i

FAO
ANIMAL
PRODUCTION AND HEALTH PAPER

Small ruminant production and the small ruminant genetic

resource in tropical Africa
by
R. Trevor Wilson
Bartridge Partners
Umberleigh
North Devon, UK

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED
NATIONS
Rome, 1991

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this

publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the
part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area of its
authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

M-11
ISBN 92-5-102998-9

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission on the
copyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a statement of the
Publications Division, Food and Agriculture, Organization of the United
Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.

©.FAO 1991

ii
 CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
AVANT PROPOS
PREFACE
INTRODUCTION AND ACKWOWLEDGEMENT
PART ONE: INTRODUCTION
DESCENT AND DOMESTICATION OF GOATS AND SHEEP
SMALL RUMINANT PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN TROPICAL AFRICA

Distribution and Importance of Goats and Sheep

Ratios of goats to sheep

Density

Numbers of goats and sheep per person

Small ruminants as a proportion of all

domestic ruminants

Production Systems

Ecological zones

Livestock production systems

Management

General practices

Ownership patterns

Flock structures

ADAPTATION AND INTEGRATION OF SMALL RUMINANTS IN AFRICAN

SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION

Utilization of Resources

Contribution to Man's Well Being

The Small Ruminant Genetic Resource

Goats

iii
 Sheep

PART TWO: SMALL RUMINANT TYPES/GOATS

LARGE GOATS

Boer

Pafuri

Tswana

Swazi

Ndebele

Landim

Nubian

Sudan Desert

West African Long-legged

SMALL GOATS

Red Sokoto

Afar

Mubende

Kigezi

Boran

Masai

Rwanda and Burundi

Malawi

Zimbabwe

DWARF GOATS

West African Dwarf

EXOTIC GOATS

iv
 Angora

PART THREE: SMALL RUMINANT TYPES/SHEEP

THIN-TAILED SHEEP

Sudan Desert

Macina

Black Maure

Touabire

Peul-Peul

Toronké

Touareg

Ara Ara

Uda

Balami

Yankasa

Mossi

Vogan

Djallonké

FAT-TAILED SHEEP

Afar

Ethiopian Highland

Red Masai

East African Blackheaded

Rwanda and Burundi

Tswana

Swazi

v
 Landim

Sabi

FAT-RUMPED SHEEP

Blackhead Persian

Dorper

EXOTIC SHEEP

Karakul

Merino

PART FOUR: REFERENCES

FAO TECHNICAL PAPERS
Back Cover

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 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 A classification of small ruminant production types and systems in sub-Saharan
Africa
Table 2 Characteristics of small ruminant production systems in West Africa
Table 3 Small ruminant production systems in Cote d'Ivoire
Table 4 Ecology and management of goats and sheep in semi-arid Africa
Table 5 Biophysical characteristics and livestock ownership patterns in highland central
Africa
Table 6 Ownership patterns of sheep and goats in the agro-pastoral area in central Mali
Table 7 Patterns of small ruminant ownership in the humid zone of south-west Nigeria
Table 8 Livestock ownership in agro-pastoral and pastoral societies in Kenya and Chad
Table 9 Flock structures in relation to management objectives (as per cent of animals)
Table 10 Stratification of Macina flocks in Mali, with demographic characteristics of each
Table 11 Contribution of different fodder sources (per cent) to the diet of domestic herbivores
in Kenya
Table 12 Time (per cent) spent on different fodder sources by three domestic species in
central Mali
Table 13 Seasonal contribution to human milk supply by different livestock species in
Turkana, northern Kenya
Table 14 Productivity indices for different livestock species in Mali
Table 15 Ratios of variation (maximum:minimum) of productivity indices for three domestic
species in Mali
Table 16 Effects of drought on livestock in a Masai agro-pastoral system at Loitokitok,
Kenya
Table 17 Contribution of cattle, goats and sheep to recorded slaughterin four Sahel countries
before and after a drought (per cent of '000 TLUs)
Table 18 Areas of distribution and production aptitudes of some African goat types
Table 19 Areas of distribution and production aptitudes of some African sheep types
Table 20 Goat flock size distribution in Botswana
Table 21 Goat flock structure and breeding status from 160 multiple owner flocks in
Swaziland
Table 22 Body measurements and body mass of female Landim goats
Table 23 Monthly average body weights of male and female Nubian kids weaned at 10 weeks
and fed a 29.8 per cent crude protein concentrate ad lib from 4 weeks
Table 24 Morphological characteristics of West African Long-legged goats
Table 25 Owners' recall data of litter sizes of Sahel goats: in central Mali
Table 26 Age (months) and reproductive history of Fulani (Voltaïque) goats in Burkina Faso
Table 27 Weight changes (maximum and minimum averaged for 6 years) by sex and age in
central Mali an goats expressed as percentages of mean annual weight
Table 28 Reproductive data established from owner recall in 116 flocks of sedentary Red
Sokoto goats in Kaduna state, northern Nigeria
Table 29 Weights (kg) at early age of Sokoto goats at Maradi research centre in 1986
Table 30 Small ruminant flock sizes in various agro-ecological zones on the Kenya coast
Table 31 Birth weights (kg) of Malawi kids under various management systems

vii
Table 32 Distribution and importance of the West African Dwarf goat
Table 33 Weights at specific ages of West African Dwarf goats in a southern Senegal
traditional system as affected by different variables (n=933 animals at 1 month)
Table 34 Some components of productivity of Sudan Desert sheep at El Huda, Sudan
Table 35 Lambing data for 24 flocks of sedentary sheep in central Mali
Table 36 Comparative weights of Moutons de Case and extensively reared sheep in central
Mali
Table 37 Reproductive careers based on owner recall in Touareg sheep in the Gourma of
Mali
Table 38 Reproductive data established from owner recall in 106 flocks of sedentory Yankasa
sheep in Kaduna state, northern Nigeria
Table 39 Weights (kg) of Mossi sheep at You, Burkina Faso, as affected by some
environmental variables
Table 40 Milk yields of Vogan ewes in Togo
Table 41 Multiple births by Djallonké ewes in various West African countries
Table 42 Birth weights (kg) of Djallonké sheep from various countries and as affected by a
number of variables
Table 43 Production traits of Ethiopia sheep types under station management
Table 44 Sheep flock structure (per cent of 547 animals) on a Masai group ranch in south-
central Kenya
Table 45 Weights (kg) of East African Blackhead and lambs at Mbarara, Uganda
Table 46 Reproductive data established from owner recall in traditional flocks of long-fat-
tailed sheep in Rwanda, Burundi and Zaire
Table 47 Birth weights (kg) of Burundi long-fat-tailed sheep
Table 48 Carcass composition of castrate and female Tswana sheep
Table 49 Body measurement and body mass of female Landim sheep
Table 50 Weights (kg) at various ages of Blackhead sheep in a central Somalia traditional
system

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 A female Barbary sheep Ammotragus lervia at Khartoum zoo
Figure 2 Nubian ibex Capra ibex nubiana in captivity at Khartoum zoo
Figure 3 Ratios of goats to sheep in tropical Africa
Figure 4 Densities of small ruminants per unit area in tropical Africa
Figure 5 Relationships of total numbers of goats and sheep to the numbers of people in
tropical African countries
Figure 6 The contribution of small ruminants to total domestic ruminant biomass in tropical
Africa
Figure 7 A Sudan Desert ram in Southern Darfur with a 'kunan' to prevent breeding

viii
Figure 8 Leather apron to restrict breeding on a Masai buck in a Kenya flock
Figure 9 Complementarity of biomass production curves in fodder species in the browse
and field layers
Figure 10 Feeding times at different heights above ground level by three domestic ruminant
species
Figure 11 Feeding behaviour of four domestic animal species in Kenya in relation to: a.
number of species in diet; b. time spent at each feeding station; and c. feeding
height
Figure 12 Dietary range of goats (?) and sheep (?) and relative overlap between the species
in a low-bush savanna in Kenya
Figure 13 Seasonal variations in weight of domestic ruminants in two agro-pastoral sub-
systems in central Mali
Figure 14 Contribution of domestic ruminant species to the meat supply of a central Mali
town
Figure 15 Proportion of goat meat to all meat eaten in 60 Kenya pastoral households
Figure 16 The percentage of lactating females of three different species at different times of
the year in Sudan
Figure 17 Comparative annual and seasonal productivity indices for cattle, goats and sheep
in central Mali
Figure 18 Castrated West African Long-legged goat in Burkina Faso
Figure 19 Distribution of major goat types in tropical Africa
Figure 20 Distribution of major sheep types in tropical Africa
Figure 21 A Boer buck imported from South Africa to a private flock in Swaziland
Figure 22 A group of Boer females imported from South Africa to the Sunnyside Ranch of
the Animal Production Research Unit in Botswana (note horn shape in doe on
right)
Figure 23 Profile, horns and ears of a male Boer goat
Figure 24 Lactation curves of Boer goats with different litter sizes
Figure 25 A Tswana goat, owned by the Animal Production Research Institute
Figure 26 Birth distribution in a Tswana traditional flock with continuous buck presence
from 1981 to 1983
Figure 27 Swazi bucks in the traditional agro-pastoral system on Swazi Nation Land
Figure 28 Ndebele male goat at Matopos Research Station, Zimbabwe
Figure 29 A male Landim goat at Chobela Research Station, Mozambique
Figure 30 Female and young Nubian goats on the Nile bank Shendi, Sudan
Figure 31 Topknot, profile and prognathous jaw of male Damascus goat in Tunisia
Figure 32 Nubian female goat in Batn el-Haggar, Sudan, with udder bag to prevent suckling
by kids
Figure 33 Sudan desert goats on transhumance in Southern Darfur
Figure 34 West African Long-legged goats of the Sahel type at Bamako market, Mali
Figure 35 Goat flock structures in different transhumant ethnic groups in Chad
Figure 36 Classification of goat holding sizes in a Mossi agro-pastoral system in northern
Burkina Faso
Figure 37 Maure goats near Niafounke in northern Mali (note male and female horn types)
Figure 38 Red Sokoto buck or Chèvre rousse de Maradi at Zugu, Sokoto State, Nigeria
Figure 39 Female Chèvre rousse de Maradi at Maradi station, Niger
Figure 40 Distribution of parturitions and variations in litter size in Maradi goats in Niger

ix
Figure 41 Lactation curves of Red Sokoto goats having given birth to single or twin kids
(smooth curves represent Wood's gamma function)
Figure 42 Afar goats at a desert well in Djibouti
Figure 43 Afar goats showing (left) horns of female, immature and male; and (right)
vestigial ears on a female
Figure 44 Male Mubende goat at Lweza station, Uganda (photograph by K.L. Okello)
Figure 45 Boran or Galla goats at Kiboko National Range Research Station, Kenya
Figure 46 A Masai goat of Small East African type in the west of Mara region in Kenya
Figure 47 A Rwanda goat at a picket in the agricultural system near Kigali
Figure 48 Frequency distribution of reproductive careers of Rwanda/ Burundi goats in
traditional systems in highland east-central Africa
Figure 49 A Zimbabwe goat in the high potential Mangwende area of east of Harare
Figure 50 West African Dwarf goat scavenging in Abomey market in Benin
Figure 51 West African Dwarf goats of (top) the Cameroon Grassland sub-type at Mankon
station, Bamenda, of (centre) the Ghana forest sub-type in a house compound at
Kumasi and of (bottom) the Cote d'Ivoire type near Abidjan
Figure 52 Distribution of parturitions in three traditionally managed populations of West
African Dwarf goats in: a. Nigeria b. Togo and c. Senegal
Figure 53 A Lesotho coin attesting to the importance of the Angora goat to the country
Figure 54 An Angora buck, imported from South Africa, at a government stud farm in
Lesotho
Figure 55 Fertility of Angora goats of different age groups in South Africa
Figure 56 Technical and financial productivity of Angora goats in Lesotho
Figure 57 Ram of Shugor tribal type in a traditional flock in the Sudan Gezira (note 'kunan'
and charm tied to testicles)
Figure 58 Dubasi ewes on the Nile bank near Khartoum, Sudan (note plastic bag on teat to
prevent suckling and compare Figure 32)
Figure 59 A Watish ram in the southern Gezira, Sudan
Figure 60 The distribution area of Macina sheep in Mali and Niger
Figure 61 A Macina flock in the Niger river inundation zone in central Mali
Figure 62 Lactation curves of Macina sheep under simulated traditional management
Figure 63 A Black Maure ram on stubble grazing in central Mali
Figure 64 Raw and spun hair (top) and hair tent with Black Maure flock (bottom) on dry
season pasture in an agro-pastoral system in central Mali
Figure 65 Profile of a female Touabire sheep in a village flock in northern Senegal
Figure 66 A Touabire ram at Dahra station in northern Senegal (note the wall eye)
Figure 67 Toronké sheep of the Futanké (left) and Banamba (right) sub-types at Bamako
market in Mali
Figure 68 Moutons de Case in the irrigated rice livestock system in central Mali
Figure 69 A ram of Touareg type (note 'kunan' to control breeding in the Air region in north
Niger
Figure 70 Ram of Uda type at the Niamey research station of the Institut national de la
recherche agronomique nigérienne
Figure 71 A "Sahel crossbred" showing Uda and forest type characters at Maroua, Cameroon
Figure 72 Seasonal variations in expression of oestrus in Uda ewes in Niger
Figure 73 Balami ram at Katsina station, northern Nigeria
Figure 74 Mossi sheep in the village of You, Yatenga, Burkina Faso being released from

x
 their night house
Figure 75 Kirdi sub-type of Djallonké sheep at Garoua station, northern Cameroon
Figure 76 Djallonké sheep of the Ghana forest sub-type (note mane and apron of long hair)
Figure 77 Distribution of ages at first lambing of Djallonké ewes under 3 systems of
management in Côte d'Ivoire
Figure 78 Elite Djallonké rams selected on a weight for age basis at the National Sheep
Programme station, Bouaké, Côte d'Ivoire
Figure 79 Afar sheep in Kala graben on the Tigray/Welo border in northern Ethiopia
Figure 80 Mixed hair and wool fleece on Menz type Ethiopian Highland sheep in Addis
Ababa
Figure 81 Ethiopian Highland sheep near Debre Marcos, Gojam region
Figure 82 Arsi sub-type of Ethiopian Highland sheep
Figure 83 "Cottage" and industrial products from naturally coloured wool of Ethiopian
Highland sheep
Figure 84 Masai sheep at Elangata Wuas group ranch in south-central Kenya (note leather
apron on male)
Figure 85 Ram of the African long-fat-tailed type at Songa station, Rwanda
Figure 86 Ages at first lambing (top) and parturition intervals (bottom) of Rwanda sheep on
station
Figure 87 Landim sheep at Chobela research station, Mozambique
Figure 88 Distribution of lambings by Landim sheep at Chobela showing effects of
management policies
Figure 89 Sabi sheep with docked tail at Matopos research station, Zimbabwe
Figure 90 Vestigial ears on a Sabi ewe (note normal ears on her lamb)
Figure 91 Duration of gestation in Sabi sheep at Matopos, Zimbabwe
Figure 92 The Blackhead Persian ram flock at West Kilimanjaro ranch, Tanzania
Figure 93 A Blackhead Persian ram imported from Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) to Kongwa in
central Tanzania in 1963
Figure 94 Dorper ram, imported via Swaziland, on a commercial farm in Kenya
Figure 95 Dorper ewe and lamb at Lobo farm, Middlepits, southwest, Botswana
Figure 96 Changes in 100-day weight of registered Dorper sheep in South Africa
Figure 97 Karakul ram and ewe in a commercially managed flock near Bokspits in south-
west Botswana
Figure 98 Karakul lambs showing variation in pelt types
Figure 99 A Karakul pelt drying on a jute frame
Figure 100 Hudson's Bay and Annings classification of Karakul pelts from southern Africa
Figure 101 An imported Merino ram in a producers' cooperative flock in Lesotho
Figure 102 The shearing and sorting shed in a Lesotho wool/ mohair producers' cooperative
Figure 103 Financial and technical productivity of Merino sheep in Lesotho

xi
 PREFACE
Goats and sheep ("small ruminants") are an important livestock component
in all ecological zones (arid, semi-arid, subhumid, humid, highland) and all
types of agricultural systems (smallholder mixed farming, agro-pastoral,
pastoral, urban, commercial ranching) in tropical Africa. Small ruminants are
complementary to cattle and camels in their production cycles and generally
do not compete directly with them for feed. Goats and sheep are owned by
more production units in African farming systems than any other species of
domestic livestock except poultry. Because of their lower feed requirements,
their rapid reproduction cycles and the ease with which they can be
handled, they are particularly important for resource-poor households and
are often the property of underprivileged groups, such as women and
children, within those households.
Small ruminant research and development has been neglected in the past.
During the 1980s the advantages of small ruminants have become
increasingly recognised by researchers, development workers, policy
makers and aid agencies both on the African continent and elsewhere.
In view of the current interest in small ruminants in Africa there is a need to
provide a standard text on production systems, the role of goats and sheep
in mixed-stocking guilds and mixed livestock/crop systems and on the
indigenous genetic resource. Lack of knowledge of the types and production
capabilities of African small ruminants encourages the belief that they are
poor performers and that development paths should be based on the
importation and imposition of supposedly superior "exotic" animals.
It is hoped that this text goes some way to discountenancing this belief and
will encourage the use of African indigenous domestic animal types in
African development.
Vivian M. Timon
Senior Officer
Livestock Production Systems Group
Animal Production and Health Division

xii
 INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Publications with a somewhat similar philosophy to this one were published
for the West African region in the 1950s (A classification of West African
Livestock. I.L. Mason. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux) and for East
and South Africa in 1960 (The Indigenous Livestock of Eastern and
Southern Africa. I.L. Mason and J.P. Maule. Commonwealth Agricultural
Bureaux): although these books are now very much out of date, they are
widely quoted in scientific publications. The Institut d'Elevage et de
Médecine Védécineterinaire des Pays Tropicaux has published two (1971,
1980) texts on small ruminants in the West African region (Principales races
domestiques des zones tropicales d'Afrique francophone et de Madagascar.
IEMVT, and Les petits ruminants d'Afrique centrale et d'Afrique de l'Ouest.
J. Charray et al. Institut d'Elevage et de Medecine Veterinaire des pays
Tropicaux): neither are comprehensive in their treatment of performance
(concentrating mainly on pathology) and are largely restricted to countries
which were formerly French colonies and, because they are in the French
language, are not universally read. One additional book published in 1983,
has some country chapters for West Africa and Central/South America but
is limited to sheep and lacks depth, particularly in its treatment of Africa
(Hair sheep of Wester Africa and the Americas: A genetic resource for the
tropics. H.A. Fitzhugh and G.E. Bradford. Winrock International/Westview
Press). The massive work of H. Epstein entitled "The Origin of the Domestic
Animals of Africa" (1971. Africana Publishing Corporation) is an erudite
work which, as its title implies attempts to trace the genology of all domestic
livestock but contains no production data at all. All of these sources have
been drawn on for general information for many of the types described but
are not specifically cited in the lists of references.
Additional general texts include one each on tropical goats and sheep and
one on both species combined. The first (Goat Production in the Tropics. C.
Devendra and M. Burns. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux) went into a
second edition in 1983 but still contains relatively little on breeds and on
Africa. The second (Sheep Production in the Tropics. R.M. Gatenby.
Longmans.) was published early in 1986 and, in relation to breeds, merely
provides a list of names: elsewhere it has major chapters on health, nutrition
and feeding and a long chapter on wool. The last, published in 1982, (Goat
and Sheep Production in the Tropics. C. Devendra and G.B. McLeroy.
Longmans) is again not confined to Africa, is rather weak in its treatment of
sheep and is aimed primarily at an undergraduate audience.
This current publication does not pretend to catalogue every African
indigenous "type", "breed" or "race" of small ruminant that has ever been

xiii
 identified or described. It does attempt to provide information on the major
types or groupings, in particular in respect of their relationship to other
types, their areas of distribution, the systems under which they are
managed, their major morphological characteristics and their major
production parameters. The imbalance in detail under the various entries is
evidence, not of the knowledge that has been gained over the last two
decades or so, although this is considerable, but of how much remains to be
done to characterize and to evaluate the indigenous African small ruminant
resource.
The sections on Productivity are best regarded as providing a baseline for
future work. Many of the data are, in any case, from traditional systems
where animals receive little, other than some management skills, in the way
of inputs which might lead to improved performance. Even on stations,
however, some inputs have been hard to come by in recent years and it
might not be inappropriate to suggest that management skills there, in many
cases, are of a lower order than in the traditional systems. Some of the
"experimental" results therefore appear to be no better, and are indeed
often worse, than those obtained from the field. The total lack of any genetic
parameter information is eloquent testimony of what still needs to be done.
I have been singularly fortunate in the last 2 5 years. I have managed large
scale ranches, lived and travelled with farmers and pastoralists in their daily
lives, worked on development projects, and tried to assist many scientists in
the compilation, analysis and interpretation of their research data. In this
context I have been able greatly to increase my own knowledge, and have
taken advantage of personal communications of the oral kind, of grey
literature, and of conventional literature in compiling this document. I could
not, even if I would, name everyone who has helped in its construction and
its completion. But this book is, indeed, their testament and I am merely
their apostle. My fervent hope is that it will encourage all of them to continue
in their individual and collective efforts to improve livestock productivity in
Africa.
R. TREVOR WILSON

xiv
 PART ONE
INTRODUCTION

DESCENT AND DOMESTICATION OF GOATS AND

SHEEP
Goats and sheep both belong to the tribe Caprini of the family Bovidae in
the sub-order Ruminantia of the order Artiodactyla (Zeuner, 1963; Epstein,
1971; Corbet, 1978; Corbet & Hill, 1980; Ryder, 1984). They are typical
cloven-hoofed ruminants of relatively small size.
The tribe Caprini is comprised of five genera. Two of these genera, Capra
and Hemitragus, are true goats; one genus, Ovis, is the sheep; and there
are two genera -- Ammotragus and Pseudois -- of goat-like sheep or sheep-
like goats.
The Barbary sheep or aoudad, Ammotragus lervia (Figure 1), is confined to
the Sahara and the bharal or blue sheep, Pseudois nayaur, to the
Himalayas: neither of these have been domesticated and neither will
hybridize with true sheep of the genus Ovis. Fertile offspring by male
Barbary sheep out of female domestic goats are known, however.
According to latest taxonomic opinion the two genera of true goats are
divided into three species of Hemitragus or tahrs, and six of Capra. All the
tahrs have the same chromosome number (2n=48). Most of the Capra
species are interfertile although for some pairs no crosses are recorded: all
the species examined (bezoar, ibex and markhor) have the same number of
chromosomes (2n=60).

1
 Figure 1 A female Barbary sheep Ammotragus lervia at Khartoum zoo
Hemitragus jayakari: Arabian tahr, found now only in Oman and in danger of
extinction;
Hemitragus jemlahicus: Himalaya tahr;
Hemitragus hylocrius: Nilgiri tahr of southern India;
Capra aegagrus: Bezoar or wild goat with five sub-species: the domestic
variant is classed as Capra hircus;
Capra ibex: Ibex, with four sub-species in the Alps; in central Asia; in the
Near East, Egypt and Sudan (C.i.nubian) (Figure 2); and in the Simen
Mountains of Ethiopia, this last being C.i.walie;
Capra caucasica: West Causasian tur or kuban which until recently was
considered as a sub-species of the ibex named C.i.severtzovi;
Capra cylindriocornis: East Caucasian tur which was earlier called
C.caucasica;
Capra pyrenaica: Spanish ibex or wild goat with two sub-species;
Capra falconeri: Markhonr of Afghanistan and Pakistan with six or seven
sub-species.
The nomenclature of the genus Ovis is confused bur latest opinion tends to
favour six wild species.
Ovis orientalis: Mouflon, with one sub-species in Asia (O.o.laristanica) and
one in Europe (O.o.musimon);
Ovis ammon: Argal, with nine sub- species;
Ovis vignei: Urial, with thirteen sub- species. Ovis orientalis is some-times
considered synonymous with O.vignei;

2
 Figure 2 Nubian ibex Capra ibex nuniana in captivity at Khartoum zoo
Ovis canadensis: Bighorn, with eight sub-species in Canada and the United
States of America;
Ovis nivicola: Snow sheep of Siberia with three sub-species;
Ovis dalli: Thinhorn of Alaska also with three sub-species;
All these "species" of Ovis are fully interfertile and might therefore be
considered to be monotypic. To distinguish them from the wild types, all
domesticated sheep are now classed as Ovis aries. The mouflon has the
same number of chromosomes as the domestic sheep (2n=54) while the
urial (2n=58) and the argal (2n=56) differ.
Of the six species of Capra, it is most likely that only C.aegagrus blood is
present in the modern domestic goat although a slim possibility still remains
that the markhor, C.falconeri, may have been involved in the ancestry of
some Indian breeds.
The bighorn, 0.canadensis, and the thinhorn, 0.dalli, are excluded, on
geographical considerations alone, from the ancestry of domestic sheep.
Some authorities, on the grounds of chromosome number, consider the
mouflon to be the sole ancestor of the domestic sheep. Both the argal and
the urial, however, freely interbreed with, and produce fully fertile offspring
from, the domestic sheep and therefore cannot be excluded from its
ancestry.
Domestic goats and sheep, because of the divergence in chromosome
numbers, do not usually interbreed (Gray, 1972). Experimental chimaera
are known (Fehilly, Willadsen & Tucker, 1984; Meinecke-Tillman &
Meinecke, 1984) and one of these, back-crossed to a ram, is reported to
have produced twin offspring (Bunch, Foote & Spillet, 1976).
The most simple and effective visual way of separating goats from sheep is
the carriage of the tail -- in all domestic forms, goats' tails are erect while
those of sheep are pendent. There are, however, a considerable number of
additional morphological differences between the two species. Goats have
beard and caudal (i.e. at the tail) scent glands in the male. Sheep have
suborbital (under the eye) tear glands and lachrymal (tear) pits in the skull
and also possess foot glands: goats may, however, have glands in the

3
forefeet. Both species differ from cattle in normally having only two nipples
instead of four.
Goats were almost certainly the first ruminants to be domesticated and were
possibly only the second species to be taken into the human fold after the
dog. South-west Asia (Iran and Iraq) is the most likely origin of the domestic
species, the bezoar, C.aegagrus, being present there. Domestication
occurred gradually over a period centred about 9000 years Before Present
(Mason, 1984). Domestication of sheep possibly followed closely upon that
of the goat and took place in the same area. Both goats and sheep
appeared in tomb and cave paintings in Egypt by about 7000 years BP.
Goats moved into sub-Saharan Africa by at least 5500 years BP and a
dwarf type has been recorded from that period near Khartoum in Sudan.
Sheep probably entered Africa with cattle, at some time in the period 6000-
5000 BP, possibly slightly later than goats.

4
 SMALL RUMINANT PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN
TROPICAL AFRICA
Tropical Africa contains one-third of all the world's goats and one-sixth of its
sheep. On average there is one goat or sheep on every 10 ha of tropical
Africa and there are 1.1 head of goats and sheep per person employed in
the agricultural sector. Goats and sheep are equivalent, in weight terms, to
about 17 per cent of the total domestic ruminant biomass (DRB) of tropical
Africa.
Total meat production from African goats and sheep combined is estimated
(FAO, 1985) at 1.15 million tonnes, equivalent to about 16 per cent of total
world output from these species. Milk from small ruminants is 1.99 million
tonnes, about 14 per cent of world production. Small ruminant skins from
Africa, estimated at 258 000 tonnes, represent about 16 per cent of world
production, the proportion from goats (25 per cent) being much greater than
that from sheep. African wool production, of about 228 000 tonnes, is
equivalent to less than 8 per cent of world output and most of this wool is
produced in South Africa and Africa north of the Sahara. Goats in tropical
Africa are much more important than sheep as milk producers and she-
goats (does) are estimated to produce about three times as much milk in
total as are ewes.

5
DISTRIBUTION AND IMPORTANCE OF GOATS AND SHEEP

The major criteria adopted for assessing the distribution and importance of
goats and sheep are: the ratios of goats to sheep; the density per unit area
of both species combined; the ratio of goats and sheep to the human
population involved in agricultural activities; and the contribution of goats
and sheep to the total domestic ruminant biomass.

Ratios of goats to sheep

In tropical Africa as a whole, goats outnumber sheep in the ratio 1.16:1.00.

There does not appear to be any overall pattern in the relative importance of
goats and sheep related to the major ecological zones or to the major
production systems, at least at the country level (Figure 3).
Goats are dominant and exceed sheep by a ratio of 4:1 in widely disparate
countries. The highest ratios of more than 11:1 are found in the Central
African Republic and in Zambia. Both countries have low densities of small
ruminants, low ratios to the human population and a low contribution of
small ruminants to total ruminant biomass. Swaziland has a ratio of goats to
sheep exceeding 8:1. The ratio of goats to sheep in Botswana approaches
5:1, this country in general being much drier than the others where high
ratios are found and also having a largely pastoral vocation.
Countries in which goats remain dominant over sheep in ratios varying from
2:1 to 4:1 also appear to have few factors in common, either in terms of
agro-ecology or of principal production systems. They include the mainly
pastoral Niger (2.1:1.0) and neighbouring Nigeria (2.0:1.0). They also
include the largely agricultural countries of Zaire (3.8:1.0) and Mozambique
(3.1:1.0) as well as some countries with mixed agricultural-livestock
economies such as Angola (3.8:1), Zimbabwe (3.4:1.0) and Madagascar
(2.5:1.0). The two small central African highland republics of Rwanda
(2.9:1.0) and Burundi (2.2:1.0) also fall within this group.

6
 Figure 3 Ratios of goats to sheep in tropical Africa
Sheep assume more importance but are still fewer in number than goats in
the major East African countries and in some of the Gulf of Guinea states in
West Africa. Somalia has a ratio of goats to sheep of 1.6:1.0, Djibouti of
1.3:1.0, Kenya of 1.2:1.0, Uganda of 1.7:1.0 and Tanzania of 1.6:1.0. In
West Africa the ratio varies from 1.3:1.0 in Burkina Faso to about parity in
Guinea, Côte d'lvoire and Ghana.
Goats are less numerous than sheep across much of the Sahel. In Senegal
there is only one goat for every two sheep and in Mauritania there are two
goats for three sheep. In Sudan and Ethiopia (and also in Gabon and
Lesotho) the proportion of goats to sheep is about 0.7:1.0 while in Chad it is
about 0.9:1.0. Sheep are more important than goats in Namibia, largely
because of the pelt industry, and outnumber them in the ratio of 1.0:0.4.

Density

Small ruminants achieve their highest densities in two distinct areas (Figure
4). More than 35 goats and sheep per square kilometre are found in the
Horn of Africa in Somalia and Djibouti where people are traditionally
pastoralists. Very high densities are also found in Ethiopia where much of
the northern, eastern and southern lowlands also have a pastoral vocation.
An additional factor in the high densities in Ethiopia is that the highlands
have heavy concentrations of people, the case being similar in the small
central African highland republics of Burundi and Rwanda. On a finer scale,
the eastern Zaire province of Kivu would also show high densities. Large
numbers of small ruminants are also found in Nigeria due to the same

7
combination of a pastoral vocation (in the north) and large numbers of
people (in the centre and south) as in Ethiopia.

Figure 4 Densities of small ruminants per unit area in tropical Africa

Medium densities (18-35 head/km2) of small ruminants are found in
countries where there is relatively heavy human population pressure and
where they can be integrated with crop farming in mixed smallholder
systems. Examples are Togo and Benin in West Africa (countries which are
less humid than their immediate neighbours in the Gulf of Guinea) and
Uganda and Kenya in East Africa (although Kenya is also largely pastoral in
the north and north-east).
Lower densities (7-18 head/km2) are found in all the West African Sahel
countries and in Sudan. On a regional basis, densities would probably be in
the highest class in the southern areas of this group of countries but large
tracts of desert in the north are sparsely populated. Low to extremely low
densities are also found in the coastal Gulf of Guinea states mainly because
the people are principally agriculturalists but possibly also because of tsetse
fly infestation and other humid-associated disease problems.
Very low densities (< 7 goats and sheep/km2) are found from Chad (which is
very sparsely populated), through central Africa and into the southern states
of Botswana and Zimbabwe. With the exception of the two last named,
agriculture is the main preoccupation of the human population and
trypanosomiasis is also a problem. Zimbabwe has many more cattle than
small ruminants, mainly for socio-cultural reasons, and Botswana, like
Chad, is very sparsely populated. Madagascar also falls into the lowest
density class.
There are three major exceptions to the general rules governing density of
small ruminants. Tanzania has a low human population in relation to its
resource potential. Namibia is very thinly populated and has developed an
important industry based on pelt production from Karakul sheep. Lesotho is
in the highest density class for reasons similar to Namibia in that it has

8
developed specialist production of mohair from Angora goats and fine wool
from Merino sheep.

Numbers of goats and sheep per person

Highest ratios of goats and sheep to humans (> 2.5:1.0) are found in the
principally pastoral countries (Figure 5 ). These include, again, Somalia and
Djibouti but also Mauritania. Namibia has by far the highest ratio of small
ruminants to humans (13.5:1.0), almost twice as great as in Mauritania (7.6)
and Somalia (7.4).

Figure 5 Relationships of total numbers of goats and sheep to the

numbers of people in tropical Africa
Intermediate ratios (1.3-2.5 head per person) are found in countries where
large segments of the population in the drier areas are pastoralists. These
include Mali, Niger and Sudan in the north and Botswana in the south.
Small, mountainous Lesotho also appears in this intermediate class
because, whilst having the highest density (78.9 head/km2) of goats and
sheep of all African countries, it also has a large human population in
relation to its area.
Low (0.7-1.3 head/person) and very low (< 0.7 head/person) ratios prevail in
the remainder of Africa. In Ethiopia the highland, mainly agricultural, areas
have a population of farmers which greatly outnumbers the pastoral peoples
of the lowlands and the situation is similar in Kenya. Togo and Benin, as
well as Burundi and Rwanda, which are in the high density classes for small
ruminants, also have large human populations, this leading to low numbers
of goats and sheep per person. Large numbers of people in the south and
centre of Nigeria also impose a low ratio in this country.

9
Most of the central belt of the continent, from the Atlantic Ocean to the
Indian, has very low ratios of small ruminants to people in addition to low
densities.

Small ruminants as a proportion of all domestic ruminants

The contribution of goats and sheep to total DRB (Figure 6) has been
calculated on the basis of the mean population weight (MPW) of each
species. The MPW is the average weight of each animal in the herd or flock
and is obtained from weights at specific ages and for different sexes.
Although there are obviously some regional differences, MPWs have been
standardized at 307 kg for camels, 206 kg for cattle, 30 kg for sheep and 18
kg for goats.
The distribution of the highest proportions (> 25 per cent) of small ruminants
in DRB is rather surprising at first sight as it coincides mainly with the humid
Gulf of Guinea and central Atlantic coast countries. The reasons for this
might be related to the better tolerance, compared to cattle, of goats and
sheep to trypanosomiasis. It is also possible that the mainly agricultural
peoples of these areas can handle small ruminants more easily than they
can cattle. It should, however, be borne in mind that overall animal numbers
in these countries are few. Mauritania.is the only pastoral country where
goats and sheep fall into the highest proportional class although Namibia
with a "modern" pastoral economy also has a high relative biomass of small
ruminants.

Figure 6 The contribution of small ruminants to total domestic

ruminant biomass in tropical Africa
Small ruminants are of considerable (15-25 per cent of DRB) importance in
the total livestock mix in most of the remaining pastoral or principally
pastoral countries. Of the two such countries that are not in this class,

10
Sudan does have 14 per cent of DRB as goats and sheep. Small,
intensively cultivated countries with high goat and sheep densities also fall
into this grouping.
Lower proportional contributions (8-15 per cent) to total livestock are shown
in Ethiopia (where heavy draught oxen are extremely important) and in
Kenya and Uganda where the "cattle complex" tribes are predominant.
In most of the southern African states and in Madagascar, small ruminants
contribute very little (< 8 per cent) to livestock biomass and, taken in
combination with the two previous factors, can be seen to be relatively as
well as absolutely unimportant in this region.

11
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Ecological zones

Livestock production systems are influenced by the annual rainfall and its
effect on the main vegetational characteristics.
The arid zone, associated with pastoral production, includes all areas
receiving less than 600 mm of rainfall per year. The zone has two major
sub-zones. The first has less than 200 mm of rain per year and no
agriculture at all is possible outside a few oases or other irrigable areas.
Where rainfall is less than 100 mm per year, the natural vegetation is of the
Saharan type. The second sub-zone has rainfall of 200-600 mm per year
and is often called the Sahel zone in northern and western Africa. Some
agriculture is possible but crop failures are frequent and yields are generally
low as the coefficient of variation of rainfall is in the range 25-35 per cent.
In the semi-arid zone, rainfall is between 600 and 1000 mm per year.
Livestock raising is usually intimately associated with crop production.
Vegetation is of the south-Sahelian or north-Sudanian type in northern and
western Africa. In eastern and southern Africa the lightly forested 'miombo'
areas are part of this ecological zone. Rainfed millets {Pennisetum,
Eleusine, Digitaria, etc.) are the principal cereal crops but these are
replaced by sorghum and maize where rainfall is better and where year to
year variation is less. Some cash crops such as cotton and groundnuts may
be grown in the more favoured areas. The coefficient of rainfall variation is
generally in the region of 20-25 per cent.
The sub-humid zone is a high potential area with rainfall of more than 1000
mm per year. The main vegetation is of the Sudanian and south-Sudanian
types, large trees often being broad-leaved and deciduous. Sorghum and
maize are the principal cereal crops, a number of cash crops are grown and
some tuberous root crops appear as food staples towards the boundary of
the humid zone.
The humid zone is characterized by an annual rainfall in excess of 1500
mm. Although a "dry" season may sometimes be recognised, rainfall usually
exceeds evapotranspiration throughout the year except for a very short
period. This zone is essentially found in coastal West Africa and some parts
of central and central-west Africa. Livestock production in the humid zone is
currently not very important as an economic activity but the potential is
considered to be high providing that the problems of tsetse flies and
trypanosomiasis can be overcome.
Highland areas are those with an altitude above sea-level of more than
1500 m. Rainfall is not taken into account in defining this zone. The major
crops are cereals (tef Eragrostis tef, barley and wheat in Ethiopia, maize
and sorghum elsewhere), pulses, and bananas or plantains. Livestock
production is generally an important secondary activity on the small farms
that are typical of this zone. In some areas extensive or intensive
commercial, purely livestock operations have developed.
Large areas of seasonally flooded land or areas capable of being
permanently irrigated can be considered as a quite separate ecological
zone. On account of the possibilities of out-of-season conservation of fodder
and the quantities of crop and agro-industrial by-products potentially
available, these are important livestock producing areas.

12
Livestock production systems

In Africa, it is possible to distinguish two major types of production systems.

These are the traditional systems and the modern ones. Some major
characteristics of each group of systems are provided in Table 1. The two
groups differ essentially in their use of the main factors of production, with
traditional systems using mainly land and labour while modern systems also
have large capital requirements and generally a lesser requirement for one
or other of the remaining factors.
Two principal criteria serve to define traditional systems. The first is the
degree of dependence of the household or the production unit on livestock
or livestock products either for household income or for food supply. The
second is the type of agriculture practised in association with livestock
production. The distance and duration of movement (transhumance,
migration) might also be used to define systems and it is recognised that
this is an important aspect of management within a system. It is considered
to be a secondary one, however, subordinate to the two major ones just
discussed.
Rather arbitrary limits have been set to define the systems. A system in
which more than 50 per cent of gross household revenue or more than 20
per cent of total household food energy derives directly from livestock is
considered to be a pastoral one (Wilson, de Leeuw & de Haan, 1983). The
term "derived from livestock" in relation to revenue would also include the
value of any transport (donkeys carrying firewood, camels carrying salt,
etc.) plus sales or exchange of manure plus income from any other minor
functions.
An agro-pastoral system is one in which between 10 and 50 per cent of
household revenue derives from livestock or livestock products. A third,
agricultural, system be one in which revenue from livestock amounts to less
than 10 per cent of the total. In the modern African context, one must not
omit the urban or peri-urban systems. These last are assuming increasing
importance in many countries and one may cite the cases of Nouakchott
and Djibouti for camel dairies, Khartoum and Mogadishu for goat
production, and Ethiopia and many west African regional centres where
donkeys provide transport of domestic fuel and building materials.
Table 1 A classification of small ruminant production types and
systems in tropical Africa

13
 Main production
Type System Macro-management Nutrient source
factors
Traditional Nomadic/Semi-
Pastoral Land Range
sedentary
Agro- Range/Crop by-
Transhumant/Sedentary Land/Labour
pastoral products
Crop by-
Agricultural Sedentary Labour/Land products/Household
waste/Forage
Household
Urban Sedentary Labour
waste/Feed
Modern Ranching Sedentary Land/Capital Range/Forage
Feedlot Sedentary Capital/Labour Feed/Forage
Dairy farm Sedentary Capital/Labour/Land Feed/Forage
Station Sedentary Land/Labour/Capital Range/Forage/Feed
Within the pastoral system, three major sub-systems can be identified. The
first is a pure system in which little or no agriculture is practised. Examples
are the camel cultures of the northern Sahel and (at least until the 1960s)
the Masai system in eastern Africa. In the pure system, mobility is often
high, and long distances might be covered in search of grazing and water.
The second pastoral sub-system is found in the semi-arid regions and is
one in which livestock production is associated with dryland or rainfed
agriculture. Examples of this system are many of the Fulani groups of West
Africa, most Baqqara in Sudan, and the Wagogo in Tanzania. In the
livestock-rainfed agriculture system, cattle, sheep and goats are often of
equal importance and donkeys provide many of the needs of transport.
Draught animal power (oxen, donkeys and occasionally horses) and the use
of, or exchange of, manure are important elements of this major sub-
system. The third pastoral sub-system is associated with oases or with large
irrigated areas. Some Touareg groups, the Macina Fulani of the Niger
inundation zone in Mali, a number of Nilotic tribes in southern Sudan and
areas in Zambia and Mozambique provide examples of this sub-system.
In the agro-pastoral system, livestock are usually sedentary or, if movement
is part of the management practice, it is generally restricted to short
distances. The three major sub-systems here are those associated with
rainfed subsistence agriculture, rainfed cash cropping, and large-scale
permanent irrigation of cash crops.
Some examples from West Africa of these different production systems are
provided in Table 2 (Wilson, de Leeuw & de Haan, 1983) and a more
detailed analysis of Systems in the sub-humid zone of Côte d'Ivoire is
shown in Table 3 (adapted from von Bassewitz, 1983).

14
 Table 2 Characteristics of small ruminant production Systems in West
Africa
Pastoral System Agro-pastoral Systems
Associated
Associated
Characteristic Associated Associated with Associated
with cash
Pure with rainfed with subsistence with
crop rainfed
agriculture irrigation rainfed irrigation
agriculture
agriculture
Contribution
of livestock to 95 90 60 25 15 10
revenue (%)
Rainfall
<400 300-600 Variable 400-800 Variable 700-1400
(mm/year)
some
Relations own fields cultivated, animal traction
cultivation, own fields
with weak important,
exhange of cultivated
agriculture crop residues important
manure
Number of
0.0 - 3.9 4.0 - 17.9 10.0 - 27.9 4.0 - 9.9 10.0 - 17.9 4.0 - 17.9
TLU/100 hal)
Carrying capacity
high/very
people very low low/medium medium high medium
high
animals low low/medium medium/high low/medium medium/high medium/high
Ratio
0.0 - 1.6 0.4 - 1.6 1.2 - 1.6 0.4.- 1.2 0.4 - 1.2 0.4 - 0.8
TLU:person
high, no medium/fixed high in wet Low and for short distances at main
Mobility
fixed base base season cultivation season
Importance
Mali high medium medium/high high high high
Mauritania high low 1ow/medium medium low low
Niger high high low/medium medium low medium
Senegal low low low/medium high low/medium high
Burkina Faso low medium low high low medium/high
Note: 1) TLU is a Tropical Livestock Unit of 250 kg live weight equivalent.
Without being able to provide precise figures, it is probable that in the arid
zone 70 per cent of small ruminants are found in pure pastoral Systems and
30 per cent in agro-pastoral Systems. In the semi-arid zones the figures are
reversed with 70 per cent of small ruminants in the agro-pastoral Systems.
In the more humid areas, virtually ail small ruminants are in the agro-
pastoral System with a small percentage being found in the agricultural and
urban Systems.
The relative importance of the main domestic species varies across
Systems. Camels are important only in the driest pastoral areas. Cattle are
probably the main species in ail Systems when these are considered as a
whole. In agro-pastoral Systems, goats are generaily more numerous than
sheep although only recently is this fact being recognised by the official
statistical services.

15
 Table 3 Small ruminant production systems in Cote d'lvoire
System
Vi1lage
Criteria
Urban Paid Family Pastoral
Not herded Opportunistic
shepherd shepherd
Day Herded Herded
management Free ranging Herded (except dry Free ranging Free ranging (except dry
season) season)
Night
Housed Housed/penned Free ranging Penned
management
Supplementary Regular
feed (household
waste, cut Occasional
Regular by means of crop by-products Rare
browse, by-products
bought by-
products)
Mineral feed Household Salt and
Household salt, mineral licks Rare
salt licks
Selection and Not
culling
Regular Often practised Regular
practised
Traditional
Regular Occasionally practised Not practised Regular
health care
Flocks are constituted by a great variety of processes. Major methods of
acquiring animals include inheritance, gifts, dowry, exchange, leasing and
natural increase. In the pure pastoral system, additional animals are bought
with money obtained from caravan operations and from salaried
employment. In agriculture-associated systems, the money from sales of
crops surplus to subsistence is often invested in livestock. Where women
may own livestock, they often obtain them by dowry or by income from
sales of milk.
As an investment vehicle, small ruminants are often considered as the small
change or credit account of a savings plan while cattle constitute the capital
account. Many new entrants to the business of livestock production start
with small ruminants. In addition, because of their greater resistance to
drought conditions and their faster breeding cycle, small ruminants are the
first type of animal to become available and be bought by people with a
livestock tradition who, for some reason, have lost their stock.

16
MANAGEMENT

General practices

Until recently, it was widely considered that no management was practised

in traditional herds and flocks. This attitude still prevails in some quarters
but even a little thought will show its absurdity. Pastoralists are generally
better managers than agro-pastoralists or crop farmers who depend only in
small part on animals for their livelihood. Nomadism and transhumance are
sophisticated responses to a resource which is always in short supply and
often totally deficient. Smallholder fattening is equally a reaction to a long or
short term excess of resources and often to a spatially and temporarily
restricted demand for meat. These two examples are at the outer limits of a
whole range of management practices found across the spectrum of
ecological zones from extreme arid to very humid.
Table 4 provides some indications of the strategies ("macro-management")
and tactics ("micro-management") of management of traditional owners in
Africa. With few exceptions, the tendencies follow a logical pattern from dry
to wet zones. These tendencies are: nomadism to fattening; free range
grazing to totally confined animals; larger flocks in less favourable to smaller
flocks in more favourable areas; and sheep in pastoral to goats in agro-
pastoral systems. One of the exceptions is the example of highland central
Africa (Table 5; Bizimungu, 1986) where goats are more important in the
drier and less intensively cultivated areas. Large-scale modern
management systems are generally found in the highland areas of Kenya
and Zimbabwe but intensive modern feed lots are increasing in numbers in
all areas.

17
 Table 4 Ecology and management of goats and sheep in semi-arid
Africa
Size of flock/
"Macro" "Micro" management herding
Climatic regime Country/ Ethnic group
managemen
(rainfall) mm group
t
Sheep Goats
Sheep Goats
Day Night Day Night
Arid (200) Mauritania/Moo Nomadic Open camp 100-
Open camp 30- 80
r Penned 500
↑↑ ↑↑
Ethiopia/Afar Penned
Open camp
Sudan/Kababish Open camp
Loose Loose
Mali/Touareg Open camp Open camp
flock flock
(300) Niger/Touareg Transhuman ↓↓
Chad/Zhagawa t ↓↓ 200-
↓↓ ↓↓ 40
Penned 250
Kenya/Turkana
Penned
Semi-arid (400) 50- 30-
Ethiopia/Afar Penned Penned
150 100
Semi- Tight Penned/tie 20-
Sudan/Baqqara Penned 20- 80
sedentary flock d 60
(500) Loose Penned/tie 200-
Mali/Fulani Open camp
flock d 500
Tight Tight 20- 40-
Kenya/Masai Penned Penned
flock flock 80 120
(600) Dry
Tight season
Sudan/Daju etc. Sedentary Penned Tied 5- 10 5- 40
flock not
herded
Crop
Tight Penned/tie season
Mali/Bambara Tied 0- 10 2- 20
flock d tight
flock
West
Stall-
Africa/"Mouton Tied Tied 1- 5
feeding
de Case"
Kenya/"Thenges
Tied Tied 1- 5
"

18
Highland Kenya/Large Extensive 500-
Padcfock
s scale farms paddocks 1000

Ownership patterns

Patterns of ownership in traditional systems differ widely and are often

difficult to understand, especially for someone not a member of the owning
group. The ramifications of the numerous African extended family systems,
the practices involving "stock friends", loans and flock splitting, and sub-
letting the flock to a professional herder usually of a different tribe, all lead
to a rather vague idea of who owns which animal. Under these conditions,
"ownership" changes many times during the life of an animal.
Nonetheless, it is generally true that individual or family ownership is
greatest in the dry areas. In West Africa and in Sudan, this essentially
means that flock sizes and numbers owned decrease from north to south. In
Ethiopia and Kenya, flock sizes decrease with altitude. These trends reflect
the systems' differences which change from pastoral in the dry areas to
agro-pastoral or agricultural in the better endowed zones.
Table 5 Biophysical characteristics and livestock ownership patterns
in highland central Africa
Region Number of
Altitude Rainfall Temperature
and
(m) (mm) (°c) Families Cattle Sheep Goats
Country
Bugorhe,
2000 1500 <20 483 222 814 940
Zaire
Giheta,
1700 1200 20 552 146 821 1232
Burundi
Gashora,
1300 1000 21 445 97 177 1682
Rwanda
Perhaps of more importance, even though the change has been less well
recorded, are the increasing numbers of goats and the increasing numbers
of people who keep goats as management systems become sedentary.
Goats are generally more prolific than sheep and are possibly easier to
manage for people with little experience of animals because they are
capable of foraging more widely and on more vegetation types. Table 7
(Mosi et al, 1982) are shown ownership patterns in the humid zone of south-
west Nigeria while Table 8 provides additional data for Chad and Kenya.
Table 6 Ownership patterns of sheep and goats in the agro-pastoral
area in central Mali
Irrigated rice sub-system Rainfed millet sub-system
Parameter
Goats Sheep Goats Sheep
Number of
27 16
owners studied
Number owning
26 15 16 9
sheep or goats
Number owning 12 7

19
goats but not
sheep
Number owning
sheep but not 1 0
goats
Mean flock size1) 9.0 6.4 38.2 7.1
+ s.d. 6.03 13.51 27.75 14.81
Mean flock size2) 9.3 11.5 38.2 12.6
+ s.d. 5.87 17.0 27.75 18.27
Range in flock
0-23 0-64 2-91 0-58
size
Notes: 1) of all owners i.e. irrespective of whether the holding of one
species of stock is nil
2) of only those flocks in which animals are held, i.e. nil holdings excluded
During the last few years (although again official statistics do not yet show
this), it is probable that the goat population has increased absolutely and
relatively more quickly than the sheep one. This is probably due to the
generally higher reproductive rate of goats and their less demanding dietary
requirements.
Table 7 Patterns of small ruminant ownership in the humid zone of
south-west Nigeria
Item Forest Derived Savanna
Percentage of farmers owning
73.0 20.0
small ruminants
Mean flock sizes
Goats only 2.8 3.7
Sheep only 2.0 0.0
Mixed flocks 5.1 5.3
When calculated on the same basis of unit weight or unit metabolic weight,
goats are usually less productive than sheep in terms of meat but their
better milk yield makes them a more attractive proposition to livestock
owners who keep only a few animals. In traditional systems, it is probable
that goats will continue to expand in relation to sheep for the foreseeable
future. In modern systems there is still some resistance to goats, especially
in Kenya, but even here the attitude is changing and meat goats and
Angoras for mohair production are beginning to make their appearance.
Table 8 Livestock ownership (numbers per household) in agro-
pastoral and pastoral societies in Kenya and Chad
Kenya Chad
Gondeye-
Species Karapokot Salamat Tchein
Masai agro- agro- agro-
pastoral pastoral Zioud pastoral pastoral pastoral
Cattle 157.3 11.8 36.4 133.3 2.1
Sheep 44.0 5.4 43.5 2.0 1.3
Goats 83.1 13.6 45.0 46.3 4.7

20
 Flock structures

In earlier times, "prestige" and "perverse supply" were terms often used,
usually in a derogatory manner, to describe the behaviour of traditional
owners in relation to their animals. African livestock owners are undoubtedly
conservative but it is doubtful if they are more so than their counterparts in
Europe, the Americas and Australia. Their reasons for keeping stock are
rarely irrational and are related to their particular needs either in the long or
in the short term. This hypothesis can be supported in regard to the age and
sex structure of flocks. Whatever the major objective of the keeping of
sheep and goats, there is always a preponderance of females in the flocks
while minor differences in sex and age structure are maintained. It needs to
be emphasized that almost all animals in the flocks are "productive" whether
that production consists of giving birth to young, providing wool or hair,
producing milk, or simply undergoing the process of growth to a size at
which another product becomes the principal one.
Table 9 provides some examples of flock structure related to production
objectives. With the exception of the Afar of Ethiopia (the Afar in Djibouti
have a similar strategy) and the case of pelt production in Botswana, all
flocks have 70 to 75 per cent of the total as females and about 55 per cent
of the flock is comprised of females of breeding age. In five ethnic groups in
Mali covering the whole range of systems, females (x ± s.d.) accounted for
74.7 + 3.07 per cent of the flock and breeding females 54.3 ± 2.43 per cent.
Contrary to another article of conventional wisdom, there are very few old
females in the flocks: in large pastoral flocks, this class of animal is rarely in
excess of 5 per cent and in small agro-pastoral flocks it is never more than
10 per cent.
Table 9 Flock structures in relation to management objectives (as per
cent of animals)
Sheep Goats
Region/ Ethnic Males Females Males Females
group Use Tota Castrate Tota Breedin Use Tota Castrate Tota
Breeding
l d l g l d l
Mauritania/Mo Meat/
or Hair
22.9 6.2 78.1 58.6 Milk/Meat 20.2 1.2 79.8 55.1
Meat/Wo
Mali/Fulani
ol
25.5 11.3 74.5 55.9 - - - - -
Meat/Mil
Chad/"Arab" 26.7 "few" 73.3 53.7 Milk/Meat 28.3 "few" 71.7 48.1
k
76.
Sudan/Baqqara Meat 22.2 0.0 77.8 57.7 Milk/Meat 23.6 0.0 51.2
4
Meat/Fat/Mi
Kenya/Masai Meat/Fat 31.4 15.4 68.6 54.2 33.8 10.3 66.2 48.3
lk
Botswana/Tswa
na
Pelt 13.2 0.6 86.8 64.5 - - - - -
Ethiopia/Afar Milk 7.8 0.0 92.2 61.4 Milk 3.3 0.0 96.7 65.5

21
 Figure 7 A Sudan Desert ram in Southern Darfur with a 'Kunan' to
prevent breeding

Figure 8 Leather apron to restrict breeding on a Masai buck in a Kenya

flock
The major management practice used to obtain this stability of structure is
the early culling of males not required for other productive functions. Such
young males are sold or slaughtered for home consumption. The numbers
of males of breeding age and whose function is reported as "reproduction"
are usually, and strictly speaking, in excess of those required: numbers are
not excessively high, however, in view of the insurance required against
sterile and temporarily infertile males. Other mature males fulfil a productive
function whether this is the provision of wool for Macina Fulani, hair for
Moors, or fat for Masai. In the humid zones, proportions of females may
exceed 80 per cent in the derived savanna areas and 85 per cent in true
forest areas. insurance required against sterile and temporarily infertile
males. Other mature males fulfil a productive function whether this is the
provision of wool for Macina Fulani, hair for Moors, or fat for Masai. In the

22
humid zones, proportions of females may ex- ceed 80 per cent in the
derived savanna areas and 85 per cent in true forest areas.
Stratification of flocks is not common in traditional societies. Where
breeding control is required it is achieved by a variety of means including
the 'kunan' (Figure 7) in northern and western Africa and an apron (Figure
8) in eastern Africa. In some ethnic groups where small ruminants are the
principal animal wealth, there exist sophisticated Stratification patterns, one
example for the Macina Fulani being provided in Table 10.
Table 10 Stratification of Macina flocks in Mali, with demographic
characteristics of each

23
 Composition
Name of unit Group size Use Notes
General Males Females
Beydi Generally small Nurse flock Newly lambed 26 74 Kept in village.
females,
advanced Herded by infants.
pregnancy, Regular
weak and aged movements of
animals
animals into and
out of group
Tarancaradji Medium Sale/slaughter Largely male, 60 40
generally young, Kept in village,
with some older generally not herded
females
Njarniri Small Slaughter Overwhelmingly 95 5 Individually tied
male and zero grazed.
Responsibility of
women
Bucal Medium Milk Predominantly 25 75 Individual
female ownership,
commonly grazed
on reserved
pastures by family
labour in rotation.
Household m i l k
supply. Most of
village goats are in
this group.
Bendi Similar to Bucal.
Term used mainly
by hair sheep
owners
Horey Large Wool/meat Predominantly 24 76 Main flocks which
female transhume. Reserve
for constitution of
other groups as
required. Milked by
herders for own
use.

24
 ADAPTATION AND INTEGRATION OF SMALL
RUMINANTS IN AFRICAN SYSTEMS OF PRODUCTION

UTILIZATON OF RESOURCES

Any degree of utilization of the natural vegetation involves modifications to

its composition. Such modifications are often referred to as degradation.
Where such degradation occurs there is often a gradual change in the
combination of domestic ruminant species in favour of small ruminants and
in particular the goat. This is one of the. main reasons why goats are
blamed for desertification. Small ruminants compete with other domestic
species for the resources available. They are however complementary to
other species with regard to forage resources consumed and the height at
which the forage is found. For this reason higher total biomasses of
domestic livestock can be maintained, resulting in higher incomes from
livestock production for owners. The production of more than one species of
domestic animal enables maximum utilization to be made of grass and
browse cover across and within years. An illustration of the complementarity
of the two major feed strata in the Sahel zone is given in Figure 9. The
browse layer, such as Boscia Senegalensis, is consumed by goats (87 per
cent of feeding time being spent on the browse layer) and camels, whilst
sheep (59 per cent of grazing time) and cattle graze on the annual grass
Schoenefeldia gracilis. In this system in the southern Sahel, crop residues
supplement the total forage resources and cattle spend 43 per cent of their
annual grazing time on stubbles, with goats and sheep spending1 per cent
and 2 per cent of their time respectively. Crop residues are available from
January onwards, during the dry season, when the quantity and quality of
natural feed resources are mediocre.

Figure 9 Complementarity of biomass production curves in fodder

species in the browse and field layers
Table 11 Contribution of different fodder sourees (per cent) to the diet
of domestic herbivores in Kenya
Species Field layer Dwarf Browse layer
shrubs
Camels 3 56 34
Cattle 96 4 0
Goats 38 21 18
Sheep 58 25 2
Donkeys 71 22 0

25
Recent surveys carried out in kenya further demonstrate the
complementarity of domestic species with regard to the utilization of forage
resources. The time spent by each of five categories of livestock on three
elements of the rangeland resource are given in Table 11 (Schwartz & Said,
1986). Data provided by a related survey (Figure 10) indicate the feeding
height of camels, goats and sheep.
A mixture of species on semi-arid rangelands, for example, makes it
possible to reduce the stocking rate of 26 hectares per tropical livestock unit
(a TLU is equivalent to 250 kilograms live weight) for cattle alone to 13
hectares per TLU when cattle and goats are reared together and to 10
hectares per TLU when camels are included (Schwartz, 1983). In order to
maintain these stocking rates, the ratio of one species to the other in terms
of TLU should be 1.0:1.0:0.3.

Figure 10 Feeding times at different heights above ground level by

three domestic ruminant species
Goats walk long distances in search of food and feed on a wider range of
vegetation types than do other domestic animals living in the same
environment (Table 11). Even when they graze at the same height as sheep
and cattle, the overlap of species eaten is not very great (Figure 11 and
Figure 12). When feeding, goats nibble rather than bite due to the anatomy
of their muzzles and jaws. They are selective feeders, eating mainly leaves,
flowers and fruits as opposed to stems and other permanent parts of plants.
For this reason they cause little damage to the plant structure unless the
vegetative biomass is already greatly reduced. Goats ruminate less
effectively than sheep or cattle and food passes faster through their
alimentary system. Consequently, the seeds of their preferred plant species
pass through the digestive tract more or less intact and can easily
germinate. Goats may be utilized in this way to seed denuded areas with
the types of forages preferred.

26
Figure 11 Feeding behaviour of four domestic animal species in Kenya
in relation to: a. number of species in diet; b. time spent at each
feeding station; and c. feeding height
Goats feed mainly on browse plants and when herded together with sheep
the latter are often encouraged to do likewise. The phenology of several
species of browse found in Africa is such that leaves and fruits with a high
protein content are available during the dry season. Consequently, the
nutritional needs of small ruminants are less restricted by the seasons. This
is reflected in their ability to maintain their weight to within a few per cent of
their annual average as compared to cattle (Figure 13). Seasonality of
breeding is also less marked than for cattle, this probably also being related
to nutritional status.
In zones in which agriculture is an important part of the system, the feeding
habits of goats are an additional advantage. They spend less than 30 per
cent of the time spent by sheep and only 5 per cent of the time spent by
cattle feeding off crop residues (Table 12; Wilson, de Leeuw & de Haan,
1983). This therefore enables cattle to benefit directly from the farming
system and also to transfer and convert, through their manure, distant and
less utilized resources for the benefit of man.

27
 Figure 12 Dietary range of goats (?) and sheep (?) and relative overlap
between the species in a low-bush savanna in Kenya
It has been estimated that the recovery period needed for cattle to attain the
number and level of production existing prior to a drought could be as long
as 40 years (although the recovery period following the notorious 1968-
1973 drought in the Sahel was less than 10 years in most cases). Small
ruminants, due to their lower mortality rate, their shorter gestation period,
reduced generation period and multiple births which are not seasonal, have
a recovery period which is much shorter. In fact, following a severe drought,
goats conceive as soon as there is sufficient humidity for the growth of
leaves on browse plants, kid five months later, and consequently produce
milk for human consumption at a very early phase of the recovery cycle. In
numerous instances, they are a source of food before cereals are ripe for
harvesting.

Figure 13 Seasonal variations in weight of domestic ruminants in two

agro-pastoral sub-systems in central Mali

28
CONTRIBUTION TO MAN'S WELL BEING

Small ruminants are not only advantageous to man during periods of

cyclical and unpredictable food shortages. They are also adapted to
balancing the energy and protein supply during normal variations occurring
over the years as well as between different seasons.
In Mali, goats provide about half the total quantity of meat sold to
consumers living in the towns, the greater part of this being available
towards the end of the dry season when there is little beef on the market
(Figure 14). In Kenya in a modified traditional system in which veterinary
medicines were provided, goats contributed 18 per cent of the minimum
calorific requirements (in meat and milk combined) of the human population.
They were surpassed by camels (27 per cent) but contributed more than
sheep(12 per cent) and cattle (16 per cent), with cereals and other sources
(27 per cent) making up the remainder of the diet. In this same Rendille
system, goats provided 33 per cent of the minimum protein requirements
even though protein availability was in excess of that required. In other
regions of Kenya, goats accounted for about 75 per cent of the total meat
consumption in pastoralist households (Figure 15 ; Schwartz, 1985).
Table 12 Time (per cent) spent on different fodder sources by three
domestic species in central Mali
Fodder Species
source Goat Sheep Cattle
Field layer 11 59 53
Browse cover 87 34 4
Crop by-products:
millet 2 7 6
rice 0 0 37
Annual feeding
2051 1948 2883
time (hr)
Small ruminants produce lower absolute quantities of milk than do cattle.
Taking into account body weight or metabolic weight, however, their milk
yield is higher than other species, with perhaps the exception of the camel.
These minor supplies are, when all else fail, available during the most
difficult periods of the year as is shown in Figure 16 for the Sudan and
Table 13 (Coppock et al, 1982) for Kenya.

29
 Figure 14 Contribution of domestic ruminant species to the meat
supply of a central Mali town
At the beginning of the 1970s, the publicity given to the drought in the Sahel
focused international attention on the fragility of the food supply system in
Africa. The droughts of the early 1980s, which mainly affected Ethiopia but
which also affected the Sahel as well as Sudan, have again resulted in
famine situations. During both periods, 80 per cent or more of cattle were
lost, according to reports, while small ruminant losses did not exceed 50 per
cent.

Figure 15 Proportion of goat meat to all meat eaten in 60 Kenya

pastoral households

30
The products obtained from an animal may be expressed as a productivity
index. Some generally accepted indices are the live weight of young
produced by a breeding female per year, per kg of breeding female per year
and per kg metabolic weight of breeding female per year. Some calculated
productivity indices are given in Table 14 for Mali for four species of
domestic ruminants. These figures, collected over a six year period between
1978 and 1983, clearly demonstrate the relative effectiveness of the short
term utilization of each of these species in this environment. The annual and
seasonal responses are different for each species, however, and in general
seem to complement each other (Figure 17, Table 15). It is evident that
fluctuation in productivity is considerably reduced when the livestock holding
consists of several rather than of a single species.

Figure 16 The percentage of lactating females of three different

species at different times of the year in Sudan
Table 13 Seasonal contribution to human milk supply (per cent) by
different livestock species in Turkana, northern Kenya
Wet Dry
Species season season
Camels 45 70
Cattle 12 10
Goats + Sheep 43 20
The major advantages of including small ruminants in mixed species guilds
are evident during a prolonged period of drought. The two species of small
ruminants appear to withstand drought better than cattle although there
exist regional and breed variations with regard to the ability of sheep and
goats to do so. Table 16 (Campbell, 1978) provides the figures for cattle,
sheep and goats in the region inhabited by the Masai in Kenya following the
drought of the mid 1970s. Although the Masai are generally considered to

31
be cattle breeders, the importance of goats and sheep is clearly
emphasized by the number of people who keep them. The resumption of
breeding by these two species following a drought guarantees food in the
form of milk even before cereals can be harvested. In more general terms,
the role of goats and sheep as a continuous source of protein during and
immediately following a period of drought is demonstrated in Table 17. The
overall demand for meat in four West African countries remained constant
throughout the drought period but the relative and overall contribution of
goats and sheep increased.

Figure 17 Comparative annual and seasonal productivity indices for

cattle, goats and sheep in central Mali

Table 14 Productivity indices for different livestock species in Mali

Annual index
Species per per kg of per kg0.73
breeding breeding of breeding
female female female
Goats 18.7 565 1.47
Sheep 29.5 888 2.31
Cattle 41.2 173 0.76
Camels 43.6 125 0.61

Table 15 Ratios of variation (maximum: minimum) of productivity

indices for three domestic species in Mali
Cattle Goats Sheep Overall
Year
(1978-1983)
1.29 1.54 1.14 1.16
Season
1.30 1.41 1.35 1.13

32
Table 16 Effects of drought on livestock in a Masai agro-pastoral
system at Loitokitok, Kenya
Parameter Cattle Sheep Goats
Percentage of 60 80 90
families owning
Group size before 84 27 41
drought
sales 11 2 5
Deaths 25 9 8
Group size after 48 16 28
drought
Per cent of animals 57 59 68
after drought

33
 THE SMALL RUMINANT GENETIC RESOURCE

The majority of goats and sheep in tropical Africa are "indigenous" types. In
essence, this means that they have been naturalized for several thousands
of years, although both species were originally domesticated in Asia
(Epstein, 1971).
Table 17 Contribution of sheep and goats ('000 head) to recorded
slaughter in four Sahel countries before and after a drought (per cent
of total TLUs)
1973 1976
Country Sheep and Sheep and
Sheep Goats Sheep Goats
Goats Goats
Mauritania 21 4 16 10 3 23
Mali 80 23 22 90 38 30
Niger 62 79 56 33 89 73
Chad 56 10 15 55 13 19
Total 219 116 35 188 143 43
Recent importations -- in the last 150 years -- of specialized types of small
ruminants have been mainly for modern commercial operations. The
Republic of South Africa has been foremost in this movement but there are
large populations of Merino sheep in Kenya and Zimbabwe and of Karakul
sheep in Namibia. Merinos are also important in Lesotho in the small-scale
sector, as are Angora goats. Angoras are also gaining importance under
commercial conditions in Kenya. Elsewhere, there are relatively small
numbers of Karakuls in Botswana, Angola and Rwanda. Attempts to
introduce other exotic breeds have generally been unsuccessful but a new
composite breed, the Dorper (Dorset Horn x Blackhead Persian), is used for
meat production under local conditions, notably in Zimbabwe and Kenya
and more recently in Botswana.
It is probably incorrect to talk of "breeds" with regard to African small
ruminants but it is evident that identifiable types do exist. The development
of these types may be considered as an adaptation to the stresses of the
African environment. Selection over the centuries has been on their ability
to adapt to local ecological conditions and to meet the production
requirements of their owners.
Until recently, blood grouping and chromosome mapping have been little
studied but increased interest is currently being shown in this field and it is
certain that in the near future some light will be thrown on the relationships
between one type of sheep and another.

34
Figure 18 A castrated West African Long-legged goat in Burkina Faso

Goats

Indigenous goats have been classified into two main groups, the long-eared
and short-eared (Mason & Maule, 1960). This is not a particularly useful
system and a more appropriate one ascribes goats to large, small and dwarf
types (Devendra & Burns, 1983). Large types, which may also have
disproportionately long legs (Figure 18) are found along the southern fringe
of the Sahara and also in southern Africa; the small types are mainly
distributed in eastern Africa; and the dwarf types, which are also to some
extent tolerant of trypanosomiasis, are found mainly in humid West Africa
(Figure 19). Dwarf types are usually more prolific than the small and large
types.
The normal regional distribution and major production aptitudes of some
goat types are shown in Table 18. Variation in the productive efficiency of
goats is due not only to animal type but also to the environment and
management.
Other than meat, skins and milk are the two major products of goat
production. Constant attempts have been made to improve indigenous
goats by outcrossing to non-African breeds for the production of milk, meat
or fibre. These have in general failed except in cases where artificial
conditions have been created for the purely exotic types and the progeny of
the crossbreeding. Possibilities for improving milk or meat production exist
by the utilization of some indigenous breeds such as the Boran or Galla of
northern Kenya or the Boer of southern Africa.

35
 Figure 19 Distribution of major goat types in tropical Africa
Table 18 Areas of distribution and production aptitudes of some
African goat types
Type Country:Zone Production
Sudan Desert/Sahel Senegal-Sudan: arid, Meat, milk
semi-arid
Maradi/Red Sokoto Niger/Nigeria: Skins, milk and meat
southern semi-arid
Nubian Sudan: riverain, urban Milk
Afar Ethiopia: arid, semi-arid Milk
Small East African Kenya: highlands Milk, meat
Mubende Uganda: highlands Skins, meat
Boer, Boran Kenya: highlands Meat, crossing
Angora Lesotho, Kenya: Mohair
mountains, highlands

36
 Figure 20 Distribution of major sheep types in tropical Africa
Table 19 Areas of distribution and production aptitudes of some
African sheep types
Type Country:Zone Production
Black Maure/Zhagawa Mauritania-Sudan: arid Meat, hair
Sudan Desert Sudan: desert fringe Meat, milk
Sahel Senegal-Chad: semi-arid Meat, (skins)
Macina Mali: inundation zone Wool, meat
Afar Ethiopia: semi-arid Milk, (meat)
Masai Kenya: semi-arid highlands Fat meat (skins)
Djalionké West Africa: sub-humid, Meat
humid (trypanotolerant)
Sahel x Forest/Nilotic Mali/West Africa: Meat-supplemented
semi-arid, sub-humid
Blackhead Persian Kenya: semi-arid Meat, crossing
Karakul Botswana: arid Pelts

Sheep

African sheep are usually described as thin-tailed, fat-tailed or fat-rumped

(Mason & Maule, 1960) and thin-tailed are sometimes further segregated
into hairy or woolled types (Epstein, 1971). Thin-tailed sheep are

37
commonest in the northern dry tropics where they are usually of large size
or in the western humid areas where they are smaller and often referred to
as dwarf or forest sheep. Fat-tailed types predominate in eastern Africa as
far south as Mozambique. Fat-rumped types are commonest in traditional
systems in north-east Africa, but have spread in commercial systems to
Zimbabwe and other countries of the southern region (Figure 20).
The major production aptitudes of African sheep and the general type of
environment in which they are found are given in Table 19.
There appears to be little reason at present in Africa to attempt an
improvement of sheep by utilizing non-African breeds. In areas of
favourable climate, however, as in the East African highlands and
Zimbabwe, such an improvement may be justified. An example is the
crossing of the Dorset Horn with the fat-rumped Blackhead Persian in order
to increase the prolificacy and the growth rate of the latter. Under ideal
climatic or management conditions, a direct introduction of exotic sheep
could be considered.

38
 PART TWO
SMALL RUMINANT TYPES/GOATS

LARGE GOATS

BOER

Synonyms. Africander; Afrikaner [both now uncommon].

Origins. Conformation and colour suggest a crossing of Dutch and Indian
goats with local Bantu stock as the parents of this goat. The "improved" type
dates from the 1920s although the name Boer was first used in the mid-19th
century to distinguish short-haired goats from the recently imported
Angoras. The modern Boer was developed in the Eastern Cape Province of
the Republic of South Africa. A breed society was established in 1959.
Sub-types and races. Ordinary; Long-haired; Polled; Native; Improved
("Ennobled"). The Pafuri goat of western Mozambique results from crossing
of a small number of Boer males on the Landim.
Distribution. Southern Africa. The Republic of South Africa has exported
animals to Lesotho, Swaziland (Figure 21), Botswana (Figure 22),
Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Namibia. Also in Kenya and in very small
numbers in Burundi. Imported to Tanzania (Tanganyika) in the 1950s and
subsequently used, with the Kamorai in the development of a "blended"
goat.

39
Figure 21 A Boer buck imported from South Africa to a private flock in
Swaziland
A "few dozen" in West Germany (from where exported to South-east Asia
and to Rwanda). Total population might be 5.0 mil1ion of which about 2.2
million of "improved" type.

Figure 22 Boer females imported from South Africa to the Sunnyside

Ranch of the Animal Production Research Unit in Botswana (note horn
shape in doe on right)
Ecological zones. The Boer does best in arid areas although the improved
type, at least, does not do well in really hard conditions outside the Republic
of South Africa.
Management systems. Agro-pastoral, pastoral and ranching. Flock sizes
large to very large under ranching conditions.
Physical characteristics. Large size 75-80 cm. Weight: male 120-140 kg;
female 70-90 kg.
Head strong, forehead prominent (Figure 23), soft eyes, profile markedly
convex particularly at lower end, wide nostrils.
Horns present or absent in both sexes: strong in males (black colour
preferred) and of medium length with open homonymous twist with straight
axis projecting backwards and outwards; lighter, scimiter shaped and
backward curving in female. Ears medium-long and broad, lopped; shorter

40
or vestigial ears encountered in common stock. Toggles absent. Beards in
males but not usually maned; females not bearded.

Figure 23 Profile, horns and earns of a male Boer goat

Neck of moderate length. Chest broad and deep. Withers higher than or
level with sacrum. Back long, usually slightly dipped. Croup broad and long,
not sloping. Strong rather short legs. Udder well developed. Testicles in
unsplit scrotum.
Colour of improved type is white except for red head and part of neck: broad
white blaze on face preferred. Common goats have more variable colours
including spots on body and legs. Coat of short, stiff hair except long-haired
type.
Products. Meat; (milk); (skins).
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First kidding: 12 months. Kidding interval: 12 months.
Multiple births: common; single 43 per cent, twin 50 per cent, triplet 7 per
cent. Litter size: 1.64. Annual reproductive rate: 1.64. Oestrus cycle: 22.0 ±
0.03 days with heat lasting 26.7 hours; seasonally polyoestrus with heats
longer in autumn than spring and early summer. Ovulation rate: 6.0 ± 2.6
after treatment with PMS/HCG.
Spermatogenesis commences in males at 84 days, sperm in epididymis at
140 days and spermatozoa in ejaculate at 157 days: first successful mating
at 168 days. Artificial insemination successful in getting 71 per cent of does
pregnant with average of 1.9 kids per birth (200 x 106 sperm per dose).
GROWTH. Birth weight: 3.0-5.0 kg; singles 4.5, twins 3.9, triplets 3.5 kg.
Weight for age: male; 100 days-30 to 33, 6 months-40 to 50, 8-64, 12-92,
18-117 kg.
Weight at 100 days in improved flocks in South Africa increased from 24 to
32 kg for males and 22 to 28 kg for females between 1970 and 1982.
MILK. Lactation length: 120 days (Figure 24). Yield: when supplemented
with 2.7 kg of 4:1 mixture of lucerne:maize meal does suckling singles gave
1272 g/d (160.3 kg total yield) and suckling twins 1811 g/d (228.1 kg).
Composition: DM 15.7 per cent; fat 5.7 per cent; protein 3.1 per cent;

41
lactose 6.1 per cent; ash 0.9 per cent. Hand-milked does yielded one-third
(476 v 1551 g) of suckled does
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 48 at 8-10 months, 56-60 at mature ages.
Carcass of 23 kg preferred from goats 6-15 months old.
SKINS. Three types are recognised: fine-fibred from short-haired goats in
hot areas; medium-fibred used primarily for shoes; and coarse-fibred from
long-haired goats in cold areas and used for handbags, suitcases and
furniture.

NOTE: The few data available from outside the Republic of

South Africa for the Boer goat usually indicate performances
considerably inferior to those recorded here.

Research. Secretary, Boer Goat Breeders' Association, P.O.Box 282,

Somerset East, 5850 Republic of South Africa. Other research in Germany,
Botswana, Burundi, Zimbabwe and Kenya.

Figure 24 Lactation curves of Boer goats with different litter sizes.

References. van Rensburg, 1938; Hofmeyr, 1965; Hofmeyr et al, 1965;
1966; Skinner, 1972; Ueckermann, Joubert & Steyn, 1974; BGBA, 1984;
Das, 1989; R. Lawrenz, pers.comm.

42
PAFURI

Origins. Results from crossing Boer males on Landim females. The Boers
were introduced from the northern Transvaal in 1928. An attributed origin to
the Nubian is probably erroneous.
Distribution. Restricted to a small area known as Pafuri (hence the type
name) in south-west Mozambique near the border with South Africa and
Zimbabwe. Total population is not known but numbers are probably very
few.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid to arid sub-tropical with annual precipitation of
less than 400 mm falling in one short season.
Management systems. Agro-pastoral to pastoral transhumant. The area of
occurrence is thinly populated and there is limited cultivation of millet and
some sorghum.
Physical characteristics. Large size. Weight: male 60 kg; female 43 kg.
Head with convex profile.
Horns in both sexes: well developed in males and diverging; smaller and
scimitar shaped in females. Ears medium-long and lopped or semi-lopped
with rounded tips. Beards in males and females.
Neck strong and well set on both top and bottom lines. Back straight. Legs
strong and well developed. Udder well rounded with large teats.
Colour very variable. Coat short or long.
Products. Meat; milk.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First kidding: 1053 days on station. Litter size: 1.09; first
cross Landim x Pafuri females 1.43.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.4 kg. weight for age: 30 days-4.2, 90-8.0, 150-
10.1, 365-16.7, 550-25.8, 730-30.8 kg.
MILK. Yield: 398 ml/d during third month of lactation in foundation does
(n=47) on station; station born primiparous does (n=16) averaged 305 ml/d
in third month.
Research. Formerly at Instituto de Reproduçao e Melhoramento Animal,
CP 1410, Maputo, Mozambique.
References. de Pinho Morgado, 1954; 1959; Rocha, McKinnon & Wilson,
1990a.

43
TSWANA

Synonyms. Bechuanaland [obsolete].

Origins. The Batswana have owned goats for a very long time, unlike most
other southern Bantu peoples.
Sub-types and races. A similar goat to the Ndebele of south-west
Zimbabwe with which it intergrades along the Botswana/Zimbabwe border.
Distribution. Botswana, mainly along eastern and southern boundaries.
Also in Zimbabwe and Bophuthatswana close to common borders. Total
goat numbers in Botswana were estimated at 1.2 million in 1986, mostly of
this type, and 97 per cent of these were in the traditional sector. Numbers
were 783 000 in 1983, down from 1.0 million in late 1960s.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid to arid areas with one short, unreliable rainy
season in summer and as many as 50 nights per year with temperatures
below 0°C. Within these zones mainly distributed in scrub acacia areas with
relatively little ground cover.
Management systems. Pastoral, agro-pastoral and a few flocks on
commercial and larger modernised traditional holdings. Less than 3 per cent
of goats are subject to modern management but 70 cooperative groups
comprising 1648 small farmers (42 693 goats and sheep combined) receive
extension assistance in the form of dipping, vaccination, castration and
other veterinary services. Flock sizes average 20.9 in the traditional sector,
108.2 in the modern or commercial sector (Table 20). In Botswana 53 000
of 80 500 traditional farms own goats. Flock structures, related mainly to
meat production: females 70.1 per cent (51.9 per cent breeding > 1 year),
males29.9 per cent (14.7 percent > 1 year).
The ram subsidy programme of the Animal Production Division of the
Ministry of Agriculture supplied 2 Tswana and 18 Boer x Tswana bucks to
producers in 1985 (compared to 90 pure Boers).

Table 20 Goat flock size distribution in Botswana

Percentage of Percentage of
System and Flock size
farms goats
Traditional (n = 53 000)
1- 5 18.1 2.9
6- 10 20.8 8.0
11- 20 28.7 20.3
21- 30 14.0 16.5
31- 40 7.5 12.4
41- 50 4.0 8.4
>50 6.9 31.5
Commercial (n = 270)
1- 50 37.1 9.2
51-100 29.6 20.6
101-200 18.5 26.0
> 200 14.8 44.2

44
Physical characteristics. Large size 60-75 cm (male castrate 73.2 ± 0.76
cm; female 60.9 ± 3.54 cm). Weight: male 43.9 ± 6.6 kg; female 40.0 ± 4.9
kg.
Head not very strong, forehead flat to prominent, profile straight and
relatively short (Figure 25).

Figure 25 Male Tswana goat owned by the Animal Production

Research Institute
Horns: 69 per cent of males have horns of medium length, projecting
backwards and then outwards; 76 per cent of females have lighter, narrower
horns. Ears medium-long and broad, lopped.
Neck rather long. Chest fairly broad but shallow. Withers level with sacrum.
Back straight. Croup has moderate slope. Legs relatively long.
Colour highly variable with mixed colours predominating (40 per cent),
whites next most common (29 per cent), followed by blacks (17 per cent),
browns (8 per cent), and greys (6 per cent). Coat short and fine (39 per
cent), intermediate and wavy (47 per cent) or long (14 per cent).
Products. Meat; milk.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. Kidding interval: usually once a year; considered to be
related to availability of food as a function of rainfall but conception is very
delayed in this context in comparison to goats in similar ecoclimatic zones
and it is possible that there are some photoperiod effects in this type of goat
(Figure 26). Litter size: 1.50 (n=426) on research station, 1.37 (n=285) in
traditional system. Fertility: 82 per cent of does exposed (n=521) to bucks
kidded over 8 year period (1976-1983) on research station, in traditional
system 95 per cent of 298 breeding age females kidded in 1986. Ministry of
Agriculture estimated 70.3 to 86.4 "kidding percentage" nationwide from
1980 to 1985.

45
 Figure 26 Birth distribution in a Tswana traditional flock with
continuous buck presence from 1981 to 983.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.8 kg (n=426) on research station; in traditional
system male single 4.3 ± 1.5, twin 4.3 ± 1.0 and female single 3.6 ± 0.9,
twin 3.7 ± 1.0 kg. Weight for age: 4 months-13.4 (n=297, research station),
5-16.1 (single male 17.8, twin male 15.4, single female 16.2, twin female
14.9 in traditional system), 10-22.5 (single male 24.4, twin male 24.5, single
female 22.6, twin female 21.5 in traditional system), 12-29.6 (n=251,
research station), 18-34.5 kg (n=184, research station). Average daily gain:
birth-150 days - single males 93.3, twin males 84.2, single females 83.7,
twin females 74.4 g in traditional system; birth-300 days - 67.1, 67.4, 63.3,
59.2 g for respective sex and birth type classes in traditional system.
MILK. Lactation length: up to and in excess of 180 days in traditional
system. Yield: 284 g/d in addition to that taken by kids in traditional system;
highest yielding goat averaged 960 g/d for 1 month.
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 43 for live weight of 23.9 kg (milk teeth), 43 at
28.4 kg (1 pair permanent incisors), 44 at 34.0 kg (2 pairs), 45 at 40.5 kg (3
pairs), 48 at 52.7 kg (4 pairs) for male castrates; 40 at 38.7 kg for mature (4
pairs) females. Carcass proportions: 46.1 per cent hindquarters in mature
male castrates; 49.9 per cent in mature females. Carcass composition:
58.3/21.2/14.3 per cent lean/bone/fat in temporary incisor castrates,
59.0/22.2/12.5 in temporary incisor males and 59.3/22.8/9.5 in full mouth
females.
A total of 16 752 goats was slaughtered by the Botswana Meat Commission
in 1985, generating 537 000 Pula for farmers.
SKINS. Revenue earned by BMC for skins of goats slaughtered in 1985
was 108 540 Pula, equivalent to about 20 per cent of their revenue from the
meat of the same animals.
Research. Animal Production Research Institute, Private Bag, Gaborone,
Botswana.
References. Owen et al, 1977; 1978; Owen & Norman, 1977; APRU, 1984;
Gray, 1987.

SWAZI

46
 Sub-types and races. The Swazi is part of the Nguni group of which other
varieties occur in the Zulu areas of the Republic of South Africa.
Distribution. Swaziland and adjoining areas. The 1985 census showed a
population of 268 422 goats, down from 333 895 in 1983 and similar to the
1970 number of 259 047.
Ecological zones. Sub-tropical sub-humid areas.
Management systems. Principally agro-pastoral. About 89 per cent of
goats are found on Swazi Nation Land (communally owned) which is 57 per
cent of the area of Swaziland: 11 per cent of goats are on title deed
(privately owned) land. Estimates of percentages of households on
communal land that own goats range from 29 to more than 50, and 90 per
cent of households owning small ruminants own goats: the ratio of goat- to
sheep-owning families is about 6:1 and goats are more numerous than
sheep in the ratio of 10:1. Flock sizes average about 16 animals, with 6.3
per cent of flocks having more than 40 head accounting for 20.6 per cent of
the total goat population. In 1983, flocks comprised 32.3 per cent of animals
younger than 6 months and, of animals older than this, 48.0 per cent were
females, 13.8 per cent entire males and 5.9 per cent castrated males. Flock
structure for a sample of 160 flocks is given in Table 21.
Physical characteristics. Large size. Weight: 30-40 kg; castrates to 70 kg.
Table 21 Goat flock structure and breeding status from 160 multiple
owner flocks in Swaziland
Male Female Total
Variable
n Per cent n Per cent n Per cent
Age (years)
<1 289 11.0 376 14.3 665 25.2
1-2 203 7.7 687 26.1 890 33.8
2-6 53 5.8 782 29.7 935 35.5
>6 24 0.9 120 4.6 164 6.2
Breeding status
immature 269 10.2 376 14.3 645 24.5
breeding 237 9.0 1589 60.3 1826 69.3
castrate 163 6.2 0 0.0 163 6.2
Total population 669 25.4 1965 74.6 2639 100.0
Horns present in both sexes: strong, moderately heavy and long in males
with homonymous twist projecting sideways or backwards and outwards
(Figure 27); lighter, scimitar shaped and backward curving in females. Ears
medium-long (16 cm) and broad, lopped.

47
 Figure 27 Swazi bucks in the traditional agropastoral system on Swazi
Nation Land
Colour variable but whole colours (grey, black, white) predominate. Hair
short and coarse or long and fine; longer breeches on both fore and hind
legs of males and females not uncommon.
Products. Meat.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First kidding: 344 days in range 263-428 days. Kidding
interval: 268 days (range 192-348 days, n=204); first to second parity 273
(203-348) days, subsequent parities 253 (192-320) days. Multiple births:
common; 69.0 per cent (52.3 per cent of young) single, 30.4 per cent (46.2
per cent of young) twin, 0.6 per cent (1.4 per cent of young) triplet. Litter
size: 1.32, being 1.13 in primiparous does and 1.39 in multiparous ones.
Annual reproductive rate: 1.80, increasing from 1.54 at first parity to 2.01 at
higher parities. Fertility (=does kidding/does in flock): 63 per cent, 54 per
cent in maiden does and 70 per cent in females already having kidded at
least once.
Kidding occurs all the year but with a peak in the winter months of May-Jul,
associated with conception during the rains.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 1.9 ± 0.14 (s.d.) kg (n=482); males 2.0 ± 0.09,
females 1.8 ± 0.10. weight for age: 6 months-8.0, 12-14.5, 24-24.0, 36-35.2
kg. Average daily gain: birth-3 months - 68, birth-6 months -60, birth-12
months - 50 g.
MEAT. Carcass of 10-12 kg at 18-24 months.
Research. Animal Production and Health Department, University of
Swaziland, P.O. Luyengo, Swaziland.
References. Lebbie & Mastapha, 1985; Lebbie, 1987; Lebbie & Manzini,
1989.

48
NDEBELE

Synonyms. This goat appears to have been inadequately described in the

past and has been remarked to occur in the "Gwanda-Tuli area of
Rhodesia" and in "Matabeleland". The term Ndebele is here proposed for
the first time.
Sub-types and races. This is similar to the Tswana.
Distribution. South-west Zimbabwe. Small goats with shorter ears, similar
to the Small East African group, are found in the remaining areas of
Zimbabwe.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid.
Management systems. Principally agro-pastoral. There were only 6200
goats on large scale commercial farms in Matabeleland in 1982 and 3100
on small scale commercial farms.
Physical characteristics.
Large size. Weight: males 50-55 kg; females 39 kg.
Head rather fine, forehead flat, profile straight or dished (Figure 28).

Figure 28 Ndebele male goat at Matopos research station, Zimbabwe

Horns present or absent in both sexes: males flattened in cross-section,
directed backwards with little lateral tendency; females finer and scimitar-
shaped, some females have only scurs. Ears medium-long and broad,
lopped with tip occasionally turned up. Beards in both sexes. Males have
top knot.
Neck short. Chest shallow. Withers lower than sacrum. Back short and
dipped. Croup short and sharply sloping. Legs long and lightly boned.
Colour variable with whites and creams predominant but many others and
mixed colours common. Coat short or long, males may have "cape" over
shoulders, chest and fore legs.
Products. Meat.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. Multiple births: 67.0 per cent of does mated gave birth to
more than one young at Matopos; of does kidding, single 36.4 per cent, twin

49
62.0 per cent, triplet 1.6 per cent. Litter size: 1.54 (n=549). Fertility
(=percentage of dams giving birth): 87.5 per cent. Birth rate (=progeny
born/does mated): 159.9.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.53 kg (n=905). Weight for age: 3 months-13.9,
5(weaning)-15.9 (twins 13.5), 18-31.3 (twins 28.6), 30-35.0, 42-38.7, 54-
39.1 kg, data from weaning relate to females only; 140 days(weaning)-15.2
kg (n=759). Average daily gain: birth-12 weeks -109, birth-20 - 97, post-
weaning - 39g.
Phenotypic correlations among growth traits at Matopos were 0.45, 0.46
and 0.21 for birth and weights at 12 weeks, weaning (150 days) and 18
months and 0.29 and 0.31 for birth weight and daily gains from birth to 12
weeks and birth to weaning.
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 43.7 at live weight of 30.9 kg in castrated
males at about 24 months; 43.5 at live weight of 31.4 kg (n=292) in
castrated males at about 23 months.
Research. Matopos Research Station, Private Bag K5137, Bulawayo,
Zimbabwe.
References. Arrowsmith & Ward, 1981; Tawonezvi & Ward, 1986.

50
LANDIM

Synonyms. Mozambique ("Landim" = Portuguese "Landrace").

Origins. Possibly has some early incorporation of European blood.
Sub-types and races. The Pafuri in Gaza Province of western
Mozambique is a Boer x Landim derivative.
Distribution. Mozambique, south of the Limpopo and in Tete Province.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid to sub-humid monomodal rainfall area in sub-
tropical southern Mozambique.
Management systems. Sedentary agro-pastoral with cultivation of annual
subsistence crops being the dominant farm enterprise. An urban system is
developing rapidly. Total population of this type of goat is probably less than
400 000.
Physical characteristics. Fairly large size 65 cm. Weight: male 50 kg;
female 35-40 kg.
Head fairly heavy, concave profile in females, slighty convex in males.
Horns in both sexes: 96 per cent of all animals but 31 per cent have only
rudimentary horns or scurs; heavier in males than females but grow
upwards and backwards in both sexes; length 11.3 cm, males 2.3 cm longer
than females. Ears medium-long, carried erect or horizontal, 13.3 cm
(Figure 29). Toggles present in 7 per cent of both sexes. All males have
beard but only 12 per cent of females. Male has short stiff mane extending
down back line.
Neck short and thick. Chest well developed, girth measurement exceeding
withers height considerably at all ages (Table 22). Back short. Croup fairly
long but sloping. Legs medium length.

Figure 29 A male Landim goat at Chobela Research Station,

Mozambique
Colour variable, commonly dark brown (36.3 per cent), black (23.6 per
cent), pied (23.6 per cent), white (4.5 per cent), yellow (4.5 per cent) and
several combinations of colours. Coat usually short and fine.
Products. Meat.
Table 22 Body measurements and body mass of female Landim goats

51
 Shoulder Ches girth Weight
Age height (cm)
(cm)
Pairs Months n (kg)
permanent
incisors X s.d. X s.d. X s.d.
0 <14.3 9 49.7 4.3 63.1 5.2 19.4 3.4
1 14.3- 7 52.4 4.8 69.3 8.0 26.6 7.3
19.8
2 19.8- 21 55.7 3.6 72.5 4.5 30.7 4.9
24.5
3 24.5- 32 53.5 4.0 73.5 3.7 31.8 4.0
32.0
4 32.0- 22 57.7 3.1 78.6 3.7 37.2 5.1
42.0
Aged >42 10 57.5 4.8 80.1 4.5 38.5 6.1

Productivity.

REPRODUCTION. First kidding: 781 ± 319.3 (s.d.)

days (n=175). Kidding interval: 373 ± 167.1
(s.d.) days (n=255). Multiple births: common.
Litter size: 1.57 ± 0.53 (s.d.) (n=350). Annual
reproductive rate: 1.75 kids per doe. Age at
first kidding and kidding interval controlled
by station management.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.34 ± 0.441 (s.d.) kg
(n=464); males 2.5 kg, females 2.3 kg; singles
2.5 kg, multiples 2.3 kg; kids born in rains
and the early part of the dry season are
heavier than those born in the late dry season.
Weight for age: 90 days-9.6, 180-14.3, 365-22.0
kg. Average daily gain: birth-90 days - 76, 90-
180 - 53, 180-365 -52, birth-365 - 54 g.
Research. Institute of Animal Production, CP
1410, Maputo, Mozambique.
References. Wilson, Murayi & Rocha, 1989;
Rocha, McKinnon & Wilson, 1990a.

NUBIAN

Synonyms. Shukria (Eritrea).

Origins. The Nubian is one of a group of similar goats common throughout
the Middle East and extending as far eastwards as India. The centre of

52
origin of this type was most likely in Iran during Assyrian times. It is not
likely that it is descended from the Himalayan tahr as, although the tahr
male will mate with goat females, foetuses are aborted. Similarly, there is no
evidence that the Nubian has at some time crossed with the Walia Ibex in
Ethiopia.
Sub-types and races. Classed as a breed group and includes Mzabite
(Algeria) and Zaraibi (Egypt) as well as the Nubian proper (Figure 30) and
the Shukria. Very similar to the Damascus goat of the Near East and said
also to be closely similar to the Syrian Mountain.
Common ancestor, with several other breeds, of Anglo-Nubian.
Distribution. Riverain and urban areas of the northern part of the Republic
of Sudan, north of 12°N and westwards to E1 Obeid. Also in Eritrea. Similar
types throughout North Africa, Near and Middle East. Population of Nubian
proper estimated at 2.5 million during 1950s.

Figure 30 Female and young Nubian goats on the Nile bank at Shendi,
Sudan
Ecological zones. Arid and extreme arid areas but, as noted, essentially
along rivers and in urban or peri-urban areas.
Management systems. Urban. Owned primarily by urban dwellers in small
numbers with flock sizes ranging from 2 to 10 animals. Usually free roaming
during the day, scavenging in towns and confined and fed household
wastes and occasionally concentrates at night. Also owned by settled
agriculturalists on irrigation schemes along both White and Blue Niles south
of Khartoum and along main Nile north of Khartoum.
Physical characteristics. Large size 70-75 cm; Shukria up to 85 cm.
Weight: male 50-70 kg; female 40-60 kg.
Head small to medium, forehead prominent, profile markedly convex in
males and usually so in females, depression just behind nostrils,
prognathous to some degree (Figure 31).
Horns when present rather light and of medium length: simple or partially
twisted backwards or divergent sweep in males; usually backward sweeping
in females but some diverge. Ears long (25 cm), broad, pendulous with
bottom one-third turning upwards; trail on ground when head down for
feeding. Toggles, short in length, occur occasionally in both sexes. Beard
usually absent. Knot of hair on forehead common.

53
 Figure 31 Topknot, profile and prognathous jaw of male Damascus
goat in Tunisia
Neck moderately long and rather heavy. Chest fairly deep. High withers.
Back long and straight. Croup well developed with tail set high. Long but
well proportioned legs. Udder well developed.
Colour generally black except for ears which are grey or speckled grey;
other colours from light fawn through to dark chocolate brown also occur.
Coat variable in length, generally long, longer hair on front legs and
especially on hindquarters and hind legs give appearance of breeches.
Products. Milk.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. Age at first oestrus: 213.2 days in Egypt. Kidding
interval: 228 ± 17 days in Sudan; 6-8 months in Egypt. Multiple births: fairly
prolific with high proportion of twin births; 66.1 per cent single, 30.4 per cent
twin, 3.5 per cent triplet; in Egypt about 90 per cent of does lambing had
multiple births. Litter size: 1.40 in Sudan; 1.38 in Egypt. Oestrus cycle: 4-30
(10) days with heat lasting 12-48 hours; oestrus throughout year with peaks
in January, June and September and least activity in August and November
in Sudan; least activity in March and April in Egypt. Ovulation rate: 2.67 and
2.53 in 2 years in Egypt, more than half of does having more than 3 corpora
lutea. Gestation period: 146.0 + 1.1(s.e.)days in of male and female Nubian
kids weaned at 10 weeks and Sudan; 156.5 ± 0.66 (s.e.) days in egypt.
post-partum anoestrus: 123.5 days following 84 days suckling in Egypt.
Table 23 Monthly average body weights of male and female Nubian
kids weaned at 10 weeks and fed a 29.8 per cent crude protein
concentrate ad lib from 4 weeks
Sex
Age Male Female
kg ± s.d. kg ± s.d.
Birth 2.5 0.5 2.1 0.3
4 weeks 4.1 1.2 3.7 0.6

54
 8 weeks 6.0 2.5 5.1 1.3
12 weeks 9.3 1.9 7.1 1.7
16 weeks 9.0 2.0 8.3 1.7
20 weeks 11.0 2.2 9.1 2.8
29 weeks 13.1 3.2 11.7 1.2
28 weeks 15.9 2.8 13. 1 2.9
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.96 + 0.07 (s.e.) kg; males 2.5 ± 0.5, females 2.1
± 0.3 at Khartoum University.Weight for age: males heavier than females at
birth and to 7 months at Khartoum University (Table 23); males 22.2 kg at
12 months, females 18.0 kg. Average daily gain: 1-4 weeks - males 60
females 70, 5-10 weeks - males 60 females 50, 11-20 weeks - males 30
females 50, 21-28 weeks - males 90 females 60 g; birth-1 year - males 56
females 50 g.
MILK. Lactation length: 147 days in Sudan; 90-120 days in Egypt. Yield:
73.5 kg in Sudan; 1.5-2.0 kg per day, 150-200 kg per lactation in addition to
that taken by kids in Egypt. Composition: total solids 10.5-13.0 per cent, fat
2.9-3.5 per cent, solids-not-fat 7.7 per cent, protein 3.1-3.9 per cent, lactose
4.7 per cent, ash 0.85-0.88 per cent; mineral content generally high Ca
30.2, P 13.4, Mg 3.1, Na 2.4, K 14.0 mg/g DM, Cu 6.3, Zn 55.3, Fe 6.1 ug/g
DM.
Kids are prevented from suckling by means of a bag over the udder (Figure
32) or by tying the teats with cord.
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 43.2 at 14.1 kg live weight with cotton seed
cake as nitrogen source and 38.4 at 12.1 kg live weight with blood as
nitrogen source. Carcass composition: gut fill 23.6 and 26.7 per cent in the
2 samples cited above, head 9.9 and 11.0, hide 8.9 and 9.2, feet 4.5 and
4.4. Lean/ bone/fat present at 52.2/28.1/19.7 per cent in cotton seed cake
supplemented animals and 45.4/ 28.8/ 25.8 in blood supplemented ones.

Figure 32 Nubian female goat in Batn elHaggar, Sudan, with udder bag
to prevent suckling by kids
Research. Animal Production Research Administration, Ministry of Animal
Resources, P.O.Box 293, Khartoum, Sudan. Faculty of Veterinary Science,
University of Khartoum, P.O.Box 32, Khartoum North, Sudan.

55
References. Gray, 1953; El-Nairn, 1979; Abdelaziz, Musa & Ali, 1982;
Sulieman & El-Shafei, 1984; El-Tayeb et al, 1987; Abdel Rahim, 1987;
Maglad & Kudouda, 1987; Aboul-Ela et al, 1988.

56
SUDAN DESERT

Synonyms. Sudanese Desert.

Origins. Savanna type, similar to West African Long-Legged.
Sub-types and races. Possibly allied to the Shukria goat of western
Eritrea, although the latter is probably a much better milk producer, more
closely related to the Nubian. It is probable that the so-called Zaghawa goat
is a black colour variant of the Sudan Desert type.
Distribution. Dry areas of the Republic of Sudan, generally to the north of
12°N but north of 10°N in Darfur and western Kordofan. Also in parts of
Eritrea and westwards into Chad. At its southern limit in Sudan,
intermediate types with small forest goats are seen. Numbers ere estimated
at 1.0 million in early 1950s but certainly much more numerous than this in
1970s and 1980s. Population figures based on tax returns were 571 000 in
Southern Darfur Province alone in 1972.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid, arid and, during transhumance and nomadic
migration, extending into hyper-arid.
Management systems. Traditional agro-pastoral and pastoral. Probably
originally owned only by nomadic pastoralists but now owned in large
numbers by agro-pastoralists. Common and shared use makes it difficult to
define ownership patterns and flock sizes: about 20 goats per household in
Southern Kordofan. Most goats in agro-pastoral system are "owned" by
women. Flock structures related to milk and meat production are dominated
by females, especially in age groups over 6 months. In Southern Darfur
46.5 per cent of flock < 6 months (25.7 per cent females, 20.7 per cent
males); 12.4 per cent 6-15 months (9.4 per cent females, 3.0 per cent
males); 41.1 per cent > 15 months (40.8 per cent females, 0.3 per cent
males); total females 75.9 per cent (49.8 breeding > 10 months). In
Southern Kordofan agro-pastoral sedentary system 38.0 per cent < 6
months; 15.7 per cent 6-12 months (females 11.6 per cent, males 4.1 per
cent); 32.7 per cent 13-24 months (females 30.6 per cent, males 2.5 per
cent); 13.2 per cent > 24 months (no males); 55.4 per cent breeding
females.
Physical characteristics. Large size 65-85 cm. Weight: male 40-60 kg;
female 32.7 ± 5.22 kg.
Head fine, forehead flat, profile straight or slightly dished.
Horns in 95 per cent of both sexes: large and flattened in cross-section in
males, homonymously twisted, up to 35 cm long, projecting outwards or
backwards; females finer and curving upwards and backwards, up to 30 cm
in length. Ears medium to very long (12-20 cm), lopped. Toggles in 15 per
cent of both sexes. Beards in both sexes, very bushy in males. Males may
have a mane to the shoulders or extending the whole length of the back,
mane occasionally present in females.
Neck rather short. Chest shallow and often pinched. Withers prominent
(male 69-83 cm; female 65.5 ± 3.73 (s.d.) cm (n=397)). Back short and
straight. Croup very weak and sharply sloping with tail set low. Legs long
and poorly boned.
Colour variable from white to black, greys common (Figure 33) but many
mixed colours: black back stripe in dark colours and grey in light colours.
Coat usually short and fine except for mane: some animals (particularly

57
Zaghawa) have longer hair which may be general over the whole body or
confined to hindquarters and legs.

Figure 33 Sudan desert goats on migration in Southern Darfur

Products. Meat; milk.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First kidding: 290 days (n=4) in Southern Darfur; most
females kid before eruption of first pair of permanent incisors. Kidding
interval: 238 + 41 days (n=44) in Southern Darfur traditional system; 9
months in Kordofan. Multiple births: common; 69.8 per cent single, 30.2 per
cent twin (n=63) in first kidders and 39.0 per cent single, 54.5 per cent twin,
6.5 per cent triplet in multiparous females (n=154) in Southern Darfur
sedentary agro-pastoral system. Litter size: 1.57; 1.30 in primiparous does
and 1.68 in multiparous ones. Annual reproductive rate: 2.41. Lifetime
production: 9-10 kids in Southern Darfur; 4-7 in Kordofan.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.13 kg; single 2.27 (male 2.30, female 2.25); twin
2.05 (male 2.03, female 2.07); triplet 1.82 (male 1.88, female 1.73). Weight
for age: 4 weeks-4.8, 8-7.1, 13-9.9, 20-12.6, 26-14.7 kg. Average daily gain:
birth-13 weeks - 86.9, birth-26 - 67.0 g; on high roughage/sorghum bran diet
with 30 mg Monensin per day ADG was 89 g from 26.5 to 33.2 kg at a
conversion rate of 10.7 feed/gain and on high concentrate/sorghum grain
diet with 30 mg Monensin was 93 g at a conversion rate of 9.0 from 29.9 to
34.0 kg.
MEAT. Dressing percentage: entire males 48.2 (44.2-52.8) at live weight of
34.7 kg and castrates 51.2 (46.6-33.1) at live weight of 35.8 kg in Southern
Darfur traditional system; 46.0 in central Sudan. Carcass composition:
72.7/28.3 per cent meat/bone at 30 kg empty body weight in fattened
animals; tail 0.2 kg, head and skin 3.2 kg, abdominal fat 0.2 kg in 20 kg live
weight animals.
Research. Field studies in Darfur in early 1970s and in Kordofan in early
1980s. Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Khartoum, P.O.Box 32,
Khartoum North, Sudan.
References. Wilson, 1976b; Bunderson, Cook & Fadlalla, 1984; El-Hag, El-
Haj & Gaali, 1984; El-Hag, Kurdi & Maghoub, 1985.

58
WEST AFRICAN LONG-LEGGED

Synonyms. Arab (Chad); Maure (Mauritania and northern Mali); Sahel;

Touareg.
Origins. These goats are part of the Savanna group which includes many
Saharan types from Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.
Sub-types and races. Many local names are given to the West African
Long-legged type: Gorane, Peul (Chad); Voltaïque (Burkina); Sahel (Figure
34), Nioro, Niafounké (Mali). Crosses with dwarf goats are also often given
names, e.g. Vogan in Togo.

Figure 34 West African Long-legged goats of the Sahel type at Bamako

market, Mali
Distribution. North of the 12°N parallel from central Chad in the east to the
Atlantic coast in the west, and well into the southern Sahara. In recent years
have penetrated farther south, consequent on drought.
Ecological zones. Mainly in the semi-arid but also in the arid zone. A few
goats of this type are found in higher rainfall areas but, not being
trypanotolerant, they do not survive for long in forest or dense savanna.
Many goats of this type are sold in the coastal towns of humid West Africa
either having walked or been trucked from the north.
Management systems. Agro-pastoral, pastoral and urban. In the agro-
pastoral systems there is very little seasonal movement of stock, when it
does take place it is usually of short distance and duration.
CHAD. Sedentary "Arab" flocks in central Chad usually contain 50-70 head
of goats and sheep combined (ratio 2:1); in Batha and Chari, Baguirmi goat
flocks average 45.0 (+ 43.3 sheep) and 46.3 (no sheep) respectively with an
average of 3.8 goats per "taxed person" in the second area. In the Chad
long-distance migration pastoral system 85 to 90 per cent of all flocks are
mixed goats and sheep, 50 per cent are mixed in short distance migration
flocks, and 57 per cent are mixed in agro-pastoral sedentary flocks; flocks of
goats only are more common than sheep only. Almost all goats (87.1 per
cent of females, 95.3 per cent of males in sedentary flocks; 66.1 per cent of
females, 96.0 per cent of males in trans-humant flocks) are born in the flock
in which they spend the rest of their lives. Flock structures (Figure 35) are
related to meat and milk and comprise about 73 per cent females (51 per
cent > 1 year), 27 per cent males (10 per cent > 1 year). Offtake is about 27

59
per cent per year of which about 30 per cent is for home consumption, 63
per cent is sold (majority males) and 7 per cent is gifts (mainly females).

Figure 35 Goat flock structures in different trans-humant ethnic

groups in Chad
MALI. In the agro-pastoral system goat flocks in the irrigated rice sub-
system average 9.0 ± 6.03 head and in the rainfed millet sub-system 38.2 ±
27.75 head. Flock sizes range from 0-23 in the rice and from 2-91 in the
millet areas with more families owning goats in both systems than owning
sheep: flock sizes in the transhumant Fulani system in the Gourma average
41. Flock structures are 77.8 per cent females (55.4 per cent > 1 year, 4.0
per cent "broken-mouthed"), 22.2 per cent males (4.2 per > 1 year, 3.9 per
cent castrates) in the sedentary systems; in the Gourma transhumant
system females are 70 per cent of the flock with a high proportion (67 per
cent) of breeding age, males 21 per cent with 6.5 per cent > 14 months of
which 3.3 per cent are castrates. Offtake: 26.6 per cent (14.8 per cent
females, 53.1 per cent males) in the rice sub-system; about 13.8 per cent
(9.0 per cent females, 38.7 per cent males) in the millet sub-system.

60
 Figure 36 Classification of goat holding sizes in a Mossi agro-pastoral
system in northern Burkina Faso
BURKINA FASO. Sedentary flocks in the Mossi agro-pastoral system in
Yatenga average 17.1 goats and 16.8 sheep (Figure 36). In the Fulani
pastoral system, flocks aver-age 53.7 goats and 23.0 sheep: flocks with
only goats are more common than flocks of sheep only and these average
61.9 head (compared with 28.7 head). Fulani flock structures are mainly
related to milk and meat production: females 76.3 per cent (approximately
60 per cent > 1 year), males 23.7 per cent (10 per cent > 1 year, 3.1 per
cent castrates).
NIGER. In the Touareg system in the Aïr goats are not usually herded but
feed in the vicinity of the camp in a loose flock, returning to their kids and to
be milked at night. Milking is done by women and children. Flock sizes
average about 60 head. Flock structure related mainly to milk production:
females 86 per cent (67 per cent breeding); males 14 per cent (1.2 per cent
> 14 months)
Physical characteristics. Large size 70-85 cm (male 80-85 cm; female 70-
75 cm). Weight: male 40 kg; female 27 kg (Table 24).
Head small, fine and triangular in shape, forehead flat and narrow (Chad),
slightly concave (Maure) or convex and narrow (Touareg), profile straight or
slightly dished (Voltaïque), narrow nostrils, fine lips, large or less large
supraorbital processes.
Table 24 Morphological characteristics of West African Long-legged
goats
Sub-type
Character
Arab 1)(Chad) Maure (Mali) Touareg (Mali) Sahel 2)(Mali)
Withers height
80.5 82.0 70-82 70.5
(cm)
Girth (cm) 82.0 85.0 72 -
Scapulo-ischial
69.6 - 67.0 -
length (cm)
Horn length (cm) 21.0 - - -
Ear length (cm) 21.6 14.0 - 12.5

61
Weight (kg) 37.3 3.0 - 31.0
Notes: 1) 8 male sheep about 3 years old at export market, Ndjamena
2) Mean of 20 full-mouth females
Horns usually present in both sexes (99.9 per cent in Mali) but absent more
often in Touareg: strong in males, flattened in crosssection, markedly
ribbed, directed straight upwards and backwards diverging more or less
then turning inwards at the tips, homonymously twisted with slow spiral, up
to 40 cm in length, sometimes horizontal (Figure 37); female horns are finer
and scimitar shaped, or curving out and then in, up to 13 cm long. Ears long
(21 cm) and wide or shorter (11 cm), usually pendent or semi-pendulous;
vestigial ears occur; in Chad can be longer than face. Toggles common: 45
per cent in Mali. Beards common: present in almost all males from 4
months; about 40 per cent of females in Mali over 3 years carry beards.
Manes are common in males, occasionally along the whole length of the
back.

Figure 37 Maure goats near Niafounké in northern Mali (note male and
female horn types)
Neck long and thin. Chest generally narrow and shallow, with girth
circumference about or slightly exceeding withers height. Withers prominent
but less so in Arab variety in Chad. Back usually straight with prominent
backbone. Croup short and very sharply sloping. Legs long and spindly,
lightly boned and with sickle hocks Udder usually elongated, more or less
distinctly divided into two halves with large teats. Scrotum longish and
usually split.
Colour is very variable and depends on sub-type: in eastern Chad 45 per
cent are white or predominantly white, 28 per cent red or red pied, 22 per
cent black or black pied; in western Chad 39 per cent white, 27 per cent
black or pied, 25 per cent red or pied; Touareg type normally red pied or
black pied; Maure are red pied or fawn pied; Volta&ium,;que 49 per cent
white or principally so, 7 per cent cream to red, 3 per cent dark brown pied,
26 per cent red pied, 7 per cent black pied and 8 per cent solid black; in
Mali, Sahel type colour is predominantly red or red-pied but whites, greys
and blacks also common. Coat is usually of short stiff hair, except for mane
(which may be 15 cm long) and occasional animals with long breeches or
more general long hair.
Products. Meat; milk; skins.
REPRODUCTION. First kidding: 485 ± 128.9 (s.d.) days (n=307) in central
Mali in range 275-1104 days; 455 ± 86 (s.d.) days (n=10) in transhumant
system and 13.1 + 1.3 (s.d.) months to 16.5 ± 1.5 months in sedentary
system depending on year in Burkina Faso; 407 + 30 (s.d.) days for

62
 nomadic Touareg and 387 ± 32 days for Fulani in Niger; 13.7 ± 16.5 months
in Chad. Kidding interval: 291 ± 105.2 (s.d.) days (n=1111) in central Mali;
291 ± 73.4 (s.d.) days (n=51) in Burkina agro-pastoral system and 328 ±
85.8 days (n=88) in the pastoral system; 234 ± 9 (s.e.) days (n=177) in
Chad; 258 ± 10 (s.e.) days in Niger; births occur all the year round but in all
studies there are more parturitions during cold dry season (conceptions in
late hot dry season) than at other times of year. Multiple births: fairly
common (Table 25); of 1955 parturitions in Mali agro-pastoral system, 1593
(81.5 per cent of parturitions, 68.5 per cent of young) are single, 350 (17.9
and 30.1 per cent) are twin, and 12 (0.6 and 1.5 per cent) are triplet; in
Burkina in Fulani flocks 72.1, 27.8 and 0.1 per cent of parturitions are
single, twin or triplet; in Niger in Touareg flocks the figures are 74.5, 24.8
and 0.7 per cent and in Fulani flocks are 54.6, 44.1 and 1.3 per cent; in
Chad 53.8 per cent of parturitions are of only a single young, 43.7 per cent
are twin and 2.5 per cent are triplet. Litter size: 1.24 in single round retro-
spective survey in central Mali in 1978 (Table 25); 1.19 ± 0.41 (s.d.)
(n=1955) in long term study in Mali agro-pastoral system where there were
differences due to season of parturition (1.08 in rains related to conception
in dry season and 1.25 in cold dry season related to conception in rains)
and parity of dam (1.03 in primiparous does and 1.34 in does of fourth and
higher parities); 1.21 + 0.41 (s.d.) , (n=126) in Burkina agro-pastoral and
1.05 ± 0.24 (n=461) in the pastoral system where season again had
significant effects on number of young born at each parturition; 1.01 to 1.50
in Chad, ranging from 1.12 for primiparous females to 1.74 for multiparous
females on station; 1.26 in Niger Touareg flocks and 1.47 in Niger Fulani
flocks. Annual reproductive rate: 1.49 in Mali, increasing with parity; 1.51 in
Burkina agro-pastoral and 1.17 in pastoral system. Lifetime production:
most goats do not exceed 5 parturitions (Table 26). Oestrus cycle: first
return to heat 68 days after parturition on station in Chad; heat lasts 24-48
hours. Gestation period: 148 days on station in Niger.
Table 25 Owners' recall data of litter sizes of Sahel goats in central
Mali
Physiological age of goat
Parameter Pairs permanent incisors Temporary Overall
4 3 2 1 incisors
Number in
180 77 61 111 444 873
sample
Type of birth
single 457 139 81 77 5 759
twin 203 11 4 1 0 219
triplet 8 0 0 0 0 8
Total births 668 150 85 78 5 986
Total young
887 161 89 79 5 1221
born
Litter size 1.33 1.07 1.05 1.01 1.00 1.24
Table 26 Age (months) and reproductive history of Fulani (Voltaïque)
goats in Burkina Faso

63
 Number of parturitions Number Mean
Age class of births
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 females at age
10-14 14 14 0.00
15-19 29 45 74 0.60
20-24 8 21 9 2 40 1.12
25-30 2 40 26 12 0 1 81 1.64
>30 2 22 42 88 49 32 11 7 1 0 2 1 257 3.42
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.2 ± 0.64 (s.d.) kg (n=581) in Mali agropastoral
system, male 2.3, female 2.1, single 2.4, twin 2.0, young of primiparous
does 2.0 and of fourth parity and above 2.3; 2.7-3.2 kg on station in Niger.
Weight for age: 10 days-3.0, 30-4.3, 90-7.7, 150-10.9, 240-15.2, 365-20.2,
550-25.2, 730-29.8, 1095-33.6 kg in Mali agro-pastoral system, main
environmental influences being system, sex, parity, type of birth, season
(Table 27) and year; 10 days-4.4, 30-5.5, 90-9.9, 150-12.8, 240-15.5, 365-
19.9 kg in Burkina pastoral system, affected by sex, parity, season and
year; similar weights in Chad. Average daily gain: in Mali, birth-150 days -
58.0, birth-365 -49.3, birth-1095 - 28.7 g; in Burkina pastoral system, birth-
150 -70.6, 150-365 - 39.7, birth-365 - 49.0 g; in Chad pastoral system, 1
week-weaning - males 80.4 females 67.9, weaning-18 months - males 32.8
females 27.9, 18 months-5 years - males 14.5 females 8.1 g. Post-partum
weights: 26.0 ± 5.16 (s.d.) kg (n=1729) in Mali, varying by system, parity,
birth type, season, year and flock; primiparous does weigh 21.2 kg and
those of fourth parity and upwards 29.4 kg.
Table 27 Weight changes (maximum and minimum averaged for 6
years) by sex and age in central Mali goats expressed as percentages
of mean annual weight
Millet sub-system Rice sub-system
Sex and Weight (per Weight (per changes
age1) n2) x3)
changes cent) n2) x3)
cent)
min max min max
Males: 1 642 25.1 93.0 106.5 167 24.7 91.1 107.9
2 380 30.3 95.6 104.6 51 30.4 93.5 108.3
3 309 34.7 87.6 110.5 49 29.8 84.1 104.9
4 385 40.9 96.8 104.9 14 30.8 90.9 107.1
Females: 1 1342 20.4 91.8 105.0 218 20.9 94.1 109.3
2 1026 22.5 91.9 106.3 145 23.3 5.4 109.2
3 1300 24.9 96.2 103.1 179 26.0 96.7 105.4
4 4257 28.0 94.9 104.3 789 28.8 97.5 107.8
Notes: 1) Age given as pairs of permanent incisors
2) Number of observations in each class of stock
3)Mean annual weight in kg
Weight changes within years in Mali, although significant, are slight and, in
contrast to cattle, long term weight changes are not very marked. In Burkina
within year variation is considerable, being 88.2-115.8 per cent of the
annual mean in the Mossi agro-pastoral system and 87.5-113.4 per cent in

64
the Fulani pastoral system, in both cases for does with 3 pairs of permanent
incisors.
MILK. Lactation length: 5-6 months; 134.7 ± 5.6 (s.e.) days (n=173) in range
54 to 155 days on station in Niger, maximum daily yield at 34 days. Yield:
1500 g/d for Maure in Mali, 900 g/d on station in Niger, Touareg 600-800
g/d, Voltaïque 900-1000 g/d; total lactation yield of 77.1 litres on station in
Niger. Composition: density 1.030; DM 12.7 per cent; fat 3.9 per cent;
lactose 4.6 per cent.
MEAT. Dressing percentage: castrates 49.4 at 26.7 kg live weight, entire
males 48.0 at 27.4 kg and females 48.1 at 27.8 kg at central Mali abattoir;
41.9 at 26.8 kg, females 43.3 at 23.3 kg at Farcha (Chad); 45-48 for
Voltaique type in Burkina. Carcass composition: "carcass" 47.9 per cent in
central Mali, stomachs and intestines 5.0, kidneys 0.5, liver 1.9, lungs and
heart 2.6, mesenteric fat 4.4, spleen 0.5, head 6.9, feet 3.2, wet skin 6.7,
udder 0.8, gut fill 12.7, blood and body fluids 6.8.
Average carcass weights in Mali were 14.2 kg for all ages and sexes
combined and goat dressing percentages were significantly better than
sheep, mainly attributable to lighter gut fill. In 1979 and 1980 at Niono in
central Mali, goats contributed 36.3 per cent of all meat produced at the
municipal abattoir.
SKINS. Chad exported, through official channels, 1 106 000 skins in 1973
and it was estimated that 176 500 were used locally but this was an
exceptional year due to the Sahel drought: in 1976, 820 000 skins were
exported of which just over half were goatskins each of about 500 g dry
weight.
HAIR. Attempts to produce mohair from Sahel goats in Mali by crossing with
Angoras during the 1920s to 1940s achieved only limited success on station
and the results were not extended to the traditional producer level.
Research. Mainly systems studies carried out by ILCA, EEC and national
organizations, the last particularly in Niger and Chad.
References. Dumas & Raymond, 1975; Dumas, 1977; Gerbaldi, 1978;
Dumas, 1980; Bourzat, 1980; Wilson, 1981; Alaku & Moruppa, 1983; Wilson
& Durkin, 1983; Wilson & Wagenaar, 1983; Wilson, 1984a; Ouedraogo,
1984; Wilson, 1986; Wilson & Light, 1986; Wilson, 1987; Wilson & Sayers,
1987; Wilson, 1988; Wilson & Durkin, 1988; Bourzat & Wilson, 1989.

65
SMALL GOATS

RED SOKOTO

Synonyms. Chèvre rousse de Maradi.

Origins. One of the Savanna goat group but its relatively small size in
relation to these indicates possible crossing with forest or dwarf goats
before selection in its present area of distribution. The relatively high
prolificity of the Sokoto goat would tend to support a hypothesis that such a
fusion has occurred.
Sub-types and races. Outside the main centres of its distribution, the
colour varies somewhat and various types are recognised such as Kano
Brown, Bornu White, etc. The Buduma goat of Chad appears to be the
same variety as the Bornu White.
Haemoglobin variants (3 variants and 5 phenotypes) have been reported to
differ from the expected proportions and it has been postulated that these
differences are due to differential susceptibilities to helminth infestation.
Distribution. Southern Niger and northern Nigeria between latitudes 12°N
and 14°N and longitudes 4°N and 10°E. In Nigeria its main strongholds are
in Sokoto and Kano States and in Niger it is commonest in Maradi and
Tessoua Departments but its sub-types extend to the west and east. The
purebred population is probably about 1 million with a further 2.5 million of
similar type.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid areas with a single rainfall season of 4-6
months duration. These areas are cultivated to millet, sorghum and
groundnuts. Several species of economic trees (Baobab, Adansonia
digitata; Shea-butter Nut, Butyrospermum parkii; Locust Bean, Parkia
biglobosa) form an integral part of the agro-sylvo-pastoral system. In Maradi
Department most goats are found in the cultivated valleys of seasonal rivers
(rainfall 600 mm) which provide a favourable micro-zone with out-of-season
crop residues and browse shrubs.
Management systems. Agro-pastoral. Owned mainly by sedentary
cultivators of the Hausa tribe or of related Hausa-speaking groups. Often
confined within house compounds, either loose or tied to stakes, especially
during the crop growing season when they may be zero-grazed. Flock sizes
are usually small (< 10 head) but as skins are the main product, the
imbalance in the sex ratio between females and males is less marked than
in many other systems. In a traditional system in the Zaria area in northern
Nigeria 64.6 per cent of families own goats, average flock size being 19.2 in
the range of 2 to 70. In the Zaria area flock structures are 79.3 per cent
females (45.8 per cent with 1 or more pairs permanent incisors) and 20.6
per cent males (2.2 per cent with 1 or more pairs permanent incisors) with a
ratio of breeding males to females of 1.0:19.7,
Physical characteristics. Relatively small size 60 cm (male 60-65 cm;
female 54-65 cm). Weight: male 27 kg; female 25 kg. Bornu White is larger,
up to 80 cm.
Head fine, forehead prominent, profile rather short and straight or slightly
dished, mucous membranes black.

66
 Figure 38 Red Sokoto buck or Chèvre ,rousse de Maradi at Zugu
Sokoto State, Nigeria
Horns in both sexes: short to medium in length, slightly heavier in males but
set close together on the skull; rather flattened dorso-ventrally and growing
backwards close to the head and neck (Figure 38). Ears short, medium
width and usually carried horizontally; rather longer and semi-pendulous in
Niger; longer also in Bornu White. Toggles rare. Beard of profuse hair in
males but usually often covered with hair which isabsent 1n females. Forehead
longer, bushier and darker in males than in females. Males carry a light
mane extending to the shoulders.
Neck short, thin and very mobile. Chest rounded and well pro portioned.
Withers not prominent. Back of medium length and Croup short.Legs rather
short and strong but well muscled both fore and hind. Udder of good
conformation, well rounded and with well spaced teats (Figure 39).

Figure 39 Female Chèvre rousse de Maradi straight. at Maradi station,

Niger
Colour usually deep red in the Sokoto but lighter and occasionally almost
chestnut in the Maradi. A government order promulgated in Niger in 1945
made the culling of spotted females obligatory in parts of Maradi and by

67
1950 this order had been extended to other Departments including Zinder,
Tahoua and Goure: undesirable males were to be castrated before 6
months but animals of the correct type of both sexes could not be
slaughtered at less than 18 months. Males are invariably darker than
females and may have a black back stripe. Tail hairs usually black. Coat of
fine and short hair but males may have longer and wavier hair. Bornu White
is white, occasionally with black or brown spots on ears, nose and around
eyes.
Products. Skins; milk (especially in Niger); meat.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. Age at first oestrus: 157 ± 5.92 (s.d.) days (n=8),
youngest at 120 days in Kano Brown. Weight at first oestrus: 10.5-18.0 kg.
First kidding: 435 ± 135.0 (s.d.) days (range 243-882) (n=51) at Shika
experimental farm in Nigeria; apparently rather late in Nigeria traditional
system near Zaria where only 2.4 per cent of does with milk teeth and 75.6
per cent with 1 pair of permanent incisors had kidded; 7.1 per cent at 10
months on station in Niger, 21.4 at 12, 14.2 at 13, 35.7 at 14, 14.3 at 16, 7.1
at 17; 426.7 + 204.40 (s.d.) days (n=227) in a traditional Hausa village in
Niger in a study of 3 years duration; 416 ± 86 (s.d.) days for Kano Brown
and also 9-16 months; in traditional systems in Niger it has been recorded
that 31 per cent of first births take place when the dam is 7-10 months old,
25 at 10-11, 27 at 11-12 and 7 at > 12 months. Kidding interval: 240 + 57.8
(s.d.) days at Shika; 332 ± 109.3 (s.d.) days (n=665) in Niger traditional
system with 11.3 per cent of intervals < 240 days, 43.5 at 240-340 and 45.2
at > 340; under research station management in Niger 20.0 per cent of
intervals were < 180 days, 25.0 at 180-210, 17.5 at 210-240, 17 at 240-275,
12.5 at 275-305, 2.5 at 305-335 and 5.0 at > 335; intervals following an
abortion (220 ± 16 (n=59)) and those following kid deaths in the first 15
days of life (269 ± 22 (n=32)) were significantly shorter than all intervals
(332 ± 109 (n=665)) in the Niger traditional system; intervals were also
influenced by season of previous birth and when this took place in the rainy
season of Jul-Aug, interval was 266 + 97.3 (n=56) days, in the dry season
of Sep-Apr was 343 ± 164.5 (n=552) days and in the pre-rains season of
May-Jun was 302 ± 105.7 (n=57) days; breeding occurs all year round but
there are markedly more births in early hot dry season in Niger than at other
times of year. Multiple births: extremely common; 32.6 per cent single, 58.8
twin, 7.2 triplet, 1.8 quadruplet (n=123) at Shika; 32 per cent multiple births
in Zaria traditional system; 56.1 per cent single, 40.9 twin, 2.8 triplet, 0.1
quadruplet (n=1668) in Niger traditional system; 48.6 per cent single, 47.5
twin, 3.9 triplet on station in Niger. Litter size: about 1.8; 1.45 at first parity
(n=51) at Shika increasing from 1.17 for dams of 8-9 months to 1.70 for
dams > 24 months, 1.86 at second parity (n=37) and 2.00 at third (n=8);
1.35 (n=1938) in northern Nigeria traditional system near Zaria (Table 28);
1.47 ± 0.83 (n=761) in Niger traditional system rising from first to third and
older parities being 1.08 ± 0.60 (n=227), 1.20 ± 0.79 (n=51) and 1.72 ± 1.10
(n=483) respectively; considerable variation in litter size in relation to month
of birth and maximum litter size not occurring at period of maximum number
of births (Figure 40) as seen also in West African Long-legged goats in Mali
and Burkina Faso. Annual reproductive rate: 1.50-2.00; 1.67 in Niger.
Oestrus cycle: 15-30 days but up to 66 days on station in Niger; heat lasts

68
 24-120 hours in Kano Brown. Gestation period: 153 days (range 142-165) in
Niger.
Table 28 Reproductive data established from owner recall in 116 flocks
of sedentary Red Sokoto goats in Kaduna state, northern Nigeria
Physiological age of goat
Parameter Pairs permanent incisors Temporary Overall
4 3 2 1 incisors
Number in
280 205 173 254 665 1577
sample
Type of birth
single 605 334 204 174 14 1331
twin 402 103 52 18 2 577
triplet 43 4 1 0 0 2
quadruplet 2 0 0 0 0 2
Total births 1052 441 257 192 16 1958
Total young born 1546 552 311 210 18 2637
Litter size 1.47 1.25 1.21 1.09 1.13 1.35
Births per doe 3.76 2.15 1.49 0.76 0.02 1.24

69
 Figure 40 Distribution of parturition and variations in litter size in
Maradi goats in Niger
Repeatability of litter size 0.28 ± 0.07 for 37 first to second kiddings and
heritability at first kidding 0.08 ± 0.02 for 50 dam-daughter pairs, both
estimates from Shika.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 1.7-2.0 kg; 1.8 + 0.021 (s.e.) kg (n=1301) and 1.9 ±
0.022 kg (n=624) in Niger. Height for age: 3 weeks-2.7, 1 month-3.9, 2-8.1,
4-9.9, 5-12.1 kg for twins, both sexes combined, on station in Niger (Table
29); 2 months-8.0, 4-8.9, 6-10.5, 12-18.5, 18-26.3 kg for females from all
birth types in traditional system in Niger; 2 weeks-3.6, 4-4.6, 8-6.2, 12-7.6
kg for singles on station in Nigeria and 3.0, 3.7, 4.8 and 5.7 kg at same
ages for twins. Average daily gain: 7-120 days - males 63 females 55 g, 4-
18 months - females 41 g.
MILK. Yield: 500-1000 g/d; 545 g/d in 12 week lactation, does with twins
producing 50 kg, outyielding singles by 20 per cent (Figure 41).
Composition: total solids 18.2 per cent; fat 4.7-7.8 per cent, does suckling
twins have higher fat content and fat content diminishes sharply to fourth
week of lactation; protein 3.8-4.7 per cent; lactose 4.7 per cent; energy 22.2

70
 KJ/g dried milk, 381 KJ/100 g whole milk; all values except lactose higher in
colostrum than in milk.
Table 29 Weights (kg) at early ages of Sokoto goats at Maradi research
centre in 1986
Male Female
Age
Single Twin Triplet Single Twin Triplet
Birth 2.1 1.8 1.5 2.1 2.1 1.4
1 month 3.0 3.9 3.0 3.7 4.4 3.0
2 months 6.1 5.8 5.4 5.0 5.0 4.2
3 months 7.7 7.0 6.8 7.5 7.5 4.4
6 months 10.3 10.1 10.9 10.4 11.1 6.5

Figure 41 Lactation curves of Red Sokoto goats having given birth to

single or twin kids (smooth curves represent Wood's gamma function)
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 45-50; 44.7-48.6 at 20.5-25.0 kg live weight
for Bornu White and 43.7-48.1 at 19.8-24.2 kg live weight for Red Sokoto at
Maiduguri abattoir; young male castrates 54-55.
SKINS. Average dry weight of skins from Nigeria and Niger is about 420 g,
"extra light" being 250 g and "heavy" 625 g. Useful tanning area is 3-7 ft2
(0.28-0.65 m2). Red Sokoto skins are of exceptional quality and known as
"Morocco" in the tannery trade. They are characterized by deep pronounced
grain, dense compact elastic fibres, little grease, and ease of tanning; they
are in demand for the fancy goods trade, particularly for gloves, high quality
shoes, patent leather and suede clothes. Skins of Kano goats are heavier
and weigh 430-460 g.
Research. Centre d'élevage caprin du Maradi, BP 379, Maradi, Niger.
National Animal Production Research Institute, Ahmadu Bello University,
Shika, P.M.B. 1096, Zaria, Nigeria.
References. Beaton, 1939; Robinet, 1967; Haumesser, 1975; Mba, Boyo &
Oyenuga, 1975; Molokwu & Igono, 1978; Adu, Buvanendran & Lakpini,
1979; Akinsoyinu et al, 1981 ; Buvanendran et al, 1981; Ehoche &
Buvanendran, 1983; Ngere, Adu & Okubanjo, 1984; Djibri1lou Oumara,
1986; Otchere et al, 1987; Fasanya et al, 1988.

AFAR

71
Synonyms. Danakil; ?Abyssinian Short-eared; Adal - adopted by the
Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research as the official designator within
the country.
Origins. Probably from south-west Asia (North Yemen and Saudi Arabia)
where similar goats are common.
Sub-types and races. There are possibly some morphological and
performance differences throughout this type's range from Eritrea in the
north to Djibouti in the south.
Distribution. Coastal strip and Rift Valley in Ethiopia from 12°N to 6°N in
the area where the Afar (Danakil) tribe is found. Northern two-thirds of
Republic of Djibouti.
Ecological zones. Desert and coastal desert.
Management systems. Pastoral. Free-ranging transhumant and/or
nomadic Afar. Kids are separated from adults and housed in small stone
houses. Male kids, except those required for breeding, are usually killed
(especially in drier than usual periods) a few days after birth. Flock sizes
generally large (> 100 head). Flock structures, related to requirement for
milk, overwhelmingly female: females 98.0 per cent (breeding 84.5); males
2.0 per cent (no castrates).
Physical characteristics. Small size 55-65 cm (male 60-65 cm; female 55-
60 cm). Weight: male 26-39 kg; female 22-28 kg.
Small head, flat forehead, profile straight or slightly dished, narrow muzzle
(Figure 42).
Horns in both sexes: erect or pointing slightly backwards in males, half to
full twist, up to 45 cm in length, flattish in cross-section and slightly ribbed;
light and scimitar shaped in females although assymetrical and deformed
horns not uncommon, round to oval in cross-section (Figure 43); few
females polled (?and possibly males). Ears medium length (10-12 cm),
medium width, noticeably pricked and erect; less than 1.5 per cent have
atrophied (3-4 cm) ears (Figure 43). Toggles in both sexes (6 per cent).
Males usually bearded and lightly maned; females unbearded except for a
few with very wispy beard.
Neck medium long. Chest very narrow and shallow. Croup sharply sloping.
Legs tend to be short in relation to height, a character more noticeable in
some flocks than others. Scrotum usually split for at least half its length.
Colour very variable, whole whites common, reds and blacks less so,
multicoloured and spotted and blotched animals commonest. Coat of very
fine, short hair.

72
 Figure 42 Afar goats at a desert well in Djibouti
Products. Milk; (meat); skins for water carriers.

Figure 43 Afar goats showing (left) horns of female, immature and

male; and (right) vestigial ears on a female
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First kidding: 24 months. Kidding interval: once a year
although some only every 2 years; related to short rainy period, not
otherwise controlled. Multiple births: very uncommon (or uncommonly
admitted) in traditional systems; 65 per cent single, 35 per cent twin at
Melka Werer. Litter size: ?1.02 in traditional systems; 1.24 for 21 does at
Melka Werer. Annual reproductive rate: ?0.9. Kidding rate (=kids born/does
mated): 1.07 (n=352 does mated).
Very low conception rates of 45 per cent obtained at Melka Werer in 1970s
but increased to 79 per cent in 1980s.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.0 kg in traditional system; 2.1 kg on station.
Weight for age: 6 months-11, 9-13, 12-16, 18-21, 24-23, 36-27 kg in
traditional system in Tigray; 90 days-7.6, 180-15.3, 365-22.1 kg on station.
Average daily gain: birth-26 weeks - 45 g in Tigray; 90-180 days - 48 g at
Melka Werer. Mature weights: males 34.1 kg (n=4) in Tigray traditional
system, 33.0 kg on station at Melka Werer; females 26.8 ± 3.71 (s.d.) kg
(n=431) in Tigray, 24.0 kg at Melka Werer.
MILK. Lactation length: 90-120 days; 84 days on irrigated pasture and with
200-300 g concentrate at Melka Werer. Yield: 20-25 kg; 491 g/d (range 230-
1080) at Melka Werer.
MEAT. Carcass yield: males 12 kg; females 10 kg.

73
Research. Melka Werer Research Station, Institute of Agricultural
Research, P.O.Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Some minor and
incomplete field studies.
References. Wilson, 1975; Galal & Getachew, 1977; Galal, Sebhatu &
Getachew, 1977; Galal & Kassahun, 1981; Kassahun, Yibrah & Fletcher,
1989.

74
MUBENDE

Origins. Part of the Small East African group but said to be specifically
selected for its skins.
Distribution. Mainly in the former Kingdom of Buganda in the Mubende
district of west-central Uganda and in Masaka district to the south but also
elsewhere in higher rainfall areas of Uganda north and west of Lake
Victoria.
Ecological zones. Sub-humid highland areas of Uganda, usually with
bimodal or a prolonged unimodal rainfall pattern.
Management systems. Agro-pastoral. Animals are tethered or allowed to
roam freely, particularly in the non-cropping season. In addition to being
reputed producers of skins and meat, goats have important cultural and
social functions in the Baganda area and are used in divine healing.
Physical characteristics. Small size. Weight: male 35 kg (up to 51 kg);
female 31 kg.
Horns in both sexes although polled animals not uncommon: generally short
and carried close to nape of neck. Ears short to medium length, pricked
forward and upward. Males and some females bearded. Males have a
mane along the length of the back (Figure 44).
Colour, selected, generally black: other colours also occur. Coat short and
fine.
Products. Meat; skins.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First kidding: 13.5 months on station at Makerere; 567 ±
11.6 (s.e.) days (n=80) on station at Mbarara. Kidding interval: 9.6 months
at Makerere, 10.6 months at first and 8.5 months at second and third
intervals; 297 ± 8.5 (s.e.) days at Mbarara. Multiple births: common; 69.0
per cent single, 31.0 per cent twin at Makerere, 86.4 per cent single at first,
50.0 per cent single at second and third parturitions; 68.3 per cent single,
30.0 per cent twin, 1.7 per cent triplet at Mbarara. Litter size: 1.4 (n=42) at
Makerere. Lifetime production: 6 parturitions at Mbarara.

Figure 44 Male Mubende goat at Lweza station, Uganda (photograph

by K.L. Okello)

75
GROWTH. Birth weight: 1.22 kg on station at Makerere, single 1.39, twin
1.04, male 1.26, female 1.19; male singles 2.14 ± 0.045 (s.e.) kg (n=538) at
Mbarara. Weight for age: 4 months-10.3, 12-21.3 kg at Makerere; 2 months-
7.4, 5(weaning)-11.9, 12-20.3 kg for male singles at Mbarara. Average daily
gain: birth-120 days - 75.7, post-weaning-12 months - 44.9 g at Makerere;
birth-2 months - singles 86 twins 68, 2-5 - singles 45 twins 40, 5-12 - singles
and twins 36 g at Mbarara.
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 56.4 for males at live weight of 35.7 kg, 50.7
at 36.0 kg and 44.1 at 28.4 kg for castrates, 54.4 for females at 31.5 kg.
Research. Department of Veterinary Physiological Sciences, Makerere
University, P.O.Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
References. Trail & Sacker, 1966; Okello, 1985; K.L. Okello, pers.comm.

KIGEZI

Origins. Part of the Small East African group.

Sub-types and races. Sebei and Karamoja types are also recognized in
Uganda.
Distribution. South-west Uganda and neighbouring Zaire and Rwanda.
Ecological zones. Warm or hot semi-arid lowlands to sub-humid uplands
and cool mountains.
Management systems. Agro-pastoral and agricultural of the Bakiga tribe.
Physical characteristics. Small size 50-60 cm. Weight: 30 kg.
Horns in both sexes. Ears shortto medium length, pricked.
Colour black or grey in Kigezi. Hair long, especially on hindquarters, in
Kigezi.
Products. Hair; meat.
Productivity.
MEAT. Dressing percentage: males 49.4 at live weight of 30 kg, castrates
52.0 at 28.8 kg, females 51.6 at 30.3 kg.
HAIR. Used for clothing by Bakiga tribe.
References. Okello, 1985.

76
 BORAN

Synonyms. Galla; Somali.

Origins. Part of the Small East African group.
Sub-types and races. In the Somali systems the 'yeygirr' is smaller than
the 'deguen' and has short prick ears in contrast to the forward-inclined
pendent ears of the latter which is bred by the Muruli clan. Several Somali
clan types have names, including Mudugh, Abgal, Benadir and Ogaden.
Distribution. Northern Kenya, southern Somalia and parts of southern and
south-eastern Ethiopia.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid bimodal rainfall areas, bordering on arid.
Management systems. Pastoral, agro-pastoral and agricultural.
KENYA COAST. Three agro-ecological zones are recognised, these being
the coconut-cassava (1000-1230 mm annual rainfall), the cashewnut-
cassava (800-1100 mm) and the livestock-millet (700-880 mm) areas. About
20 per cent of farms keep cattle but about 60 per cent have small
ruminants, mostly goats. Of farms with small ruminants, 59 per cent have
goats only, 37 per cent goats and sheep and 3 per cent sheep only. Flock
sizes are medium averaging 22.8 on farms owning small ruminants, 80 per
cent being goats: the ratio of goats to sheep is 8.6:1.0 in the coconut zone
and 3.0:1.0 in the millet zone. Goat and sheep numbers (on farms owning)
increase from the coconut zone to the millet zone (Table 30). Flock
structures are related mainly to meat production: females 73 per cent (51
per cent "mature"); males 27 per cent (11 per cent mature, 1 per cent
castrates) (n=18 330); the proportion of males decreases from wetter to
drier zones. About 5 per cent of goats are not owned by farmers in whose
flocks they are found.
CENTRAL SOMALIA. Rainfall averages 100-250 mm per year and the
vegetation is predominently low open thornbush. Animals are herded during
the day and penned in thorn enclosures at night, kids separate from adults.
Kids are allowed to suckle twice a day after milk for human consumption
has been taken off. Bucks run continuously with does to ensure kidding
(and a human milk supply) all year round.
Table 30 Small ruminant flock sizes in various agro-ecological zones
on the Kenya coast
Agro- Flock size
ecological Goat flocks Sheep flocks Mixed flocks
zone n ± s.d n ± s.d n ± s.d
Coconut-
11.2 8.4 5.3 4.5 18.2 9.6
cassava
Cashewnut-
16.6 13.6 8.6 7.9 28.3 18.2
cassava
Livestock-
32.5 33.5 17.5 18.8 54.4 49.9
millet
Overall 18.8 21.1 11.2 13.6 22.7 27.1
Flock sizes usually very large, 9000 flocks averaging 154 head in 11
'degaan' in Bulo Burti district in 1983, in range 52-241 head. About 8 per
cent of goats are in multiple-owner flocks. Flock structures, with some very
early offtake of males, are related to milk production: females 78.7 per cent

77
(57.8 per cent breeding); males 21.3 per cent (6.6 per cent breeding bucks,
7.4 per cent mature castrates).
Physical characteristics. Small size 60 cm. Weight: male 30-40 kg; female
25-30 kg. Benadir is slightly larger.
Head fine, muzzle narrow, facial profile convex.
Horns small, usually slender with no marked twist, in about 97 per cent of
animals. Ears short to medium, pricked sideways and slightly forwards and
upwards (Figure 45). Toggles in about 5 per cent of both sexes.
Neck medium length. Chest narrow, girth exceeding withers height by about
10 per cent. Withers (58.1 ± 5.52 (s.d.) cm (n=293) in central Somalia)
about same height as sacrum. Back fairly long and slightly dipped. Croup
sloping. Legs rather long.
Colour usually brilliant white (> 70 per cent in central Somalia). Some
Ethiopian goats from the Ogaden have black spotting or solid black on the
head and fore part of the neck: some varieties have a black dorsal stripe.
Hair short,shiny, smooth. Skin thin.

Figure 45 Boran or Galla goats at Kiboko National Range Research

Station, Kenya
Products. Meat; milk; (skins).
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First kidding: very late, about 30 months in central
Somalia. Kidding interval: about 14 months in central Somalia. Multiple
births: fairly common. Litter size: 1.29 (n=108) at Kiboko in Kenya. Annual
reproductive rate: 1.03 with 8 month mating at Kiboko; in Somalia national
statistics indicate range of 0.65 to 0.90 kids per doe per year from 1970 to
1984. Fertility (=does kidded/does mated): about 75 per cent at Kiboko.
Fecundity (=kids born/does present per year): 65 per cent in central
Somalia.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 3.38 kg (n=139) at Kiboko. Height for age: 6
months-13.7, 18-19.2, 30-23.5, 42-25.6, 54-27.7 kg in central Somalia
Average daily gain: birth-120 days - 82 g at Naivasha.
MILK. Yield: almost 1 million tonnes of which 360 000 tonnes used for
human consumption from Somali national flock in 1984; in central Somalia
does kidding during the rains yield 85 litres in 6 months, those during the

78
rains 49 litres, of which about 40 and 20 per cent is used for human
consumption.
MEAT. Exports of live goats from Somalia varied from 273 000 to 828 000
from 1970 to 1984; internal slaughter in the same period was 1.8 to 3.6
million head.
SKINS. Total production in Somalia of goats and sheep combined varied
from 1.54 to 3.84 million pieces in 1970-1984.
Research. National Range Research Station, Kiboko, Kenya.
References. Rakoczi, 1974a; Dahir Mumin, 1986; Bourzat et al, 1988; W.
Thorpe, pers.comm.

MASAI

Origins. Part of the Small East African group

Sub-types and races. Goats of very similar type occur throughout much of
East Africa and are given tribal or regional names. Gogo in central
Tanzania, Arusha and Chagga in northern Tanzania.
Distribution. Kenya and northern Tanzania.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid bimodal rainfall areas, bordering on sub-
humid to the west of their range in both Kenya and Tanzania.
Management systems. Pastoral, agro-pastoral and agricultural where they
are owned by mainly cultivating tribes, for example on the slopes of Mounts
Kilimanjaro and Meru. Often kept in mixed flocks about equally composed of
goats and sheep. Both goats and sheep are herded by children by day and
penned in thorn enclosures at night with unweaned kids being separated
from adults. Flock sizes fairly large to large and average about 190 head on
Elangata Wuas group ranch in south-central Kenya. Flock structure is
related to meat, fat and milk production: females 66.2 per cent (48.3 per
cent breeding); males 33.8 per cent (4.1 per cent entire > 14 months, 6.1
per cent castrates > 14 months).
Physical characteristics. Small size 64 cm. Weight: male 40 kg; female 31
kg.
Head fine, muzzle narrow, facial profile dished or straight (Figure 46).
Horns usually present in both sexes: short (10 cm) and fine and sweeping
directly backwards, often curved upwards at the tip. In some flocks only
about 65 per cent of animals are horned, possibly indicating some out-
crossing to exotic breeds. Ears medium length (12-16 cm), slightly pendent,
rarely pricked. Males and about 10 per cent of older females have a small
beard of rather fine hair: 40 per cent of males under 14 months have
beards. Toggles in both sexes in less than 5 per cent of animals. Males
have a light or heavier mane extending to the withers or just beyond.

79
 Figure 46 Masai goat of Small East African type in west Mara region,
Kenya
Neck fine and medium long. Chest fairly well rounded, girth measuring 10-
15 per cent more than withers height (64 ± 3.2 (s.d.) cm (n=239) in females,
73 ± 4.4 cm (n=22) in mature castrates). Withers not prominent and lower
than sacrum. Back short and dipped. Croup short and sharply sloping. Legs
well proportioned and fleshed.
Colour extremely variable. Coat short and fine in both males and females
but with occasional longer hair on the hindquarters.
Products. Meat; milk; fat.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First kidding: 556 ± 119.0 (s.d.) days (n=28) on group
ranch in south-central Kenya which is very late for a traditional system and
due to use of an apron to control breeding (Figure 8); of 211 first kidding
dams 12.3, 37.9, 34.1, 13.7 and 1.9 per cent had milk teeth and 1 to 4 pairs
respectively of permanent incisors. Kidding interval: 306 days at Elangata
Wuas group ranch, decreasing with increasing parity, differing in different
flocks and also varying with season, intervals being longer following
parturitions in long and short rains seasons. Multiple births: fairly common.
Litter size: 1.23, varying with parity and season, litters larger for parturitions
in short and long dry seasons. Annual reproductive rate: 1.46.
GROWTH. Birth weight: about 2.9 kg at Elangata Wuas. Weight for age: 10
days-3.3, 550 days-21.8 kg, a growth equation y=axb having values of 0.95
and 0.48 for variables a and b respectively. Average daily gain: birth-150
days - 49.3, birth-365 - 38.3 g. Post-partum weights: 28.0 kg; 23.4 kg at first
and 27.5 at fourth and subsequent parities. Mature weights: females 30.9 ±
3.99 (s.d.) kg (n=239), range 18-44 kg; castrates 42.2 ± 6.12 (s.d.) kg
(n=22) in range 33-53 kg.
Research. Field studies in 1978-1983 by ILCA now discontinued.
References. Wilson, 1978; Wilson, Peacock & Sayers, 1983; 1984; 1985;
Wilson & Ole Maki, 1989.

80
RWANDA AND BURUNDI

Synonyms. Chèvre commune rwandaise; chèvre commune burundaise.

Origins. Part of the Small East African group.
Sub-types and races. The "types" from Rwanda, Burundi and eastern
Zaire are, for all practical purposes, indistinguishable.
Distribution. Rwanda, Burundi and Kivu province of Zaire and extending
into southern Uganda and the extreme west of Tanzania.
Ecological zones. Sub-humid east-central African highlands from 1200 m
to 2500 m altitude in 800 mm to 1500 mm rainfall zone. Rain falls in two
more or less distinct seasons.
Management systems. Agro-pastoral and agricultural. Verging on pastoral
in Ankole/ /Bahima areas of eastern and lower areas of Rwanda. Often
attached individually to pickets (Figure 47). Some data on the importance of
goats in 3 different areas of highland central Africa have been provided in
Table 5. Approximately 76 per cent of families own goats, average flock size
being 2.95 goats for those owning (2.88 in Burundi, 3.42 in Rwanda and
2.67 in eastern Zaire). Generalized flock structure is related mainly to meat
production: females 82.6 per cent (65.7 per cent weaned); males 17.4 per
cent (3.7 per cent weaned); 51.3 per cent of all goats in the traditional
system have milk teeth only. The estimated total number of goats and
sheep (of which probably 75 per cent were goats) in Burundi was 1 313 000
in 1984; total goats in Rwanda were 940 000 in 1983, according to an
administrative census (for tax purposes), but a sample agricultural survey at
the same time estimated 2.2 million goats. Goats are important sacrificial
animals in Rwanda ('guterekera'), killed and eaten following the death of a
family member: they are also used as dowry among the Twa of north-west
Rwanda, 1 male and 1 female goat being offered by the man to his
prospective in-laws.

Figure 47 A Rwanda goat at a picket in the agricultural system near

Kigali
Physical characteristics. Small size 64 cm (60-67). Weight: male 35 kg;
female 27 kg.

81
Horns in both sexes: curving outwards and backwards in males, up to 20
cm in length; female horns lighter and scimitar shaped; polled animals very
rare. Ears short to medium length, pricked forward and upward. Toggles
present in both sexes (- 14 per cent). Most males and some females are
bearded. Some males have a top-knot and a mane along the whole length
of the spine is almost universal in this sex.
Neck fine and medium length. Chest reasonably well rounded, girth
measurement 20-25 per cent greater than withers height. Withers level with
sacrum. Back short and straight. Legs normally proportioned in relation to
body, front cannon bone circumference about 7-8 cm. Udder rounded and
small with short teats.
Colour very variable, whole blacks common but many parti- and multi-
coloured animals. Coat is fine and short but a very few males have long hair
on the hind legs.
Products. Meat.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First kidding: 640 ± 27.8 (s.e.) days (n=205) on station in
Rwanda where does born as twins kidded more than 3 months later than
those born as singles and females out of older dams kidded younger than
those out of junior dams. Kidding interval: 343 ± 13.8 (s.e.) days (n=498) on
station but this largely due to an imposed breeding season. Multiple births:
very common; 61.1 per cent single, 37.1 per cent twin, 1.8 per cent triplet
(n=221) in traditional system in north of Burundi; 54.6, 42.5, 2.8 and 0.2 per
cent single, twin, triplet and quadruplet (n=1340) in large scale traditional
study in 3 countries combined; 41.4 per cent single, 58.6 per cent multiple
(n=256) under station management in south-east Rwanda. Litter size: 1.44
(n=1378 parturitions) in traditional system; 1.75 (n=726) on station, not
differing significantly with season but larger litters at older parities were
noted. Annual reproductive rate: 1.86 on station. Lifetime production: most
females do not exceed 5 parturitions but up to 12 recorded (Figure 48);
average of 2.39 parturitions for 1340 does in large scale traditional system
survey.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.0 kg in north Burundi traditional system; 2.3 kg
(n=156) on station in Rwanda. Height for age: 3 months-8.5, 6-12.1, 12-19.1
kg in traditional system; 30 days-3.9, 90-8.7, 150-11.1, 240-14.4, 365-19.9
kg on station in Rwanda. Average daily gain: birth-3 months - 68, 3-6 - 40,
6-12 - 39 g. Mature weights: 2 years-27.7, 3-31.2, 4-33.5, 5-36.4 kg on
station in Rwanda.

82
 Figure 48 Frequency distribution of reproductive careers of
Rwanda/Burundi goats in traditional systems in highland east-central
Africa.
MILK. Yield: 33-86 kg in 108 days; average production of 380 ml/d for 12
goats on station, best female yielding 780 ml when fed concentrate.
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 52.2 at 18.2 kg live weight. Carcass
composition: fifth quarter 16.6 and wet hide 7.9 per cent of live weight.
In 1983 a total of 37 800 goats was slaughtered at official abattoirs in
Rwanda.
SKINS. Skin exports from Rwanda varied from 203 000 to 435 000 pieces
from 1971 to 1975 inclusive, average dry weight being 470 g.
Research. Institut des sciences agronomiques du Rwanda, BP 138, Butaré,
Rwanda. Projet de développement de l'élevage caprin de Ngozi, BP 45,
Ngozi, Burundi. Faculte des sciences agronomiques, Universite de Burundi,
BP 1550, Bujumbura, Burundi.
References. Hanon, 1976; Bizimungu, 1986; PDEC, 1986; Wilson &
Murayi, 1988a; Wilson, Murayi & Rocha, 1989.

MALAWI

Origins. Part of the Small East African group.

Distribution. Malawi, but more common in the south than in the north.
Estimated population 950 000 in 1988.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid to sub-humid uplands.
Management systems. Agricultural. About 43 per cent of households keep
goats around Lilongwe with an average flock size of 9; 60 per cent of flocks
are less than 10 animals. Tethering during the day to prevent crop damage
is common (93 per cent). Night housing practices vary, some being in the
owner's house, some in purpose built sheds, but whatever system is
adopted goats are tied individually. Flock structure is related to meat
production: females 72.4 per cent (57.1 per cent > 12 months); males 27.6
per cent (7.0 per cent > 12 months).
Physical characteristics. Small size 62 cm. Weight: female 29.1 kg.
Head fine. Profile straight or dished.

83
 Horns in both sexes: light and short. Ears pricked.
Neck fine and fairly long. Chest fairly well developed, girth measurement
greater than withers height by about 20 per cent. Rump higher than withers.
Colour is very variable with black, black and brown, brown and red, and
white the commonest. "Badger" and reverse badger face markings occur.
Hair is short and fine.
Products. Meat.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First kidding: 15.6 months (n=16) in village system; 17.5
months (n=21) on ranch; 451 days (=14.8 months) on development project.
Kidding interval: 44.9 weeks (n=l17) in village; 35.2 weeks (n=80) on ranch;
254 days on development project. Multiple births: common. Litter size: 1.35
(n=422) in village; 1.38 (n=152) on ranch; 1.46 on develoment project.
Kidding percentage (=number of kids born/does exposed): 107 in village;
175 on ranch.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 1.76 kg (Table 31). Height for age: 280 days-12.2 ±
2.4 (s.d.) kg (n=49) on development project. Average daily gain: birth-280
days - 36 ± 8 g on development project. Post-partum weights: 29.5 kg
(n=421) in traditional system; 28.5 kg (n=151) on ranch.
Table 31 Birth weights (kg) of Malawi kids under various management
systems
Type of System
birth and Traditional village Ranch Development project
Sex n x s.d. n x s.d. n x
Single
male 139 2.0 0.5 45 2.0 0.6 143 2.1
female 133 1.8 0.5 49 1.9 0.5 137 1.9
Twin
male 92 1.7 0.5 57 1.6 0.6 51 1.6
female 146 1.6 0.5 55 1.6 0.6 47 1.6
Triplet
male 2 1.2 0.2 3 1.5 0.0 - -
female 4 1.0 0.0 - - - - -
MILK. Yield: 290 g/d over 16 weeks (n=8) fed solely on natural pasture.
Composition: fat 6.7 per cent; solids-not-fat 9.6 per cent; protein 2.2 per
cent; lactose 6.3 per cent.
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 52.3 at 25.7 kg live weight for females, 52.7 at
19.6 kg for males, 53.6 at 21.7 kg for castrates. Carcass proportions:
hindquarter percentage increases with age to 48.4 at 2 years. Carcass
composition: head 7.2 per cent, liver 2.9 per cent, skin 6.9 per cent, lungs
2.0 per cent, heart 1.5 per cent, testes 2.1 per cent; 66.3/15.9/11.3 per cent
lean/bone/fat in 15-24 months males weighing 29.1 kg.
Research. Department of Animal Science, Bunda College of Agriculture,
P.O.Box 219, Lilongwe, Malawi.
References. Owen, 1975; Phoya, 1982; Kamwanja, Ayoade &
Makhambera, 1985; Kasowanjete, Stotz & Zerfas, 1987; Karua, 1989.

84
DWARF GOATS

WEST AFRICAN DWARF

Synonyms. Chèvre de Fouta Djallon; chèvre guinéenne; chèvre naine.

Origins. An achondroplastic dwarf (Figure 50) with lack of ossification at the
cartilage joints. Probably evolved specifically in response to the conditions
of the humid forest zone by selection of recessive genes for dwarfism. More
or less trypanotolerant.
Sub-types and races. Many are recognised, usually by the name of the
country of their location and the type of habitat: Cameroon grassland
(Figure 51); Ghana forest (Figure 51); Cote d'Ivoire dwarf (Figure 51);
Congo Dwarf. Slightly larger goats than the typical West African Dwarf such
as the Mossi of Burkina Faso, goats of southern Mali and the Kirdi of
southern Chad and northern Cameroon are also sometimes included in this
main type.

Figure 50 West African Dwarf goat scavenging in Abomey market in

Benin
Distribution. The true West African Dwarf is considered to be confined to
15 countries in West and Central Africa (Table 32), all of these except the
Central African Republic having an Atlantic coastline. An experimental flock
is maintained at Wageningen University in the Netherlands. There are many
kept as pets and in zoos in the USA where it is known as the African Pygmy
and for which there is a breed society. The total population in West Africa is
probably about 16 million.
Ecological zones. Essentially confined to humid forest zones with more
than 270 growing days per year and rainfall in excess of 1500 mm per year.
Most of this zone is infested with the tsetse fly and trypanosome infections
are prevalent.
Management systems. Agricultural, urban and (to a lesser extent) agro-
pastoral. Owned by many ethnic groups. These goats are often not herded
but left to wander in the vicinity of the household or village. Household
waste is an important but unquantified source of food in many areas. Flock
sizes are usually very small.
NIGERIA. Flock structure, related primarily to meat production, results from
very early offtake of males: females 77.0 per cent (55.5 per cent breeding);

87
 males 23.0 per cent (3.0 per cent > 12 months). In south-west Nigeria
(Ogun and Oyo states) 80 per cent of house-holds own 1.7 to 3.7 goats and
far fewer households own lesser numbers of sheep. In south-east Nigeria
(Bendel, Anambra, Imo and Rivers states) 92 per cent of households own
goats, flock sizes being 7.5 head in those households owning, 6.9 head in
all households. The range in flock size for house-holds owning is 1-183, the
modal number owned being 3. There is a strong correlation between goat
and sheep ownership. Three types of management are evident in south-
east Nigeria: free roaming (59 per cent); confined for part of the year (5 per
cent); confined the whole year (36 per cent); free range flocks are larger
than confined ones. Percentages of households with different flock sizes
are: 0=8; 1-4=54; 5-9=11; 10-19=2; >20=5.

Figure 51 West African Dwarf goats of (top) the Cameroon Grassland

sub-type at Mankon station, Bamenda, of (centre) the Ghana Forest
sub-type in a house compound at Kumasi, and of (bottom) the Cote
d'Ivoire type near Abidjan
Table 32 Distribution and importance of the West African Dwarf goat
WAD goats (per cent of
Country Sheep and Goats ('000) Goats ('000)
all goats)
Guinea Bissau 200 140 80
Guinea 870 425 80
Liberia 440 220 100
Sierra Leone 433 158 100
Cote d'Ivoire 2640 1320 75
Ghana 3900 2150 33

88
Togo 1585 750 47
Benin 1910 940 47
Nigeria 40000 26600 29
Cameroon 4715 2535 50
Congo 211 139 100
Equatorial Guinea 41 7 100
Gabon 116 59 100
Zaire 3664 2900 50
Central African
1075 988 80
Republic
Total 59820 38331 38
SENEGAL. West African Dwarf goats are mostly found in Casamance, in
the southern part of the country. Almost all families own small ruminants,
with more owning goats than sheep. Within families, 60 per cent of adult
women and 40 per cent of adult men own either or both species, women
owning 60 per cent of both species combined but owning 75 per cent of
goats. Individual owners with more than 5 animals are rare, the average
holding for each human adult being 2.5 goats and sheep combined. About
68 per cent of households own less than 10 head, these families owning
only 32 per cent of the total small ruminants. In Fulani villages, increasing
flock sizes are usually a prelude to barter of goats and sheep for cattle.
Integration of goats with agriculture is evident from the seasonal feeding
patterns. Crop residues are the main source of feed in the dry season from
Oct-Mar/Apr, when animals may not be herded but provided with some
supplement in the compound to entice them home at night: during the crop
growing season animals are individually attached to pickets or herded.
Flock structure is related to meat production: females 71.9 per cent (35.2
per cent breeding > 1 year, this low percentage indicating a very high
reproductive rate), about 30 per cent not being born in the flock but bought
in; males 28.1 per cent (1.4 per cent > 1 year showing very early offtake).
TOGO. Total population about 750 000 head. Approximately 45 per cent of
households (- 118 000) own goats. Unlike sheep, goats are evenly
distributed throughout the country except for Central Province where there
are few. Average flock size is 7: more than 90 per cent of flocks are smaller
than 10 head. Most animals are confined or tied individually to stakes and
fed on household waste and crop by-products. Flock structure also related
to meat production but from males at older ages: females 67 per cent (50
per cent breeding > 1 year); males 33 per cent (15 per cent > 1 year).
Physical characteristics. Markedly dwarfed 30-50 cm. Weight: male 20-25
kg; female 18-22 kg.
Strong head, bulging forehead, profile straight or slightly dished, narrow
muzzle, lower jaw slightly longer than upper.
Horns in both sexes: curl outwards and backwards in males and fairly
strong; light, sharp and pointing upwards and backwards in females. Ears
short to medium length, narrow, carried horizontally. Toggles present
occasionally in both sexes. Males normally bearded and with a weak mane;
females occasionally have beards; degree of bearding varies greatly
according to sub-type.

89
Neck strong and fairly long. Chest broad and deep, girth much greater than
height (60-70 cm). Back straight and long. Croup well developed. Legs
extremely short. Udder small but usually well shaped.
Colour very variable according to region, dark brown with black points
possibly commonest but blacks, whites, reds, pied and mixed colours also
occur. Coat usually of stiff short hair, longer hair with a varying degree of
waviness in some sub-types.
Products. Meat (skin is eaten with meat).
Productivity.

Figure 52 Distribution of parturitions in 3 traditionally man-aged

populations of West African Dwarf goats in: a. Nigeria, b. Togo and c.
Senegal

90
REPRODUCTION. First kidding: 12-18 months; 19.8 months at Ibadan
University research farm; 17.0 + 4.56 (s.d.) months (n=206) in ILCA study of
traditional system in south-western Nigeria; 361 ± 93 days (n=166) in
Senegal; 450 ± 83 days (n=47) in Togo. Kidding interval: means of several
studies vary between 228 and 283 days in overall range of 210-290; first
interval 267 ± 49 (s.d.) days and subsequent intervals 219 + 27 at Ibadan;
283 ± 88.4 (n=350) in ILCA study; 206 ± 43.6 (s.d.) days (n=9) at Kumasi in
traditional system; first interval 258 days (n=127) and subsequent intervals
231 days (n=293.) in Senegal; 208 + 38 (s.d.) days (n=201) in Togo where
births occur, as they do almost throughout the type's range, all the year
(Figure 52). Multiple births: very numerous; twins extremely common,
triplets common, occasional quadruplets; 19.1 per cent single, 53.6 twin,
27.4 triplet at Ibadan; 32.7 per cent single, 54.0 twin, 12.8 triplet, 0.6
quadruplet in Togo; 55.1 per cent single, 40.0 per cent twin, 4.9 per cent
triplet overall in Senegal traditional system changing from 80.7 per cent
single and 0.3 per cent triplet at first parturition to 26.2 per cent single and
21.3 per cent triplet at sixth and subsequent parturitions. Litter size: 1.40-
1.85; 1.56 ± 0.60 (s.d.) (n=890) in ILCA study where increased from 1.2 for
dams < 20 months to 1.80 for dams > 40 months; 1.50 ± 0.575 (n=54) at
Kumasi; 1.84 in Togo with primiparous does producing 1.18 kids per
parturition and fourth to eighth parities all producing more than 2.00; 1.48 in
Senegalese traditional system rising from 1.17 at first parity through 1.38,
1.55, 1.74 and 1.86 at second to fifth parities and then 1.95 at sixth and
higher parities and with some evidence of slightly larger litter sizes in Mar-
May related to conception in the post rains period and also in Oct related to
conception in the early rains. Annual reproductive rate: 1.86-2.96; 2.01 in
ILCA study. Oestrus cycle: 21.9 ± 0.58 (s.d.) in range 16-25 days with heat
lasting 16.4-40.0 hours; no observed seasonality. Gestation period: 144.6 ±
0.93 (s.d.) in range 142-149 days; 146 ± 3.3 days (n=124) at Wageningen,
single 147.5, twin 146.4, triplet 149.1 (s.d.) days.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 1.04-1.62 kg; 1.57 ± 0.513 (s.d.) kg (n=657) in
ILCA study; in Ghana male single 1.45, twin 1.22, triplet 1.04 and female
single 1.24, twin 1.25, triplet 1.06; in Togo 1.1 kg, male 1.2 ± 0.2, female 1.1
± 0.2, twin (not distinguished by sex) 1.0 ± 0.2; single born females from
primiparous does 1.5 kg, from multiparous does 2.1, twin born females from
primiparous and multiparous does 1.1 in Senegalese traditional system.
Weight for age: 3 months-4.6 ± 1.28 (s.d.) (n=657), 9-6.0 ± 1.58 (n=127),
12-9.5 ± 3.16 kg (n=127) in ILCA study; females with 1 pair permanent
incisors in Togo-8.5, 2 pairs-11.7, 3 pairs-13.8, full mouth-17.4 kg; heavier
weights at comparable ages recorded in traditional system in southern
Senegal (Table 33). Average daily gain: birth-90 days - 35, 90-150 - 20,
150-365 - 16 g in ILCA study; birth-weaning - males 88.1 females 83.4,
singles 95.0 twins 87.0 triplets 74.0 g at Wageningen under intensive
feeding of 60 g concentrate per day per kg0.75; post-weaning-10 months - 52
g at Wageningen. Post-partum weights: first kidding does (361 days) 15.9
kg (=58 per cent of maximum weight), second kidders (619 days) 19.3 kg,
third kidders (856 days) 21.8 kg, and fourth and subsequent kidders 25.2
kg.
Table 33 Weights (kg) at specific ages of West African Dwarf goats in a
southern Senegal traditional system as affected by different variables
(n=933 animals at 1 month)

91
 Age (months)
Sex and Birth type
1 2 3 5 8 12 18 24
Overall average 3.6 5.5 7.2 9.9 12.9 14.8 17.1 18.8
Female
single primiparous 3.5 5.1 6.5 9.4 13.1 14.0 16.7 17.4
single multiparous 4.0 5.9 7.8 10.2 12.9 14.6 18.6 20.9
twin primiparous 2.8 3.9 5.2 7.6 10.9 13.9 16.5 18.6
twin multiparous 3.4 5.2 6.8 9.4 12.5 15.0 16.6 18.7
triplet multiparous 2.9 4.5 6.1 8.6 12.6 14.1 16.6 18.2
Male
single primiparous 3.8 5.7 7.7 11.0 13.8 17.0 19.3 -
single multiparous 4.7 6.8 8.5 11.2 14.5 14.3 20.0 -
twin primiparous 2.9 4.4 5.6 8.7 15.3 - - -
twin multiparous 3.8 5.8 7.7 10.5 13.2 15.5 18.9 -
triplet multiparous 3.2 5.2 7.0 9.6 13.6 13.2 - -
MILK. Lactation length: 126 days in Nigeria. Yield: 320 ± 20 g/d with peak of
710 g at about 40 days. Composition: DM 19.2 per cent; fat 8.3 per cent;
protein 5.1 per cent; lactose 4.5 per cent; energy 123 Kcal/100 g.
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 63 at live weight of 23.5 kg. Carcass
composition: meat/bone ratio 0.41.
Carcass has more fat than dwarf sheep in the same environment.
Research. Department of Animal Production, University of Ife, IleIfe,
Nigeria. Humid Zones Programme, International Livestock Centre for Africa,
P.M.B. 5320, Ibadan, Nigeria. Laboratoire national de l'élevage et de
recherches vétérinaires, Institut sénégalais des recherches agricoles, BP
2057, Dakar-Hann, Senegal. Institut de recherches zootechniques, BP
1457, Yaoundé, Cameroun. Societé pour le Développement de la
Production Animale, BP 1249, Abidjan 01, Côte d'Ivoire. Department of
Tropical Animal Production, Agricultural University of Wageningen, The
Netherlands.
References. Epstein, 1953; Akinsoyinu, Mba & Olubajo, 1975; Mba, Boyo &
Oyenuga, 1975; Akinsoyinu, Mba & Olubajo, 1977; Matthewman, 1980;
Ademosun & Adebowale, 1981; Oppong & Yebuah, 1981; Mack, 1983;
Togo, 1983; Akusu & Egbunike, 1984; Ngere, Adu & Okubanjo, 1984;
Bourzat, 1985 (includes extensive bibliography); Ademosun, Bosman &
Roessen, 1985; Asare & Wilson, 1986; Amégee, 1988; Francis, 1988;
Hadzi, 1988a; ISRA, 1988.

92
EXOTIC GOATS

ANGORA

Origins. Probably from the Himalaya region. Modern development dates

from the middle of the 16th century in the Angora region of Turkey. Mohair
production was a Turkish monopoly until the early 19th century.
Distribution. Southern Africa including the Republic of South Africa (which
is now the world's main mohair producing area) and Lesotho. Also in Kenya.
World distribution includes Turkey and southern Texas.
The first importation into South Africa was of 12 bucks (rendered sterile by
the Turks) and one female in 1838. The female gave birth to a male kid and
this became the foundation of the South African national flock. Other
Turkish importations were made until 1896. By 1900 the breed was
widespread over much of what is now the Republic of South Africa. Angoras
were already present in 1900 in Lesotho. It is probable that Lesotho
Angoras arrived by two main routes -- thefts from Republic farms by
returning labourers and purchases from these farms by the same labourers.
Labourers probably also received goats in lieu of cash wages and imported
them to Lesotho. In 1908 the Lesotho administration imported 35 bucks and
a further 140 were imported in 1910. No stud is established in Lesotho and
275 bucks were imported from South Africa in 1986. The Angora goat
population was estimated at 1.0 million in Lesotho in 1986 and it is so
important to the economy that it is depicted on a coin (Figure 53).
Commercial keeping of Angoras started on the Laikipia plateau in Kenya in
1920 when a Mrs Carnegie bought two South African bucks from the
Naivasha Experimental Station. These were bred to local white or other
light-coloured goats and the current flock, following continued importation of
South African bucks, is considered among the best in the world outside the
major stud flocks in South Africa. Two other Kenya breeders started flocks
in the Laikipia area later in the 1920s but these flocks were later
amalgamated, the joint flock now numbering about 3000 animals. Total pure
and high-grade Angoras in Kenya is less than 4000.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid in South Africa. Highland sub-humid and
mountainous areas in Lesotho. Upland semi-arid in Kenya.
Management systems. Ranching, pastoral and agro-pastoral. Producer
cooperatives in Lesotho had 1877 members in 1982 and 4234 in 1986. Two
large scale commercial flocks in Kenya.

93
Figure 53 A Lesotho coin attesting to the importance of the Angora
goat to the country
About 23 per cent of Lesotho households own goats, those owning goats
only having a flock of 25.2 animals, those combining goats with sheep
owning a flock of 55.0 animals. Older household heads are more likely to
own, and own larger, flocks than younger ones. Only 12 per cent of flocks
are owned or managed by women whose flocks are small.
Physical characteristics. Small size.
The South African Angora Goat Stud Breeders' Society has standards of
which the following is an abridged version. The flock-book was closed to
non-registered does in 1969, since when new members must buy animals
from registered breeders.
Head bold in males, forehead wide, muzzle strong, mouth small. Hair
should grow on forehead and down sides of face.
Horns present in both sexes: thick in males, set at least 2.5 cm apart at the
base and spreading upwards, backwards and outwards; less heavy in
females but also set apart and sloping backwards and out-wards; colour
should not be wholly black. Ears long and lopped. "Beard" of mohair in
males and females.
Neck long, well covered with hair. Chest deep with well sprung ribs. Back
and underline straight. Croup full, not falling away. Legs straight and well
set, well covered with hair. Tail straight and also covered with hair. Colour
should be white as colour-ed hair reduces commercial value. Traces of
colour persist in grade goats for many generations. Hair not excessively
curly or straight, fine, dense and long (Figure 54).

94
Figure 54 An Angora buck, imported from South Africa, at a Lesotho
government stud
Products. Mohair ("Angora" wool).

Figure 55 Angora goat fertility in different age groups in South Africa

Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First kidding: first bred after eruption of first pair of perm-
anent incisors in Kenya, first birth therefore at about 20 months; earlier in
Lesotho traditional system. Kidding interval: once a year in Kenya (5 months
gestation + 5 months suckling + l?-2 months rest). Multiple births:
uncommon; twinning rate about 5 per cent. Kidding percentage: about 70 in
Kenya, less in primiparous does as they are shy and poor mothers; up to 90
in mature does in South Africa (Figure 55).
Male Angoras show a "rut" in part of the year only when beard and caudal
glands exude a dark, smelly, fluid.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.0-3.5 kg.
HAIR. Yield: 0.82 kg per head in Lesotho (507 t) in 1976, 0.80 kg (788 t) in
1986 (Figure 56); first-clip kids yield about 1.0 kg at 6 months in Kenya and
mature females about 3.0 kg per year in 2 clips; in South Africa total
production of Mohair in 1984 was 8.1 million kg from 1.9 million goats

95
equivalent to an average yield of 4.26 kg. Fibre length: 15 cm at 6 months.
Fibre diameter: 27-32 um.
Kemp should only be present at base of horns: kemp constitutes about 44
per cent of fibres at birth but this is reduced to 7 per cent at 3 months.
Breaking strength of single fibres about 0.42 g/um (wool 0.31) and tensile
strength about 2154 kg/cm2 (wool 1510 kg/cm2). The fleece can be washed
on the goat but this should be at least 14 days before shearing to allow
grease to redevelop. In Kenya kid mohair is baled separately from adult hair
and carried a premium of about US$ 4 per kg in 1984 (US$ 18 compared to
US$ 14). Urine-stained mohair is also baled separately but no other sorting
is done in Kenya. Kenya hair (about 4 tonnes) is exported to Switzerland
and used mainly for fine suitings and knitting yarns but also in space suits
as it is radiation resistant.

Figure 56 Technical and financial productivity of Angora goats in

Lesotho
Research. South African Mohair Growers' Association.
References. van der Westhuysen, Wentzel & Grobler, 1985; Makhooane,
1987; Hunter, 1989; L. Carnegie, pers.comm.

96
 PART THREE
SMALL RUMINANT TYPES/SHEEP

THIN-TAILED SHEEP

SUDAN DESERT

Synonyms. Northern Sudanese; Desert Sudanese; Sudanese Desert;

(Hamdé, Drasciani, Gasc [Italian]).
Origins. Probably descended from ancient Egyptian stock.
Sub-types and races. Many "tribal" types have become recognized in
recent years including Shugor, Dubasi, Watish, Kababish and Baqqara.
Other classifications include Gezira and possibly Barka and Wollega in
Ethiopia. A "fused ecotype" of Sudan Desert x Southern Sudan has been
recognized in a central belt of Sudan.
Distribution. Sudan, north of 10°N, extending eastwards into Eritrea and
westwards into Chad.
Ecological zones. Arid and semi-arid, also riverain.
Management systems. Mainly pastoral but grading into agro-pastoral and
urban and similar to those described for Sudan Desert goat (p.66). Flock
sizes are large. Flock structure is related to meat and/or milk production:
females 77.8 per cent (breeding 55.8 per cent); males 22.2 per cent (4.2 per
cent > 15 months).
Physical characteristics. Usually large size up to 80 cm (or bigger
according to some sources) but varying with tribal type (as do all
characters). Weight: male 60 kg; female 50 kg.
Head strong, forehead broad and flat, profile convex and some-times very
markedly so, especially in Dubasi. Eyes set high on sides of head.
Horns usually absent in sheep from eastern Sudan but males from the west
are usually horned: length up to 60 cm and of classic "ram's horn" spiral
type; about 5 per cent of females in west are also horned. Ears usually
medium-long, 12-18 cm, and pendulous. Toggles in both sexes in about 10
per cent of animals.

97
Neck long but fairly heavy. Chest fairly well developed. Withers prominent
but broad in most types. Back long, with distinct dip. Sacrum usually higher
than withers. Croup fairly well developed. Legs long, sometimes very long,
and lightly fleshed. Tail long, thin but with varying amounts of fat at base or
farther down depending on tribal type: length from 60 per cent of withers
height to greater than withers height when it trails on ground.
Colour variable depending, also, on tribal type. Coat fine to coarse, short to
long.
Shugor. Shugor are moderately large sheep ranging in colour from light to
dark brown (Figure 57). They have occasional patches of wool under the
hair. Their distribution area is mainly along the White Nile and the regions to
the west of it. Flocks of Shugor sheep are commonest in the western part of
the Gezira, grazing on cotton and other agricultural by-products. Their
migratory movements are longer than the Dubasi.

Figure 57:Ram of shugor tribal type in a traditional flock in the Sudan

Gezira (note 'kunan' and charm tied to testicles)
Dubasi. Dubasi are the prototype sheep of the Gezira area, especially the
northern part, and are concentrated in the villages of the Dubaseen tribes
(hence 'Dubasi') in El-Fawar, Umbusha, Selaim and Kab El - Gidad, but
they are also found north of Khartoum, where they are known as the
Butana. These sheep are similar to or greater in size than the Shugor but
their coat, occasionally hairy, is usually particoloured white and black Figure
58. The distribution of the black patches on the skin varies among regions
and breeders.

98
 Figure 58: Dubasi ewes on the Nile bank near Khartoum, Sudan Gezira
(note plastic bag on treat to prevent suckling and compare Figure 32)
Watish. In comparison with the Shugor and the Dubasi, the Watish is
somewhat smaller and stockier Figure 59. It is a hardy sheep and lives
under relatively high rainfall conditions between latitudes 10°N and 11°N
and mainly along the Blue Nile, south of Wad Medani into the Fung area.
The principal tribes owning this sheep are nomadic and semi-nomadic,
including the Kenana, the Rufaa El Hoy and the Beni Meharib.
Haemoglobin Type B in the Sudan Desert sheep should potentially lead to
high productivity, particularly in reproductive performance.

Figure 59: A Watish ram in the southern Gezira, Sudan

Products. Meat; milk; (skins).
Productivity
REPRODUCTION. First lambing: 433 days (Shugor 428 ± 3.0 (s.e.), Dubasi
429 ± 5.6, Watish 406 ± 9.0) on station when allowed to run continuously
with rams, much later (689 ± 42.5 days) when conception weight of 35 kg
imposed; probably about 13-15 months in Southern Darfur traditional
system. Lambing interval: 426 ± 20.0 (s.e.) days (n=452) on station; 275 ±
58.6 (s.d.) days (n=46) in Southern Darfur traditional system. Litter size:
1.22 ± 0.022 (s.e.) (n=1090) on station (Shugor larger than both Dubasi and
Watish Table 34 1.14 in southern Darfur traditional system. Annual
reproductive rate: 1.11 lambs per ewe on station; 1.50 in Southern Darfur.
Oestrus cycle: 21 ± 5 days; 17 days at El Huda; duration of heat 25 hours.

99
 Gestation period: 154 ± 4 (147-166) days; Shugor 151.3 ± 2.25 (s.d.) days
(n-60), Dubasi 152.8 ± 0.36 (s.d.) days (n=96).
GROWTH. Birth weight: males 4.1 ± 0.63 (s.e.) kg (n=182), females 3.9 ±
0.66 (s.e.) kg (n=165), Shugor and Dubasi heavier than Watish. Weight for
age: 30 days-7.4, 90-14, 120-16.7, 150-18.4, 240-25.3, 365- 31.7, 730-35.6,
1095-38.9 kg on station, Watish always lighter than
Table 34 Components of productivity of Sudan Desert sheep at El
Huda, Sudan
Component and Sheep sub-type
n Overall
unit Shugor Dubasi Watish s.e.
Litter size (n) 1090 1.22 1.30a 1.18b 1.17b 0.028
Parturition
452 426 449a 425ab 403b 22.7
interval (d)
Lamb weight at
361 18.4 18.6a 17.3b 17.0b 0.54
150 d (kg)
Mortality at 150
708 43.2 48.5a 46.3a 34.7b 3.60
d (per cent)
Ewe post-partum
432 40.5 42.3a 42.2a 37.0b 0.64
weight (kg)
Along rows, values without a common suffix letter differ (P < 0.05)
Shugor and Dubasi. Average daily gain: 0-30 days - 136, 30-120 - 110, 120-
365 - 61 g on station. Post-partum weights: 40.5 ± 0.51 (s.e.) kg (n=432) on
station, first parity ewes 37.5 kg.
MILK. Lactation length: 188 days on station. Yield: 137 kg. Composition:
total solids 12.4 per cent; fat 4.28 per cent.
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 49.1 and 46.0 at 32.3 kg and 34.9 kg live
weight on low- and high-fibre diets: 52.7 at empty body weight of 30 kg.
Carcass composition: 72.2/28.8 per cent meat/bone at 30 kg empty body
weight in fattened animals; butcher's carcass 15.8 kg, head 1.9, skin 2.7,
pluck 0.9, tail 0.1, omentum, 0.5, feet 1.3, intestines 1.4, stomach 1.5;
muscle/bone/fat present at 54/18/24 per cent in animals fed low fibre and
56/20/22 in high fibre diet animals at 15.9 kg and 16.1 kg carcasses.
Research. Animal Production Research Administration, Ministry of Animal
Resources, P.O.Box 293, Khartoum, Sudan.
References. McLeroy, 1961; Khattab, 1968; Wilson & Clarke, 1975; Wilson,
1976a; El-Amin, 1983; El-Hag, El-Hag & Gaali, 1984; Sulieman & Eissawi,
1984; Sulieman & El-Tahir, 1984; El-Hag, Kurdi & Maghoub, 1985;
Sulieman, Ali & El-Jack, 1985; El-Tayeb, Nour el-Din & Tibin, 1987;
Sulieman & Wilson, 1989; 1990.

100
MACINA

Synonyms. Massina [not recommended].

Origins. Probably descended from the woolled thin-tailed sheep of north
Africa and introduced to the present area of distribution by Moors and
Moroccans during the conquest of Timbuctoo in the 15th and 16th centuries.
Also considered, probably erroneously, to be descended from Karakul or
from various crosses of Merino with Syrian or Barbary sheep in ancient
times. Macina is the Fulani word for the Niger river inundation zone.
Sub-types and races. Goundoun (Doundoun, Koundoum).
Three other types of "wool" sheep are described from West Africa. The
Hadina is a large black sheep, kept by the Toubou in the extreme east of
Niger. The Dané Zaïla is a very small white sheep from the same area, kept
by Arabs. The wool sheep of West Kanem is considered not to exceed 1000
head in total, being found to the north and west of Mao in Chad.
Distribution. Confined essentially to the flood plain of the river Niger in
central Mali (± 50 000 km2) and downstream in a narrow band each side of
the river as far as Niamey Figure 60. Macina in Mali, Goundoun in Niger
particularly around Tillabery. Total population 600 000 plus 30 000
Goundoun.

Figure 60 The distribution area of Macina sheep in Mali and Niger

Ecological zones. Does not thrive outside the humid area associated with
the annual flood of the Niger river in the area of its distribution.
Management systems. Pastoral and agropastoral . Owned primarily by the
Fulani of the Niger flood plain area. Transhumant management involves
short treks outside the inundation zone during the period of maximum flood
(Jul-Oct). A sophisticated system of flock stratification is used involving
milking, breeding, slaughter and wool producing sub- units (Table 10). Flock
sizes are generally large (69 per cent of flocks > 100 head). Flock structure,
related to production of wool, includes a number of mature castrates:
females 74.5 per cent (breeding 54.9 per cent); males 25.5 per cent
(castrates 11.2 per cent).

101
Physical characteristics. Medium size 60-80 cm. Weight: male 40 kg;
female 30 kg.
Forehead broad and straight, profile straight or slightly convex in males, no
interorbital depression, supraorbital processes pronounced, narrow nose,
upper jaw longer than lower Figure 61.

Figure 61 A Macina flock in the Niger river inundation zone in Central

Mali
Horns: well developed with deep grooves in males (65 per cent), classic
spiral "ram's horn" in shape, 0.5 per cent have multiple horns (4.0 per cent
reported to have multiple horns in early 20th century); 8 per cent females
carry weak horns or scurs. Ears medium length (12 cm), wide, pendulous.
Toggles (apparently absent in original stock) in 15 per cent of animals.
Neck short. Chest narrow and shallow. Prominent withers. Back straight.
Croup tucked and thinly fleshed. Legs long and lightly fleshed. Tail thin,
descends to below hocks.
Colour generally white, variously spotted with black and red particularly
around eyes and ears. Coat of coarse wool mixed with hair, to forehead and
knees and hocks but underside bare.
Goundoun is similar in most respects.
Products. Wool; milk; meat.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First lambing: 500 ± 108 (s.d.) days, range 371-766
(n=7). Lambing interval: said to lamb twice a year; observed data 251 ±
73.4 days, range 170-485 (n=84); aseasonal, probably related to conditions
in inundation zone. Multiple births: twin 3.1 per cent, triplet very rare. Litter
size: 1.03. Annual reproductive rate: 1.5.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.7 ± 0.62 kg (n=48). Height for age: 10 days-3.9,
30-5.9, 90-10.3, 150-14.4, 240-19.0, 365-24.4, 550-29.4, 730-32.7 kg.
Mature weights: males attain 60 kg.
MILK. Lactation length:135 days (range 85-165). Yield: 50 kg Figure 62.

102
 Figure 62 Lactation curves of Macina sheep under simulated
traditional management
WOOL. Yield: 2 clips per year total 685 ± 42.8 g (males 836 ± 52.5 g,
females 534 ± 65.0 g); females produce significantly more wool in wet
season (1.92 g/d) than in dry (1.21 g/d); males similar (2.53 g/d, 2.20 g/d).
Fibre length: 4.6 cm (reported to be up to to 30 cm). Fibre diameter: 39 um
with CV 41 per cent in lambs but 55 per cent in adults indicating fine and
coarse components; about 10 crimps per 100 mm. Resistance 14 g. Very
little grease. Used mainly for blankets and coarse cloaks.
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 40. Meat has very little fat.
Research. None current. Formerly crossed (1905-1940) with Merino to
improve wool production (quantity and quality) but products not accepted by
traditional owners due to lack of hardiness and low breaking strain of wool.
Some detailed field studies and rapid surveys.
References. Henry, 1918; Curasson, 1930; Doutressoulle, 1947; Ibrahim,
1975; Dumas, Lefèvre & Deslandes, 1977; Wilson, 1981; 1983a.

103
BLACK MAURE

Synonyms. Arab; Mauritania; Moor; Moorish [none of these are

recommended alternatives]. Mouton maure à poil long.
Origins. Part of the West African Sahel or long-legged group. Possibly
descended from the Rio de Oro sheep of northern Mauritania, which is in
turn descended from the Maghreb type of Morocco.
Sub-types and races. The Zaghawa (or Arid Upland) of north-western
Darfur and of eastern Chad appears to be the same sheep as the Black
Maure.
Distribution. Owned by a number of Moor tribes in southern Mauritania
(Hodh region), in northern Mali in the Nara, Nioro and Niono areas and
eastwards to the western border of the Niger inundation zone, and in
northern Senegal. Zaghawa are distributed in eastern Chad and north-
western Darfur.
Ecological zones. Arid areas with low and highly seasonal rainfall.
Northern Sahel and Saharo-Sahelian zones mainly of annual [Aristida,
Cenchrus) grasses with some perennials and scattered acacia scrub.
Management systems. Principally pastoral. Many owners are "black"
Moors (i.e. low cast former slave or 'haratin' groups) who practice some
opportunistic agriculture. Owners transhume southwards in the dry season
after sedentary farmers' crops are harvested (Dec-Jan) and set up
temporary camps on stubbles: herds and flocks manure these fields in
exchange for access to water from shallow hand-dug wells. The return north
is during the early rains (Jun-Jul). The Zaghawa system is similar. Flock
sizes are medium to large. Flock structure is related to production of hair
and includes mature male castrates: females 77.2 per cent (breeding 66.0
per cent); males 22.9 per cent (castrates 6.2 per cent).
Physical characteristics. Large size 75-90 cm (male 80 cm; female 74
cm). Weight: male 45 kg; female 32 kg.
Strong head with flat forehead, profile convex in males but less so in
females, narrow between eyes, narrow muzzle, well developed tear glands.
Horns: well developed in males, triangular shaped, flat spiral directly
outwards from head Figure 63, up to 30 cm in length, said to have multiple
horns occasionally; females usually hornless. In the Zhagawa the horns
have less pronounced ribs. Ears long (20 cm) in Maure, medium (12 cm) in
Zhagawa, rather broad, pendulous. Toggles in a small percentage of both
sexes, usually long.

104
 Figure 63 A Black Maure ram on stubble grazing in central Mali
Neck long and thin. Chest narrow and shallow. Withers lower than tail head.
Back long and dipped. Croup short. Legs long and lightly fleshed. Tail long
(36 cm) and thin, falling below hocks.
Colour generally black with white tip to tail. In Chad about 68 per cent of
animals black with another 15 per cent being predominantly black. Coat of
long, coarse stiff black hair in loose ripples over a softer undercoat.
Products. Hair; meat; milk; (skins and pelts).
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First lambing: 12-18 months. Lambing interval: 8-10
months, generally aseasonal but some control of breeding practised by use
of 'kunan'. Multiple births: 2-4 per cent. Litter size: 1.03. Annual
reproductive rate: 1.4. Gestation period: 153 days in Sudanese Zaghawa.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 3 kg. Weight for age: 5 months-16.0, 12-24.0, 18-
28.2, 24-31.5, 36-32.4 kg.
MILK. No firm information but based on lamb growth rates the lactation yield
is probably 40 to 45 kg.
HAIR. Yield: multiple clips yield about 200 g per year. Fibre length: 3.3 cm
(reported to be up to 10.0 cm). Fibre diameter: 26.6 um with CV 67.4 per
cent. Very little grease. Used mainly in tent manufacture Figure 64 and for
blankets.

105
Figure 64 Raw and spun hair (top) and hair tent with Black Maure flock
(bottom) on dry season pasture in an agro-pastoral system in central
mail
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 35-40 in West Africa, 39-42 in Chad. Very little
fat.
Research. None current. Used in 1930-1950 in cross-breeding programme
with Karakul to produce Astrakhan-type pelts but acceptable pelts could
only be obtained from animals with 87.5 per cent Karakul blood and practice
was not taken up by traditional owners. Half-bred females from these
experiments produced 1.2 kg coarse wool per year. Incomplete rapid
surveys in Mali.
References. Curasson, 1934; Vallée, 1938; Chatel, 1939; McLeroy, 1961;
Dumas, 1980; Wilson, 1981.

106
TOUABIRE

Synonyms. White Maure; White Arab.

Origins. Part of the West African Sahel or long-legged group. Sub-types
and races. Warale is a Touabire/Peul-Peul crossbred.
Distribution. Owned by the same tribes as the Black Maure, in southern
Mauritania, in northern Mali and in northern Senegal, generally north of
15°N.
Ecological zones. Arid areas with low and seasonal monomodal rainfall.
Management systems. As for Black Maure but also in smallholder
fattening ("Mouton de Case"). Flock sizes medium to large, up to 130 head.
Flock structures are related to meat production: females 74 per cent
(breeding 60 per cent); males 26 per cent (breeding 4 per cent). Daily
herding and management is done by women and children.
Physical characteristics. Large size 65-90 cm (male 75-90 cm; female 65-
80 cm). Weight: 45-50 kg.
Strong head with flat forehead. Profile markedly convex in males and
usually so in females (Figure 65). Lower face thin with narrow muzzle.
Large eye with prominent supraorbital process.

Figure 65 Profile of a female Touabire sheep in a village flock in

northern Senegal
Horns: usually present in males, triangular in cross-section, often only as
scurs, otherwise typically curved backwards and then forwards;
usually absent in females. Ears long to medium, rather broad and
pendulous. Toggles in a small percentage of both sexes, usually long and
thin.
Neck long and thin but with a fold of fat at nape on animals in very good
condition. Chest narrow and shallow. Withers prominent.
Back long and dipped. Croup short and sloping. Legs long, very lightly
fleshed. Tail long, very thin and falling to or below hocks (Figure 66).

107
 Figure 66 A Touabire ram at Dahra station in northern Senegal (note
the wall eye)
Colour usually white but with variable amounts of black spotting. Coat short
and stiff. Males often have longer hair on brisket.
Products. Meat; milk; (skins).
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First lambing: 739 ± 50.5 (s.d.) days (n=85) at Dahra;
capable of lambing much earlier as when put to ram at 5 months first
lambing averaged 374.8 days. Lambing interval: 342 days (n=76) at Dahra.
Multiple births: very few. Litter size: 1.02 at Dahra.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 3.7 kg at Dahra. Weight for age: 30 days-9.8, 60-
15.0, 90-77.2 kg at Dahra. Average daily gain: birth-30 days - 176, 30-60 -
115, 60-90 - 73 g. Mature weights: males 46.4 ± 4.4 (s.d.) kg (n=5); females
34.5 ± 4.4 kg (n=65).
MILK. Lactation length: 5-6 months. Yield: 200-400 g/d. MEAT. Dressing
percentage: 40-45.
Research. Laboratoire national de l'élevage et des recherches vétérinaires,
Dahra, Sénégal.
References. Bradford, 1983; Sow, Thiongane & Tchamitchian, 1987.

108
PEUL-PEUL

Synonyms. Fulani (English); Foulbé.

Origins. Part of the West African Sahel or long-legged group.
Sub-types and races. Waralé is a Touabire/Peul-Peul crossbred.
Distribution. Central Senegal.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid to sub-humid in Sahel and Sudano-Sahel
zones.
Management systems. Pastoral and agro-pastoral.
Physical characteristics. Medium size 65-75 cm. Weight: 30-50 kg.
Horns: present in males, loosely spiralled.
Colour variable but usually white with black or red spots or whole red. Coat
short and stiff.
Products. Meat.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First lambing: > 24 months. Lambing interval: 12 months
in Senegal traditional system; 7.3 months (n=35) on station (40, 36, 16 and
8 per cent with intervals of < 7, 7-8, 8-9 and > 9 months).
GROWTH. Birth weight: male 3.1 kg, female 2.9 kg from dams provided
with some supplementary feed. Average daily gain: 0-40 days - 124.4, 40-
180 - 110.6 g.
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 50
Research. Laboratoire national de l'élevage et des recherches vétérinaires,
Dahra, Sénégal.
References. Tchakerian, 1979; Bradford, 1983.

TORONKE

Origins. Part of the West African Sahel or long-legged group.

Sub-types and races. Several are recognized, usually based on colour and
markings (Futanké, Figure 67), locality (Banamba, Figure 67), or ethnic
group (Fulani). The Peul Voltaïque of Burkina Faso is similar.

Figure 67 Toronke sheep of the Futankeé (left) and Banamba (right)

sub-types at Bamako market in Mali
Distribution. West-central Mali and south into Burkina Faso.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid to arid.
Management systems. Agro-pastoral and pastoral.

109
MALI. Sheep are owned in two major types of sedentary livestock systems
-- rainfed millet and irrigated rice -- and in a number of transhumant
systems. In both the rainfed millet and irrigated rice systems about 56 per
cent of households own sheep (compared to 100 per cent owning goats).
Flock sizes average about 13 head in the rain- fed and about 12 in the
irrigated systems for those families owning sheep, and about 25 head in the
transhumant system. Sheep are outnumbered by goats in the ratio of about
5.4:1.0 in the millet system, by about 1.4:1.0 in the rice system and by about
2.6:1.0 in the transhumant system. Unlike goats, which are often tethered at
night in the sedentary system, sheep are penned communally in a thorn
enclosure. Flock structures are related primarily to meat production: females
76.7 per cent (54.3 per cent breeding), males 23.3 per cent (2.4 per cent >
15 months) in sedentary systems; females 70.3 per cent (53.5 per cent
breeding, males 29.8 per cent (7.5 per cent > 15 months of which 3.2 per
cent castrates) in transhumant systems.
BURKINA FASO. "Sahel" sheep are owned by about 80 per cent of Fulani
agro-pastoral families in Yatenga, with an average flock size of 23 head: 87
per cent of families own goats, average flock size about 54 head. Both
sheep and goats are loosely herded except during the short crop growth
period. Flock structures are related mainly to meat production: females 76.2
per cent (59.6 per cent breeding), males 23.8 per cent (5.7 per cent > 15
months of which 2.0 per cent castrates).
Physical characteristics. Large size 70-80 cm. Weight: male 40 kg; female
30-35 kg.
Head strong and elongated. Convex profile in males, straight in females.
Horns: almost universal in males, slightly flattened in cross- section and
deeply ribbed, spiral in classic "ram's horn" shape and up to 65 cm long;
about 32 per cent of females carry horns, usually light and rudimentary, and
up to 15 cm long. Ears are semi-pendulous and of medium length (11-14
cm). About 25 per cent of males and females have toggles, variable in
position and length.
Neck rather long and thick, clean in that there is neither mane nor longer
hairs on the throat. Withers prominent, average height 74.1 ± 4.1 (s.d.) cm
(n=48) in females. Chest fairly well developed, about 8 per cent greater in
circumference than withers height. Back medium length, slightly dipped and
fairly wide over kidneys. Croup more or less well developed. Legs long but
well boned and fleshed. Tail long, to below hocks, and thin.
Colour very variable: 49 per cent red pied, 28 per cent black pied, 19 per
cent white, 9 per cent red and 3 per cent black (n=367) at Kayes research
station in west Mali. Futanké is usually sparsely spotted black. Banamba is
red. Burkina type is mainly white with various degrees of spotting.
Products. Meat; (milk).
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First lambing: 23.4 months at Kayes; 480 ± 115.3 (s.d.)
days (n=210) in central Mali traditional system over 6 year period 1978-
1983; 13.9 months in 1979-1980 in northern Burkina Faso but much later
(22-24 months) in 1983. Lambing interval: 261 ± 76.3 (s.d.) days (n=984) in
central Mali traditional system, most being in range of 6-8 months, longer in
millet than in rice system, reducing with increasing parity, longer after a twin
birth and longer after a previous birth in post-rains or cold dry (Oct-Feb)
seasons; 290 + 69.9

110
Table 35 Lambing data for 24 flocks of sedentary sheep in central Mali
Physiological age of goat
Parameter Pairs permanent incisors Temporary incisors Overall
4 3 2 1
Number in
37 21 22 42 16 138
sample
Type of birth
single 124 52 43 41 0 267
twin 9 2 2 1 0 14
triplet 1 0 0 0 0 1
Total births 134 54 45 42 7 282
Total lambs
145 56 47 43 7 298
born
Litter size 1.08 1.04 1.04 1.02 1.00 1.06
Births per ewe
mean 3.62 2.57 2.05 1.00 0.43 1.84
mode 3 2+3 1 1 0 1
range 2-8 0-5 1-4 0-3 0-1 0-1
(s.d.) days (n=44) in Burkina Faso in 1983-1985. Multiple births: rare; 94.7
per cent single, 5.0 per cent twin and 0.3 per cent triplet in 282 parturitions
in central Mali according to owner recall in 1978 (Table 35); 95.7, 4.2 and
0.1 per cent respectively for 1650 parturitions in 1978-1983 in central Mali.
Litter size: 1.01 on station at Kayes; 1.06 by owner recall in Mali traditional
system; 1.04 ± 0.21 (s.d.) (n=1650) in Mali long term study, larger for births
in cold and hot dry seasons related to conceptions during and just after
rains; 1.05 ± 0.22 (s.d.) (n=258) in Burkina Faso. Annual reproductive rate:
1.45 in long term Mali study; 1.33 in Burkina faso. Lifetime production: 1.84
parturitions per ewe in central Mali, full mouth ewes averaging 3.62
parturitions (Table 35); 0.13, 0.52, 1.40, 2.20 and 3.43 parturitions per ewe
with temporary, 1, 2, 3, and 4 pairs of permanent incisors in the Gourma in
Mali.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.9 ± 0.88 (s.d.) kg (n=613) in central Mali
traditional system in 1978-1984, heavier in rice (3.0) than in millet (2.6)
system, males (2.9) heavier than females (2.6), singles (3.1) heavier than
twins (2.4), heavier in lambs from older females and heavier in lambs born
in rainy season. Weight for age: 30 days-6.0, 90-11.8, 150-16.1, 240-21.5,
365-27.2, 550-32.0, 730-35.1, 1095-39.2, 1460-37.9 kg in Mali; 30 days-5.9,
90-10.3, 150-14.9, 240-18.6, 365- 24.9 kg in Burkina Faso; 27.4, 28.9, 30.1
and 32.0 kg per females with 1, 2, 3 and 4 pairs of permanent incisors in
Burkina Faso, and 28.1, 29.4, 32.8 and 37.2 kg for males at same stages.
Average daily gain: 0-150 days - 88.7, 0-365 - 66.9, 0-1095 - 33.3 g in Mali;
0-150 days - 83.3, 150-365 - 45.4 g in Burkina Faso. Post-partum weights:
30.0 ± 5.33 (s.d.) kg (n=1536) in central Mali, varying by system, type of
parturition and parity (first parity 27.7 kg, fourth parity and above 33.9 kg).
Weight variations due to season are slightly more marked than for goats in
the same systems Table 27.

111
MEAT. Dressing percentage: castrates 48.6 at 31.8 kg live weight, entire
males 44.5 at 33.4 kg and females 45.5 at 28.6 kg at central Mali abattoir.
Carcass composition: butcher's carcass 45.7 per cent at 31.2 kg in central
Mali, stomachs and intestines 5.1, kidneys 0.5, liver 1.9, lungs and heart
2.9, mesenteric fat 4.1, spleen 0.1, head 6.9, feet 2.8, skin 7.1, udder 0.9,
gut fill 15.4, blood and body fluids 6.2.
Average carcass weights 14.2 kg for all ages and sexes combined in central
Mali, dressing percentage being lower than goats mainly due to greater gut
fill. Sheep contributed 4.4 per cent to total meat available from Niono
slaughterhouse in central Mali in 1979/1980. Most sheep are slaughtered at
home for household consumption, however, many being reared specifically
in a "Mouton de Case" (smallholder fattening) system.

Figure 68: Moutons de Case in the irrigated rice system in central Mali
In the Mouton de Case system, 1 or a small number of sheep are
specifically fattened for slaughter at the main muslim festivals, in a totally
confined system Figure 68. More than 25 per cent of total sheep slaughter
occurs in connection with 'tabaski', the Feast of the Sacrifice. In central Mali
39 per cent of households in the rice and 24 per cent in the millet systems
practised this fattening system. Average numbers fattened were 1.98 in the
rice system (52, 24, 13, 4 and 7 per cent of owners fattening 1, 2, 3, 4 and >
4 animals) and 2.19 in the millet system (41, 39, 8, 0 and 12 per cent
fattening 1, 2, 3, 4, and > 4 animals). About 77, 3 and 20 per cent of sheep
were males, castrates and females with 62 and 28 per cent of males being
< 15 and 15-21 months old. Mouton de Case were significantly heavier at all
ages than their extensively reared contemporaries Table 36. There was a
significant price premium per unit weight for heavier animals. Most animals
were in the weight range of 40-50 kg (32.4 per cent) and of 30-40 kg (31.9
per cent) at slaughter or sale in 1980 and 1983, with 15.3 per cent weighing
more than 50 kg.
Table 36:Comparative weights of Moutons de Case and extensively
reared sheep in central Mali
Weight (kg)
Age Mouton de Extensively
Case reared

112
 < 15months1) 32.4 18.3
15-21 months 38.0 27.3
22-27 months 40.02 31.5
28-33 months 53.5 34.8
>33 months 52.9 44.8
Note: 1) average 8 months
Research. Mainly systems studies carried out by ILCA, EEC and national
organizations, the two first now stopped. Institut national des recherches
zootechniques, hydrobiologiques et forestières, Station de Toronké, Kayes,
Mali.
References. Bourzat, 1980; Peacock, 1983; Wilson, 1983b; Wilson &
Durkin, 1983; Wilson, 1984a; 1984b; Kolff & Wilson, 1985; Wilson, 1986;
Wilson & Light, 1986; Wilson, 1987; Wilson & Sayers, 1987; Wilson, 1988;
Wilson & Durkin, 1988; Bourzat & Wilson, 1989.

113
TOUAREG

Synonyms. Targui (=singular of Touareg).

Origins. Part of the West African Sahel or long-legged group.
Sub-types and races. A smaller "Touareg" sheep is sometimes
distinguised in the Gourma in Mali.
Distribution. North-east Mali from the top of the Niger bend and Timbuctoo,
north to the Adrar n'Iforas at about 19°N and eastwards to Niger from
Niamey and Dosso in the south to the Aïr region in the north.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid and arid to extreme arid.
Management systems. Pastoral, transhumant and nomadic, and to a
lesser extent agropastoral. Flock fairly large, 50 head or greater in Mali, and
100 head in Niger flock structures are related to meat production in Mali and
milk production in Niger: females 73 per cent (48 per cent > 15 months, 62
per cent breeding), males 27 per cent (9 per cent > 15 months, 8 per cent
castrates) in the Gourma in Mali; females 82 per cent (64 per cent
breeding), males 18 per cent (6.1 per cent > 15 months of which 4.0 per
cent castrates) in Niger.

Figure 69: A ram of Touareg type (note 'kunan' to control breeding) in

the Air region in north Niger
Physical characteristics. Large size 75-80 cm. Weight: 40-60 kg. Head
fairly strong. Forehead prominent with strongly convex profile. Muzzle
narrow. Eyes not very prominent.
Horns: usually present in male, strongly ribbed, spiralling backwards;
usually absent in female. Ears medium length, 15 cm. Toggles occur in both
sexes. Some males in some areas may have a mane and a slight throat
ruff.
Neck long with fat fold at nape in males in good condition. Withers
prominent. Chest shallow and narrow, girth circumference barely exceeding
withers height. Back straight and fairly long. Croup sloping but less than in
neighbouring Maure and Toronké types. Legs long with flat thighs and
lightly fleshed. Tail medium length, reaching to hocks. Udders well shaped
with long, well-spaced teats.
Colour white, usually more or less heavily spotted Figure 69. Other colours,
notably red, occur. Coat of short stiff hair.

114
 Products. Meat; milk.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First lambing: apparently delayed, many ewes not
lambing until 2 years Table 37. Lambing interval: about or longer than 365
days. Multiple births: uncommon. Litter size: ?1.03. Annual reproductive
rate: 0.59 in the Mali an Gourma in 1983. Lifetime production: only 4 per
cent of ewes produce more than 4 lambs.
MILK. Yield: 200-400 g/d in dry season; 400-600 g/d in wet season.
Milk is converted to a very hard cheese which is stored as small, flat, round
cakes.
Table 37 Reproductive careers based on owner recall in Touareg
sheep in the Gourma of Mali
Mean
Age class Number of parturitions parturitions
(months) per female
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10-15 91 1 0.10
15-21 86 17 3 0.21
21-27 35 20 23 3 0.92
27-35 4 15 24 13 1.82
>35 3 10 88 68 38 10 8 3 1 2.29
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 46.
Said to fatten easily and to produce nicely marbled meat. A preferred type
for "Mouton de Case" (see Toronké).
References. Wilson & Wagenaar, 1983; Peacock, 1983.

ARA ARA

Origins. Part of the West African Sahel or long-legged group.

Distribution. South-central and central Niger.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid.
Management systems. Agro-pastoral and pastoral.
Physical characteristics. Similar to Uda.
Products. Meat.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. Multiple births: relatively many for arid zone sheep; 84.6
per cent single, 13.0 per cent twin, 2.4 per cent triplet in 1985 and 1986 on
station at Maradi. Litter size: 1.18 (n=208).
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.7 kg; single males 3.0, twin males 2.4, single
females 2.7, twin females 2.3 on Maradi station. Weight for age: single
males 1 month-8.0, 2-10.6 kg; single females 1 month-7.3, 2-13.9 kg.
Research. Centre d'élevage caprin du Maradi, BP 379, Maradi, Niger.
References. CECM, 1985; 1986.

UDA

Synonyms. Oudah; Peul; Bali-bali; Bororo (western Sudan); Fellata.

(western Sudan).

115
Origins. Part of the West African Sahel or long-legged group.
Sub-types and races. There is considerable confusion of terminology in
this type. In Niger the pied (Oudah bicolore) and white (Bouli) varieties are
considered to be colour variants. In Nigeria the white type is called the
Balami and generally accorded full breed status. In Chad and northern
Cameroon the pied type is known as Foulbé and the white type as Waïla.
The Bali-bali is sometimes considered a separate type and not just a
synonym in Niger.
Distribution. Southern Niger, northern Nigeria, central Chad to western
Sudan and Cameroon.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid monomodal rainfall lowlands to arid.
Management systems. Agro-pastoral and pastoral transhumant.
Physical characteristics. Large size up to 85 cm (male 75-85 cm; female
65-75 cm). Weight: male 65 kg; female 45 kg.
Head long and heavy with flat forehead, often with a central depression, and
slightly convex profile.
Horns: almost universally present in males, long and spirally twisted
growing horizontally out from head Figure 70; when present in females short
and fine. Ears pendent, thin; long to very long (22 cm). Both sexes
occasionally have toggles. Males may have a mane. Neck long,
occasionally with dewlap. Withers prominent and higher than sacrum. Chest
shallow and narrow, girth measuring about the same or slightly more than
withers height. Back long and dipped. Croup short and sharply sloping.
Legs long and lightly fleshed. Tail long and thin.

Figure 70 Ram of Uda type at the Niamey research station of the

Institut national de la recherche agronomique nigérienne
Colour black and white pied, black on fore and white on hind quarters with
clean dividing line in classic Uda type: all white in Bali-bali. Forehand is dark
chocolate to reddish in some animals. Coat of short coarse hair.
When crossed with forest type sheep in the south of its range the animal
becomes smaller, has shorter ears and may carry a mane, a throat ruff and
also some hair on the chest and rib cage Figure 71.

116
 Figure 71: A "Sahel crossbred" showing Uda and forest type
characters at Maruma Cameroon
Products. Meat
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION: First oestrus: 351 ± 37.8 (s.d.) days (n=12) on station in
Niger. First lambing: 15-17 months on station in Niger; 448 days (314-662)
(n=28) at Yagoua station in Cameroon, 11 per cent lambing at < 365 days.
Lambing interval: 270 days at Shika in Nigeria.
Multiple births: uncommon, 1 triplet in 404 births over a 7 year period in
Niger; 10 twin and 61 single at Shika in Nigeria. Litter size: always less than
1.1 on station in Niger with pied types having larger (1.10) litters than white
ones (1.04); 1.14 at Shika in Nigeria. Fecundity (=lambs/100 ewes/year):
151 per cent at Yagoua station in north Cameroon.
Oestrus cycle: 16.8 ± 0.06 (s.e.) days (n=109) in Niger but with much longer
intervals in Jan-Apr
leading to a reduced frequency of oestrus Figure 72; heat lasts 33.2 ± 3.1
hours (n=28).
Gestation period: 154.8 ± 1.0 (s.d.) days (n=28) in Niger. Ovulation rate: 1.3
± 0.04 (s.e.) with no seasonal variation in Niger.

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Figure 72: Seasonal variations in expression of oestrus in Uda ewes in
Niger
GROWTH. Birth weight: 3.5 kg on station in Niger; males 3.9, females 3.5
kg at Shika. Weight for age: on station in Niger weights at 30, 90 and 180
days increased from 7.3, 13.6 and 20.4 kg in 1981 to 11.0, 18.9 and 27.0 kg
in 1987, probably as a result of better management; 3 months-males 16.2
and females 15.3, 12-32.6 and 27.1, 18-36.1 and 24.3 kg at Shika. Average
daily gain: birth-18 kg - single males 150 (114-192), twin males 110 (75-
174), single females 140 (79-170), twin females 113 (101-142) g at Katsina
in Nigeria; 0-3 months - 156 singles and 111 twins, 0-6 - 109 and 95, 0-12 -
98 and 91 g in Nigeria.
MILK. Yield: estimated at 60 litres in 150 days on station in Niger.
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 48-50 on station in Niger; 38-41 at Shika at
13-14 months with carcass weight of 11.5 kg.
Research. Ecole supérieure d'agronomie, Université de Niamey, BP 10960,
Niamey, Niger. Federal Livestock Department, Katsina Station, Kano
Region, Nigeria.
References. Ferguson, 1964; Ibrahim, 1975; Gaillard, 1979; Ngere, Adu &
Mani, 1979; Yenikoye et al, 1982; Yenikoye, 1984; Deciry, 1987; Yenikoye,
Mariana & Celeux, 1989.

BALAMI

Synonyms. ?Bornu. Names applied to the Uda are also used for this
sheep, with or without the prefix "white".
Origins. Part of the West African Sahel or long-legged group.
Sub-types and races. The Balami is probably the same sheep as the
"Bouli" or white Uda variety of Niger.
Distribution. Northern Nigeria.
Ecological zones. Semiarid and drier sub-humid.
Management systems. Agro-pastoral.
Physical characteristics. Large size. Weight: heavier than Uda.
Similar to Uda except colour is wholly white Figure 73

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 Figure 73: Balami ram at Katsina station, northern Nigeria
Products. Meat.
Productivity.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 3.5 kg singles, 3.1 kg twins. Average daily gain:
birth-18 kg - males single 142 (101-190) twin 108 (67-167), females single
137 (76-198) twin 103 (69-133) g at Katsina in Nigeria.
Research. Federal Livestock Department, Katsina Station, Nigeria.
References. Ngere Adu & Mani. 1979.

YANKASA

Origins. Part of the West African Sahel or long-legged group although there
has probably been some admixture of blood from sheep from farther south
Distribution. Northern and north-central Nigeria ("Yankasa" = Hausa
"local").
Ecological zones. Semi-arid and sub-humid, extending into the northern
Guinea savanna in the south.
Management systems. Agropastoral and pastoral. In a Fulani agro-
pastoral system near Zaria in northern Nigeria 70.0 per cent of families own
an average of 12.5 sheep in the range 2-50: goats and/or sheep are owned
by 85.3 per cent of families. Unlike goats, sheep are managed with cattle,
go out to graze with them, and at night are tied by an individual neck loop to
a 'dangwali', a long, common rope attached to a picket at each end. Sheep
are outnumbered by goats in the ratio 1.0:1.4 in Zaria. In the Kaduna area in
sub-humid north-central Nigeria, sheep are more important than goats.
Generalized flock structure: females 76.1 per cent (47.1 per cent with 1 or
more pairs permanent incisors); males 23.9 per cent (3.6 per cent with 1 or
more pairs permanent incisors) with a ratio of breeding males to breeding
females of 1.0:12.9.
Physical characteristics. Large size. Weight: male 40 kg.
Horns, when present, are small and variable in shape. Ears relatively short
and semi-pendent. Many males have a mane.
Colour white with black ears and around eyes, muzzle and on top of tail.

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 Products. Meat
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First oestrus: 238 ± 23.4 (s.d.) days (n=10). Weight at
first oestrus: 18.4 + 0.4 kg. First lambing: rather delayed in northern Nigeria
traditional system with only 1.5 per cent of ewes with temporary incisors and
only 57.9 per cent of those with one pair of permanent incisors having
lambed Table 38 . Multiple births:
Table 38: Reproductive data established from owner recall in 106
flocks of sedentary Yankasa sheep in Kaduna state, northern Nigeria
Physiological age of sheep
Parameter Pairs permanent incisors Overall
Temporary incisors
4 3 2 1
Number in
179 173 155 164 412 1083
sample
Type of birth
single 566 362 198 92 6 1224
twin 50 20 10 3 0 83
Total births 616 382 208 95 6 1307
Total young
616 402 218 98 6 1390
born
Litter size 1.08 1.05 1.05 1.03 1.03 1.06
Births per ewe 3.44 2.21 1.34 0.58 0.01 1.21
uncommon to fairly common; 93.6 per cent single, 6.4 per cent twin in
northern Nigeria traditional system; 74.5 per cent single, 25.5 per cent twin
at Shika station, Nigeria. Litter size: 1.06 (n=1307) in northern Nigeria
traditional system, rising from 1.0 for ewes with milk teeth to 1.08 for ewes
having 4 pairs permanent incisors; 1.25 at Shika. Lifetime production: ewes
in a northern Nigeria Fulani traditional system averaged 1.21 parturitions.
Oestrus cycle: 18.1 ± 1.7 days; heat 25 ± 2.2 hours. Ovulation rate: 1.36 ±
0.34 (s.d.) in 454 slaughtered females at Zaria, Nigeria, with 67.8, 28.9, 2.9
and 0.4 per cent single, twin, triple and quadruple ovulations; in comparison
to observed litter sizes probably indicates important embryonic losses.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 3.5 kg males, 4.0 kg females at Shika; 3.5 kg
males, 3.0 kg females in traditional system. Height for age: 3 months-males
14.9 and females 13.9, 12-29.8 and 21.2, 18-46.9 and 30.0 kg at Shika.
Average daily gain: 0-3 months - 148 singles and 116 twins, 0-6 - 99 and
82, 0-12 - 80 and 72 g.
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 42 at 30 kg live weight.
Research. National Animal Production Research Institute, Ahmadu Bello
University, Shika, P.M.B. 1096, Zaria, Nigeria.
References. Ferguson, 1964; Ngere, Adu & Mani, 1979; Kwatu, Umunna &
Chineme, 1983; Oyedipe et al, 1986; Otchere et al, 1987; N. Pathiraja,
pers.comm.

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MOSSI

Origins. Probably from an early cross of Toronké or Burkina Faso Peul

Voltaïque sheep with the Djallonké.
Distribution. The Yatenga area of Burkina Faso in the ancient kingdom of
Mossi between 13°N and 14°N and 1°W and 3°W. The area covers about
12 500 km2, has a population of 600 000 people and possibly 120 000
sheep and 190 000 goats. Cattle are about equivalent in numbers to sheep
and donkeys and pigs are also kept.
Similar sheep are said to occur from Senegal to Benin.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid with a short rainfall period of about 5 months,
most rain (average 550 mm per year in 1973-1984) falling in Jun-Sep.
Management systems. Agro-pastoral. Individual farm sizes are about 9 ha
with about one-third of this area cultivated to each of sorghum and millet.
Except during the crop growing season sheep are not herded and roam
freely over a wide area around the village. At night sheep are housed in
small mud brick structures inside the house compound Figure 74. Small
ruminants, and sheep in particular, are used specifically as a short term
savings medium and flock turnover is very rapid. Sheep are owned by about
90 per cent of households, each with an average flock of 12.4 animals: in
the same system only 43 per cent of families own goats, average holding
size being 8.8head. Flock structure are related to cash saving and income
generating functions with a fairly high proportion of males: females 67.8 per
cent (breeding > 10 months 54.5 per cent); males 32.2 per cent; animals
under 15 months old account for 49.9 per cent of the flock.

Figure 74: Mossi sheep in the village of You, Yatenga, Burkina Faso
being released Flock structures from their night house

Physical characteristics. Small size 50-60 cm. Weight: male 25-30 kg;
female 20-25 kg.

Head strong with convex profile.

Horns: present in males, triangular in shape and sprialling backwords then

forwads; much lighter and shorter when carried by females. Ears short to
medium length and semipendent. Toggles in a small proportion of both

121
 sexes. Males have a mane, a throat ruff and an apron of long hair with the
longer hair often extending backwards along the rib cage.

Neck short but fairly heavy. Withers not prominent, higher than tail head.
Back short with slight dip. Croup sharply sloping. Legs short, poorly
fleshed. Tail thin, descending to hocks or just beyond. Colour usually pied
with black forehand or head and neck and white rear (60 per cent); chocolate
brown and red sometimes replace the black (7 per cent) and black patches
are not unusual elsewhere on the body, especially the lower legs (19 per
cent). Coat short to long of soft hair.

Products. Meat.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First lambing: 446 ± 86 (s.d.) days (n=16) at You and
470 ± 111 days (n=64) at Kiré in 1983-1985; various studies in Yatenga
from 1980-1984 indicate a range of 13.5-15,1months depending on the
year. Lambing interval. 274 ± 76.0 (s.d.) ; days (n=191) at You and 296 ±
82.4 days (n=237) at Kiré.
Multiple births: very uncommon. Litter size: 1.02 ± 0.136 (s.d.) (n=320) at
You, increasing from 1.00 at first to 1.04 at fourth and higher parities; similar
small litter sizes are recorded by other studies.
Table 39: Weights (kg) of Mossi sheep at You, Burkina Faso, as
affected by some indicate a range environmental variables
Age (days)
Variable
10 30 90 150 240 365
Overall average 4.0 6.1 10.6 13.6 17.2 21.2
Season of birth
cold dry 4.6 6.9 11.5 13.3 15.8 21.8
hot dry 3.6 5.6 9.4 13.6 19.1 17.9
rains 3.3 5.5 10.3 14.2 17.1 20.7
post-rains 4.3 6.6 11.4 13.4 16.9 24.4
Year
1983 4.4 6.9 13.1 15.6 17.2 20.2
1984 4.1 6.5 11.2 13.1 17.2 22.2
1985 3.4 5.0 7.6 12.2 - -
Parity
1 3.6 5.4 9.6 12.5 16.3 20.3
2 4.0 6.5 11.0 13.6 18.0 23.3
3 4.1 6.4 11.2 14.3 17.9 20.6
>4 4.1 6.3 10.8 14.1 16.6 20.7
Birth type
single 4.1 5.9 11.4 15.6 18.8 22.8
multiple 3.8 5.4 9.9 11.7 15.6 19.7
Sex
female 3.8 5.9 10.2 12.9 16.1 19.8

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male 4.2 6.4 11.2 14.3 18.3 22.6
Annual reproductive rate: 1.36. Fecundity (=lambs born in year t+l/ewes
present in year t): 0.82 in 1983-1984 and 1.46 in 1981-1982.
Births take place all the year round with a peak in Nov following conception
in early rains and lowest in Jul-Sep related to conception in late dry season
of Feb-Apr.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.5 kg. Weight for age: from a weight of 4.0 kg at
10 days lambs increased to 21.2 kg at 365 days at You; weights were
affected to weaning by season and year of birth, by parity, by birth type and
by sex, and season and sex effects persisted until 365 days Table 39;
weights of females with 1, 2, 3 and 4 pairs of permanent incisors were 22.4,
24.5, 25.3 and 25.6 kg and for males for the first 3 stages were 27.8, 28.2
and 29.0 kg. Average daily gain: birth-150 days(weaning) - 87.3, 150-365 -
28.8, birth-365 - 59.2. Mature weights: full mouth females varied from 29.1
kg in the cold dry season (Jan) to 23.1 kg in the hot dry season (early Jul).
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 40-48 at carcass weight of 10-12 kg.
Research. Field studies and development projects carried out by IEMVT,
GTZ, EEC and ILCA have been discontinued.
References. Bourzat, 1980; Ouedraogo, 1984; Wilson, 1987; Bourzat &
Wilson, 1989.

VOGAN

Origins. Described essentially by a single author and said to be a cross

(?bred inter-se) of Djallonké with Sahel sheep.
Distribution. Confined to southern Togo (and neighbouring Benin) in the
vicinity of Vogan, in the Vo, Aneho and Tabligbo districts. In these 3 districts
in 1976 there were 118 500 sheep, 92 000 goats, 7000 cattle and 356 000
people in an area of 2620 km2.
Ecological zones. Sub-humid to humid coastal area with a long unimodal
(or weakly bimodal) rainfall pattern.
Management systems. Principally urban where, it is said, the Djallonké is
being absorbed by Sahel sheep to produce this cross. Flock sizes average
7 or 8 animals. Animals are grazed under palms or among annual crops
where they go under the guidance of the farmer and where, it is claimed,
the sheep have been trained to graze only on weeds.
Physical characteristics. Fairly large size 69-73 cm. Weight: male 45 kg;
female 40 kg.
Head fairly strong with flat forehead and slightly convex profile.
Horns are triangular in males, almost all of which possess them, loosely
spiralled and 30-40 cm long; only 5.6 per cent of females (n=581) carry
small horns. Ears are medium long (14 cm), broad and pendent. Toggles
are present in 1.9 per cent (n=717) of animals, equally in both sexes.
Neck long. Chest deep but flat. Withers and back rather ridged. Croup
sharply sloping. Legs longish and poorly fleshed. Tail long (30-40 cm), with
no fat and usually terminating about the level of the hocks. Scrotum split for
the bottom third of its length.
Colour usually variable, red and black pied animals being commonest,
whole browns next and whole blacks rare. Hair short.
Products. Meat; (milk).

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 Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. Multiple births: common; 62.7 per cent single, 34.4 per
cent twin, 2.9 per cent triplet (n=308). Litter size: 1.40.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.26 kg (n=51); single males 2.69, twin males 2.32,
single females 2.42, twin females 1.77. weight for age: 40 days-singles 9.6,
twins 7.7 kg; 228 days-entire males 30.3 kg; animals supplemented with
agro-industrial by products and 17.5 per cent crude protein weighed 43.9 kg
at 8.5 months. Mature weights: males 40-55 kg (n=29); females 30-45 kg
(n=120).
MILK. Lactation length: 124 ± 12 days for ewes with singles; 139 ± 15 days
for ewes with twins. Yield: maximum of 1300 g/d for ewes with singles and
1980 g/d for those with twins, increasing with lactation number and being
highest between 19 days and 27 days post-partum, highest yields being
obtained at a later stage of lactation in older ewes; total yield (taken by lamb
and milked-out) 103.5 kg and 158.7 kg for ewes rearing singles and twins
Table 40.
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 43.1 at a live weight of 27.6 kg; 45.0 in
fattened animals at 43.9 kg live weight. Carcass composition: commercial
carcass (=hot carcass weight/starved body weight) 43.1 per cent, true
dressing percentage (=hot carcass weight/empty body weight) 51.6, liver
1.9, heart 0.6, kidneys 0.3, stomachs and intestines 8.3, lungs and trachea
1.3, skin 6.9, head 6.8, feet 2.5, testicles 1.1;
Table 40: Milk yield of Vogan ewes in Togo
Litter size Daily yield (kg) in week of lactation
and
Lactation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
number
Single
1 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99
2 1.00 1.08 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.20 1.14 1.02 0.95
3+4 1.05 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.02 0.93
Twin
1 1.14 1.14 1.50 1.38 1.38 1.38 1.28 1.25 1.18
2 1.42 1.60 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.50 1.28 1.19 1.10
3+4 1.90 1.93 2.02 2.00 1.99 1.98 1.90 1.70 1.48
muscle/bone/fat ratio of 66/7/27; hindquarters and shoulders contain 56 per
cent of total muscle.
Research. Ecole supérieure d'agronomie, Université du Benin, BP 1515,
Lomé, Togo.
References. Amégee, 1983a; 1984a; 1984b; 1984c.

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DJALLONKE

Synonyms. Mouton guinéen; mouton nain d'Afrique occidentale; West

African Dwarf sheep; Forest sheep.
Origins. More or less trypanotolerant depending on zone and level of
challenge.
Sub-types and races. The Kirdi (or Kirdimi or Massa) in northern
Cameroon and south-west Chad Figure 75 is a whole black variant of the
Djallonké. Also known as the Poulfouli in the far north of Cameroon and
many other local and regional names, as for the West African Dwarf goat,
are admitted.

Figure 75: Kirdi sub-type of Djailonké sheep at Garoua station,

northern Cameroon
Distribution. West Africa from southern Senegal to Chad and south to
Cameroon, Gabon and Congo.
Ecological zones. Humid forest zone of West and Central Africa, extending
into derived savanna areas and sub-humid zones.
Management systems. Agricultural, urban and agro-pastoral. Owned by
many ethnic groups.
NIGERIA. In south-east Nigeria far fewer families own sheep than own
goats: 28 per cent of families own 11.4 sheep each (3.2 sheep average over
all households) in the range 1-120, modal flock size being 1. Three
management types are identifiable as for goats (see West African Dwarf
goat, p.108). The percentages of households with different flock sizes are:
0=72; 1-4=14; 5-9=6; 10-19=4; >20=4.
SENEGAL. Djallonké sheep in Senegal are all found in the southern part of
the country, in Casamance. Almost all families own either sheep or goats, or
both species combined, but within families 60 per cent of men and 40 per
cent of women own no sheep or goats: women own 60 per cent of all small
ruminants but only 40 per cent of the sheep. Ownership of more than 5
sheep and goats combined is unusual, the average per adult human being
2.5. Only 32 per cent of households own more than 10 sheep and goats
combined but these account for some 69 per cent of all small ruminants.
Larger flock sizes, particularly in Fulani villages, usually infer accumulation
of live capital for exchange for cattle. Integration of the small ruminant
enterprise with crop production is achieved through grazing of crop residues
in the dry season (Oct-Mar/Apr) and by use of rice strubbles and weedy

125
regrowth in the paddies (sheep only from Jan-May/Jun), animals often being
allowed to roam freely at this period. During the crop growing season sheep
and goats are individually attached to pickets or closely herded. Flock
structure: females 69.0 per cent (38.9 per cent breed-ding > 1 year
indicating a high reproductive rate) about 30 per cent of which are bought
in; males 31.0 per cent (4.7 per cent > 1 year showing early offtake of males
not to be used for breeding).
TOGO. Numbers of sheep in Togo were estimated at about 600 000 in
1982-1983. About 33 per cent of households (~ 87 000) own sheep. The
majority of sheep (34.5 per cent of the national population) are in the
extreme north but many of these are of Sahel type or Sahel crosses. In this
mainly agricultural country many animals are permanently confined and fed
on household wastes and crop residues: individual tethering is also a
common practice. Average flock size for the whole country is 7 but it is
larger (10) in the north; 43 per cent of flocks are less than 5 head and only
10 per cent are larger than 15. Flock structure: females 65 per cent (50 per
cent breeding > 1 year); males 35 per cent.
Physical characteristics. Very small 40-60 cm. Weight: male 25-30 kg;
female 20-25 kg.
Strong and broad head, flat forehead, profile slightly bulging in male, wide
muzzle. Eyes not prominent.
Horns usually present in males, usually absent in females: fairly well
developed in males, wide at the base, curving backwards, outwards and
then forwards, maximum curvature usually one and a half spirals; fine and
short when present in females. Ears short (10 cm), narrow and usually
pendent or semi-pendent. Toggles present only occasionally, about 5 per
cent in Cameroon.
Neck long and rather fine. Chest fairly deep. Chest circumference 20 per
cent greater than withers height. Withers higher than tail-head but less
pronounced than in Sahel-type sheep. Back long in relation to height,
usually dished. Croup poorly developed. Legs short. Tail descending to
hocks, fairly thick at base but very fine at distal end, approximately 25 cm in
length.
Colour usually pied (black forequarters, white hindquarters) or white but
some sub-types -- notably the Kirdi -- have been selected for black. Hair
short and stiff but males usually, although by no means always, have a
heavy mane and apron of long hair with the long hair sometimes extending
backwards along the rib cage Figure 76.
Haemoglobin Type A in this sheep confers some resistance to helminths.

126
 Figure 76: Djallonké sheep of the Ghana Forest sub-type (note mane
and apron of long hair)
Products. Meat.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. Age at first oestrus: 250 days (206-322) on station in
Côte d'lvoire. First lambing: 464 ± 110 (s.d.) days (n=92) in Senegal
traditional system, 572 ± 24.3 (s.e.) days (n=115) on Senegal station; 514
days (n=85) in the range 371-721 days in south Cameroon on a University
farm; 350 days (n=10) in Côte d'lvoire traditional system, 411 days (n=21)
on station but in a more comprehensive sample age at first lambing was
431 days (n=112) in a traditional system, 480 days (n=177) in a modified
traditional system where breeding was controlled and 494 days (n=224) on
a commercial ranch Figure 77; 344 ± 49.3 (s.d.) days (n=36) in range 225-
429 days in Kirdi sub-type at Garoua station in north Cameroon, 61 per cent
at < 365 days. Lambing interval: 267 days (n=101) for first interval and 244
days (n=360) for subsequent ones in Senegalese traditional system; 307
days (n=663) on Senegalese station being shorter at first (305 days) than at
subsequent intervals; 230 ± 53.6 (s.d.) days (n=475) in traditional system,
275 ± 75.6 days (n=1095) in controlled traditional, 267 ± 107.5 days
(n=1164) on commercial ranch and 208.0 ± 7.36 (s.e.) days (n=213) at
National Programme in Côte d'Ivoire; 241 days on Cameroon University
farm; births are almost equally distributed over the year throughout the
type's range. Multiple births: numerous; twins common, triplets more rare
(Table 41). Litter size: 1.17 in Senegal traditional system and 1.12 on
station; 1.17 on Cameroon University farm; 1.15 in various systems in Côte
d'Ivoire but 1.25 at National Programme; 1.24-1.53 in Chad; 1.15 on station
and 1.49 in a traditional system in Togo; in different studies, season and
year of parturition influence litter size but ewe age or parity exerts greatest
effect, older ewes having larger litters (1.08 for first and second parities in
Senegal traditional system rising to 1.29 for fourth and older parities and
1.12 for early parities rising to 1.21 from third parity in Côte d'Ivoire). Annual
reproductive rate: 1.33 on Senegal station; 1.56-1.97 in Côte d'Ivoire.
Fecundity (=number of lambs born in the year/number of ewes joined): 157
to 203 per cent in 1982 to 1986 on Togo station; 168 per cent on Cameroon
University farm; 163-204 per cent in various systems in Côte d'Ivoire.
Fertility (=number of females giving birth/number of females mated): 96 per

127
cent in Cameroon; 90 per cent in Côte d'Ivoire. Annual fertility rate
(=number of females giving birth in a year/average number of females in the
flock in the year): 136-178 per cent over 4 year period in Togo; average of
159 per cent in 2 year period at Côte d'Ivoire National Programme.
Fecundity: (=lambs/100 ewes/year): 221 per cent for Djallonké and 231 per
cent for Kirdi at Yagoua station in north Cameroon. Lifetime production: as
many as 12 parturitions recorded in Senegal traditional system with 24.4 per
cent of 1051 ewes having lambed once, 21.7 per cent twice, 16.7 per cent 3
times, 11.6 per cent 4 times, 9.2 per cent 5 times and 16.5 per cent 6 times
or more; an estimate of 5 lambings per ewe suggested for Senegal station
but an average of 3.7 achieved for ewes alive in 1981 and born between
November 1974 and January 1977; ewes bought as adults in Cameroon
averaged 6.2 lambings at the University farm; "reproductive life" estimated
at 4.2 years on Senegal station (24 per cent annual replacement rate);
culling age estimated at 6.0-6.5 years at Cameroon University. Oestrus
cycle: 17.4 days (16-19) on station in Côte d'Ivoire with heat lasting 36
hours (12-60), there being no effects of season on cycle length. Gestation
period: 148.1-150.2 days on station in Côte d'Ivoire.

Figure 77: Distribution of ages at first lambing of Djallonké ewes under

3 systems of management in Côte d' Ivoire

128
 Table 41 Multiple births by Djallonké ewes in various West African
countries
Country and Percentage of births
n
System Single Twin Triplet
Senegal
1020 82.7 17.1 0.2
traditional
Senegal station 633 87.9 12.1 0.0
Togo
- 53.7 44.0 2.3
traditional
Côte d'Ivoire - 70.0 29.0 1.0
Chad - 37-79 20-53 1-10
Heritability of 0.19 estimated for age at first conception, of 0.46 (dam-
daughter pairs) for lambing interval, and of 0.26 for litter size in Cameroon.
Repeatability (inter- and intra-dam variances) of 0.11 for lambing interval in
Senegal. A non-significant positive correlation (0.17) between litter size and
lambing interval in Cameroon led to the conclusion that selection for larger
litters and shorter intervals would not produce any adverse interactions.
Table 42: Birth weights (kg) of Djallonké sheep from various countries
and as affected by a number of variables
Country and System
Variable Côte d'lvoire Cameroon Senegal Togo
Traditional Ranch Station Station Station
Overall average 1.92 1.56 2.15 1.59 1.69
Season: 1 1.90 1.55 - 1.60 1.71
2 1.94 1.53 - 1.70 1.70
3 1.93 1.60 - 1.48 1.64
Year: 1 1.90 1.38 - 1.48 -
2 2.00 1.58 - 1.71 -
3 1.87 1.60 - 1.54 -
4 - 1.58 - 1.65 -
5 - 1.69 - - -
Ewe age: 1 1.45 - 1.17 1.29
} 1.83
2 1.65 - 1.52 1.94
3 1.64 - } 1.78
} 1.99
4 1.60 - 1.82
} 1.66
5 1.96 1.58 - 1.68
}
Sex: male 1.97 1.61 2.25 1.66 1.75
female 1.88 1.52 2.05 1.52 1.62
Type of single 2.13 1.78 2.40 1.78 1.83
birth: multiple 1.72 1.35 1.90 1.41 1.54

129
Note: Seasons and years in different countries do not correspond and ewe
age in Senegal relates to parity
GROWTH. Birth weight: 1.2-2.5 kg Table 42; at Côte d'Ivoire National
Programme there was a linear relationship between ewe weight and lamb
birth weight (singles y = - 0.431 + 0.086x, twins y = 0.002 + 0.059x). Weight
for age: 1 month-4.7, 3-9.6, 5-12.8, 8-15.8, 12-18.0, 18-19.5, 24-21.2 kg in
Senegal traditional system; 2 months-6.1, 4-8.7, 6-11.3, 8-13.8, 12-17.9 kg
on Senegal station; 1 month-5.1, 2-7.9, 3-10.2, 4-11.7, 5-12.9 kg in Côte
d'Ivoire traditional system; selection criteria by the National Sheep
Programme in Côte d'Ivoire require males to weigh 13 kg at 80 days, 23 kg
at 180 days and 37 kg at 365 days, resulting in very big sheep for this type
Figure 78; 4 months-8.6, 12-16.2, 18-21.2, 30-24.0, 0,54-26.9 kg for Kirdi in
Chad; 1 month-4.0, 4-9.6 kg on station in Togo. Average daily gain: 0-15
days - 50, 15-30 - 87, 30-120 - 77, 120-180 - 39, 180-365 - 25 g in Senegal
traditional system; 0-30 days - 78.3, 30-120 - 57.1 g on station in Togo
where affected by month and type of birth, sex and ewe age in the first
period and month and type of birth only in the second period; 0-60 days -
males 98.3, females 79.1 g at National Programme in Côte d'Ivoire. Post-
partum weights: primiparous females (464 days) were 20.1 kg (72 per cent
of maximum weight), second parity females (731 days) were 22.0 kg, third
parity (992 days) were 23.7 kg, and older females were 25.2 kg in Senegal
traditional system; all ewes 23.8 kg, affected by year and age of the animal
on Senegal station.

Figure 78: Elite Djallonké rams selected on a weight for age basis at
the National Sheep Programme station, Bouaké , Côte d' Ivoire
Repeatability of weights (intra- and inter-ewe variances) of 0.22 + 0.07, 0.18
+ 0.07 and 0.24 ± 0.08 were obtained at birth, 60 and 120 days for lambs on
station in Senegal. Repeatability of ewe post-partum weight in the same
environment was 0.57 ± 0.05 and the phenotypic correlations between ewe
weight and lamb weight at birth, 60 and 120 days were 0.20, 0.38 and 0.39.
MILK. Lactation length: 117 days in Mali; 105 ± 29 days for single bearing
ewes and 112 ± 30 days for twin bearing ewes with "limited supplement" in
Togo. Yield: 87 kg for supplemented ewes in Mali; maximum of 810 g/d and
1200 g/d with lactation yield of 57.4 ± 16.60 kg (n=42) and 86.4 ± 29.21 kg
(n=34) for single and twin bearing ewes in Togo. Composition: DM 16.5 per
cent; fat 6.0 per cent; ash 0.8 per cent; protein 5.4 per cent.

130
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 43.0 at 20.2 kg live weight in Cameroon; 44.1
at 19.5 kg in Côte d'Ivoire; 43.7 at 19.2 kg in Nigeria. Carcass composition:
normal butchers carcass 43.1 per cent at 20.2 kg live weight in Cameroon,
full stomachs and intestines 25.2, liver-kidneys-heart-lungs 4.7, head 8.1,
feet 2.8, wet skin 7.3, testicles 0.9, losses (blood and urine) 7.9;
64.0/21.7/14.3 per cent lean/bone/fat in Nigeria.
Research. Institut sénégalais des recherches agricoles, Laboratoire
national de 1'elevage et de recherches vétérinaires, BP 2057, Dakar-Hann,
Senegal (station research at Kolda and traditional systems research in
Kolda area). Projet Petits Ruminants, BP 65, Atakpamé, Togo. Institut de
recherches zootechniques, BP 1457, Yaoundé, Cameroun. Societé pour le
Développement de la Production Animale, BP 1249, Abidjan 01, Côte
d'Ivoire. Programme national de selection ovine, Centre de recherches
zootechniques, BP 1152, Bouaké, Côte d'Ivoire.
References. CRZ, 1957; Vallerand & Branckaert, 1975; Rombaut & van
Vlaenderen, 1976; Berger & Ginisty, 1980; Dumas, 1980; Evans, Blunt &
Southcott, 1983; Fall et al, 1983a; 1983b; Togo, 1983; Amégee, 1983b;
1984d; Deciry, 1987; Francis, 1988; Hadzi, 1988b; ISRA, 1988; Armbruster,
1989; Hadzi, 1989; Thys, 1989.

131
 FAT-TAILED SHEEP

AFAR

Synonyms. Adal.
Origins. As for the Ethiopian Highland types, the Afar probably originates
from very early importations from Arabia but the tail shape is different and
these sheep carry no wool.
Sub-types and races. There is very little difference in this type from its
northern limit in Eritrea to its southern one in Djibouti.
Distribution. Coastal strip, Danakil Depression, and Rift Valley in Ethiopia
from 12°N to 6°N in the area where the Afar (Danakil) tribe is found.
Northern part of Republic of Djibouti.
Ecological zones. Desert and coastal desert. Some extension has
occurred westwards and upwards (to 1500 m) and into semi-arid zones in
Ethiopia in recent years.
Management systems. Pastoral and, to a limited extent, agro-pastoral. In
the pastoral systems management is identical to that of Afar goats (p.86)
with very similar flock structures, females overwhelmingly predominant and
ratio of breeding males to females of 1:42.
Physical characteristics. Small size. Weight: males 35 kg; females 24 kg.
Head small, profile short and straight in females but slightly convex in
males. The pads of fat on the nose and behind the poll are typical of fat-
tailed sheep.
Hornless in both sexes. Ears short (10 cm) and pricked, but vestigial ears
are common (about 80 per cent of all animals in Tigray). Toggles in 5 per
cent of all animals.
Neck short, often with a pronounced dewlap. Chest shallow and narrow. Tail
head higher than withers. Back short. Legs long in
relation to body size and poorly fleshed. Tail shield-shaped descending to
hocks, with short S-shaped, upturned tip Figure 79.

Figure 79: After sheep in Kala graben on the Tigray Welo border in
nothern Ethiopia.
Colour off-white to sandy. Coat of short stiff hair.
Products. Meat; (milk).

132
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. Lambing interval: about 1 year in Tigray traditional
system. Litter size: 1.03 at Melka Werer; estimated at 1.14 in Tigray
traditional system. Conception rate: 90 per cent at Melka Werer research
station.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.40 ± 0.6 (s.e.) kg (n=219); males 2.54, females
2.26, singles 2.83, twins 2.07, linear increase with increasing age of dam
from < 1 year to 3-4 years at Melka Werer research station. Weight for age:
3 months-11.9 ± 0.07 (s.e.) kg (n=213) with similar environmental influences
as at birth, 6 months-16.8 ± 0.52 (s.e.) kg (n=204) and again with similar
influences at Melka Werer; 3 months-11, 6-19, 12-23, 18-25, 24-26, 30-27,
36-28 kg for females only in Tigray traditional system. Average daily gain:
birth-6 months - 92 g in Tigray traditional system; 3 (weaning)-6 months - 64
g at Melka Werer.
Research. Melka Werer Research Station, Institute of Agricultural
Research, P.O.Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
References. Wilson, 1975; Galal, Sebhatu & Getachew, 1977.

ETHIOPIAN HIGHLAND

Synonyms. Abyssinian.
Origins. These sheep are almost certainly descended from very ancient
importations from Arabia across the narrow Bab-el-Mandeb Straits at the
mouth of the Red Sea.
Sub-types and races. Nomenclature is confused and many types (tribal or
locational) have been named. Menz (from the district of the same name in
northern Shewa region Figure 80, Bonga, Horro, Welo and Arusi are
examples. Early Italian classifications included Akele Guzai, Rashaidi and
Tucur.

Figure 80: Mixed hair and wool fleece on Menz type Ethiopian
Highland sheep in Addis Ababa
Distribution. Highland areas of Ethiopia.

133
Ecological zones. Semi-arid to sub-humid areas in highland Ethiopia with
weakly bimodal or unimodal rainfall regimes, usually above 1500 m.
Management systems. Agro-pastoral to agricultural and urban. Sheep
outnumber goats and are the commonest of all domestic herbivorous
species in the highlands. In 4 peasant associations in Debre Berhan in
northern Shewa, 80 per cent of families own sheep which account for 64.7
per cent of all livestock owned (outnumbering goats by a ratio of 58:1 and
cattle by 3:1). Flock sizes are generally small to medium: 23.7animals
owned by 1.5 people in Debre Berhan with 66.7 per cent of flocks in single
ownership and 21.7, 5.8, 4.2 and 1.6 per cent of flocks owned by 2, 3, 4,
and 5 or more people. Flock structure: gene rally related to meat production
with some influence of minor wool output: females 74.8 per cent (52.0 per
cent breeding); males 25.2 per cent (5.0 per cent > 6 months and 2.8 per
cent castrates).
In Ada district 24 per cent of families own 4.1 sheep (2.2 ewes, 1.3 lambs
and 0.6 rams). Only 12 per cent of families own 3.3 goats. Flock structures
are related mainly to meat production: breeding females > 1 year 52.5 per
cent; adult males 13.9 per cent (13.0 per cent of these being castrates);
lambs < 1 year 33.6 per cent.
Physical characteristics. Small size 60 cm. Weight: male 35 kg; Female
25-28 kg.
Head short and rather coarse with rather large eyes. Profile flat to slightly
convex. Pads of fat behind poll and on face at sides of nostrils.
Horns: usually present in males, variable in length but generally short,
ribbed and spiralled; usually absent in females. Ears short to medium
length, horizontal or slightly pendulous; rudimentary and atrophied ears are
common.
Neck short and thin. Dewlap sometimes present. Brisket rather prominent.
Chest narrow and shallow. Back short but straight. Croup sloping. Legs long
in proportion to body, exceptionally long in some types Figure 81. Tail
variable in length and shape, even within a type Figure 82, but generally
shorter than in many other fat-tailed types.

Figure 81: Ethiopian Highland sheep near Debre Marcos, Gojam region
Colour extremely variable: self or mixed colours predominate depending on
type and region. Coat usually fairly long, up to 8 cm of mixed hair and wool,
shorter and finer in some varieties. Wool cover on head and neck varies
considerably.
Products. Meat; (wool).

134
 Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First lambing: generally rather delayed in relation to
most African sheep; 4.2 per cent and 12.6 per cent of 876 Menz ewes with
temporary incisors and with 1 pair of permanent incisors had lambed in
Debre Berhan area in 1984; 13.7 months in limited sample (and probably
"early lambing individuals") at Ada. Lambing interval: 350 days at Debre
Berhan; 239 days at Ada.

Multiple births: generally uncommon but this trait, as well as others, differs
within sub-types of the Ethiopian Highland sheep and among other
Ethiopian breeds Table 43 ); 144 of 3412 parturitions in Debre Berhan
traditional system; 24 per cent of 432 pregnant ewes in an abattoir study
were carrying twin foetuses, possibly indicating high embryonic mortality
under field conditions. Litter size: 1.04 in Debre Berhan; 1.30 in Ada (n=84
parturitions); 1.35 in small sample of Menz type on Debre Berhan station;
1.35 in Horro type. Annual reproductive rate: 1.03 at Debre Berhan; 1.98 at
Ada. Fertility (=ewes conceived/ewes mated): 87 per cent for Horro type.
Table 43 Production traits of Ethiopian sheep types under station
management
Sheep type
Trait Ethiopian Highland Blackhead
Afar
Menz Horro Ogaden
Ewe performance
litter size (n) 1.09 1.35 1.05 1.04
conception rate
- 91.6 82.0 63.0
(%)
milk yield (1itres) - 17.8 23.6 -
4 year weight (kg) 29.5 38.0 30.6 31.7
Lamb weights (kg)
birth 2.2 2.9 2.5 2.7
4 months 10.9 15.0 13.0 14.2
6 months - 24.7 18.4 17.7
12 months - 33.5 25.8 24.8
GROWTH. Birth weight: 1.9-2.7 kg for Menz type; 2.9 kg for Horro type.
Weight for age: 120 days(weaning)-12.3 to 16.1 kg for Menz; 3 months-

135
13.5, 6-18.5, 9-21.2, 12-23.4, 18-27.7, 24-31.2, 36-34.7, 48-33.3 kg at Ada;
6 months-14.7, 12-33.5 kg for Horro; males with 1 pair permanent incisors-
27.2, 2 pairs-30.4, 3 pairs-33.8 kg; females 1 pair-22.7, 2 pairs-24.7; 3
pairs-25.6; 4 pairs-27.7 kg; mature castrates-39.6 kg. Average daily gain:
birth-3 months - 124, 3-6 - 90, 6-9 - 70, 9-12 -59, 12-18 - 47, 18-24 - 40, 24-
36 - 30, 36-48 - 21 g at Ada.
WOOL. Yield: 400-1000 g per clip, usually 2 clips per year in Menz type in
traditional sector; 600 g in single annual clip at Debre
Berhan station. Fibre length: cm with CV of 57.8 per cent. Fibre diameter:
26.8 um with CV of 64.8 per cent. Manufactured wool has strong admixture
of hair and is spun in natural colours. Used mainly for blankets in local
manufacture but "cottage" and more commercial industries make a wider
range of products Figure 83

Figure 83: "Cottage" and industrial products from naturally coloured

wool of Ethiopian Highland sheep
In 1980, 33 tonnes of wool were exported from Ethiopia but 55 tonnes of
greasy wool and 396 tonnes of wool waste were imported in the same year,
most of which was re-exported as 9650 knotted and HOC woven carpets.
MEAT. Dressing percentage: Horro type lambs 35-38 at 28-30 kg live
weight and 40-43 at 38 kg. Carcass proportions: 45 per cent . hindquarters
in both males and castrates.
SKINS. In 1985 a total of 5 549 640 sheepskins was exported from Ethiopia,
comprising about 1.8 million raw and 3.7 million processed skins: in 1986
the figures were 6 289 023 total skins of which 1.1 million were raw and 5.2
million were processed. Goat and kid skin exports amounted to 4.3 and 4.9
million in the 2 years but the proportions of raw and processed skins were
reversed when compared to sheep.
Research. Institute of Agricultural Research, P.O.Box 2003, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia. International Livestock Centre for Africa, P.O.Box 5689, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia.
References. Agyemang et al, 1985; Kassahun Awgichew & Getaneh Hailu,
1986; Mukasa-Mugerwa, Ephraim Bekele & Tadesse Tessema, 1986;
Mukasa-Mugerwa & Tekelye Bekele, 1988; Demissie Tiyo, Kassahun
Awgichew & Yohannes Gojjam, 1989; Kassahun Awgichew, Demissie Tiyo
& Yohannes Gojjam, 1989; Sisay Lemma et al, 1989.

136
RED MASAI

Synonyms. Masai.
Origins. Part of the East African long-fat-tailed group.
Sub-types and races. Principally owned by the Masai tribe but similar
sheep are owned by many other tribes in Kenya (notably the Nandi, Busia
and Bukusu), northern and central Tanzania (of which Gogo in central
Tanzania is probably the best example) and the drier parts of Uganda
(especially the Karamoja).
Distribution. Northern Tanzania (where there are probably more than
elsewhere) and south-central Kenya.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid bimodal rainfall (600 mm) areas at altitudes
mainly in the range of 500-1500 m.
Management systems. Pastoral and agro-pastoral. Usually kept in
approximately equal numbers with goats in mixed flocks. Some owners
keep only one species and there is some evidence that in recent years
goats have survived drought conditions better than sheep and are beginning
to predominate. Animals are usually herded by day and penned in thorn
enclosures at night, suckling lambs separately from adults. Flock sizes are
very variable but generally large: combined goat and sheep flocks average
about 190 head. Flock structure: females 68.5 per cent; males 31.5 per
cent, castrates are important in the flock as their fat is used to feed post-
parturient women Table 44.
Table 44 Sheep flock structure (per cent of 547 animals) on a Masai
group ranch in south-central Kenya
Age Sex
Pairs Male Overall
permanent Months Female
incisors Entire Castrate
0 <6 7.3 0.4 5.8 13.5
0 6-15 5.7 7.7 19.0 32.4
1 16-21 1.5 2.9 8.0 12.4
2 22-27 0.5 1.3 5.7 7.5
3 28-33 0.4 1.3 6.0 7.7
4 >33 0.7 1.8 23.9 26.5
Overall 16.1 15.4 68.5 100.0
Physical characteristics. Relatively large size 70 cm (male and castrate 72
cm; female 66 cm). Weight: male 41 kg; castrate 45 kg; female 32 kg.
Forehead broad and short, profile convex in males and straight in females.
Pads of fat occur on the front of the face and behind the poll in males but
are less common than in other fat-tailed types.
Horns often present in both sexes: 33 per cent in males and castrates
combined but 59 per cent in entires and 22 per cent in castrates (?entire
males selected with horns), up to 27 cm long, carried in a tight backward
spiral; 10 per cent of females have horns. Ears medium length, 11-15 cm,
semi-pendulous but short vestigial ears occur in 7 per cent of sheep and
complete absence of external ears is occasionally seen. Toggles occur in
about 15 per cent of both sexes, variable in position and size.

137
Neck short, often with a pronounced dewlap. Chest narrow and shallow.
Brisket relatively well developed with dewlap carrying some fat. Withers not
prominent (66 ± 3.4 (s.d.) cm (n=131) in females, 72 ± 4.6 cm (n=4) in
males, 72 ± 4.6 cm (n=10) in mature castrates. Back short. Croup sloping.
Legs short. Tail variable in length and shape but generally very fat in sheep
in good condition.
Colour preferably red but extremely variable. Coat relatively long, up to 4
cm smooth coarse hair but legs and face carry only fine hair: a short
undercoat of woolly fibres is present in this animal.
Haemoglobin polymorphism indicates some possible resistance to helminth
infestations in this type.
Products. Meat; fat.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First lambing: 549 ± 112.1 (s.d.) days (n=37) on group
ranch in south-central Kenya, considered to be very late in a traditional
system and due to use of an apron to control breeding by male Figure 84
Lambing interval: 312 days (n=280) at Elangata Wuas group ranch in 1978-
1981 but much longer in 1982 and 1983 on group anches near Sultan
Hamed; longer than usual intervals for traditional system due at least in part
to control of mating by males. Multiple births: uncommon, about 5 per cent
in traditional system; relatively uncommon (14 per cent) at 01 Magogo
station in Kenya. Litter size: 1.05 (n=1009) at Elangata Wuas group ranch,
increasing from 1.00 at first to 1.08 at fourth parity, declining thereafter.
Annual reproductive rate: 1.22.

Figure 84: Masai sheep at Elangata Wuas group ranch in south-central

Kenya (note leather apron on male)
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.7 kg (n=271) at 01 Magogo. Height for age: 10
days-3.9, 30-6.1, 90-10.5, 150-13.7, 240-17.7, 365-22.6, 550-26.5 kg.
Average daily gain: birth-150 days - 73, birth-365 - 54 g in Elangata Wuas
traditional system; birth-117 days - 128 g at 01 Magogo. Post-partum
weights: 30.6 kg; 27.8 kg at first and 32.6 kg at fourth and subsequent
parities; also influenced by parturition type (single 28.5 kg, twin 32.6 kg),
season of parturition and flock. Mature weights: females 32.5 ± 4.55 (s.d.)
kg (n=131) in range 21-47 kg; males 40.6 ± 7.53 kg (n=4) in range 33-49 kg;
castrates 44.9 ± 5.38 kg (n=10) in range 38-53 kg.

138
SKINS. 1.25 to 1.65 million sheepskins per year entered the Kenya
commercial marketing system in 1978-1984, compared to 1.59 to 2.61
million goatskins.
Research. Formerly at 01 Magogo by FAO Goat and Sheep Project and
field studies by ILCA now discontinued.
References. Chemitei et al, 1975; Wilson, 1978; Preston & Allonby, 1979;
Wilson, Peacock & Sayers, 1983; 1984; 1985; Wilson & Ole Maki, 1989.

EAST AFRICAN BLACKHEADED

Origins. Part of the East African long-fat-tailed group.

Sub-types and races. Several different tribal varieties might be recognized.
Distribution. Southern Uganda and western Tanzania, particularly around
Mbarara in Uganda, and west of Lake Victoria and south and east into
Sukumaland in Tanzania.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid and sub-humid, mainly bimodal rainfall areas
at low to medium altitudes.
Management systems. Agro-pastoral. Possibly as many as 500 000 sheep
of this type would have been found in Tanzania during the 1950s.
Physical characteristics. Small size. Weight: female 25 kg.
Head generally finer than other fat-tailed types but fat pads present on nose
and behind head.
Horns usually absent in both sexes: when present they are short or occur
just as scurs. Ears short (5-8 cm) but pendulous, or vestigial.
Neck rather long. Chest somewhat pinched. Withers level with or lower than
sacrum and may carry some fat. Back short and straight or dipped. Brisket
well developed but dewlap usually not very prominent except in really fat
animals. Legs long and poorly fleshed. Tail variable in shape, length and
amount of fat deposit.
Colour similar to Blackhead Persian with black head and fore part of neck,
remainder of body white or white with black spots or splotches. Selected for
this pattern at Mbarara in Uganda during 1950s. Other colours do occur.
Coat short and coarse without wool undercover.
Products. Meat.
Productivity
REPRODUCTION. First lambing: 532 ± 8.1 (s.e.) days (n=196) at Mbarara
where ewes first put to ram at about 1 year. Lambing interval: 255 + 2.3
(s.e.) days (n=666), decreasing generally from 263 days at first interval to
232 days at ninth interval. Multiple births: fairly common at Mbarara, 82 per
cent single, 18 per cent twin; apparently uncommon in traditional systems.
Lifetime production: 7 lamb crops in 5-6 years at Mbarara.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.5 ± 0.02 (s.e.) kg (n=1531) at Mbarara; females
lighter than males, lambs from first parity ewes lighter than all other parities,
and twins lighter than singles. Weight for age: 2 months-10.1 ± 0.07 (s.e.)
(n=1273), 5(weaning)-15.5 + 0.10 kg (n=1168) for male single lambs from
multiparous ewes Table 45; 12 months-male single 24, female single 21,
male twin 23, female twin 20 kg. Average daily gain: birth-2 months - singles
123 twins 95, 2-5(weaning) months - singles 59 twins 55, birth-5 months -
singles 82 twins 73 g.

139
 Table 45 Weights (kg) of East African Blackhead lambs at Mbarara,
Uganda
Age
Variable
Birth 2 months 5 months
Multiparous ewe
male single 2.55 10.09 15.5
female single 2.37 9.45 14.2
male twin 2.05 7.64 12.2
female twin 1.96 7.27 12.0
Primiparous ewe
male single 2.28 9.04 13.7
female single 2.14 8.99 13.6
Research. Formerly at Department of Veterinary Services and Animal
Husbandry, Mbarara, Uganda.
References. Sacker & Trail, 1966.

140
RWANDA AND BURUNDI

Origins. Part of the East African long-fat-tailed group.

Sub-types and races. Sheep in Kivu in Zaire are similar to the Rwanda and
Burundi types which appear to be undistinguishable from each other. The
Tanzania Long-tailed is similar to this type, the Gogo sometimes being
placed here rather than with the Red Masai.
Distribution. Rwanda, Burundi, Kivu province of Zaire, south-west Uganda
and extreme north-west of Tanzania.
Ecological zones. As for the goat in the same area. Sub-humid bimodal
rainfall zone of highland east-central Africa from 1200 m to 2500 m altitude
in rainfall of 800 mm to 1500 mm per year.
Management systems. Agro-pastoral and agricultural. Table 5 provides
some general data on the importance of sheep in 3 different localities within
the general distributional area of this sheep. Sheep are much less common
than goats and there are still some taboos against eating and keeping them.
Only 32.6 per cent of families own sheep with an an average flock size of
2.1, larger flocks in Burundi (2.5) than than in Rwanda (2.2) and Zaire (1.8).
In Burundi, 50 per cent to 90 per cent of all sheep are acquired by
purchase. Generalized flock structure: females 76.8 per cent (62.6 per cent
post-weaning); males 23.2 per cent (6.8 per cent post-weaning). Almost 45
per cent of sheep had only temporary incisors in traditional systems. Small
ruminant population in Burundi was about 1.3 million in 1984 of which 25
per cent were sheep: an administrative census for tax purposes in Rwanda
estimated 350 000 sheep in 1983 but an agricultural survey estimated 693
000 in 1984.

Figure 85: Ram of the African long-fat-tailed type at Songa station,

Rwanda
Physical characteristics. Relatively small size 55-65 cm. Weight: 35-40
kg; male up to 45 kg; female 35 kg.
Forehead broad and short, profile convex. Males have typical fat pads on
nose and behind poll common to all African fat-tailed types.
Both sexes usually hornless. Ears medium, pendulous towards the front;
occasional vestigial ears.

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Neck short and strong. Chest well rounded, averaging about 72 cm in
circumference. Withers higher than sacrum. Back short, slightly dipped.
Croup grades into fat tail. Brisket well developed. Legs poorly fleshed. Tail
long and tapering Figure 85.
Colour generally black and white pied but red admixtures not uncommon.
Hair longer or shorter, stiff, fine or slightly wavy. Males may have a mane
and cape over withers and shoulders and an apron of long hair from throat,
down the chest to the brisket.

Figure 86: Age at first lambing (top) and parturition intervals (bottom)
of Rwanda sheep on station
Products. Meat; (manure).
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First lambing: 714 ± 18.4 (s.e.) days (n=343) on station
in Rwanda Figure 86 but not related to puberty as a breeding season and
restrictions on age and weight at first service were imposed by
management; affected by year, season and type (single or twin) of birth of
ewe's own birth. Lambing interval: 406 ± 7.5 (s.e.) days (n=863) on two
stations in Rwanda, varying with station of rearing, year and season of

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previous parturition and increasing with parity. Multiple births: relatively
uncommon in traditional system; single 85.5 per cent, twin 14.5 per cent
(n=643). Litter size: 1.14 for 673 parturitions in traditional system Table 46 );
1.43 on station in Rwanda, not affected by any environmental variables;
1.33 on station in Burundi increasing from 1.17 at first parity to 1.40 for all
multiparous ewes. Lifetime production: relatively few ewes produced more
than 4 parturitions in traditional system with an average of 2.29 parturitions
for 643 ewes; on station few ewes exceed 5 parturitions (maximum 9) with
an average of 3.44 for just over 600 ewes. Gestation period: 154 ±3.4 days
(n=81) in range of 147 to 166 days.
Repeatability of litter size (calculated from within and between variances of
ewes) 0.19 ± 0.035. Heritability (paternal half-siblings) 0.18 ± 0.086.
Table 46: Reproductive data established from owner recall in
traditional flocks of long-fat-tailed sheep in Rwanda, Burundi and Zaire
Physiological age of sheep

Parameter Pairs permanent incisors Temporary Overall

incisors
4 3 2 1
Number in
413 151 150 133 405 1252
sample
Type of birth
single 317 117 105 36 3 578
twin 72 12 9 2 0 95
Total births 389 129 114 38 3 673
Total young
461 141 123 40 3 768
born
Litter size 1.19 1.09 1.08 1.05 1.00 1.14
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.6 ± 0.02 (s.e.) kg (n=1093) on station in Rwanda;
2.5 ± 0.56 (s.d.) kg (n=515) on station in Burundi, affected by sex, birth type
and parity Table 47. Weight for age: 30 days-6.3, 90-11.9, 150- 17.0, 240-
4.7, 365-31.0 kg on station in Rwanda, weights differ up to 365 days with
station of rearing, type of birth (singles + 3 kg at 1 year) and sex (males +
6.7 kg at 1 year) but not by parity; males weighed 12.3, 15.9, 19.3, 21.0 and
24.5 kg at 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15 months on station in Burundi with females
weighing 11.3, 15.0, 18.1, 21.0 and 24.1 kg at the same ages and 27.6,
27.9 and 29.0 kg at 18, 21 and 24 months. Mature weights: males 10 kg
heavier than females at 3+ years.
Table 47: Birth weights (kg) of Burundi long-fat-tailed sheep
Single Twin
Parity
Male Female Male Female
1 2.66 2.50 2.11 1.91
2 2.90 2.80 2.20 2.17
>3 3.09 3.03 2.34 2.30
MILK. Lactation length: maximum 12 weeks. Yield: maximum 700 g/d, total
about 45 kg in 12 weeks.
MEAT. A total of 12 600 sheep was slaughted in abattoirs in Rwanda in
1983.

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Research. Institut des sciences agronomiques du Rwanda, BP 138, Butaré,
Rwanda. Faculté des sciences agronomiques, Université du Burundi, BP
2940, Bujumbura, Burundi. Institut de recherche agronomique et
zootechnique de la Communauté économique des pays des grands lacs,
BP 91, Gitega, Burundi.
References. Ngendahayo, 1980; 1982; Bizimungu, 1986; Branckaert &
Habonimana, 1987; Wilson & Murayi, 1988b.

TSWANA

Origins. Part of the African long-fat-tailed group.

Distribution. Botswana, mainly along the eastern and southern boundaries.
Also in Zimbabwe and Bophuthatswana close to their common borders with
Botswana. Total Botswana sheep population was estimated at 165 000 in
1983 of which about 25 per cent were Karakul and Karakul crosses in the
extreme south-west, the remainder being the native hair type. Numbers
increased to 200 000 by 1985. Total numbers were estimated in excess of
400 000 in the late 1960s.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid to arid with a single, short, unreliable rainy
season in summer and up to 50 nights per year with temperatures below
00C. Ranges into the annual/perennial short grass and herb areas of the
Kgalagadi (Kalahari) desert where Cucurbitaceae are important dry season
sources of food and water.
Management systems. Pastoral, agro-pastoral and ranching. About 16 per
cent of sheep are kept in commercial systems. There were 70 cooperative
groups comprising 1648 small farmers with 42 693 sheep and goats in
1985. Extension services provided to these groups include dipping,
vaccination, castration and some other veterinary services. Flock sizes
average 14.0 in the traditional sector and 113.8 in the commercial sector.
Only 12 300 traditional households own sheep (compared to 53 000 owning
goats). Flock structures are related to meat production with relatively early
offtake of males: females 69.9 per cent (55.1 per cent breeding > 1 year);
males 30.1 per cent (16.9 per cent > 1 year).
The ram subsidy scheme provided 2 rams to producers during 1985.
Physical characteristics. Medium size 60-70 cm (male castrate 3 pairs
permanent incisors 64 cm; female 61 cm). Weight: male castrate 3 pairs
permanent incisors 35.7 ± 2.77 kg; female 31.7 ± 5.98 kg. This sheep is
larger than the Sabi and has a fatter tail, otherwise the two types are similar.
Legs rather long. Tail fat but variable in shape and length.
Colour usually white but pied sheep common. Coat of rather coarse hair.
Products. Meat.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. Lambing interval: usually once a year. Multiple births:
very rare; only 10 of 578 parturitions produced twins over an 8 year period
(1976-1983) on research station in Botswana. Litter size: 1.02 (n=578) on
research station. Lambing percentage (=lambs born/ewes exposed): 86 in
1976-1983 on research station for 686 ewes.
Ministry of Agriculture estimated 50.9-68.1 "lambing percentage" nationwide
in 1980-1985.

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 GROWTH. Birth weight: 3.2 kg (n=588) on research station. Weight for age:
4 months(weaning)-17.1, 12-26.7, 18-34.1 kg.
percentage: 44 for live weight of 26.8 kg (milk teeth), 46 at 29.3 kg (1 pair
permanent incisors), 49 at 31.3 kg (2 pairs), 47 at 35.7 kg (3 pairs) for male
castrates Table 48;
45 at 31.7 kg for mature (4 pairs) females. Carcass proportions: 47.6 per
cent hindquarters in male castrates with 3 pairs permanent incisors; 49.9
per cent in mature females. Carcass composition: 52.2/19.2/23.6 per cent
lean/bone/fat in temporary incisor castrates and 52.4/19.5/21.8 in full mouth
females.
Table 48: Carcass composition of castrate and female MEAT. Dressing
Tswana sheep
Body Castrate Female
component and Pairs permanent incisors Temporary
Value Full mouth
3 2 1 incisors
Carcass weight
15.9 13.4 12.4 11.1 14.7
(kg)
Hindquarter
47.6 48.3 47.9 47.9 47.3
(%)
Neck (%) 9.5 9.0 9.2 9.0 9.0
Shoulder (%) 15.7 16.3 16.0 16.3 15.9
Thorax (%) 20.4 19.4 19.4 19.8 20.8
Loin (%) 26.3 25.6 25.3 25.1 23.1
Leg (%) 21.1 22.6 22.7 22.8 20.1
Kidney (%) 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7
Loss (%) 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.3 0.0
The Botswana Meat Commission slaughtered 10 032 sheep in 1985 paying
Pula 455 984 to farmers.
SKINS. Revenue to BMC for skins in 1985 was Pula 70 360, about 25 per
cent of the value of meat revenue.
Research. Animal Production Research Unit, Private Bag, Gaborone,
Botswana.
References. Owen et al, 1977; 1978; Owen & Norman, 1977; APRU 1986.

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 SWAZI

Origins. Along with Zulu forms part of the Nguni group.

Sub-types and races. Part of the Nguni group which also includes the
Landim and other varieties in the Republic of South Africa.
Distribution. Swaziland.
Ecological zones. Sub-tropical sub-humid areas at low altitudes.
Management systems. Principally agro-pastoral. Kept in common flocks
with goats (p.55) but outnumbered by them at a ratio of about 1:5.
Physical characteristics. Small size. Weight: 25-35 kg.
Horns usually present in males but absent in females. Ears short.
Legs long in relation to overall size. Tail long and carrot shaped, rather flat
with less fat than other sheep of the region.
Colour usually black, brown or reddish in whole colours but broken colours
not uncommon. Coat hairy, longer along back and on rib cage.

LANDIM

Synonyms. Nguni ("Landim" = Portuguese "Landrace").

Origins. Part of the Nguni group, including Swazi, Zulu and Bapedi.
Distribution. Mozambique, mainly south of the Limpopo.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid to sub-humid sub-tropical rainfall areas.
Management systems. Agro-pastoral with subsistence crops as the
dominant farm enterprise. Mozambique has less than 150 000 sheep.
Physical characteristics. Relatively small size 65 cm (Table 49). Weight:
male 55 kg; female 35 kg.
Table 49: Body measurements and body mass of female Landim sheep
Age Weight
Shoulder height
Pairs Chest girth (cm)
n (cm)
permanent Months (kg)
incisors x s.d. x s.d. x s.d.
0 <15.5 10 50.0 4.0 60.8 4.6 18.0 3.5
1 15.5-22.3 14 57.7 3.4 72.3 5.0 28.6 3.1
2 22.3-28.3 25 57.5 3.4 76.2 4.2 31.6 3.3
3 28.3-38.8 31 60.1 3.3 77.9 6.1 33.5 4.5
4 38.8-48.8 66 60.1 3.3 79.9 4.1 35.6 3.5
Aged >48.8 9 61.0 2.7 80.7 4.9 35.4 3.4
Forehead broad and short, profile convex. Males have fat pads on face and
poll, as do females to a lesser extent.
Horns absent in both sexes. Ears pendulous but rather short, 12.9 cm:
atrophied or vestigial ears are present in 12 per cent of sheep. Toggles
absent in both sexes.
Neck relatively long and fine. Girth exceeds withers height at all ages.
Brisket not well developed. Withers well covered and level with tail head.
Back longish and usually straight. Croup merges into fat tail. Legs poorly
fleshed. Tail similar in both sexes, tapering to a point at about one-third of
distance between hocks and ground, averaging 35.6 cm in length Figure 87.

146
 Figure 87: Landim sheep at Chobela research station, Mozambique
Colour variable. Coat of coarse hair, usually short but up to 4 cm long in
some cases.
Products. Meat.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First lambing: 768 ± 289.7 (s.d.) days (n=161). Lambing
interval: 412 ± 163.1 (s.d.) days (n=464). Multiple births: common. Litter
size: 1.41 ±0.049 (s.d.) (n=753). Annual reproductive rate: 1.40. Age at first
lambing and lambing intervals controlled by station management. Landim
sheep are capable of lambing all the year round Figure 88;

Figure 88: Distribution of lambings by Landim sheep at Chobela

showing effects of management policies
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.37 ± 0.441 (s.d.) kg (n=987); males 2.43 kg,
females 2.32 kg, singles 2.52 kg, twins 2.24 kg. weight for age: 90 days-9.9,
180-15.6 kg. Average daily gain: birth-90 days - 83 g.
Research. Institute of Animal Production, CP 1410, Maputo, Mozambique.
References. Wilson, Murayi & Rocha, 1989; Rocha, McKinnon & Wilson,
1990a; 1990b.

SABI

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Synonyms. Rhodesia.
Origins. Part of the African long-fat-tailed group.
Sub-types and races. Many local varieties.
Distribution. Zimbabwe.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid.
Management systems. Agro-pastoral. In low-potential tsetse infested
areas in north-west Zimbabwe sheep are outnumbered by goats in the ratio
of 12.9:1.0 and flock sizes vary from 12.7 to 5.7 for families owning in 3
Communal Areas. Most flocks are very small with less than 5 breeding
ewes. Ratio of rams to ewes is about 1:5 but most flocks do not own a ram.
Physical characteristics. Large size. Weight: females 40-50 kg.
Head strong with prominent forehead and convex profile in males. Well
developed pads of fat behind nostrils and behind poll in males, less well
developed on dewlap Figure 89.
Horns: present or absent in males, if present they usually have only one
twist; females usually polled but if horns are present they are usually
straight and flat. Ears short and carried horizontally or slightly drooping;
vestigial ears occur Figure 90.
Neck short and strong. Well-developed and prominent brisket.
Chest rather pinched. Withers about level with tail head. Back short and
straight. Croup short and sloping. Legs long and very lightly fleshed. Tail
long and tapering, generally almost reaching fetlocks but very variable in
length and shape.
Colour generally fawn, brown or red but blacks also common, as are mixed
colours. Coat of short, stiff hair.

Figure 89: Sabi sheep with docked tail at Matopos research station,
Zimbabwe

148
Figure 90: Vestigial ears on a Sabi ewe (note normal ears on her lamb)
Products. Meat.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. Multiple births:fairly common at 19.0 per cent of all
pregnancies (8.2 per cent of ewes mated produce multiples at 2 and 3
years, 30.6 per cent at 4 to 8 years) at Matopos. Litter size: 1.37 (n=305) at
Makoholi; 1.10 (n=890) at Matopos. Birth rate (=lambs born/ewes mated):
102.9 in . ewes 2 and 3 years old, 124.6 at 4 to 8 years at Matopos and
similar at Makoholi. Fertility (=per cent of ewes lambing): 89 at Makoholi.
Gestation period: 150.7 days (n=281) Figure 91; slightly shorter for male
lambs and for multiple births.

Figure 91: Duration of gestation in Sabi sheep at Matopos, Zimbabwe

GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.7 kg (n=414) at Makoholi; 2.57 ± 0.02 (s.e.) kg
(n=1143) at Matopos. Weight for age: 120 days(weaning)-19.8 kg; males 5
months-21.4 (twins 16.9), 20 months-31 kg; females 5 months-19.3 (twins

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14.9), 18 months-33.6, 30-34.4, 42-38.1, 54-38.7 kg; 140 days-20.9 ± 0.14
(s.e.) kg. Average daily gain: 0-140 days - 130.7 ± 0.09 (s.e.) g. Post-
partum weights: 37.7 kg.
Heritability estimates of birth weight were 0.11 ± 0.064, of 140 day weaning
weight were 0.08 ± 0.059 and of daily gain were 0.10 ± 0.062.
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 45.3 and 41.6 at live weight of 31.1 and 30.2
kg for male castrate single and twin at 20 months.
Research. Department of Research and Specialist Services, P.O.Box 8100,
Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe.
References. Chigaru, 1971; Hale, 1986; Tawonezvi & Ward, 1986;
Chifamba et al, 1988a; 1988b.

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FAT-RUMPED SHEEP

BLACKHEAD PERSIAN

Synonyms. Black Head Persian; Black-headed Persian; Swartkoppersie

(Afrikaans).
Origins. In spite of its name it is certain that the sheep has its origins in the
Blackheaded Somali. The foundation of the breed is one ram and three
ewes from a ship which landed in South Africa in about 1870. Further
importations were made subsequently but do not appear to have had any
great influence on the breed. Blackhead Persians were registered as
purebreds in the first South African Stud Book in 1906. By 1930 there were
38 registered studs with 4000 animals.
Sub-types and races. Somali, Blackheaded Somali, Pecora somala a testa
nera [Italian] (Somalia); Blackhead Ogaden (Ethiopia); and Toposa (Sudan)
are similar but less improved types. East African Blackheaded is a fat-tailed
rather than a fat-rumped sheep.
The Blackhead Persian has been used in crossbreeding on many
"unimproved" types and has been crossed itself with "improved" types.
Dorper (Dorset Horn x BHP), Wiltiper (Wiltshire Horn x BHP), Permer (BHP
x German Mutton Merino), Nungua Blackhead (BHP x Djallonke (Ghana)),
van Rooy ((Ronderib Africander x Rambouillet) x BHP) and Bezuidenhout
Africander ((Arabi x BHP) x (Arabi x BHP)) are African examples. The BHP
has also played a role in the development of Karakul sheep in southern
Africa.
Distribution. Originally developed in the drier areas of South Africa the
breed has spread to other parts of southern Africa and farther north, notably
to Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia and even to Ghana. It has also been
introduced for crossbreeding purposes to the West Indies, and to Central
and South America.
There were an estimated 2 million Blackhead Persian sheep in South Africa
in the early 1950s but numbers of purebreds have declined, mainly due to
dilution by crossbreeding.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid and arid. The sheep has been introduced to
many wetter areas where the comparative advantages it enjoys in dry areas
are lost.
Management systems. Ranching and (mainly in the past) research
stations. Flock sizes can be very large in ranching systems (e.g. 9000 on
West Kilimanjaro ranch in northern Tanzania in the late 1960s (Figure 92)).

151
Figure 92: The Blackhead Persian ram flock at West Kilimanjaro ranch,
Tanzania
In central Somalia rainfall varies from 100 mm to 250 mm per annum.
Management practices are similar to those adopted for Boran goats in the
same area (p.93) except that some breeding control is imposed as sheep
are not milked. Flock sizes are much smaller than for goats, averaging 31
head, and are in a smaller proportionate range of 6-53 head. Flock
structures are related mostly to meat production: females 76.1 per cent
(breeding 55.9 per cent); males 23.9 (breeding rams 9.8 per cent, mature
castrates 9.7 per cent).
Physical characteristics. Medium to large size. Weight: male up to 70 kg
in South Africa; female 50 kg.
The following description is close to that of the official South African breed
standard. Many sheep elsewhere leave much to be desired in relation to
these norms. The outstanding characteristics are, of course, the black head
and the fat rump Figure 93.
Head strong, with strong nose and mouth. Both sexes have poll and nose
pads of fat, giving convex appearance to profile.
Horns should be absent (although scurs do occur). Ears moderately long,
soft and held horizontally.
Neck thick and well set and in good proportion to body. Body broad, deep
and reasonably long with broad withers and back. Back straight. Chest
prominent, standing out vertically, broad and with well developed freely-
hanging dewlap. Shoulders and buttocks well filled. Legs fairly short,
straight and well placed. Tail comprises three parts: the first broad and firm
close to the rump, not hanging down and not tapering; the second is curved
upwards and rests against the centre of the first, tapers towards the apex,
which should be level with the back, and shows a clean black skin area; the
third hangs from the apex of the second, is 5-8 cm long and covered with
short smooth hair. The tail must hang true.

152
 Figure 93: A Blackhead Persian ram imported from Rhodesia
(Zimbabwe) to Kongwa in central Tanzania in 1963
Colour in the classic type comprises a black head and neck, with the black
not extending farther back, and running evenly round the neck. Hooves are
also black. The rest of the body is pure white. Coat is of kemp and up to 4
cm long on the body but shorter on face and head. There is an inner coat of
fine wool fibre. Sub-types and races differ in colour from pure black to pure
white.
Products. Meat; (fat); (skins).
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. First lambing: 795 ± 220.4 (s.d.) days (n=1133) at West
Kilimanjaro; 942 ± 159.5 (s.d.) days on station in Mozambique. Lambing
interval: 351 ± 161.7 (s.d.) days (n=2886) at West Kilimanjaro; 342 ± 19.1
(s.d.) days (n=138) in Mozambique; 3 lambings in 2 years on station in
Kenya; about 14 months in central Somalia but varying greatly with season.
Multiple births: very uncommon; 93.6 per single (89.5 per cent of lambs),
6.3 per cent twin (10.3 per cent of lambs), 0.1 per cent triplet (0.2 per cent
of lambs) (n=5951) at West Kilimanjaro. Litter size: 1.00 (n=172) in
Mozambique; 1.06 at West Kilimanjaro (n=5951) in 1963-1988. Fertility:
(ewes lambed/ewes mated): 70.6 per cent in Mozambique. Lambing
percentage (=lambs born/ewes mated): generally low, 60-90 in Zimbabwe
and Kenya. Fecundity (=lambs born/ewes present per year): 61 per cent in
Somalia. Lifetime production: 4074 ewes averaged 3.16 parturitions, only 14
per cent having 5 or more parturitions, at West Kilimanjaro.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 2.4 ± 0.10 (s.e.) kg (n=209) in Mozambique; 2.7 kg
(n=54) in Kenya. Weight for age: 90 days-12.4, 180-15.2, 365-32.0 kg in
Mozambique; 6 months-15.0 kg in Somalia Table 50 .
MILK. Yield: 68 kg in 12 weeks on high and 38 kg on low plane nutrition in
Trinidad; 98 000-130 000 tonnes, of which 20 000-26 000 tonnes offtake for
human consumption, from Somali national flock in 1970-1984. Composition:
averages of 9 ewes over 12 weeks were fat 5.9 per cent, protein 5.6 per
cent, ash 1.0 per cent and lactose 4.8 per cent in Trinidad; total solids 20
per cent in Somalia.

153
 Table 50: Weights (kg) at various ages of Blackhead sheep in a central
Somalia traditional system
Age range Sex
(months) Female Male Castrate
0-12 15.6 15.0 18.1
13-24 21.4 20.6 21.5
25-36 23.9 23.7 25.5
37-48 26.3 29.8 28.3
49-60 27.3 30.5 31.6
>60 29.2 26.5 36.0
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 45 at 18.6 kg live weight in South Africa; 43-
48 at 29.9-42.2 kg on different planes of nutrition in Zimbabwe; 48.8 for 3
animals averaging 15.0 kg live weight in Angola. Carcass proportions: 51.3
per cent hindquarter in South Africa. Carcass composition: 54.6/38.8/6.6 per
cent meat/bone/fat in Angola.
Blackhead Persian carcasses are characterized by heavy fat deposits on
the rump, with relatively little fat elsewhere, and are thus not suited to all
markets. First-cross carcasses also usually show poor conformation.
Somalia exported 350 000-793 000 head in 1970-1984 and slaughtered
1.08-2.06 million annually in the same period.
Research. Livestock Breeding Station, P.O West Kilimanjaro, Tanzania.
Institute of Agricultural Research, P.O.Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
References. Pepler & Hoffman, 1935; Labuschagne, 1948; Butterworth et
al, 1968; Paiva, 1969; Racoczi, 1974b; Dahir Mumin, 1986; de Almeida &
Pimental, 1986; Bourzat et al, 1989; Rocha, McKinnon & Wilson, 1990b;
S.M. Das, pers.comm.

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DORPER

FAT-RUMPED SHEEP
Synonyms. Dorsian (Dorsie [Afrikaans]) for white variety.
Origins.This sheep was developed in the Grootfontein area of South Africa
from 1942 onwards from crosses of Dorset Horn males on Black-head
Persian females. A fixed type was developed through inter-se mating. A
breed society was established in 1950 in the Republic of South Africa. The
Dorsian (white variety) was affiliated to the Dorper in 1964.
Sub-types and races.Some specialization for different functions and
markets is taking place. The Blackhead Persian is used in a variety of other
crosses which have characteristics similar to the Dorper.
Distribution. Found over most of southern Africa including the Republic,
Namibia, Zimbabwe and Angola, and Botswana in lesser numbers. Also in
Kenya (Figure 94) and Tanzania with smaller numbers in some West
African countries. The Dorper is the second most numerous sheep breed in
the Republic of South Africa and accounts for 65 per cent of the
"commercial" flock in Zimbabwe.
Ecological zones. Mainly semi-arid and arid areas.

Figure 94 Dorper ram, imported via Swaziland, on a commercial ranch

in Laikipi a district, Kenya
Management systems. Principally ranching.
In Botswana 84 rams were provided to private owners under the subsidy
scheme operated by the Animal Production Division.
Physical characteristics. One of the few breeds of small ruminants in
Africa which has a full description. The following "standard of excellence" is
adapted from judging notes by the Dorper Sheep Breeders' Society of
South Africa.
Head strong and long with large eyes, widely spaced and protectively
placed. Strong nose, forehead not dished. The head must be "dry" - i.e. no
local fat deposits.
Small horns is the ideal but heavy horns are permissible. Ears in proportion
to head.
Neck of medium length, well-fleshed, broad and well-coupled to the
forequarters. Shoulders broad, firm and strong. Chest deep and wide.

155
Protruding brisket undesirable. Legs strong and straight. Well sprung ribs,
broad and full loin, back long and straight with no "devil's grip" but a slight
dip behind the shoulders is permissible. Croup (rump) long and wide: inner
and outer twist well fleshed and deep. Udder well developed Figure 95 .
Scrotum not too long but testicles equal-sized and not too small.
Localization of fat on any part of the body is undesirable and even distri-
bution over the carcass and between the muscle-fibres is the ideal.

Figure 95: Dorper ewe and lamb at Lobo farm, Middlepits, south-west
Botswana
Colour should be white with black confined to head and neck. Limited black
spots on body and legs permitted. There is a white colour variant. Too much
wool or hair is undesirable; the ideal is a short, loose light covering with
wool predominating on the forequarter and a natural clean kemp underline.
A mane is grounds for disqualification.
Products. Meat.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. Multiple births: fairly common; 77.2 and 22.8 per cent
single and twin (n=123) at Henderson in Zimbabwe; 24.4 per cent (n=603)
at 01 Magogo in Kenya. Litter size: 1.09 (n=563) on Botswana station; 1.29
(n=232) at Grasslands in Zimbabwe, 1.23 (n=123) at Henderson. Fertility
(=percentage of ewes lambing): 68 per cent of exposed ewes (n=830)
lambed over 8 years (1976-1983) on Botswana station; 90 for 258 ewes
exposed at Grasslands; 86 for 704 exposures over 5 years at 01 Magogo.
Lifetime production: 4.7 breeding seasons at Grasslands.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 3.9 kg (n=616) on Botswana station; 4.2 kg (n=299)
at Grasslands, 4.5 kg + 0.09 (s.e.) kg (n=151) at Henderson; 3.5 kg (n=750)
at 01 Magogo. Weight for age: 4 months-20.7, 12-30.8, 18-38.2 kg in
Botswana; 140 days (weaning)-16.3 kg at Grasslands; at 01 Magogo males
were 45 and 53 kg at 1 and 2 years and 55 kg at 3 years and older, females
36, 43 and 45 kg at same ages; 100 day weight of performance tested
sheep figure 96: in the Republic of South Africa increased by more than 30
per cent from 1964 to 1981. Average daily gain: birth-140 days - 243 g at

156
Henderson when creep fed ad libitum; birth-weaning(105 days) - 171 ± 48 g
at 01 Magogo. Age at 40 kg: 146 days at Henderson.

Figure 96: Changes in 100 day weight of registered Dorper sheep in

South Africa
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 44.8 at live weight of 18.7 kg, 47.6 at 30.0,
51.2 at 40, 59.1 at 50.0, 52.3 at 60 kg following high energy diet at Matopos
(Zimbabwe). Carcass composition: fat increased from 12.4 per cent at 18.7
kg to 35.8 at 60.0 kg at Matopos and back fat thickness from 1.35 to 11.10
mm.
Research. Department of Research and Specialist Services, P.O.Box 8100,
Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe.
References. Chemitei et al, 1975; Manyuchi et al, 1987; McLeod, 1988;
H.P.R. Tawonezvi, pers.comm.

157
 EXOTIC SHEEP

KARAKUL

Synonyms. Astrakhan; Persian Lamb.

Origins. Pelt producing sheep probably originated in the Near East (Syria,
Jordan and western Mesopotamia). Karakuls were established about 1200
years ago in Bokhara and China. Karakuls were imported to southern
African in 1907 from Germany to where they had first been introduced
during the last few years of the 19th century.
Sub-types and races. Types are classified according to colour and pelt
value. Mutton and wool types are being developed.
Distribution. The main pelt producing countries are USSR, Afghanistan,
Namibia, the Republic of South Africa and Iran. Karakul are also found in
Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic, the Federal Republic of
Germany, Austria and other European countries.
In Africa the major populations are in the Republic of South Africa, Namibia
and Botswana, with small numbers in Angola and a very few in Rwanda:
there may be a few crosses remaining from an original importation of 33 into
Mozambique during the 1950s. In colonial times Karakuls were imported to
Tanzania (then German East Africa), 12 rams introduced in 1907 producing
20 000 halfbreds by 1913. Karakuls were also imported, in the late 1920s,
to the French Sudan (now Mali) in an attempt to produce pelts from the
Black Maure sheep. In 1985 there were 1.4 million Karakul in Namibia, to
where they were introduced in 1907, equivalent to about 66 per cent of the
national sheep flock. The breed was introduced to south-west Botswana in
1953 and numbers had increased to about 30 000 on 200 farms by 1978
but in 1987 numbers had declined to about 14 000 in 80 flocks: the
Smallstock Unit of the Botswana Animal Production Research Unit ceded
16 Karakul rams to farmers in 1985. Angola imported Karakuls from the
United States of America between 1945 and 1959 (when 47 males and 77
females had been imported) and there were further importations of males
from Austria in 1970. The maximum numbers of sheep with Karakul blood in
Angola were 30 000 in 1969 but Karakul breeding was abandoned in 1975
although there is now renewed interest there in its use as a meat breed.
Rwanda imported 2 rams and 10 ewes in 1983 for cross-breeding
experiments with other exotic types and with local sheep.
Ecological zones. Arid to hyper-arid. In south-west Botswana rainfall is
less than 200 mm per year: maximum temperature in January averages
35.8°C, minimum temperatures in July average 0.9°C and there are 35 frost
nights per year. Carrying capacities of these areas are estimated at 27
ha/TLU. Low based vegetative cover is characteristic of the area and major
grass species are Stipagrostis and Aristida while shrubs include Acacia,
Boscia and Rhizogum trichotomum. The fruits of Citrullus lanatus, C.
naudinianus and Cucumis africanus are important food and water sources
in the winter.
The Rwanda highlands (1400 m, > 2000 mm rainfall) would not appear to
provide an appropriate environment for this breed.
Management systems. Commercial ranching and pastoral. Flocks are very
large in Namibia. In Botswana there are 11 "commercial" fenced farms

158
averaging 7100 ha in area with a mean flock size of 550 animals: flocks
grazing on communal pasture average 170 head. Flock structures are
related to pelt production (for which animals must be slaughtered
immediately after birth) and are comprised of > 95 per cent females. A total
of 16 rams was provided to farmers in Botswana in 1985 under the ram
subsidy scheme operated by the Animal Production Division.
Physical characteristics. Large size. Weight: male 54 kg; female 41 kg.
Head very strong, profile long and straight or very slightly convex in males.
Horns: usually present in males, slightly ribbed and spiralling backwards
and outwards, then forwards. Ears medium length and pendent.
Neck short and thick. Chest well developed. Withers prominent and level
with sacrum. Back long and slightly dipped. Legs medium length and
relatively well fleshed. Tail very fat with thin terminal portion figure 97 .
Marked sexual dimorphism with males much larger than females.

Figure 97: Karakul ram and ewe in a commercially managed flock near
Bokspits in south-west Botswana
Colour variable but for pelt production grey is preferred, with black next:
mixed colours are not liked in the pelt trade. Homozygous grey is lethal.
Coat of coarse wool in adult: the skin of the new born lamb varies in texture
figure 98 and is the pelt of commerce.
Products. Pelts; (wool);(meat).
Productivity
REPRODUCTION. Age at first lambing: 446-672 days in South Africa
depending on ewe's own birth season, earliest in ewes born in Oct, latest in
ewes born in Mar. Lambing interval: 8.5 months (n=1305) in south-west
Botswana.Multiple births: very rare; 19 of 3578 parturitions in Botswana
traditional system gave rise to twins but 44 of 828 on Lobu station were twin
parturitions. Litter size: 1.005 in Botswana traditional system; 1.05 at Lobu.
Fertility (ewes lambing/ ewes joined): 84.4 per cent at Lobu station
Botswana in 1985. Oestrus cycle: 18.9 ± 8.7 days (n=1081) in Namibia with
heat lasting 25.2 ± 12 hours (n=3031); heat usually starts during daylight
hours.

159
 Figure 98: Karakul lambs showing variation in pelt types
GROWTH. Birth weight: 4.23 kg in Angola.Weight for age: 60 days-12.8,
120-19.7 kg in Angola. Average daily gain: birth-60 days -142, birth-120
-128 g in Angola.
WOOL. In Botswana 4488 kg of wool was sold to a cooperative by 171
farmers in 1985.
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 55.6 for 3 sheep averaging 17.6 kg live weight
in Angola. Carcass composition: 61.3/35.1/3.5 per cent lean/bone/fat [tail
presumably excluded] in Angola.
PELTS. Lambs used for pelt production are slaughtered the first day after
birth, otherwise the characteristic curls and patterns disappear. Slaughtering
and skinning is done by knife and by hand. Tissue and fat are removed with
a knife and blood and dirt washed out with cold water. The wet pelt is
spread, without fixing, on a frame covered with jute and dries in this form in
the air figure 99. Most pelts are shipped to London for classification
according to a standard system figure 100 ). The prices of pelts are related
to:

160
 Figure 99: A Karakul pelt drying on a jute frame

Colour. Grey pelts are better priced than black ones. Prices
for chequered pelts are very low owing to a low demand and
inferior quality. Botswana production of black and chequered
pelts is higher than the southern African (SWAKARA)
average, whereas the production of grey, white and brown
pelts is lower .

Figure 100: Hudson's Bay and Annings classification of Karakul pelts

from southern Africa

161
 Pelt size. Pelt size depends on litter size and the nutrition
and age of the ewe. Pelts smaller than a standard fetch
much lower prices.</p>

Curl type. The breeder distinguishes among the shallow

types in Galliac (almost without curls), Watersilk, Shallow
and Shallow developed, and among the curl types in
Developed shallow and Pipe curl, with many intermediate
types. The shallow types were bred from the curl types in the
1920s. Only 4 classes are recognised on the market, these
being Shallow, Developed, Ribbed and Curl. Better prices
are achieved for shallower types.

Hair length and curl size. Prices are affected by hair length
and curl size. "Good" is short hair or small curls and "bad" is
overgrown hair or curls. Overgrowing is more common in
years of good nutrition.

Hair quality and pattern. Hair quality is determined by lustre

and texture while pattern has a considerable influence on the
attractiveness of a pelt. Hair quality and pattern therefore
have a high economic value.

Research. Animal Production Research Unit, Private Bag, Gaborone,

Botswana.
References. APRU, 1986; de Almeida & Pimental, 1986; Faure, 1986;
Martins, 1988; Matter, 1988.

162
MERINO

Origins. The Merino is native to Spain. Its major strongholds as a wool

breed are Australia (where most research has been done) and Argentina,
and as a mutton breed in Germany and some other countries.
Sub-types and races. Many different types have been developed for
different qualities of wool, for meat and most recently for prolificacy.
Distribution. In Africa there are large populations of Merinos in the
Republic of South Africa, in Lesotho, in Zimbabwe (where they are
equivalent to about 13 per cent of the "commercial" flock -- the Dorper
comprising 65 per cent of this group), and in Kenya. Small populations exist
elsewhere and there have been some notable failures in attempted
introductions, for example in Mali.
Ecological zones. Semi-arid to sub-humid, the latter mainly at medium to
high altitudes in Kenya and in Lesotho.
Management systems. Ranching and agro-pastoral.
In Zimbabwe commercial flocks are fairly large to large with 46 per cent of
flocks having > 100 sheep, these flocks comprising 83 per cent of the sheep
in this sub-sector.
Merino sheep were introduced to Lesotho in the late 19th century with
Angora goats (p.114). The administration imported 85 rams in 1910 and 286
in 1910. Lesotho imported 1799 rams and 707 ewes from South Africa in
1986 when Merino numbers were estimated at 1.5 million. Most sheep and
most imported rams are owned by small farmers organized in 4234
producer groups figure 101:. About 30 per cent of all households own sheep
and/or goats, slightly more owning sheep than goats. Flock sizes are related
to the age of the household head, owners > 60 years having 49 sheep,
those 41-60 years 44 sheep and those 21-40 years 41 sheep. 'Mafisa' is a
customary exchange system which can greatly augment the current flock of
owners with small numbers of animals. The proportion of livestock (animal
sales + fibre) to total income increases with age of owner but is about 25
per cent overall.

Figure 101: An imported Merino ram in a producers' cooperative flock

in Lesotho
Physical characteristics. Small to large size. Weight: females 40 kg in
Zimbabwe, 30 kg in Lesotho. Different types differ in conformation and

163
productivity. Even "meat" types produce reasonable quantities of good
quality wool.
Products. Wool; meat.
Productivity.
REPRODUCTION. Multiple births: fairly common in comparison to African
indigenous sheep in Zimbabwe; very uncommon in Kenya, 97 per cent
single, 3 per cent twin. Litter size: 1.35, 1.27 and 1.16 ± 0.079 (s.e.) (n=277)
at Henderson, Grasslands and Makoholi stations in Zimbabwe. Fertility
(=ewes lambing/ewes exposed): 88, 88 and 68 per cent at 3 Zimbabwe
stations. Lambing percentage: 90 on combined Quthing and Mokhotlong
studs in Lesotho (n=500). Lifetime production: 5.6 breeding seasons in flock
at Grasslands.
GROWTH. Birth weight: 4.5, 4.2 and 3.4 ± 0.09 (s.e.) kg (n=53) at 3
Zimbabwe stations. Weight for age: 135 days(weaning)-14.8 and 20.4 +
1.21 (s.e.) kg (n=36) at Grasslands and Makoholi singles being 4 kg heavier
than twins at the latter. Average daily gain: 238 g to 40 kg at 150 days when
intensively fed at Henderson; birth-weaning - 148, post-weaning - 60 g in
Kenya. Post-partum weights: 47.9 ± 0.90 (s.e.) kg (n=63) at Makoholi.
WOOL. Yield: rams 5.2 kg, ewes 3.4 kg on Kenya station; 2.2-2.5 kg on
Lesotho sheep cooperatives figure 102 where wool is shorn, sorted and
sold by producer groups figure 103.

Figure 102: The shearing and sorting shed in a Lesotho wool/mohair

producers' cooperative

164
 Figure 103: Technical and financial productivity of Merino sheep in
Lesotho
Total wool production in Kenya rose from 823 280 kg in 1957 to 1.6 million
kg in 1967, then to 2.1 million kg in 1968 but in the 1980s it has varied
between 1.2 and 1.4 million kg per year. The share of wool in total
agricultural production in Kenya dropped from 0.6 per cent in 1964-1972 to
0.1 per cent in 1973-1981.
MEAT. Dressing percentage: 44 in Kenya; 40.1 ± 2.45 (s.e) (n=12) at live
weight of 37.1 ± 2.91 kg at an age of 284 ± 5.3 days in Zimbabwe.
Research. Formerly at Naivasha by FAO Goat and Sheep Project in Kenya.
Department of Research and Specialist Services, P.O.Box 8100,
Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe.
References. de Bruijn, 1986; Mburu, 1986; Makhooane, 1986; Chifamba et
al, 1988b; L.A. McLeod, pers.comm.; H.P.R. Tawonezvi, pers.comm.

165
 PART FOUR
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Trail, J.C.M. & Sacker, G.D. 1966 Production characteristics of a herd of
East African Mubende goats. Trop.Agric.(Trinidad) 43: 43-51.
Ueckermann, L., Joubert, D.M. & Steyn, G.J. van D. 1974 The milking
capacity of Boer goat does. World Rev.Anim.Prod. 10(4): 73-83.
Vallée, M. 1938 Croisement brebis maures-béliers karakuls au Soudan.
Bull.Serv.Zoot.Epiz.A.O.F. 1: 46-49.
Vallerand, F. & Branckaert, R. 1975 La race ovine Djallonké au Cameroun.
Potentialités zootechniques, conditions d'élevage, avenir.
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Wilson, R.T. 1978 Livestock production on Masai group ranches. 1. A
preliminary survey of the goat and sheep populations at Elangata Wuas.
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Wilson, R.T. 1981 Livestock production in central Mali: Attempts to produce
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FAO TECHNICAL PAPERS
FAO ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH PAPERS:

1 Animal breeding: selected articles of World Animal Review, 1977(C*E*F*S*)

2 Eradication of hog cholera and African swine fever, 1976 (E* F* S*)
3 Insecticides and application equipment for tsetse control, 1977 (E* F*)
4 New feed resources, 1977 (E/F/S*)
5 Bibliography of the criollo cattle of the Americas, 1977 (E/S*)
6 Mediterranean cattle and sheep in crossbreeding, 1977 (E* F*)
7 Environmental impact of tsetse chemical control, 1977 (E* F*)
7. Rev Environmental impact of tsetse chemical control, 1977 (E* F*)
8 Declining breeds of Mediterranean sheep, 1978 (E* F*)
9 Slaughterhouse and slaughterslab design and construction, 1978 (E* F* S*)
10 Treating straw for animal feeding, 1978 (C* E* F* S*)
11 Packaging, storage and distribution of processed milk, 1978 (E*)
12 Ruminant nutrition: selected articles from World Animal Review, 1978 (C* E*
F* S*)
13 Buffalo reproduction and artificial insemination, 1979 (E**)
14 The African trypanosomiases, 1979 (E* F*)
15 Establishment of dairy training centres, 1979 (E*)
16 Open yard housing for young cattle, 1981 (E* F* S*)
17 Prolific tropical sheep, 1980 (E* F* S*)
18 Feed from animal wastes: state of knowledge, 1980 (E*)
19 East Coast fever and related tick-borne diseases, 1980 (E* S*)
20/1 Trypanotolerant livestock in West and Central Africa, 1980 Vol. 1 — General
study (E* F*)
20/2 Trypanotolerant livestock in West and Central Africa, 1980 Vol. 2 — Country
studies (E* F*)
20/3 Le bétail trypanotolérant en Afrique occidentale et centrale Vol. 3 — Bilan
d'une décennie, 1988 (F*)
21 Guideline for dairy accounting, 1980 (E*)
22 Recursos genéticos animales en América Latina, 1981 (S*)
23 Disease control in semen and embryos, 1982 (E* F* S*)
24 Animal genetic resources — conservation and management, 1981 (E*)
25 Reproductive efficiency in cattle, 1982 (E* F* S*)
26 Camels and camel milk, 1982 (E*)
27 Deer farming, 1982 (E*)
28 Feed from animal wastes: feeding manual, 1982 (E*)
29 Echinococcosis/hydatidosis surveillance, prevention and control:
FAO/UNEP/WHO guidelines, 1982 (E*)
30 Sheep and goat breeds of India, 1982 (E*)
31 Hormones in animal production, 1982 (E*)
32 Crop residues and agro-industrial by-products in animal feeding, 1982 /E/F*)
33 Haemorrhagic septicaemia, 1982 (E* F*)
34 Breeding plans for ruminant livestock in the tropics, 1982 (E* F* S*)

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35 Off-tastes in raw and reconstituted milk, 1983 (E* F* S*)
36 Ticks and tick-borne diseases: selected articles from World Animal Review,
1983 (E* F* S*)
37 African animal trypanosomiasis: selected articles from World Animal Review,
1983 (E* F*)
38 Diagnosis and vaccination for the control of brucellosis in the Near East, 1983
(E* Ar*)
39 Solar energy in small-scale milk collection and processing, 1983 (E* F*)
40 Intensive sheep production in the Near East, 1983 (E* Ar*)
41 Integrating crops and livestock in West Africa, 1983 (E* F*)
42 Animal energy in agriculture in Africa and Asia, 1984 (E/F*)
43 Olive by-products for animal feed, 1985 (Ar* E* F* S*)
44/1 Animal genetic resources conservation by management, data banks and training,
1984 (E*)
44/2 Animal genetic resources cryogenic storage of germplasm and molecular
engineering 1984 (E*)
45 Maintenance systems for the dairy plant, 1984 (E*)
46 Livestock breeds of China, 1985 (E*)
47 Réfrigération du lait a la ferme et organisation des transports, 1985 (F*)
48 La fromagerie et les variétés de fromages du bassin méditerranéen, 1985 (F*)
49 Manual for the slaughter of small ruminants in developing countries, 1985 (E*)
50 Better utilization of crop residues and by-products in animal feeding: research
guidelines — 1. State of knowledge, 1985 (E*)

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