspective and

prospective process. Within this process the individual realizes the worth of suffering and works

toward an acceptance of personal suffering. He/she then moves from personal suffering to an

appreciation of and sharing in the suffering of others. The individual finally transcends personal

suffering and can experience universal suffering.

“Life becomes “thought,” experienced and not instinctive. On the stage, in art, and in
one’s own life, the problems of life, death, love, creativity, and development come to the
foreground . . . the individual is conscious of the entire drama of life” (Dabrowski, 1967,
p.166).

As stated previously, sometimes the individual engaged in the process of personality-shaping can

experience psychological symptoms such as anxiety, nervousness and depression. If and when

these symptoms progress to the point where professional assistance is needed, Dabrowski

provided prescribed methods for psychiatrists, psychologists and counselors to follow.

Dabrowski was above all else, a clinician. This is evidenced by his commitment to his

profession as seen in his history. Dabrowski provides case studies in all of his books. The

following is an excerpt from one of his case studies - “a 33 yr old scientific worker possessing

literary ability with a light obsessional tendency with increased emotional and imaginational

132
excitability” (Dabrowski, 1967, pp.191-192).

“Psychologist: You say that you are sick, that you have a psychoneurosis and that you are
afraid of falling into a psychic illness, is that correct?
Patient: Yes, I am increasingly more concerned about my condition.
Psychologist: Do you understand what is the cause of those fears in you? Are you afraid
of that which is called “becoming mad”?
Patient: Yes, this is what I fear, I am afraid to fall into a low level of self-awareness, of
losing my human dignity.
Psychologist: Can you say that you are presently losing that “human dignity,” that your
moral and intellectual forces are weakened, that your refinement is decreased, that you are
becoming much less creative?
Patient (following reflection): No, I could not say that as yet, I do not notice such
deterioration, but I see an increase in my fears, depression and obsession, weakness, and
chaos in my human contacts.
Psychologist: Let us stop for a while to consider the latter. Does it mean that your
understanding of people has deteriorated, along with your capacity for sympathy and
ability to help?
Patient: No, it’s not that. What has been increased is the feeling of helplessness, feeling
that my attitude of help for others meets with a vacuum, that I am incapable to help them.
However, I do feel their troubles, sadness, helplessness, and often hopeless situation.
Psychologist: And your efficiency in work - is it being decreased, say during the last
months, in both quality and quantity?
Patient: Yes, I thought so, but my colleagues say that I think and talk of issues in a more
interesting manner during recent months, but that I work unevenly.
Psychologist: Now, do you have some complaints physically, such as headaches,
indigestion, sleeplessness?
Patient: Yes, I sleep with difficulty, have strange and depressing dreams. I often wake up
with symptoms of anxiety and headache. I often dream of animals, wildly and
obsessionally looking at me, terrible and yet unknown to me. I dream of gray walls,
ditches; I flee before the unknown, become lost in unknown cities. I am becoming
dependent on some strange and unconnected situations. I feel deprived of will,
condemned to unexplained activities directed by fate.
Psychologist: Tell me please, what are your most common experiences in real life, what
actually causes your anxiety at work, in your social life, in your family?
Patient: I often have psychic tension when dwelling on the objective valuelessness of all
that which has for me, and my friends, a great subjective value. It seems like captured in
a poetic vision of that which is objective, expressed by a deadly machine, animosity and
brutal force against subjectivity, which is for us all the highest type of reality, being
however destroyed by the first one. It seems to me that reality is a tragic
misunderstanding. I wake up at night to see all things in cruel realism. I notice the
shamelessness and limitations in thought and feeling, and the super power of the so-called
realists. I see the damage, injustice, and humiliation of people who are spiritually strong

133
but weak from the point of view of ability for adjustment to everyday life. I see around
me death, waiting for me as it were. I see the cowardly and nonsensical omittance by
people of essential issues. You must understand and observe I am sure, doctor, that in all
of which I am speaking there is much existential content. Yes, I have been fascinated for
years with existential philosophy. But this is not for me an expression of a passing vogue
or snobbery, or of my literary bent. It flows rather from my experiences and interests,
which, as it were, went out to meet existential philosophy. I feel very strangely that our
subjective reality is something very essential for us, most essential indeed; that one must
go through a rebellion of subjectivity against objectivity or reality, even if that rebellion is
a priori condemned to failure. I feel that I must form a hierarchy of moral values, based
on inner axiomatic tenets, even if all those axioms and philosophy should be extinguished
completely by death. There is something in those tenets of subjective aspiration which
checks itself, which indicates its own way, which aspires at objectivity with conservation
of individual values, which represents the need for continued being and development,
because otherwise man becomes dehumanized. That is why I am sick, doctor. Do you
really think that there is a medicine for that?
Psychologist: Now, did you not stop to think at times that you are not actually sick, but
rather have something like a sixth sense, in your increased sensitivity, psychic activity,
alterocentrism, and creative attitude toward reality? Do you not think that one must pay
considerably for personal development or growth, especially if it be accelerated? Do you
recall the expression of Korzecki in Homeless People when, speaking of himself, he says:
“I have too much educated consciousness?” Do you not feel your own high responsibility
for all that which happens among the people of your environment, closer and further, in
your own milieu? That is normal, very normal, as it manifests the realization, to a high
degree, of a “standard model norm.” No, you are not sick, you are very healthy
psychically and you should not think that conditions of anxiety, of your excessive
responsibility, protests, emotional attitude, and actions against the so-called “normal life
conditions,” feelings of dissatisfaction with yourself, are any pathological symptoms. On
the contrary, it would be more pathological to adjust yourself excessively to a reality of a
lower order. I don’t know if you would agree, but I believe that excessive adjustment to
reality of a low level, excessive saturation with that reality, prohibits the cognition of
reality of a higher type. One who is adjusted to all that which “is,” irrespective of its
values, has no possibilities nor creative power and will to adjust himself to that which
“ought to be.”
Patient: You are right - perhaps I should say I would think you are right - but that is
hardly a normal psychiatric treatment, doctor. It seems that psychiatrists do not think as
you do. On the basis of my experience I must say that to most of them my case is just
like so many other cases - subject to pharmacological treatment, “treatment,” while
ignoring the real problems and prescribing rest, sexual indulgence, etcetera. Furthermore,
I feel lonely with my “pathological” experiences. I am very often alone because I do not
want to burden my relatives with my own “fancies.” And so my life is passed in
ambivalent attitudes between that which is close, worthy, really close, creative, between
that which one should live through and digest and the need for fleeing from pain,

134
 misunderstanding, and human injustice. It seems that we have to build on ourselves, on
our own deep humanistic criteria, and fulfill our obligations “to the end.” It may be that
out of that “fear and trembling” - as Kierkegaard says - there will finally come real
knowledge, discovery of the grain of truth, at present quite inaccessible to us, unexpected,
and yet somehow foreseen in our very fight with adverse fate” (Dabrowski, (with
permission, Dabrowski family) 1967, pp.192-195).

Interpretation of Therapy in the light of Positive Disintegration

Dabrowski’s theory includes a core philosophy that psychoneurosis is not an illness. Therefore,

the above patient, in TPD terms, is definitely not sick. The patient is in a developmental

situation, experiencing anxiety, nervousness and depression due to his internal conflict. Within

his internal psychic milieu, a battle is raging. Guilt and inferiority to self are present and the

patient is able to view himself objectively as a subject. The patient is evaluating himself against

his personality ideal and coming up short. He has a great desire to adjust his actions and reach

from the what is to the what ought to be. Therefore, he needs a clinician who will understand his

symptoms as conflicts he is suffering because of a developmental process. Dabrowski feels the

patient needs to be listened to and have his feelings and fears affirmed.

“It (TPD) takes the shame out - psychiatry promotes pills. What’s your body telling you?
The body is telling the brain, “Hey, you’ve got to choose again; choose again. ” The third
factor is making choices. God made us free in order to choose again. Our society which
is very behavioristic - we never discussed free will in psychology. In Dabrowski, free
will is the ability to choose again. It makes you free” (Duda, N., personal
communication, October 20, 2001).

“Once people got past the seeming contradiction of “Positive Disintegration” they could
apply it to themselves and launch into a new way of living life. An example of one
woman: “When I was suffering depression I thought of it as a dead end for me. But when
I studied Positive Disintegration and how one must disintegrate before integrating at a
higher level I found hope and the courage to move on from depression” (Hague, W.,
personal communication, October 1, 2001).

Choice of a therapist and psychologist and/or psychiatrist is critical. One who is not aware of

135
TPD may diagnose him as ill - hospitalize him and/or prescribe unneeded drugs. Dabrowski re-

affirms: Psychoneurosis is not an illness.

“Of course, according to our theory we don’t deal here with a psychoneurosis as an
illness, but rather with the symptoms of the process of positive disintegration in its
multilevel phase, with basic dynamisms of that phase, such as disquietude, feelings of
inferiority toward oneself, sense of guilt, feverish seeking of a disposing and directing
center at a higher level and a personality ideal which would express the ability to feel the
most universal needs of man, to have empathy toward those needs and aims. The normal
clinical diagnosis of anxiety psychoneurosis with existential traits gives us little to go on.
The patient is in a condition of very strong emotional tension with depressional and
anxiety symptoms. A fundamental help for him is the confirmation of the conviction that
his symptoms have all the elements of creative, positive psychic development. Formation
within the family milieu of conditions conducive to contact with nature, quiet, an artistic
milieu, help in a proper attitude toward his work, and appreciation of his efforts, remain
our fundamental directives” (Dabrowski, 1967, p.195).

“In the light of the theory of positive disintegration, the patient is assisted in the
development of his theoretical and practical philosophy of life by acknowledging the
necessity of understanding and of admitting difficulties in his everyday life, the necessity
of suffering, the necessity of developmental psychic disturbances as elements in
accelerated psychic development. He is thus assisted in the development of a conscious,
autonomic, authentic personality which is responsible for its own development, for its
own “creation””(Dabrowski, 1967, p.199).

“The weak positions of talented neurotics are, to a great extent, due to this level of
appraisal of “values.” The development of their depressions, hesitations, sensitivities,
states of anxiety, inhibitions, make it impossible for them to be appreciated, as they
deserve to be. And, on the other hand, they are usually outstandingly talented, creative,
with an “efficient” function of reality on the high level, and a weak function of reality on
lower levels. They do not, however, manifest a clear, practical prestige, which often
makes them - from a superficial point of view - less worthy. They usually lose the battles
of life, they are often evaluated as pragmatically “retarded.” And if they are eccentric,
simultaneously manifesting spiritual strength, they are not always to be found among
prophets or priests, but often in a group appraised as heretical, bewitched, “mentally
ill””(Dabrowski, Confessions of Faith in Thoughts and Aphorisms, circa 1970, p. 64).

136
 Chapter Conclusion

To Dabrowski, personality equates to perfection. The journey to perfection, a journey which

Dabrowski attests is “good” for humanity is development. Dabrowski’s formula for positive

development is positive disintegration. TPD consists of a loosening and breaking apart of the

“what is” in order to re-assemble direction of actions and choices according to a hierarchy of

moral values, so that one is free to choose and journey toward the “what ought to be.”

Dabrowski emphasizes that there are basic human values - values which are innately “good,”

values which are lasting, and values which surface even after suppression. Dabrowski claims

that the fact that humans honor these basic values defines them as human. To the extent humans

develop upwards on the hierarchy of values, the higher, the “better” human being they “become.”

To Dabrowski, an act is moral to the degree that it obeys basic human values - that it contains as

its purpose an intent to move an individual in a direction from the “what is” to the “what ought to

be.” This moral action must take into consideration the individual him/herself, as well as the

relation of the individual towards others and must include empathy as its prime component.

“What is good for me?”, “What should I do?”, “What ought to be?” A theory of more
advanced stages of mental development cannot resign itself to just describing what takes
place, it must distinguish clearly enough higher levels from lower levels in the sense of
being able to say which are more advanced, more “developmental” and therefore, more
valuable” (Dabrowski, 1970, p.13).

Lest the reader despair at the thought of never achieving this personality (perfection), Dabrowski

reminds us that the end result is not point.

“It (TPD) outlines with deliberate vagueness what is to be ultimately attained and
indicates . . . that only in the process of coming nearer and nearer to the presently
recognizable “ideal of personality” we may become more aware of its real content”

137
 (Dabrowski, 1970, p.8).

The point is a willingness to partake in the journey. This “willingness” or choice, Dabrowski

labels the third factor. It is the constituent of TPD which enables individuals to transcend their

biological and environmental endowments and become a “higher, better, human being.” In doing

so, humans according to Dabrowski, possess the ability to change their essence - to choose to be

a better, higher individual. As Norbert Duda, Ph.D., psychologist and student of Dabrowski so

plainly puts it :

“Hey, you’ve got to choose again.” The third factor is making choices. God made us free
in order to choose again. In Dabrowski, free will (the third factor) is the ability to choose
again. It makes you free” (Duda, N., personal communication, October 20, 2001).

The third factor can only emerge after the individual’s previous mind-set is loosened, shaken up,

disintegrated. Then the individual has the opportunity to “choose again.” Dabrowski reminds us

that this “choice” is not an easy one. The individual struggles with internal conflict. Inferiority

toward oneself prevails. The individual never feels satisfied with him/herself. There is always

room to improve - to become a higher, better, more authentic, empathetic human being. The

“what ought to be” will always be there. This constant internal struggle reveals itself externally in

nervousness, anxiety, depression - the individual never feels “good” enough. There is always the

opportunity to disintegrate and to “choose again.” Dabrowski interprets these outward signs as

positive - to be encouraged as developmental - not to be diagnosed as mental illness. Hence his

premise, Psychoneurosis is not an illness.

Dabrowski has defined personality in this work. He has presented us with ways to know

personality when we see it. Dabrowski promotes self-education to help us along the journey. He

138
states that the role of the adviser - parent, teacher, therapist, physician, be one of model and

confidant. The adviser must him/herself be engaged in the journey to personality in order to be

of help.

Dabrowski provides a formula in Personality-shaping Through Positive Disintegration which

may seem idealistic to the reader and beyond the reach of most individuals. The reader hopefully

will take time to meditate and reflect upon the position that the journey to personality

(perfection) - the journey of becoming a better, higher, more empathetic, more authentic human

being - is open to all. Suffering will be encountered on the way. The journey itself promises

nothing but conflict and self-criticism. TPD does not present much of an invitation. The key to

remember is that the level an individual achieves while on the journey is not important. What is

important is the choice - the allowance of the third factor to act - the choice to journey at all - to

choose again.

139
 Chapter VII

The “Woven Tapestry”

The plan of this study as set forth by the researcher in chapter I, was to study the theory of

positive disintegration, to study Kazimierz Dabrowski, the man, and to obtain a better

understanding of the theory through a study of the man. It was hoped that this effort would

enable the reader to embrace further study of Dabrowski and the theory of positive disintegration

with less trepidation. Chapter II presented an exploration of the theory of positive disintegration.

Chapters III, IV and V, presented a history of Dabrowski’s life and environment. Chapter VI

presented a journey through one of Dabrowski’s works - Personality-shaping through Positive

Disintegration (1967). The researcher’s task at this point is to weave the data presented thus far

in the text into a meaningful whole.

The research questions posed in chapter I were:

1. What historical factors in the life of Kazimierz Dabrowski contributed to the shaping

of the theory?

2. How did the life of Dabrowski demonstrate the struggle between the what is and the

what ought to be?

The reader is reminded that these questions framed the journey in “walking Dabrowski’s path”

through Poland, Canada, and the United States. (See Appendix C.)

Question 1. What historical factors in the life of Kazimierz Dabrowski contributed to the

shaping of TPD?

140
From the research three historical factors in the life of Kazimierz Dabrowski have emerged

which contributed to the shaping of TPD.

1. Upbringing and Religion

2. Education

a. Philosophy

b. Medical education

c. Literature

3. Professional Career

a. Society for the Development of Man

b. Social Action - An Underlying Theme in TPD

c. Suffering

1. Upbringing and Religion

Dabrowski was raised in a home environment where religion, culture, and books were given high

priority. His education commencing under the tutelage of Roman Catholic priests, Dabrowski’s

early views on the world were formed and influenced by the spiritual. He would have been taught

concepts at home and in school as original sin, free will, grace, and the ten commandments. The

researcher, as a Polish Catholic, knows that these concepts are central and basic to the Roman

Catholic religion. She can say with a reasonable amount of confidence that Polish Catholic

parents and in particular, priests, would cover these concepts within the scope of a child’s/

student’s religious education curriculum. Dabrowski’s Catholic education extended through

primary school, high school, and a portion of college. Concealing his age, Dabrowski studied

141
literature, philosophy, and psychology at the Catholic University of Lublin (KUL) while still a

high school student. Dabrowski was raised knowing that he had a responsibility for his own

salvation. As a Catholic, he was taught that he had a responsibility for the welfare of his

neighbor as well.

In Polish Catholic families, church, home, and school are bonded together in order to raise

children familiar with the tenets of their faith. The norm would consist of weekly, if not daily

attendance at mass. Novenas, rosaries, devotions, prayer, and the sacraments served to

accentuate this practice. Sacrifice is stressed as a central element in the Catholic religion as well

as in daily life. One of the basic premises in Catholicism is that the son of God became man,

willingly suffered, and sacrificed his life to redeem mankind. Through this redemptive suffering

and voluntary sacrifice, mankind could once again lay claim to the salvation it had lost through

original sin. The concept of willing acceptance of suffering and redemptive sacrifice, emerge in

Dabrowski’s view of suffering, sacrifice, and guilt within TPD. Dabrowski describes the concept

of sin as presented in TPD as differing from Adler’s view on sin.

“Sin, according to Adler, is a reaction to a deviation from the “straight line” of life. In
my opinion the feeling of sin, together with feelings of inferiority toward one-self, guilt
feelings, discontent with oneself, represent clear dynamisms of positive development. An
individual who does not feel “sin” often presents psychopathic or even criminal
tendencies” (Dabrowski, 1972, p.233).

Dabrowski’s Level I in TPD describe the psychopath - the individual who possesses no regard for

others. Selfishness is the hallmark of the individual at level one. The individual feels no guilt.

Thus, the individual can partake in criminal and/or inhumane behavior without remorse - gang

mentality. Hitler and Stalin remain Dabrowski’s chief examples. To Dabrowski, signs of

development manifest themselves in feelings of guilt and shame. Unlike Adler, however, this

142
guilt is not due to inferiority with others. Dabrowski’s guilt resides in inferiority to self. I can

become a better human being than I now am.

Dabrowski speaks of sacrifice and couples sacrifice with responsibility:

“Many so-called ordinary people, mothers, fathers, teachers, doctors, who systematically
express in their everyday work a devotion, a renunciation of egoism, a responsibility and
a giving up of their comforts for the realization of moral and social aims and duties,
express higher levels of this instinct. The conscious controlled sacrifice of oneself for the
salvation of others, and for the building of “values of a higher rank,” is an expression of
the instinct of self-perfection. This is the problem of the choice of “one of two kinds of
values,” of “the transition to the other side” or “the developmental dualism.” We can see
this “choice” in the decisions and behavior of Socrates and Gandhi (voluntary submission
to the verdict by Socrates, the request of Gandhi not to punish his murderer) and also, in
the decision of Dr. J. Korczak who spontaneously chose to accompany his pupils to the
crematorium ” (Dabrowski, 1973, p.31).

“This is the attitude exhibited by such individuals as: Socrates, Lincoln, Father Kolbe, Dr.
Korczak, etc. The limits of responsibility are determined here by syntony, by conscious
love and prospection, the level and scope of which grows in proportion to all-around
mental development and is increasingly associated with the drive toward realization and
readiness to sacrifice. Individuals of this kind feel responsible for the realization of
justice and for the protection of others against harm and injustice” (Dabrowski, 1973,
p.97).

Evidence of the religious influence exists in present day Poland. National holidays are still

observed on major Catholic feast days. The researcher bore witness to this as she was in Poland

August 15, 2001 during a national holiday - the “Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary.”

Churches were full. Religious observation combined with cultural and secular celebration of the

national holiday. The following quote describes how this union of church and state developed in

Poland.

“In the later nineteenth century, whilst upholding its conservative social philosophy, the
Catholic Church was drawn increasingly into all manner of social and cultural enterprises,
and eventually into party politics. Traditional charitable activities among the sick, the

143
 poor, and the young were extended into the factories, trade unions, publishing and
intellectual circles” (Davies, 1982, p. 221).

The researcher suggests that many of Dabrowski’s concepts are tied to his roots in Catholicism.

“But perhaps this is to come from the volition of a loving God, Who gives us the
possibility of authentically acquiring our own personality in order to accept us as distinct,
essential individuals to His, or perhaps even His and our, kingdom, which we could
independently learn to love of our own free will? We know nothing about this either
intellectually or empirically. We are steeped in the darkness of abstract and abstruse
philosophical fomulations, which give us nothing experientially. There is only one hope -
Christ.

He gave us an enormous amount by confirming the importance of individual experience,

of individualized love. He gave us a reflection of His own needs in the request, during
the Last Supper, that He might, in the future, be with them, with his disciples. He gave us
this reflection by exclusively binding Himself to Mary Magdalene, Lazarus, John, and -
even - to the thief on the cross”(Dabrowski, n.d. circa 1970, p.4).

Throughout his life Dabrowski displayed a willingness to suffer. He toyed with death -

sheltering patients, Jews, priests, and resistance members at his “hidden” institute in Zagorze.

When imprisoned in 1950 (see The War Years), Dabrowski refused to eat because he was not

allowed to see Eugenia, causing himself self-imposed physical suffering. Dabrowski spoke very

little of his physical problems and suffering, feeling that speaking of his sufferings would detract

from their worth. Thus, he felt he was “storing up points” for the here-after. He added to his

suffering by suffering “alone.”

“Each good act, each fulfillment of the principles of love, each activity which purifies our
primitive instincts - “counts for us,” brings us closer to perfection” (Dabrowski, circa
1970, p.9).

144
 2. Education

a. Philosophy

Dabrowski’s education included a solid foundation in philosophy. His undergraduate degree

from Poznan University in 1926 was in the fields of literature, psychology and philosophy.

Dabrowski wrestled with philosophical concepts as “essence vs existence,” “God as dictator vs

God as love,” (Dabrowski n.d., circa 1970). He wrestled with existentialism, versed in the

writings of the existentialists. Dabrowski was also a reader of Hume, using one of Hume’s

concepts within TPD.

“Dabrowski was a careful reader of Kierkegaard and Jaspers, who are among his favorite
writers, but was not acquainted with the thought of Heidegger and Sartre at the time when
the theory of positive disintegration took shape” (Kawczak in Dabrowski, 1970, p.10).

“Hume’s ideas about the impossibility of logical derivation of rules from statements, of
what “ought to be” from what “is,” were revived and forcefully asserted” (Kawczak in
Dabrowski, 1970, p.123).

Dabrowski loved to read the writings of philosopher Karl Jaspers. One of Jaspers’ central points

is wisdom. The transformative process in TPD results in the cultivation of wisdom. Dabrowski

describes this transformative process taking place in Dawid - the psychiatrist who changed from

a professional philosophy of logical, empirical, clinician, to empathetic, humanitarian.

“Dawid’s process of development of his personality has led, in our opinion, to the
evolution of his wisdom. This wisdom was expressed in the combination of the faculty
of intelligence with empathy, and in his mutidimensional and multilevel perception of
reality” (Dabrowski, 1972, p.193).

Kierkegaard stands out as one of Dabrowski’s favorite philosophers and one whose writings

influenced Dabrowski’s writings. Kierkegaard resonated with Dabrowski’s familiarity with

suffering and sacrifice. As a psychoneurotic himself, Dabrowski’s world was filled with the

145
“fear and trembling” as well as the “thistles and thorns” (Kierkegaard in Dabrowski, 1967, p.36)

Kierkegaard speaks of. Dabrowski sees this environment of “thistles and thorn” as the “home”

of the individual engaged in the developmental process, responsible for the “fear and trembling”

of the psychoneurotic developing individual. Kierkegaard writes of hierarchical development as

well as the power of the autonomous abilities of the individual (Mroz, 2002; Kawczak in

Dabrowski, 1970,1996a). Dabrowski applies these concepts to the hierarchical levels of

development, multilevelness, and the third factor within TPD. Kierkegaard presents a hierarchy

of the aesthetic, the ethical, and the religious. The highest level, the religious, is attainable only

by a “leap of faith.” Embracement of this faith leaves one in a state of peace and joy

(Kierkegaard, 1954).

“The dialectic of faith is the finest and most remarkable of all; it possesses an elevation,
of which indeed I can form a conception, but nothing more. I am able to make from the
springboard the great leap whereby I pass into infinity” (Kierkegaard, 1954, p. 47).

Kierkegaard speaks of paradox; Dabrowski’s TPD is paradox.

“I acquire everything, precisely in the sense in which it is said that he who has faith like a
grain of mustard can remove mountains. A purely human courage is required to renounce
the whole of the temporal to gain the eternal; but this I gain, and to all eternity I cannot
renounce it - that is a self-contradiction. But a paradoxical and humble courage is
required to grasp the whole of the temporal by virtue of the absurd, and this is the courage
of faith” (Kierkegaard, 1954, p.59).

“. . . faith is a paradox which is capable of transforming a murder into a holy act well-
pleasing to God, a paradox which gives Isaac back to Abraham, which no thought can
master, because faith begins precisely there where thinking leaves off” (Kierkegaard,
1954, p.64).

In TPD good follows from evil; suffering has value; overexcitabilities are “tragic gifts.”

Dabrowski named his theory with a paradox - the theory of positive disintegration.

“He (Dabrowski) pursued the essence of this great theory of Positive Disintegration; not

146
 just to say: things must fall apart before they can come together at a higher and better
level. Dabrowski was intent on seeking, in the process that which is truly “higher” and
truly “better.” He was driven to explore the processes of human development, taking an
heroic stand that many North American theories of development cannot face: the
inevitability of pain, and disintegration” (Hague, conference proceedings, July 7, 2001,
p.4).

Kierkegaard regards the value of suffering - “And what will help him is precisely the dread and

distress by which the great are tried” (Kierkegaard, 1954, p.75). Most significant in the eyes of

the researcher is Kierkegaard’s acknowledgment of the value of the decision to enter into the

journey. How far one advances matters not. The value lies in beginning the journey.

“Even though the result may give joy to the whole world, it cannot help the hero, for he
would get to know the result only when the whole thing was over, and it was not by this
he became a hero, but he was such for the fact that he began” (Kierkegaard, 1954, pp.
73,74).

The struggle of Kierkegaard’s journey culminates with “peace and rest” (Kierkegaard, 1954,

p.56). “Thus, the butterfly has entirely forgotten that it was a caterpillar” (Kierkegaard, 1954,

p.54). The journey, however, is sewn with tears.

“Infinite resignation is that shirt we read about in the old fable. The thread is spun under
tears, the cloth bleached with tears, the shirt sewn with tears; but then, too, it is a better
protection than iron and steel. . . The secret in life is that everyone must sew it for
himself” (Kierkegaard, 1954, p.56).

The researcher contends that Dabrowski resonated with Kierkegaard due to his Catholic

upbringing. Faith is a major tenet in Catholicism. A Catholic’s beliefs form the basis of his/her

faith. Catholics, however, do not believe that salvation comes from faith alone. Suffering and

atonement for sin are necessary to earn the redemptive grace of salvation. Responsibility for self

and for others is also key. Kierkegaard’s hero on the thorny journey equates to Dabrowski’s

traveler on the rugged, steep, path of TPD. Dabrowski resonated with Kierkegaard in the

147
psychological arena as well. One of Dabrowski’s tenets in TPD is Psychoneurosis is Not an

Illness. The outward signs of development appear to those unfamiliar with TPD as symptoms of

mental illness. The anxiety, depression, nervousness of the creative individual engaged in the

developmental process may be misconstrued as disease. Kierkegaard spoke of this same

phenomenon.

“What relation has madness to genius? Can we construct the one out of the other? In
what sense and how far is the genius master of his madness? For it goes without saying
that to a certain degree he is master of it, since otherwise he would be actually a madman.
For such observations, however, ingenuity in a high degree is requisite, and love; for to
make observation upon a superior mind is very difficult” (Kierkegaard, 1954, p. 116).

“When you have a neurosis - you not only have distress and inner conflicts but also
psychic richness. . . Don’t be afraid of sorrow, depression, fear, obsessions, inner
conflicts and sometimes external ones. If they are adequately recognized and guided -
they will serve you” (Cienin, 1972a, p. 37, #100, #104).

C. Von Monakow speaks of integration, disintegration, and the “briques” (bricks) of

development. He stresses the importance of the role of biology in the developmental process.

Referring to the work of Hughlings Jackson, Von Monakow describes the neurobiological

contribution within the process of development. Von Monakow speaks of instincts and

emotional stimulation of the nervous system, in the creation of a hierarchal value system. Von

Monakow describes “klisis” (movement toward) and “eklisis” (movement away from.) He

envisions a fusion of the neurobiological and the metaphysical into the greater body of science.

Von Monakow describes “Double heresie” (Paradox) in this concept of science. (Von Monakow

and Mourgue, 1928)

148
 b. Dabrowski’s Medical Education

Dabrowski’s professional education included medical study in Warsaw 1928 under the eminent

Polish psychiatrist Mazurkiewicz. Mazurkiewicz’s research centered on the emotions as “own”

or directing forces acting in a role beyond that of stimulus - response. This concept shows up in

TPD in the third factor and in the important role of emotions. Dabrowski was impressed with the

findings of Swedish psychiatrist, Von Monakow, whose concept of klisis vs ekklisis describes a

process of coming together and breaking apart - a key concept in positive disintegration.

Dabrowski paid close attention to the works of Hughlings Jackson, the English neurologist who

described the evolutionary development of the nervous system as well as its dissolution during an

epileptic seizure. This integrative/disintegrative process impressed Dabrowski and shows up

later as a basic concept in TPD. Dabrowski assembled these thoughts and used them to form his

valuation and morality sections of TPD (described in chapter II in the document).

While in Paris in 1932, Dabrowski studied under the renowned psychologist and psychoanalyst

Pierre Janet, who researched the phenomenon of suicide (Dabrowski, 1973). Dabrowski studied

suicide, labeling it an extreme form of auto-mutilation.

Dabrowski studied under Dr. Macfie Campbell at the Judge Baker Guidance Clinic in Boston in

1933. It was here that Dabrowski conducted scientific research with Dr. Campbell “on the

nervosity of children and on automutilation” (Rockefeller Archive Center, fellowship card #1).

The study of auto-mutilation appears in TPD as voluntary willingness and wish to suffer. It also

relates to psychomotor over-excitability.

149
All of these principles - “own forces” (Mazurkiewicz,) “klisis” and “ekklisis” (Von Monakow,)

suicide/auto-mutilation (Janet,) evolution, dissolution (Hughlings Jackson) - were important

facets of Dabrowski’s medical, psychological, and psychiatric training. They became part of the

psyche of Dabrowski and emerge synthesized as essential pieces of TPD. In no way does the

researcher imply that these pieces were simply assimilated to form a theory. However, they were

influences which helped to formulate the thoughts of Dabrowski in the conception of TPD.

c. Literature

Dabrowski studied Polish literature at the University of Poznan within the romantic school - a

school which emphasized Polish nationalism. Devotion to Poland was a common theme among

Polish writers. Poland’s history demanded constant commitment, vigilance, and battle to preserve

the nation. This concept is evident in the writings of Adam Mickiewicz, renowned Polish epic

poet. Every major city in Poland proudly displays a statue of and/or museum dedicated to

Mickiewicz.

(Figure 10 -Photo of Mickiewicz plaque taken by the researcher at KU L - Catholic University of Lublin)

Excerpts of Mickiewicz’s writings appear on historic buildings and monuments throughout

Poland. Mickiewicz speaks of the spiritual dimension prevalent in Polish history. He describes a

sacrificial element and a willingness to suffer embedded in the Polish people and history.

150
 “Adam Mickiewicz insisted that history had a deep spiritual dimension in which suffering
prepared the soul for glory. It was a familiar Christian theme - redemptive suffering as a
personal spiritual discipline. For Mickiewicz, though, redemptive suffering was also the
national destiny” (Weigel, 1999, p.34).

“But the Polish nation alone did not bow down . . . And finally Poland said: ‘Whosoever
will come to me shall be free and equal, for I am FREEDOM’. But the Kings when they
heard were frightened in their hearts, and said . . . ‘Come, let us slay this nation.’ And
they conspired together . . . And they crucified the Polish Nation, and laid it in its grave,
and cried out ‘We have slain and buried Freedom.’ But they cried out foolishly . . . For
the Polish Nation did not die. Its body lieth in the grave; but its spirit has descended into
the abyss, that is into the private lives of people who suffer slavery in their country . . . ”
(Mickiewicz in Davies,1982, Vol II, p. 9).

“Inevitably, however, the strongest single spur to Polish national consciousness derived
from political frustrations. It is a basic feature of human nature that people will develop
an intense desire for whatever is denied them. . . In strict contrast to the state-sponsored
nationalisms of Britain and America which have fed on a diet of confidence and
prosperity, Polish national consciousness fed on deprivation and want” (Davies, 1982,
Vol II, p.28).

The researcher contends that Dabrowski was raised and educated in a society which stressed

willingness to sacrifice and suffer for religion and country. Dabrowski demonstrated through his

personal history that he was willing to put his own life on the line for Poland. Active in the

resistance effort, Dabrowski was imprisoned at least twice. These imprisonments were harsh and

cruel involving suffering, torture and starvation. They impacted Dabrowski’s health and thereby,

his entire life. It is interesting that upon each release, Dabrowski returned to Zagorze to resume

activity in the resistance. He offered refuge to Jews, priests and patients, and most importantly -

he resumed where he left off in his mission of establishing a system of mental health in Poland.

These tasks reigned supreme in Dabrowski’s mind to the diminishment of his regard for personal

safety. It was as if Dabrowski was ready to willingly embrace suffering again and again.

Dabrowski was not a “quitter.” Higher value “choices” were a part of Dabrowski’s personal

151
world. He lived and suffered because of these choices. Dabrowski was not unique in this code

of ethics. Many Poles suffered in order to maintain the continuation of what they held sacred.

Many contributed to the efforts of the resistance movement.

“This sense of historical tragedy permeating personal lives is very typical for Poles. We
have been almost conditioned to view our lives as determined by powerful, negative
forces that need to be opposed with all possible (inner) might. Hence the emphasis on
patriotic and moral duty in our upbringing and culture. The geographical placement of
Poland - between huge and hostile world powers, trying to snatch the country away from
its people - has made Poles tough, proud and . . . manic-depressive” (Mika, E., personal
communication, January 26, 2000).

It is worth reflecting upon the words uttered to Francis Lesniak, Th.D., Ps.D. before Dabrowski

left Canada to return to Poland his final time.

“I have no more energy to love Poland. (Nie mam juz sily kochac Polske)” (Lesniak, F.,
personal communication, October 6, 2001).

The “sacredness” of the sacrifices within Polish history were paramount to Dabrowski.

“I remember going to Slowacki cemetery with him. He showed me the graves of persons
he particularly respected in Polish history. He gave me a brief outline of each of them for
a moment and we stood for a moment and then we would go to another. . . on the way we
stopped to pay homage to a Father Maximilian Kolbe. Maximilian Kolbe was a man who
substituted himself for a father with five children and went to execution in his place. So
we spent some time there” (Nelson, T., conference proceedings, July 7, 2000).

Polish tragedy and sacrifice fills Polish literature (Mickiewicz), its music (Chopin), and its

religion (Catholicism).

3. Professional Career

a. The Society for the Development of Man

All his life Dabrowski sought to decipher who man is. Dabrowski believed that to study human

beings required a distinct subset of psychology - humanistic psychology.

“Why is there so much hatred and evil in the world? What should be done to help nations

152
 love each other? How can human beings be so inhumane to one another? Who is man?”
(Lesniak, F., personal communication, October 6, 2001).

“One of the consequences of a hierarchy of values derived from the theory of positive
disintegration would place the human individual at its center. Thus humanism and
personalism, the two trends which have glimmered in ethical thought of leading
philosophers since its very beginnings, would be vindicated and supported by empirical
considerations” (Dabrowski, 1970, p.124).

In order to explore the field of humanistic psychology Dabrowski initiated the “Society for the

Development of Man” at the University of Alberta. The society brought together lawyers,

business people, artists and scholars” (Hague, personal communication, October 1, 2001).

“The differentiation of humanistic psychology from the study of phenomena common to

animals and man is a basis for developmental and educational psychology, psycho-
pathology, education, the theory of morals and a philosophy of development. Wherever
we have to deal with the operation of autonomous and authentic factors in man, wherever
we have to deal with accelerated and creative development, we are in the area which can
be successfully explored only by humanistic psychology” (Dabrowski, 1973, p.187).

“Humanistic psychology occupies itself with autonomous dynamisms in their nuclei and
in their normal and accelerated development. It is a psychology which does not overlook
in its methods introspection, multilevel experimentation, and the inner psychic milieu. It
is a psychology which deals with the examination and prognosis of the total personality of
man” (Dabrowski, 1973, p.187).

b. Social Action - An Underlying Theme in TPD

Spanning the two world wars, Nazi and Russian occupation, the dictatorships of Hitler and

Stalin, Dabrowski lived in a world where human beings were de-valued. The family was no

longer considered an important social unit to the government. Deliberate government

intervention existed intent on the elimination of the family, religion, customs - any form of

Polish society. Jews and Poles were less than human in the eyes of the government. They had no

rights.

153
 “The decrees in operation in Western Poland, however, go beyond the functions proper to
law, laying down rules and instructions on how Poles and Jews ought to behave. They
are ordered to be submissive and to show their humility by obeying the commands of the
German authorities. It does not matter who gives the command; however incompetent he
may be, as long as he is a German official. The command may even be contrary to the
law - the Jewish or Polish slave must still obey it without question”

“A Pole may thus be liable to punishment for having acted before the war as a loyal
Polish citizen. A former Polish official, for example, may be punished for having
arrested a German spy, or a journalist for having published unfavorable criticism of Hitler
before the invasion of Poland” ( (pamphlet,) Polish Labor Group, 1944, pp.20,21).

“The State Prosecutor shall prosecute a Pole or a Jew if he considers that punishment is in
the public interest. . . Poles and Jews cannot challenge a German Judge on account of
alleged partiality . . . Arrest and temporary detention are allowed whenever there are good
grounds to suspect that an offense has been committed. . . A Pole or Jew shall be
sentenced to death, or in less serious cases to imprisonment, if he manifests anti-German
sentiments by malicious activities or incitement . . . or if he, by his conduct, lowers or
prejudices, the well-being of the German Reich or the German people” (Decree
Concerning the Organization of Criminal Jurisdiction Against Poles and Jews in the
Incorporated Eastern Territories, Reichsgesetzblatt, No. 140, Part I, pp.759-761,
December 16, 1941).

The researcher moves to study another intellectual figure raised during much of the same

historical time period in Poland as Dabrowski. My purpose is to illustrate the fact that the value

of suffering and the dignity of the human person were important themes among Polish scholars

during Dabrowski’s time period. Educated as well in the romantic school of Polish literature,

Karol Wojtyla - Pope John Paul II, began his education in literature, poetry, and drama.

Immersed in the writings of Mickiewicz and raised within a Catholic family, the similarities in

thought between Dabrowski and Wojtyla are striking. Both Wojtyla and Dabrowski studied and

taught at the Catholic University of Lublin (KUL.) The following quotes come from a

biography of Pope John Paul II entitled Witness To Hope written by George Weigel (1999).

They illustrate Wojtyla’s use of many of the terms and concepts used by Dabrowski, namely the

154
person-I-am and the person-I-ought-to-be, the value of the human person, redemptive suffering,

the importance of human love, and the use of poetry and drama to elucidate the philosophical.

“He (Wojtyla) has insisted that suffering can be redemptive” (Weigel, 1999, p.6). . . “that
every human being possesses an inherent and inalienable dignity and value” (Weigel,
1999, p.7). . . “ to be human is to be a moral agent” (Weigel, 1999, p.8). . . “And the
great drama of any life is the struggle to surrender the “person-I-am” to the “person-I-
ought-to-be”(Weigel, 1999, p.8). . . “the tension between the person-I-am and the person-
I-ought-to-be” (Weigel, 1999, p.107).

“Wojtyla leapfrogs the argument between empiricists and idealists by trying to

demonstrate how moral action, not the psyche or the body, is where we find the center of
the human person, the core of our humanity. For it is in moral action that the mind, the
spirit, and the body come into the unity of a person” (Weigel, 1999, p.176).

“The ability to love authentically, not great intellectual capacity, constitutes the deepest
part of a personality. It is no accident that the greatest commandment is to love.
Authentic love leads us outside ourselves to affirming others” (Weigel, 1999, p.101).

“Communism was not only an unsatisfactory, reductionistic account of things-as-they-are

and a crude caricature of humanism; communism’s totalitarian politics stripped men and
women of their power of choice, of responsibility, and thus of their humanity” (Weigel,
1999,p.132).

“Wojtyla’s plays and poems were an expression of a conviction that he had formed early
and that had intensified throughout his life - that reality could not be grasped by one
instrument only. . . The depths of the human experience were such that they could be
probed only by a host of methods. Literature - in his case, plays and poems - could
sometimes get to truths that could not be adequately grasped philosophically or
theologically. . . Thus Wojtyla’s literary activity was not a hobby. It was another way of
“being present” to the lives of others, through the writer’s natural medium of dialogue”
(Weigel, 1999, p.112).

“I am freely choosing what is good. In that free choosing, I am also binding myself to
what I know is good and true.. .. In this free choice of the good and the true,. . . we can
discern the transcendence of the human person. . . . Through my freedom, I narrow the
gap between the person-I-am and the person-I-ought-to-be” (Weigel, 1999, p.176).

It is of interest that Wojtyla references Dabrowski’s theory of positive disintegration in The

155
Acting Person (Wojtyla, 1979, p.313). The researcher contends that the multi - field approach to

education and the philosophical concepts - as Hume - were not unique to Dabrowski. Other

scholars in Poland, as Karol Wojtyla, were being educated in very similar manners. Both

Wojtyla and Dabrowski illustrate their preference to view and relate concepts through many

lenses.

Just as Wojtyla embraced a philosophy which contained a message of social action for human

freedom and for human rights, the researcher contends that Dabrowski reveals an underlying

message of social action through human freedom within his theory of positive disintegration.

Repeatedly Dabrowski warns of the dangers of failure to recognize psychopathic dictators such

as Hitler and Stalin. He contends that intellectual development without accompanying emotional

development can lead to the creation of psychopaths. Dabrowski calls such development “one-

sided.”

“And now, an example of one-sided development, with emotional poverty and, at the
same time, with an excess of cleverness and adjustment. Such one-sided development
brings an individual close to a type of psychopathy. . . they show emotional primitiveness
and absence of authentic attitudes toward others” (Dabrowski, 1973, p.177).

“An intelligent psychopath is at times capable of changing the direction and methods of
his behaviour, but that is done only in the service of his egocentric goals” (Dabrowski,
1972, p.157).

“An analysis of the life and political activity of such influential psychopaths as Hitler or
Stalin shows the significant difference between superficial and authentic forms of
identification of peoples with their political leaders and its impact upon the resulting
process of alienation. . . The question arises: how is it possible that social groups or even
whole societies, of a more or less advanced culture and some degree of mental health,
identify themselves with psychopaths or psychopathic leaders of a political movement
which inevitably brings about extreme forms of social evil, degeneration and crimes?
The answer to this question and the responsibility for this kind of social disaster is in the
mistaken approach to education, which disregards the ability to distinguish authentic and

156
 seeming values and is restricted to a purely professional training” (Dabrowski, 1973,
pp.47,48).

“The application of this concept by the people responsible for education and politics
could help in the early recognition of psychopaths and in preventing them from gaining
positions of power and control over their countries (Hitler/Stalin/Trujillo, etc.). The
general inability to recognize the psychological type of such individuals causes immense
suffering, mass terror, violent oppression, genocide and the decay of civilization”
(Dabrowski, 1973, p.40).

“It seems that one psychopath or paranoiac in a top political or military position can
destroy, murder, torture and put in concentration camps millions of people. It was so
with Hitler and Stalin, it was so - though to a lesser degree - with other dictators, it was so
and it is so with leaders of gangs. It is even present in people who have higher social and
professional positions and who have gained world-wide renown; but who destroy many
people, who lead them to blind alleys, who torture them morally through envy, ambition,
discrimination, and bring them to mental illness or suicide” (Cienin, 1972, p.27). (The
researcher reminds the reader that Cienin was Dabrowski’s pen-name.)

“The forms of putting to death, of stultifying, of forgetting creators do change, but the
matter of injustice does not change in its essence. False prophets, pseudo-geniuses,
psychopaths are universally rewarded, acclaimed, respected, and supported. There arises
the eccentricity of putting a question such as, why?” (Dabrowski, n.d. circa 1970, p.78).

“It is manifested in psychopathy and paranoia, . . . grave affective retardation is usually

associated with above average intelligence subordinated to primitive drives. Two
eminent psychopaths Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin displayed this kind of mental
structure characterized by lack of empathy, emotional coldness, unlimited ruthlessness
and craving for power. Toward the end of their lives both exhibited growing
suspiciousness and criminality which marked the transition from psychopathic primitive
integration to paranoia and dissolution. Uncontrolled, pathological suspiciousness,
persecution mania, delusions and oversensitivity to external conflict characteristic of the
last phase are the usual symptoms of transition from a psychopathic structure to a distinct
pathological process” (Dabrowski, 1970, pp.30,31).

High intelligence is prized within present day society. In particular, strong leaders waving flags

of salvation possess high appeal to highly vulnerable societies searching for the “quick-fix” to

their national problems. What Dabrowski tells us is that there do exist individuals who are highly

developed intellectually, yet lacking in emotional development. In the words of psychologist Bill

157
Hague, these emotionally underdeveloped individuals can use their opportunities for growth

“inhibiting others’ growth for their own ends” (Hague, personal communication, January 24,

2002). Dabrowski urges educators and individuals responsible for politics to recognize, warn,

and instruct individuals and groups in order to recognize such individuals, to avert another

Holocaust. Dabrowski describes pathological symptoms indicative of such “one-sided

development” individuals who substitute criminality for justice; who de-value the human person.

c. Suffering

“Regarding your research I agree with your hypothesis that there is a connection between
the TPD and Dabrowski’s suffering” (Lesniak, personal communication, October 6,
2001).

The history presented by the researcher has pointed out many times Dabrowski suffered. Primary

examples of this include:

a. Imprisonment under the Nazi regime in 1942

b. Imprisonment under the Stalin regime in 1950
c. Closing of the Institute of Mental Health in Warsaw in 1942 and in 1949.

Besides these obvious sources of suffering, Dabrowski suffered many additional times

throughout his history.

a. Dabrowski lost his little sister when she was three and he was six. He lost his first

wife from tuberculosis. This had to be especially difficult given that Dabrowski was a young

eager physician and a newlywed. His inability to save his wife must have been devastating.

b. Dabrowski lived within a police state - both under Germany and then under Russia.

Life in Poland was very hard during that time period.

“. . . Police round-ups, deportation to camps and forced labor in Germany or some other
place unknown, beating up by SS men, death shooting in the street - all these things were

158
 part of daily life. . . Shots were frequently heard at night after curfew hours, when the
police arrested people who were caught walking the streets without passes, and fired at
anyone who did not stop when challenged. We were hungry for five years without a
break, and each winter we were desperately cold” (Weigel, 1999, p.55).

c. Dabrowski tried so hard to institute a system of mental health in Poland. With each

new attempt, failure ensued. The researcher has developed a deep respect for the fact that

Dabrowski kept trying. Dabrowski began an institute at KUL when his two attempts in Warsaw

failed. Even that attempt was unsuccessful.

d. Raising his daughters in Soviet occupied Poland must have been very difficult for

Dabrowski. Accustomed to studying abroad, he probably had the same hopes for his daughters’

education. Limits on this freedom must have been particularly difficult for a professional so

intent on the richness of ‘out-of-the-country’ study.

e. Failing health - Dabrowski’s encounters with Nazi and Soviet imprisonment left his

heart damaged.

“Once or twice he also mentioned that he had been twice in direct danger of being
executed. He linked his chronic heart disease with those situations” (Lesniak, personal
communication, October 6, 2001).

f. Disappointment and depression had to accompany Dabrowski’s necessity to leave

Poland. For someone so intent on instituting mental health in Poland and so connected to

Poland’s history, this departure must have been devastating. Disappointment also must have

been present with the number of rejection letters Dabrowski received from American universities

in response to his teaching and research applications. An academic so qualified must have felt

keen rejection by these letters. Some are saved in his personal correspondence files housed in the

National Archives of Canada. The researcher has given examples in the document.

159
 “The weak positions of talented neurotics are, to a great extent, due to this level of
appraisal of “values.” The development of their depression, hesitations, sensitivities,
states of anxiety, inhibitions make it impossible for them to be appreciated, as they
deserve to be. . . They do not manifest a clear, practical prestige, which often makes them
- from a superficial point of view - less worthy. They usually lose the battles of life . . .”
(Dabrowski, n.d. circa 1970, p.64).

Dabrowski was remiss to speak of his sufferings. Marlene Rankel (psychologist, student of

Dabrowski) confided that:

“He (Dabrowski) disapproved of Viktor Frankl writing about his concentration camp
experience. To Dabrowski, this action diminished the value of the suffering endured”
(Rankel, personal communication, November 18, 2001).

Thus, we can only infer the amount of suffering Dabrowski experienced. A good peek into that

“hidden” chamber is through his poetry.

A Choir of Children Killed in Concentration Camps and Elsewhere

“Maybe grownups who condemned to death without guilt and without reason,
Will try to understand God’s will.
Maybe they will think about their deaths
As some sadness of sins,
As a way of expiation,
As a sacrifice for others,
As an expression of help towards their own and others’ development;
Through the last suffering,
Maybe as an expression of destiny, reincarnation of souls,
A waiting of ecstasies is the moment of death.
But why a child, two or three years old?
Without history, without guilt?
Without the possibility of reflection,
Without wide, deepened consciousness;
What does it all mean?
Why, for what purpose?
Little heads smashed against a wall
By a bloody executioner,
Why cruelty and torture?
When it was destined maybe for love, maybe for joy?
Created for smiles”.
(Cienin, #151 in poetry manuscript found in National Archives of Canada, translated from the
Polish by Elizabeth Mika).

160
Question 2 - How did the life of Dabrowski demonstrate the struggle between the what is
and the what ought to be?

Dabrowski experienced the internal suffering of the psychoneurotic as presented in TPD. He

wrote a small book on the subject - Fragments From The Diary Of A Madman (Cienin, 1972b).

In this book we can see Dabrowski - the man - struggling between the “what is” and the “what

ought to be.”

“I am a schizophrenic and I am a psychologist. I do not know what helps what or what

damages what. Sometimes I think that my schizophrenic madness is lessened by the fact
that I know something about psychology. Sometimes I think otherwise, and feel that my
rather “sick” mind enlightens and deepens my narrow knowledge of psychology” (Cienin,
1972b, p.12)

“So, I will stay

Lonely,
Locked
In tight bonds,
In tight armor
Chained.”
(Excerpt of poem in Cienin, 1972b, p.14)

“I was terribly disappointed many times. Those to whom I gave my confidence and
generosity were not sincere toward me. . . Lack of exclusiveness, faithfulness,
uniqueness; lack of constant relationship, lack of sincerity among friends. I prefer the
schizophrenic worlds” (Dabrowski, 1972b, pp.54,55).

“Dabrowski was - in as much as I have known him - a neurotic with a good insight of
himself. He very probably experienced personally all the developmental dynamisms that
he speaks of in his theory” (Lesniak, personal communication, October 6, 2001).

“That is why so many prophesizing people, so many geniuses, so many outstandingly

creative people, so many true saints - end their lives in poverty, die in charitable
institutions, in exile or often in concentration camps or in prisons. They end their own
lives, and if they are not outstandingly universal they finish with mental illness or with
amnesia” (Dabrowski, n.d. circa 1970, pp.79,80).
Experiencing Dabrowski’s grave communicates a great deal to an observer about his life and

sufferings. Dabrowski is buried deep in the forest - with a physician for a sole companion. He is

161
not buried next to either of his two wives. The isolation of the burial site breeds sadness.

Yet, somehow, this setting seems exactly correct. Dabrowski is buried in his beloved Poland -

in Zagorze - home of his hidden yet still functioning Institute. He is buried near his patients - the

children who meant so very much to him - who made his life whole.

(Figure 11 - Dabrowski’s grave)

Buried hidden in a beautiful, thick forest, lies a man who though academically highly successful,

never received professional recognition by the Polish government for his repeated attempts to

establish a system of mental health. Instead, researchers find Dabrowski listed as “out of favor.”

TPD remains to many a “too idealistic” theory. It is believed by many to be “unscientific.”

“But many scientists are - (sic) don’t understand this theory. In many pages of his work
professor Dabrowski didn’t present clearly this conception. And therefore, many people
thought - not so scientific theory” (Holyst, personal communication, August 7, 2001).

We find Dabrowski’s answer to this objection stated in his 1973 work.

162
 “In relation to this problem we can raise the question whether the concept of science
accepted in physiological and behavioristic psychology is precisely and unequivocally
defined. Furthermore, on what grounds should we discard as nonscientific the attempts to
establish theoretical knowledge of higher mental functions, especially of higher emotions.
In other words, is humanistic psychology possible as a science?

There is a widespread tendency nowadays to separate philosophy, literature, arts and even
law and medicine; that is to say, the studies of the highest human activities from the so-
called natural sciences, which are the only exact and genuine sciences. The basic
differentiating element seems to be, here, the exactitude of science based on empirical
data, on sensory knowledge, on experiment and on deduction , with the application of
measurement as one of the so-called objective criteria.

. . . It seems that humanistic psychology which deals with typical phenomena of a human
life (intellectual, emotional and instinctive) can be considered a science in such fields as
general, developmental, and educational psychology, psychology of personality, of
creativity, etc. They represent systems of knowledge adequately ordered and giving a
systematic explanation of human behavior” (Dabrowski, 1973, pp.184,185).

Dabrowski remains a lonely man - one not well understood. The researcher contends that he is

indeed a persona of his theory - the psychoneurotic - continuously reaching for the higher -

trying, always trying - never giving up - a source of continual “driven” energy, plagued by

anxiety, nervousness, and depression. It was difficult for even those closest to him to really get

to know him. He always kept his distance - not really wanting anyone to come too close. Now

he remains at a distance - in Zagorze - buried away from friends and family. However, he does

lie permanently in his beloved Poland, close to the pediatric patients so dear to him.

a. Love and Friendship

“What sort of immortality would it be without love and without friendship: Certainly for
sensitive people it would be valueless or almost valueless. . . Perhaps among “the bright
flowers of my valley” we will catch glimpses of the faces and figures of our friends,
those, who were loyal, did not betray and in leaving us for eternity - did not leave”
(Dabrowski, n.d. circa 1970, p.125).

Dabrowski was a poet. As such, he thought creatively. Dabrowski read and studied the “greats”

163
in literature and philosophy. He was a deep thinker, a very sensitive individual possessive of

sensual, imaginational, and emotional overexcitability. The researcher has demonstrated that in

Dabrowski’s teen years he had taken a survey of his classmates to determine what would be most

important to them in the afterlife. The answer he came up with was - to be re-united with friends

and loved ones. The researcher contends that the fact that Dabrowski still pondered the results of

this survey in his adulthood, sharing them with colleagues, indicates that he was fascinated by the

power of “human love.” Evidence of the theme of love and friendship resound through

Dabrowski’s writings. They demonstrate a touching side of Dabrowski - very sensitive and very

beautiful. They exist not, however, for sensitivity and beauty alone. These lines bear one of

Dabrowski’s prime messages in TPD, namely - without human love and friendship, humans

cease to act as human.

“Often short of money he was nevertheless generous. He often helped other writers with
advice and personal attention. He was sensitive and delicate in his relationships of
friendship and love” (Dabrowski,1972, p.189).

“The capacity for unselfish love and friendship, for exclusiveness and faithfulness, for
taking responsibility for persons closely and remotely associated with us is shaped on the
one hand by . . . the shaping of the hierarchy of values in one’s own internal milieu, by
reaching for the ideal of personality, by the development of the higher dynamisms of the
internal milieu and by their transposition to the external environment, to other people”
(Dabrowski, 1973, p.165).

To the researcher, this theme becomes almost a tragic one since interviews and the history show

that Dabrowski had few “real” friends. He was hurt by many he considered to be his friends.

“Friends” led his wife and him into prison in 1950, convincing him of a safe passage out of the

country. Although this was probably common in the terror filled days of the Stalin regime, to

Dabrowski who experienced hurt so much deeper than many others, the deceit must have been

164
unbearable since not only he, but also his wife was involved in the imprisonment. Dabrowski’s

family was very important to him. He loved Eugenia - going on a hunger strike in order to see

her while he was in prison. Dabrowski was proud of his daughters (Sheridan, personal

communication, July 4, 2001). Dabrowski sacrificed time for his students (Nelson, T.,

conference proceedings, July 2000).

b. Transformation

It is the transformative aspect of TPD which enables it to stand out amidst the other theories of

human development. Dabrowski acknowledges that individuals come to TPD endowed with

biological and environmental capabilities and handicaps. An intellectual genius may be hidden

and suppressed growing up in a family/neighborhood where his/her intellectual talents are

mocked, or misused to direct gangs and crime. An emotionally gifted individual may be severely

damaged due to abuse inflicted upon him/her by parents or surrogate parents. An individual may

be born lacking sight, hearing, the ability to walk, or be the victim of a chronic illness.

Individuals deal every day with sickness, job loss, divorce, death of a loved one, disappointment,

cruelty, loneliness, etc. Dabrowski’s message in TPD yields to all individuals - regardless of

biological or environmental endowment or handicap, the power to transcend their obstacles

through the action of the third factor - the factor of choice.

“Mental development of a human being is determined by three factors, of which the first
is biological (primarily heredity), the second is external (heteronomous) and the third is
internal (autonomous). . . The third factor represents the autonomous forces of self-
directed development. . . . In a stricter sense of a dynamism the third factor is the agent
of conscious choice in development. . . . It is a dynamism that coordinates changes and
their consequences” (Dabrowski, 1970, pp.72,73).

Dabrowski knew the hardships humans undergo in the course of life. He endured pain, suffering

165
and disappointment repeatedly in his own life. In order to enable transformation to take place,

Dabrowski emphasizes the value of introspection. He claims that individuals cannot develop

themselves as humans if they forget to look within themselves. TPD offers an alternative to the

materialism of this world.

“. . . in developing countries, in Poland, in Germany, in Japan, USA, the man (sic) would
like to have not to be - not to develop - not to improve myself. I think that in 40 years
when the mankind will drop material values and the people will look to the idealistic
system of value. I think the people will render to the God and to some different kind of
ideas. When the man will have possibility to myself into, not outside” (Holyst, B.,
personal communication, August 7, 2001).

To many this message may seem far too idealistic. It is preferable, not mandatory, however, that

human beings when faced with crisis, resort to prayer and meditation. A “shake up” of their

world as recently experienced in the United States on September 11, 2001 at the World Trade

Center in New York, changes individuals - if even briefly. These crises bring out the best in

human beings. Medical personnel, rescue workers, clergy, ministers, and ordinary citizens

rushed to the scene to try to be of help. Unmindful of their own safety, a higher calling was

directing their actions. Cynics among us might ascribe this to false heroism or the wish to call

attention to themselves. Not many of us however, could sit back and not feel awe at the bravery

we witnessed. September 11, 2001 brought about a new wave - heretofore quite suppressed - of

patriotism. The rush for United States flags was so great that the country all but ran out. The

researcher believes what happened in the wake of the September 11 tragedy was a Dabrowskian

transformation. The life of the country was “shaken up” by crisis. Individuals began to turn to

their God - they began to pray. They began to look within. When was the last time this country

experienced a day of prayer?

166
Humility is a component of transformation. Dabrowski emphasizes in TPD, that the more we

“know, ” the more we realize we need to know. This is a component of reaching for the “higher”

and “better.” TPD is a constant “reaching.” The individual is aware that there is always room

for improvement. Responsibility for others becomes more and more apparent to the individual.

More can always be done to aid the “the other.” Dabrowski is described by many of his students

as, quiet, humble, somewhat “formal.” From the reports of his students and colleagues, when

acting as a researcher, Dabrowski could be a formidable force - demanding, and almost

impossible to keep pace with. Yet, each describes Dabrowski as gentle and comforting when he

was acting as the clinician and therapist. Many of his students went to him for private therapy.

Each one who spoke with me gave Dabrowski nothing but the highest praise when referring to

him as a physician. As a husband and father, Dabrowski presents as loving, proud, protective,

and appreciative. It appears that we are viewing a “good” man in Dabrowski - not perfect - but

one who cared about others.

The researcher contends that Dabrowski studied so many fields because he knew there was

always more to learn. He was searching to understand human beings. Thus, Dabrowski

approached this understanding from many perspectives - literature, philosophy, psychology,

psychiatry, education and music. Dexter Amend, Ph.D., psychologist and student of Dabrowski

tells us that Dabrowski was a pianist. He had considered pursuing a career in music. Dabrowski

- the man - often enjoyed playing the Chopin Concerto #1 (Amend, D., personal communication,

February 17, 2002). Dabrowski sought many avenues in which to get to know what makes

167
human truly human Dabrowski held great respect for the role of parents, teachers, therapists and

counselors in the lives of struggling patients. This respect indicates humility. Dabrowski was

not a pompous physician. He chose to work as a member of a team - with the parent, the teacher,

the therapist.

“There also comes into play, therefore, one of the most fundamental requisites for mental
health, the “team” requisite, . . . the role of at least some parents, tutors, teachers, and
physicians, becomes fundamental” (Dabrowski, 1973, pp.154,155).

Transformation in TPD occurs through the action of the third factor.

“ . . . the chief role belongs here (in inner psychic transformation) to the third factor. In
establishing the correspondence between interior and exterior stimuli the process of inner
psychic transformation always involves some active role of consciousness. . . The process
of inner psychic transformation is, therefore, a process by which is carried out the
elimination of all those reactions, habits, urges, mental structures which in the process of
developmental disintegration fail to agree with the personality structure. Especially
subject to elimination are those factors that do not fit in with the personality ideal . . . ”
(Dabrowski, 1970, p.74).

The level of consciousness of the individual rises due to stimulation of the cortex of the brain by

the fused developmental element of higher levels of emotional (particularly empathetic) and

cognitive function. The resulting elevated level of consciousness aids the individual in the ability

to choose what is morally good for him/her - what he/she ought to do. This choice, due to the

influence of empathy, favors consideration of the needs of others, rather than selfish needs.

Higher level consciousness enables higher levels of transformation to take place. This

transformational component which transcends biological and environmental endowments,

Dabrowski labels the third factor.

“At the cortical level we encounter a third type of nervous activity which is neither a
reaction to external stimuli nor a reaction to stimuli from internal organs. This has been
called “deliberate” nervous activity. At this level the stimulus, its psychic

168
 transformations, and the response can be entirely confined to the inner psychic milieu. . .
In other words, deliberate nervous activity is the resultant of actual stimuli, stimuli
evoked from affective memory, and prospective stimuli (looking ahead to aims, ideals
and future development yet to be accomplished.) The quality and extent of deliberate
nervous activity depends on the emergence of the so-called “autonomous factors.” Here
belong such dynamisms as the third factor, inner psychic transformation, autonomy and
authenticity, and in a more general way a hierarchy of values and aims. These factors, to
a varying degree, bring about an independence from the biological consequences of aging
or somatic cycles. (They) enable the individual to transcend the rigor of biological
factors” (Dabrowski, 1970, p.102).

Dabrowski’s writings contain much evidence of transformation within TPD.

“The sacrificing of oneself in work for others, developing in oneself the faculty of
looking at oneself as an object, leads to the transformation of one’s egocentrism into
alterocentric individualism, a factor or great importance in the structure of personality”
(Dabrowski, 1973, p. 114).

“One patient wrote this in his autobiography . . . “From these ‘spiritually bleeding’
struggles emerges a new force, a new truth, a new power which directs me. I feel that my
stored up experiences, sufferings, disturbances have been collected together and
employed by ‘new,’ higher forces which changed them, molded them, and have given
them a new meaning in my growth. How blessed are these transformations” (Dabrowski,
1972, p.132).

“ . . . in other words, they carry the potential for transformation of internal and external
stimuli. The dynamism of transformation activates and develops protective and
prophylactic forces against mental stagnation, stereotypes, and automatism” (Dabrowski,
1972, p.157).

“All those processes lead to the appearance and growth of the division between what is
“lower” and what is “higher,” between what is “less myself” and what is “more myself,”
between the dependent and inauthentic “I” and the autonomous and authentic “I.” This
process constitutes the foundation of basic transformations of the mental structure and of
the disappearance of one “personality” and the birth and development of another”
(Dabrowski, 1973, p. 35).

TPD is transformation. It is the journey out of self, toward the other. Without transformation,

TPD ceases to exist. It is through transformation that the individual develops personality -

perfection. The transformative process is the path from the what is to the what ought to be - the

169
struggle to the higher. It involves prospection, reflection, meditation, - a level of consciousness

which is raised through stimulation of the cortex by higher levels of fused mental (emotional and

intellectual) function. Higher levels of empathy “direct” the brain and thus, the individual, to

choose the unselfish path - to choose the path that will be beneficial to the welfare of others - to

choose the what ought to be. Wisdom is a sign of the transformative process.

“With the understanding of the deeper needs of others, with constant readiness to help,
with identification with others and profound empathy, comes peace of mind. Its mark is
an attitude of “syntonic” wisdom, understanding, kindness and generosity. What is
primitive is not approved of, neither is it condemned” (Dabrowski, 1970, p. 95).

“The higher the level of development, the broader, more universal and more complete is
one’s understanding of life and its different levels of reality; the broader and more
universal is identification with others and responsibility for them” (Dabrowski, 1970,
p.109).

“Dawid’s process of development of his personalty has led, in our opinion, to the
evolution of his wisdom. This wisdom was expressed in the combination of the faculty
of intelligence with empathy, and in his multidimensional and multilevel perception of
reality” (Dabrowski, 1972, p.193).

“Wittgenstein presents us with a case of restless wisdom. In the opinion of many he

maintained his wisdom in spite of his psychoneurosis, and in my opinion, because of his
psychoneurosis” (Dabrowski, 1972, p.194).

It is the development of wisdom which results in a feeling of peace and joy.

“The process of positive disintegration also shapes the “dramatic attitude toward life.”
Life becomes “thought,” experienced and not instinctive. On the stage, in art, and in
one’s own life, the problems of life, death, love, creativity, and development come to the
foreground. As expressed by Wyspianski, (a famous Polish poet) the individual is
conscious of the entire drama of life. He is actor and stage manager in the internal and
external play of changes, disappointments, and development” (Dabrowski, 1969, p.166).
The researcher contends that Dabrowski was a “wise” man. He was shrewd - utilizing the talents

of individuals to accomplish his own ends. Dabrowski possessed the power to “look within.” His

vast amount of writings attest to this. His poetry points to many hours spent in meditation.

170
Dabrowski was not level V, although he witnessed level V individuals and refers to them as

exemplars. Dabrowski described himself as level II or III. As previously pointed out, the

important point is that Dabrowski was “on the journey.”

An interview with a psychologist/student of Dabrowski, Dexter Amend, Ph.D., points to the

lasting, transformative effect of Dabrowski upon many of those closest to him.

“Dabrowski attempted to join the material with the spiritual. He tried to find ways to
concretize this concept, so that he could leave it to others. Dabrowski made real the most
sublime aspects - those which give meaning to life. His concepts of the spiritual came
from his own experience. Dabrowski had experience with meditation. He understood
Eastern philosophy. It’s the transcendence that’s so important in Dabrowski; ego
transcendence. He studied medicine, psychology, poetry, philosophy, music - every kind
of way he could to bring the spiritual to all, so that it could have meaning. He used the
field of psychology to bring forth the spiritual to all. He felt the spiritual dimension was
insufficiently addressed.

Dabrowski left a lifelong impact on all of us. The rest of our lives are given context by
the theory. In 1972, after the Montreal conference, we were all standing in the doorway
going over the conference. Dabrowski said to the group - “You think it’s interesting now,
wait til I die.” We were all influenced. We were all connected” (Amend, D., personal
communication, February 17, 2002).

Dabrowski found a way to merge the physical and the spiritual - a marriage of art and science.

Dabrowski spent much time in meditation. He had other ways of “knowing,” and he speaks

often of the value of intuition. The spiritual was key to him. Dabrowski was trying to

communicate the value of the spiritual in individual’s lives through the use of the material.

Dabrowski spent his entire life trying to figure out what makes human beings truly “human.” He

found that it is in their capacity to grow spiritually - higher within a spiritual hierarchy, and most

particularly, - in their capacity to possess empathy - in their capacity to love.

171
 Love

“I don’t know anything,

I don’t see anything.
I’m waiting patiently,
I’m waiting from afar with sobs.
I’m going enduringly.
I’m going through my will.
I’m struggling with my thoughts,
But I’m not capable of finding my way.
I’m waiting, existing, unconscious longing,
Oblivious to life and death”

(Cienin, n.d., circa 1970. Poemat filozoficzny # 112, Dabrowski file, National Archives of
Canada, series 789, MG 30, B88, Vol 6, 1).

Suggestions for Further Research

This study presents a first attempt in assembling the life and theory of Kazimierz Dabrowski. It

is meant to be a baseline and a springboard for future research. A number of gaps exist in the

presentation - in historical data as well as in theory interpretation. No doubt these gaps left the

reader with many unanswered questions. These unanswered questions will hopefully lead to the

birth of many additional studies. Some readers of this study will perhaps possess additional

pieces of information relating to personal history and understanding of the theory. The

researcher invites them to contribute their information in order to create a more comprehensive

study.

Specific unanswered questions raised by the researcher are:

1. Is Dabrowski linking psychic suffering with the Polish historical (romantic) concept of

suffering, as witnessed in the writings of Adam Mickiewicz ?

172
 2. It is of interest that Dabrowski chose the name Cienin for his pen-name. Cienin is

the Polish word for “shadow”. Was Dabrowski referring to Jung’s alter-ego, or was he

simply saying that the psychoneurotic individual struggling within the developmental

process remains in the “shadows” of this world?

3. What are the details of Dabrowski’s 1942 arrest, involving resistance member

Olzewski? How did Eugenia accomplish intercession with the Nazi officials to free her

husband in 1942?

4. Why is the grave of Dabrowski so “hidden” in the forests of Zagorze? Why are

neither of his wives buried next to him?

5. How did Dabrowski manage to arrange and accomplish so much foreign study? What

was the financial status of his family?

6. To the researcher, the most intriguing question remains - How did Dabrowski manage

to remain alive? The gravity of his repeated “crimes” in hiding mental patients, Jews,

members of the resistance, Polish soldiers and priests, would have been monumental in

the eyes of the Nazis. Individuals were shot for crimes of much less significance. How

then did Dabrowski manage to be released after arrest and imprisonment - not only once,

but several times? Was it luck? Did he escape? Or did he possess connections to higher

ups in the government?

Archival records in Poland are finally in the hands of qualified Polish archivists and historians

who realize their value. The researcher found the Poles eager to assemble the scattered

documents containing their history. Monumental work remains. The researcher visited Polish

173
archives containing rooms full of historical papers reaching from floor to ceiling. In many cases

this mammoth task was the sole responsibility of one or two archivists. Polish researchers are

thrilled just to have the opportunity to work with these documents. Therefore the researcher

returned from Poland with a feeling of confidence that this task will be accomplished. As

progress is made in this effort, additional pieces of historical data will become available to add to

this study and to fill in gaps. The researcher herself intends to continue this effort. Several

Polish historians and archivists have agreed to avail the researcher of additional historical

information as it becomes available.

Additional topics remaining open for further discussion and research:

a. Dabrowski’s love of the existentialists, in particular, Kierkegaard and Jaspers open the

way for further research. Kierkegaard’s hierarchical approach within an existentialist

environment of suffering point to the “fear and trembling” of the TPD psychoneurotic.

b. A deep study of Von Monakow would be helpful in exploring the presence of “klisis”

and “ekklisis” within TPD.

c. Hughlings Jackson presents opportunities for further research into TPD as a theory of

evolutionary development.

d. Dabrowski died before the birth of the Transpersonal Psychology movement. It would

be of value to research Dabrowski’s use of humanistic psychology and study its

relationship to transpersonal psychology.

e. An in-depth study of the similarities between the philosophy used by Karol Wojtyla

(Pope John Paul II) and Dabrowski suggest research possibilities.

f. Research focused on Dabrowski’s signs in the recognition of

174
totalitarianism/dictatorship would be invaluable to the prevention of future world

genocide.

g. The researcher could locate but a handful of psychologists who apply the theory in their

practice. Perhaps a study could be formulated to determine a more exact number both

domestically and abroad. Ideas from current users of the theory may lead to additional

research.

h. Adult Learning/Human Resource Development, the home field of the researcher,

affords research opportunities in the realm of education of the adult learner. Perhaps

study of TPD may lead to suggestions for lessening the fear and anxiety of the adult

learner who is returning to school?

i. Dabrowski himself stated that additional work remains in order to verify the

“empiricalness” of the theory of positive disintegration. Statistical analysis of his

research remains to be finished.

j. Much translation work remains in order to avail the works of Kazimierz Dabrowski to

more researchers. The Dabrowski file housed within the National Archives of Canada

contains ten volumes of Dabrowski’s papers, correspondence and writings. One third is

written in French, one third is in Polish and one third is in English. Reams of

untranslated poetry await translation. Perhaps some scholar will assemble an anthology

of Dabrowski’s poetry.

k. Dabrowski wrote a 131 page English sequel to Existential Thoughts and Aphorisms

(Cienin,1972). Entitled Confessions of Faith in Thoughts and Aphorisms (n.d., circa

1970), the document awaits publication.

175
Dabrowski and his works have remained hidden in the “shadows” for too long. The researcher

challenges those interested in Dabrowski’s theory to publish. Failure to publish will result in

death of the theory. Dabrowski deserves to be exposed so that his hard academic work and

personal achievements will not have been in vain.

Conclusion

The researcher - through a qualitative research method, employing a hermeneutic historical

approach - has tried to render the theory of positive disintegration more understandable through a

study of Kazimierz Dabrowski - the man. Likewise, the researcher has attempted to illuminate

the life of Dabrowski - the man, through a study of his writings and his theory.

Returning to the premise of Leon Edel, in Literary Biography (1959,) namely that the life of a

subject can be viewed in his written word, the researcher was able to uncover the man -

Dabrowski - through a “deep” reading of his theory and writings. Dabrowski’s writings, books,

and poetry reveal his human (physical and psychological) suffering as well as the depth of his

personal empathy. Dabrowski’s theory reveals a resonance with the fields of humanistic and

transpersonal psychology accompanied by a message of social action. These concepts

emphasize the preciousness of human dignity and freedom, as well as the need to educate society

in the recognition of “one-sided development.” Individuals who develop intellectually without

an accompanying development in emotions (particularly empathy) can exploit the dignity and

freedom of others in order to further their own selfish ends. Dabrowski in his transpersonal

message of TPD, offers an alternative message - emphasizing diminishment of personal ego.

176
This ego diminishment is accompanied by an elevation in consciousness level, resulting in a

reflective, perspective, personal choice to select that which is morally “better,” higher for the

individual. This personal decision results in a transformational change to that of a better, higher,

human being - one who exhibits an increase in empathy towards others. In the course of this

developmental process, the individual journeys along the path to Personality (self-perfection.)

From Dabrowski’s writings, the researcher was able to appreciate Dabrowski’s great personal

respect for human love and friendship. This theme takes on one of deep significance, answering

Dabrowski’s lifelong question as to what it was that made a human being truly human.

Dabrowski’s answer stands out clearly in his life and writings. It is the ability of human beings

to empathize - to consider the welfare of others at least as important, if not more important, than

their own welfare. Dabrowski was a very private individual. However, he left a legacy of deep

understanding of the human condition - the value of suffering and the power of human choice -

within his theory, within his writings, and most especially - within his poetry. It is within the

TPD concept of multilevelness that the researcher was able to gain a glimpse of Dabrowski - the

genius. Separate from the psyche of Dabrowski, multilevelness describes a unique theory of

human development - one which is as variable and unique as the human beings who grow within

its developmental journey.

Deepening understanding of the theory through better understanding of the man, the researcher

uncovered many facets of Dabrowski the father, psychologist, psychiatrist, philosopher, educator,

and poet, which shaped the theory. Dabrowski’s deep religious roots contribute greatly to the

spirituality of the theory. His Polish heritage accounts for a spirit of willingness to suffer, evident

177
in the theory of positive disintegration. Dabrowski’s personal life demonstrated the struggle

between the “what is” and the “what ought to be.” He was continually trying to make things

better - risking his life to establish a system of mental health care in Poland. Dabrowski

personally struggled within his own theory, labeling himself a schizophrenic. He appreciated the

struggle of others on the road of development, giving birth to the concept - Psychoneurosis is Not

An Ilness.

Until the researcher “journeyed in Dabrowski’s footsteps” in Poland, it was difficult for the her

to fully appreciate the depth and beauty of TPD. Personal connection to the religion, literature,

history, politics, people, and soil of Poland spoke louder than any words. The researcher learned

that there are many ways of “knowing” other than the intellectual. Moving in and out of the

environment, the researcher related pieces of data to the whole of the body of research

information. This hermeneutic “dance” enabled her to formulate a deeper awareness of

Dabrowski - the man, and his theory. The hermeneutic approach provided the researcher a means

through which the “voice” of Dabrowski could “speak” to the reader. Since it was the purpose of

the researcher to render the theory of Dabrowski more understandable, it is now her sincere hope

that further study and research will be encouraged and embraced as a result of these efforts.

178
The researcher ends with a quote from Kawczak (co-author and friend of Dabrowski) - a quote

which underscores the deep value of TPD, as well as a closing poem by Dabrowski:

“Our encounter was for both of us a blessing. I never cease to be impressed with the
writings of Dabrowski - so subtle, so insightful, so beautiful. He was a genius. With the
passing of years, I am more and more impressed with this theory. That doesn’t mean I
agree with every bit of it. But I am impressed by its genius and by its beauty” (Kawczak,
personal communication, June 24, 2001).

A Voice From Far Away

It’s not time yet.

It’s not time
Between you; between the continuity of consciousness.
There is a dark forest.
It’s already thinning out;
There’s already light coming through.
But around you - night.

From far away slowly comes dawn.

But around you, but right near you,
Creeps the unknown -
The unknown is closing in on you.
Endure; tighten up; there’s a far away dawn-
It’s knocking on the window.

(Excerpt of poem found w ithin a file of philosophica l poetry (Po emat filozoficzny #112) written by Cienin, found in
the Dabrowski file of the National Archives of Canada, MG 30 B88, Vol.6;4; translation from the Polish by E.
Mika.)

179
 Appendix A - Glossary of Terms

Adjustment - The common notion of adjustment is one of conformity with social norms. To
adjust usually means to “fit in” or to find the “best fit.” An adjusted individual is thought to be a
mentally healthy individual. Dabrowski holds an entirely different stance on adjustment. To
Dabrowski the developmental individual is mentally healthy. The non-developmental individual
in mentally ill. Therefore adjust breaks down into the following categories:

positive adjustment - within TPD means a conscious decision to choose what is of value
to the developmental process. This choice may very well go against social environmental
norms or standards. The individual is advancing toward perfection of his/her essence.
Value laden choices consciously taken, move the individual from the “what is” toward
the “what ought to be.”

negative adjustment - within TPD means a lack of conscious decision to proceed and
progress in the developmental process. To a “TPD outsider, ” this may appear to be
social adjustment. However, to Dabrowski this is simple conformity without “an
independent critical evaluation” (Dabrowski, 1970, p.162) and therefore, is indicative of
lack of developmental process. The individual is happy to remain at the “what is.”

positive maladjustment - a Dabrowskian paradoxical term meaning partial acceptance of

the social environmental norm with a conscious decision to move in the direction of the
developmental “what ought to be.” A good example of this is Dabrowski’s decision and
action to remain seated while the Soviet national anthem was played at a Polish cultural
event. He remained quiet, however, he refused to acknowledge the prevailing communist
regime. (Nelson, conference proceedings, 2000)

negative maladjustment - this is a rejection of social environmental norms but not for a
developmental purpose, “but rather because of one’s subordination to primitive urges and
nondevelopmental, pathologically deformed structures and functions” (Dabrowski, 1970,
p.163). According to Dabrowski, negative maladjustment in an “extreme state” may
result in criminal activity or psychosis.

Astonishment with oneself - one of the first developmental dynamisms to appear; it denotes
surprise with one’s mental functioning. It also involves surprise and wonder at the behavior of
others. Primarily involving the intellect, this dynamism points out the fact that the individual is
entering into a reflective, critical process. It is usually in found in company with disquietitude
with oneself and discontent with oneself.

Authenticity - a sign of independence from lower instinctive inclinations. It lacks the

developmental transformative factors present in authentism.

180
Authentism - a sign of the developmental process. It involves a conscious, reflective decision to
act in accordance with the dictates of one’s inner psychic milieu. Authentism involves the
transformative process. Developmental movement is in evidence responsible for the formation
of a new, unique, empathetic human essence.

Autonomy - results from the operation of the third factor. It is a conscious separation from the
influences of the external environment in order for the individual to possess the freedom to make
developmental choices.

Autopsychotherapy - acting as a supplement to the transformative process, autopsychotherapy

is the dynamism which combines with empathy to suppress ego and act in support of “other.”
The psychotherapeutic function is one of lack of concentration on oneself and shift to concern for
“other.” In this way, a self-healing process occurs. Autopsychotherapy combines with
education-of-oneself by way of subject-object-in-oneself. The individual steps outside of
him/herself to become teacher to the student of him/herself. In this way, a therapeutic process of
self-healing and self-direction begins.

Creative Dynamisms - these dynamisms result from inner creative conflict - conflict which is
results in introspection, self-doubt, guilt, shame, feelings of inferiority toward oneself and
dissatisfaction with oneself. They act together to propel the individual into an inner crisis which
can result in a lower level transformation. This transformation is best witnessed by creative
expression in the arts - music, dance, painting, literature etc. However, it can also result in
transformation of understanding - in science or the academic milieu.

Developmental instinct - the human instinct which naturally propels an individual towards the
developmental process. In line with Dabrowski’s evolutionary component of TPD, this instinct
endows individuals with the inclination to look towards perfection as a desirable end. The
activity of developmental instinct changes with regard to the level of development; thus pushing
harder at higher levels of development. Dabrowski admitted to some (very few) individuals
bereft of this instinct. He cited “imbeciles, idiots” (Dabrowski, 1970, p.164). All others do
possess it, and this capability lends hopefulness to TPD.

Developmental Potential - a threefold essential component of TPD. Developmental potential is

the ability endowed upon the individual through 1. biological (genetic) endowment, 2.
environmental (social - family, community, school, political, national etc) endowment and milieu
and 3. the third factor - the conscious, reflective, transformational developmental component
which results in the choice to transcend the biological and environmental endowments and move
forward developmentally from the “what is” to the “what ought to be.”

Disintegration - a loosening, breaking down of the present mental structure. It develops in a

hierarchal fashion as do all TPD dynamisms and developmental components.

Unilevel disintegration - present in Level II - horizontal, ambivalent breakdown.

181
 Episodes of joy or sadness result in movement both towards and away from the stimulus.
Thinking occurs as a circular process. The breaking down is due to external rather than
internal forces. There is little if any conscious reflection and a lack of transformation.
Dynamisms present are ambivalences and ambitendencies, realizations that something is
not quite right, but not much knowledge as to what to do about it.

Multilevel disintegration - present in Level III and Level IV. Multilevel disintegration
proceeds vertically rather than the horizontal movement of Level II. Multilevel
disintegration is subdivided into Spontaneous multilevel disintegration and Organized
multilevel disintegration.

Spontaneous multilevel disintegration - present in Level III. Spontaneous multilevel

disintegration is a “war zone.” It is characterized by raging conflict - external and
particularly internal. The individual is forming realization of the “what is” vs the “what
ought to be.” He/she comes to the conscious realization that the choice to move in the
direction of the “what ought to be”, effecting transformational, developmental growth in
up to him/her. They dynamisms of “positive maladjustment, astonishment with oneself,
feelings of shame and guilt, disquietude with oneself, feeling of inferiority toward
oneself, and dissatisfaction with oneself ”(Dabrowski, 1996, p. 19) are present at this
developmental level.

Organized multilevel disintegration - present in Level IV. This is a calmer, more

tranquil disintegration characterized by conscious reflection, perspection, and
transformation confirmed in the choice to move from the “what is” toward the “what
ought to be.” The third factor , the factor of transformational transcendence over
individual biological and environmental endowments, becomes active and apparent.
Empathy takes a lead role, joined by subject-object in oneself, inner psychic
transformation, self-awareness, self-education, auto-psychotherapy, responsibility and
self-perfection. The individual is able to see himself/herself as others see him/her, within
the context of empathy. “There are people out there who need me and for whom I can do
some good; I am wasting my time and shirking my responsibility by sitting her navel
gazing, concentrating on my own fears” (Hague, 1986,p.128).

Disposing and directing center - a dynamism which does exactly what it says - disposes and
directs decision making, aligning individual decisions with the developmental path. The
disposing and directing center develops hierarchally, just as every other dynamism within TPD.
At a unilevel, it simply reacts to primitive drives and external conflicts. While in spontaneous
and multilevel disintegration it becomes an integral part of the inner psychic milieu. Here it
guides valuative choices toward actions which result from a conscious, reflective, responsible,
empathetic movement toward self-perfection. It can be thought of as a directive aid on the
journey from the “what is” towards the “what ought to be.”

Disquietude with oneself - a dynamism which denotes uneasiness, a feeling that all is not right

182
with myself, particularly in my choices and actions. It is an early appearing dynamism, apparent
at the transition from level II to level III. It is accompanied by dissatisfaction with oneself. Guilt
and shame are directed inward. A sense of uneasy examination of self with regard to blame.

Dissatisfaction with oneself - an emotional component of self blame is forming. It is somewhat

more than a feeling of uneasiness. Here, actual dislike of one’s mental functions and choices
emerges.

Drive - a strong instinctual pull possessing intensity.

Dynamism - “intra-psychic factors of positive disintegration . . . which shape development and

the expression of behavior” (Dabrowski, 1996, p. 13). “Kawczak (1970) called dynamisms
“psychological compounds which unite intellectual and intuitive insights with affective
involvement and commitment”” (Dabrowski, 1977, p. 37). A clinician uses the appearance of
these psychological “markers” to map out the developmental progress of an individual.

Education- of- Oneself - see Autopsychotherapy.

Empathy - a dynamism which denotes ability of an individual to intellectually and emotionally

“feel” and understand the pain of another human being. Empathy has a conscious, reflective,
transformational component within TPD. It is the leaving “self” and reaching out to the “other.”
Empathy is critical in the developmental process from the “what is” to the “what ought to be.” It
is differentiated from syntony, a superficial, non-transformational, external awareness of the
suffering of others.

Essentialism - that which constitutes the inner core of the individual - those qualities which are
unchanging and render an individual who he/she is. Without these qualities the individual would
cease to be who he/she is (e.g. Chopin would not be Chopin without his music.) In human
development “essence is attainable as a self-chosen, self-determined, gradually shaped structure
of mental qualities, attitudes, commitments, interests, concerns, and projects” (Dabrowski, 1970,
p.16).

Expiative suffering - redemptive suffering which washes away the guilt of sin and renders us
clean.

Guilt - this is expiative guilt. It is directed inwardly rather than outwardly with external blame.
Guilt thus used in TPD, is very different from Freud’s negative concept of guilt. Dabrowski
claims guilt is “an indispensable factor in development” (Dabrowski, 1970, p.xvii). In TPD,
“guilt has a tendency to transform itself into a feeling of responsibility” (Dabrowski, 1970, p.
xvi). It is the first step in viewing pain and suffering as valuable.

Inferiority toward oneself - this dynamism denotes realization by the individual that he/she is
functioning at the “what is” rather than the “what ought to be.” Many times this dynamism is

183
particularly strong in a situation where the individual has “slipped back” somewhat rather than
moved to a higher level. It usually operates in the company of subject-object in oneself. A
process of critical reflection and examination takes place and in the individual’s eyes, he/she fails
to “measure up.”

Inner psychic milieu - the “internal mental environment” (Dabrowski, 1970, p. 170) of the
individual. It is the internal “mental organ” aiding conscious transformational responses to
external and internal conflicts at the higher levels of positive disintegration. The inner psychic
milieu is the internal control center, exhibiting progressively developing dynamisms along with
the level of development attained.

Integration - a “dynamic equilibrium” (Dabrowski, 1970, p. 171). This is a very stable, content
state. It constitutes two levels of TPD.

Primary integration - Level I in TPD - a state of contentment which is characterized by

selfishness and lack of concern for others. Self is primary to the point that blame here is
hardly ever placed on the individual. Blame lies external to the individual - it rests on
parents, environment, others. Guilt is not present. Empathy is non-existent. Here dwell
Dabrowski’s psychopaths - Hitler, Stalin, Trujillo.

Secondary integration - Level V in TPD - a state of great joy and peace. The individual
has moved from the “what is” to the “what ought to be.” The raging conflict along the
journey of development has faded to a memory. Self-perfection, empathy, responsibility,
authentism are present in a highly developed state. The individual experiences empathy
and responsibility to the point that he/she would willingly give his/her life to alleviate the
suffering of another.

Mental health - in TPD - the state of developmental progression from the “what is” to the “what
ought to be.” To the outsider (outside of TPD), the developing individual may appear nervous,
agitated, depressed, withdrawn - exhibiting outward signs associated with the common, outside
of TPD understanding of mental illness. Dabrowski changed the definition of mental health by
180 degrees. To be torn between the “what is” and the “what ought to be,” causes an individual
to be, in Dabrowskian terms, psychoneurotic - nervous, anxious, internally directed. To
Dabrowski psychoneurosis is a good state, not a bad state. It indicates that an individual is
involved in a conscious, transformational, conflict-laden, developmental process. Hence,
emerges a major premise in TPD, namely, “Psychoneurosis is not an illness.” In TPD terms, the
individual defined by other than TPD standards as mentally healthy, may indeed appear so
because he/she is not involved in the external and internal conflicts of the developmental
struggle. These individuals, to Dabrowski, are developmentally mentally ill.

Mental illness - explained with mental health; lack of involvement in the developmental process.

Overexcitability - “tragic gifts” bestowed on an individual by which he/she feels and

184
experiences the joys, sufferings and tragedies of everyday life. There are five typologies of
overexcitabilities - sensual, psychomotor, imaginational, intellectual and emotional. The last
three - imaginational, intellectual and emotional are most associated with the developmental
process. All can be present or observed in the creative process.

Personality - “Personality is a self-chosen, self-confirmed and self-educating mental structure”

(Dabrowski, 1970, p.174). It is the evolving human essence which is involved in a conscious,
transformational, developmental process of self-perfection, moving away from the “what is” and
toward the “what ought to be.” Personality is the result of the fusion of intellect and emotion to
form mental functions which are capable of critically assessing and arriving at a concept of a
valuative hierarchal scheme. Conscious reflective choice results in developmental
transformation which is responsible for actually changing the essence of the individual to a
better/higher, unique, empathetic, responsible, authentic new human essence. Personality is the
process of becoming a new, higher level, empathetic human person.

Personality ideal - a standard of “what ought to be” in terms of one’s essence. It is the self-
perfected self, the full realization of a fully developed, empathetic, responsible, authentic, ideal
human essence.

Psychoneurosis - a human condition exhibiting outward signs of the developmental process in

progress. To outsiders of TPD, this condition appears as a state of mental illness. There is
anxiety, nervousness, agitation, depression, inferiority, sometimes to the point of suicidal
tendencies. What is occurring within TPD, is a clash between the external and the internal
milieu. Conflicts rage. A person at internal war is battling for survival. Dabrowski’s conception
of schizophrenia lies within this positive conception of psychoneurosis. It is the struggle of an
individual torn between the “what is” and the “what ought to be.” TPD espouses Dabrowski’s
claim that “Psychoneurosis is not an illness.”

Regression - this term may be used in TPD as positive regression, another seemingly
paradoxical term. Dabrowski denotes positive regression to be a temporary return to a less
mature emotional state. This backward emotional movement permits an individual to re-visit, re-
learn, deepen and strengthen his/her emotional maturity. Sometimes this emotional return is
necessary, particularly when a higher developmental state is in danger of disintegration due to
external pressure. Positive regression is often important in the creative process.

Responsibility - a developmental dynamism, which like all developmental dynamisms, proceeds

to intensify and deepen as an individual ascends through the levels of development.
Responsibility is a deep understanding that the individual cares in increasing levels for the
“other.” This deepening through the developmental process proceeds to the point that the life of
the “other” becomes more precious to the individual than his/her own. This highest level of
developmental responsibility is seen in the action of Janusz Korczak, when he remained with his
orphans and accompanied them to the crematorium. It is also apparent in Maximilian Kolbe, a
Polish priest imprisoned at Auschwitz, who willingly exchanged places with a father of five

185
selected for extermination.

Schizophrenia - when used by Dabrowski as a form of psychoneurosis, as contrasted to paranoid

schizophrenia, defined by Dabrowski as a “type of schizophrenia characterized by delusions of
persecution, or delusions of power, or both” (Dabrowski,1972, p. 300). Schizophrenia as a form
of psychoneurosis, describes an individual living in a state of constant conflict within the pull
and tug of the “what is” vs the “what ought to be.” Schizophrenia as psychoneurosis is regarded
by Dabrowski as a good thing - a sign of the existence of the developmental process at work.

Shame - a tendency to hide away, due to an individual’s sense of guilt. It is one of the earliest
dynamisms, appearing in Level II. It is usually accompanied by guilt, dissatisfaction with
oneself, and inferiority toward others. Shame is conflict with the external and has no real
transformative properties. It paves the way for future developmental dynamisms.

Subject-object in oneself - this dynamism gives an individual the resources to look objectively
upon him/herself and see him/herself as others see him/her. This examination is a critical,
reflective evaluation, more cognitive than emotional. It appears in correlation with the third
factor, the personality ideal, and the disposing and directing center. It is a transformative
developmental dynamism, responsible for upward developmental movement.

Syntony - an external, non-transformative, low level capacity to acknowledge the suffering of

others. Syntony is used as counter to empathy, which is a transformational, developmental
dynamism seen in the progression from the “what is” to the “what ought to be.”

The Third Factor - Dabrowski’s answer to those who accuse his theory as being elitist. The
third factor is the third component of developmental potential - the transformative factor of
conscious, reflective and perspective choice which transcends individual biological (genetic) and
environmental (social milieu) endowments. The result of this transcendence is the upward
(vertical) movement in the developmental process from the “what is” to the “what ought to be.”
This movement holds as its objective, self-perfection - the development of a unique, empathetic,
responsible, authentic human essence, which Dabrowski defines as Personality Ideal.

TPD - The Theory of Positive Disintegration.

Will - In TPD the concept of will changes throughout the developmental process. It develops, as
do almost all TPD concepts. Will in primary integration is primitive drive. In unilevel
disintegration it breaks up into several disagreeing wills. As the will progresses through the
developmental process it
“becomes more and more independent from primitive drives. Its role is
fulfilled by the emerging new dynamism of the disposing and directing center. At still
higher stages of development the “will” is unified with and integrated in personality”
(Dabrowski, 1970, p. 180).

186
“what is” vs “what ought to be” - the struggle between that which is higher (better) for the
individual vs that which is lower (less good) for the individual; in Personality development - that
which is more I vs that which is less I.

187
 Appendix B - Glossary of key names referred to in the dissertation

Amend, Dexter, Ph.D., psychologist in Mead, Washington; student of Dabrowski.

Dabrowski, Anna - daughter of Dabrowski and Eugenia

Dabrowski, Eugenia - second wife of Dabrowski (deceased)

Duda, Norbert, Ph.D., licensed psychologist; student of Dabrowski at Laval University in

Canada.

Grynberg, Henrik, Polish poet and Auschwitz survivor; furnished contact numbers for Adam
Zych, Ph.D.

Hague, William, Ph. D., psychologist, professor of psychology, department of Educational

Psychology, University of Alberta, Canada; student of Dabrowski at the University of Alberta

Kawczak, Andrew, LL.M., Ph.D., professor of philosophy of science Loyola University of

Montreal, Canada, professor and director, department of philosophy Concordia University,
Canada ; co-author with Dabrowski of Mental Growth through Positive Disintegration (1970)
and The Dynamics of Concepts (1973).

Kuwalek, Robert Ph. D., historian and archivist at Majdanek concentration camp outside Lublin,
Poland.

Lesniak, Francis, Th.D., Ps.D., psychotherapist and professor Laval University at Quebec,
Canada, director Institute of Moral Development, Catholic University of Lublin, Poland; student
and close friend of Dabrowski.

Mika, Elizabeth, M.A., psychologist, educated in Poland, now living in Chicago, Illinois; special
interest in poetry, and in Dabrowski; employed in testing children to assess giftedness.

Moyle, Vicky, M.A., psychologist; Dabrowski researcher; Grand Junction, Colorado.

Nelson, Thomas, Ph. D., head of the psychology department at the University of Alberta who
hired Dabrowski.

Piechowski, Michael, Ph.D., microbiologist; co-author of Mental Growth through Positive

Disintegration (1973), Multilevelness in Positive Disintegration (1996).

Rankel, Marlene, Ph. D., psychologist, professor of psychology, department of educational

psychology, University of Alberta; student and research assistant of Dabrowski.

188
Sheridan, Sylvia Ph. D., professor of biology; friend of Dabrowski and the Dabrowski family.

Tillier, William, MA psychologist, student of Dabrowski; Calgary, Alberta, Canada.

Yiercrysnki, Joanna, Ph. D., historian and archivist, Pawiak prison Warsaw, Poland.

Zych, Adam Ph.D., friend of Dabrowski, dean of the psychology department of the Pedagogical
University in Kielce, Poland.

189
 Appendix C

“Walking in the footsteps” of Dabrowski

The Research Path

Source Outcome Key people met

Dabrowski e-mail list, Dabrowski newsletter William Tillier, M.A.
International Tillier bio of Dabrowski (not official) Andrew Kawczak,
Organization Dabrowski bibliography listing works housed in Ph.D., L.L.M.
the National Archives of Canada Michael Piechowski,
“connection” to co-authors, students, colleagues of Ph.D.
Dabrowski Norbert Duda, Ph.D.
William Hague, Ph. D.
Marlene Rankel, Ph.D.
Tom Nelson, Ph.D.
4th Biennial Symposium sponsored by the International William Tillier, M.A.
Advanced Dabrowski Organization Andrew Kawczak,
Symposium I presented a paper on the origins of Dabrowski’s Ph.D., L.L.M.
on theory and a short bio on Dabrowski Norbert Duda, Ph.D.
Dabrowski’s I came away with a multitude of contacts and Marlene Rankel, Ph.D.
Theory “connections” to the members of the Dabrowski William Hague, Ph.D.
Mt. group and especially to the “inner circle,” Tom Nelson, Ph.D.
Tremblant, Dabrowski’s closest colleagues, co-authors and Dexter Amend, Ph.D.
Canada students.
Rockefeller letters between Dabrowski and the Rockefeller
Foundation Foundation spanning the war years
Archives biographical information card on Dabrowski
Holocaust Kulisiewicz file of culture within the Nazi
Memorial concentration camps
Museum “camp” poems written by a Kazimierz Dabrowski
Archive
Washington,
D.C.

190
 Source Outcome Key people met
Library of works of Dabrowski Ronald Bachman, Ph.D.
Congress valuable information on Polish research given to
Wash, D.C. me by the Polish expert
in particular, lead to Henrik Grynberg and Adam Zych Ph.D.
the European
Reading
Room
Call to Henrik Dr. Bachman gave me Mr. Grynberg’s name and Mr. Grynberg did not
Grynberg, number. Mr. Grynberg is a Polish poet and know K. Dabrowski, but
McLean, Auschwitz survivor who frequents the European he did give me professor
Virginia Reading Room at the Library of Congress. Mr. Adam Zych’s address
Grynberg’s poems are published in the Zych and phone number.
anthology along with “a” Kazimierz Dabrowski
Call to Adam Although Dr. Zych (dean of the psychology
Zych, Ph.D., department of the Pedagogical University in
Kielce, Kielce, Poland) did know Kazimierz Dabrowski
Poland (1902-1980.) However, Zych told me this K.
Dabrowski was not ever in Auschwitz.
National Dabrowski file - ten volumes (each a 4' by 1' by 1'
Archives of box) filled with books and papers written by
Canada - Dabrowski
Ottawa, Undiscovered poetry
Canada Undiscovered sequel to Existential Thoughts and
Aphorisms (Cienin, 1972)
researcher was first to access this file; required
permission from the family of Kazimierz
Dabrowski.
University of many books and writings of Dabrowski not
Warsaw available in the United States
Library and
archive
Warsaw,
Poland
The National Basically an archival library, this library houses
Library old books and manuscripts of Dabrowski
Warsaw,
Poland

191
 Source Outcome Key people met
Archive of documentation of Dabrowski’s imprisonment from Joanna Yiercynski,
Pawiak prison February 20 through February 25, 1942. Ph.D., historian and
Warsaw, archivist;
Poland will continue to research
and notify me if further
findings surface.
Archive of no documentation available
Szucha prison
Warsaw,
Poland
Majdanek two hour private tour of camp, in English Robert Kuwalek, Ph.D.,
concentration explanation of Operation AB historian; will continue
camp, Lublin, camp housed Polish intelligentsia and resistance to research and notify
Poland (political prisoners) me if further findings
surface.
Catholic university where Dabrowski studied and taught Malgorzata Tatala,
University of Institute of developmental psychology which Ph.D.
Lublin (KUL) teaches Dabrowski as part of the curriculum;
Lublin, established by Father Francis Lesniak, Th.D.,
Poland Ps.D., student of Dabrowski and psychoanalyst
Auschwitz tour of camp W.P., historian and
concentration opportunity to meet with Polish researcher and archivist;
camp archivist working on Dabrowski research I sent to will continue to research
Oswiecim, him from the United States. and will notify me if
Poland Had a vague reference to imprisonment at Gross further findings surface.
Rosen camp near Wadowice. W.P. gave me
address for Gross Rosen and address for German
concentration camp archives in Germany.
Gross Rosen I wrote to the camp and received notification that Will notify me of
concentration there is no record of Kazimierz Dabrowski (1902 - further findings.
camp; 1980) being imprisoned there.
Wadowice,
Poland

192
 Source Outcome Key people met
Service Wrote to inquire about imprisonment record of
International Kazimierz Dabrowski (1902-1980.) Received
de letter back dated September 10, 2001 - My inquiry
Recherches was received August 23, 2001. Ask for patience
International in receiving an answer.
Tracing
Service
Deutschland
Montelupich two locations; one for Nazi occupation archives; met with one Polish
prison one for Russian occupation archives. There I archivist at the Nazi
archive, viewed the “floor to ceiling” documents awaiting archive location and two
Krakow, filing. Came away with a real appreciation of the Polish archivists at the
Poland task at hand for Poland. No verification of K. Russian archive
Dabrowski (1902-1980) imprisonment. location. All will
continue to research and
inform me if additional
information surfaces.
Zagorze, found grave-site of Kazimierz Dabrowski
Poland “hidden” proximate to “hidden” Institute of
Mental Health located in the Marianska Puszcza
(virgin forest.)
Had to hike several miles in dense forest to find
the grave.

193
 Interviews on The Research Path

Interview Interview Source Information

Interview with Dr. Holyst, a professor, is the current president of the Polish Society
Brunon Holyst, for Mental Health founded by Kazimierz Dabrowski
Ph.D.; August 7,
2001
Warsaw, Poland
Phone interview Dr. Sheridan was a graduate student in biology when she and
with Sylvia Kazimierz Dabrowski met. Dr. Sheridan was a frequent visitor of the
Sheridan, Ph.D.;July Dabrowski family in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
4, 2001
Phone interview Professor of philosophy of science Loyola University of Montreal,
with Andrew Canada, professor and director, department of philosophy Concordia
Kawczak, Ph.D., Univ, Canada. Dr. Kawczak co-authored Mental Growth through
LL.M., June 24, Positive Disintegration (1970).
2001
Phone interview Professor of microbiology at the University of Alberta, Edmonton,
with Michael Canada - Dr. Piechowski co-authored several works with K. Dabrowski
Piechowski, Ph.D.; including Mental Growth through Positive Disintegration (1970) and
September 3, 2001 Multilevelness of Emotional and Instinctive Functions (1996).
Phone interview Professor and researcher in Edmonton, Alberta; Dr. Rankel was a
with Marlene student of K. Dabrowski and a researcher on his research team.
Rankel, Ph.D.; Nov
18, 2001
Phone interview Licensed psychologist and student of K. Dabrowski; Dr. Duda
with Norbert Duda, currently uses the theory of positive disintegration in his private
Ph.D.; Oct 20, 2001 clinical practice.

E-mail interview Professor and psychologist - Dr. Hague uses positive disintegration in
with William his clinic practice. Dr. Hague has published many articles and books
Hague, Ph.D.; Oct 1, on the subject of moral development, including the theory of positive
2001 disintegration.

194
 Interview Interview Source Information
Written letter Professor and psychoanalyst in Hull, Canada; Dr. Lesniak teaches
interview with positive disintegration to students and uses the theory in his clinical
Francis Lesniak, practice. Dr. Lesniak teaches and practices in Canada as well as in
Th.D., Ps.D.; Aug Lublin, Poland at K.U.L. (Catholic Univ of Lublin). Dr. Lesniak was a
30, 2000; Oct 6, student and a friend of Kazimierz Dabrowski.
2001
Elizabeth Mika, Ms. Mika is a poet as well as practitioner in testing of children for
M.A. psychology; giftedness. Ms. Mika grew up in Poland and has contributed
Jan 26, 2000 translation of many of the writings and poetry of Kazimierz
Dabrowski. The researcher spent a weekend at her home outside
Chicago translating Dabrowski.
William Tillier, Mr. Tillier is a psychologist in Edmonton, Alberta. He acts as
M.A., psychology; administrator of the Dabrowski web site and on line discussion group.
February 3, 1999 Mr. Tillier furnished the researcher with countless contributions in the
way of documents, e-mails, Dabrowski books, and information.
Dexter Amend, Dr. Amend is a psychologist in Mead, Washington. He was a student
Ph.D.; February 17, of Dabrowski as well as a researcher on Dabrowski’s research team.
2002

195
 References

Primary Published References

* indicates archival data

Cienin, P. (pen-name of Dabrowski, K.) (1972a). Existential Thoughts and Aphorisms. London:
Gryf Publications LTD.

Cienin, P. (pen-name of Dabrowski, K.) (1972b). Fragments From the Diary of a Madman.
London: Gryf Publications LTD.

*Dabrowski, K. (1933). Znaczenie wieku w klinice i patologii parkinsonizmu pospiaczkowego.

Neruolgia Polska, 1, pp.52-59.

*Dabrowski, K. (1934). Podstawy Psychologiczne Samodreczenia (Automutylacji). Warszawa:

Lekarski T-wa Wydawnicze “przyszlosc”.

*Dabrowski, K. (1937a). Report Upon the Activities of the Mental Hygiene Institute. Warsaw:
Cahors Imprimerie A. Coueslant.

Dabrowski, K. (1937b). Psychological bases of self-mutilation, Genetic Psychology

Monographs, 19, 1-104.

*Dabrowski, K. (1938). Typy Wzmozonej Pobudliwosci Psychicznej. Warsaw: Biuletyn Pan.

Institute Higieny Psychicznej.

Dabrowski, K. (1947). Uwagi o Teorii Jacksona. Zdrowie Psychiczne, 2, 143-149.

*Dabrowski, K. (1958). Nerwowosc Dzieci I Mlodziezy. Warszawa: Panstwowe Zaklady

Wydawnictw Szkolnych.

*Dabrowski, K. (1959). Spoleczno-Wychowawcza Psychiatria Dziecieca. Warszawa:

Panstowowe Zaklady Wydawnictw Szkolnych.

*Dabrowski, K. (1960). Nasze Dzieci Dorastaja. Warszawa: Wiedza Powszechna.

Dabrowski, K. (1961). Les dynamismes principaux de la desintegration a univeaux miltiples.

Annales Medico-Psychologiques, 1, 225-234.

*Dabrowski, K. (1962). Co to Jest Higiena Psychiczna. Warsaw: Nasza Ksiegarnia.

*Dabrowski, K. (1964). O Dezyntegracji Pozytywnej. Warszawa: Panstowowy.

196
Dabrowski, K. (1964). Positive Disintegration. Boston: Little Brown & Co.

Dabrowski, K. (1965). Personnalite, Psychonevroses it sante mentale d’apres la theorie de la

desintegration positive. Warszawa: Pa’nstwowe Wydawn. Naudowe.

Dabrowski, K. (1967). Personality-shaping through Positive Disintegration. Boston: Little

Brown & Co.

Dabrowski, K. w. Kawczak, A. and Piechowski, M. (1970). Mental Growth Through Positive

Disintegration. London: Gryf Publications LTD.

*Dabrowski, K. (1971). Pojecia Zyja I Rozwijajz Sie. London: Gryf.

Dabrowski, K. (1972). Psychoneurosis is not an Illness. London: Gryf Publications.

Dabrowski, K. (1973). The Dynamics of Concepts. London: Gryf Publications LTD.

Dabrowski, K. & Piechowski, M. M. (1977). Theory of Levels of Emotional Development:

Volume 1 - Multilevelness and Positive Disintegration. Oceanside, New York: Dabor
Science Publications.

*Dabrowski, K. (1974a). Dwie Diagnozy. Warszawa: Polskie Towarzystwo Higieny

Psychicznej.

*Dabrowski, K. (1974b). Zdrowie Psychiczne a Wartosci Ludzkie. Warszawa: Polskie

Towarzystwo Higieny Psychicznej.

Dabrowski, K. & Piechowski, M.M. (1977). Theory of Levels of Emotional Development:

Volume II - from primary integration to self-actualization. Oceanside, New York: Dabor
Science Publications.

Dabrowski, K. (1979a). Wprowadzenie do Higieny Psychiecznej. Warszawa: Wydaw-a Szkolne

i Pedagogiczne.

Dabrowski, K. (1979b). Nothing Can Be Changed Here. (Mazurkiewicz, E., Trans.; Rolland, P.,
Ed.). Unpublished play.

Dabrowski, K. (1986). Trud istnienia. Warszawa: Wiedza Powszechna.

Dabrowski, K. (1996a). W poszukiwaniu zdrowia psychicznego. Warszawa: PWN.

Dabrowski, K. (1996b). Mutilevelness of Emotional and Instinctive Functions. Lublin, Poland:

Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego.

197
*Wiezienie Gastapo Kronika 1939-1944 (1978). [Records from Pawiak prison.] Warzawa:
Ksiazka Wiedza, pp.203-204.

Secondary Published References

Boucouvalas, M. (1984). Transpersonal Psychology: Guiding Image for the Advancement of
International Adult Education. Graduate Studies Jounal (University of the District of
Columbia), 2, 17-33.

Boucouvalas, M. (1999). Following the Movement: From Transpersonal Psychology to A

Multi-Disciplinary Transpersonal Orientation. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 31
(1), 27-39.

Boucouvalas, M. (2000). The Transpersonal Orientation as a Framework for Understanding

Adult Development and Creative Processes. In M. Miller & S. Greuter-Cook (Eds.),
Spirituality, Creativity, and Transcendence: Paths to Integrity and Wisdom in the Mature
Self, Greenwich, CT: Ablex.

Crain, W. (2000). Theories of Development. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Davies, N. (1982). God’s Playground, A History of Poland, Vol I - The Origins to 1795 & Vol
II - 1795 to the Present. New York: The Columbia University Press.

Edel, L. (1959). Literary Biography. New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc.

Frankl, V. (1946,1984). Man’s Search For Meaning. New York: Washington Square Press.

Hague, W. J. (1986). New Perspectives on Religious and Moral Development. Chapter IV

Dabrowski and Positive Disintegration Theory. University of Alberta.

Hannah, B. (1976). Jung, his Life and Work: a Biographical Memoir. New York: Putnam.

Hein, W. (1985). Montelupich. Wroclaw: Wydownictwo Literackie Krakow.

Jackson, J. H. (1884). On the Evolution and Dissolution of the Nervous System. In J. Taylor
(Ed.) (1932), Selected Writings (pp. 45-75). London: Hodder and Stoughton.

Jankowski, Stanislaw. (1983). Monte. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej

Jaspers, K. (1954). Way to Wisdom. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.

Jones, E. (1953-57). The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud. New York: Basic Books.

198
Kierkegaard, S. (1954). Fear and Trembling and The Sickness Unto Death (W. Lowrie, Trans.).
New York: Doubleday Anchor Books. (Original works published 1843 and 1849)

Lewanski, R. C. (1974). Guide to Polish Libraries and Archives. Boulder: Columbia University
Press.

Lesniak, F. L. (1998). Significant Relationships of Jesus Christ. The Dabrowski Newsletter, 5,

8-9.

Loye, David. (2000). Darwin’s Lost Theory of Love. San Jose, New York: Excel Press.

Miller, N., and Silverman, L. (1987). Levels of personality development. Roeper Review, 9 (4) ,
221 - 225.

Nelson, K. C. (1992). Kazimierz Dabrowski: Poland's Gifted "Outsider". In Colangelo, N.,

Assouline, S.G., & Ambroson, D.L. (Eds.) Talent Development: Proceedings of the
1991 Henry B. and Jocelyn Wallace National Research Symposium on Talent
Development (pp. 362 - 364). Unionville, New York: Trillium, 1992.

Piechowski, M. M. (1992). Giftedness for All Seasons: Inner Peace in Time of War. In
Colangelo, N., Assouline, S.G., & Ambroson, D.L. (Eds.) Talent Development:
Proceedings of the 1991 Henry B. and Jocelyn Wallace National Research Symposium on
Talent Development (pp. 362 - 364). Unionville, New York: Trillium, 1992.

Piechowski, M. M. (1972, revised 1996). Hail to you, psychoneurotics!. In Psychoneurosis is not

an Illness by K. Dabrowski, (Piechowski, Trans.). London: Gryf.

Piechowski, M. M. (1993). Is Inner Transformation a Creative Process? Creativity Research

Journal, 6 (1 & 2), 89 - 98.

Pogonowski, J. (1998). Listy z Auschwitz. Oswiecim: Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum.

Polish Labor Group.(1944). Nazi Justice. [Pamphlet]. New York: Polish Labor Group.

Tillier, W. (1998). The Basic Concepts of Dabrowski's Theory of Positive Disintegration. The
Dabrowski Newsletter, 5, 1 - 10.

Von Monakow, C. and Mourgue, R. (1928). Introduction Biologique a L’Etude de La

Neurologie et de La Psychopathologie, Integration et Desintegration de la Fonction.
Paris: Librairie Felix Alcan.

Watson-Franke (1985). Interpreting Life Histories: An Anthropological Inquiry. New

Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press.

199
Weigel, G. (1999). Witness to Hope. New York: Cliff Street Books.

Wojtyla, K. (1969). The Acting Person. (Andrzej Potocki, Trans.) Boston, London: D. Reidel
Publishing Company.

Zych, A. (1988). Higiena psychiczna w Polsce 1933-1988. Slownik biograficzny. Warszawa:

PTHP.

Zych, A. (1999). The Auschwitz Poems. Oswiecim: Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum.

UNPUBLISHED SOURCES

Primary References

*Cienin, P. (n.d., circa 1970). Bajki dla Dzieci i Niektorych Doroslch. Dabrowski, K. file,
National Archives of Canada, series 789, MG 30 B88, Vol. 8.

*Cienin, P. (n.d., circa 1970). Poemat filozoficzny. Dabrowski, K. file, National Archives of
Canada, series 789, MG 30 B88, Vol 6, 1.

*Cienin, P. (n.d., circa 1970). Poemat zagorzanski. Dabrowski, K. file, National Archives of
Canada, series 789, MG 30 B88, Vol 6,2.

*Dabrowski file, National Archives of Canada. MG 30 B 88, Vol. 1-10.

Rockefeller Institute Archives (personal history card and letters from 1935 - 1946). Series 789,
(1)
RG 1.1, 2.

*United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Record group 55.005*27, Aleksander Kulisiewicz
collection of camp poetry PO Oswiecim (Auschwitz), Box 3, pp.1-15.

Secondary References

Ackerman, C.M. (1997). A secondary analysis of research using the overexcitability

questionnaire (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Texas A&M University, 1997).
Dissertation Abstracts International., .

Amend, D., (personal communication, February 17, 2002).

200
Braiter, L., (director, muzeum Gross Rosen), (personal communication, December 10, 2001).

Duda, N., (personal communication, October 20, 2001).

Hague, W., (personal communication, October 1, 2001).

Holyst, B., (personal communication, August 7, 2001).

Kawczak, A., (personal communication, June 24, 2001).

Kuwalek, R., (personal communication, August 11, 2001).

Dabrowski, E., (wife of K. Dabrowski) (n.d., circa 1980). (Unpublished biographical “note” of
eleven pages on K. Dabrowski attributed to E. Dabrowski provided to researcher by F.
Lesniak, August 30, 2000).

Lesniak, F., (personal communication, August 30, 2000).

Lesniak, F., (personal communication, October 6, 2001).

Mika, E., (personal communication, January 26, 2000).

Piechowski, M., (personal communication, September 3, 2001).

Rankel, M., (personal communication, November 18, 2001).

Sheridan, S., (personal communication July 4, 2001).

Tillier, W., ( personal communication February 3, 1999).; “not a verified biography.”

Wroblewski, J. to Battaglia, March 9, 2000, personal letter (Auschwitz researcher).

MAPS

*Poland, Krakow (city, (194-). 1:10,000. (German Army). Library of Congress: Washington,
D.C.

Poland. (2000), http://www.matrade.gov.my/Laman2000/image.

201
 CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

Primary References

Dabrowski, K. (1937). Report Upon the Activities of the Mental Hygiene Institute. Proceedings:
Exprait des comptes rendus Du II Congres International D’Hygiene Mentale (Paris, 19-23
juillet).

Secondary References

Boucouvalas, M. (1987). The Scope and Evolution of Hermeneutics and its Challenge to
Lifelong Learning Professionals. In W. M. Rivera & S. M. Walker (Eds.), Proceedings of
theEighth Lifelong Learning Research Conference, pp.133-137. College Park, MD:
University of Maryland.

Boucouvalas, M. (1997). An Analysis and Critique of Transformation Theory and Adult

Learning: Contributions from Consciousness Studies. Paper presented in Crossing
Borders, Breaking Boundaries, Proceeding of International Conference. Univ. of
London: Birkbeck College.

Duda, N. (Ed.). (1981). Theory of Positive Disintegration. Proceedings of the Third

International Conference. University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami: Florida.

Hague, W. (2000). The Sources of Dabrowski’s Theory: “Positive Disintegration” - A Bow to

its Mystery. Paper presented at the 4th Biennial Advanced Symposium on Dabrowski’s
Theory. Quebec: Canada.

Moyle, V. (2000). A Metaphor for Life’s Journey: The Labyrinth. Paper presented at The 4th
Biennial Advanced Symposium on Dabrowski’s Theory. Quebec: Canada.

Moyle, V. (2000). Positive Disintegration and the Hero’s Journey. Paper presented at The 4th
Biennial Advanced Symposium on Dabrowski’s Theory. Quebec: Canada.

Mroz, A. (2002). The Tradition of Soren Kierkegaard’s Thought in Dabrowski’s Theory of

Positive Disintegration. The Dabrowski Newsletter. Winter, 2001/2002, Vol. 7, No. 2.

Nelson, T. (2000). Twenty years of close contact with K. Dabrowski. Paper presented at The 4th
Biennial Advanced Symposium on Dabrowski’s Theory. Quebec: Canada.

Tillier, B. (Ed.). (1996). Perspectives of the Self. Paper presented at the Second Biennial
Conference on Dabrowski’s Theory of Positive Disintegration. Banff: Alberta.

202
 Curriculum Vitae

Marjorie M. Kaminski Battaglia graduated from D’Youville College in Buffalo, New York with
a B.S. in Medical Technology. Graduate studies include an MBA from Marymount University in
Arlington, Virginia, and now, a Ph.D. in Human Development from Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University.

Ms. Battaglia was employed for twenty nine years as an ASCP registered Medical Technologist.
Fifteen of those years were in management. Ms. Battaglia was laboratory director of the Reston
Hospital Laboratory for five years. She is now employed by Fairfax County Government in
Fairfax Virginia, where she directs the Reston/Herndon Senior Center.

225