Human body

The human body is the entire structure of a human being. It is composed of many
Human body
different types of cells that together create tissues and subsequently organ systems.
They ensure homeostasis and the viability of the human body.

It comprises a head, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen), arms and
hands, legs and feet.

The study of the human body involves anatomy, physiology, histology and
embryology. The body varies anatomically in known ways. Physiology focuses on
the systems and organs of the human body and their functions. Many systems and
mechanisms interact in order to maintain homeostasis, with safe levels of substances
such as sugar and oxygen in the blood.

The body is studied by health professionals, physiologists, anatomists, and by artists

to assist them in their work.

Contents
1 Composition
1.1 Cells
1.2 Tissues
1.3 Organs Details
1.4 Systems Identifiers
2 Anatomy Latin corpus humanum
3 Physiology TA A01.0.00.000
4 Development
FMA 20394
5 Health and disease
Anatomical terminology
6 Society and culture
6.1 Professional study
6.2 Depiction
6.3 History of anatomy
6.4 History of physiology
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
9.1 Books
10 External links

Composition
The human body is composed of elements including hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, calcium and phosphorus.[1] These elements reside in
trillions of cells and non-cellular components of the body
.
The adult male body is about
60% water for a total water
content of some 42 litres. This
is made up of about 19 litres of
extracellular fluid including
about 3.2 litres of blood
plasma and about 8.4 litres of
interstitial fluid, and about 23
litres of fluid inside cells.[2]
The content, acidity and
composition of the water
inside and outside cells is
carefully maintained. The
main electrolytes in body
water outside cells are sodium Elements of the human body by mass.Trace elements are less than 1% combined
and chloride, whereas within (and each less than 0.1%).
cells it is potassium and other
phosphates.[3]

Cells
The body contains trillions ofcells, the fundamental unit of life.[4] At maturity, there are roughly 30[5]–37[6] trillion cells in the body,
an estimate arrived at by totalling the cell numbers of all the organs of the body and cell types. The body is also host to about the
same number of non-human cells[5] as well as multicellular organisms which reside in the gastrointestinal tract and on the skin.[7] Not
all parts of the body are made from cells. Cells sit in an extracellular matrix that consists of proteins such as collagen, surrounded by
extracellular fluids. Of the 70 kg weight of an average human body, nearly 25 kg is non-human cells or non-cellular material such as
bone and connective tissue.[5]

Cells in the body function because of DNA. DNA sits within the nucleus of a cell. Here, parts of DNA are copied and sent to the
body of the cell via RNA.[8] The RNA is then used to create proteins which form the basis for cells, their activity, and their products.
Proteins dictate cell function and gene expression, a cell is able to self-regulate by the amount of proteins produced.[9] However, not
all cells have DNA – some cells such as maturered blood cells lose their nucleus as they mature.

Tissues
The body consists of many different types of tissue, defined as cells that act with a specialised function.[10] The study of tissues is
called histology and often occurs with a microscope. The body consists of four main types of tissues – lining cells (epithelia),
connective tissue, nervous tissue and muscle tissue.[11]

Cells that lie on surfaces exposed to the outside world or gastrointestinal tract (epithelia) or internal cavities (endothelium) come in
numerous shapes and forms – from single layers of flat cells, to cells with small beating hair-like cilia in the lungs, to column-like
cells that line the stomach. Endothelial cells are cells that line internal cavities including blood vessels and glands. Lining cells
[11]
regulate what can and can't pass through them, protect internal structures, and function as sensory surfaces.

Organs
Organs, structured collections of cells with a specific function,[12] sit within the body. Examples include the heart, lungs and liver.
Many organs reside within cavities within the body. These cavities include theabdomen and pleura.

Systems
Circulatory system
The circulatory system comprises the heart and blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries). The heart
propels the circulation of the blood, which serves as a "transportation system" to transfer oxygen, fuel,
nutrients, waste products, immune cells and signalling molecules (i.e., hormones) from one part of the body
to another. The blood consists of fluid that carries cells in the circulation, including some that move from
tissue to blood vessels and back, as well as thespleen and bone marrow.[13][14][15]

Digestive system
The digestive system consists of the mouth including the tongue and teeth, esophagus, stomach,
(gastrointestinal tract, small and large intestines, and rectum), as well as the liver, pancreas, gallbladder, and
salivary glands. It converts food into small, nutritional, non-toxic molecules for distribution and absorption
into the body.[16]

Endocrine system
The endocrine system consists of the principal endocrine glands: the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas,
parathyroids, and gonads, but nearly all organs and tissues produce specific endocrine hormones as well.
The endocrine hormones serve as signals from one body system to another regarding an enormous array of
[17]
conditions, and resulting in variety of changes of function.

Immune system
The immune system consists of the white blood cells, the thymus, lymph nodes and lymph channels, which
are also part of the lymphatic system. The immune system provides a mechanism for the body to distinguish
its own cells and tissues from outside cells and substances and to neutralize or destroy the latter by using
specialized proteins such asantibodies, cytokines, and toll-like receptors, among many others.[18]

Integumentary system
The integumentary system consists of the covering of the body (the skin), including hair and nails as well as
other functionally important structures such as the sweat glands and sebaceous glands. The skin provides
containment, structure, and protection for other organs, and serves as a major sensory interface with the
outside world.[19][20]

Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system extracts, transports and metabolizes lymph, the fluid found in between cells. The
lymphatic system is similar to the circulatory system in terms of both its structure and its most basic
function, to carry a body fluid.[21]

Musculoskeletal system
The musculoskeletal system consists of the human skeleton (which includes bones, ligaments, tendons, and
cartilage) and attached muscles. It gives the body basic structure and the ability for movement. In addition
to their structural role, the larger bones in the body contain bone marrow, the site of production of blood
cells. Also, all bones are major storage sites for calcium and phosphate. This system can be split up into the
muscular system and the skeletal system.[22]

Nervous system
The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral
nervous system consists of the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord. The brain is the organ
of thought, emotion, memory, and sensory processing, and serves many aspects of communication and
controls various systems and functions. The special senses consist of vision, hearing, taste, and smell. The
[23]
eyes, ears, tongue, and nose gather information about the body's environment.

Reproductive system
The reproductive system consists of the gonads and the internal and external sex organs. The reproductive
system produces gametes in each sex, a mechanism for their combination, and in the female a nurturing
[24]
environment for the first 9 months of development of the infant.

Respiratory system
The respiratory system consists of the nose, nasopharynx, trachea, and lungs. It brings oxygen from the air
and excretes carbon dioxide and water back into the air.[25]

Urinary system
The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. It removes toxic materials from the
blood to produce urine, which carries a variety of waste molecules and excess ions and water out of the
body.[26]

Anatomy
Human anatomy is the study of the shape and form of the human
body. The human body has four limbs (two arms and two legs), a
head and a neck which connect to the torso. The body's shape is
determined by a strong skeleton made of bone and cartilage,
surrounded by fat, muscle, connective tissue, organs, and other
structures. The spine at the back of the skeleton contains the flexible
vertebral column which surrounds the spinal cord, which is a
collection of nerve fibres connecting the brain to the rest of the body.
Nerves connect the spinal cord and brain to the rest of the body. All
Cavities of human body major bones, muscles, and nerves in the body are named, with the
exception of anatomical variations such as sesamoid bones and
accessory muscles.

Blood vessels carry blood throughout the body, which moves because of the beating of the heart. Venules and veins collect blood low
in oxygen from tissues throughout the body. These collect in progressively larger veins until they reach the body's two largest veins,
the superior and inferior vena cava, which drain blood into the right side of the heart. From here, the blood is pumped into the lungs
where it receives oxygen and drains back into the left side of the heart. From here, it is pumped into the body's largest artery, the
aorta, and then progressively smaller arteries and arterioles until it reaches tissue. Here blood passes from small arteries into
capillaries, then small veins and the process begins again. Blood carries oxygen, waste products, and hormones from one place in the
body to another. Blood is filtered at thekidneys and liver.

The body consists of a number of different cavities, separated areas which house different organ systems. The brain and central
nervous system reside in an area protected from the rest of the body by theblood brain barrier. The lungs sit in the pleural cavity. The
intestines, liver, and spleen sit in the abdominal cavity

Height, weight, shape and other body proportions vary individually and with age and sex. Body shape is influenced by the
distribution of muscle and fat tissue.[27]
Physiology
Human physiology is the study of how the human body functions. This includes the mechanical, physical, bioelectrical, and
biochemical functions of humans in good health, from organs to the cells of which they are composed. The human body consists of
many interacting systems of organs. These interact to maintain homeostasis, keeping the body in a stable state with safe levels of
substances such as sugar and oxygen in the blood.[28]

Each system contributes to homeostasis, of itself, other systems, and the entire body. Some combined systems are referred to by joint
names. For example, the nervous system and the endocrine system operate together as the neuroendocrine system. The nervous
system receives information from the body, and transmits this to the brain via nerve impulses and neurotransmitters. At the same
time, the endocrine system releases hormones, such as to help regulate blood pressure and volume. Together, these systems regulate
the internal environment of the body, maintaining blood flow, posture, energy supply, temperature, and acid balance (pH).[28]

Development

Health and disease

Health is a difficult state to define, but relates to the self-defined perception of an individual and includes physical, mental, social and
cultural factors. The absence or deficit of health is illness which includes disease and injury. Diseases cause symptoms felt, seen or
perceived by a person, and signs which may be visible on a medical examination. Illnesses may be from birth (congenital) or arise
later in life (acquired). Acquired diseases may be contagious, caused or provoked by lifestyle factors such as smoking, alcohol use
and diet, arise as the result of injury or trauma, or have a number of different mechanisms or provoking factors. As life expectancy
increases, many forms of cancer are becoming more common. Cancer refers to the uncontrolled proliferation of one or more cell
types and occurs more commonly in some tissue types than others. Some forms of cancer have strong or known risk factors, whereas
others may arise spontaneously. Depending on the type of cancer, risk factors can include exposure to carcinogens and radiation,
.[29]
excessive alcohol or tobacco intake, age, and hormone imbalances in the body

Society and culture

Professional study
Health professionals learn about the human body from illustrations, models, and
demonstrations. Medical and dental students in addition gain practical experience, for
example by dissection of cadavers. Human anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry are basic
medical sciences, generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical
school.[30][31][32]

Depiction
Anatomy has served the visual arts since Ancient Greek times, when the 5th century BC
sculptor Polykleitos wrote his Canon on the ideal proportions of the male nude.[33] In the
Italian Renaissance, artists from Piero della Francesca (c. 1415–1492) onwards, including
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and his collaborator Luca Pacioli (c. 1447–1517), learnt and
Anatomical study by wrote about the rules of art, including visual perspective and the proportions of the human
Leonardo da Vinci
body.[34]

History of anatomy
In Ancient Greece, the Hippocratic Corpus described the anatomy of the skeleton and muscles.[35]
The 2nd century physician Galen of Pergamum compiled classical knowledge of anatomy into a text
that was used throughout the Middle Ages.[36] In the Renaissance, Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564)
pioneered the modern study of human anatomy by dissection, writing the influential book De humani
corporis fabrica.[37][38] Anatomy advanced further with the invention of the microscope and the
study of the cellular structure of tissues and organs.[39] Modern anatomy uses techniques such as
magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, fluoroscopy and ultrasound imaging to study the
body in unprecedented detail.[40]

History of physiology
The study of human physiology began with Hippocrates in Ancient Greece, around 420 BC,[41] and Figure drawing by
with Aristotle (384–322 BC) who applied critical thinking and emphasis on the relationship between Lovis Corinth (before
structure and function. Galen (c. 126–199) was the first to use experiments to probe the body's 1925)
functions.[42][43] The term physiology was introduced by the French physician Jean Fernel (1497–
1558).[44] In the 17th century, William Harvey (1578–1657) described the
circulatory system, pioneering the combination of close observation with careful
experiment.[45] In the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at
a rapid rate with the cell theory of Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann in
1838, that organisms are made up of cells.[44] Claude Bernard (1813–1878) created
the concept of the milieu interieur (internal environment), which Walter Cannon
(1871–1945) later said was regulated to a steady state in homeostasis.[41] In the 20th
century, the physiologists Knut Schmidt-Nielsenand George Bartholomew extended
their studies to comparative physiology and ecophysiology.[46] Most recently,
evolutionary physiologyhas become a distinct subdiscipline.[47]

See also Two facing pages of text with

woodcuts of naked male and female
Body image figures, in the Epitome by Andreas
Cell physiology Vesalius, 1543
Comparative physiology
Comparative anatomy
Human development

Notes

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Books
Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology. 2016. ISBN 978-0-07-182510-8.
Gray's anatomy: the anatomical basis of clinical practice
. Editor-in-chief, Susan Standring (40th ed.). London:
Churchill Livingstone. 2008.ISBN 978-0-8089-2371-8.

External links
The Book of Humans (from the late 18th and early 19th centuries)
Inner Body
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_body&oldid=807889750
"

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