CHAPTER 2: THE SCIENCE OF ADOLESCENT

DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION

Scientific knowledge depends on the rigorous implementation of the scientific method to

conceptualize the problem, collect information, and draw conclusions. When formulating a
problem to study, researchers draw on theories to develop hypotheses. A theory is a coherent set
of ideas that helps to explain and predict behavior. Hypotheses are specific assumptions and
predictions that can be tested. A theory of adolescent development usually can be attributed to
one of four major fundamental schemes: psychoanalytic theory; cognitive theory; learning
theory; and ecological, contextual theory.
Psychoanalytic theories emphasize the importance of emotion, unconscious mental
processes, the symbolic meaning of behavior, and enduring effects of early experience on later
development.

 Freud’s theory articulates personality structure as the id, ego, and superego; defense
mechanisms for resolving conflict; and characteristics of five psychosexual stages.
 Erikson’s theory consists of psychosocial stages, explaining that both instincts and
experience influence development, that each stage characterizes distinctly different
crises, and that degree of resolution within each stage influences success in
development.
Psychoanalytic theories recognizing early experiences, family relationships, and the
unconscious mind. Criticism includes lack of scientific foundation, sexual underpinnings, and
negative image of humans.

Cognitive theory focuses on conscious operations that change during childhood and
adolescence.

 Piaget’s theory states that children and adolescents demonstrate qualitative change
by systematically exploring and manipulating the environment to understand it; he
described four stages of distinctly different thinking processes—sensorimotor stage,
preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage.
 Vygotsky’s theory specifies that cognition can be understood through developmental
assessment, language-based interaction, and sociocultural contexts.
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 The information-processing approach focuses on the development of cognitive
ability, specifically language and thinking, by measuring storage, retrieval, and speed
of processing.

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 Cognitive theories emphasize the individual’s active role in understanding the
environment. They are criticized for not explaining individual variations in either timing or
content of thought processes.

Behavioral and social cognitive theories emphasize observable behavior and conse-
quences.

 Skinner’s behaviorism emphasizes environmental stimuli and learned consequences.

 Bandura’s cognitive social learning theory considers behavior, environment, and
cognitive factors, observational learning and personal consequences, as key factors in
learning.
Behavioral theories emphasize scientific research, environmental influences, and learning
processes. Yet, they are criticized for not emphasizing cognitive processes, creativity, or human
development.

Ecological and contextual theories examine environmental influence on child develop-

ment.

 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological, contextual theory proposes layers of environmental

influence.
Ecological theory supports systematic assessments of interconnected, environmental sys-
tems in contemporary and historical contexts. Critics argue inadequate consideration of biology
or cognition.

No single theory explains adolescent development. An eclectic theoretical orientation,

using aspects of all four major theories, allows and/or promotes a complete narration.

Developmental theories and research methods serve complementary functions in the

scientific explanation of adolescent development. Research methods involve numerous
approaches for collecting and analyzing information. The three basic types of research are:

 Descriptive research—Researchers use descriptive research to observe and record

behavior, such as observation, surveys and interviews, standardized tests, experience
sampling, physiological measures, and case studies.

 Observation may be completed in a controlled laboratory setting or in a naturalistic

setting.
 Surveys and interviews sample information about personal feelings or private
behavior.
 Standardized tests help researchers systematically compare the individual to a
typical group.

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  The experience sampling method uses electronic pagers to “beep” subjects at
random times. Subjects report their behavior or situation at that time.
 Physiological measures gauge hormones, body composition, and brain activity.
 Case studies are used to collect historical data to complete an in-depth investigation.

 Correlational research—Researchers use correlational research to identify the

relationship between two variables and to explain the relative importance of several
variables in predicting the occurrence of others.

 Experimental research—Experimental research can explain how one variable affects

another, such as instructional strategies affecting student learning.

 The independent variable is the variable that the experimenter manipulates directly
in order to influence a dependent variable(s), or a variable that is influenced by the
independent variable.
 The experimental group is the group that gets the manipulation of the independent
variable. The control group is treated the same as the experimental group except for
the manipulation of the independent variable.
o
Time span research allows researchers to study the relation of age to some other variable. The cross-sectional
research design compares groups of different aged individuals at the same point in time to
identify developmental differences. The longitudinal research design identifies a group of
adolescents and observes the same individuals at consistent time intervals to identify
developmental changes.

The field of adolescent development has grown in the last two decades. The main outlets for research on adolescence are
journals and papers presented at scientific meetings. Journals are an important source for scholarly, academic information.

Challenges to good research are numerous. Here are some important ones to consider:

 The American Psychological Association enforces a code of ethics to protect partici-

pants.
 Gender bias may influence the accuracy of the conclusions drawn about females and
males.
 Ethnicity and culture often have not been accurately identified and their effects
overlooked.

Finally, consumers must have the opportunity to use information presented accurately
through multiple media. It is critical for the public to be able to analyze the viability of media
presentations.

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TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE

Chapter 2: The Science of Adolescent Development

HEADING RESOURCE
I. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT Image Gallery: 114
Lecture Topic: 2.1
Discussion Topic: 2.1
Essay Questions: 1–6

Psychoanalytic Theories Learning Goal: 1

Freud’s Theory Image Gallery: 161
Personality Structure In-Class Activity: 2.1
Defense Mechanisms Critical Thinking Exercise: 2.1
Psychosexual Stages Short Scenario: 2.1
Revisions of Freud’s Theory Research Article: 2.1
Erikson’s Theory Essay Question: 1
Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Theories WWW: Freud’s, Horney’s, and Erikson’s Theories at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Cognitive Theories Learning Goal: 1
Piaget’s Theory Image Gallery: 11
Vygotsky’s Theory In-Class Activity: 2.1
The Information-Processing Approach Critical Thinking Exercise: 2.1
Evaluating the Cognitive Theories Short Scenario: 2.2
Research Article: 2.2
Essay Question: 2
Through the Eyes of Adolescents: The Cobwebs of Memory
WWW: Piaget’s Theory, Vygotsky’s Theory at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10

Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories Learning Goal: 1

Skinner’s Behaviorism Image Gallery: 20, 21
Social Cognitive Theory In-Class Activity: 2.1
Evaluating the Behavioral and Social Critical Thinking Exercises: 2.1, 2.2
Cognitive Theories Short Scenario: 2.3
Essay Question: 3
WWW: Skinner’s View at www.mhhe.com/Santrocka10
WWW: Skinner’s View, Albert Bandura at www.mhhe.com/
Santrocka10

Ecological, Contextual Theory Learning Goal: 1

Evaluating Ecological, Contextual Theory Image Gallery: 16
In-Class Activity: 2.1
Critical Thinking Exercise: 2.1
Research Article: 2.2
Essay Question: 4
WWW: Bronfenbrenner’s Theory, Bronfenbrenner and a
Multicultural Framework at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10

An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation Critical Thinking Exercise: 2.1

Essay Question: 5

II. RESEARCH IN ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT Learning Goal: 2

Discussion Topic: 2.1
Essay Question: 6
Lecture Topic: 2.2
WWW: National Center for Research Resources at
www.ncrr.nih.gov

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 Types of Research Image Gallery: 115
In-Class Activity: 2.2

Descriptive Research Image Gallery: 19

Observation Critical Thinking Exercise: 2.3
Surveys and Interviews Research Project: 2.1
Standardized Tests WWW: Generating Research Ideas at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Experience Sampling
Physiological Measures
Case Studies

Correlational Research Image Gallery: 14, 118

Discussion Topics: 2.1, 2.3
Essay Question: 8
WWW: Correlational & Experimental Research at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Image Gallery: 15, 17, 18, 119
Experimental Research Discussion Topics: 2.1, 2.3
In-Class Activity: 2.2
Research Project: 2.1
Essay Question: 8

Time Span of Research Discussion Topic: 2.1

The Field of Adolescent Development Research Essay Question: 7

WWW: Adolescence Research Journals at
www.mhhe.com/santrocka10

IV. FACING UP TO RESEARCH CHALLENGES Learning Goal: 3

Ethics Video: Obedience to Authority (Discovery Channel Video)
Gender Research Projects: 2.1, 2.2
Ethnicity and Culture Essay Questions: 9, 10
Being a Wise Consumer of Information About WWW: Ethical Principles at www.mhhe.com/santrocka10
Adolescence Careers in Adolescent Development: Pam Reid, Educational and
Developmental Psychologist
WWW: Consumer Information Center at www.pueblo.gsa.gov

SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS

Topic 2.1—Quantitative versus Qualitative Development

Explanations of developmental theories depend upon clarifications that help the student
distinguish one from another. The terms qualitative and quantitative are often incorporated into

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discussions of continuity and discontinuity and are useful in explaining differences between
cognitive theories such as Piagetian Stages or information-processing approaches. As
straightforward as the terms quantity and quality seem to be, identifying adolescent descriptions
that may be assigned to each category appears to be a perplexing task for students.
Begin the exercise by discussing items with which they may be more familiar and
interested. Consumer Reports regularly provides product evaluations that include both
quantitative and qualitative measures. For example, coffee may be described in the following
ways:

Quantitative Analysis of Coffee Qualitative Analysis of Coffee

 the altitude at which the coffee grows  dark roast notes
 the hardiness of the bean (temperature  floral or fruity notes
and insect tolerance)
 the amount of caffeine the beans contain  cereal or cooked notes
 the country in which the bean grows  mellow or full bodied
 the type of beans in a blended coffee  pungent flavor or smokiness

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 Beer or champagne may be discussed similarly (see “Student Handouts” at the end of this
manual for another example). Finally, discuss the quantitative and qualitative aspects of
adolescent development.

Quantitative Measures of Adolescents Qualitative Measures of Adolescence

 age, height, weight, or brain size  mental processes
 short- and long-term memory recall  problem-solving style
 number of words in vocabulary  imagination
 frequency of telephone usage  libidinal energy
 occurrence of social contact  intimacy
 duration of television viewing  identity

At the conclusion of this discussion, remind students that developmental continuity is

based on incremental progress that we identify quantitatively. Distinct differences in behavior
characterized within each stage of development or discontinuity, are explained in qualitative
measures.

References
Cheers! (1999, November). Consumer Reports, 64(11), 18–21.
Which beer for you? (2001, August). Consumer Reports, 66(8), 10–16.
Which brew for you? (2000, January). Consumer Reports, 65(1), 29–33.

Topic 2.2—Basic versus Applied Research Studies

Two purposes may be served by addressing conflicts between basic and applied researchers in
adolescent development. First, students often appear skeptical about research in general, and
particularly when it supports expected conclusions (e.g., the conclusions were obvious) or when
the conclusions contradict strong personal beliefs (e.g., the sample was not well chosen).
Unfortunately, many people view research as a waste of taxpayers’ money, demanding that
legislators require federally-funded agencies to obtain quantifiable outcomes to justify funding.
Second, students may benefit from information about this area as a potential career option. Some
will find that basic research fits their level of curiosity, whereas others would like to investigate
strategies to solve the problems they see in their own communities.
Edward Zigler (1998) discussed the long-standing arguments on both sides. Over the past
decade, people have discussed the applicability of research more than during the previous 50
years. The trend has brought developmental psychology full circle, back to the belief that
knowledge should benefit children. Zigler (1998) explained that G. Stanley Hall began to study
children because at least six constituencies needed the information: “scientists, college
administrators, child savers and social workers, mental health workers, teachers, and parents” (p.
533). Hall regretted that research was becoming too technical and inaccessible to those working
with children, that a stigma was placed on the discussion of applied work, and that a pronounced
schism existed between researchers and providers.

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 The conflict between proponents of basic versus applied research suggests the following
important questions:

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  What are the purpose and limitations of research investigations?
 What are the implicit and explicit outcomes from basic and applied research?
 What are reasonable expectations for short- and long-term benefits of each?
 What are acceptable limitations of individual investigations?
 How can a balance be struck between complimentary strategies and topics?

Basic and applied research proceeds with different visions, but ultimately serve the same
purpose. Scientists conducting basic research maintain a limited focus and remain unconcerned
with long-term benefits, seeking knowledge in the purest sense. Applied researchers attempt to
use information gained through basic research to solve specific problems to benefit constituents.
Applied research can hardly exist without basic research; but basic research, until recently, has
tried to avoid the stigma of applied sciences. Consumer groups have pressured federally funded
researchers to modify that scenario (Matthews, 1997). As research becomes more complicated, it
becomes increasingly important to find financial resources from the federal government and
large companies. Will it be possible to continue to conduct necessary basic research, or even
valid research with the underlying influence of funding bodies?

References
Matthews, A. (1997). Bright college years: Inside the American campus today. New York: Simon &
Schuster.
Zigler, E. (1998). A place of value for applied and policy studies. Child Development, 69, 532–542.

Topic 2.3—Schaie’s Most Efficient Sequential Design

Quasi-experimental designs are like other research designs with the exception of one element—
random assignment of participants. Time span developmental research deviates from true
experiments as the selection and assignment of subjects is based on their age. As a result,
questions arise about the validity of the results, particularly the external validity that allows us to
accurately determine the relationship between age and behavior. Schaie and Willis (2002)
describe four research designs to overcome the confounds associated with developmental
research:

 Cross-sectional designs compare groups of individuals of diverse ages or cohort

groups by measuring age-based distinctions; advantages are low cost and time; the
point of confusion or confound is between age and cohort differences or generational
effects.
 Longitudinal designs measure changes in the same people across two or more times;
the advantage is control for age and cohort effects; disadvantages are cost and subject
dropout due to death, moving, or refusing to participate; the confound is between age
and time-of-measurement effects (e.g., practice effects and social-historical events).
 Time-lag designs measure people in different cohort groups at the same age, but
obviously at different times, to assess historical influences on cohorts; the confound is
time of measurement.
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 Sequential designs repeat the measurement of two or more groups of participants on
repeated occasions; Schaie’s design embeds the cross-sectional and longitudinal
sequential designs:

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  the cross-sectional sequence is accomplished by measuring independent groups of
individuals within a specified range two or more times, thus functionally combining
the cross-sectional and time-lag designs;
 the longitudinal sequence entails two or more longitudinal studies, requiring at
least two cohort groups, thus functionally combining the longitudinal and time-lag
design;
 numerous strategies for analysis include the cohort-sequential analysis, the cross-
sequential analysis, and the time-sequential analysis.

Developmental psychologists accept the challenge to identify and clarify characteristics

of children and adolescents with quasi-experimental research. The cross-sectional design is more
likely to be accurate with younger subjects than with adults due to shorter time spans of
investigation. Remarkable differences may be identified, however, in cognitive and social-
emotional development as a result of changes in the educational curriculum, social policy, or
historical events. Thus, sequential designs are likely to be necessary in fewer areas of research
than with adults, but valuable nonetheless.

Reference
Schaie, K. W., & Willis, S. L. (2002). Adult development and aging (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.

CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES

Discussion Topics

Discussion 2.1—Supporting Research with a Theoretical Foundation

After summarizing the theories presented in Chapter 2, ask students to identify issues of interest
in adolescent development (e.g., sports, peer groups, drinking, sex education, eating disorders,
moral development). You will need to categorize the issues into topic areas for the students as
they make suggestions. Try to organize the issues as they appear in the text (by chapter) or
according to the theoretical orientation most likely to be used to investigate the topics. Discuss
the categories students have chosen and the appropriateness of one or two theories over others in
facilitating lines of research for each issue. Describe the usefulness of the scientific research
approach in conceptualizing the problem, guiding data collection, analyzing the data and drawing
conclusions, and finally, revising previous conclusions and theory. If time and interest permit,
continue the discussion by identifying specific research strategies one might follow to complete
data collection and analysis through systematic and valid observations; correlational or
experimental methods; multiple measures; or group, single-subject, cross-sectional, and/or
longitudinal designs.

Discussion 2.2—Research Designs in Developmental Investigations

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Discuss the issue of quasi-experimental research in developmental psychology. It is not possible
to randomly assign adolescents to groups if the purpose is to identify the age-based
characteristics of those groups. As a result, the combined use of cross-sectional methods that
identify age differences and longitudinal methods that identify age change are important design
strategies. Present the cross-sectional and longitudinal strategies of data collection (Lecture
Topic 2.3). List some developmental topics in which adolescents are likely to demonstrate
marked differences between ages 11 to 19. Examples of issues for which a great deal of change
may be identified are peer affiliations, choice of leisure activities, hours working, substance use,
and sleeping or study habits. Discuss what one might observe in a cross-sectional analysis versus
a longitudinal analysis of those behaviors. Think also about characteristics that might be
influenced by time-of-measurement effects (e.g., collecting data in the spring versus the fall) and
cohort membership. Determine the strengths and weakness of each approach for accurately
identifying developmental patterns. For example, if one were to collect information about
adolescents’ television viewing habits and time spent with peers, a cross-sectional analysis could
reveal marked differences between age groups. The time of year, spring, summer, fall, or winter,
might influence these behaviors as well. Thus, it is important to determine whether results
accurately reflect differences and age change, or cohort differences and artifacts of time of
measurement. Present the sequential design approach as a solution for the weaknesses of the
other two alone. Discuss Schaie’s chapter on sequential design.

References
Pinon, M. R., Huston, A. C., & Wright, J. C. (1989). Family ecology and child characteristics that predict
young children’s educational television viewing. Child Development, 60, 846–856.
Schaie, K. W. (1994). Developmental designs revisited. In S. H. Cohen & H. Reese (Eds.), Life-span
developmental psychology: Methodological contributions (45–64). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Discussion 2.3—A Comparison of Correlational and Experimental Research Designs

Students often find it difficult to discern the differences between experimental and correlational
research designs. A discussion in which you ask students how to apply each strategy to answer a
specific question may help to reduce their confusion.
Begin the lecture by asking the class to figure out how they would determine whether or
not exposure to violence on television is related to aggressive behavior in adolescents. Suggest to
them that there are two or three ways to answer this question and indicate that you want them to
think of more than one way. Solicit solutions.
Once you have an example, ask the class to categorize it. If the solution is a correlational
research design, see if the class knows how to use a correlation coefficient in the solution. Note
that doing so may not be appropriate, even though the design is essentially correlational. For
example, the class may have suggested that a comparison be made between groups of teenagers
who watch much violence on television and those who do not. Discuss the kinds of between
group comparisons that are appropriate in this case. Also be careful to discover whether people
who offer this solution believe that they are suggesting an experiment, and gently correct them if
they are!

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 If the solution is an experiment, have the individual or individuals who propose it explore
their solution. For example, have them identify independent, dependent, and control variables.
Get them to discuss and classify their measures, and to indicate how they will assign participants
to conditions. Then discuss the ethical implications.
The effects of television viewing on children and adolescents continue to be a heavily
researched topic. You should be able to supplement class discussion with media material as well
as a wealth of information from the literature. You may want to review the references listed here
that describe experimental and correlational investigations and their results on this topic.

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References
Piak, H., & Comstock, G. (1994). The effects of television violence on antisocial behavior: A meta-
analysis. Communication Research, 21, 516–546.
Zillmann, D., Bryant, J., & Huston, A. C. (1994). Media, children, and the family: Social scientific,
psychodynamic, and clinical perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

In-Class Activities

Activity 2.1—Key Terms and Developmental Issues Reflected in Theories

This project introduces the various theoretical perspectives discussed in chapter 2, and also
allows students to realize how much of the material they already know. On a board or overhead,
list each of the following perspectives and distinguishing characteristics of the theories across the
top. Ask students to indicate where each theorist or theory stands on each of the perspectives and
characteristics (You may use fewer, or modify labels, to fit your preferences) leaving room below
each to add comments.
Then have students suggest terms, ideas, and “great psychologists” associated with each.
With life-span developmental psychology there are many choices of theorists and many choices
for distinguishing characteristics. Other characteristics that could be used to discriminate
between the theories include nature-nurture, continuity-discontinuity, stability-change,
determinism (yes or no), critical periods (yes or no), and the role of the participant (active or
passive). Students find the activity difficult; however, answers to essay questions about the
theories show that they seem to learn a lot from the exercise. Depending on the amount of time
available, the class can be divided into groups, each group given one or two theorists, then share
the answers. If there is a limited amount of time, use a lecture/discussion format that encourages
interaction but moves the discussion along. By the end of the exercise, they will be able to see
some similarities and dissimilarities for each group. Here is an example of this exercise from one
class:

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 Theory Characteristic
 Psychoanalytic: Freud, Jung, Adler, Horney, Erikson, id, ego, superego, sex, early
childhood, psychosexual stages, “mom’s fault,” unconscious, defense mechanisms,
dreams, Oedipal complex, birth order, sibling rivalry, inferiority, libido, nature,
discontinuity, stability.
 Behavioral: Watson, Skinner, Bandura, Pavlov, behavior modification, reinforcement,
extinction, shaping, fading, imitation, operant conditioning, modeling, intermittent
reinforcement, token economy, classical conditioning, unconditioned stimulus and
response, conditioned stimulus and response, systematic desensitization, mechanistic,
nurture, continuity.
 Cognitive: Piaget, Ellis, memory, information-processing, Binet, Terman, intelligence
tests, accommodation, assimilation, language, development, moral development,
Kohlberg, gender development.
 Ecological: Bronfenbrenner, Elder, environment, culture, ethnicity, nurture, and
continuity.

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 Students’ ability to offer suggestions will depend on how many psychology courses they
have had previous to this course. As an instructor, you will learn which theoretical perspectives
need the most class coverage, what misconceptions the students have, and what strengths they
have coming into the course.

Reference
Irwin, D.B., & Simons, J.A. (1984). Theoretical perspectives class activity. Ankeny, IA: Des Moines Area
Community College.

Activity 2.2—A Sampling Experiment Using M&M’s

This exercise will give students a hands-on experience with a manageable sampling problem.
Students may have counted a packaged product such as animal crackers or multi-colored candy
such as M&M’s in their youth. This activity will take childhood sampling experiences a few
steps further to demonstrate how size of sample influences bias, and to demonstrate that there is
a way to determine whether or not a sample is biased—by tallying the frequency and calculating
the percentages of the entire group of items.
Begin by distributing one small fun-size package of plain M&M’s to each student from
one or more large sacks of smaller packages. Each fun-size package represents a sample of the
larger sack(s) of samples. Ask students to establish the frequency distribution of the M&M colors
in the fun-size package using paper and pencil to record their findings. Have students calculate
the percentages of occurrence of each of the colors based on the raw data within their own
sample. Then have students make projections about the total population based on their data and
percentages.
After students have advanced a hypothesis about the total population based on their own
sample, have students work in pairs. They should combine their population data and generate a
new joint hypothesis about the distribution of the M& M colors. Finally, have the entire class
pool their data to determine the distribution of colors from the total population available in the
classroom. Compare the results with those published by the Mars, Inc. at the M&M home page.
How well did the samples predict the results from the entire population? If time permits,
repeat the experiment using regular individual size or larger packages of M&Ms. Compare the
accuracy of larger sample sizes to the smaller ones.
Students might be asked to demonstrate an understanding of their results by writing a
letter to Mars, Inc.

References
Mars, Inc. (2002). M&M’s home page at http://www.mms.com
Smith, R. A. (1999). A tasty sample(r): Teaching about sampling using M&M’s. In L. T. Benjamin,
B. F. Nodine, R. M. Ernst, and C. B. Broeker (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychol-
ogy (4th ed.) (pp. 66–68). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

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Critical Thinking Exercises

Exercise 1.1—Theory of Development

In chapter 2, Santrock presents several theoretical perspectives that explain strategies for
investigating adolescent development. The author of the following quote was most likely a
proponent of which of the following perspectives:
“The psychological development of children in the family is affected not only by what
happens in the other environments in which children spend their time, but also by what occurs in
the other settings in which their parents live their lives, especially in a place that children seldom
enter—the parents’ world of work. Another domain to which children tend to have limited access
is the parent’s circle of friends and acquaintances—their social network.” Circle the letter of the
best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as
appropriate.

A. cognitive D. psychoanalytic
B. behavioral E. ecological
C. eclectic

Exercise 2.2—Jess and His Teachers

Read the following passage about Jess and his teachers. Which of the following statements is
most likely to have been Graubard and Rosenberg’s assumption about difficult students, rather
than an inference or an observation? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the
best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate.

Jess and His Teachers

Jess is an eighth grader at a junior high school in California. At 14 years of age, he already
weighs 185 pounds. He is the school’s best athlete, but he used to get a thrill out of fighting. Jess
knocked out several fellow students and once hit the principal with a stick, resulting in a 40-day
school suspension.
Jess’s teachers unanimously agreed that he was an impossible case. But one week, they
began to notice a complete turnabout in Jess’s behavior. His math teacher was the first to notice
the unusual but improved behavior. Jess looked at her one day and said, “When you are nice, you
help me learn a lot.” The teacher was shocked. Confused, she finally smiled. Jess continued, “I
feel really good when you praise me.” Jess continued to consistently praise teachers, came to
class early, or stay after class to chat.
What was responsible for Jess’s turnabout? Some teachers said he attended a mysterious
class every day that might provide some clues to his behavior change. In that “mysterious” class,
a teacher was training students in behavior modification, which emphasizes that behavior is
determined by its consequences. Those consequences weaken some behaviors and strengthen
others.
In an experiment, Paul Graubard and Henry Rosenberg (1974) selected seven of the most
incorrigible students at a junior high school—Jess was one of them—and had a teacher give them
instruction and practice in behavior modification in a 43-minute class period each day. The
students were taught numerous pleasant responses to use to increase teachers’ positive attention.

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 Pleasant responses included eye contact, smiling, sitting up straight, and being attentive. They
also practiced praising their teachers, saying such things as, “I like working in this class where
there is a good teacher.” And they worked on ways to discourage certain teacher behaviors by
saying, “I just have a rough time working well when you get mad at me.” Jess had the hardest
time learning how to smile. He was shown a videotape of his behavior and observed that he
actually leered at people when he was told to smile. Although it was somewhat hilarious, Jess
practiced in front of a camera until he eventually developed a charming smile.

Observations indicated that teacher-student interchanges were becoming much more

positive during the five-week behavior-change program for students. Informal observations and
comments after the program ended suggested that positive student-teacher interchanges were
continuing. But what happened in the long run? In the case of this experiment, we do not know.
Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the
other answers is not as appropriate.

A. Difficult students’ behavior was not caused entirely by disturbed personalities or mental
abnormalities.

B. The reactions of teachers reinforced the disruptive or harmful behavior of difficult students.

C. Students exerted control over their teachers’ behavior by giving them positive and negative
feedback.

D. Students changed the way that they interacted with their teachers.

E. The improved interaction between students and teachers continued for at least a while after
the students finished their behavior modification class.

Exercise 2.3—Methods of Measuring Behavior

In chapter 2, Santrock describes five approaches for measuring adolescent behavior and then
characterizes the nature of each. Listed below are measurement approaches paired with brief
procedural descriptions. Which measurement approach-procedural description pair is correct?
Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the
other answers is not as appropriate.

A. Observation: Adolescents reported the degree of stress they experienced during the
previous week.

B. Interview and questionnaires: Researchers collected data about mother-son and father-son
interaction during 20-minute sessions.

C. Standardized tests: The investigator gathered educational and medical records, reports from
the psychologist and family service center, and conducted interviews with parents and
teachers.
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D. Physiological measures: Neural responses were measured during conditions of changing
stimuli.

E. Case studies: Performance was assessed using nonverbal ability sub-tests and scores were
compared to a sample that included representative percentages of majority and minority
students.

Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises

Exercise 2.1
A. Cognitive is not the best answer. The main reasons are (a) the speaker is mainly interested
in children and families, whereas cognitivists typically (though not exclusively) are
interested in individual people, combined with (b) a focus on observing behavior.
Cognitivists are interested in making inferences about the mind and studying conscious
mental activity.

B. Behavioral is not the best answer. The speaker indicates an interest in the system that
influences the child. Behavioral theory focuses first on the study of behavior, and second,
on environmental conditions that influence behavior. This parallels the development of
Skinner’s behaviorism.

C. Eclectic is not the best answer. This researcher focused on the immediate and extended
context that influences the child, not mentioning any interest in alternative behavior or
strategies for studying it. This focus does not indicate he believes that all established
approaches have something to contribute to his understanding of psychology.

D. Psychoanalytic is not the best answer. Psychoanalysts are interested in people and the inner
workings of their thoughts. They also do not typically look beyond the immediate family to
find things out, preferring instead various forms of clinical interviews or clinical devices
for revealing the nature of personality and personality function.

E. Ecological is the best answer. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory is based on an analysis of

systems of human behavior. This statement is from Bronfenbrenner (1986).

Exercise 2.2
A. This answer is the best because it is an assumption. This appears to be a key belief of the
researchers who worked with students like Jess. If they had not believed this, they would
not have focused on specific behaviors that students could change which, in turn, might
change the way teachers treated them. The statement is not made explicitly in the inset, nor
does it seem to be a conclusion of the research, nor is it an observation.

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B. This is not the best answer because it is an inference based on the following reasoning: The
article demonstrated that a change in the students’ behavior produced a change in the
teachers’ behavior and that, in fact, the changes reinforced each other. The suggestion is
that in “normal” day-to-day interactions the specific patterns of behavior that people
demonstrate toward others reinforces and maintains each other. For example, the students
report things like “I have a rough time working well when you get mad at me.” In order to
bring about behavioral change, one has to intervene in this self-maintaining pattern.

C. This is not the best answer because it is an inference or a conclusion that one might derive
from the research. The teachers’ behavior changed when the students changed their own
behavior. Because no other factors appear to have generated this change, the inference is
that what the students did actually caused the change (controlled it).

D. This is not the best answer because it is an observation. This is a “fact”—something

deliberately done and directly observable. A teacher/trainer taught students to smile, make
pleasant comments, and so on. Students’ teachers in other classes then noticed these
changed behaviors.

E. This is not the best answer because it is an observation. Teachers reported after the study
that they continued to see pleasant interactions between the so-called problem students and
their teachers.

Exercise 2.3
A. This is not the best answer. The procedure describes an interview or questionnaire approach
to getting information about adolescent feelings.

B. This is not the best answer. Researchers collect interaction data not only through direct
observation, usually in real world settings, but also in contrived laboratory environments.

C. This is not the best answer. The process of completing an in-depth look at an individual
includes gathering historical information through interviews, getting a medical or clinical
history from the individual or parent, and reviewing standardized assessment information
that may be available.

D. This is the best answer. Emotional responses can be measured through MRI, a physiologi-
cal measure of neurological function.

E. This is not the best answer. The procedure describes a standardized test for performance
skill and comparison of the results to the normal curve.

Short Scenarios

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Scenario 2.1
Mark is 13 years old and seems to be having more difficulties getting along with parents and
authority figures than most youths his age. He doesn’t have much interest in girls, but obsesses
over computers and chess on the Web. He spends the rest of his time reading mythology and
eating. Both his mother and father work full-time jobs with some travel. They are often critical of
the way Mark spends his time and of his increasing weight. He sometimes gets away with
extravagant trips to the local fast-food outlet, but when one of his parents catches him, they
become extremely strict for a period of time. From Mark’s perspective, his interaction with his
parents revolves around carping at him for eating too much, for not exercising, and for not
thinking about his future. Mark is not ready for all of this pressure. He wishes they could
understand his perspective. After a particularly lengthy lecture, Mark becomes petulant,
stomping around the house and slamming doors. Then he ignores his school responsibilities
entirely, flunking tests and buying even bigger fast-food treats than usual. Fortunately he enjoys
computer games and mythology. The heroes have interesting adventures, help the unfortunates,
and have a good time while they are doing it. Mark believes that life depends on big doses of
surrealism.

 Mark’s behavior can be explained from both a psychoanalytic and a behavioral

perspective.
 Mark is in the latency stage, Freud’s fourth stage of development.
 From a psychoanalytic perspective, Mark is suppressing his interest in sexuality that
is particularly strong because he did not have enough contact with his mother during
childhood.
 Mark’s desire for fantasy reflects strong wishes by the id and often the ego cannot
override demands by the id.
 Characteristic of a defense mechanism, Mark may be distorting the degree of
criticism that his parents express to help justify his behavior. The real issue may be
that he believes his father should have made enough money that his mother could
have stayed at home to take care of Mark’s social and emotional needs during his
childhood.
 Tantrums that Mark demonstrates after his parents lecture him about his personal
responsibilities and his future may reflect his desire to return to childhood and to
elicit the care he believes was denied him.
 Mark wishes his parents would recognize that he is bright, that he could become as
important as his father, and deserving of his mother’s affection.
 From a behavioral perspective, Mark has little contact with his parents or peers and
probably has skill deficits in the area of social interaction.
 Computer games and eating give Mark a great deal of immediate reinforcement.

Scenario 2.2
Gene and Lev have lived next door to each other for their entire childhood and adolescence.
They developed and maintained a strong friendship in spite of their differences in personal style.

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Gene has always been interested in science. Since he was nine, he has shown an interest in trying
new chemistry experiments, testing magic that uses chemistry, and studying math and science.
Lev, on the other hand, has always enjoyed being around people, young and old. He likes to tell
stories, to play the guitar and other instruments, and to perform some of Gene’s magic tricks.
Gene and Lev get together with some older blues band members to work on their musical style.
Lev often makes plans for Gene and the rest of their friends to meet at the coffeehouse to talk
about music, current and old films, and on occasion, to play their guitars. Gene plans to attend a
liberal arts college to get a degree in chemistry or theater. He is not sure what he would rather do
to make a living. Lev will probably go to school to major in fine arts and he, too, may choose a
career in performance. But for now, they are having a good time with a recent development—
some girls have started joining their group at the coffeehouse, and they are placing bets on who
will score first.

 Gene is demonstrating what Piaget described as the individual scientist, or an

individual actively constructing his understanding of the world.
 Gene and Lev are demonstrating behavior characteristic of the formal operational
stage as they prepare for and think about the possibilities for their future.
 Lev illustrates Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory emphasizing language and
social relations as dominant components of the learning process.
 The various learning environments with the older blues band members and their peers
provide opportunities for the adolescents to interact cooperatively and gain diverse
knowledge.
 From a psychoanalytic perspective, Gene and Lev are seeking or anticipating sexual
pleasure from someone outside the family, characteristic of the genital stage.

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Scenario 2.3
Crystal is the youngest of three children. Her oldest sister will finish high school this year and
her brother is a freshman in high school. Crystal will continue in middle school for a couple
more years. Crystal is very interested in school and easily solves all of the logic problems her
math teacher gives her to do while other students are finishing their regular class assignments.
She watches her brother and sister study and organize their time, and has learned from them that
it pays off. Crystal admires them because they are earning awards for their success in debate,
speech, and sports. She knows that she has a lot of say around home. Crystal almost always gets
the things she asks for from her parents, and gets her sister to help her by asking her repeatedly.
Crystal can always count on her immediate family to encourage her, and even the kids who tease
her are motivating. She likes the idea that the schools in Maitown are known for winning
statewide events. Even though she doesn’t know what she’ll major in when she goes to college,
she is pleased with what she has accomplished so far and expects to be successful in the future.

 The behavior can be explained by behavioral and social cognitive theories.

 Crystal has two older siblings that serve as important models for her; the
reinforcement that her brother and sister receive for their effort influences her
decisions in her own life.
 Crystal’s interest in school is reinforced directly by her success in school and extra
attention given to her by her teacher(s).
 Crystal has been reinforced for asking for help. Her sister responds to negative rein-
forcement (Crystal stops making annoying requests for help after help is provided).
 Her family and friends are important cues for working hard because they give her
positive feedback when she succeeds.
 An important source of reinforcement for Crystal is her knowing that she has made
good decisions and already has accomplished some important things. She expects the
trend to continue as it has for her siblings.

CURRENT RESEARCH ARTICLES

Article 2.1—Electroconvulsive Therapy for Adolescents

The current article discusses the risks and benefits of Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) with
adolescents, documenting the still current discussion of ECT as a therapeutic intervention. ECT
has been used as an approach for treating depression and affective disorders since the 1940s. The
effectiveness of ECT and the controversy surrounding its use are issues that have generated a
great deal of discussion since that time. During the 1950s, ECT was believed to have positive
effects for patients experiencing a wide range of affective disorders, especially depression.
Attempts to understand how ETC affected patients to produce beneficial results took place
during the 1960s. Poor research designs, however, prevented researchers from accurately
determining the mechanisms or effectiveness of the treatment. In the 1970s, increased concern
about client’s rights prompted further investigation about ECT effectiveness and application. It

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was in the ’70s that manic-depressive illness and involutional melancholia were identified as
most treatable with ECT. Conditions for the suitable application of ECT were specified,
including pretreatment examinations to determine sound physical health. About 33 percent of
practitioners surveyed recommended it not be used with children or adolescents. Use with minors
during this time was minimal.
Since the 1970s, the use of ECT has declined as consent issues became increasingly more
complicated. “In the most celebrated ruling, an Alabama state judge ruled that before ECT could
be administered (even when consent had been obtained), confirmation from four psychiatrists
and one neurologist, as well as monitoring by two attorneys, was required” (Baldwin & Jones,
1998, p. 649). Although the use of ECT currently is rare, adolescents with affective disorders,
schizophrenia, and eating disorders have received this treatment. Unfortunately, research on
children and adolescents continues to consist of case studies and uncontrolled investigations.
Further conflict revolves around discrepant professional codes requiring psychiatrists,
psychologists, and nurses to follow different procedures in its administration. As a result of
continued lack of knowledge about the mechanism of action, legislation, litigation, and a wide
variety of alternative interventions, ECT appears to be a treatment choice that may soon be lost
to adolescents.

Reference
Baldwin, S., & Jones, Y. (1998). Is electroconvulsive therapy unsuitable for children and adolescence?
Adolescence, 33, 645–656.

Article 2.2—Comparison of the Development of Formal Thought in Adolescents

Cross-sectional comparisons of cohort groups with cohort sequential designs have shown an
increase in the mean score of several intelligence tests including the Raven Progressive Matrices,
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, and Wechsler Intelligence Scale (Flieller, 1999). Identified as
the Flynn effect, increases in scores have averaged 3 points per decade for the past six decades.
The results have occurred in 20 countries including France where pertinent previous research led
to this investigation. Environmental explanations include such things as better nutrition,
increased availability of education, and/or the complexity of the environment. The fact that
scholastic achievement has not improved, however, suggests that the increased IQ scores do not
reflect improvement in real-life outcomes.
Flieller argued that these results suggested a clear need for further research to investigate
explanations for the observed changes in performance. He proposed that Piagetian tasks
depending heavily on nonverbal factors provide measures of fluid intelligence and provide the
following properties:

 Performance depends on reasoning ability, not speed of execution;

 Correct performance is accepted if the respondent is able to justify it;
 A hierarchical order of tasks has been previously validated;
 Piagetian tasks measure concept acquisition and reasoning strategies.

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 The questions for this paper included: What differences might exist between two same-
age adolescent cohort groups (a time-sequential analysis) 20 years apart? If differences between
the cohorts occur, what factors might explain them?
This research utilized data collected from 1972 and 1967 (10- to 12-year-olds) and
compared it to data collected from same-age adolescents in 1993 and 1996 (13- to 15-year-olds).
Longeot’s Logical Thought Development Scale was used to measure the cognitive
development of the adolescent subjects. Five tests are included in the scale and each test used a
four-tier cognitive level score: concrete (C), intermediate (I), formal A (Fa), or formal B (Fb).
Level of performance was based on the accuracy of the answer, the respondent’s ability to
explain the answer, and the respondent’s reaction to the experimenter’s objections and counter
suggestions.
Conservation. Materials include two clay balls and one metal ball of the same size and
two containers of water. Test items include: (1) dissociation of weight and volume (Explain why
the water rises; predict the height of the water.); (2) conservation of volume. (How will sausage
shaped clay and a ball of clay influence water level? What weight is a round ball of clay versus a
flattened ball? What weight is clay broken into many pieces?)
Permutation. Multicolor tokens are given to the participant and the participant predicts
the number of different ways that yellow, red, and blue tokens can be lined up. Then the
participant is asked to line up the tokens in as many ways as possible. Then four additional
colored tokens are added one at a time. The execution phase is scored along with explanations
for the numerical response.
Quantification of Probabilities. Two types of tokens, plain yellow tokens and yellow
tokens with a large black X on one side, are used for this test. Collections of tokens are presented
to the participant (e.g., four tokens of which one has an X; five tokens of which two have an X).
The participant is asked to decide and explain in which collection a token with an X has a better
chance of being chosen.
Pendulum Oscillations. Materials consist of a stand, a string for hanging weights, and
five weights (50g, 100g, 150g, 200g, 250g) that may be hung on the string. The experimenter
hangs a weight, puts it in motion, and then explains that string length, weight of the pendulum,
the force of the push, and the height of release may influence the pendulum period. The
participant then is asked to investigate the influence of each variable. Experimenter watches for
participant and asks for participant’s conclusions.
Mechanical Curves. The mechanism required is a cylinder fastened to a stand that can be
rotated around its horizontal axis using a crank. A piece of 8.5  11-inch piece of paper is
attached to the cylinder. A pencil on a bar allows a horizontal line to be drawn from one end of
the cylinder to the other. The tasks require completing two movements: the horizontal motion of
the pencil and the rotation of the cylinder. Six movements: pencil movement without cylinder
rotation; the cylinder rotates without pencil movement; the cylinder rotates and the pencil moves
from one end to the other; cylinder moves and pencil goes to the end and back; cylinder does two
full rotations with the pencil going and coming back; the cylinder does two full rotations without
the pencil coming back to the starting point.
Study 1 compared 510 participants of 10- to 12-year-olds from 1972 to 90 same age
children in 1993. Study 2 compared 90 participants of 13- to 15-year-olds from 1967 to 90
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children of the same ages in 1996. All participants took all of the tests in their schools. Further,
the percentages of students at each level demonstrated clear shifts from Concrete to Intermediate
and Formal A levels for both age groups. The cross-sectional comparison showed the Study 1
group of 10- to 12-year-olds performed consistently better across all five tests in 1993 than had
the same aged children in 1972. Study 2 showed some variation in performance, with a drop in
performance on the weight-volume test between the years 1967 to 1996. Improvement between
cohorts was noted on the other four tests by 13- to 15-year-olds, but scores on the probability,
pendulum, and mechanical curves tests did not change as much as the permutation test.
The study showed that the Piagetian test supported previous findings using traditional IQ-
type tests and is subject to the Flynn effect. The studies suggested that problem solving using
diverse reasoning skills has improved for both age groups. Improved performance may be
attributed to the accelerated introduction of problems and solutions presented in classes. It may
be that learning has a greater impact on development than recognized previously and is hastening
the pace of cognitive development.

Reference
Flieller, A. (1999). Comparison of the development of formal thought in adolescent cohorts aged 10 to 15
years (1967–1996 and 1972–1993). Developmental Psychology, 35, 1048–1058.

STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS

Research Project 2.1—Developing a Measure and Collecting Data

Objective. Students will gain some initial experience in defining behavior and completing direct
observations of adolescents as a foundation for subsequent class activities.

Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity with students in pairs; approximately 5 hours.

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Directions. Often researchers must collect information from subjects or settings that have not
been investigated previously. In order to collect data systematically so that it may be analyzed
later, an observation approach must be devised. A variety of descriptions can be found in
professional literature such as the journal of Tests and Measures for standardized test,
Adolescence for survey instruments, or Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis for single-subject
designs.
Students in child development often are asked to directly observe children in natural
settings, and then to write brief reports about their observations. Unfortunately, adolescents are
not quite as easy to observe without noticing some reactivity to the observer. If you directly
observe adolescents in a community setting, be sure to follow ethical standards:

 Contact the University Research Review or Human Rights Committee to receive

permission to conduct the observation.
 Obtain permission from agency administration and staff members if the observation is
to take place in an institutional setting.
 An adult subject must give written consent; parents must give consent for children
and adolescents. The observer/researcher must explain the procedures that will be
followed and the possible consequences (risks or benefits).
 An explanation must follow any observation or intervention that causes stress or
discomfort.

An alternative approach is to observe a television program with adolescent characters

appearing regularly in each episode. Complete three to five observations by watching real-time
or recorded episodes.
Develop an observation system with approximately five behaviors. Define each behavior
operationally in observable, measurable terms, so that during an observation two people can
agree without discussion that the behavior has occurred. Choose a data collection procedure such
as (1) a tally for each discrete behavior, (2) an interval system for documenting the occurrence of
an ongoing behavior during specified time segments, or (3) a time sample approach for
collecting data during brief periods at consistent intervals. (See “Student Handouts” for
examples.) Calculate the reliability of definitions and observation procedures.

Wrap-Up. After the data have been collected, a brief report or a full technical paper may be
written to summarize the social impact of the topic, the methods, results of the observation, and a
discussion of the project. Explain any new perspectives you developed about your own
objectivity.

Reference
Martin, G., & Pear, J. (1999). Behavior modification: What it is and how to do it (6th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Research Project 2.2—Ethical Guidelines for Professionals

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Objective. Students will understand the universality of ethical guidelines in scientific research
and human services programs.

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Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; approximately 2 to 3 hours.

Directions. Reputable professional organizations establish ethical guidelines for the treatment of
animal and human subjects, and the acceptable behavior of researchers and providers. This
project is designed to encourage you to investigate ethical guidelines across professional
organizations and to identify the common themes that the guidelines present.
Identify common ethical guidelines across professional organizations. You will find that
ethical guidelines have specific sections at some sites and that you must search within the
sections entitled publications or research topics at others. Read the ethical information presented
at each site to identify universal principles.
These sites present important fundamental information:

 Declaration of Helsinki. Adopted by the 18th World Medical Assembly, Helsinki,

1964; amended several times by subsequent World Medical Assemblies.
http://www.wma.net/e/policy/b3.htm
 Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects. Federal Register, Volume 56,
No 117, June 18, 1991, pp. 28011-28018. Effective August 19, 1991. Retrieved from
http://www.med.umich.edu/irbmed/FederalDocuments/FedPolicy/FederalPolicy.html

These sites have ethics guidelines and discussions for professionals on their web sites:

 American Psychological Association at http://www.apa.org/

 American Medical Association at http://www.ama-assn.org/
 National Alliance for the Mentally Ill at http://www.nami.org/
 National Association of Social Workers at http://www.naswdc.org/
 National Institutes of Health at http://www.nih.gov/
 Society for Neuroscience at http://www.sfn.org/

1. What are key terms, phrases, and concepts common to all of the professional guidelines?

2. What guidelines and presentation style were unique to specific professions?

3. How are these points similar to and different from those discussed by Santrock in
Adolescence?

4. Why are ethical guidelines necessary? Do you think that they are more important to us
today than they were 75 or more years ago?

Wrap-Up. Be prepared to discuss the key points that you identified across professions.

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IM 2 | 55
ESSAY QUESTIONS

Review the guidelines for “Answering Essay Questions” before you have students respond to
these questions. Their answers to these kinds of questions demonstrate an ability to comprehend
and apply ideas discussed in this chapter.

1. Compare and contrast the psychoanalytic theories of Freud and Erikson. Explain in what
ways Erikson made fundamental changes to psychoanalytic theory.

2. Compare and contrast the cognitive theories of Piaget, Vygotsky, and the information-
processing approach. Identify the stages of Piaget’s theory, and sketch the nature of
cognitive changes that take place from infancy through adolescence according to the other
theories.

3. Explain the similarities and differences between the behavioral and social cognitive
theories. Give an example of a personal experience that would be explained differently by a
theorist from each behavioral perspective.

4. Define and distinguish the five systems in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory. Provide at
least two examples of each system from your own personal life.

5. Explain why the eclectic approach is beneficial in understanding adolescent development

as a whole and problematic in studying a single aspect of development.

6. Which of the four major theories of adolescent development discussed by Santrock is best
suited to guide the scientific research approach? Which is the least well suited? Explain
your answers.

7. Why do psychologists and other interested people depend on professional journals as the
major source of information about adolescents? Explain what each section of a journal
article is designed to accomplish.

8. Compare and contrast correlational and experimental strategies for conducting research in
adolescent development. What do you gain and lose by using a correlational strategy rather
than experimental strategy in research?

9. Explain what is meant by research bias. What scientific approaches and research methods
lead to research bias? What strategies might investigators use to reduce the bias that has
occurred previously in developmental research?

10. Explain six cautions for a wise consumer of information about adolescent development.
Give an example of an error in conclusions for each caution.

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References
McCarthy, J. B. (Ed.). (2000). Adolescent development and psychopathology. Blue Ridge Summit, PA:
University Press of America.
Miller, P. H. (1993). Theories of developmental psychology (3rd ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and
Company.

VIDEO

Obedience to Authority (Discovery Channel Video)

This video clip shows footage of Stanley Milgram’s famous study.

Overview
One of the challenges facing researchers today is conducting ethical research. Participants in
studies need to know that some kinds of research can have personal effects, negative and
positive, and that they have ethical rights that must be preserved. Today colleges and universities
have review boards that evaluate the ethics of research conducted at their institutions. In
addition, the American Psychological Association (APA) has developed ethics guidelines for its
members. The APA’s code of ethics instructs psychologists to protect their participants from
mental and physical harm, and to keep their best interests uppermost in their minds. The four
issues are: informed consent, confidentiality, debriefing and deception.
This video segment presents an experiment conducted by psychologist Stanley Milgram
in which the “learner” was actually an accomplice, or confederate, of the experimenters. Each
participant was told to obey the instructions of the experimenter regardless of how the “learner”
might react.

Pre-Test
1. The rights of research participants include all of the following EXCEPT
a. monetary compensation for participation.
Correct. Participation in research is voluntary.
b. informed consent.
Incorrect. Participants must be informed of what participation involves.
c. confidentiality.
Incorrect. Researchers must keep all information collected confidential.
d. debriefing.
Incorrect. After the research is complete, participants should be given further information about
the research in which they participated.

Post-Test
1. In what way did Stanley Milgram not protect the rights of his research participants.
a. debriefing.
Incorrect. At the conclusion of the study participants were informed of the true purpose of the
study.
b. freedom to withdraw.
Correct. Participants were coerced by Stanley Milgram to continue with the study.
c. confidentiality.
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Incorrect. Milgram did protect the confidentiality of his participants. This video clip was used
with the consent of the participant.
d. compensation.
Incorrect. Participants do not have to be compensated for participation.

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