Junior Problem Seminar

Dr. David A. SANTOS

July 17, 2008Version

Contents

Preface iii
1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
2. VERBATIM COPYING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
3. COPYING IN QUANTITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
4. MODIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
8. TRANSLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
9. TERMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

1 Essential Techniques 1
1.1 Reductio ad Absurdum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Pigeonhole Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Parity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2 Algebra 8
2.1 Identities with Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Squares of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Identities with Cubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Miscellaneous Algebraic Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.6 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3 Arithmetic 24
3.1 Division Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2 The Decimal Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

ii
CONTENTS iii

3.3 Non-decimal Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.4 Well-Ordering Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5 Mathematical Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.6 Congruences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.7 Miscellaneous Problems Involving Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4 Sums, Products, and Recursions 47

4.1 Telescopic cancellation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2 Arithmetic Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3 Geometric Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.4 Fundamental Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.5 First Order Recursions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.6 Second Order Recursions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.7 Applications of Recursions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

5 Counting 66
5.1 Inclusion-Exclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.2 The Product Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.3 The Sum Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.4 Permutations without Repetitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.5 Permutations with Repetitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.6 Combinations without Repetitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.7 Combinations with Repetitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.8 The Binomial Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.9 Multinomial Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

6 Equations 101
6.1 Equations in One Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.2 Systems of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.3 Remainder and Factor Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
iv CONTENTS

6.4 Viète’s Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.5 Lagrange’s Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

7 Inequalities 112
7.1 Absolute Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.2 Triangle Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.3 Rearrangement Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
7.4 Mean Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

A Answers, Hints, and Solutions 121

Preface

From time to time I get to revise this problem seminar. Although my chances of addressing the type of students for which
they were originally intended (middle-school, high-school) are now very remote, I have had very pleasant emails from people
around the world finding this material useful.

I haven’t compiled the solutions for the practice problems anywhere. This is a project that now, having more pressing things
to do, I can’t embark. But if you feel you can contribute to these notes, drop me a line, or even mail me your files!
David A. SANTOS
dsantos@ccp.edu

Throughout the years I have profitted from emails of people who commend me on the notes, point out typos and errors, etc.
Here is (perhaps incomplete) list of them, in the order in which I have received emails.

• Dr. Gerd Schlechtriemen • Jesús Benede Garcés • Cristhian Gonzalo

• Daniel Wu • Linda Scholes
• Hikmet Erdogan
• Young-Soo Lee • Wenceslao Calleja Rodríguez
• Maxy Mariasegaram
• Rohan Kulkarni • Philip Pennance
• Ram Prasad • David Ontaneda • Professor Dennis Guzmán

• Edward Moy • Richard A. Smith • Mingjie Zhou

• Steve Hoffman • Danilo Gortaire Jativa
• Faruk Uygul
• Yiwen Yu • Kurt Byron Ang
• Marvin D. Hernández
• Tam King Wa • Bharat Narumanchi
• Ramji Gannavarapu • Chase Hallstrom • Marco Grassi

v
vi

Copyright ! c 2007 David Anthony SANTOS. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free
Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the
license is included in the section entitled “GNU Free Documentation License”.
GNU Free Documentation License

Version 1.2, November 2002

c 2000,2001,2002 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
Copyright !

51 Franklin St, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA 02110-1301 USA

Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.

Preamble
The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other functional and useful document “free” in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it, either
commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for modifications made by others.
This License is a kind of “copyleft”, which means that derivative works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft license designed for free software.
We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free software, because free software needs free documentation: a free program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the software does. But this License is not
limited to software manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference.

1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS

This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed under the terms of this License. Such a notice grants a world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited
in duration, to use that work under the conditions stated herein. The “Document”, below, refers to any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and is addressed as “you”. You accept the license if you copy, modify or distribute the
work in a way requiring permission under copyright law.
A “Modified Version” of the Document means any work containing the Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifications and/or translated into another language.
A “Secondary Section” is a named appendix or a front-matter section of the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of the publishers or authors of the Document to the Document’s overall subject (or to related matters) and contains
nothing that could fall directly within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in part a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any mathematics.) The relationship could be a matter of historical connection with the subject or
with related matters, or of legal, commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them.
The “Invariant Sections” are certain Secondary Sections whose titles are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this License. If a section does not fit the above definition of
Secondary then it is not allowed to be designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero Invariant Sections. If the Document does not identify any Invariant Sections then there are none.
The “Cover Texts” are certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the Document is released under this License. A Front-Cover Text may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover
Text may be at most 25 words.
A “Transparent” copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy, represented in a format whose specification is available to the general public, that is suitable for revising the document straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for
images composed of pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input to text formatters. A copy
made in an otherwise Transparent file format whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent. An image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount
of text. A copy that is not “Transparent” is called “Opaque”.
Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format, SGML or XML using a publicly available DTD, and standard-conforming simple HTML, PostScript or PDF
designed for human modification. Examples of transparent image formats include PNG, XCF and JPG. Opaque formats include proprietary formats that can be read and edited only by proprietary word processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD
and/or processing tools are not generally available, and the machine-generated HTML, PostScript or PDF produced by some word processors for output purposes only.
The “Title Page” means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this License requires to appear in the title page. For works in formats which do not have any title page as such,
“Title Page” means the text near the most prominent appearance of the work’s title, preceding the beginning of the body of the text.
A section “Entitled XYZ” means a named subunit of the Document whose title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following text that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ stands for a specific section name
mentioned below, such as “Acknowledgements”, “Dedications”, “Endorsements”, or “History”.) To “Preserve the Title” of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a section “Entitled XYZ” according to this definition.
The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which states that this License applies to the Document. These Warranty Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this License, but only as regards disclaiming
warranties: any other implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has no effect on the meaning of this License.

2. VERBATIM COPYING
You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies to the Document are reproduced in all copies,
and that you add no other conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept compensation in exchange
for copies. If you distribute a large enough number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3.
You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and you may publicly display copies.

3. COPYING IN QUANTITY
If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the Document’s license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly
and legibly, all these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as the publisher of these copies. The front cover must present the full title with all
words of the title equally prominent and visible. You may add other material on the covers in addition. Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim
copying in other respects.
If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent pages.
If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network location
from which the general network-using public has access to download using public-standard network protocols a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material. If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps,
when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or
retailers) of that edition to the public.
It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document.

4. MODIFICATIONS
vii
viii

You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified Version filling the role of the
Document, thus licensing distribution and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:

A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions (which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section of the Document). You may use the same title as
a previous version if the original publisher of that version gives permission.

B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, together with at least five of the principal authors of the Document (all of its principal authors, if it has
fewer than five), unless they release you from this requirement.

C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified Version, as the publisher.

D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.

E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other copyright notices.

F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below.

G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover Texts given in the Document’s license notice.

H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.

I. Preserve the section Entitled “History”, Preserve its Title, and add to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled “History” in the
Document, create one stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified Version as stated in the previous sentence.

J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations given in the Document for previous versions it was based on. These may be placed in
the “History” section. You may omit a network location for a work that was published at least four years before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the version it refers to gives permission.

K. For any section Entitled “Acknowledgements” or “Dedications”, Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all the substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements and/or dedications given therein.

L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles.

M. Delete any section Entitled “Endorsements”. Such a section may not be included in the Modified Version.

N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled “Endorsements” or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section.

O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.

If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all of these sections as invariant. To do
this, add their titles to the list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version’s license notice. These titles must be distinct from any other section titles.
You may add a section Entitled “Endorsements”, provided it contains nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various parties–for example, statements of peer review or that the text has been approved by an organization as the
authoritative definition of a standard.
You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover
Text may be added by (or through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not add
another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit permission from the previous publisher that added the old one.
The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified Version.

5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS
You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original
documents, unmodified, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.
The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but different contents, make the title of each
such section unique by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice
of the combined work.
In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled “History” in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled “History”; likewise combine any sections Entitled “Acknowledgements”, and any sections Entitled “Dedications”.
You must delete all sections Entitled “Endorsements”.

6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that
you follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.
You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim
copying of that document.

7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS

A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an “aggregate” if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used
to limit the legal rights of the compilation’s users beyond what the individual works permit. When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves derivative works of the
Document.
If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Document’s Cover Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the
aggregate, or the electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate.

8. TRANSLATION
Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may
include translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the license notices in the Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that
you also include the original English version of this License and the original versions of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between the translation and the original version of this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version
will prevail.
If a section in the Document is Entitled “Acknowledgements”, “Dedications”, or “History”, the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual title.

9. TERMINATION
You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly provided for under this License. Any other attempt to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Document is void, and will automatically terminate your rights
under this License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full compliance.

10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or
concerns. See http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.

Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this License “or any later version” applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either

of that specified version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by

the Free Software Foundation.

Chapter 1
Essential Techniques

1.1 Reductio ad Absurdum

In this section we will see examples of proofs by contradiction. That is, in trying to prove a premise, we assume that its negation
is true and deduce incompatible statements from this.

√ 1
1 Example Shew, without using a calculator, that 6 − 35 < .
10

√ 1 1 √ √
Solution: Assume that 6 − 35 ≥ . Then 6 − ≥ 35 or 59 ≥ 10 35. Squaring both sides we obtain 3481 ≥ 3500, which
10 10
√ 1
is clearly nonsense. Thus it must be the case that 6 − 35 < .
10

2 Example Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an be an arbitrary permutation of the numbers 1, 2, . . . , n, where n is an odd number. Prove that the
product
(a1 − 1)(a2 − 2) · · · (an − n)
is even.

Solution: First observe that the sum of an odd number of odd integers is odd. It is enough to prove that some difference ak − k
is even. Assume contrariwise that all the differences ak − k are odd. Clearly

S = (a1 − 1) + (a2 − 2) + · · · + (an − n) = 0,

since the ak ’s are a reordering of 1, 2, . . . , n. S is an odd number of summands of odd integers adding to the even integer 0. This
is impossible. Our initial assumption that all the ak − k are odd is wrong, so one of these is even and hence the product is even.
√
3 Example Prove that 2 is irrational.

Solution: For this proof, we will accept as fact that any positive integer greater than 1 can be factorised uniquely as the product
of primes (up to the order of the factors).
√ a
Assume that 2 = , with positive integers a, b. This yields 2b2 = a2 . Now both a2 and b2 have an even number of prime
b
factors. So 2b2 has an odd numbers of primes in its factorisation and a2 has an even number of primes in its factorisation. This
is a contradiction.

4 Example Let a, b be real numbers and assume that for all numbers ε > 0 the following inequality holds:

a < b + ε.

1
2 Chapter 1

Prove that a ≤ b.

a−b
Solution: Assume contrariwise that a > b. Hence > 0. Since the inequality a < b + ε holds for every ε > 0 in particular
2
a−b
it holds for ε = . This implies that
2
a−b
a < b+ or a < b.
2
Thus starting with the assumption that a > b we reach the incompatible conclusion that a < b. The original assumption must be
wrong. We therefore conclude that a ≤ b.

5 Example (Euclid) Shew that there are infinitely many prime numbers.

Solution: We need to assume for this proof that any integer greater than 1 is either a prime or a product of primes. The following
beautiful proof goes back to Euclid. Assume that {p1 , p2 , . . . , pn } is a list that exhausts all the primes. Consider the number

N = p1 p2 · · · pn + 1.

This is a positive integer, clearly greater than 1. Observe that none of the primes on the list {p1 , p2 , . . . , pn } divides N, since
division by any of these primes leaves a remainder of 1. Since N is larger than any of the primes on this list, it is either a
prime or divisible by a prime outside this list. Thus we have shewn that the assumption that any finite list of primes leads to the
existence of a prime outside this list. This implies that the number of primes is infinite.
√
6 Example Let n > 1 be a composite integer. Prove that n has a prime factor p ≤ n.
√
Solution:
√ Since n is composite,
√ √ n can be written as n = ab where both a > 1, b > 1 are
√ integers. Now, if both a > n and
b > n then
√ n = ab > n n = n, a contradiction. Thus one of these factors must be ≤ n and a fortiori it must have a prime
factor ≤ n.

√
The result in example 6 can be used to test for primality. For example, to shew that 101 is prime, we compute ! 101" = 10.
By the preceding problem, either 101 is prime or it is divisible by 2, 3, 5, or 7 (the primes smaller than 10). Since neither of
these primes divides 101, we conclude that 101 is prime.

7 Example Prove that a sum of two squares of integers leaves remainder 0, 1 or 2 when divided by 4.

Solution: An integer is either even (of the form 2k) or odd (of the form 2k + 1). We have

(2k)2 = 4(k2 ),
(2k + 1)2 = 4(k2 + k) + 1.

Thus squares leave remainder 0 or 1 when divided by 4 and hence their sum leave remainder 0, 1, or 2.

8 Example Prove that 2003 is not the sum of two squares by proving that the sum of any two squares cannot leave remainder
3 upon division by 4.

Solution: 2003 leaves remainder 3 upon division by 4. But we know from example 7 that sums of squares do not leave remainder
3 upon division by 4, so it is impossible to write 2003 as the sum of squares.

9 Example If a, b, c are odd integers, prove that ax2 + bx + c = 0 does not have a rational number solution.
Practice 3

p
Solution: Suppose is a rational solution to the equation. We may assume that p and q have no prime factors in common, so
q
either p and q are both odd, or one is odd and the other even. Now
2
p p
a +b + c = 0 =⇒ ap2 + bpq + cq2 = 0.
q q

If both p and p were odd, then ap2 + bpq + cq2 is also odd and hence &= 0. Similarly if one of them is even and the other odd
then either ap2 + bpq or bpq + cq2 is even and ap2 + bpq + cq2 is odd. This contradiction proves that the equation cannot have
a rational root.

Practice

10 Problem The product of 34 integers is equal to 1. Shew that their sum cannot be 0. 14 Problem In 'ABC, ∠A > ∠B. Prove that BC > AC.

√
11 Problem Let a1 , a2 , . . . ,a2000 be natural numbers such that 15 Problem Let 0 < α < 1. Prove that α > α.

1 1 1
+ + ··· + = 1.
a1 a2 a2000 16 Problem Let √
α = 0.999 . . . where there are at least 2000 nines. Prove that the deci-
mal expansion of α also starts with at least 2000 nines.
Prove that at least one of the ak ’s is even.

17 Problem Prove that a quadratic equation

(Hint: Clear the denominators.)
ax2 + bx + c = 0, a &= 0
12 Problem Prove that log2 3 is irrational.
has at most two solutions.

13 Problem A palindrome is an integer whose decimal expansion is symmetric, e.g.

1, 2, 11, 121, 15677651 (but not 010, 0110) are palindromes. Prove that there is no posi- 18 Problem Prove that if ax2 + bx + c = 0 has real solutions and if a > 0, b > 0, c > 0
tive palindrome which is divisible by 10. then both solutions must be negative.

1.2 Pigeonhole Principle

The Pigeonhole Principle states that if n + 1 pigeons fly to n holes, there must be a pigeonhole containing at least two pigeons.
This apparently trivial principle is very powerful. Thus in any group of 13 people, there are always two who have their birthday
on the same month, and if the average human head has two million hairs, there are at least three people in NYC with the same
number of hairs on their head.
The Pigeonhole Principle is useful in proving existence problems, that is, we shew that something exists without actually
identifying it concretely.
Let us see some more examples.

19 Example (Putnam 1978) Let A be any set of twenty integers chosen from the arithmetic progression 1, 4, . . . , 100. Prove
that there must be two distinct integers in A whose sum is 104.

Solution: We partition the thirty four elements of this progression into nineteen groups

{1}, {52}, {4, 100}, {7, 97}, {10, 94}, . . ., {49, 55}.

Since we are choosing twenty integers and we have nineteen sets, by the Pigeonhole Principle there must be two integers that
belong to one of the pairs, which add to 104.

20 Example Shew that amongst any seven distinct positive integers not exceeding 126, one can find two of them, say a and b,
which satisfy
b < a ≤ 2b.
4 Chapter 1

Solution: Split the numbers {1, 2, 3, . . ., 126} into the six sets

{1, 2}, {3, 4, 5, 6}, {7, 8, . . ., 13, 14}, {15, 16, . . ., 29, 30},

{31, 32, . . ., 61, 62} and {63, 64, . . ., 126}.

By the Pigeonhole Principle, two of the seven numbers must lie in one of the six sets, and obviously, any such two will satisfy
the stated inequality.

21 Example No matter which fifty five integers may be selected from

{1, 2, . . ., 100},

prove that one must select some two that differ by 10.

Solution: First observe that if we choose n + 1 integers from any string of 2n consecutive integers, there will always be some
two that differ by n. This is because we can pair the 2n consecutive integers

{a + 1, a + 2, a + 3, . . ., a + 2n}

into the n pairs

{a + 1, a + n + 1}, {a + 2, a + n + 2}, . . ., {a + n, a + 2n},
and if n + 1 integers are chosen from this, there must be two that belong to the same group.
So now group the one hundred integers as follows:

{1, 2, . . .20}, {21, 22, . . ., 40},

{41, 42, . . ., 60}, {61, 62, . . ., 80}

and
{81, 82, . . ., 100}.
If we select fifty five integers, we must perforce choose eleven from some group. From that group, by the above observation
(let n = 10), there must be two that differ by 10.

22 Example (AHSME 1994) Label one disc “1”, two discs “2”, three discs “3”, . . . , fifty discs ‘‘50”. Put these 1 + 2 + 3 + · · ·+
50 = 1275 labeled discs in a box. Discs are then drawn from the box at random without replacement. What is the minimum
number of discs that must me drawn in order to guarantee drawing at least ten discs with the same label?

Solution: If we draw all the 1 + 2 + · · · + 9 = 45 labelled “1”, . . . , “9” and any nine from each of the discs “10”, . . . , “50”, we
have drawn 45 + 9 · 41 = 414 discs. The 415-th disc drawn will assure at least ten discs from a label.

23 Example (IMO 1964) Seventeen people correspond by mail with one another—each one with all the rest. In their letters
only three different topics are discussed. Each pair of correspondents deals with only one of these topics. Prove that there at
least three people who write to each other about the same topic.

Solution: Choose a particular person of the group, say Charlie. He corresponds with sixteen others. By the Pigeonhole Principle,
Charlie must write to at least six of the people of one topic, say topic I. If any pair of these six people corresponds on topic I,
then Charlie and this pair do the trick, and we are done. Otherwise, these six correspond amongst themselves only on topics
II or III. Choose a particular person from this group of six, say Eric. By the Pigeonhole Principle, there must be three of the
five remaining that correspond with Eric in one of the topics, say topic II. If amongst these three there is a pair that corresponds
with each other on topic II, then Eric and this pair correspond on topic II, and we are done. Otherwise, these three people only
correspond with one another on topic III, and we are done again.

24 Example Given any set of ten natural numbers between 1 and 99 inclusive, prove that there are two disjoint nonempty
subsets of the set with equal sums of their elements.
Practice 5

Solution: There are 210 − 1 = 1023 non-empty subsets that one can form with a given 10-element set. To each of these subsets
we associate the sum of its elements. The maximum value that any such sum can achieve is 90 + 91 + · · · + 99 = 945 < 1023.
Therefore, there must be at least two different subsets S, T that have the same element sum. Then S \ (S ∩ T ) and T \ (S ∩ T )
also have the same element sum.

25 Example Given any 9 integers whose prime factors lie in the set {3, 7, 11} prove that there must be two whose product is a
square.

Solution: For an integer to be a square, all the exponents of its prime factorisation must be even. Any integer in the given set
has a prime factorisation of the form 3a 7b 11c . Now each triplet (a, b, c) has one of the following 8 parity patterns: (even, even,
even), (even, even, odd), (even, odd, even), (even, odd, odd), (odd, even, even), (odd, even, odd), (odd, odd, even), (odd, odd,
odd). In a group of 9 such integers, there must be two with the same parity patterns in the exponents. Take these two. Their
product is a square, since the sum of each corresponding exponent will be even.

Practice

26 Problem Prove that among n + 1 integers, there are always two whose difference is 34 Problem Let M be a seventeen-digit positive integer and let N be the number ob-
always divisible by n. tained from M by writing the same digits in reversed order. Prove that at least one digit
in the decimal representation of the number M + N is even.

27 Problem (AHSME 1991) A circular table has exactly sixty chairs around it. There
are N people seated at this table in such a way that the next person to be seated must sit 35 Problem No matter which fifty five integers may be selected from
next to someone. What is the smallest possible value of N?

{1, 2, . . . ,100},
28 Problem Shew that if any five points
√ are all in, or on, a square of side 1, then some
pair of them will be at most at distance 2/2. prove that you must select some two that differ by 9, some two that differ by 10, some
two that differ by 12, and some two that differ by 13, but that you need not have any two
that differ by 11.
29 Problem (Hungarian Math Olympiad, 1947) Prove that amongst six people in a
room there are at least three who know one another, or at least three who do not know
one another.
36 Problem Let mn + 1 different real numbers be given. Prove that there is either an
increasing sequence with at least n + 1 members, or a decreasing sequence with at least
30 Problem Shew that in any sum of nonnegative real numbers there is always one num- m + 1 members.
ber which is at least the average of the numbers and that there is always one member that
it is at most the average of the numbers.
37 Problem If the points of the plane are coloured with three colours, shew that there
will always exist two points of the same colour which are one unit apart.
31 Problem We call a set “sum free” if no two elements of the set add up to a third
element of the set. What is the maximum size of a sum free subset of {1, 2, . . . ,2n − 1}.
38 Problem Shew that if the points of the plane are coloured with two colours, there
will always exist an equilateral triangle with all its vertices of the same colour. There is,
Hint: Observe that the set {n + 1, n + 2, . . ., 2n − 1} of n + 1 el- however, a colouring of the points of the plane with two colours for which no equilateral
ements is sum free. Shew that any subset with n + 2 elements triangle of side 1 has all its vertices of the same colour.
is not sum free.
39 Problem (USAMO 1979) Nine mathematicians meet at an international conference
32 Problem (MMPC 1992) Suppose that the letters of the English alphabet are listed in and discover that amongst any three of them, at least two speak a common language. If
an arbitrary order. each of the mathematicians can speak at most three languages, prove that there are at least
three of the mathematicians who can speak the same language.
1. Prove that there must be four consecutive consonants.

2. Give a list to shew that there need not be five consecutive consonants.
40 Problem (USAMO 1982) In a party with 1982 persons, amongst any group of four
3. Suppose that all the letters are arranged in a circle. Prove that there must be five there is at least one person who knows each of the other three. What is the minimum
consecutive consonants. number of people in the party who know everyone else?

33 Problem (Stanford 1953) Bob has ten pockets and forty four silver dollars. He
wants to put his dollars into his pockets so distributed that each pocket contains a dif- 41 Problem (USAMO 1985) There are n people at a party. Prove that there are two
ferent number of dollars. people such that, of the remaining n − 2 people, there are at least !n/2" − 1 of them,
each of whom knows both or else knows neither of the two. Assume that “knowing” is a
1. Can he do so? symmetrical relationship.

2. Generalise the problem, considering p pockets and n dollars. The problem is

most interesting when 42 Problem (USAMO 1986) During a certain lecture, each of five mathematicians fell
(p − 1)(p − 2)
n= . asleep exactly twice. For each pair of these mathematicians, there was some moment
2 when both were sleeping simultaneously. Prove that, at some moment, some three were
Why? sleeping simultaneously.
6 Chapter 1

1.3 Parity
43 Example Two diametrically opposite corners of a chess board are deleted. Shew that it is impossible to tile the remaining
62 squares with 31 dominoes.

Solution: Each domino covers one red square and one black squares. But diametrically opposite corners are of the same colour,
hence this tiling is impossible.

44 Example All the dominoes in a set are laid out in a chain according to the rules of the game. If one end of the chain is a 6,
what is at the other end?

Solution: At the other end there must be a 6 also. Each number of spots must occur in a pair, so that we may put them end to
end. Since there are eight 6’s, this last 6 pairs off with the one at the beginning of the chain.

45 Example The numbers 1, 2, . . . , 10 are written in a row. Shew that no matter what choice of sign ± is put in between them,
the sum will never be 0.

Solution: The sum 1 + 2 + · · · + 10 = 55, an odd integer. Since parity is not affected by the choice of sign, for any choice of
sign ±1 ± 2 ± · · ·± 10 will never be even, in particular it will never be 0.

46 Definition A lattice point (m, n) on the plane is one having integer coordinates.

47 Definition The midpoint of the line joining (x, y) to (x1 , y1 ) is the point

x + x1 y + y1
, .
2 2

48 Example Five lattice points are chosen at random. Prove that one can always find two so that the midpoint of the line
joining them is also a lattice point.

Solution: There are four parity patterns: (even, even), (even, odd), (odd, odd), (odd, even). By the Pigeonhole Principle among
five lattice points there must be two having the same parity pattern. Choose these two. It is clear that their midpoint is an
integer.
Practice 7

For the next few examples we will need to know the names of the following tetrominoes.

Figure 1.1: L-tetromino Figure 1.2: T-tetromino Figure 1.3: Straight-tetromino Figure 1.4: Skew-tetromino Figure 1.5: Square-tetromino

49 Example A single copy of each of the tetrominoes shewn above is taken. Shew that no matter how these are arranged, it is
impossible to construct a rectangle.

Solution: If such a rectangle were possible, it would have 20 squares. Colour the rectangle like a chessboard. Then there are 10
red squares and 10 black squares. The T-tetromino always covers an odd number of red squares. The other tetrominoes always
cover an even number of red squares. This means that the number of red squares covered is odd, a contradiction.

50 Example Shew that an 8 × 8 chessboard cannot be tiles with 15 straight tetrominoes and one L-tetromino.

Solution: Colour rows 1, 3, 5, 7 black and colour rows 2, 4, 6, and 8 red. A straight tetromino will always cover an even number
of red boxes and the L-tetromino will always cover an odd number of red squares. If the tiling were possible, then we would be
covering an odd number of red squares, a contradiction.

Practice

51 Problem Twenty-five boys and girls are seated at a round table. Shew that both any two of them and replacing the deleted ones with their difference. Will a situation
neighbours of at least one student are girls. arise where all the numbers on the blackboard be 0?

54 Problem Shew that a 10 × 10 chessboard cannot be tiled with 25 straight tetromi-

52 Problem A closed path is made of 2001 line segments. Prove that there is no line,
noes.
not passing through a vertex of the path, intersecting each of the segments of the path.

55 Problem Shew that an 8 × 8 chess board cannot be tiled with 15 T-tetrominoes and
53 Problem The numbers 1, 2, . . . ,2001 are written on a blackboard. One starts erasing one square tetromino.
Chapter 2
Algebra

2.1 Identities with Squares

Recall that
(x + y)2 = (x + y)(x + y) = x2 + y2 + 2xy (2.1)
If we substitute y by y + z we obtain
(x + y + z)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2xz + 2yz (2.2)
If we substitute z by z + w we obtain

(x + y + z + w)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + w2 + 2xy + 2xz + 2xw + 2yz + 2yw + 2zw (2.3)

56 Example The sum of two numbers is 21 and their product −7. Find (i) the sum of their squares, (ii) the sum of their
reciprocals and (iii) the sum of their fourth powers.

Solution: If the two numbers are a and b, we are given that a + b = 21 and ab = −7. Hence

a2 + b2 = (a + b)2 − 2ab = 212 − 2(−7) = 455

and
1 1 b+a 21
+ = = = −3
a b ab −7
Also
a4 + b4 = (a2 + b2 )2 − 2a2 b2 = 4552 − 2(−7)2 = 357

57 Example Find positive integers a and b with

√ √ √
5 + 24 = a + b.

Solution: Observe that √ √ √ √

5 + 24 = 3 + 2 2 · 3 + 2 = ( 2 + 3)2 .
Therefore
√ √ √
5 + 2 6 = 2 + 3.

58 Example Compute
(1000000)(1000001)(1000002)(1000003) + 1
without using a calculator.

8
Identities with Squares 9

Solution: Let x = 1 000 000 = 106 . Then

x(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) = x(x + 3)(x + 1)(x + 2) = (x2 + 3x)(x2 + 3x + 2).

Put y = x2 + 3x. Then

x(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) + 1 = (x2 + 3x)(x2 + 3x + 2) + 1 = y(y + 2) + 1 = (y + 1)2.

Thus
x(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) + 1 = y+1
= x2 + 3x + 1
= 1012 + 3 · 106 + 1
= 1 000 003 000 001.

Another useful identity is the difference of squares:

x2 − y2 = (x − y)(x + y) (2.4)

59 Example Explain how to compute 1234567892 − 123456790 × 123456788 mentally.

Solution: Put x = 123456789. Then

1234567892 − 123456790 × 123456788 = x2 − (x + 1)(x − 1) = 1.

60 Example Shew that

1 + x + x2 + · · · + x1023 = (1 + x)(1 + x2)(1 + x4 ) · · · (1 + x256)(1 + x512).

Solution: Put S = 1 + x + x2 + · · · + x1023. Then xS = x + x2 + · · · + x1024. This gives

S − xS = (1 + x + x2 + · · · + x1023) − (x + x2 + · · · + x1024) = 1 − x1024

or S(1 − x) = 1 − x1024, from where

1 − x1024
1 + x + x2 + · · · + x1023 = S = .
1−x
But
1 − x1024 1 − x1024 1 − x512 1 − x4 1 − x2
= · · ·
1−x 1 − x512 1 − x256 1 − x2 1−x
= (1 + x512)(1 + x256 ) · · · (1 + x2)(1 + x),

proving the assertion.

61 Example Given that

1 1 1 1
√ √ +√ √ +√ √ + ···+ √ √
1+ 2 2+ 3 3+ 4 99 + 100
is an integer, find it.
√ √ √ √
Solution: As 1 = n + 1 − n = ( n + 1 − n)( n + 1 + n), we have

1 √ √
√ √ = n + 1 − n.
n+ n+1
10 Chapter 2

Therefore
1 √ √
√ √ = 2− 1
1+ 2
1 √ √
√ √ = 3− 2
2+ 3
1 √ √
√ √ = 4− 3
3+ 4
.. .. ..
. . .
1 √ √
√ √ = 100 − 99,
99 + 100
and thus
1 1 1 1 √ √
√ √ +√ √ +√ √ + ···+ √ √ = 100 − 1 = 9.
1+ 2 2+ 3 3+ 4 99 + 100
Using the difference of squares identity,

x4 + x2 y2 + y4 = x4 + 2x2 y2 + y4 − x2 y2
= (x2 + y2 )2 − (xy)2
= (x2 − xy + y2)(x2 + xy + y2).

The following factorisation is credited to Sophie Germain.

a4 + 4b4 = a4 + 4a2 b2 + 4b4 − 4a2b2

= (a2 + 2b2)2 − (2ab)2
= (a2 − 2ab + 2b2)(a2 + 2ab + 2b2)

62 Example Prove that n4 + 4 is a prime only when n = 1 for n ∈ N.

Solution: Using Sophie Germain’s trick,

n4 + 4 = n4 + 4n2 + 4 − 4n2
= (n2 + 2)2 − (2n)2
= (n2 + 2 − 2n)(n2 + 2 + 2n)
= ((n − 1)2 + 1)((n + 1)2 + 1).

Each factor is greater than 1 for n > 1, and so n4 + 4 cannot be a prime if n > 1.

63 Example Shew that the product of four consecutive integers, none of them 0, is never a perfect square.

Solution: Let n − 1, n, n + 1, n + 2 be four consecutive integers. Then their product P is

P = (n − 1)n(n + 1)(n + 2) = (n3 − n)(n + 2) = n4 + 2n3 − n2 − 2n.

But
(n2 + n − 1)2 = n4 + 2n3 − n2 − 2n + 1 = P + 1 > P.
As P &= 0 and P is 1 more than a square, P cannot be a square.

64 Example Find infinitely many pairs of integers (m, n) such that m and n share their prime factors and (m − 1, n − 1) share
their prime factors.
Practice 11

Solution: Take m = 2k − 1, n = (2k − 1)2 , k = 2, 3, . . .. Then m, n obviously share their prime factors and m − 1 = 2(2k−1 − 1)
shares its prime factors with n − 1 = 2k+1 (2k−1 − 1).

65 Example Prove that if r ≥ s ≥ t then

r2 − s2 + t 2 ≥ (r − s + t)2 (2.5)

Solution: We have
(r − s + t)2 − t 2 = (r − s + t − t)(r − s + t + t) = (r − s)(r − s + 2t).
Since t − s ≤ 0, r − s + 2t = r + s + 2(t − s) ≤ r + s and so

(r − s + t)2 − t 2 ≤ (r − s)(r + s) = r2 − s2

which gives
(r − s + t)2 ≤ r2 − s2 + t 2 .

Practice

66 Problem The sum of two numbers is −7 and their product 2. Find (i) the sum of 78 Problem Solve the system
their reciprocals, (ii) the sum of their squares. x + y = 9,
x2 + xy + y2 = 61.
67 Problem Write x2 as a sum of powers of x + 3.
79 Problem Solve the system
x − y = 10,
68 Problem Write x2 − 3x + 8 as a sum of powers of x − 1.
x2 − 4xy + y2 = 52.

69 Problem Prove that 3 is the only prime of the form n2 − 1.

80 Problem Find the sum of the prime divisors of 216 − 1.

70 Problem Prove that there are no primes of the form n4 − 1.

81 Problem Find integers a, b with
√ √
71 Problem Prove that n4 + 4n is prime only for n = 1. 11 + 72 = a + b.

72 Problem Use Sophie Germain’s trick to obtain 82 Problem Given that the difference
√ √
x4 + x2 + 1 = (x2 + x + 1)(x2 − x + 1), 57 − 40 2 − 57 + 40 2
and then find all the primes of the form n4 + n2 + 1. is an integer, find it.

2 1 1 a2 83 Problem Solve the equation

73 Problem If a, b satisfy = + , find 2 .
a+b a b b √ √
x+3−4 x−1+ x + 8 − 6 x − 1 = 1.

74 Problem If cot x + tan x = a, prove that cot2 x + tan2 x = a2 − 2. .

√ √ √
84 Problem Prove that if a > 0, b > 0, a + b > c, then a+ b > c
75 Problem Prove that if a, b, c are positive integers, then
√ √ √ √ √ √ 85 Problem Prove that if 1 < x < 2, then
( a + b + c)(− a + b + c)
√ √ √ √ √ √ 1 1 2
·( a − b + c)( a + b − c) √ + √ = .
2−x
x+2 x−1 x−2 x−1
is an integer.

86 Problem If x > 0, from

76 Problem By direct computation, shew that the product of sums of two squares is √ √ 1
itself a sum of two squares: x+1− x = √ √ ,
x+1+ x
(a2 + b2 )(c2 + d 2 ) = (ac + bd)2 + (ad − bc)2 (2.6)
prove that
1 √ √ 1
√ < x+1− x < √ .
77 Problem Divide x 128
−y 128
by 2 x+1 2 x
Use this to prove that if n > 1 is a positive integer, then
(x + y)(x2 + y2 )(x4 + y4 )(x8 + y8 ) √ √
1 1 1
(x16 + y16 )(x32 + y32 )(x64 + y64 ). 2 n + 1 − 2 < 1 + √ + √ + ··· + √ < 2 n − 1
2 3 n
12 Chapter 2

87 Problem Shew that 89 Problem Prove that if r ≥ s ≥ t ≥ u ≥ v then

1 − x2048 r2 − s2 + t 2 − u2 + v2 ≥ (r − s + t − u + v)2 (2.7)

(1 + x)(1 + x2 )(1 + x4 )(1 + x8 ) · · · (1 + x1024 ) = .
1−x

90 Problem (AIME 1987) Compute

88 Problem Shew that
(104 + 324)(224 + 324)(344 + 324)(464 + 324)(584 + 324)
.
2 2 2 1 (44 + 324)(164 + 324)(284 + 324)(404 + 324)(524 + 324)
a + b + c − ab − bc − ca = (a − b)2 + (b − c)2 + (c − a)2 .
2

91 Problem Write (a2 + a + 1)2 as the sum of three squares.

2.2 Squares of Real Numbers

√ √ √
If x is a real number then x2 ≥ 0. Thus if a ≥ 0, b ≥ 0 then ( a − b)2 ≥ 0 gives, upon expanding the square, a − 2 ab + b ≥ 0,
or
√ a+b
ab ≤ .
2
a+b √
Since is the arithmetic mean of a, b and ab is the geometric mean of a, b the inequality
2
√ a+b
ab ≤ (2.8)
2
is known as the Arithmetic-Mean-Geometric Mean (AM-GM) Inequality.

92 Example Let u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 be non-negative real numbers. By applying the preceding result twice, establish the AM-GM
Inequality for four quantities:
u1 + u2 + u3 + u4
(u1 u2 u3 u4 )1/4 ≤ (2.9)
4

√ u1 + u2 √ u3 + u4 √ √
Solution: We have u1 u2 ≤and u3 u4 ≤ . Now, applying the AM-GM Inequality twice to u1 u2 and u3 u4
2 2
we obtain √ √
√ √ u1 u2 + u3 u4 u1 +u2
+ u3 +u 4
u1 u2 u3 u4 ≤ ≤ 2 2
.
2 2
Simplification yields the desired result.

u+v+w
93 Example Let u, v, w be non-negative real numbers. By using the preceding result on the four quantities u, v, w, and ,
3
establish the AM-GM Inequality for three quantities:
u+v+w
(uvw)1/3 ≤ (2.10)
3

Solution: By the AM-GM Inequality for four values

u+v+w 1/4 u + v + w + u+v+w

3
uvw ≤ .
3 4
Some algebraic manipulation makes this equivalent to

u+v+w 1/4 u+v+w u+v+w

(uvw)1/4 ≤ +
3 4 12
or upon adding the fraction on the right

u+v+w 1/4 u+v+w

(uvw)1/4 ≤ .
3 3
Squares of Real Numbers 13

u+v+w −1/4
Multiplying both sides by we obtain
3
u+v+w 3/4
(uvw)1/4 ≤ ,
3
from where the desired inequality follows.

94 Example Let a > 0, b > 0. Prove the Harmonic-Mean-Geometric-Mean Inequality

2 √
1 1
≤ ab (2.11)
a +b

Solution: By the AM-HM Inequality

1
1 1 a + 1b
· ≤ ,
a b 2
from where the desired inequality follows.

95 Example Prove that if a, b, c are non-negative real numbers then

(a + b)(b + c)(c + a) ≥ 8abc.
√ √ √
Solution: The result quickly follows upon multiplying the three inequalities a + b ≥ 2 ab, b + c ≥ 2 bc and c + a ≥ 2 ca.

96 Example If a, b, c, d, are real numbers such that a2 + b2 + c2 + d 2 = ab + bc + cd + da, prove that a = b = c = d.

Solution: Transposing,
a2 − ab + b2 − bc + c2 − dc + d 2 − da = 0,
or
a2 b2 b2 c2 c2 d2 d2 a2
− ab + + − bc + + − dc + + − da + = 0.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Factoring,
1 1 1 1
(a − b)2 + (b − c)2 + (c − d)2 + (d − a)2 = 0.
2 2 2 2
As the sum of non-negative quantities is zero only when the quantities themselves are zero, we obtain a = b, b = c, c = d, d = a,
which proves the assertion.
We note in passing that from the identity
1
a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca = (a − b)2 + (b − c)2 + (c − a)2 (2.12)
2
it follows that
a2 + b2 + c2 ≥ ab + bc + ca (2.13)

97 Example The values of a, b, c, and d are 1, 2, 3 and 4 but not necessarily in that order. What is the largest possible value of
ab + bc + cd + da?

Solution:
ab + bc + cd + da = (a + c)(b + d)
2
a+c+b+d
≤
2
2
1+2+3+4
=
2
= 25,
by AM-GM. Equality occurs when a + c = b + d. Thus one may choose, for example, a = 1, c = 4, b = 2, d = 3.
14 Chapter 2

Practice

98 Problem If 0 < a ≤ b, shew that 102 Problem Prove that of all rectangles with a given perimeter, the square has the
largest area.
1 (b − a)2 a+b √ 1 (b − a)2
· ≤ − ab ≤ ·
8 b 2 8 a
1
103 Problem Prove that if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 then x − x2 ≤ .
4
99 Problem Prove that if a, b, c are non-negative real numbers then

(a2 + 1)(b2 + 1)(c2 + 1) ≥ 8abc 104 Problem Let 0 ≤ a, b, c, d ≤ 1. Prove that at least one of the products

100 Problem The sum of two positive numbers is 100. Find their maximum possible a(1 − b), b(1 − c), c(1 − d), d(1 − a)
product.
1
is ≤ .
4
101 Problem Prove that if a, b, c are positive numbers then

a b c 105 Problem Use the AM-GM Inequality for four non-negative real numbers to prove
+ + ≥ 3.
b c a a version of the AM-GM for eight non-negative real numbers.

2.3 Identities with Cubes

By direct computation we find that
(x + y)3 = (x + y)(x2 + y2 + 2xy) = x3 + y3 + 3xy(x + y) (2.14)

106 Example The sum of two numbers is 2 and their product 5. Find the sum of their cubes.

Solution: If the numbers are x, y then x3 + y3 = (x + y)3 − 3xy(x + y) = 23 − 3(5)(2) = −22.

Two other useful identities are the sum and difference of cubes,
x3 ± y3 = (x ± y)(x2 ∓ xy + y2) (2.15)

107 Example Find all the prime numbers of the form n3 − 1, n a positive integer.

Solution: As n3 − 1 = (n − 1)(n2 + n + 1) and as n2 + n + 1 > 1, it must be the case that n − 1 = 1, i.e., n = 2. Therefore, the
only prime of this form is 23 − 1 = 7.

108 Example Prove that

1 + x + x2 + · · · + x80 = (x54 + x27 + 1)(x18 + x9 + 1)(x6 + x3 + 1)(x2 + x + 1).

Solution: Put S = 1 + x + x2 + · · · + x80 . Then

S − xS = (1 + x + x2 + · · · + x80 ) − (x + x2 + x3 + · · · + x80 + x81 ) = 1 − x81,
or S(1 − x) = 1 − x81. Hence
x81 − 1
1 + x + x2 + · · · + x80 = .
x−1
Therefore
x81 − 1 x81 − 1 x27 − 1 x9 − 1 x3 − 1
= 27 · · · .
x−1 x − 1 x9 − 1 x3 − 1 x − 1
Thus
1 + x + x2 + · · · + x80 = (x54 + x27 + 1)(x18 + x9 + 1)(x6 + x3 + 1)(x2 + x + 1).

109 Example Shew that

a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca) (2.16)
Practice 15

Solution: We use the identity

x3 + y3 = (x + y)3 − 3xy(x + y)
twice. Then
a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b)3 + c3 − 3ab(a + b) − 3abc
= (a + b + c)3 − 3(a + b)c(a + b + c) − 3ab(a + b + c)
= (a + b + c)((a + b + c)2 − 3ac − 3bc − 3ab)
= (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca)

If a, b, c are non-negative then a + b + c ≥ 0 and also a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca ≥ 0 by (2.13). This gives

a 3 + b 3 + c3
≥ abc.
3

Letting a3 = x, b3 = y, c3 = z, for non-negative real numbers x, y, z, we obtain the AM-GM Inequality for three quantities.

Practice

110 Problem If a3 − b3 = 24, a − b = 2, find (a + b)2 . x2 − xy + y2 = 21.

111 Problem Shew that for integer n ≥ 2, the expression 116 Problem Evaluate the sum

3
n + (n + 2) 3 1 1
√
3
√ √ +√ √ √
4 1+ 3 2+ 3 4 3
4+ 3 6+ 3 9
1
is a composite integer.
+√3
√ √ .
9 + 3 12 + 3 16

112 Problem If tan x + cotx = a, prove that tan3 x + cot3 x = a3 − 3a. 117 Problem Find a6 + a−6 given that a2 + a−2 = 4.

113 Problem (AIME 1986) What is the largest positive integer n for which 118 Problem Prove that

(n + 10)|(n3 + 100)?
(a + b + c)3 − a3 − b3 − c3 = 3(a + b)(b + c)(c + a) (2.17)

114 Problem Find all the primes of the form n3 + 1.

119 Problem (ITT 1994) Let a, b, c, d be complex numbers satisfying

115 Problem Solve the system a + b + c + d = a3 + b3 + c3 + d 3 = 0.

x3 + y3 = 126, Prove that a pair of the a, b, c, d must add up to 0.

2.4 Miscellaneous Algebraic Identities

We have seen the identity
y2 − x2 = (y − x)(y + x). (2.18)
We would like to deduce a general identity for yn − xn , where n is a positive integer. A few multiplications confirm that

y3 − x3 = (y − x)(y2 + yx + x2), (2.19)

y4 − x4 = (y − x)(y3 + y2 x + yx2 + x3 ), (2.20)

and
y5 − x5 = (y − x)(y4 + y3 x + y2 x2 + yx3 + x4 ). (2.21)
The general result is in fact the following theorem.
16 Chapter 2

120 Theorem If n is a positive integer, then

yn − xn = (y − x)(yn−1 + yn−2x + · · · + yxn−2 + xn−1 ).

Proof: We first prove that for a &= 1.

1 − an
1 + a + a2 + · · · an−1 = .
1−a

For, put S = 1 + a + a2 + · · · + an−1 . Then aS = a + a2 + · · · + an−1 + an . Thus S − aS = (1 + a + a2 + · · · + an−1 ) −

(a + a2 + · · · + an−1 + an ) = 1 − an , and from (1 − a)S = S − aS = 1 − an we obtain the result. By making the
x
substitution a = we see that
y
x n
x x 2 x n−1 1 − y
1+ + + ··· + =
y y y 1 − xy
we obtain
2 n−1 n
x x x x x
1− 1+ + + ···+ = 1− ,
y y y y y
or equivalently,
x x x2 xn−1 xn
1− 1 + + 2 + · · · + n−1 = 1− .
y y y y yn
Multiplying by yn both sides,

x n−1 x x2 xn−1 xn
y 1− y 1 + + 2 + · · · + n−1 = yn 1 − ,
y y y y yn

which is
yn − xn = (y − x)(yn−1 + yn−2x + · · · + yxn−2 + xn−1 ),
yielding the result. ❑

☞ The second factor has n terms and each term has degree (weight) n − 1.

As an easy corollary we deduce

121 Corollary If x, y are integers x &= y and n is a positive integer then x − y divides xn − yn .

Thus without any painful calculation we see that 781 = 1996 − 1215 divides 19965 − 12155.

122 Example (Eőtvős 1899) Shew that for any positive integer n, the expression

2903n − 803n − 464n + 261n

is always divisible by 1897.

Solution: By the theorem above, 2903n − 803n is divisible by 2903 − 803 = 2100 = 7 · 300 and 261n − 464n is divisible by
−203 = (−29) · 7. This means that the given expression is divisible by 7. Furthermore, 2903n − 464n is divisible by 2903 −
464 = 2439 = 9 · 271 and −803n + 261n is divisible by −803 + 261 = −542 = −2 · 271. Therefore as the given expression
is divisible by 7 and by 271 and as these two numbers have no common factors, we have that 2903n − 803n − 464n + 261n is
divisible by 7 · 271 = 1897.

123 Example ((UM)2C4 1987) Given that 1002004008016032 has a prime factor p > 250000, find it.
Miscellaneous Algebraic Identities 17

Solution: If a = 103 , b = 2 then

a6 − b6
1002004008016032 = a5 + a4b + a3b2 + a2 b3 + ab4 + b5 = .
a−b
This last expression factorises as
a6 − b6
= (a + b)(a2 + ab + b2)(a2 − ab + b2)
a−b
= 1002 · 1002004 · 998004
= 4 · 4 · 1002 · 250501 · k,

where k < 250000. Therefore p = 250501.

Another useful corollary of Theorem 120 is the following.

124 Corollary If f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn is a polynomial with integral coefficients and if a, b are integers then b − a divides
f (b) − f (a).

125 Example Prove that there is no polynomial p with integral coefficients with p(2) = 3 and p(7) = 17.

Solution: If the assertion were true then by the preceding corollary, 7 − 2 = 5 would divide p(7) − p(2) = 17 − 3 = 14, which
is patently false.
Theorem 120 also yields the following colloraries.

126 Corollary If n is an odd positive integer

xn + yn = (x + y)(xn−1 − xn−2 y + xn−3 y2 − xn−4 y3 + · · · + x2 yn−3 − xyn−2 + yn−1) (2.22)

127 Corollary Let x, y be integers, x &= y and let n be an odd positive number. Then x + y divides xn + yn .

For example 129 = 27 + 1 divides 2861 + 1 and 1001 = 1000 + 1 = 999 + 2 = · · · = 500 + 501 divides
11997 + 21997 + · · · + 10001997.

128 Example Prove the following identity of Catalan:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1− + − + ···+ − = + + ··· + .
2 3 4 2n − 1 2n n + 1 n + 2 2n

Solution: The quantity on the sinistral side is

1 1 1 1 1
1+ + + + ···+ +
2 3 4 2n − 1 2n
1 1 1 1
−2 + + + ···+
2 4 6 2n
1 1 1 1 1
= 1+ + + + ···+ +
2 3 4 2n − 1 2n
1 1 1 1 1
−2 · 1 + + + + ···+
2 2 3 4 n
1 1 1 1 1
= 1 + + + + ···+ +
2 3 4 2n − 1 2n
1 1 1 1
− 1 + + + + ···+
2 3 4 n
1 1 1
= + + ···+ ,
n+1 n+2 2n
as we wanted to shew.
18 Chapter 2

Practice

129 Problem Shew that 100 divides 1110 − 1. 136 Problem Shew that for any natural number n, there is another natural number x
such that each term of the sequence

130 Problem Shew that 271958 − 108878 + 101528 is divisible by 26460. x

x + 1, xx + 1, xx + 1, . . .

is divisible by n.
131 Problem Shew that 7 divides

22225555 + 55552222 . 137 Problem Shew that 1492n − 1770n − 1863n + 2141n is divisible by 1946 for all
positive integers n.

132 Problem Shew that if k is an odd positive integer

138 Problem Decompose 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · + x624 into factors.
1k + 2k + · · · + nk
139 Problem Shew that if 2n − 1 is prime, then n must be prime. Primes of this form
is divisible by are called Mersenne primes.
1 + 2 + · · · + n.

140 Problem Shew that if 2n + 1 is a prime, then n must be a power of 2. Primes of this
133 Problem Shew that form are called Fermat primes.

(x + y)5 − x5 − y5 = 5xy(x + y)(x2 + xy + y2 ). 141 Problem Let n be a positive integer and x > y. Prove that

xn − yn
134 Problem Shew that > nyn−1 .
x−y

(x + a)7 − x7 − a7 = 7xa(x + a)(x2 + xa + a2 )2 . By choosing suitable values of x and y, further prove than

n n+1
1 1
135 Problem Shew that 1+ < 1+
n n+1

A = x9999 + x8888 + x7777 + · · · + x1111 + 1 and

n+1 n+2
1 1
9 8 7 2 1+ > 1+
is divisible by B = x + x + x + · · · + x + x + 1. n n+1

2.5 Logarithms
142 Definition Let a > 0, a &= 1 be a real number. A number x is called the logarithm of a number N to the base a if ax = N. In
this case we write x = loga N.

We enumerate some useful properties of logarithms. We assume that a > 0, a &= 1, M > 0, N > 0.

aloga N = N (2.23)
loga MN = loga M + loga N (2.24)
M
loga = loga M − loga N (2.25)
N
loga N α = α loga N, α any real number (2.26)
1
logaβ N = loga N, β &= 0 a real number (2.27)
β
(loga b)(logb a) = 1, b > 0, b &= 1. (2.28)

143 Example Given that log8√2 1024 is a rational number, find it.

Solution: We have
2 20
log8√2 1024 = log27/2 1024 = log2 210 =
7 7
Logarithms 19

144 Example Given that

(log2 3) · (log3 4) · (log4 5) · · · (log511 512)
is an integer, find it.

Solution: Choose a > 0, a &= 1. Then

loga 3 loga 4 loga 5 loga 512
(log2 3) · (log3 4) · (log4 5) · · · (log511 512) = · · ···
loga 2 loga 3 loga 4 loga 511
loga 512
= .
loga 2

But
loga 512
= log2 512 = log2 29 = 9,
loga 2
so the integer sought is 9.

145 Example Simplify

S = log tan 1◦ + log tan 2◦ + logtan 3◦ + · · · + log tan 89◦ .

Solution: Observe that (90 − k)◦ + k◦ = 90◦ . Thus adding the kth term to the (90 − k)th term, we obtain

S = log(tan 1◦ )(tan 89◦ ) + log(tan 2◦ )(tan 88◦ )

+ log(tan 3◦ )(tan 87◦ ) + · · · + log(tan 44◦ )(tan 46◦ ) + logtan 45◦ .

As tan k◦ = 1/ tan(90 − k)◦ , we get

S = log 1 + log1 + · · · + log 1 + logtan 45◦ .
Finally, as tan 45◦ = 1, we gather that
S = log 1 + log1 + · · · + log 1 = 0.

146 Example Which is greater log5 7 or log8 3?

Solution: Clearly log5 7 > 1 > log8 3.

147 Example Solve the system

5 logx y + logy x = 26
xy = 64

1
Solution: Clearly we need x > 0, y > 0, x &= 1, y &= 1. The first equation may be written as 5 logx y + = 26 which is
logx y
1
the same as (logx y − 5)(logy x − ) = 0. Thus the system splits into the two equivalent systems (I) logx y = 5, xy = 64 and
5
(II) logx y = 1/5, xy = 64. Using the conditions x > 0, y > 0, x &= 1, y &= 1 we obtain the two sets of solutions x = 2, y = 32 or
x = 32, y = 2.

148 Example Let !x" be the unique integer satisfying x − 1 < !x" ≤ x. For example !2.9" = 2, !−π " = −4. Find

!log2 1" + !log2 2" + !log2 3" + · · · + !log2 1000".

Solution: First observe that 29 = 512 < 1000 < 1024 = 210 . We decompose the interval [1; 1000] into dyadic blocks

[1; 1000] = [1; 2[ [2; 22 [ [22 ; 23 [ ··· [28 ; 29 [ [29 ; 1000].

20 Chapter 2

If x ∈ [2k , 2k+1 [ then !log2 x" = k. If a, b are integers, the interval [a; b[ contains b − a integers. Thus

!log2 1" + !log2 2" + !log2 3" + · · · + !log2 1000" = (21 − 20)0 + (22 − 21 )1
+(23 − 22 )2 + · · ·
+(29 − 28 )8
+(1000 − 29)9
= 0+2·1+4·2+8·3
+16 · 4 + 32 · 5+
+64 · 6 + 128 · 7
+256 · 8 + 489 · 9
= 7987

(the last interval has 1000 − 512 + 1 = 489 integers).

Practice

149 Problem Find the exact value of 154 Problem Solve the equation

√ √
1 1 1 5 5
+ + log1/3 cos x + + log1/3 cos x − = 2.
log2 1996! log3 1996! log4 1996! 6 6
1
+··· + .
log1996 1996!
155 Problem Solve
log2 x + log4 y + log4 z = 2,
150 Problem Shew that log1/2 x > log1/3 x only when 0 < x < 1.
log3 x + log9 y + log9 z = 2,

log4 x + log16 y + log16 z = 2.

151 Problem Prove that log3 π + logπ 3 > 2.

156 Problem Solve the equation

1
152 Problem Let a > 1. Shew that > 1 only when 1 < x < a. 0.5 log√x (x2 −x)
loga x x = 3log9 4 .

153 Problem Let A = log6 16, B = log12 27. Find integers a, b, c such that (A + a)(B + 157 Problem Given that logab a = 4, find
b) = c. √
3a
logab √ .
b

2.6 Complex Numbers

√
We use the symbol i to denote i = −1. Then i2 = −1. Clearly i0 = 1, i1 = 1, i2 = −1, i3 = −i, i4 = 1, i5 = i, etc., and so the
powers of i repeat themselves cyclically in a cycle of period 4.

158 Example Find i1934 .

Solution: Observe that 1934 = 4(483) + 2 and so i1934 = i2 = −1.

Complex numbers occur naturally in the solution of quadratic equations.

159 Example Solve 2x2 + 6x + 5 = 0

Complex Numbers 21

Solution: Completing squares,

9 1
2x2 + 6x + 5 = 2x2 + 6x + +
√ 2 2
3 1
= ( 2x + √ )2 − (i √ )2
2 2
√ 3 1 √ 3 1
= ( 2x + √ − i √ )( 2x + √ + i √ ).
2 2 2 2
3 1
Then x = − ± i .
2 2
If a, b are real numbers then the object a + bi is called a complex number. If a + bi, c + di are complex numbers, then the
sum of them is naturally defined as
(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i (2.29)
The product of a + bi and c + di is obtained by multiplying the binomials:

(a + bi)(c + di) = ac + adi + bci + bdi2 = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i (2.30)

160 Definition If a, b are real numbers, then the conjugate a + bi of a + bi is defined by

a + bi = a − bi (2.31)

The norm |a + bi| of a + bi is defined by

|a + bi| = (a + bi)(a + bi) = a2 + b2 (2.32)

161 Example Find |7 + 3i|.

√
Solution: |7 + 3i| = (7 + 3i)(7 − 3i) = 72 + 32 = 58.

2 + 3i
162 Example Express the quotient in the form a + bi.
3 − 5i

Solution: We have
2 + 3i 2 + 3i 3 + 5i −9 + 19i −9 19i
= · == = +
3 − 5i 3 − 5i 3 + 5i 34 34 34
If z1 , z2 are complex numbers, then their norms are multiplicative.

|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | (2.33)

163 Example Write (22 + 32 )(52 + 72 ) as the sum of two squares.

Solution: The idea is to write 22 + 32 = |2 + 3i|2, 52 + 72 = |5 + 7i|2 and use the multiplicativity of the norm. Now

(22 + 32 )(52 + 72 ) = |2 + 3i|2|5 + 7i|2

= |(2 + 3i)(5 + 7i)|2
= | − 11 + 29i|2
= 112 + 292

164 Example Find the roots of x3 − 1 = 0.

22 Chapter 2

Solution: x3 − 1 = (x 2 2
√− 1)(x + x + 1). If x &= 1, the two solutions to√x + x + 1 = 0 can be obtained √
using the quadratic formula,
getting x = 1/2 ± i 3/2. Traditionally one denotes ω = 1/2 + i 3/2 and hence ω = 1/2 − i 3/2. Clearly ω 3 = 1 and
2

ω 2 + ω + 1 = 0.

165 Example (AHSME 1992) Find the product of the real parts of the roots of z2 − z = 5 − 5i.

Solution: By the quadratic formula,

1 1√
z = ± 21 − 20i
2 2
1 1 √
= ± 21 − 2 −100
2 2
1 1
= ± 25 − 2 (25)(−4) − 4
2 2
1 1
= ± (5 − 2i)2
2 2
1 5 − 2i
= ±
2 2
The roots are thus 3 − i and −2 + i. The product of their real parts is therefore (3)(−2) = −6.

☞ Had we chosen to write 21 − 20i = (−5 + 2i) , we would have still gotten the same values of z.
2
Practice 23

Practice

166 Problem Simplify 168 Problem Let

(1 + i)2004
.
(1 − i)2000 (1 + x + x2 )1000 = a0 + a1 x + · · · + a2000 x2000 .

Find
167 Problem Prove that a0 + a4 + a8 + · · · + a2000 .

1 + 2i + 3i2 + 4i3

+ · · · + 1995i1994 + 1996i1995

= −998 − 998i.
Chapter 3
Arithmetic

3.1 Division Algorithm

169 Definition If a &= 0, b are integers, we say that a divides b if there is an integer c such that ac = b. We write this as a|b.

If a does not divide b we write a & |b. It should be clear that if a|b and b &= 0 then 1 ≤ |a| ≤ |b|.

170 Theorem The following are properties of divisibility.

• If c divides a and b then c divides any linear combination of a and b. That is, if a, b, c, m, n are integers with c|a, c|b, then
c|(am + nb).
• Division by an integer is transitive. That is, if x, y, z are integers with x|y, y|z then x|z.

Proof: There are integers s,t with sc = a,tc = b. Thus

am + nb = c(sm + tn),

giving c|(am + bn). Also, there are integers u, v with xu = y, yv = z. Hence xuv = z, giving x|z. ❑

A very useful property of the integers is the following:

171 Theorem (Division Algorithm) Let a, b be integers, b > 0. There exist unique integers q and r satisfying

a = bq + r, 0 ≤ r < b (3.1)

Proof: The set S = {a − bs : s ∈ Z, b − as ≥ 0} is non-empty, since a − b(−a2) ≥ 0. Since S is a non-empty set of

non-negative integers, it must contain a least element, say r = a − bq. To prove uniqueness, assume a = bq + r =
bq- + r- with 0 ≤ r- < b. Then b(q − q- ) = r- − r. This means that b|(r- − r). Since 0 ≤ |r- − r| < b, we must have
r- = r. But this also implies q = q- . ❑

For example, 39 = 4 · 9 + 3. The Division Algorithm thus discriminates integers according to the remainder they leave upon
division by a. For example, if a = 2, then according to the Division Algorithm, the integers may be decomposed into the two
families
A0 = {. . . − 4, −2, 0, 2, 4, . . .},
A1 = {. . . , −5, −3, −1, 1, 3, 5, . . .}.
Therefore, all integers have one of the forms 2k or 2k + 1. We mention in passing that every integer of the form 2k + 1 is
also of the form 2t − 1, for 2k + 1 = 2(k + 1) − 1, so it suffices to take t = k + 1.

24
Division Algorithm 25

If a = 4 we may decompose the integers into the four families

B0 = {. . . , −8, −4, 0, 4, 8, . . .},

B1 = {. . . , −7, −3, 1, 5, 9, . . .},

B2 = {. . . , −6, −2, 2, 6, 10, . . .},

B3 = {. . . , −5, −1, 3, 7, 11, . . .}.

Therefore any integer will take one of the forms 4k, 4k + 1, 4k + 2 or 4k + 3. Again, any integer of the form 4k + 1 is also of the
form 4t − 3 and any integer of the form 4k + 3 is also of the form 4t − 1.

172 Example Shew that the square of any integer is of the form 4k or of the form 4k + 1. That is, the square of any integer is
either divisible by 4 or leaves remainder 1 upon division by 4.

Solution: If n is even, that is n = 2a, then n2 = (2a)2 = 4a2 , which is of the form 4k. If n is odd, say n = 2t + 1, then
n2 = (2t + 1)2 = 4(t 2 + t) + 1, which is of the form 4k + 1.

173 Example Shew that no integer in the sequence

11, 111, 1111, 11111, . . .

is a perfect square.

Solution: Clearly 11 is not a square, so assume, that an integer of this sequence has n > 2 digits. If n > 2,

11 . . . 1 = 11 . . . 11 00 + 12 − 1 = 100 · 11 . . .11 +12 − 1.

n 1- s n−2 1- s n−2 1- s

Hence any integer in this sequence is of the form 4k − 1. By the preceding problem, no integer of the form 4k − 1 can be a
square. This finishes the proof.

174 Example Shew that n2 + 23 is divisible by 24 for infinitely many values of n.

Solution: Observe that n2 + 23 = n2 − 1 + 24 = (n − 1)(n + 1) + 24. Therefore the families of integers n = 24m ± 1, m =
0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . . produce infinitely many values such that n2 + 23 is divisible by 24.

175 Example Shew that the square of any prime greater than 3 leaves remainder 1 upon division by 12.

Solution: If p > 3 is prime, then p is of one of the forms 6k ± 1.

Now,
(6k ± 1)2 = 12(3k2 ± k) + 1,
proving the assertion.

176 Example Prove that if p is a prime, then one of 8p − 1 and 8p + 1 is a prime and the other is composite.

Solution: If p = 3, 8p −1 = 23 and 8p +1 = 25, then the assertion is true for p = 3. If p > 3, then either p = 3k +1 or p = 3k +2.
If p = 3k + 1, 8p − 1 = 24k − 7 and 8p + 1 = 24k − 6, which is divisible by 6 and hence not prime. If p = 3k + 2, 8p − 1 =
24k − 15 is not a prime, .

177 Example Shew that if 3n + 1 is a square, then n + 1 is the sum of three squares.
26 Chapter 3

Solution: Clearly 3n + 1 is not a multiple of 3, and so 3n + 1 = (3k ± 1)2. Therefore

(3k ± 1)2 − 1
n+1 = + 1 = 3k2 ± 2k + 1 = k2 + k2 + (k ± 1)2,
3

as we wanted to shew.

178 Example (AHSME 1976) Let r be the common remainder when 1059, 1417 and 2312 are divided by d > 1. Find d − r.

Solution: By the division algorithm there are integers q1 , q2 , q3 with 1059 = dq1 + r, 1417 = dq2 + r and 2312 = dq3 + r.
Subtracting we get 1253 = d(q3 − q1 ), 895 = d(q3 − q2 ) and 358 = d(q2 − q1 ). Notice that d is a common divisor of 1253, 895,
and 358. As 1253 = 7 · 179, 895 = 5 · 179, and 358 = 2 · 179, we see that 179 is the common divisor greater than 1 of all three
quantities, and so d = 179. Since 1059 = 179q1 + r, and 1059 = 5 · 179 + 164, we deduce that r = 164. Finally, d − r = 15.

179 Example Shew that from any three integers, one can always choose two so that a3 b − ab3 is divisible by 10.

Solution: It is clear that a3 b − ab3 = ab(a − b)(a + b) is always even, no matter which integers are substituted. If one of the
three integers is of the form 5k, then we are done. If not, we are choosing three integers that lie in the residue classes 5k ± 1 or
5k ± 2. By the Pigeonhole Principle, two of them must lie in one of these two groups, and so there must be two whose sum or
whose difference is divisible by 5. The assertion follows.

Practice

180 Problem Find all positive integers n for which 189 Problem Shew that the product of two integers of the form 4n + 1 is again of this
form. Use this fact and an argument by contradiction similar to Euclid’s to prove that
n + 1|n2 + 1. there are infinitely many primes of the form 4n − 1.

181 Problem If 7|3x + 2 prove that 7|(15x2 − 11x − 14.). 190 Problem Prove that there are infinitely many primes of the form 6n − 1.

182 Problem Shew that the square of any integer is of the form 3k or 3k + 1. 191 Problem Prove that there are infinitely many primes p such that p − 2 is not prime.

183 Problem Prove that if 3|(a2 + b2 ), then 3|a and 3|b 192 Problem Demonstrate that there are no three consecutive odd integers such that
each is the sum of two squares greater than zero.

184 Problem Shew that if the sides of a right triangle are all integers, then 3 divides one
of the lengths of a side. 193 Problem Let n > 1 be a positive integer. Prove that if one of the numbers
2n − 1, 2n + 1 is prime, then the other is composite.

185 Problem Given that 5 divides (n + 2), which of the following are divisible by 5
194 Problem Prove that there are infinitely many integers n such that 4n2 +1 is divisible
n2 − 4, n2 + 8n + 7, n4 − 1, n2 − 2n? by both 13 and 5.

186 Problem Prove that there is no prime triplet of the form p, p + 2, p + 4, except for 195 Problem Prove that any integer n > 11 is the sum of two positive composite num-
3, 5, 7. bers.

187 Problem Find the largest positive integer n such that 196 Problem Prove that 3 never divides n2 + 1.

(n + 1)(n4 + 2n) + 3(n3 + 57)

197 Problem Shew the existence of infinitely many natural numbers x, y such that
be divisible by n2 + 2. x(x + 1)|y(y + 1) but
x & |y and (x + 1) & |y,

188 Problem Demonstrate that if n is a positive integer such that 2n + 1 is a square, and also
then n + 1 is the sum of two consecutive squares. x & |(y + 1) and (x + 1) & |(y + 1).
The Decimal Scale 27

3.2 The Decimal Scale

Any natural number n can be written in the form

n = a0 10k + a110k−1 + a210k−2 + · · · + ak−1 10 + ak

where 1 ≤ a0 ≤ 9, 0 ≤ a j ≤ 9, j ≥ 1. This is the decimal representation of n. For example

65789 = 6 · 104 + 5 · 103 + 7 · 102 + 8 · 10 + 9.

198 Example Find a reduced fraction equivalent to the repeating decimal 0.123 = 0.123123123 . . ..

123 41
Solution: Let N = 0.123123123 . . .. Then 1000N = 123.123123123 . . .. Hence 1000N − N = 123, whence N = = .
999 333

199 Example What are all the two-digit positive integers in which the difference between the integer and the product of its
two digits is 12?

Solution: Let such an integer be 10a + b, where a, b are digits. Solve 10a + b − ab = 12 for a getting
12 − b 2
a= = 1+ .
10 − b 10 − b
Since a is an integer, 10 − b must be a positive integer that divides 2. This gives b = 8, a = 2 or b = 9, a = 3. Thus 28 and 39
are the only such integers.

200 Example Find all the integers with initial digit 6 such that if this initial integer is suppressed, the resulting number is 1/25
of the original number.

Solution: Let x be the integer sought. Then x = 6 · 10n + y where y is a positive integer. The given condition stipulates that
1
y= (6 · 10n + y) ,
25
that is,
10n
y= = 25 · 10n−2.
4
This requires n ≥ 2, whence y = 25, 250, 2500, 25000, etc.. Therefore x = 625, 6250, 62500, 625000, etc..

201 Example (IMO 1968) Find all natural numbers x such that the product of their digits (in decimal notation) equals x2 −
10x − 22.

Solution: Let x have the form

x = a0 + a1 10 + a2102 + · · · + an10n , ak ≤ 9, an &= 0.
Let P(x) be the product of the digits of x, P(x) = x2 − 10x − 22. Now P(x) = a0 a1 · · · an ≤ 9n an < 10n an ≤ x (strict inequality
occurs when x has more than one digit). This means that x2 − 10x − 22 ≤ x which entails that x < 13, whence x has one
digit or x = 10, 11 or 12. Since x2 − 10x − 22 = x has no integral solutions, x cannot have one digit. If x = 10, P(x) = 0, but
x2 − 10x − 22 &= 0. If x = 11, P(x) = 1, but x2 − 10x − 22 &= 1. The only solution is seen to be x = 12.

202 Example A whole number decreases an integral number of times when its last digit is deleted. Find all such numbers.

y
Solution: Let 0 ≤ y ≤ 9, and 10x + y = mx, where m, x are natural numbers. This requires 10 + = m, an integer. Hence, x
x
must divide y. If y = 0, any natural number x will do, as we obtain multiples of 10. If y = 1 then x = 1, and we obtain 11.
Continuing in this fashion, the sought number are the multiples of 10, together with the numbers 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,
19, 22, 24, 26, 28, 33, 36, 39, 44, 55, 77, 88, and 99.
28 Chapter 3

203 Example Shew that all integers in the sequence

49, 4489, 444889, 44448889, 44 . . .44 88 . . . 88 9

n 4- s n−1 8- s

are perfect squares.

Solution: Observe that

44 . . . 44 88 . . . 88 9 = 44 . . . 44 ·10n + 88 . . .88 ·10 + 9
n 4- s n−1 8- s n 4- s n−1 8- s
4 8
= · (10n − 1) · 10n + · (10n−1 − 1) · 10 + 9
9 9
4 2n 4 n 1
= · 10 + · 10 +
9 9 9
1 n 2
= (2 · 10 + 1)
9
2 · 10n + 1 2
=
3
We must shew that this last quantity is an integer, that is, that 3 divides 2 · 10n + 1 = 2 00 . . . 00 1. But the sum of the digits of
n−1 0- s
2 · 10n + 1
this last quantity is 3, which makes it divisible by 3. In fact, = 6...6 7
3
n−1 6- s

204 Example (AIME 1987) An ordered pair (m, n) of non-negative integers is called simple if the addition m + n requires no
carrying. Find the number of simple ordered pairs of non-negative integers that add to 1492.

Solution: Observe that there are d + 1 solutions to x + y = d, where x, y are positive integers and d is a digit. These are

(0 + d), (1 + d − 1), (2 + d − 2), . . . , (d + 0)

Since there is no carrying, we search for the numbers of solutions of this form to x + y = 1, u + v = 4, s + t = 9, and a + b = 2.
Since each separate solution may combine with any other, the total number of simple pairs is

(1 + 1)(4 + 1)(9 + 1)(2 + 1) = 300.

205 Example (AIME 1992) For how many pairs of consecutive integers in

{1000, 1001, . . ., 2000}

is no carrying required when the two integers are added?

Solution: Other than 2000, a number on this list has the form n = 1000 + 100a + 10b + c, where a, b, c are digits. If there is no
carrying in n + n + 1 then n has the form

1999, 1000 + 100a + 10b + 9, 1000 + 100a + 99, 1000 + 100a + 10b + c

with 0 ≤ a, b, c ≤ 4, i.e., five possible digits. There are 53 = 125 integers of the form 1000 + 100a + 10b + c, 0 ≤ a, b, c ≤ 4,
52 = 25 integers of the form 1000 + 100a + 10b + 9, 0 ≤ a, b ≤ 4, and 5 integers of the form 1000 + 100a + 99, 0 ≤ a ≤ 4. The
total of integers sought is thus 125 + 25 + 5 + 1 = 156.

206 Example (AIME 1994) Given a positive integer n, let p(n) be the product of the non-zero digits of n. (If n has only one
digit, then p(n) is equal to that digit.) Let
S = p(1) + p(2) + · · · + p(999).
Find S.
The Decimal Scale 29

Solution: If x = 0, put m(x) = 1, otherwise put m(x) = x. We use three digits to label all the integers, from 000 to 999 If a, b, c
are digits, then clearly p(100a + 10b + c) = m(a)m(b)m(c). Thus

p(000) + p(001) + p(002) + · · ·+ p(999) = m(0)m(0)m(0) + m(0)m(0)m(1)

+m(0)m(0)m(2) + · · · + m(9)m(9)m(9)

= (m(0) + m(1) + · · · + m(9))3

= (1 + 1 + 2 + · · ·+ 9)3

= 463

= 97336.

Hence
S = p(001) + p(002) + · · ·+ p(999)

= 97336 − p(000)

= 97336 − m(0)m(0)m(0)

= 97335.

207 Example (AIME 1992) Let S be the set of all rational numbers r, 0 < r < 1, that have a repeating decimal expansion of
the form
0.abcabcabc . . . = 0.abc,
where the digits a, b, c are not necessarily distinct. To write the elements of S as fractions in lowest terms, how many different
numerators are required?

abc
Solution: Observe that 0.abcabcabc . . . = , and that 999 = 33 · 37. If abc is neither divisible by 3 nor by 37, the fraction is
999
already in lowest terms. By Inclusion-Exclusion there are
999 999 999
999 − + + = 648
3 37 3 · 37
s
such fractions. Also, fractions of the form where s is divisible by 3 but not by 37 are in S. There are 12 fractions of this
37
l
kind (with s = 3, 6, 9, 12, . . . , 36). We do not consider fractions of the form t ,t ≤ 3 with l divisible by 37 but not by 3,
3
because these fractions are > 1 and hence not in S. The total number of distinct numerators in the set of reduced fractions is
thus 640 + 12 = 660.
30 Chapter 3

Practice

208 Problem Find an equivalent fraction for the repeating decimal 0.3172. 217 Problem The integer n is the smallest multiple of 15 such that every digit of n is
n
either 0 or 8. Compute .
15
209 Problem A two-digit number is divided by the sum of its digits. What is the largest
possible remainder?
218 Problem Shew that Champernowne’s number

210 Problem Shew that the integer 0.12345678910111213141516171819202122. . . ,

11 . . . 11 which is the sequence of natural numbers written after the decimal point, is irrational.
221 1- s

219 Problem Given that

is a composite number.
1
= 0.020408163265306122448979591836734693877551,
49
211 Problem Let a and b be the integers
find the last thousand digits of
a = 111 . . . 1
m 1- s 1 + 50 + 502 + · · · + 50999 .

b = 1 000 . . . 0 5.
220 Problem Let t be a positive real number. Prove that there is a positive integer n
m−1 0- s such that the decimal expansion of nt contains a 7.
Shew that ab + 1 is a perfect square.
221 Problem (AIME 1989) Suppose that n is a positive integer and d is a single digit in
212 Problem What digits appear on the product base-ten. Find n if
n
= 0.d25d25d25d25d25 . . .
810
3... 3 · 6... 6 ?
666 3- s 666 6- s 222 Problem (AIME 1988) Find the smallest positive integer whose cube ends in 888.

213 Problem Shew that there exist no integers with the following property: if the initial
223 Problem (AIME 1986) In the parlour game, the “magician” asks one of the partici-
digit is suppressed, the resulting integer is 1/35 of the original number. pants to think of a three-digit number abc, where a, b, c represent the digits of the number
in the order indicated. The magician asks his victim to form the numbers
214 Problem Shew that the sum of all the integers of n digits, n ≥ 3, is
acb, bac, cab, cba,
494 99. . . 9 55 00 . . . 0 .
to add these numbers and to reveal their sum N. If told the value of N, the magician can
n−3 9- s n−2 0- s identify abc. Play the magician and determine abc if N = 319.

215 Problem Shew that for any positive integer n, 224 Problem (AIME 1988) For any positive integer k, let f1 (k) denote the square of the
sums of the digits of k. For n ≥ 2, let fn (k) = f1 ( fn−1 (k)). Find f1988 (11).
11 . . . 1 − 22 . . . 2
2n 1- s n 2- s
225 Problem (IMO 1969) Determine all three-digit numbers N that are divisible by 11
N
is a perfect square. and such that equals the sum of the squares of the digits of N.
11

216 Problem A whole number is equal to the arithmetic mean of all the numbers ob- 226 Problem (IMO 1962) Find the smallest natural number having the last digit 6 and if
tained from the given number with the aid of all possible permutation of its digits. Find this 6 is erased and put in from of the other digits, the resulting number is four times as
all whole numbers with that property. large as the original number.

3.3 Non-decimal Scales

The fact that most people have ten fingers has fixed our scale of notation to the decimal. Given any positive integer r > 1, we
can, however, express any number x in base r.
If n is a positive integer, and r > 1 is an integer, then n has the base-r representation

n = a0 + a1 r + a2 r2 + · · · + ak rk , 0 ≤ at ≤ r − 1, ak &= 0, rk ≤ n < rk+1 .

We use the convention that we shall refer to a decimal number without referring to its base, and to a base-r number by using
the subindex r .
Non-decimal Scales 31

227 Example Express the decimal number 5213 in base-seven.

Solution: Observe that 5213 < 75 . We thus want to find 0 ≤ a0 , . . . , a4 ≤ 6, a4 &= 0 such that

5213 = a4 74 + a373 + a2 72 + a1 7 + a0.

Dividing by 74 , we obtain 2+ proper fraction = a4 + proper fraction. This means that a4 = 2. Thus 5213 = 2 · 74 + a3 73 +
a2 72 + a1 7 + a0 or 411 = 5213 = a3 73 + a2 72 + a1 7 + a0 . Dividing by 73 this last equality we obtain 1+ proper fraction = a3 +
proper fraction, and so a3 = 1. Continuing in this way we deduce that 5213 = 211257.
The method of successive divisions used in the preceding problem can be conveniently displayed as

7 5212 5

7 744 2

7 106 1

7 15 1

7 2 2

The central column contains the successive quotients and the rightmost column contains the corresponding remainders. Reading
from the last remainder up, we recover 5213 = 211257.

228 Example Write 5627 in base-five.

Solution: 5627 = 5 · 72 + 6 · 7 + 2 = in decimal scale, so the problem reduces to convert 289 to base-five. Doing successive
divisions,

5 289 4

5 57 2

5 11 1

5 2 2

Thus 5627 = 289 = 21245.

13
229 Example Express the fraction in base-six.
16

Solution: Write
13 a1 a2 a3 a4
= + + + + ···
16 6 62 63 64
Multiplying by 6, we obtain 4+ proper fraction = a1 + proper fraction, so a1 = 4. Hence

13 4 7 a2 a3 a4
− = = 2 + 3 + 4 + ···
16 6 48 6 6 6

Multiply by 62 we obtain 5+ proper fraction = a2 + proper fraction, and so a2 = 5. Continuing in this fashion

13 4 5 1 3
= + + + = 0.45136.
16 6 62 63 64
32 Chapter 3

We may simplify this procedure of successive multiplications by recurring to the following display:

13
6 4
16
7
6 5
8
1
6 1
4
1
6 3
2
The third column contains the integral part of the products of the first column and the second column. Each term of the second
13 7 7 1
column from the second on is the fractional part of the product obtained in the preceding row. Thus 6· −4 = , 6 · −5 = ,
16 8 8 4
etc..

230 Example Prove that 4.41r is a perfect square in any scale of notation.

Solution:
2
4 4 1
4.41r = 4 + + = 2+
r r2 r

231 Example (AIME 1986) The increasing sequence

1, 3, 4, 9, 10, 12, 13, . . .

consists of all those positive integers which are powers of 3 or sums of distinct powers or 3. Find the hundredth term of the
sequence.

Solution: If the terms of the sequence are written in base-three, they comprise the positive integers which do not contain the
digit 2. Thus the terms of the sequence in ascending order are
13 , 103 , 113 , 1003 , 1013, 1103 , 1113 , . . .
In the binary scale these numbers are, of course, the ascending natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .. Therefore to obtain the 100th term
of the sequence we write 100 in binary and then translate this into ternary: 100 = 11001002 and 11001003 = 36 + 35 + 32 = 981.

232 Example (AHSME 1993) Given 0 ≤ x0 < 1, let

2xn−1 if 2xn−1 < 1,

xn =
2xn−1 − 1 if 2xn−1 ≥ 1.

for all integers n > 0. For how many x0 is it true that x0 = x5 ?

Solution: Write x0 in binary,

∞
ak
x0 = , ak = 0 or 1.
2k
k=1
The algorithm given moves the binary point one unit to the right. For x0 to equal x5 we need (0.a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7 . . .)2 =
(0.a6 a7 a8 a9 a10 a11 a12 . . .)2 . This will happen if and only if x0 has a repeating expansion with a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 as the repeating
block. There are 25 = 32 such blocks. But if a1 = a2 = · · · = a5 = 1 then x0 = 1, which lies outside ]0, 1[. The total number of
values for which x0 = x5 is therefore 32 − 1 = 31.

Practice
Well-Ordering Principle 33

233 Problem Express the decimal number 12345 in every scale from binary to base- 236 Problem What is the largest integer that I should be permitted to choose so that you
nine. may determine my number in twenty “yes” or “no” questions?

234 Problem Distribute the 27 weights of 12 , 22 , 32 , . . . ,272 lbs each into three separate
piles, each of equal weight. 237 Problem Let !x" denote the greatest integer less than or equal to x. Does the equa-
tion

!x" + !2x" + !4x" + !8x" + !16x" + !32x" = 12345

235 Problem Let C denote the class of positive integers which, when written in base-
three, do not require the digit 2. Prove that no three integers in C are in arithmetic pro-
gression. have a solution?

3.4 Well-Ordering Principle

The set N = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .} of natural numbers is endowed with two operations, addition and multiplication, that satisfy the
following properties for natural number a, b, and c:

1. Closure: a + b and ab are also natural numbers,

2. Commutativity: a + b = b + a and ab = ba,

3. Associative Laws: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and (ab)c = a(bc),

4. Distributive Law: a(b + c) = ab + ac

5. Additive Identity: 0 + a = a.

6. Multiplicative Identity: 1a = a.

One further property of the natural numbers is the following.

Well-Ordering Axiom: Every non-empty subset S of the natural numbers has a least element.
As an example of the use of the Well-Ordering Axiom let us prove that there is no integer between 0 and 1.

238 Example Prove that there is no integer in the open interval ]0; 1[.

Solution: Assume to the contrary that the set S of integers in ]0; 1[ is non-empty. As a set of positive integers, by
Well-Ordering it must contain a least element, say m. Since 0 < m < 1, we have 0 < m2 < m < 1. But this last string of
inequalities says that m2 is an integer in ]0; 1[ which is smaller than m, the smallest integer in ]0; 1[. This contradiction shews
that m cannot exist.
Recall that an irrational number is one that cannot be represented as the ratio of two integers.
√
239 Example Prove that 2 is irrational.

√ √ a
Solution: The proof is by contradiction. Suppose that 2 were rational, i.e., that 2 = for some integers a, b, b &= 0. This
b
implies that the set √ √
A = {n 2 : both n and n 2 positive integers}
√ √
is √
non-empty since
√ it √ contains
√ a. By Well-Ordering, A has a smallest element,
√ say j = k√ 2. As
√ 2 − 1 > 0,√
j( 2 − 1) = j 2 − k 2 = 2( j − k), is a positive integer. Since 2 < 2 2 implies 2 − 2 < 2 and also j 2 = 2k, we see
that √ √ √
( j − k) 2 = k(2 − 2) < k 2 = j.
√
Thus ( j − k) 2 is a positive integer in A which is smaller than j. This contradicts the choice of j as the smallest integer in A
and hence, finishes the proof.

240 Example Let a, b, c be integers such that a6 + 2b6 = 4c6 . Shew that a = b = c = 0.
34 Chapter 3

Solution: Clearly we can restrict ourselves to non-negative numbers. Choose a triplet of non-negative integers a, b, c satisfying
this equation and with
max(a, b, c) > 0
as small as possible. If a6 + 2b6 = 4c6 , then a must be even, a = 2a1 . This leads to 32a61 + b6 = 2c6 . This implies that b is
even, b = 2b1 and so 16a61 + 32b61 = c6 . This implies that c is even, c = 2c1 and so a61 + 2b61 = 4c61 . But clearly
max(a1 , b1 , c1 ) < max(a, b, c). We have produce a triplet of integers with a maximum smaller than the smallest possible
maximum, a contradiction.

a2 + b2 a2 + b2
241 Example (IMO 1988) If a, b are positive integers such that is an integer, then shew that must be a square.
1 + ab 1 + ab

a2 + b2
Solution: Suppose that = k is a counterexample of an integer which is not a perfect square, with max(a, b) as small as
1 + ab
possible. We may assume without loss of generality that a < b for if a = b then

2a2 2
0<k= = 2− < 2,
a2 + 1 a2 + 1
which forces k = 1, a square.

Now, a2 + b2 − k(ab + 1) = 0 is a quadratic in b with sum of roots ka and product of roots a2 − k. Let b1 , b be its roots, so
b1 + b = ka, bb1 = a2 − k.

As a, k are positive integers, supposing b1 < 0 is incompatible with a2 + b21 = k(ab1 + 1). As k is not a perfect square,
supposing b1 = 0 is incompatible with a2 + 02 = k(0 · a + 1). Also

a2 − k b2 − k k
b1 = < = b − < b.
b b b
a2 + b21
Thus we have shewn b1 to be a positive integer with = k smaller than b. This is a contradiction to the choice of b.
1 + ab1
a2 + b2 a2 + b2
Such a counterexample k cannot exist, and so must be a perfect square. In fact, it can be shewn that is the
1 + ab 1 + ab
square of the greatest common divisor of a and b.
Practice 35

Practice

242 Problem Find all integers solutions of a3 + 2b3 = 4c3 . 244 Problem Shew that the series of integral squares does not contain an infinite
arithmetic progression.

243 Problem Prove that the equality x2 + y2 + z2 = 2xyz can hold for whole numbers
x, y, z only when x = y = z = 0. 245 Problem Prove that x2 + y2 = 3(z2 + w2 ) does not have a positive integer solution.

3.5 Mathematical Induction

The Principle of Mathematical Induction is based on the following fairly intuitive observation. Suppose that we are to perform
a task that involves a certain finite number of steps. Suppose that these steps are sequential. Finally, suppose that we know
how to perform the n-th step provided we have accomplished the n − 1-th step. Thus if we are ever able to start the task (that
is, if we have a base case), then we should be able to finish it (because starting with the base we go to the next case, and then to
the case following that, etc.).
We formulate the Principle of Mathematical Induction (PMI) as follows:

Principle of Mathematical Induction Suppose we have an assertion P(n) concerning natural numbers satisfying the
following two properties:

(PMI I) P(k0 ) is true for some natural number k0 ,

(PMI II) If P(n − 1) is true then P(n) is true.

Then the assertion P(n) is true for every n ≥ k0 .

246 Example Prove that the expression 33n+3 − 26n − 27 is a multiple of 169 for all natural numbers n.

Let P(n) be the assertion “33n+3 − 26n − 27 is a multiple of 169.” Observe that 33(1)+3 − 26(1) − 27 = 676 = 4(169) so P(1)
is true. Assume the truth of P(n − 1), that is, that there is an integer M such that

33(n−1)+3 − 26(n − 1) − 27 = 169M.

This entails
33n − 26n − 1 = 169M.
Now
33n+3 − 26n − 27 = 27 · 33n − 26n − 27

= 27(33n − 26n − 1) + 676n

= 27(169M) + 169 · 4n

= 169(27M + 4n),

and so the truth of P(n − 1) implies the truth of P(n). The assertion then follows for all n ≥ 1 by PMI.

247 Example Prove that √ √

(1 + 2)2n + (1 − 2)2n
is an even integer and that √ √ √
(1 + 2)2n − (1 − 2)2n = b 2
for some positive integer b, for all integers n ≥ 1.
36 Chapter 3

Solution: Let P(n) be the assertion: “ √ √

(1 + 2)2n + (1 − 2)2n
is an even integer and that √ √ √
(1 + 2)2n − (1 − 2)2n = b 2
for some positive integer b.” We see that P(1) is true since
√ √
(1 + 2)2 + (1 − 2)2 = 6,

and √ √ √
(1 + 2)2 − (1 − 2)2 = 4 2.
Assume now that P(n − 1), i.e., assume that
√ √
(1 + 2)2(n−1) + (1 − 2)2(n−1) = 2N

for some integer N and that √ √ √

(1 + 2)2(n−1) − (1 − 2)2(n−1) = a 2
for some positive integer a. Consider now the quantity

√ √ √ √ √ √
(1 + 2)2n + (1 − 2)2n = (1 + 2)2 (1 + 2)2n−2 + (1 − 2)2 (1 − 2)2n−2
√ √ √ √
= (3 + 2 2)(1 + 2)2n−2 + (3 − 2 2)(1 − 2)2n−2

= 12N + 4a

= 2(6n + 2a),

an even integer. Similarly

√ √ √ √ √ √
(1 + 2)2n − (1 − 2)2n = (1 + 2)2 (1 + 2)2n−2 − (1 − 2)2 (1 − 2)2n−2
√ √ √ √
= (3 + 2 2)(1 + 2)2n−2 − (3 − 2 2)(1 − 2)2n−2
√ √
= 3a 2 + 2 2(2N)
√
= (3a + 4N) 2,
√
which is of the form b 2. This implies that P(n) is true. The statement of the problem follows by PMI.

248 Example Prove that if k is odd, then 2n+2 divides

n
k2 − 1
for all natural numbers n.

Solution: The statement is evident for n = 1, as k2 − 1 = (k − 1)(k + 1) is divisible by 8 for any odd natural number k since
n
k − 1 and k + 1 are consecutive even integers. Assume that 2n+2 a = k2 − 1 for some integer a. Then
n+1 n n n
k2 − 1 = (k2 − 1)(k2 + 1) = 2n+2 a(k2 + 1).
n n
Since k is odd, k2 + 1 is even and so k2 + 1 = 2b for some integer b. This gives
n+1 n
k2 − 1 = 2n+2 a(k2 + 1) = 2n+3ab,

and so the assertion follows by PMI.

Mathematical Induction 37

249 Example Let s be a positive integer. Prove that every interval [s, 2s] contains a power of 2.

Solution: If s is a power of 2, then there is nothing to prove. If s is not a power of 2 then it must lie between two consecutive
powers of 2, say 2r < s < 2r+1 . This yields 2r+1 < 2s. Hence s < 2r+1 < 2s, which yields the result.

250 Definition The Fibonacci Numbers are given by f0 = 0, f1 = 1, fn+1 = fn + fn−1 , n ≥ 1, that is every number after the
second one is the sum of the preceding two.

The Fibonacci sequence then goes like 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . ..

251 Example Prove that for integer n ≥ 1,

fn−1 fn+1 = fn2 + (−1)n+1 .

Solution: If n = 1, then 2 = f0 f2 = 12 + (−1)2 = f12 + (−1)1+1 . If fn−1 fn+1 = fn2 + (−1)n+1 then using the fact that
fn+2 = fn + fn+1 ,
fn fn+2 = fn ( fn + fn+1 )

= fn2 + fn fn+1

= fn−1 fn+1 − (−1)n+1 + fn fn+1

= fn+1 ( fn−1 + fn ) + (−1)n+2

2
= fn+1 + (−1)n+2 ,

which establishes the assertion by induction.

252 Example Prove that a given square can be decomposed into n squares, not necessarily of the same size, for all
n = 4, 6, 7, 8, . . ..

Solution: A quartering of a subsquare increases the number of squares by three (four new squares are gained but the original
square is lost). Figure 3.1 below shews that n = 4 is achievable. If n were achievable, a quartering would make

Figure 3.1: Example 252. Figure 3.2: Example 252. Figure 3.3: Example 252.

{n, n + 3, n + 6, n + 9, . . .} also achievable. We will shew now that n = 6 and n = 8 are achievable. But this is easily seen from
figures 3.2 and 3.3, and this finishes the proof.

Sometimes it is useful to use the following version of PMI, known as the Principle of Strong Mathematical Induction (PSMI).

Principle of Strong Mathematical Induction Suppose we have an assertion P(n) concerning natural numbers satisfying the
following two properties:

• (PSMI I) P(k0 ) is true for some natural number k0 ,

38 Chapter 3

• (PSMI II) If m < n and P(m), P(m + 1), . . . , P(n − 1) are true then P(n) is true.
Then the assertion P(n) is true for every n ≥ k0 .

253 Example In the country of SmallPesia coins only come in values of 3 and 5 pesos. Shew that any quantity of pesos
greater than or equal to 8 can be paid using the available coins.

Solution: We use PSMI. Observe that 8 = 3 + 5, 9 = 3 + 3 + 3, 10 = 5 + 5, so, we can pay 8, 9, or 10 pesos with the available
coinage. Assume that we are able to pay n − 3, n − 2, and n − 1 pesos, that is, that 3x + 5y = k has non-negative solutions for
k = n − 3, n − 2 and n − 1. We will shew that we may also obtain solutions for 3x + 5y = k for k = n, n + 1 and n + 2. Now

3x + 5y = n − 3 =⇒ 3(x + 1) + 5y = n,

3x1 + 5y1 = n − 2 =⇒ 3(x1 + 1) + 5y1 = n + 1,

3x2 + 5y2 = n − 1 =⇒ 3(x2 + 1) + 5y2 = n + 2,
and so if the amounts n − 3, n − 2, n − 1 can be paid so can n, n + 1, n + 2. The statement of the problem now follows from
PSMI.

254 Example (USAMO 1978) An integer n will be called good if we can write

n = a1 + a2 + · · · + ak ,

where the integers a1 , a2 , . . . , ak are positive integers (not necessarily distinct) satisfying
1 1 1
+ + · · · = 1.
a1 a2 ak
Given the information that the integers 33 through 73 are good, prove that every integer ≥ 33 is good.

Solution: We first prove that if n is good, then 2n + 8 and 2n + 9 are also good. For assume that n = a1 + a2 + · · · + ak , and
1 1 1
+ + · · · = 1.
a1 a2 ak

Then 2n + 8 = 2(a1 + a2 + · · · + ak ) + 4 + 4 and

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + ··· + + = + + = 1.
2a1 2a2 2ak 4 4 2 4 4

Also 2n + 9 = 2(a1 + a2 + · · · + ak ) + 3 + 6 and

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + ··· + + = + + = 1.
2a1 2a2 2ak 3 6 2 3 6
Therefore
if n is good then 2n + 8 and 2n + 9 are good (*)
We now establish the truth of the assertion of the problem by induction on n. Let P(n) be the proposition “all the integers
n, n + 1, n + 2, . . ., 2n + 7” are good. By the statement of the problem, we see that P(33) is true. But (*) implies the truth of
P(n + 1) whenever P(n) is true. The assertion is thus proved by induction.
Practice 39

Practice

1 1
255 Problem Use Sophie Germain’s trick to shew that 263 Problem Let k be a positive integer Prove that if x + is an integer then xk + k
4 2 2 2
x + x + 1 = (x − x + 1)(x + x + 1). Use this to shew that if n is a positive integer x x
is also an integer.
then
n+1 n
22 + 22 + 1
has at least n different prime factors. 264 Problem Prove that for all natural numbers n > 1,

1 1 1 1 1
256 Problem Prove that n3 + (n + 1)3 + (n + 2)3 is divisible by 9. + 2 + 2 + ··· + 2 < 2 − .
12 2 3 n n

257 Problem Let n ∈ N. Prove the inequality

265 Problem Let n ≥ 2 be an integer. Prove that f1 + f2 + · · · + fn = fn+2 − 1.
1 1 1
+ + ··· + > 1.
n+1 n+2 3n + 1
266 Problem Let n, m ≥ 0 be integers. Prove that

258 Problem Prove that for all positive integers n and all real numbers x,
fn+m = fn−1 fm + fn fm+1 (3.3)
| sin nx| ≤ n| sin x| (3.2)

267 Problem This problem uses the argument of A. Cauchy’s to prove the AM-GM
259 Problem Prove that Inequality. It consists in shewing that AM-GM is true for all powers of 2 and then
deducing its truth for the numbers between two consecutive powers of 2. Let
√ π a1 , a2 , . . . ,al be non-negative real numbers. Let P(l) be the assertion the AM-GM
2+ 2+ 2 + · · · + 2 = 2 cos Inequality
2n+1
a1 + a2 + · · · + al √
n radical signs ≥ l a1 a2 · · · al
l
for n ∈ N. holds for the l given numbers.

260 Problem Let a1 = 3, b1 = 4, and an = 3an−1 , bn = 4bn−1 when n > 1. Prove that 1. Prove that P(2) is true.
a1000 > b999 .
2. Prove that the truth of P(2k−1 ) implies that of P(2k ).
261 Problem Let n ∈ N, n > 1. Prove that
3. Let 2k−1 < n < 2k . By considering the 2k quantities
1 · 3 · 5 · · · (2n − 1) 1
<√ .
2 · 4 · 6 · · · (2n) 3n + 1 a1 = y1 , a2 = y2 , . . . ,an = yn ,

262 Problem Prove that for all natural number n > 1, y1 + y2 + · · · + yn

an+1 = an+1 = · · · = a2k = ,
n
4n (2n)!
< .
n+1 (n!)2 prove that P(n) is true.

3.6 Congruences

268 Definition The notation a ≡ b mod n is due to Gauß, and it means that n|(a − b).

Thus if a ≡ b mod n then a and b leave the same remainder upon division by n. For example, since 8 and 13 leave the same
remainder upon division by 5, we have 8 ≡ 13 mod 5. Also observe that 5|(8 − 13). As a further example, observe that
−8 ≡ −1 ≡ 6 ≡ 13 mod 7.
40 Chapter 3

Consider all the integers and arrange them in five columns as follows.

... ... ... ... ...

−10 −9 −8 −7 −6

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1

0 1 2 3 4

5 6 7 8 9

... ... ... ... ...

The arrangement above shews that any integer comes in one of 5 flavours: those leaving remainder 0 upon division by 5, those
leaving remainder 1 upon division by 5, etc..
Since n|(a − b) implies that ∃k ∈ Z such that nk = a − b, we deduce that a ≡ b mod n if and only if there is an integer k such
that a = b + nk.
The following theorem is quite useful.

269 Theorem Let n ≥ 2 be an integer. If x ≡ y mod n and u ≡ v mod n then

ax + bu ≡ ay + bv mod n.

Proof: As n|(x − y), n|(u − v) then there are integers s,t with ns = x − y, nt = u − v. This implies that

a(x − y) + b(u − v) = n(as + bt),

which entails that,

n|(ax + bu − ay − bv).
This last assertion is equivalent to saying

ax + bu ≡ ay + bv mod n.

This finishes the proof. ❑

270 Corollary Let n ≥ 2 be an integer. If x ≡ y mod n and u ≡ v mod n then

xu ≡ yv mod n.

Proof: Let a = u, b = y in Theorem 269. ❑

271 Corollary Let n > 1 be an integer, x ≡ y mod n and j a positive integer. Then x j ≡ y j mod n.

Proof: Use repeteadly Corollary 270 with u = x, v = y. ❑

272 Corollary Let n > 1 be an integer, x ≡ y mod n. If f is a polynomial with integral coefficients then f (x) ≡ f (y) mod n.

273 Example Find the remainder when 61987 is divided by 37.

Congruences 41

Solution: 62 ≡ −1 mod 37. Thus

61987 ≡ 6 · 61986 ≡ 6(62 )993 ≡ 6(−1)993 ≡ −6 ≡ 31 mod 37

and the remainder sought is 31.

274 Example Find the remainder when

12233 · 455679 + 876533
is divided by 4.

Solution: 12233 = 12200 + 32 + 1 ≡ 1 mod 4. Similarly, 455679 = 455600 + 76 + 3 ≡ 3, 87653 = 87600 + 52 + 1 ≡ 1

mod 4. Thus
12233 · 455679 + 876533 ≡ 1 · 3 + 13 ≡ 4 ≡ 0 mod 4.
This means that 12233 · 455679 + 876533 is divisible by 4.

275 Example Prove that 7 divides 32n+1 + 2n+2 for all natural numbers n.

Solution: Observe that

32n+1 ≡ 3 · 9n ≡ 3 · 2n mod 7
and
2n+2 ≡ 4 · 2n mod 7
. Hence
32n+1 + 2n+2 ≡ 7 · 2n ≡ 0 mod 7,
for all natural numbers n.

276 Example Prove the following result of Euler: 641|(232 + 1).

Solution: Observe that 641 = 27 · 5 + 1 = 24 + 54. Hence 27 · 5 ≡ −1 mod 641 and 54 ≡ −24 mod 641. Now, 27 · 5 ≡ −1
mod 641 yields
54 · 228 = (5 · 27)4 ≡ (−1)4 ≡ 1 mod 641.
This last congruence and
54 ≡ −24 mod 641
yield
−24 · 228 ≡ 1 mod 641,
which means that 641|(232 + 1).

277 Example Prove that 7|(22225555 + 55552222).

Solution: 2222 ≡ 3 mod 7, 5555 ≡ 4 mod 7 and 35 ≡ 5 mod 7. Now

22225555 + 55552222 ≡ 35555 + 42222 ≡ (35 )1111 + (42 )1111 ≡ 51111 − 51111 ≡ 0 mod 7.

7
278 Example Find the units digit of 77 .

7
Solution: We must find 77 mod 10. Now, 72 ≡ −1 mod 10, and so 73 ≡ 72 · 7 ≡ −7 ≡ 3 mod 10 and 74 ≡ (72 )2 ≡ 1 mod
10. Also, 72 ≡ 1 mod 4 and so 77 ≡ (72 )3 · 7 ≡ 3 mod 4, which means that there is an integer t such that 77 = 3 + 4t. Upon
assembling all this,
7
77 ≡ 74t+3 ≡ (74 )t · 73 ≡ 1t · 3 ≡ 3 mod 10.
Thus the last digit is 3.
42 Chapter 3

279 Example Find infinitely many integers n such that 2n + 27 is divisible by 7.

Solution: Observe that 21 ≡ 2, 22 ≡ 4, 23 ≡ 1, 24 ≡ 2, 25 ≡ 4, 26 ≡ 1 mod 7 and so 23k ≡ 1 mod 3 for all positive integers k.
Hence 23k + 27 ≡ 1 + 27 ≡ 0 mod 7 for all positive integers k. This produces the infinitely many values sought.

280 Example Prove that 2k − 5, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . never leaves remainder 1 when divided by 7.

Solution: 21 ≡ 2, 22 ≡ 4, 23 ≡ 1 mod 7, and this cycle of three repeats. Thus 2k − 5 can leave only remainders 3, 4, or 6 upon
division by 7.

281 Example (AIME 1994) The increasing sequence

3, 15, 24, 48, . . .,

consists of those positive multiples of 3 that are one less than a perfect square. What is the remainder when the 1994-th term
of the sequence is divided by 1000?

Solution: We want 3|n2 − 1 = (n − 1)(n + 1). Since 3 is prime, this requires n = 3k + 1 or n = 3k − 1, k = 1, 2, 3, . . .. The
sequence 3k + 1, k = 1, 2, . . . produces the terms n2 − 1 = (3k + 1)2 − 1 which are the terms at even places of the sequence of
3, 15, 24, 48, . . .. The sequence 3k − 1, k = 1, 2, . . . produces the terms n2 − 1 = (3k − 1)2 − 1 which are the terms at odd places
of the sequence 3, 15, 24, 48, . . .. We must find the 997th term of the sequence 3k + 1, k = 1, 2, . . .. Finally, the term sought is
(3(997) + 1)2 − 1 ≡ (3(−3) + 1)2 − 1 ≡ 82 − 1 ≡ 63 mod 1000. The remainder sought is 63.

Practice

282 Problem Prove that 0, 1, 3, 4, 9, 10, and 12 are the only perfect squares modulo 13. 290 Problem Find the last digit of 3100 .

291 Problem (AHSME 1992) What is the size of the largest subset S of {1, 2, . . . ,50}
(Hint: It is enough to consider 02 , 12 , 22 , . . . , 122 . In fact, by such that no pair of distinct elements of S has a sum divisible by 7?
observing that r2 ≡ (13 − r)2 mod n, you only have to go
half way.) 292 Problem Prove that there are no integer solutions to the equation x2 − 7y = 3.

283 Problem Prove that there are no integers with x2 − 5y2 = 2. 293 Problem Prove that if 7|a2 + b2 then 7|a and 7|b.

(Hint: Find all the perfect squares mod 5.) 294 Problem Prove that there are no integers with

800000007 = x2 + y2 + z2 .
284 Problem Which digits must we substitute for a and b in 30a0b03 so that the
resulting integer be divisible by 13?
295 Problem Prove that the sum of the decimal digits of a perfect square cannot be
equal to 1991.
285 Problem Find the number of all n, 1 ≤ n ≤ 25 such that n2 + 15n + 122 is divisible
by 6.
296 Problem Prove that
n n
7|42 + 22 + 1
2 2
(Hint: n + 15n + 122 ≡ n + 3n + 2 = (n + 1)(n + 2) mod 6.) for all natural numbers n.

286 Problem (AIME 1983) Let an = 6n + 8n . Determine the remainder when a83 is 297 Problem Find the last two digits of 3100 .
divided by 49.

298 Problem (USAMO 1986) What is the smallest integer n > 1, for which the
287 Problem (Polish Mathematical Olympiad) What digits should be put instead of x root-mean-square of the first n positive integers is an integer?
and y in 30x0y03 in order to give a number divisible by 13?

Note. The root mean square of n numbers a1 ,a2 ,... ,an is defined to be
288 Problem Prove that if 9|(a3 + b3 + c3 ), then 3|abc, for integers a, b, c. 1/2
a21 + a22 + ··· + a2n
.
n
289 Problem Describe all integers n such that 10|n10 + 1.
Miscellaneous Problems Involving Integers 43

299 Problem If 62ab427 is a multiple of 99, find the digits a and b. 302 Problem (AIME 1994) The increasing sequence

3, 15, 24, 48, . . . ,

300 Problem Shew that an integer is divisible by 2n , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . if the number
n
formed by its last n digits is divisible by 2 . consists of all those multiples of 3 which are one less than a square. Find the remainder
when the 1994th term is divided by 1000.

301 Problem Find the last digit of

303 Problem (AIME 1983) Let an = 6n + 8n . Find the remainder when a83 is divided
by 49.
2333333334 · 9987737 + 12 · 21327 + 12123 · 99987.

304 Problem Shew that if 9|(a3 + b3 + c3 ), then 3|abc, for the integers a, b, c.

3.7 Miscellaneous Problems Involving Integers

Recall that !x" is the unique integer satisfying
x − 1 < !x" ≤ x (3.4)
Thus !x" is x is an integer, or the integer just to the left of x if x is not an integer. For example !3.9" = 1, !−3.1" = −4.
Let p be a prime and n a positive integer. In the product n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · · ·n the number of factors contributing a factor of of p is
n n
! " the number of factors contributing a factor of p2 is ! 2 ", etc.. This proves the following theorem.
p p

305 Theorem (De Polignac-Legendre) The highest power of a prime p diving n! is given by
∞
n
! " (3.5)
pk
k=1

306 Example How many zeroes are there at the end of 999! = 1 · 2 · 3 · 4 · · ·998 · 999?

Solution: The number of zeroes is determined by the highest power of 10 dividing 999!. As there are fewer multiples of 5
amongst {1, 2, . . . , 999} that multiples of 2, the number of zeroes is the determined by the highest power of 5 dividing 999!.
But the highest power of 5 dividing 999! is given by
999 999 999 999
! " + ! 2 " + ! 3 " + ! 4 " = 199 + 39 + 7 + 1 = 246.
5 5 5 5
Therefore 999! ends in 246 zeroes.

307 Example Let m, n be non-negative integers. Prove that

(m + n)!
is an integer. (3.6)
m!n!

Solution: Let p be a prime and k a positive integer. By the De Polignac-Legendre Theorem, it suffices to shew that
m+n m n
! " ≥ ! k " + ! k ".
pk p p
This inequality in turn will follow from the inequality

!α " + !β " ≤ !α + β " (3.7)

which we will shew valid for all real numbers α , β .
Adding the inequalities !α " ≤ α , !β " ≤ β , we obtain !α " + !β " ≤ α + β . Since !α " + !β " is an integer less than or equal
to α + β , it must be less than or equal than the integral part of α + β , that is !α " + !β " ≤ !α + β ", as we wanted to shew.
Observe that (m + n)! = m!(m + 1)(m + 2) · · ·(m + n). Thus cancelling a factor of m!,
(m + n)! (m + 1)(m + 2) · · ·(m + n)
=
m!n! n!
44 Chapter 3

we see that the product of n consecutive positive integers is divisible by n!. If all the integers are negative, we may factor out a
(−1)n , or if they include 0, their product is 0. This gives the following theorem.

308 Theorem The product of n consecutive integers is divisible by n!.

309 Example Prove that n5 − 5n3 + 4n is always divisible by 120 for all integers n.

Solution: We have
n5 − 5n3 + 4n = n(n2 − 4)(n2 − 1) = (n − 2)(n − 1)(n)(n + 1)(n + 2),
the product of 5 consecutive integers and hence divisible by 5! = 120.

310 Example Let A be a positive integer and let A- be the resulting integer after a specific permutation of the digits of A.
Shew that if A + A- = 1010 then A s divisible by 10.

Solution: Clearly, A and A- must have 10 digits each. Put

A = a10 a9 a8 . . . a1

and
A- = b10 b9 b8 . . . b1 ,
where ak , bk , k = 1, 2, . . . , 10 are the digits of A and A- respectively. As A + A- = 10000000000, we must have
a1 + b1 = a2 + b2 = · · · = ai + bi = 0 and

ai+1 + bi+1 = 10, ai+2 + bi+2 = · · · = a10 + b10 = 9,

for some subindex i, 0 ≤ i ≤ 9. Notice that if i = 9 there are no sums ai+2 + bi+2 , ai+3 + bi+3 , . . . and if i = 0 there are no sums
a1 + b1 , . . . , ai + bi .
Adding,
a1 + b1 + a2 + b2 + · · · + ai + bi + ai+1 + bi+1 + · · · + a10 + b10 = 10 + 9(9 − i).
If i is even, 10 + 9(9 − i) is odd and if i is odd 10 + 9(9 − i) is even. As

a1 + a2 + · · · + a10 = b1 + b2 + · · · + b10,

we have
a1 + b1 + a2 + b2 + · · · + ai + bi + ai+1 + bi+1 + · · · + a10 + b10 = 2(a1 + a2 + · · · + a10),
an even integer. We gather that i is odd, which entails that a1 = b1 = 0, that is , A and A- are both divisible by 10.

311 Example (Putnam 1956) Prove that every positive integer has a multiple whose decimal representation involves all 10
digits.

Solution: Let n be an arbitrary positive integer with k digits. Let m = 1234567890 · 10k+1. Then all of the n consecutive
integers
m + 1, m + 2, . . ., m + n
begin with 1234567890 and one of them is divisible by n.

312 Example (Putnam 1966) Let 0 < a1 < a2 < . . . < amn+1 be mn + 1 integers. Prove that you can find either m + 1 of them
no one of which divides any other, or n + 1 of them, each dividing the following.

Solution: Let, for each 1 ≤ k ≤ mn + 1, nk denote the length of the longest chain, starting with ak and each dividing the
following one, that can be selected from ak , ak+1 , . . . , amn+1 . If no nk is greater than n, then the are at least m + 1 nk ’s that are
the same. However, the integers ak corresponding to these nk ’s cannot divide each other, because ak |al implies that nk ≥ nl + 1.
Miscellaneous Problems Involving Integers 45

313 Theorem If k|n then fk | fn .

Proof Letting s = kn,t = n in the identity fs+t = fs−1 ft + fs ft+1 we obtain

f(k+1)n = fkn+n = fn−1 fkn + fn fkn+1 .

It is clear that if fn | fkn then fn | f(k+1)n . Since fn | fn·1 , the assertion follows.

314 Example Prove that if p is an odd prime and if

a
= 1 + 1/2 + · · ·+ 1/(p − 1),
b
then p divides a.

Solution: Arrange the sum as

1 1 1 1 1
1+ + + + ··· + + .
p−1 2 p−2 (p − 1)/2 (p + 1)/2
After summing consecutive pairs, the numerator of the resulting fractions is p. Each term in the denominator is < p. Since p is
a prime, the p on the numerator will not be thus cancelled out.

315 Example The sum of some positive integers is 1996. What is their maximum product?

Solution: We are given some positive integers a1 , a2 , . . . , an with a1 + a2 + · · · + an = 1996. To maximise a1 a2 · · · an , none of
the ak ’s can be 1. Let us shew that to maximise this product, we make as many possible ak = 3 and at most two a j = 2.
Suppose that a j > 4. Substituting a j by the two terms a j − 3 and 3 the sum is not changed, but the product increases since
a j < 3(a j − 3). Thus the ak ’s must equal 2, 3 or 4. But 2 + 2 + 2 = 3 + 3 and 2 × 2 × 2 < 3 × 3, thus if there are more than two
2’s we may substitute them by 3’s. As 1996 = 3(665) + 1 = 3(664) + 4, the maximum product sought is 3664 × 4.

316 Example Find all the positive integers of the form

1
r+ ,
r
where r is a rational number.

Solution: We will shew that the expression r + 1/r is a positive integer only if r = 1, in which case r + 1/r = 2. Let
1
r+ = k,
r
k a positive integer. Then √
k ± k2 − 4
r= .
2
Since k is an integer, r will be an integer if and only k2 − 4 is a square of the same parity as k. Now, if k ≥ 3,

(k − 1)2 < k2 − 4 < k2 ,

that is, k2 − 4 is strictly between two consecutive squares and so it cannot be itself a square. If k = 1, k2 − 4 is not a real
number. If k = 2, k2 − 4 = 0. Therefore, r + 1/r = 2, that is, r = 1. This finishes the proof.

317 Example For how many integers n in {1, 2, 3, . . ., 100} is the tens digit of n2 odd?

Solution: In the subset {1, 2, . . .10} there are only two values of n (4 and 6) for which the digits of the tens of n2 is odd. Now,
the tens digit of (n + 10)2 = n2 + 20n + 100 has the same parity as the tens digit of n2 . Thus there are only 20 n for which the
prescribed condition is verified.
46 Chapter 3

Practice

318 Problem Find the sum 329 Problem (Putnam 1989) How many primes amongst the positive integers, written
as usual in base-ten are such that their digits are alternating 1’s and 0’s, beginning and
5 + 55 + 555 + · · · + 5 . . . 5 . ending in 1?
n 5- s

330 Problem Let a, b, c be the lengths of the sides of a triangle. Shew that
√
319 Problem Shew that for all numbers a &= 0, a &= ±i 3 the following formula of
Reyley (1825) holds. 3(ab + bc + ca) ≤ (a + b + c)2 ≤ 4(ab + bc + ca).

3
a6 + 45a5 − 81a2 + 27
a= 331 Problem Let k ≥ 2 be an integer. Shew that if n is a positive integer, then nk can be
6a(a2 + 3)2
3 represented as the sum of n successive odd numbers.
−a2 + 30a2 − 9
+
6a(a2 + 3)
3
−6a3 + 18a 332 Problem (IMO 1979) If a, b are natural numbers such that
+ .
(a2 + 3)2
a 1 1 1 1 1
If a is rational this shews that every rational number is expressible as the sum of the = 1 − + − + ··· − + ,
b 2 3 4 1318 1319
cubes of three rational numbers.
prove that 1979|a.
320 Problem What is the largest power of 7 that divides 1000!?
333 Problem (Polish Mathematical Olympiad) A triangular number is one of the
321 Problem Demonstrate that for all integer values n,
form 1 + 2 + . . . + n, n ∈ N. Prove that none of the digits 2, 4, 7, 9 can be the last digit of
a triangular number.
n9 − 6n7 + 9n5 − 4n3

is divisible by 8640. 334 Problem Demonstrate that there are infinitely many square triangular numbers.

322 Problem Prove that if n > 4 is composite, then n divides (n − 1)!. 335 Problem (Putnam 1975) Supposing that an integer n is the sum of two triangular
numbers,
a2 + a b2 + b
323 Problem Find all real numbers satisfying the equation n= + ,
2 2
!x2 − x − 2" = !x". write 4n + 1 as the sum of two squares, 4n + 1 = x2 + y2 where x and y are expressed in
terms of a and b.
Conversely, shew that if 4n + 1 = x2 + y2 , then n is the sum of two triangular numbers.
324 Problem Solve the equation

x x
! "=! " 336 Problem (Polish Mathematical Olympiad) Prove that
1999 2000 amongst ten successive natural numbers, there are always at least one and at most four
numbers that are not divisible by any of the numbers 2, 3, 5, 7.
325 Problem (Putnam 1948) Let n be a positive integer. Prove that
√ √ √
! n + n + 1" = ! 4n + 2" 337 Problem Are there five consecutive positive integers such that the sum of the first
four, each raised to the fourth power, equals the fifth raised to the fourth power?
√ √ √ √
(Hint: Prove that 4n + 1 < n + n + 1 < 4n + 3. Argue 338 Problem Prove that
that neither 4n + 2 nor 4n + 3 are perfect squares.) (2m)!(3n)!
(m!)2 (n!)3
326 Problem Prove that 6|n3 − n, for all integers n. is always an integer.

327 Problem (Polish Mathematical Olympiad) Prove that if n is an even natural

number, then the number 13n + 6 is divisible by 7. 339 Problem Prove that for n ∈ N, (n!)! is divisible by n!(n−1)!

328 Problem Find, with proof, the unique square which is the product of four 340 Problem (Olimpíada matemática española, 1985) If n is a positive integer,
consecutive odd numbers. prove that (n + 1)(n + 2) · · · (2n) is divisible by 2n .
Chapter 4
Sums, Products, and Recursions

4.1 Telescopic cancellation

We could sum the series

a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an

if we were able to find {vk } satisfying ak = vk − vk−1 . For

a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an = v1 − v0 + v2 − v1 + · · · + vn−1 − vn−2 + vn − vn−1 = vn − v0 .

If such sequence vn exists, we say that a1 + a2 + · · · + an is a telescopic series.

341 Example Simplify

1 1 1 1
1+ · 1+ · 1+ ··· 1 + .
2 3 4 99

Solution: Adding each fraction:

3 4 5 100
· · ··· ,
2 3 4 99

which simplifies to 100/2 = 50.

342 Example Find integers a, b so that

2 3 99
(2 + 1) · 22 + 1 · 22 + 1 · 22 + 1 · · · 22 + 1 = 2a + b.

47
48 Chapter 4

Solution: Using the identity x2 − y2 = (x − y)(x + y) and letting P be the sought product:

2 3 99
(2 − 1)P = (2 − 1) (2 + 1) · 22 + 1 · 22 + 1 · 22 + 1 · · · 22 + 1
2 3 99
= 22 − 1 · 22 + 1 · 22 + 1 · 22 + 1 · · · 22 + 1
2 2 3 99
= 22 − 1 · 22 + 1 · 22 + 1 · · · 22 + 1
3 3 4 99
= 22 − 1 · 22 + 1 · 22 + 1 · · · 22 + 1
.. ..
. .
99 99
= (22 − 1)(22 + 1)
100
= 22 − 1,

whence
100
P = 22 − 1.

343 Example Find the exact value of the product

π 2π 4π
P = cos · cos · cos .
7 7 7

π
Solution: Multiplying both sides by sin and using sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x we obtain
7

π π π 2π 4π
sin P = (sin cos ) · cos · cos
7 7 7 7 7
1 2π 2π 4π
= (sin cos ) · cos
2 7 7 7
1 4π 4π
= (sin cos )
4 7 7
1 8π
= sin .
8 7
π 8π
As sin = − sin , we deduce that
7 7
1
P=− .
8

344 Example Shew that

1 3 5 9999 1
· · ··· < .
2 4 6 10000 100

Solution: Let
1 3 5 9999
A= · · ···
2 4 6 10000
and
2 4 6 10000
B= · · ··· .
3 5 7 10001
Clearly, x2 − 1 < x2 for all real numbers x. This implies that
x−1 x
<
x x+1
Practice 49

whenever these four quantities are positive. Hence

1/2 < 2/3

3/4 < 4/5

5/6 < 6/7

.. .. ..
. . .

9999/10000 < 10000/10001

As all the numbers involved are positive, we multiply both columns to obtain
1 3 5 9999 2 4 6 10000
· · ··· < · · ··· ,
2 4 6 10000 3 5 7 10001

or A < B. This yields A2 = A · A < A · B. Now

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9999 10000 1
A·B = · · · · · · ··· · = ,
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10000 10001 10001
√
and consequently, A2 < A · B = 1/10001. We deduce that A < 1/ 10001 < 1/100.
For the next example we recall that n! (n factorial) means

n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · · ·n.

For example, 1! = 1, 2! = 1 · 2 = 2, 3! = 1 · 2 · 3 = 6, 4! = 1 · 2 · 3 · 4 = 24. Observe that (k + 1)! = (k + 1)k!. We make the

convention 0! = 1.

345 Example Sum

1 · 1! + 2 · 2! + 3 · 3! + · · ·+ 99 · 99!.

Solution: From (k + 1)! = (k + 1)k! = k · k! + k! we deduce (k + 1)! − k! = k · k!. Thus

1 · 1! = 2! − 1!

2 · 2! = 3! − 2!

3 · 3! = 4! − 3!
.. .. ..
. . .

98 · 98 = 99! − 98!

99 · 99! = 100! − 99!

Adding both columns,

1 · 1! + 2 · 2! + 3 · 3! + · · ·+ 99 · 99! = 100! − 1! = 100! − 1.

Practice
50 Chapter 4

346 Problem Find a closed formula for 348 Problem Simplify

Dn = 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + · · · + (−1)n−1 n. 1 1
log2 1 + + log2 1 +
2 3
1 1
+ log2 1 + + · · · + log2 1 + .
347 Problem Simplify 4 1023

1 1 1 1 n
1− · 1− · 1− ··· 1 − . 349 Problem Prove that for all positive integers n, 22 + 1 divides
22 32 42 992
2n +1
22 − 2.

4.2 Arithmetic Sums

An arithmetic progression is one of the form

a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . ., a + (n − 1)d, . . .

One important arithmetic sum is

n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + ···+ n = .
2
To obtain a closed form, we utilise Gauss’ trick:
If
An = 1 + 2 + 3 + · · ·+ n
then
An = n + (n − 1) + · · ·+ 1.
Adding these two quantities,

An = 1 + 2 + ··· + n

An = n + (n − 1) + ··· + 1

2An = (n + 1) + (n + 1) + ··· + (n + 1)

= n(n + 1),

n(n + 1)
since there are n summands. This gives An = , that is,
2
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + ···+ n = . (4.1)
2
For example,
100(101)
1 + 2 + 3 + · · ·+ 100 = = 5050.
2
Applying Gauss’s trick to the general arithmetic sum

(a) + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + · · ·+ (a + (n − 1)d)

we obtain
n(2a + (n − 1)d)
(a) + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + · · ·+ (a + (n − 1)d) = (4.2)
2

350 Example Find the sum of all the integers from 1 to 1000 inclusive, which are not multiples of 3 or 5.
Practice 51

Solution: One computes the sum of all integers from 1 to 1000 and weeds out the sum of the multiples of 3 and the sum of the
multiples of 5, but puts back the multiples of 15, which one has counted twice. Put

An = 1 + 2 + 3 + · · ·+ n,

B = 3 + 6 + 9 + · · ·+ 999 = 3A333 ,
C = 5 + 10 + 15 + · · ·+ 1000 = 5A200,
D = 15 + 30 + 45 + · · ·+ 990 = 15A66.
The desired sum is
A1000 − B −C + D = A1000 − 3A333 − 5A200 + 15A66

= 500500 − 3 · 55611 − 5 · 20100 + 15 · 2211

= 266332.

351 Example Each element of the set {10, 11, 12, . . ., 19, 20} is multiplied by each element of the set {21, 22, 23, . . ., 29, 30}.
If all these products are added, what is the resulting sum?

Solution: This is asking for the product (10 + 11 + · · ·+ 20)(21 + 22 + · · ·+ 30) after all the terms are multiplied. But

(20 + 10)(11)
10 + 11 + · · ·+ 20 = = 165
2
and
(30 + 21)(10)
21 + 22 + · · ·+ 30 = = 255.
2
The required total is (165)(255) = 42075.

352 Example The sum of a certain number of consecutive positive integers is 1000. Find these integers.

n(2l + n + 1)
Solution: Let the the sum of integers be S = (l + 1) + (l + 2) + (l + n). Using Gauss’ trick we obtain S = . As
√ 2
2 2
S = 1000, 2000 = n(2l + n + 1). Now 2000 = n + 2ln + n > n , whence n ≤ ! 2000" = 44. Moreover, n and 2l + n + 1
divisors of 2000 and are of opposite parity. Since 2000 = 24 53 , the odd factors of 2000 are 1, 5, 25, and 125. We then see that
the problem has te following solutions:
n = 1, l = 999,
n = 5, l = 197,
n = 16, l = 54,
n = 25, l = 27.

353 Example Find the sum of all integers between 1 and 100 that leave remainder 2 upon division by 6.

Solution: We want the sum of the integers of the form 6r + 2, r = 0, 1, . . . , 16. But this is
16 16 16
16(17)
(6r + 2) = 6 r+ 2=6 + 2(17) = 850.
2
r=0 r=0 r=0

Practice
52 Chapter 4

354 Problem Shew that 360 Problem Consider the following table:
2 2
n (n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (n2 − 1) + n2 = . 1=1
2

2+3+4 = 1+8
355 Problem Shew that
5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 = 8 + 27
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + 2n − 1 = n2 .
10 + 11 + 12 + 13 + 14 + 15 + 16 = 27 + 64
356 Problem (AHSME 1994) Sum the series Conjecture the law of formation and prove your answer.
1 2
20 + 20 + 20 + · · · + 40.
5 5
361 Problem The odd natural numbers are arranged as follows:

357 Problem Shew that (1)

1 2 3 1995
+ + + ··· + (3, 5)
1996 1996 1996 1996
is an integer. (7, 9, 11)

(13, 15, 17, 19)

358 Problem (AHSME 1991) Let Tn = 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n and
(21, 23, 25, 27, 29)
T2 T3 T4 Tn
Pn = · · ··· .
T2 − 1 T3 − 1 T4 − 1 Tn − 1 ...............................
Find P1991 .
Find the sum of the nth row.

359 Problem Given that

1 1 1 362 Problem Sum
, ,
a+b b+c c+a
are consecutive terms in an arithmetic progression, prove that 10002 − 9992 + 9982 − 9972 + · · · + 44 − 32 + 22 − 11 .

b2 , a2 , c2
363 Problem The first term of an arithmetic progression is 14 and its 100th term is
are also consecutive terms in an arithmetic progression. −16. Find (i) its 30th term and (ii) the sum of all the terms from the first to the 100th.

4.3 Geometric Sums

A geometric progression is one of the form

a, ar, ar2 , ar3 , . . . , arn−1 , . . . ,

364 Example Find the following geometric sum:

1 + 2 + 4 + · · ·+ 1024.

Solution: Let
S = 1 + 2 + 4 + · · ·+ 1024.
Then
2S = 2 + 4 + 8 + · · ·+ 1024 + 2048.
Hence
S = 2S − S = (2 + 4 + 8 · · · + 2048) − (1 + 2 + 4 + · · ·+ 1024) = 2048 − 1 = 2047.

365 Example Find the geometric sum

1 1 1 1
x= + + + · · · + 99 .
3 32 33 3

Solution: We have
1 1 1 1 1
x = 2 + 3 + · · · + 99 + 100 .
3 3 3 3 3
Geometric Sums 53

Then
2 1
x = x− x
3 3
1 1 1 1
= ( + 2 + 3 + · · · + 99 )
3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1
−( 2 + 3 + · · · + 99 + 100 )
3 3 3 3
1 1
= − .
3 3100
From which we gather
1 1
− x= .
2 2 · 399
The following example presents an arithmetic-geometric sum.

366 Example Sum

a = 1 + 2 · 4 + 3 · 42 + · · · + 10 · 49.

Solution: We have
4a = 4 + 2 · 42 + 3 · 43 + · · · + 9 · 49 + 10 · 410.
Now, 4a − a yields
3a = −1 − 4 − 42 − 43 − · · · − 49 + 10 · 410.
Adding this last geometric series,
10 · 410 410 − 1
a= − .
3 9

367 Example Find the sum

Sn = 1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + · · ·+ 1/2n.
Interpret your result as n → ∞.

Solution: We have
1
Sn − Sn = (1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + · · ·+ 1/2n) − (1/2 + 1/4 + · · ·+ 1/2n + 1/2n+1) = 1 − 1/2n.
2
Whence
Sn = 2 − 1/2n.
So as n varies, we have:
S1 = 2 − 1/20 = 1

S2 = 2 − 1/2 = 1.5

S3 = 2 − 1/22 = 1.875

S4 = 2 − 1/23 = 1.875

S5 = 2 − 1/24 = 1.9375

S6 = 2 − 1/25 = 1.96875

S10 = 2 − 1/29 = 1.998046875

Thus the farther we go in the series, the closer we get to 2.

54 Chapter 4

Let us sum now the geometric series

S = a + ar + ar2 + · · · + arn−1.
Plainly, if r = 1 then S = na, so we may assume that r &= 1. We have

rS = ar + ar2 + · · · + arn.

Hence
S − rS = a + ar + ar2 + · · · + arn−1 − ar − ar2 − · · · − arn = a − arn.
From this we deduce that
a − arn
S= ,
1−r
that is,
a − arn
a + ar + · · · + arn−1 = (4.3)
1−r
If |r| < 1 then rn → 0 as n → ∞.
For |r| < 1, we obtain the sum of the infinite geometric series
a
a + ar + ar2 + · · · = (4.4)
1−r

368 Example A fly starts at the origin and goes 1 unit up, 1/2 unit right, 1/4 unit down, 1/8 unit left, 1/16 unit up, etc., ad
infinitum. In what coordinates does it end up?

Solution: Its x coordinate is

1
1 1 1 2 2
− + − ··· = −1
= .
2 8 32 1− 4 5

Its y coordinate is
1 1 1 4
1− + − ··· = = .
4 16 1 − −1
4
5

2 4
Therefore, the fly ends up in ( , ).
5 5

Practice

369 Problem The 6th term of a geometric progression is 20 and the 10th is 320. Find (i) its 15th term, (ii) the sum of its first 30 terms.

4.4 Fundamental Sums

In this section we compute several sums using telescoping cancellation.
We start with the sum of the first n positive integers, which we have already computed using Gauss’ trick.

370 Example Find a closed formula for

An = 1 + 2 + · · · + n.

Solution: Observe that

k2 − (k − 1)2 = 2k − 1.
Fundamental Sums 55

From this
12 − 02 = 2·1−1

22 − 12 = 2·2−1

32 − 22 = 2·3−1
.. .. ..
. . .

n2 − (n − 1)2 = 2·n−1

Adding both columns,

n2 − 02 = 2(1 + 2 + 3 + · · ·+ n) − n.
Solving for the sum,
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + · · ·+ n = n2 /2 + n/2 = .
2

371 Example Find the sum

12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 .

Solution: Observe that

k3 − (k − 1)3 = 3k2 − 3k + 1.
Hence
13 − 03 = 3 · 12 − 3 · 1 + 1

23 − 13 = 3 · 22 − 3 · 2 + 1

33 − 23 = 3 · 32 − 3 · 3 + 1
.. .. ..
. . .

n3 − (n − 1)3 = 3 · n2 − 3 · n + 1

Adding both columns,

n3 − 03 = 3(12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 ) − 3(1 + 2 + 3 + · · ·+ n) + n.
n(n + 1)
From the preceding example 1 + 2 + 3 + · · ·+ n = ·n2 /2 + n/2 = so
2
3
n3 − 03 = 3(12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 ) − · n(n + 1) + n.
2
Solving for the sum,
n3 1 n
12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 = + · n(n + 1) − .
3 2 3
After simplifying we obtain
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 = (4.5)
6

372 Example Add the series

1 1 1 1
+ + + ···+ .
1·2 2·3 3·4 99 · 100
56 Chapter 4

Solution: Observe that

1 1 1
= − .
k(k + 1) k k + 1

Thus
1 1 1
= −
1·2 1 2
1 1 1
= −
2·3 2 3
1 1 1
= −
3·4 3 4
.. .. ..
. . .
1 1 1
= −
99 · 100 99 100
Adding both columns,
1 1 1 1 1 99
+ + + ··· + = 1− = .
1·2 2·3 3·4 99 · 100 100 100

373 Example Add

1 1 1 1
+ + + ···+ .
1 · 4 4 · 7 7 · 10 31 · 34

Solution: Observe that

1 1 1 1 1
= · − · .
(3n + 1) · (3n + 4) 3 3n + 1 3 3n + 4

Thus
1 1 1
= −
1·4 3 12
1 1 1
= −
4·7 12 21
1 1 1
= −
7 · 10 21 30
1 1 1
= −
10 · 13 30 39
.. .. ..
. . .
1 1 1
= −
34 · 37 102 111
Summing both columns,
1 1 1 1 1 1 12
+ + + ···+ = − = .
1 · 4 4 · 7 7 · 10 31 · 34 3 111 37

374 Example Sum

1 1 1 1
+ + + ···+ .
1 · 4 · 7 4 · 7 · 10 7 · 10 · 13 25 · 28 · 31

Solution: Observe that

1 1 1 1 1
= · − · .
(3n + 1) · (3n + 4) · (3n + 7) 6 (3n + 1)(3n + 4) 6 (3n + 4)(3n + 7)
Practice 57

Therefore
1 1 1
= −
1·4·7 6·1·4 6·4·7
1 1 1
= −
4 · 7 · 10 6 · 4 · 7 6 · 7 · 10
1 1 1
= −
7 · 10 · 13 6 · 7 · 10 6 · 10 · 13
.. .. ..
. . .
1 1 1
= −
25 · 28 · 31 6 · 25 · 28 6 · 28 · 31
Adding each column,
1 1 1 1 1 1 9
+ + + ···+ = − = .
1 · 4 · 7 4 · 7 · 10 7 · 10 · 13 25 · 28 · 31 6 · 1 · 4 6 · 28 · 31 217

375 Example Find the sum

1 · 2 + 2 · 3 + 3 · 4 + · · ·+ 99 · 100.

Solution: Observe that

1 1
k(k + 1) = (k)(k + 1)(k + 2) − (k − 1)(k)(k + 1).
3 3
Therefore

1 1
1·2 = ·1·2·3− ·0·1·2
3 3
1 1
2·3 = ·2·3·4− ·1·2·3
3 3
1 1
3·4 = ·3·4·5− ·2·3·4
3 3
.. .. ..
. . .
1 1
99 · 100 = · 99 · 100 · 101 − · 98 · 99 · 100
3 3
Adding each column,
1 1
1 · 2 + 2 · 3 + 3 · 4 + · · ·+ 99 · 100 = · 99 · 100 · 101 − · 0 · 1 · 2 = 333300.
3 3

Practice

376 Problem Shew that 378 Problem Shew that

2
n(n + 1)
13 + 23 + 33 + · · · + n3 = (4.6)
2
csc 2 + csc 4 + csc8 + · · · + csc2n = cot 1 − cot 2n .

377 Problem Let a1 , a2 , . . . ,an be arbitrary numbers. Shew that

a1 + a2 (1 + a1 ) + a3 (1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) 379 Problem Let 0 < x < 1. Shew that

+a4 (1 + a1 )(1 + a2 )(1 + a3 ) + · · ·

∞
n
+an−1 (1 + a1 )(1 + a2 )(1 + a3 ) · · · (1 + an−2 ) x2 x
= .
1 − x2n+1 1−x
= (1 + a1 )(1 + a2 )(1 + a3 ) · · · (1 + an ) − 1. n=1
58 Chapter 4

380 Problem Shew that Hint: From

π π
tan 100 + 2 tan 99 tan x − tan y
2 2
π π tan x − tan y =
+22 tan 98 + · · · + 298 tan 2 1 + tanx tan y
22 2
π
= cot 100 .
2
deduce that
381 Problem Shew that
n
k 1 n2 + n
a−b
= · . arctan a − arctanb = arctan
k4 + k2 + 1 2 n2 + n + 1 1 + ab
k=1

382 Problem Evaluate for suitable a and b.

1/3
1 · 2 · 4 + 2 · 4 · 8 + 3 · 6 · 12 + · · ·
.
1 · 3 · 9 + 2 · 6 · 18 + 3 · 9 · 27 + · · · 384 Problem Prove the following result due to Gramm

383 Problem Shew that

∞
∞ n3 − 1 2
1 π = .
arctan = . n3 + 1 3
1 + n + n2 4 n=2
n=1

4.5 First Order Recursions

We have already seen the Fibonacci numbers, defined by the recursion f0 = 0, f1 = 1 and

fn+1 = fn + fn−1 , n ≥ 1.

The order of the recurrence is the difference between the highest and the lowest subscripts. For example

un+2 − un+1 = 2

is of the first order, and

un+4 + 9u2n = n5
is of the fourth order.
A recurrence is linear if the subscripted letters appear only to the first power. For example

un+2 − un+1 = 2
is a linear recurrence and
x2n + nxn−1 = 1 and xn + 2xn−1 = 3
are not linear recurrences.
A recursion is homogeneous if all its terms contain the subscripted variable to the same power. Thus

xm+3 + 8xm+2 − 9xm = 0

is homogeneous. The equation

xm+3 + 8xm+2 − 9xm = m2 − 3
is not homogeneous.
A closed form of a recurrence is a formula that permits us to find the n-th term of the recurrence without having to know a
priori the terms preceding it.
We outline a method for solving first order linear recurrence relations of the form

xn = axn−1 + f (n), a &= 1,

where f is a polynomial.
First Order Recursions 59

1. First solve the homogeneous recurrence xn = axn−1 by “raising the subscripts” in the form xn = axn−1 . This we call the
characteristic equation. Cancelling this gives x = a. The solution to the homogeneous equation xn = axn−1 will be of
the form xn = Aan , where A is a constant to be determined.
2. Test a solution of the form xn = Aan + g(n), where g is a polynomial of the same degree as f .

385 Example Let x0 = 7 and xn = 2xn−1 , n ≥ 1. Find a closed form for xn .

Solution: Raising subscripts we have the characteristic equation xn = 2xn−1 . Cancelling, x = 2. Thus we try a solution of the
form xn = A2n , were A is a constant. But 7 = x0 = A20 and so A = 7. The solution is thus xn = 7(2)n .
Aliter: We have
x0 = 7

x1 = 2x0

x2 = 2x1

x3 = 2x2
.. .. ..
. . .

xn = 2xn−1
Multiplying both columns,
x0 x1 · · · xn = 7 · 2nx0 x1 x2 · · · xn−1 .
Cancelling the common factors on both sides of the equality,
xn = 7 · 2 n .

386 Example Let x0 = 7 and xn = 2xn−1 + 1, n ≥ 1. Find a closed form for xn .

Solution: By raising the subscripts in the homogeneous equation we obtain xn = 2xn−1 or x = 2. A solution to the
homogeneous equation will be of the form xn = A(2)n . Now f (n) = 1 is a polynomial of degree 0 (a constant) and so we test a
particular constant solution C. The general solution will have the form xn = A2n + B. Now, 7 = x0 = A20 + B = A + B. Also,
x1 = 2x0 + 7 = 15 and so 15 = x1 = 2A + B. Solving the simultaneous equations
A + B = 7,
2A + B = 15,
we find A = 8, B = −1. So the solution is xn = 8(2 ) − 1 = 2n+3 − 1.
n

Aliter: We have:
x0 = 7

x1 = 2x0 + 1

x2 = 2x1 + 1

x3 = 2x2 + 1
.. .. ..
. . .

xn−1 = 2xn−2 + 1

xn = 2xn−1 + 1
60 Chapter 4

Multiply the kth row by 2n−k . We obtain

2 n x0 = 2n · 7

2n−1x1 = 2n x0 + 2n−1

2n−2x2 = 2n−1 x1 + 2n−2

2n−3x3 = 2n−2 x2 + 2n−3

.. .. ..
. . .

22 xn−2 = 23 xn−3 + 22

2xn−1 = 22 xn−2 + 2

xn = 2xn−1 + 1

Adding both columns, cancelling, and adding the geometric sum,

xn = 7 · 2n + (1 + 2 + 22 + · · · + 2n−1) = 7 · 2n + 2n − 1 = 2n+3 − 1.

Aliter: Let un = xn + 1 = 2xn−1 + 2 = 2(xn−1 + 1) = 2un−1 . We solve the recursion un = 2un−1 as we did on our first example:
un = 2n u0 = 2n (x0 + 1) = 2n · 8 = 2n+3 . Finally, xn = un − 1 = 2n+3 − 1.

387 Example Let x0 = 2, xn = 9xn−1 − 56n + 63. Find a closed form for this recursion.

Solution: By raising the subscripts in the homogeneous equation we obtain the characteristic equation xn = 9xn−1 or x = 9. A
solution to the homogeneous equation will be of the form xn = A(9)n . Now f (n) = −56n + 63 is a polynomial of degree 1 and
so we test a particular solution of the form Bn +C. The general solution will have the form xn = A9n + Bn +C. Now
x0 = 2, x1 = 9(2) − 56 + 63 = 25, x2 = 9(25) − 56(2) + 63 = 176. We thus solve the system

2 = A +C,

25 = 9A + B +C,
176 = 81A + 2B +C.
We find A = 2, B = 7,C = 0. The general solution is xn = 2(9n ) + 7n.

388 Example Let x0 = 1, xn = 3xn−1 − 2n2 + 6n − 3. Find a closed form for this recursion.

Solution: By raising the subscripts in the homogeneous equation we obtain the characteristic equation xn = 3xn−1 or x = 9. A
solution to the homogeneous equation will be of the form xn = A(3)n . Now f (n) = −2n2 + 6n − 3 is a polynomial of degree 2
and so we test a particular solution of the form Bn2 +Cn + D. The general solution will have the form
xn = A3n + Bn2 +Cn + D. Now
x0 = 1, x1 = 3(1) − 2 + 6 − 3 = 4, x2 = 3(4) − 2(2)2 + 6(2) − 3 = 13, x3 = 3(13) − 2(3)2 + 6(3) − 3 = 36. We thus solve the
system
1 = A + D,
4 = 3A + B +C + D,
13 = 9A + 4B + 2C + D,
36 = 27A + 9B + 3C + D.
We find A = B = 1,C = D = 0. The general solution is xn = 3n + n2 .
Practice 61

389 Example Find a closed form for xn = 2xn−1 + 3n−1, x0 = 2.

Solution: We test a solution of the form xn = A2n + B3n. Then x0 = 2, x1 = 2(2) + 30 = 5. We solve the system
2 = A + B,
7 = 2A + 3B.
We find A = 1, B = 1. The general solution is xn = 2 + 3n .
n

We now tackle the case when a = 1. In this case, we simply consider a polynomial g of degree 1 higher than the degree of f .

390 Example Let x0 = 7 and xn = xn−1 + n, n ≥ 1. Find a closed formula for xn .

Solution: By raising the subscripts in the homogeneous equation we obtain the characteristic equation xn = xn−1 or x = 1. A
solution to the homogeneous equation will be of the form xn = A(1)n = A, a constant. Now f (n) = n is a polynomial of degree
1 and so we test a particular solution of the form Bn2 +Cn + D, one more degree than that of f . The general solution will have
the form xn = A + Bn2 +Cn + D. Since A and D are constants, we may combine them to obtain xn = Bn2 +Cn + E. Now,
x0 = 7, x1 = 7 + 1 = 8, x2 = 8 + 2 = 10. So we solve the system
7 = E,
8 = B +C + E,
10 = 4B + 2C + E.
1 n2 n
We find B = C = , E = 7. The general solution is xn = + + 7.
2 2 2
Aliter: We have
x0 = 7

x1 = x0 + 1

x2 = x1 + 2

x3 = x2 + 3
.. .. ..
. . .

xn = xn−1 + n
Adding both columns,
x0 + x1 + x2 + · · · + xn = 7 + x0 + x2 + · · · + xn−1 + (1 + 2 + 3 + · · ·+ n).
n(n + 1)
Cancelling and using the fact that 1 + 2 + · · ·+ n = ,
2
n(n + 1)
xn = 7 + .
2
Some non-linear first order recursions maybe reduced to a linear first order recursion by a suitable transformation.

391 Example A recursion satisfies u0 = 3, u2n+1 = un , n ≥ 1. Find a closed form for this recursion.

1/2 1 vn−1
Solution: Let vn = log un . Then vn = log un = log un−1 = log un−1 = . As vn = vn−1 /2, we have vn = v0 /2n , that is,
n
2 2
log un = (log u0 )/2n . Therefore, un = 31/2 .

Practice
62 Chapter 4

xn−1 + 4
392 Problem Find a closed form for x0 = 3, xn = . Given that x19 = 94, find the remainder when x94 is divided by 1000.
3

393 Problem Find a closed form for x0 = 1, xn = 5xn−1 − 20n + 25. 398 Problem Find a closed form for

394 Problem Find a closed form for x0 = 1, xn = xn−1 + 12n. x0 = −1; xn = xn−1 + n2 , n > 0.

395 Problem Find a closed form for xn = 2xn−1 + 9(5n−1 ), x0 = 5.

399 Problem If u0 = 1/3 and un+1 = 2u2n − 1, find a closed form for un .

396 Problem Find a closed form for

400 Problem Let x1 = 1, xn+1 = x2n − xn + 1, n > 0. Shew that
a0 = 5, a j+1 = a2j + 2a j , j ≥ 0.

∞
397 Problem (AIME, 1994) If n ≥ 1, 1
= 1.
xn
2
xn + xn−1 = n . n=1

4.6 Second Order Recursions

All the recursions that we have so far examined are first order recursions, that is, we find the next term of the sequence given
the preceding one. Let us now briefly examine how to solve some second order recursions.
We now outline a method for solving second order homogeneous linear recurrence relations of the form

xn = axn−1 + bxn−2.

1. Find the characteristic equation by “raising the subscripts” in the form xn = axn−1 + bxn−2. Cancelling this gives
x2 − ax − b = 0. This equation has two roots r1 and r2 .

2. If the roots are different, the solution will be of the form xn = A(r1 )n + B(r2 )n , where A, B are constants.

3. If the roots are identical, the solution will be of the form xn = A(r1 )n + Bn(r1 )n .

401 Example Let x0 = 1, x1 = −1, xn+2 + 5xn+1 + 6xn = 0.

Solution: The characteristic equation is x2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 3)(x + 2) = 0. Thus we test a solution of the form
xn = A(−2)n + B(−3)n . Since 1 = x0 = A + B, −1 = −2A − 3B, we quickly find A = 2, B = −1. Thus the solution is
xn = 2(−2)n − (−3)n .

402 Example Find a closed form for the Fibonacci recursion f0 = 0, f1 = 1, fn = fn−1 + fn−2 .

2
Solution: The√characteristic equation
√ n is f − f − 1 = 0, whence a solution will have the form
n
1+ 5 1− 5
fn = A +B . The initial conditions give
2 2

0 = A + B,
√ √ √ √
1+ 5 1− 5 1 5 5
1=A +B = (A + B) + (A − B) = (A − B)
2 2 2 2 2
1 1
This gives A = √ , B = − √ . We thus have the Cauchy-Binet Formula:
5 5
√ n √ n
1 1+ 5 1 1− 5
fn = √ − √ (4.7)
5 2 5 2

403 Example Solve the recursion x0 = 1, x1 = 4, xn = 4xn−1 − 4xn−2 = 0.

Second Order Recursions 63

Solution: The characteristic equation is x2 − 4x + 4 = (x − 2)2 = 0. There is a multiple root and so we must test a solution of
the form xn = A2n + Bn2n. The initial conditions give
1 = A,
4 = 2A + 2B.
This solves to A = 1, B = 1. The solution is thus xn = 2 + n2n .
n
64 Chapter 4

Practice

404 Problem Solve the recursion x0 = 0, x1 = 1, xn = 10xn−1 − 21xn−2 . 406 Problem Solve the recursion x0 = 0, x1 = 1, xn = 10xn−1 − 21xn−2 + n.

405 Problem Solve the recursion x0 = 0, x1 = 1, xn = 10xn−1 − 25xn−2 . 407 Problem Solve the recursion x0 = 0, x1 = 1, xn = 10xn−1 − 21xn−2 + 2n .

4.7 Applications of Recursions

408 Example Find the recurrence relation for the number of n digit binary sequences with no pair of consecutive 1’s.

Solution: It is quite easy to see that a1 = 2, a2 = 3. To form an , n ≥ 3, we condition on the last digit. If it is 0, the number of
sequences sought is an−1 . If it is 1, the penultimate digit must be 0, and the number of sequences sought is an−2 . Thus

an = an−1 + an−2, a1 = 2, a2 = 3.

409 Example Let there be drawn n ovals on the plane. If an oval intersects each of the other ovals at exactly two points and
no three ovals intersect at the same point, find a recurrence relation for the number of regions into which the plane is divided.

Solution: Let this number be an . Plainly a1 = 2. After the n − 1th stage, the nth oval intersects the previous ovals at 2(n − 1)
points, i.e. the nth oval is divided into 2(n − 1) arcs. This adds 2(n − 1) regions to the an−1 previously existing. Thus

an = an−1 + 2(n − 1), a1 = 2.

410 Example Find a recurrence relation for the number of regions into which the plane is divided by n straight lines if every
pair of lines intersect, but no three lines intersect.

Solution: Let an be this number. Clearly a1 = 2. The nth line is cut by he previous n − 1 lines at n − 1 points, adding n new
regions to the previously existing an−1 . Hence
an = an−1 + n, a1 = 2.

411 Example (Derangements) An absent-minded secretary is filling n envelopes with n letters. Find a recursion for the
number Dn of ways in which she never stuffs the right letter into the right envelope.

Solution: Number the envelopes 1, 2, 3, · · · , n. We condition on the last envelope. Two events might happen. Either n and
r(1 ≤ r ≤ n − 1) trade places or they do not.
In the first case, the two letters r and n are misplaced. Our task is just to misplace the other n − 2 letters,
(1, 2, · · · , r − 1, r + 1, · · · , n − 1) in the slots (1, 2, · · · , r − 1, r + 1, · · · , n − 1). This can be done in Dn−2 ways. Since r can be
chosen in n − 1 ways, the first case can happen in (n − 1)Dn−2 ways.
In the second case, let us say that letter r, (1 ≤ r ≤ n − 1) moves to the n-th position but n moves not to the r-th position. Since
r has been misplaced, we can just ignore it. Since n is not going to the r-th position, we may relabel n as r. We now have n − 1
numbers to misplace, and this can be done in Dn−1 ways.
As r can be chosen in n − 1 ways, the total number of ways for the second case is (n − 1)Dn−1. Thus
Dn = (n − 1)Dn−2 + (n − 1)Dn−1.

412 Example There are two urns, one is full of water and the other is empty. On the first stage, half of the contains of urn I is
passed into urn II. On the second stage 1/3 of the contains of urn II is passed into urn I. On stage three, 1/4 of the contains of
urn I is passed into urn II. On stage four 1/5 of the contains of urn II is passed into urn I, and so on. What fraction of water
remains in urn I after the 1978th stage?
Practice 65

Solution: Let xn , yn , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . denote the fraction of water in urns I and II respectively at stage n. Observe that xn + yn = 1
and that

x0 = 1; y0 = 0
1 1 1 1
x1 = x0 − x0 = ; y1 = y1 + x0 =
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 1
x2 = x1 + y1 = ; y2 = y1 − y1 =
3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1
x3 = x2 − x2 = ; y1 = y1 + x2 =
4 2 4 2
1 3 1 2
x4 = x3 + y3 = ; y1 = y1 − y3 =
5 5 5 5
1 1 1 1
x5 = x4 − x4 = ; y1 = y1 + x4 =
6 2 6 2
1 4 1 3
x6 = x5 + y5 = ; y1 = y1 − y5 =
7 7 7 7
1 1 1 1
x7 = x6 − x6 = ; y1 = y1 + x6 =
8 2 8 2
1 5 1 4
x8 = x7 + y7 = ; y1 = y1 − y7 =
9 9 9 9
1
A pattern emerges (which may be proved by induction) that at each odd stage n we have xn = yn = and that at each even
2
k+1 k 1978 990
stage we have (if n = 2k) x2k = , y2k = . Since = 989 we have x1978 = .
2k + 1 2k + 1 2 1979

Practice

413 Problem At the Golem Gambling Casino Research Institute an experiment is this one, she earns 15% interest per year. Find a recurrence relation for the amount of
performed by rolling a die until two odd numbers have appeared (and then the money after n years.
experiment stops). The tireless researchers wanted to find a recurrence relation for the
number of ways to do this. Help them!

415 Problem Find a recurrence relation for the number of ternary n-digit sequences
414 Problem Mrs. Rosenberg has $8 000 000 in one of her five savings accounts. In with no consecutive 2’s.
Chapter 5
Counting

5.1 Inclusion-Exclusion
In this section we investigate a tool for counting unions of events. It is known as The Principle of Inclusion-Exclusion or
Sylvester-Poincaré Principle.

416 Theorem (Two set Inclusion-Exclusion)

card (A ∪ B) = card (A) + card(B) − card(A ∩ B)

Proof: We have
A ∪ B = (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A) ∪ (A ∩ B),
and this last expression is a union of disjoint sets. Hence

card (A ∪ B) = card (A \ B) + card (B \ A) + card(A ∩ B).

But
A \ B = A \ (A ∩ B) =⇒ card (A \ B) = card (A) − card(A ∩ B) ,
B \ A = B \ (A ∩ B) =⇒ card (B \ A) = card (B) − card(A ∩ B) ,
from where we deduce the result. ❑

In the Venn diagram 5.1, we mark by R1 the number of elements which are simultaneously in both sets (i.e., in A ∩ B), by R2
the number of elements which are in A but not in B (i.e., in A \ B), and by R3 the number of elements which are B but not in A
(i.e., in B \ A). We have R1 + R2 + R3 = card (A ∪ B), which illustrates the theorem.

417 Example Of 40 people, 28 smoke and 16 chew tobacco. It is also known that 10 both smoke and chew. How many
among the 40 neither smoke nor chew?

Solution: Let A denote the set of smokers and B the set of chewers. Then

card (A ∪ B) = card (A) + card (B) − card(A ∩ B) = 28 + 16 − 10 = 34,

meaning that there are 34 people that either smoke or chew (or possibly both). Therefore the number of people that neither
smoke nor chew is 40 − 34 = 6.

66
Inclusion-Exclusion 6 67
A B A B

R2 R1 R3 18 10 6

Figure 5.1: Two-set Inclusion-Exclusion Figure 5.2: Example 417.

Aliter: We fill up the Venn diagram in figure 5.2 as follows. Since card(A ∩ B) = 10, we put a 10 in the intersection. Then we
put a 28 − 10 = 18 in the part that A does not overlap B and a 16 − 10 = 6 in the part of B that does not overlap A. We have
accounted for 10 + 18 + 6 = 34 people that are in at least one of the set. The remaining 40 − 34 = 6 are outside these sets.

418 Example How many integers between 1 and 1000 inclusive, do not share a common factor with 1000, that is, are
relatively prime to 1000?

Solution: Observe that 1000 = 23 53 , and thus from the 1000 integers we must weed out those that have a factor of 2 or of 5 in
their prime factorisation. If A2 denotes the set of those integers divisible by 2 in the interval [1; 1000] then clearly
1000 1000
card (A2 ) = ! " = 500. Similarly, if A5 denotes the set of those integers divisible by 5 then card(A5 ) = ! " = 200.
2 5
1000
Also card(A2 ∩ A5 ) = ! " = 100. This means that there are card(A2 ∪ A5 ) = 500 + 200 − 100 = 600 integers in the
10
interval [1; 1000] sharing at least a factor with 1000, thus there are 1000 − 600 = 400 integers in [1; 1000] that do not share a
factor prime factor with 1000.

We now deduce a formula for counting the number of elements of a union of three events.

R4

R6 R7

R3

A R2 R1 B

R5

Figure 5.3: Three-set Inclusion-Exclusion

419 Theorem (Three set Inclusion-Exclusion) Let A, B,C be events of the same sample space Ω. Then

card (A ∪ B ∪C) = card (A) + card (B) + card(C)

− card (A ∩ B) − card (B ∩C) − card (C ∩ A)

+ card (A ∩ B ∩C)
68 Chapter 5

Proof: Using the associativity and distributivity of unions of sets, we see that

card (A ∪ B ∪C) = card (A ∪ (B ∪C))

= card (A) + card(B ∪C) − card (A ∩ (B ∪C))

= card (A) + card(B ∪C) − card ((A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩C))

= card (A) + card(B) + card(C) − card (B ∩C)

− card (A ∩ B) − card(A ∩C)

+ card ((A ∩ B) ∩ (A ∩C))

= card (A) + card(B) + card(C) − card (B ∩C)

− (card (A ∩ B) + card(A ∩C) − card(A ∩ B ∩C))

= card (A) + card(B) + card(C)

− card (A ∩ B) − card(B ∩C) − card (C ∩ A)

+ card (A ∩ B ∩C).

This gives the Inclusion-Exclusion Formula for three sets. See also figure 5.3.
❑
☞ In the Venn diagram in figure 5.3 there are 8 disjoint regions: the 7 that form A ∪ B ∪C and the outside
region, devoid of any element belonging to A ∪ B ∪C.

420 Example How many integers between 1 and 600 inclusive are not divisible by neither 3, nor 5, nor 7?

Solution: Let Ak denote the numbers in [1; 600] which are divisible by k. Then
600
card (A3 ) = ! " = 200,
3
600
card (A5 ) = ! " = 120,
5
600
card (A7 ) = ! " = 85,
7
600
card (A15 ) = ! " = 40
15
600
card (A21 ) = ! " = 28
21
600
card (A35 ) = ! " = 17
35
600
card (A105 ) = ! " = 5
105
By Inclusion-Exclusion there are 200 + 120 + 85 − 40 − 28 − 17 + 5 = 325 integers in [1; 600] divisible by at least one of 3, 5,
or 7. Those not divisible by these numbers are a total of 600 − 325 = 275.

421 Example In a group of 30 people, 8 speak English, 12 speak Spanish and 10 speak French. It is known that 5 speak
English and Spanish, 5 Spanish and French, and 7 English and French. The number of people speaking all three languages is
3. How many do not speak any of these languages?
Practice 69

Solution: Let A be the set of all English speakers, B the set of Spanish speakers and C the set of French speakers in our group.
We fill-up the Venn diagram in figure 5.4 successively. In the intersection of all three we put 8. In the region common to A and
B which is not filled up we put 5 − 2 = 3. In the region common to A and C which is not already filled up we put 5 − 3 = 2. In
the region common to B and C which is not already filled up, we put 7 − 3 = 4. In the remaining part of A we put
8 − 2 − 3 − 2 = 1, in the remaining part of B we put 12 − 4 − 3 − 2 = 3, and in the remaining part of C we put
10 − 2 − 3 − 4 = 1. Each of the mutually disjoint regions comprise a total of 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 1 + 2 + 3 = 16 persons. Those
outside these three sets are then 30 − 16 = 14.
C Sports

1 u
2 4 z t
3 x
A 1 3 B Movies 20 15 Reading
2 y

Figure 5.4: Example 421. Figure 5.5: Example 422.

422 Example A survey shews that 90% of high-schoolers in Philadelphia like at least one of the following activities: going to
the movies, playing sports, or reading. It is known that 45% like the movies, 48% like sports, and 35% like reading. Also, it is
known that 12% like both the movies and reading, 20% like only the movies, and 15% only reading. What percent of
high-schoolers like all three activities?

Solution: We make the Venn diagram in as in figure 5.5. From it we gather the following system of equations

x + y + z + 20 = 45

x + z + t + u = 48

x + y + t + 15 = 35

x + y = 12

x + y + z + t + u + 15 + 20 = 90

The solution of this system is seen to be x = 5, y = 7, z = 13, t = 8, u = 22. Thus the percent wanted is 5%.

Practice

423 Problem Consider the set ➎ How many are divisible by either 3, 5 or both?

A = {2, 4, 6, . . . ,114}. ➏ How many are neither divisible by 3 nor 5?

➐ How many are divisible by exactly one of 3 or 5?

➊ How many elements are there in A?

➋ How many are divisible by 3? 424 Problem Consider the set of the first 100 positive integers:

➌ How many are divisible by 5? A = {1, 2, 3, . . . ,100}.

➍ How many are divisible by 15? ➊ How many are divisible by 2?

70 Chapter 5

➋ How many are divisible by 3? • young or old,

➌ How many are divisible by 7? • male or female, and

➍ How many are divisible by 6? • married or single.

➎ How many are divisible by 14? Of these policyholders, 3000 are young, 4600 are male, and 7000 are married. The
policyholders can also be classified as 1320 young males, 3010 married males, and 1400
➏ How many are divisible by 21? young married persons. Finally, 600 of the policyholders are young married males. How
many of the company’s policyholders are young, female, and single?
➐ How many are divisible by 42?

➑ How many are relatively prime to 42? 430 Problem (AHSME 1988) X , Y , and Z are pairwise disjoint sets of people. The
average ages of people in the sets X , Y , Z, X ∪Y , X ∪Y , and Y ∪ Z are given below:
➒ How many are divisible by 2 and 3 but not by 7?

➓ How many are divisible by exactly one of 2, 3 and 7?

Set X Y Z X ∪Y X ∪Z Y ∪Z

Average Age 37 23 41 29 39.5 33

425 Problem A survey of a group’s viewing habits over the last year revealed the
following information:
What is the average age of the people in the set X ∪Y ∪ Z?
➊ 28% watched gymnastics

➋ 29% watched baseball 431 Problem Each of the students in the maths class twice attended a concert. It is
known that 25, 12, and 23 students attended concerts A, B, and C respectively. How
➌ 19% watched soccer many students are there in the maths class? How many of them went to concerts A and
B, B and C, or B and C?
➍ 14% watched gymnastics and baseball

➎ 12% watched baseball and soccer 432 Problem The films A, B, and C were shewn in the cinema for a week. Out of 40
students (each of which saw either all the three films, or one of them, 13 students saw
➏ 10% watched gymnastics and soccer
film A, 16 students saw film B, and 19 students saw film C. How many students saw all
three films?
➐ 8% watched all three sports.

Calculate the percentage of the group that watched none of the three sports during the
433 Problem Would you believe a market investigator that reports that of 1000 people,
last year.
816 like candy, 723 like ice cream, 645 cake, while 562 like both candy and ice cream,
463 like both candy and cake, 470 both ice cream and cake, while 310 like all three?
426 Problem Out of 40 children, 30 can swim, 27 can play chess, and only 5 can do
State your reasons!
neither. How many children can swim and play chess?

434 Problem (AHSME 1991) For a set S, let card 2S denote the number of subsets
427 Problem At Medieval High there are forty students. Amongst them, fourteen like of S. If A, B,C, are sets for which
Mathematics, sixteen like theology, and eleven like alchemy. It is also known that seven
like Mathematics and theology, eight like theology and alchemy and five like
card 2A + card 2B + card 2C = card 2A∪B∪C
Mathematics and alchemy. All three subjects are favoured by four students. How many
students like neither Mathematics, nor theology, nor alchemy?
and
card (A) = card (B) = 100,
428 Problem How many strictly positive integers less than or equal to 1000 are
then what is the minimum possible value of card(A ∩ B ∩C)?
➊ perfect squares?

➋ perfect cubes? 435 Problem (Lewis Carroll in A Tangled Tale.) In a very hotly fought battle, at least
70% of the combatants lost an eye, at least 75% an ear, at least 80% an arm, and at least
➌ perfect fifth powers? 85% a leg. What can be said about the percentage who lost all four members?

➍ perfect sixth powers?

436 Problem Let x, y be real numbers. Prove that
➎ perfect tenth powers?
x + y = min(x, y) + max(x, y)
➏ perfect fifteenth powers?

➐ perfect thirtieth powers? 437 Problem Let x, y, z be real numbers. Prove that
➑ neither perfect squares, perfect cubes, perfect fifth powers?
max(x, y, z) = x + y + z − min(x, y) − min(y, z)
429 Problem An auto insurance company has 10, 000 policyholders. Each policy − min(z, x) + min(x, y, z)
holder is classified as

5.2 The Product Rule

438 Rule (Product Rule) Suppose that an experiment E can be performed in k stages: E1 first, E2 second, . . . , Ek last.
Suppose moreover that Ei can be done in ni different ways, and that the number of ways of performing Ei is not influenced by
The Product Rule 71

any predecessors E1 , E2 , . . . , Ei−1 . Then E1 and E2 and . . . and Ek can occur simultaneously in n1 n2 · · · nk ways.

439 Example In a group of 8 men and 9 women we can pick one man and one woman in 8 · 9 = 72 ways. Notice that we are
choosing two persons.

440 Example A red die and a blue die are tossed. In how many ways can they land?

Solution: If we view the outcomes as an ordered pair (r, b) then by the multiplication principle we have the 6 · 6 = 36 possible
outcomes
(1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6)

(2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6)

(3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6)

(4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6)

(5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6)

(6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6)

The red die can land in any of 6 ways,

6
and also, the blue die may land in any of 6 ways

6 6 .

441 Example A multiple-choice test consists of 20 questions, each one with 4 choices. There are 4 ways of answering the first
question, 4 ways of answering the second question, etc., hence there are 420 = 1099511627776 ways of answering the exam.

442 Example There are 9 · 10 · 10 = 900 positive 3-digit integers:

100, 101, 102, . . ., 998, 999.

For, the leftmost integer cannot be 0 and so there are only 9 choices {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} for it,

9 .

There are 10 choices for the second digit

9 10 ,

and also 10 choices for the last digit

9 10 10 .

443 Example There are 9 · 10 · 5 = 450 even positive 3-digit integers:

100, 102, 104, . . ., 996, 998.

For, the leftmost integer cannot be 0 and so there are only 9 choices {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} for it,

9 .
72 Chapter 5

There are 10 choices for the second digit

9 10 .

Since the integer must be even, the last digit must be one of the 5 choices {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}

9 10 5 .

444 Definition A palindromic integer or palindrome is a positive integer whose decimal expansion is symmetric and that is
not divisible by 10. In other words, one reads the same integer backwards or forwards.1

445 Example The following integers are all palindromes:

1, 8, 11, 99, 101, 131, 999, 1234321, 9987899.

446 Example How many palindromes are there of 5 digits?

Solution: There are 9 ways of choosing the leftmost digit.

9 .

Once the leftmost digit is chosen, the last digit must be identical to it, so we have

9 1 .

There are 10 choices for the second digit from the left

9 10 1 .

Once this digit is chosen, the second digit from the right must be identical to it, so we have only 1 choice for it,

9 10 1 1 .

Finally, there are 10 choices for the third digit from the right,

9 10 10 1 1 ,

which give us 900 palindromes of 5-digits.

447 Example How many palindromes of 5 digits are even?

Solution: A five digit even palindrome has the form ABCBA, where A belongs to {2, 4, 6, 8}, and B,C belong to
{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. Thus there are 4 choices for the first digit, 10 for the second, and 10 for the third. Once these digits
are chosen, the palindrome is completely determined. Therefore, there are 4 × 10 × 10 = 400 even palindromes of 5 digits.

448 Example How many positive divisors does 300 have?

1
A palindrome in common parlance, is a word or phrase that reads the same backwards to forwards. The Philadelphia street name Camac is a palindrome.
So are the phrases (if we ignore punctuation) (a) “A man, a plan, a canal, Panama!” (b) “Sit on a potato pan!, Otis.” (c) “Able was I ere I saw Elba.” This last
one is attributed to Napoleon, though it is doubtful that he knew enough English to form it.
Homework 73

Solution: We have 300 = 3 · 2252 . Thus every factor of 300 is of the form 3a 2b 5c , where 0 ≤ a ≤ 1, 0 ≤ b ≤ 2, and 0 ≤ c ≤ 2.
Thus there are 2 choices for a, 3 for b and 3 for c. This gives 2 · 3 · 3 = 18 positive divisors.

449 Example How many paths consisting of a sequence of horizontal and/or vertical line segments, each segment connecting
a pair of adjacent letters in figure 5.6 spell BIPOLAR?

B B

B I B B I

B I P I B B I P

B I P O P I B B I P O

B I P O L O P I B B I P O L

B I P O L A L O P I B B I P O L A

B I P O L A R A L O P I B B I P O L A R

Figure 5.7: Problem 449.

Figure 5.6: Problem 449.

Solution: Split the diagram, as in figure 5.7. Since every required path must use the R, we count paths starting from R and
reaching up to a B. Since there are six more rows that we can travel to, and since at each stage we can go either up or left, we
have 26 = 64 paths. The other half of the figure will provide 64 more paths. Since the middle column is shared by both halves,
we have a total of 64 + 64 − 1 = 127 paths.

We now prove that if a set A has n elements, then it has 2n subsets. To motivate the proof, consider the set {a, b, c}. To each
element we attach a binary code of length 3. We write 0 if a particular element is not in the set and 1 if it is. We then have the
following associations:

∅ ↔ 000, {a, b} ↔ 110,

{a} ↔ 100, {a, c} ↔ 101,
{b} ↔ 010, {b, c} ↔ 011,
{c} ↔ 001, {a, b, c} ↔ 111.

Thus there is a one-to-one correspondence between the subsets of a finite set of 3 elements and binary sequences of length 3.

450 Theorem (Cardinality of the Power Set) Let A be a finite set with card(A) = n. Then A has 2n subsets.

Proof: We attach a binary code to each element of the subset, 1 if the element is in the subset and 0 if the
element is not in the subset. The total number of subsets is the total number of such binary codes, and there are 2n
in number. ❑

Homework
74 Chapter 5

451 Problem A true or false exam has ten questions. How many possible answer keys ➎ You may not repeat the digits and the phone numbers must be odd.
are there?

462 Problem How many 5-lettered words can be made out of 26 letters, repetitions
452 Problem Out of nine different pairs of shoes, in how many ways could I choose a allowed, but not consecutive repetitions (that is, a letter may not follow itself in the same
right shoe and a left shoe, which should not form a pair? word)?

453 Problem In how many ways can the following prizes be given away to a class of 463 Problem How many positive integers are there having n ≥ 1 digits?
twenty boys: first and second Classical, first and second Mathematical, first Science, and
first French?
464 Problem How many n-digits integers (n ≥ 1) are there which are even?

454 Problem Under old hardware, a certain programme accepted passwords of the
form 465 Problem How many n-digit nonnegative integers do not contain the digit 5?
eell
where 466 Problem How many n-digit numbers do not have the digit 0?
e ∈ {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}, l ∈ {a, b, c, d, u, v, w, x, y, z}.
The hardware was changed and now the software accepts passwords of the form
467 Problem There are m different roads from town A to town B. In how many ways
eeelll. can Dwayne travel from town A to town B and back if (a) he may come back the way he
went?, (b) he must use a different road of return?
How many more passwords of the latter kind are there than of the former kind?

468 Problem How many positive divisors does 28 39 52 have? What is the sum of these
455 Problem A license plate is to be made according to the following provision: it has
divisors?
four characters, the first two characters can be any letter of the English alphabet and the
last two characters can be any digit. One is allowed to repeat letters and digits. How
many different license plates can be made? 469 Problem How many factors of 295 are larger than 1, 000, 000?

456 Problem In problem 455, how many different license plates can you make if (i)
470 Problem How many positive divisors does 360 have? How many are even? How
you may repeat letters but not digits?, (ii) you may repeat digits but not letters?, (iii) you many are odd? How many are perfect squares?
may repeat neither letters nor digits?

471 Problem (AHSME 1988) At the end of a professional bowling tournament, the top
457 Problem An alphabet consists of the five consonants {p, v, t, s, k} and the three
5 bowlers have a play-off. First # 5 bowls #4. The loser receives the 5th prize and the
vowels {a, e, o}. A license plate is to be made using four letters of this alphabet. winner bowls # 3 in another game. The loser of this game receives the 4th prize and the
➊ How many letters does this alphabet have? winner bowls # 2. The loser of this game receives the 3rd prize and the winner bowls #
1. The loser of this game receives the 2nd prize and the winner the 1st prize. In how
➋ If a license plate is of the form CCVV where C denotes a consonant and V many orders can bowlers #1 through #5 receive the prizes?
denotes a vowel, how many possible license plates are there, assuming that you
may repeat both consonants and vowels?
472 Problem The password of the anti-theft device of a car is a four digit number,
➌ If a license plate is of the form CCVV where C denotes a consonant and V where one can use any digit in the set
denotes a vowel, how many possible license plates are there, assuming that you
may repeat consonants but not vowels? {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.

➍ If a license plate is of the form CCVV where C denotes a consonant and V A. ➊ How many such passwords are possible?
denotes a vowel, how many possible license plates are there, assuming that you ➋ How many of the passwords have all their digits distinct?
may repeat vowels but not consonants?
B. After an electrical failure, the owner must reintroduce the password in order to
➎ If a license plate is of the form LLLL where L denotes any letter of the alphabet, deactivate the anti-theft device. He knows that the four digits of the code are
how many possible license plates are there, assuming that you may not repeat 2, 0, 0, 3 but does not recall the order.
letters?
➊ How many such passwords are possible using only these digits?
➋ If the first attempt at the password fails, the owner must wait two
458 Problem A man lives within reach of three boys’ schools and four girls’ schools. minutes before a second attempt, if the second attempt fails he must
In how many ways can he send his three sons and two daughters to school? wait four minutes before a third attempt, if the third attempt fails he
must wait eight minutes before a fourth attempt, etc. (the time doubles
from one attempt to the next). How many passwords can the owner
459 Problem How many distinct four-letter words can be made with the letters of the attempt in a period of 24 hours?
set {c, i, k,t}
➊ if the letters are not to be repeated?
473 Problem The number 3 can be expressed as a sum of one or more positive integers
➋ if the letters can be repeated? in four ways, namely, as 3, 1 + 2, 2 + 1, and 1 + 1 + 1. Shew that any positive integer n
can be so expressed in 2n−1 ways.

460 Problem How many distinct six-digit numbers that are multiples of 5 can be
formed from the list of digits {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} if we allow repetition? 474 Problem Let n = 231 319 . How many positive integer divisors of n2 are less than n
but do not divide n?

461 Problem Telephone numbers in Land of the Flying Camels have 7 digits, and the
only digits available are {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8}. No telephone number may begin in 0, 1 or 475 Problem Let n ≥ 3. Find the number of n-digit ternary sequences that contain at
5. Find the number of telephone numbers possible that meet the following criteria: least one 0, one 1 and one 2.

➊ You may repeat all digits.

476 Problem In how many ways can one decompose the set
➋ You may not repeat any of the digits.
{1, 2, 3, . . . ,100}
➌ You may repeat the digits, but the phone number must be even.
into subsets A, B,C satisfying
➍ You may repeat the digits, but the phone number must be odd.
A ∪ B ∪C = {1, 2, 3, . . . ,100} and A ∩ B ∩C = ∅
The Sum Rule 75

5.3 The Sum Rule

477 Rule (Sum Rule: Disjunctive Form) Let E1 , E2 , . . . , Ek , be pairwise mutually exclusive events. If Ei can occur in ni
ways, then either E1 or E2 or, . . . , or Ek can occur in

n1 + n2 + · · · nk

ways.

☞ Notice that the “or” here is exclusive.

478 Example In a group of 8 men and 9 women we can pick one man or one woman in 8 + 9 = 17 ways. Notice that we are
choosing one person.

479 Example There are five Golden retrievers, six Irish setters, and eight Poodles at the pound. How many ways can two
dogs be chosen if they are not the same kind.

Solution: We choose: a Golden retriever and an Irish setter or a Golden retriever and a Poodle or an Irish setter and a Poodle.

One Golden retriever and one Irish setter can be chosen in 5 · 6 = 30 ways; one Golden retriever and one Poodle can be chosen
in 5 · 8 = 40 ways; one Irish setter and one Poodle can be chosen in 6 · 8 = 48 ways. By the sum rule, there are
30 + 40 + 48 = 118 combinations.

480 Example To write a book 1890 digits were utilised. How many pages does the book have?

Solution: A total of
1 · 9 + 2 · 90 = 189
digits are used to write pages 1 to 99, inclusive. We have of 1890 − 189 = 1701 digits at our disposition which is enough for
1701/3 = 567 extra pages (starting from page 100). The book has 99 + 567 = 666 pages.

481 Example The sequence of palindromes, starting with 1 is written in ascending order

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 22, 33, . . .

Find the 1984-th positive palindrome.

Solution: It is easy to see that there are 9 palindromes of 1-digit, 9 palindromes with 2-digits, 90 with 3-digits, 90 with
4-digits, 900 with 5-digits and 900 with 6-digits. The last palindrome with 6 digits, 999999, constitutes the
9 + 9 + 90 + 90 + 900 + 900 = 1998th palindrome. Hence, the 1997th palindrome is 998899, the 1996th palindrome is 997799,
the 1995th palindrome is 996699, the 1994th is 995599, etc., until we find the 1984th palindrome to be 985589.

482 Example The integers from 1 to 1000 are written in succession. Find the sum of all the digits.

Solution: When writing the integers from 000 to 999 (with three digits), 3 × 1000 = 3000 digits are used. Each of the 10 digits
is used an equal number of times, so each digit is used 300 times. The the sum of the digits in the interval 000 to 999 is thus

(0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9)(300) = 13500.

Therefore, the sum of the digits when writing the integers from 000 to 1000 is 13500 + 1 = 13501.

483 Example How many 4-digit integers can be formed with the set of digits {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} such that no digit is repeated and
the resulting integer is a multiple of 3?
76 Chapter 5

Solution: The integers desired have the form D1 D2 D3 D4 with D1 &= 0. Under the stipulated constraints, we must have

D1 + D2 + D3 + D4 ∈ {6, 9, 12}.

We thus consider three cases.

Case I: D1 + D2 + D3 + D4 = 6. Here we have {D1 , D2 , D3 , D4 } = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, D1 &= 0. There are then 3 choices for D1 . After
D1 is chosen, D2 can be chosen in 3 ways, D3 in 2 ways, and D1 in 1 way. There are thus 3 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 3 · 3! = 18 integers
satisfying case I.

Case II: D1 + D2 + D3 + D4 = 9. Here we have {D1 , D2 , D3 , D4 } = {0, 2, 3, 4}, D1 &= 0 or

{D1 , D2 , D3 , D4 } = {0, 1, 3, 5}, D1 &= 0. Like before, there are 3 · 3! = 18 numbers in each possibility, thus we have 2 × 18 = 36
numbers in case II.

Case III: D1 + D2 + D3 + D4 = 12. Here we have {D1 , D2 , D3 , D4 } = {0, 3, 4, 5}, D1 &= 0 or {D1 , D2 , D3 , D4 } = {1, 2, 4, 5}. In
the first possibility there are 3 · 3! = 18 numbers, and in the second there are 4! = 24. Thus we have 18 + 24 = 42 numbers in
case III.

The desired number is finally 18 + 36 + 42 = 96.

Homework

484 Problem How many different sums can be thrown with two dice, the faces of each 494 Problem (AHSME 1998) Call a 7-digit telephone number d1 d2 d3 − d4 d5 d6 d7
die being numbered 0, 1, 3, 7, 15, 31? memorable if the prefix sequence d1 d2 d3 is exactly the same as either of the sequences
d4 d5 d6 or d5 d6 d7 or possibly both. Assuming that each di can be any of the ten decimal
digits 0, 1, 2, . . . ,9, find the number of different memorable telephone numbers.
485 Problem How many different sums can be thrown with three dice, the faces of
each die being numbered 1, 4, 13, 40, 121, 364?
495 Problem Three-digit numbers are made using the digits {1, 3, 7, 8, 9}.
➊ How many of these integers are there?
486 Problem How many two or three letter initials for people are available if at least
one of the letters must be a D and one allows repetitions? ➋ How many are even?
➌ How many are palindromes?
487 Problem How many strictly positive integers have all their digits distinct?
➍ How many are divisible by 3?

488 Problem The Morse code consists of points and dashes. How many letters can be
in the Morse code if no letter contains more than four signs, but all must have at least 496 Problem (AHSME 1989) Five people are sitting at a round table. Let f ≥ 0 be the
one? number of people sitting next to at least one female, and let m ≥ 0 be the number of
people sitting next to at least one male. Find the number of possible ordered pairs
( f , m).
489 Problem An n × n × n wooden cube is painted blue and then cut into n3 1 × 1 × 1
cubes. How many cubes (a) are painted on exactly three sides, (b) are painted in exactly
two sides, (c) are painted in exactly one side, (d) are not painted? 497 Problem How many integers less than 10000 can be made with the eight digits
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7?

490 Problem (AIME 1993) How many even integers between 4000 and 7000 have four
different digits? 498 Problem (ARML 1999) In how many ways can one arrange the numbers
21, 31, 41, 51, 61, 71, and 81 such that the sum of every four consecutive numbers is
divisible by 3?
491 Problem All the natural numbers, starting with 1, are listed consecutively

123456789101112131415161718192021. . . 499 Problem Let S be the set of all natural numbers whose digits are chosen from the
set {1, 3, 5, 7} such that no digits are repeated. Find the sum of the elements of S.
Which digit occupies the 1002nd place?

500 Problem Find the number of ways to choose a pair {a, b} of distinct numbers from
492 Problem All the positive integers are written in succession. the set {1, 2, . . . ,50} such that
123456789101112131415161718192021222324. . . ➊ |a − b| = 5
Which digit occupies the 206790th place? ➋ |a − b| ≤ 5.

493 Problem All the positive integers with initial digit 2 are written in succession: 501 Problem (AIME 1994) Given a positive integer n, let p(n) be the product of the
non-zero digits of n. (If n has only one digit, then p(n) is equal to that digit.) Let
2, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 200, 201, . . . ,
S = p(1) + p(2) + · · · + p(999).
Find the 1978-th digit written.
Find S.
Permutations without Repetitions 77

5.4 Permutations without Repetitions

502 Definition We define the symbol ! (factorial), as follows: 0! = 1, and for integer n ≥ 1,

n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · · ·n.

n! is read n factorial.

503 Example We have

1! = 1,

2! = 1 · 2 = 2,

3! = 1 · 2 · 3 = 6,

4! = 1 · 2 · 3 · 4 = 24,

5! = 1 · 2 · 3 · 4 · 5 = 120.

504 Example We have

7! 7 · 6 · 5 · 4!
= = 210,
4! 4!

(n + 2)! (n + 2)(n + 1)n!

= = (n + 2)(n + 1),
n! n!

(n − 2)! (n − 2)! 1
= = .
(n + 1)! (n + 1)(n)(n − 1)(n − 2)! (n + 1)(n)(n − 1)

505 Definition Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be n distinct objects. A permutation of these objects is simply a rearrangement of them.

506 Example There are 24 permutations of the letters in MAT H, namely

MAT H MAHT MTAH MT HA MHTA MHAT

AMT H AMHT AT MH AT HM AHT M AHMT

TAMH TAHM T MAH T MHA T HMA T HAM

HAT M HAMT HTAM HT MA HMTA HMAT

507 Theorem Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be n distinct objects. Then there are n! permutations of them.

Proof: The first position can be chosen in n ways, the second object in n − 1 ways, the third in n − 2, etc. This
gives
n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · ·2 · 1 = n!.
❑

508 Example The number of permutations of the letters of the word RET ICULA is 8! = 40320.
78 Chapter 5

509 Example A bookshelf contains 5 German books, 7 Spanish books and 8 French books. Each book is different from one
another.

➊ How many different arrangements can be done of these ➌ How many different arrangements can be done of these
books? books if all the French books must be next to each
other?
➋ How many different arrangements can be done of these ➍ How many different arrangements can be done of these
books if books of each language must be next to each books if no two French books must be next to each
other? other?

Solution:

➊ We are permuting 5 + 7 + 8 = 20 objects. Thus the in 12! ways. Thus the total number of permutations is
number of arrangements sought is
20! = 2432902008176640000. (13)8!12! = 251073478656000.

➋ “Glue” the books by language, this will assure that ➍ Align the German books and the Spanish books first.
books of the same language are together. We permute Putting these 5 + 7 = 12 books creates 12 + 1 = 13
the 3 languages in 3! ways. We permute the German spaces (we count the space before the first book, the
books in 5! ways, the Spanish books in 7! ways and the spaces between books and the space after the last
French books in 8! ways. Hence the total number of book). To assure that no two French books are next to
ways is 3!5!7!8! = 146313216000. each other, we put them into these spaces. The first
French book can be put into any of 13 spaces, the
➌ Align the German books and the Spanish books first. second into any of 12, etc., the eighth French book can
Putting these 5 + 7 = 12 books creates 12 + 1 = 13 be put into any 6 spaces. Now, the non-French books
spaces (we count the space before the first book, the can be permuted in 12! ways. Thus the total number of
spaces between books and the space after the last permutations is
book). To assure that all the French books are next each
other, we “glue” them together and put them in one of (13)(12)(11)(10)(9)(8)(7)(6)12!,
these spaces. Now, the French books can be permuted
in 8! ways and the non-French books can be permuted which is 24856274386944000.

Homework

510 Problem How many changes can be rung with a peal of five bells? 515 Problem (AMC12 2001) A spider has one sock and one shoe for each of its eight
legs. In how many different orders can the spider put on its socks and shoes, assuming
that, on each leg, the sock must be put on before the shoe?
511 Problem A bookshelf contains 3 Russian novels, 4 German novels, and 5 Spanish
novels. In how many ways may we align them if
➊ there are no constraints as to grouping? 516 Problem How many trailing 0’s are there when 1000! is multiplied out?

➋ all the Spanish novels must be together?

➌ no two Spanish novels are next to one another? 517 Problem In how many ways can 8 people be seated in a row if

➊ there are no constraints as to their seating arrangement?

512 Problem How many permutations of the word IMPURE are there? How many
permutations start with P and end in U? How many permutations are there if the P and
the U must always be together in the order PU? How many permutations are there in ➋ persons X and Y must sit next to one another?
which no two vowels (I, U, E) are adjacent?

➌ there are 4 women and 4 men and no 2 men or 2 women can sit next to each
513 Problem How many arrangements can be made of out of the letters of the word other?
DRAUGHT, the vowels never separated?

➍ there are 4 married couples and each couple must sit together?
514 Problem (AIME 1991) Given a rational number, write it as a fraction in lowest
terms and calculate the product of the resulting numerator and denominator. For how
many rational numbers between 0 and 1 will 20! be the resulting product? ➎ there are 4 men and they must sit next to each other?
Permutations with Repetitions 79

5.5 Permutations with Repetitions

We now consider permutations with repeated objects.

518 Example In how many ways may the letters of the word

MASSACHUSETT S

be permuted?

Solution: We put subscripts on the repeats forming

MA1 S1 S2 A2CHUS3 ET1 T2 S4 .

There are now 13 distinguishable objects, which can be permuted in 13! different ways by Theorem 507. For each of these 13!
permutations, A1 A2 can be permuted in 2! ways, S1 S2 S3 S4 can be permuted in 4! ways, and T1 T2 can be permuted in 2! ways.
Thus the over count 13! is corrected by the total actual count

13!
= 64864800.
2!4!2!

A reasoning analogous to the one of example 518, we may prove

519 Theorem Let there be k types of objects: n1 of type 1; n2 of type 2; etc. Then the number of ways in which these
n1 + n2 + · · · + nk objects can be rearranged is

(n1 + n2 + · · · + nk )!
.
n1 !n2 ! · · · nk !

520 Example In how many ways may we permute the letters of the word MASSACHUSETT S in such a way that MASS is
always together, in this order?

Solution: The particle MASS can be considered as one block and the 9 letters A, C, H, U, S, E, T, T, S. In A, C, H, U, S, E, T,
T, S there are four S’s and two T ’s and so the total number of permutations sought is

10!
= 907200.
2!2!

521 Example In how many ways may we write the number 9 as the sum of three positive integer summands? Here order
counts, so, for example, 1 + 7 + 1 is to be regarded different from 7 + 1 + 1.

Solution: We first look for answers with

a + b + c = 9, 1 ≤ a ≤ b ≤ c ≤ 7
80 Chapter 5

and we find the permutations of each triplet. We have

(a, b, c) Number of permutations

3!
(1, 1, 7) =3
2!
(1, 2, 6) 3! = 6

(1, 3, 5) 3! = 6
3!
(1, 4, 4) =3
2!
3!
(2, 2, 5) =3
2!
(2, 3, 4) 3! = 6
3!
(3, 3, 3) =1
3!
Thus the number desired is
3 + 6 + 6 + 3 + 3 + 6 + 1 = 28.

522 Example In how many ways can the letters of the word MURMUR be arranged without letting two letters which are
alike come together?

Solution: If we started with, say , MU then the R could be arranged as follows:

M U R R ,

M U R R ,

M U R R .
In the first case there are 2! = 2 of putting the remaining M and U, in the second there are 2! = 2 and in the third there is only
1!. Thus starting the word with MU gives 2 + 2 + 1 = 5 possible arrangements. In the general case, we can choose the first
letter of the word in 3 ways, and the second in 2 ways. Thus the number of ways sought is 3 · 2 · 5 = 30.

523 Example In how many ways can the letters of the word AFFECTION be arranged, keeping the vowels in their natural
order and not letting the two F’s come together?

9!
Solution: There are ways of permuting the letters of AFFECTION. The 4 vowels can be permuted in 4! ways, and in only
2!
9!
one of these will they be in their natural order. Thus there are ways of permuting the letters of AFFECTION in which
2!4!
their vowels keep their natural order.

Now, put the 7 letters of AFFECTION which are not the two F’s. This creates 8 spaces in between them where we put the
8 · 7!
two F’s. This means that there are 8 · 7! permutations of AFFECTION that keep the two F’s together. Hence there are
4!
permutations of AFFECTION where the vowels occur in their natural order.

In conclusion, the number of permutations sought is

9! 8 · 7! 8! 9 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4! 7
− = −1 = · = 5880
2!4! 4! 4! 2 4! 2
Homework 81

524 Example How many arrangements of five letters can be made of the letters of the word PALLMALL?

Solution: We consider the following cases:

3 · 5!
➊ there are four L’s and a different letter. The different letter can be chosen in 3 ways, so there are = 15
4!
permutations in this case.
5!
➋ there are three L’s and two A’s. There are = 10 permutations in this case.
3!2!
➌ there are three L’s and two different letters. The different letters can be chosen in 3 ways ( either P and A; or P and M;
3 · 5!
or A and M), so there are = 60 permutations in this case.
3!
➍ there are two L’s, two A’s and a different letter from these two. The different letter can be chosen in 2 ways. There are
2 · 5!
= 60 permutations in this case.
2!2!
1 · 5!
➎ there are two L’s and three different letters. The different letters can be chosen in 1 way. There are = 60
2!
permutations in this case.

➏ there is one L. This forces having two A’s and two other different letters. The different letters can be chosen in 1 way.
1 · 5!
There are = 60 permutations in this case.
2!
The total number of permutations is thus seen to be

15 + 10 + 60 + 60 + 60 + 60 = 265.

Homework

525 Problem In how many ways may one permute the letters of the word ➊ How many are there if there are no constraints on the order?
MEPHISTOPHELES?
➋ How many are there if the orange flag must always be first?

526 Problem How many arrangements of four letters can be made out of the letters of ➌ How many are there if there must be a white flag at the beginning and another
KAFFEEKANNE without letting the three E’s come together? white flag at the end?

527 Problem How many numbers can be formed with the digits 529 Problem In how many ways may we write the number 10 as the sum of three
positive integer summands? Here order counts, so, for example, 1 + 8 + 1 is to be
regarded different from 8 + 1 + 1.
1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 1

so that the odd digits occupy the odd places? 530 Problem Three distinguishable dice are thrown. In how many ways can they land
and give a sum of 9?

528 Problem In this problem you will determine how many different signals, each
consisting of 10 flags hung in a line, can be made from a set of 4 white flags, 3 red flags, 531 Problem In how many ways can 15 different recruits be divided into three equal
2 blue flags, and 1 orange flag, if flags of the same colour are identical. groups? In how many ways can they be drafted into three different regiments?

5.6 Combinations without Repetitions

n
532 Definition Let n, k be non-negative integers with 0 ≤ k ≤ n. The symbol (read “n choose k”) is defined and denoted
k
by
n n! n · (n − 1) · (n − 2) · · ·(n − k + 1)
= = .
k k!(n − k)! 1 · 2 · 3 · · ·k
82 Chapter 5

☞ Observe that in the last fraction, there are k factors in both the numerator and denominator. Also, observe
the boundary conditions
n n n n
= = 1, = = n.
0 n 1 n−1

533 Example We have

6 6·5·4
= = 20,
3 1·2·3
11 11 · 10
= = 55,
2 1·2
12 12 · 11 · 10 · 9 · 8 · 7 · 6
= = 792,
7 1·2·3·4·5·6·7
110
= 110,
109
110
= 1.
0

☞ Since n − (n − k) = k, we have for integer n, k, 0 ≤ k ≤ n, the symmetry identity

n n! n! n
= = = .
k k!(n − k)! (n − k)!(n − (n − k))! n−k

This can be interpreted as follows: if there are n different tickets in a hat, choosing k of them out of the hat is the
same as choosing n − k of them to remain in the hat.

534 Example
11 11
= = 55,
9 2
12 12
= = 792.
5 7

535 Definition Let there be n distinguishable objects. A k-combination is a selection of k, (0 ≤ k ≤ n) objects from the n
made without regards to order.

536 Example The 2-combinations from the list {X,Y, Z,W } are

XY, XZ, XW,Y Z,YW,W Z.

537 Example The 3-combinations from the list {X,Y, Z,W } are

XY Z, XYW, XZW,YW Z.

538 Theorem Let there be n distinguishable objects, and let k, 0 ≤ k ≤ n. Then the numbers of k-combinations of these n
n
objects is .
k

Proof: Pick any of the k objects. They can be ordered in n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · ·(n − k + 1), since there are n ways of
choosing the first, n − 1 ways of choosing the second, etc. This particular choice of k objects can be permuted in
k! ways. Hence the total number of k-combinations is
n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · ·(n − k + 1) n
= .
k! k
Combinations without Repetitions 83

10
539 Example From a group of 10 people, we may choose a committee of 4 in = 210 ways.
4

540 Example In a group of 2 camels, 3 goats, and 10 sheep in how many ways may one choose 6 animals if

➊ there are no constraints in species? ➎ there must be at most 2 sheep?

➋ the two camels must be included?
➏ Joe Camel, Billy Goat and Samuel Sheep hate each
➌ the two camels must be excluded?
other and they will not work in the same group. How
➍ there must be at least 3 sheep? many compatible committees are there?

Solution:

➊ There are 2 + 3 + 10 = 15 animals and we must choose which simplifies to 4770.

15
6, whence = 5005
6 ➎ First observe that there cannot be 0 sheep, since that
would mean choosing 6 other animals. Hence, there
➋ Since the 2 camels are included, we must choose must be either 1 or 2 sheep, and so 3 or 4 of the other
6 − 2 = 4 more animals from a list of 15 − 2 = 13 animals. The total number is thus
13
animals, so = 715
4 10 5 10 5
+ = 235.
➌ Since the 2 camels must be excluded, we must choose 6 2 4 1 5
13
animals from a list of 15 − 2 = 13, so = 1716
6 ➏ A compatible group will either exclude all these three
animals or include exactly one of them. This can be
➍ If k sheep are chosen from the 10 sheep, 6 − k animals done in
must be chosen from the remaining 5 animals, hence 12 3 12
+ = 3300
10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 6 1 5
+ + + , ways.
3 3 4 2 5 1 6 0

541 Example To count the number of shortest routes from A to B in figure 5.8 observe that any shortest path must consist of 6
horizontal moves and 3 vertical ones for a total of 6 + 3 = 9 moves. Of these 9 moves once we choose the 6 horizontal ones the
9
3 vertical ones are determined. Thus there are = 84 paths.
6

542 Example To count the number of shortest routes from A to B in figure 5.9 that pass through point O we count the number
5 4
of paths from A to O (of which there are = 20) and the number of paths from O to B (of which there are = 4). Thus
3 3
5 4
the desired number of paths is = (20)(4) = 80.
3 3

543 Example Consider the set of 5-digit positive integers written in decimal notation.
 without a 9

B B
O 9550

84 14266 Chapter 5
14266

14406

A A 9550 9550

14266

without a 7 without an 8

Figure 5.8: Example 541. Figure 5.9: Example 542. Figure 5.10: Example 543.

1. How many are there? 7. How many have exactly four 9’s?
2. How many do not have a 9 in their decimal 8. How many have exactly five 9’s?
representation?
9. How many have neither an 8 nor a 9 in their decimal
3. How many have at least one 9 in their decimal representation?
representation?
10. How many have neither a 7, nor an 8, nor a 9 in their
4. How many have exactly one 9?
decimal representation?
5. How many have exactly two 9’s?
11. How many have either a 7, an 8, or a 9 in their decimal
6. How many have exactly three 9’s? representation?

Solution:

1. There are 9 possible choices for the first digit and 10 remaining spots. Thus in this case there are
possible choices for the remaining digits. The number 8 · 6 · 92 = 3888 such numbers. Altogether there are
of choices is thus 9 · 104 = 90000. 2916 + 3888 = 6804 five-digit positive integers with
exactly two 9’s in their decimal representation.
2. There are 8 possible choices for the first digit and 9
possible choices for the remaining digits. The number
6. Again we condition on the first digit. If the first digit is
of choices is thus 8 · 94 = 52488.
a 9 then two of the remaining four must be 9’s, and the
3. The difference 90000 − 52488 = 37512. 4
choice of place can be accomplished in = 6 ways.
2
4. We condition on the first digit. If the first digit is a 9 The other two remaining digits must be different from
then the other four remaining digits must be different 9, giving 6 · 92 = 486 such numbers. If the first digit is
from 9, giving 94 = 6561 such numbers. If the first not a 9, then there are 8 choices for this first digit. Also,
digit is not a 9, then there are 8 choices for this first 4
we have = 4 ways of choosing were the three 9’s
4 3
digit. Also, we have = 4 ways of choosing were will be, and we have 9 ways of filling the remaining
1
the 9 will be, and we have 93 ways of filling the 3 spot. Thus in this case there are 8 · 4 · 9 = 288 such
remaining spots. Thus in this case there are numbers. Altogether there are 486 + 288 = 774
8 · 4 · 93 = 23328 such numbers. In total there are five-digit positive integers with exactly three 9’s in their
6561 + 23328 = 29889 five-digit positive integers with decimal representation.
exactly one 9 in their decimal representation.
7. If the first digit is a 9 then three of the remaining four
5. We condition on the first digit. If the first digit is a 9 must be 9’s, and the choice of place can be
then one of the remaining four must be a 9, and the 4
4 accomplished in = 4 ways. The other remaining
choice of place can be accomplished in = 4 ways. 3
1 digit must be different from 9, giving 4 · 9 = 36 such
The other three remaining digits must be different from numbers. If the first digit is not a 9, then there are 8
9, giving 4 · 93 = 2916 such numbers. If the first digit is 4
not a 9, then there are 8 choices for this first digit. Also, choices for this first digit. Also, we have =4
4
4 ways of choosing were the four 9’s will be, thus filling
we have = 6 ways of choosing were the two 9’s
2 all the spots. Thus in this case there are 8 · 1 = 8 such
will be, and we have 92 ways of filling the two numbers. Altogether there are 36 + 8 = 44 five-digit
Homework 85

positive integers with exactly three 9’s in their decimal the remaining 4 digits, giving 7 · 84 = 28672 such
representation. integers.

8. There is obviously only 1 such positive integer. 10. We have 6 choices for the first digit and 7 choices for
the remaining 4 digits, giving 6 · 74 = 14406 such
☞Observe that integers.
37512 = 29889 + 6804 + 774 + 44 + 1. 11. We use inclusion-exclusion. From figure 5.10, the
numbers inside the circles add up to 85854. Thus the
9. We have 7 choices for the first digit and 8 choices for desired number is 90000 − 85854 = 4146.

Homework

544 Problem Verify the following. 554 Problem How many subsets of the set {a, b, c, d, e} have an odd number of
elements?
20
➊ = 1140
3
555 Problem (AHSME 1994) Nine chairs in a row are to be occupied by six students
and Professors Alpha, Beta and Gamma. These three professors arrive before the six
12 12 students and decide to choose their chairs so that each professor will be between two
➋ = 457380
4 6 students. In how many ways can Professors Alpha, Beta and Gamma choose their
chairs?
n
1
➌ =1
n 556 Problem There are E (different) English novels, F (different) French novels, S
n−1
(different) Spanish novels, and I (different) Italian novels on a shelf. How many
different permutations are there if
n n(n − 1)
➍ = ➊ if there are no restrictions?
2 2
➋ if all books of the same language must be together?
6 6 6
➎ + + = 25 . ➌ if all the Spanish novels must be together?
1 3 6
➍ if no two Spanish novels are adjacent?
7 7 7 7
➏ + + = 26 −
0 2 4 6 ➎ if all the Spanish novels must be together, and all the English novels must be
together, but no Spanish novel is next to an English novel?

545 Problem A publisher proposes to issue a set of dictionaries to translate from any
one language to any other. If he confines his system to ten languages, how many 557 Problem How many committees of seven with a given chairman can be selected
dictionaries must be published? from twenty people?

558 Problem How many committees of seven with a given chairman and a given
546 Problem From a group of 12 people—7 of which are men and 5 women—in how
secretary can be selected from twenty people? Assume the chairman and the secretary
many ways may choose a committee of 4 with 1 man and 3 women?
are different persons.

547 Problem N friends meet and shake hands with one another. How many 559 Problem (AHSME 1990) How many of the numbers
handshakes?
100, 101, . . . ,999,

548 Problem How many 4-letter words can be made by taking 4 letters of the word have three different digits in increasing order or in decreasing order?
RETICULA and permuting them?
560 Problem There are twenty students in a class. In how many ways can the twenty
549 Problem (AHSME 1989) Mr. and Mrs. Zeta want to name baby Zeta so that its
students take five different tests if four of the students are to take each test?
monogram (first, middle and last initials) will be in alphabetical order with no letters
repeated. How many such monograms are possible?
561 Problem In how many ways can a deck of playing cards be arranged if no two
hearts are adjacent?
550 Problem In how many ways can {1, 2, 3, 4} be written as the union of two
non-empty, disjoint subsets? 562 Problem Given a positive integer n, find the number of quadruples (a, b, c, d, )
such that 0 ≤ a ≤ b ≤ c ≤ d ≤ n.
551 Problem How many lists of 3 elements taken from the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} list the
elements in increasing order? 563 Problem There are T books on Theology, L books on Law and W books on
Witchcraft on Dr. Faustus’ shelf. In how many ways may one order the books

552 Problem How many times is the digit 3 listed in the numbers 1 to 1000? ➊ there are no constraints in their order?

➋ all books of a subject must be together?

553 Problem How many subsets of the set {a, b, c, d, e} have exactly 3 elements? ➌ no two books on Witchcraft are juxtaposed?
86 Chapter 5

➍ all the books on Witchcraft must be together? 574 Problem In how many ways can eight students be divided into four
indistinguishable teams of two each?

564 Problem From a group of 20 students, in how many ways may a professor choose
at least one in order to work on a project? 575 Problem How many ways can three boys share fifteen different sized pears if the
youngest gets seven pears and the other two boys get four each?those in which the digit
1 occurs or those in which it does not occur?
565 Problem From a group of 20 students, in how many ways may a professor choose
an even number number of them, but at least four in order to work on a project?
576 Problem Four writers must write a book containing seventeen chapters. The first
and third writers must each write five chapters, the second must write four chapters, and
566 Problem How many permutations of the word the fourth must write three chapters. How many ways can the book be divided between
the authors? What if the first and third had to write ten chapters combined, but it did not
CHICHICUILOTE matter which of them wrote how many (i.e. the first could write ten and the third none,
the first could write none and the third one, etc.)?
are there

➊ if there are no restrictions? 577 Problem In how many ways can a woman choose three lovers or more from seven
eligible suitors? may be opened by depressing—in any order—the correct five buttons.
➋ if the word must start in an I and end also in an I? Suppose that these locks are redesigned so that sets of as many as nine buttons or as few
as one button could serve as combinations. How many additional combinations would
➌ if the word must start in an I and end in a C? this allow?

➍ if the two H’s are adjacent? ➊ how many straight lines are determined?

➎ if the two H’s are not adjacent? ➋ how many straight lines pass through a particular point?

➏ if the particle LOTE must appear, with the letters in this order? ➌ how many triangles are determined?

➍ how many triangles have a particular point as a vertex?

567 Problem There are M men and W women in a group. A committee of C people
will be chosen. In how many ways may one do this if
578 Problem In how many ways can you pack twelve books into four parcels if one
➊ there are no constraints on the sex of the committee members?
parcel has one book, another has five books, and another has two books, and another has
four books?
➋ there must be exactly T women?

➌ A committee must always include George and Barbara?

579 Problem In how many ways can a person invite three of his six friends to lunch
➍ A committee must always exclude George and Barbara? every day for twenty days if he has the option of inviting the same or different friends
from previous days?
Assume George and Barbara form part of the original set of people.
580 Problem A committee is to be chosen from a set of nine women and five men.
568 Problem There are M men and W women in a group. A committee of C people How many ways are there to form the committee if the committee has three men and
will be chosen. In how many ways may one do this if George and Barbara are feuding three women?
and will not work together in a committee? Assume George and Barbara form part of
the original set of people.
581 Problem At a dance there are b boys and g girls. In how many ways can they form
c couples consisting of different sexes?
569 Problem Out of 30 consecutive integers, in how many ways can three be selected
so that their sum be even?
582 Problem From three Russians, four Americans, and two Spaniards, how many
selections of people can be made, taking at least one of each kind?
570 Problem In how many ways may we choose three distinct integers from
{1, 2, . . . ,100} so that one of them is the average of the other two?
583 Problem The positive integer r satisfies

571 Problem How many vectors (a1 , a2 , . . . ,ak ) with integral 1 1 11

− = .
9 10 11
r r 6 r
ai ∈ {1, 2, . . . ,n}

are there satisfying Find r.

1 ≤ a1 ≤ a2 ≤ · · · ≤ ak ≤ n?
28 24
584 Problem If 11 = 225 , find r.
572 Problem A square chessboard has 16 squares (4 rows and 4 columns). One puts 4 2r 2r − 4
checkers in such a way that only one checker can be put in a square. Determine the
number of ways of putting these checkers if
585 Problem Compute the number of ten-digit numbers which contain only the digits
➊ there must be exactly one checker per row and column. 1, 2, and 3 with the digit 2 appearing in each number exactly twice.

➋ there must be exactly one column without a checker.

586 Problem Prove Pascal’s Identity:
➌ there must be at least one column without a checker.
n n−1 n−1
= + ,
573 Problem A box contains 4 red, 5 white, 6 blue, and 7 magenta balls. In how many k k−1 k
of all possible samples of size 5, chosen without replacement, will every colour be
represented? for integers 1 ≤ k ≤ n.
Combinations with Repetitions 87

587 Problem Give a combinatorial interpretation of Newton’s Identity: 593 Problem (AHSME 1989) A child has a set of 96 distinct blocks. Each block is one
of two materials (plastic, wood), three sizes (small, medium, large), four colours (blue,
n r n n−k green, red, yellow), and four shapes (circle, hexagon, square, triangle). How many
= (5.1) blocks in the set are different from the “plastic medium red circle” in exactly two ways?
r k k r−k
(The “wood medium red square” is such a block.)
for 0 ≤ k ≤ r ≤ n.

594 Problem (AHSME 1989) Suppose that k boys and n − k girls line up in a row. Let
588 Problem Give a combinatorial proof that for integer n ≥ 1, S be the number of places in the row where a boy and a girl are standing next to each
other. For example, for the row
n
2
2n n
= . GBBGGGBGBGGGBGBGGBGG,
n k
k=0

2k(n − k)
with k = 7, n = 20 we have S = 12. Shew that the average value of S is .
589 Problem In each of the 6-digit numbers n

333333, 225522, 118818, 707099,

595 Problem There are four different kinds of sweets at a sweets store. I want to buy
each digit in the number appears at least twice. Find the number of such 6-digit natural up to four sweets (I’m not sure if I want none, one, two, three, or four sweets) and I
numbers. refuse to buy more than one of any kind of sweet. How many ways can I do this?

590 Problem In each of the 7-digit numbers 596 Problem Suppose five people are in a lift. There are eight floors that the lift stops
at. How many distinct ways can the people exit the lift if either one or zero people exit at
1001011, 5550000, 3838383, 7777777, each stop?

each digit in the number appears at least thrice. Find the number of such 7-digit natural
numbers. 597 Problem If the natural numbers from 1 to 222222222 are written down in
succession, how many 0’s are written?
591 Problem (AIME 1983) The numbers 1447, 1005 and 1231 have something in
common: each is a four-digit number beginning with 1 that has exactly two identical
digits. How many such numbers are there? 598 Problem In how many ways can we distribute k identical balls into n different
boxes so that each box contains at most one ball and no two consecutive boxes are
empty?
592 Problem If there are fifteen players on a baseball team, how many ways can the
coach choose nine players for the starting lineup if it does not matter which position the
players play (i.e., no distinction is made between player A playing shortstop, left field, 599 Problem In a row of n seats in the doctor’s waiting-room k patients sit down in a
or any other positions as long as he is on the field)? How many ways are there if it does particular order from left to right. They sit so that no two of them are in adjacent seats.
matter which position the players play? In how many ways could a suitable set of k seats be chosen?

5.7 Combinations with Repetitions

600 Theorem (De Moivre) Let n be a positive integer. The number of positive integer solutions to
x1 + x2 + · · · + xr = n
is
n−1
.
r−1

Proof: Write n as
n = 1 + 1 + · · ·+ 1 + 1,
where there are n 1s and n − 1 +s. To decompose n in r summands we only need to choose r − 1 pluses from the
n − 1, which proves the theorem. ❑

601 Example In how many ways may we write the number 9 as the sum of three positive integer summands? Here order
counts, so, for example, 1 + 7 + 1 is to be regarded different from 7 + 1 + 1.

Solution: Notice that this is example 521. We are seeking integral solutions to
a + b + c = 9, a > 0, b > 0, c > 0.
By Theorem 600 this is
9−1 8
= = 28.
3−1 2
88 Chapter 5

602 Example In how many ways can 100 be written as the sum of four positive integer summands?

Solution: We want the number of positive integer solutions to

a + b + c + d = 100,

which by Theorem 600 is

99
= 156849.
3

603 Corollary Let n be a positive integer. The number of non-negative integer solutions to

y1 + y2 + · · · + yr = n

is
n+r−1
.
r−1

Proof: Put xr − 1 = yr . Then xr ≥ 1. The equation

x1 − 1 + x2 − 1 + · · · + xr − 1 = n

is equivalent to
x1 + x2 + · · · + xr = n + r,
which from Theorem 600, has
n+r−1
r−1
solutions. ❑

604 Example Find the number of quadruples (a, b, c, d) of integers satisfying

a + b + c + d = 100, a ≥ 30, b > 21, c ≥ 1, d ≥ 1.

Solution: Put a- + 29 = a, b- + 20 = b. Then we want the number of positive integer solutions to

a- + 29 + b- + 21 + c + d = 100,

or
a- + b- + c + d = 50.
By Theorem 600 this number is
49
= 18424.
3

605 Example There are five people in a lift of a building having eight floors. In how many ways can they choose their floor
for exiting the lift?

Solution: Let xi be the number of people that floor i receives. We are looking for non-negative solutions of the equation

x1 + x2 + · · · + x8 = 5.

Putting yi = xi + 1, then

x1 + x2 + · · · + x8 = 5 =⇒ (y1 − 1) + (y2 − 1) + · · · + (y8 − 1) = 5

=⇒ y1 + y2 + · · · + y8 = 13,
Homework 89

whence the number sought is the number of positive solutions to

y1 + y2 + · · · + y8 = 13
12
which is = 792.
7

606 Example Find the number of quadruples (a, b, c, d) of non-negative integers which satisfy the inequality

a + b + c + d ≤ 2001.

Solution: The number of non-negative solutions to

a + b + c + d ≤ 2001
equals the number of solutions to
a + b + c + d + f = 2001
where f is a non-negative integer. This number is the same as the number of positive integer solutions to
a1 − 1 + b1 − 1 + c1 − 1 + d1 − 1 + f1 − 1 = 2001,
2005
which is easily seen to be .
4

607 Example
How many integral solutions to the equation
a + b + c + d = 100,
are there given the following constraints:
1 ≤ a ≤ 10, b ≥ 0, c ≥ 2, 20 ≤ d ≤ 30?

80
Solution: We use Inclusion-Exclusion. There are = 82160 integral solutions to
3
a + b + c + d = 100, a ≥ 1, b ≥ 0, c ≥ 2, d ≥ 20.
Let A be the set of solutions with
a ≥ 11, b ≥ 0, c ≥ 2, d ≥ 20
and B be the set of solutions with
a ≥ 1, b ≥ 0, c ≥ 2, d ≥ 31.
70 69 59
Then card (A) = , card (B) = , card (A ∩ B) = and so
3 3 3
70 69 59
card (A ∪ B) = + − = 74625.
3 3 3
The total number of solutions to
a + b + c + d = 100
with
1 ≤ a ≤ 10, b ≥ 0, c ≥ 2, 20 ≤ d ≤ 30
is thus
80 70 69 59
− − + = 7535.
3 3 3 3

Homework
90 Chapter 5

608 Problem How many positive integral solutions are there to 611 Problem How many integral solutions are there to the equation

a + b + c = 10? x1 + x2 + · · · + x100 = n

609 Problem Three fair dice, one red, one white, and one blue are thrown. In how
subject to the constraints
many ways can they land so that their sum be 10 ?
x1 ≥ 1, x2 ≥ 2, x3 ≥ 3, . . . ,x99 ≥ 99, x100 ≥ 100?

610 Problem Adena has twenty indistinguishable pieces of sweet-meats that she wants
to divide amongst her five stepchildren. How many ways can she divide the sweet-meats 612 Problem (AIME 1998) Find the number of ordered quadruplets (a, b, c, d) of
so that each stepchild gets at least two pieces of sweet-meats? positive odd integers satisfying a + b + c + d = 98.

5.8 The Binomial Theorem

We recall that the symbol
n n!
= , n, k ∈ N, 0 ≤ k ≤ n,
k (n − k)!k!
counts the number of ways of selecting k different objects from n different objects. Observe that we have the following
absorbtion identity:
n n n−1
= .
k k k−1

613 Example Prove Pascal’s Identity:

n n−1 n−1
= + ,
k k−1 k
for integers 1 ≤ k ≤ n.

Solution: We have
n−1 n−1 (n − 1)! (n − 1)!
+ = +
k−1 k (k − 1)!(n − k)! k!(n − k − 1)!
(n − 1)! 1 1
= +
(n − k − 1)!(k − 1)! n − k k
(n − 1)! n
=
(n − k − 1)!(k − 1)! (n − k)k
n!
= .
(n − k)!k!
n
=
k

614 Example Prove Newton’s Identity:

n i n n− j
= ,
i j j j−i
for integers 0 ≤ j ≤ i ≤ n.

Solution: We have
n i n!i! n!(n − j)!
= =
i j i!(n − i)! j!(i − j)! (n − j)! j!(n − i)!(i − j)!
which is the same as
n n− j
.
j i− j
The Binomial Theorem 91

Using Pascal’s Identity we obtain Pascal’s Triangle.

0
0
1 1
0 1
2 2 2
0 1 2
3 3 3 3
0 1 2 3
4 4 4 4 4
0 1 2 3 4
5 5 5 5 5 5
0 1 2 3 4 5

When the numerical values are substituted, the triangle then looks like this.

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1

We see from Pascal’s Triangle that binomial coefficients are symmetric. This symmetry is easily justified by the identity
n n
= . We also notice that the binomial coefficients tend to increase until they reach the middle, and that they
k n−k
n
decrease symmetrically. That is, the satisfy
k

n n n n n n n n
< < ··· < < > > > ··· > >
0 1 [n/2] − 1 [n/2] [n/2] + 1 [n/2] + 2 n−1 n

if n is even, and that

n n n n n n n n n
< < ··· < < = > > > ··· > >
0 1 [n/2] − 1 [n/2] [n/2] + 1 [n/2] + 2 [n/2] + 3 n−1 n

for odd n. We call this property the unimodality of the binomial coefficients. For example, without finding the exact numerical
200 200 200 200 200
values we can see that < and that = < .
17 69 131 69 99
We now present some examples on the use of binomial coefficients.

615 Example The Catalan number of order n is defined as

1 2n
Cn = .
n+1 n

Prove that Cn is an integer for all natural numbers n.

Solution: Observe that

1 2n 2n 2n
= − ,
n+1 n n n−1
the difference of two integers.
92 Chapter 5

616 Example (Putnam 1972) Shew that no four consecutive binomial coefficients

n n n n
, , ,
r r+1 r+2 r+3

(n, r positive integers and r + 3 ≤ n) are in arithmetic progression.

n n n n
Solution: Assume that a = ,a + d = , a + 2d = , a + 3d = . This yields
r r+1 r+2 r+3

n n n
2 = + ,
r+1 r r+2

or equivalently
r+1 n−r−1
2= + (∗).
n−r r+2
This is a quadratic equation in r, having r as one of its roots. The condition that the binomial coefficients are in arithmetic
progression means that r + 1 is also a root of (∗). Replacing r by n − r − 2 we also obtain

n−r−1 r+1
2= + ,
r+2 n−r
which is the same as (∗). This means that n − r − 3 and n − r − 2 are also roots of (∗). Since a quadratic equation can only have
two roots, we must have r = n − r − 3. The four binomial coefficients must then be

2r + 3 2r + 3 2r + 3 2r + 3
, , , .
r r+1 r+2 r+3

But these cannot be in an arithmetic progression, since binomial coefficients are unimodal and symmetric.

n
617 Example Let N(a) denote the number of solutions to the equation a = for nonnegative integers n, k. For example,
k
N(1) = ∞, N(3) = N(5) = 2, N(6) = 3, etc. Prove that N(a) ≤ 2 + 2 log2 a.

2b i+ j i+ j
Solution: Let b be the first time that > a. By the unimodality of the binomial coefficients, = is
b i j
monotonically increasing in i and j. Hence

b+i+b+ j b+b+ j 2b
≥ ≥ >a
b+ j b b

i+ j i+ j
for all i, j ≥ 0. Hence = a implies i < b, or j < b. Also, for each fixed value of i (or j), = a has at most one
j i
solution. It follows that N(a) < 2b. Since
2(b − 1)
a≥ ≥ 2b−1 ,
b−1
it follows that b ≤ log2 a + 1, and the statement is proven.
We now use Pascal’s Triangle in order to expand the binomial

(a + b)n .

The Binomial Theorem states that for n ∈ Z, n ≥ 0,

n
n k
(1 + x)n = x.
k
k=0
The Binomial Theorem 93

As a way of proving this, we observe that expanding

(1 + x)(1 + x) · · ·(1 + x)
n factors

consists of adding up all the terms obtained from multiplying either a 1 or a x from the first set of parentheses times either a 1
or an x from the second set of parentheses etc. To get xk , x must be chosen from exactly k of the sets of parentheses. Thus the
n
number of xk terms is . It follows that
k

n
n n n 2 n n n k
(1 + x)n = + x+ x + ··· + x = x.
0 1 2 n k
k=0

618 Example Prove that

n
n
= 2n .
k
k=0

Solution: This follows from letting x = 1 in the expansion

n
n k
(1 + x)n = x.
k
k=0

619 Example Prove that for integer n ≥ 1,

n
n j n n−i
= 2 , i ≤ n.
j i i
j=i

Solution: Recall that by Newton’s Identity

n j n n−i
= .
j i i j−i

Thus
n n
n j n n−i
= .
j i i j−i
j=0 j=0

But upon re-indexing

n n−i
n−i n−i
= = 2n−i ,
j−i j
j=0 j=0

by the preceding problem. Thus the assertion follows.

620 Example Prove that

m+k n+m+1
= .
k n
k≤n
94 Chapter 5

Solution: Using Pascal’s Identity

n
k+m 0+m 0+m 1+m 2+m 3+m
= + + + +
k −1 0 1 2 3
k=0
n−1+m n+m
+··· + +
n−1 n
1+m 1+m 2+m 3+m
= + + +
0 1 2 3
n−1+m n+m
+··· + +
n−1 n
2+m 2+m 3+m
= + +
1 2 3
n−1+m n+m
+··· + +
n−1 n
3+m 3+m
= +
2 3
n−1+m n+m
+··· + +
n−1 n
..
.
n+m n+m
= +
n−1 n
n+m+1
= ,
n
which is what we wanted.

621 Example Find a closed formula for

−1
m n
n ≥ m ≥ 0.
k k
0≤k≤m

Solution: Using Newton’s Identity,

−1 −1
m n n n−k
= .
k k m m−k
0≤k≤m 0≤k≤m

Re-indexing,
n−k n−m+k n+1
= = ,
m−k k m
0≤k≤m k≤m
by the preceding problem. Thus
−1
m n n+1 n n+1
= / = .
k k m m n+1−m
0≤k≤m

622 Example Simplify

100
.
2k
0≤k≤50

Solution: By the Binomial Theorem

100 100 100 100 100
(1 + 1)100 = + + + ...+ +
0 1 2 99 100
100 100 100 100 100
(1 − 1)100 = − + − ...− + ,
0 1 2 99 100
The Binomial Theorem 95

whence summing both columns

100 100 100
2100 = 2 +2 + ... + 2 .
0 2 100
Dividing by 2, the required sum is thus 299 .

623 Example Simplify

50
100
.
2k − 1
k=1

Solution: We know that

100
100
= 2100
k
k=0

and
50
100
= 299 .
2k
k=0

The desired sum is the difference of these two values 2100 − 299 = 299 .

624 Example Simplify

10
11
2k .
k
k=1

11
11 k
Solution: By the Binomial Theorem, the complete sum 2 = 311 . The required sum lacks the zeroth term,
k
k=0
11 0 11 11
2 = 1, and the eleventh term, 2 from this complete sum. The required sum is thus 311 − 211 − 1.
0 11

625 Example Which coefficient of the expansion of

10
1 2
+ x
3 3
has the greatest magnitude?

Solution: By the Binomial Theorem,

10 10 10
1 2 10
+ x = (1/3)k (2x/3)10−k = a k xk .
3 3 k
k=0 k=0

ak
We consider the ratios , k = 1, 2, . . . n. This ratio is seen to be
ak−1

ak 2(10 − k + 1)
= .
ak−1 k

This will be < 1 if k < 22/3 < 8. Thus a0 < a1 < a2 < . . . < a7 . If k > 22/3, the ratio above will be < 1. Thus
a7 > a8 > a9 > a10 . The largest term is that of k = 7, i.e. the eighth term.

626 Example At what positive integral value of x is the x4 term in the expansion of (2x + 9)10 greater than the adjacent terms?
96 Chapter 5

Solution: We want to find integral x such that

10 10
(2x)4 (9)6 ≥ (2x)3 (9)7 ,
4 3

and
10 10
(2x)4 (9)6 ≥ (2x)5 (9)5 .
4 5

After simplifying the factorials, the two inequalities sought are

x ≥ 18/7

and
15/4 ≥ x.

The only integral x that satisfies this is x = 3.

627 Example Prove that for integer n ≥ 1,

n
n
k = n2n−1.
k
k=1

Solution: Using the absorption identity

n n
n−1 n
n = k ,
k−1 k
k=0 k=0

n−1
with the convention that = 0. But since
−1

n n−1
n−1 n−1
= = 2n−1 ,
k−1 k
k=0 k=0

we obtain the result once again.

628 Example Find a closed formula for

n
1 n
.
k+1 k
k=0

Solution: Using the absorption identity

n n
1 n 1 n+1 1
= = (2n+1 − 1).
k+1 k n+1 k+1 n+1
k=0 k=0

629 Example Prove that if m, n are nonnegative integers then

n
n+1 k
= .
m+1 m
k=m
Practice 97

Solution: Using Pascal’s Identity

n
k m m m+1 n
= + + + ···+
m m+1 m m m
k=m
m+1 m+1 m+2 n
= + + + ··· +
m+1 m m m
m+2 m+2 m+3 n
= + + + ··· +
m+1 m m m
..
.
n n
= +
m+1 m
n+1
= .
m+1

630 Example Find a closed form for

k(k + 1).
k≤n

Solution: Let
S= k(k + 1).
k≤n

Then
k(k + 1) k+1
S/2! = = .
2! 2
k≤n k≤n

By the preceding problem

k+1 n+2
= .
2 3
k≤n

n+2
We gather that S = 2 = n(n + 1)(n + 2)/3.
3

Practice

631 Problem Prove that 635 Problem The expansion of (x + 2y)20 contains two terms with the same
n n−1 coefficient, Kxa yb and Kxa+1 yb−1 . Find a.
=2 .
2k + 1
0≤k≤n/2
636 Problem Prove that for n ∈ N, n > 1 the identity
n
632 Problem Expand n
(−1)k−1 k =0
k
1 √ 1 √ k=1
(1 + x)100 + (1 − x)100 .
2 2
holds true.

633 Problem Four writers must write a book containing seventeen chapters. The first
and third writers must each write five chapters, the second must write four chapters, and 637 Problem If n is an even natural number, shew that
the fourth writer must write three chapters. How many ways can the book be written? 1 1
What if the first and third writers had to write ten chapters combined, but it did not +
1!(n − 1)! 3!(n − 3)!
matter which of them wrote how many (e.g., the first could write ten and the third none, 1 1
the first could write none and the third one, etc.)? + + ··· +
5!(n − 5)! (n − 1)!1!
2n−1
= .
n!
634 Problem Prove that

m jn j1 638 Problem Find a closed formula for

n+m
··· 1= . n−k
n+1 (−1)k .
jn =1 jn−1 =1 k=1 k
0≤k≤n
98 Chapter 5

639 Problem What is the exact numerical value of

n−1 n n+1
100
k3k ? k−1 k+1 k
k
k≤100 n−1 n+1 n
= .
k k+1 k−1
640 Problem Find a closed formula for

n 651 Problem (AIME 1991) In the expansion

k2 − k.
1000
k=1 1000
(1 + 0.2)1000 = (0.2)k ,
k
k=0
641 Problem Find a closed formula for
which one of the 1001 terms is the largest?
m−k−1
k m > n ≥ 0.
n−k−1
0≤k≤n 652 Problem (Putnam 1971) Shew that for 0 < ε < 1 the expression

(x + y)n (x2 − (2 − ε )xy + y2 )

642 Problem What is the exact numerical value of
is a polynomial with positive coefficients for integral n sufficiently large. For ε = .002
5k 100 find the smallest admissible value of n.
?
k+1 k
k≤100

653 Problem Prove that for integer n ≥ 1,

10 10 n n
643 Problem Find n if + = .
4 3 4 n
k3 = n2 (n + 3)2n−3 .
k
k=1
644 Problem If

1991 1991 1991 1991 654 Problem Expand and simplify

+ + + ··· + = 2a ,
1 3 5 1991
( 1 − x2 + 1)7 − ( 1 − x2 − 1)7 .
find a.

655 Problem Simplify

20 20
645 Problem True or False: = .
5 15 5 6 7 999
+ + + ··· +
5 5 5 5
646 Problem True or False:

656 Problem Simplify

48 49
49 = 10 .
9 10
15 15 15 15 15 15
− + − ··· + −
1 2 3 4 13 14
647 Problem What is the coefficient of x24 y24 in the expansion

657 Problem What is the exact numerical value of

(2x3 + 3y2 )20 ?
1994
1994
648 Problem What is the coefficient of x12 y7 in the expansion (−1)k−1 ?
k
k=0
(x3/2 + y)15 ?

658 Problem True or False:

649 Problem What is the coefficient of x4 y6 in
4 5 199 16 17 199
√ + + ··· + > + + ··· + .
(x 2 − y)10 ? 4 4 4 16 16 16

650 Problem Shew that the binomial coefficients satisfy the following hexagonal 659 Problem (AIME 1992) In which row of Pascal’s triangle (we start with zeroth row,
property: first row ,etc.) do three consecutive entries occur that are in the ratio 3 : 4 : 5?
Multinomial Theorem 99

5.9 Multinomial Theorem

If n, n1 , n2 , . . . , nk are nonnegative integers and n = n1 + n2 + · · · nk we put

n n!
= .
n1 , n2 · · · nk n1 !n2 ! · · · nk !

Using the De-Polignac Legendre Theorem, it is easy to see that this quantity is an integer. Proceeding in the same way we
proved the Binomial Theorem, we may establish the Multinomial Theorem:
n
(x1 + x2 + · · · + xk )n = xn11 xn22 · · · xk k .
n1 +n2 +···+nk =n
n1 ,n2 ,...,nk ≥0

We give a few examples on the use of the Multinomial Theorem.

660 Example Determine the coefficient of x2 y3 z3 in

(x + 2y + z)8

Solution: By the Multinomial Theorem

8
(x + 2y + z)8 = xn1 (2y)n2 zn3 .
n1 , n2 , n3
n1 ,n2 ,n3 ≥0
n1 +n2 +n3 =8

8
This requires n1 = 2, n2 = 3, n3 = 3. The coefficient sought is then 23 .
2, 3, 3

661 Example In (1 + x5 + x9 )23 , find the coefficient of x23 .

Solution: By the Multinomial Theorem

23
x5n2 +9n3 .
n1 , n2 , n3
n1 ,n2 ,n3 ≥0
n1 +n2 +n3 =23

23
Since 5n2 + 9n3 = 23 and n1 + n2 + n3 = 23, we must have n1 = 20, n2 = 1, n3 = 2. The coefficient sought is thus .
20, 1, 2

662 Example How many different terms are there in the expansion of

(x + y + z + w + s + t)20?

Solution: There as many terms as nonnegative integral solutions of

n1 + n2 + · · · + n6 = 20.

25
But we know that there are of these.
5

Practice
100 Chapter 5

663 Problem How many terms are in the expansion (x + y + z)10 ? 665 Problem Find the coefficient of x2 y3 z5 in the expansion of

664 Problem Find the coefficient of x4 in the expansion of

(1 + 3x + 2x3 )10 ? (x + y + z)10 ?

Chapter 6
Equations

6.1 Equations in One Variable

Let us start with the following example.

666 Example Solve the equation 2|x| = sin x2 .

Solution: Clearly x = 0 is not a solution. Since 2y > 1 for y > 0, the equation does not have a solution.

2
667 Example Solve the equation |x − 3|(x −8x+15)/(x−2) = 1.

Solution: We want either the exponent to be zero, or the base to be 1. We cannot have, however, 00 as this is undefined. So,
|x − 3| = 1 implies x = 4 or x = 2. We discard x = 2 as the exponent is undefined at this value. For the exponent we want
x2 − 8x + 15 = 0 or x = 5 or x = 3. We cannot have x = 3 since this would give 00 . So the only solutions are x = 4 and x = 5.

668 Example What would be the appropriate value of xif

.
..
xx
x =2
made sense?
. .
x.
Solution: Since xx = 2, we have x2 = √2 (the chain is infinite, so cutting it at one step does not change the value). Since we
want a positive value we must have x = 2.

669 Example Solve 9 + x−4 = 10x−2 .

Solution: Observe that

x−4 − 10x−2 + 9 = (x−2 − 9)(x−2 − 1).
1
Then x = ± and x = ±1.
3

670 Example Solve 9x − 3x+1 − 4 = 0.

Solution: Observe that 9x − 3x+1 − 4 = (3x − 4)(3x + 1). As no real number x satisfies 3x + 1 = 0, we discard this factor. So
3x − 4 = 0 yields x = log3 4.

101
102 Chapter 6

671 Example Solve

(x − 5)(x − 7)(x + 6)(x + 4) = 504.

Solution: Reorder the factors and multiply in order to obtain

(x − 5)(x − 7)(x + 6)(x + 4) = (x − 5)(x + 4)(x − 7)(x + 6) = (x2 − x − 20)(x2 − x − 42).

Put y = x2 − x. Then (y − 20)(y − 42) = 504, which is to say, y2 − 62y + 336 = (y − 6)(y − 56) = 0. Now, y = 6, 56, implies

x2 − x = 6

and
x2 − x = 56.
Solving both quadratics, x = −2, 4, −7, 8.

672 Example Solve 12x4 − 56x3 + 89x2 − 56x + 12 = 0.

Solution: Reordering
12x4 + 12 − 56(x3 + x) + 89x2 = 0. (6.1)
Dividing by x2 ,
1 1
12(x2 + ) − 56(x + ) + 89 = 0.
x2 x
Put u = x + 1/x. Then u2 − 2 = x2 + 1/x2. Using this, (6) becomes 12(u2 − 2) − 56u + 89 = 0, whence u = 5/2, 13/6. From
this
1 5
x+ =
x 2
and
1 13
x+ = .
x 6
Solving both quadratics we conclude that x = 1/2, 2, 2/3, 3/2.

673 Example Find the real solutions to

x2 − 5x + 2 x2 − 5x + 3 = 12.

Solution: Observe that

x2 − 5x + 3 + 2 x2 − 5x + 3 − 15 = 0.
Let u = x2 − 5x + 3 and so u + 2u1/2 − 15 = (u1/2 + 5)(u1/2 − 3) = 0. This means that u = 9 (we discard u1/2 + 5 = 0, why?).
Therefore x2 − 5x + 3 = 9 or x = −1, 6.

674 Example Solve

3x2 − 4x + 34 − 3x2 − 4x − 11 = 9. (6.2)

Solution: Notice the trivial identity

(3x2 − 4x + 34) − (3x2 − 4x − 11) = 45. (6.3)
Dividing each member of (8) by the corresponding members of (7), we obtain

3x2 − 4x + 34 + 3x2 − 4x − 11 = 5. (6.4)

Adding (7) and (9)

3x2 − 4x + 34 = 7,
5
from where x = − , 3.
3
Practice 103

675 Example Solve √ √

3
14 + x + 3 14 − x = 4.
√
3
√
Solution: Letu = 14 + x, v = 3 14 − x. Then

64 = (u + v)3 = u3 + v3 + 3uv(u + v) = 14 + x + 14 − x + 12(196 − x2)1/3 ,

whence
3 = (196 − x2)1/3 ,
which upon solving yields x = ±13.

676 Example Find the exact value of cos 2π /5.

Solution: Using the identity

cos(u ± v) = cos u cos v ∓ sinu sin v
twice, we obtain
cos 2θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1 (6.5)
and
cos 3θ = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ . (6.6)
Let x = cos 2π /5. As cos 6π /5 = cos 4π /5, thanks to (5) and (6), we see that x satisfies the equation

4x3 − 2x2 − 3x + 1 = 0,

which is to say
(x − 1)(4x2 + 2x − 1) = 0.
As x = cos 2π /5 &= 1, and cos 2π /5 > 0, x positive root of the quadratic equation 4x2 + 2x − 1 = 0, which is to say
√
2π 5−1
cos = .
5 4

677 Example How many real numbers x satisfy

x
sin x = ?
100

Solution: Plainly x = 0 is a solution. Also, if x > 0 is a solution, so is −x < 0. So, we can restrict ourselves to positive
solutions.
If x is a solution then |x| = 100| sin x| ≤ 100. So we can further restrict x to the interval ]0; 100]. Decompose ]0; 100] into
2π -long intervals (the last interval is shorter):

]0; 100] =]0; 2π ] ∪ ]2π ; 4π ] ∪ ]4π ; 6π ] ∪ · · · ∪ ]28π ; 30π ] ∪ ]30π ; 100].

From the graphs of y = sin x, y = x/100 we that the interval ]0; 2π ] contains only one solution. Each interval of the form
]2π k; 2(k + 1)π ], k = 1, 2, . . . , 14 contains two solutions. As 31π < 100, the interval ]30π ; 100] contains a full wave, hence it
contains two solutions. Consequently, there are 1 + 2 · 14 + 2 = 31 positive solutions, and hence, 31 negative solutions.
Therefore, there is a total of 31 + 31 + 1 = 63 solutions.

Practice
104 Chapter 6

678 Problem Solve for x 688 Problem Find the value of

x a b 6a √
2 +3 = + . 30 · 31 · 32 · 33 + 1.
a x a b

689 Problem Solve √ √

679 Problem Solve
x + x2 − 1 x − x2 − 1
√ + √ = 98.
(x − 7)(x − 3)(x + 5)(x + 1) = 1680. x − x2 − 1 x + x2 − 1

680 Problem Solve 690 Problem Find a real solution to

x4 + x3 − 4x2 + x + 1 = 0.
(x2 − 9x − 1)10 + 99x10 = 10x9 (x2 − 1).

681 Problem Solve the equation

2x 2x Hint: Write this equation as

2sin + 5 · 2cos = 7.

(x2 − 9x − 1)10 − 10x9(x2 − 9x − 1) + 9x10 = 0.

√
682 Problem If the equation x+ x+ x + · · · = 2 made sense, what would
be the value of x? 691 Problem Find the real solutions to

683 Problem How many real solutions are there to

√
x+2 x+2 x + ··· + 2 x + 2 3x = x.

sin x = loge x? n radicals

684 Problem Solve the equation 692 Problem Solve the equation

|x + 1| − |x| + 3|x − 1| − 2|x − 2| = x + 2. 1

= x.
1
1+
685 Problem Find the real roots of 1
1+
√ √ .
.
x+3−4 x−1+ x + 8 − 6 x − 1 = 1. .
1+
1
1+
x
686 Problem Solve the equation
where the fraction is repeated n times.
6x4 − 25x3 + 12x2 + 25x + 6 = 0.

693 Problem Solve for x

687 Problem Solve the equation
√ √
x(2x + 1)(x − 2)(2x − 3) = 63. x + x + 11 + x + x − 11 = 4.

6.2 Systems of Equations

694 Example Solve the system of equations
x+y+u = 4,
y+u+v = −5,
u+v+x = 0,
v+x+y = −8.

Solution: Adding all the equations and dividing by 3,

x + y + u + v = −3.

This implies
4+v = −3,
−5 + x = −3,
0+y = −3,
−8 + u = −3,
Practice 105

whence x = 2, y = −3, u = 5, v = −7.

695 Example Solve the system

(x + y)(x + z) = 30,
(y + z)(y + x) = 15,
(z + x)(z + y) = 18.

Solution: Put u = y + z, v = z + x, w = x + y. The system becomes

vw = 30, wu = 15, uv = 18. (6.7)
2 2 2
Multiplying all of these equations we obtain u v w = 8100, that is, uvw = ±90. Dividing each of the equations in (7), we
gather u = 3, v = 6, w = 5, or u = −3, v = −6, w = −5. This yields
y + z = 3, or y + z = −3,
z + x = 6, or z + x = −6,
x + y = 5, or x + y = −5,
whence x = 4, y = 1, z = 2 or x = −4, y = −1, z = −2..

Practice

696 Problem Let a,b, c be real constants, abc &= 0. Solve 701 Problem Solve the system
2 2 2
x2 − yz = 3,
x − (y − z) = a ,

y2 − (z − x)2 = b2 , y2 − zx = 4,

z2 − (x − y)2 = c2 . z2 − xy = 5.

697 Problem Solve

702 Problem Solve the system
x3 + 3x2 y + y3 = 8,
3 2 2
2x − 2x y + xy = 1. 2x + y + z + u = −1

698 Problem Solve the system x + 2y + z + u = 12

x+2+y+3+ (x + 2)(y + 3) = 39, x + y + 2z + u = 5

(x + 2)2 + (y + 3)2 + (x + 2)(y + 3) = 741. x + y + z + 2u = −1

699 Problem Solve the system 703 Problem Solve the system
x4 + y4 = 82,
x − y = 2. x2 + x + y = 8,

700 Problem Solve the system y2 + 2xy + z = 168,

x1 x2 = 1, x2 x3 = 2, . . . , x100 x101 = 100, x101 x1 = 101. z2 + 2yz + 2xz = 12480.

6.3 Remainder and Factor Theorems

The Division Algorithm for polynomials states that if the polynomial p(x) is divided by a(x) then there exist polynomials
q(x), r(x) with
p(x) = a(x)q(x) + r(x) (6.8)
and 0 ≤ degree r(x) < degree a(x). For example, if x5 + x4 + 1 is divided by x2 + 1 we obtain
x5 + x4 + 1 = (x3 + x2 − x − 1)(x2 + 1) + x + 2,
and so the quotient is q(x) = x3 + x2 − x − 1 and the remainder is r(x) = x + 2.
106 Chapter 6

704 Example Find the remainder when (x + 3)5 + (x + 2)8 + (5x + 9)1997 is divided by x + 2.

Solution: As we are dividing by a polynomial of degree 1, the remainder is a polynomial of degree 0, that is, a constant.
Therefore, there is a polynomial q(x) and a constant r with

(x + 3)5 + (x + 2)8 + (5x + 9)1997 = q(x)(x + 2) + r

Letting x = −2 we obtain

(−2 + 3)5 + (−2 + 2)8 + (5(−2) + 9)1997 = q(−2)(−2 + 2) + r = r.

As the sinistral side is 0 we deduce that the remainder r = 0.

705 Example A polynomial leaves remainder −2 upon division by x − 1 and remainder −4 upon division by x + 2. Find the
remainder when this polynomial is divided by x2 + x − 2.

Solution: From the given information, there exist polynomials q1 (x), q2 (x) with p(x) = q1 (x)(x − 1) − 2 and
p(x) = q2 (x)(x + 2) − 4. Thus p(1) = −2 and p(−2) = −4. As x2 + x − 2 = (x − 1)(x + 2) is a polynomial of degree 2 the
remainder r(x) upon dividing p(x) by x2 + x − 1 is of degree 1 or less, that is r(x) = ax + b for some constants a, b which we
must determine. By the Division Algorithm,

p(x) = q(x)(x2 + x − 1) + ax + b.

Hence
−2 = p(1) = a + b
and
−4 = p(−2) = −2a + b.
From these equations we deduce that a = 2/3, b = −8/3. The remainder sought is r(x) = 2x/3 − 8/3.

706 Example Let f (x) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1. Find the remainder when f (x5 ) is divided by f (x).

Solution: Observe that f (x)(x − 1) = x5 − 1 and

f (x5 ) = x20 + x15 + x10 + x5 + 1 = (x20 − 1) + (x15 − 1) + (x10 − 1) + (x5 − 1) + 5.

Each of the summands in parentheses is divisible by x5 − 1 and, a fortiori, by f (x). The remainder sought is thus 5.
Using the Division Algorithm we may derive the following theorem.

707 Theorem Factor Theorem The polynomial p(x) is divisible by x − a if and only if p(a) = 0.

Proof As x − a is a polynomial of degree 1, the remainder after diving p(x) by x − a is a polynomial of degree 0, es that is, a
constant. Therefore
p(x) = q(x)(x − a) + r.
From this we gather that p(a) = q(a)(a − a) + r = r, from where the theorem easily follows.

708 Example If p(x) is a cubic polynomial with p(1) = 1, p(2) = 2, p(3) = 3, p(4) = 5, find p(6).

Solution: Put g(x) = p(x) − x. Observe that g(x) is a polynomial of degree 3 and that g(1) = g(2) = g(3) = 0. Thus
g(x) = c(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) for some constant c that we must determine. Now, g(4) = c(4 − 1)(4 − 2)(4 − 3) = 6c and
g(4) = p(4) − 4 = 1, whence c = 1/6. Finally

(6 − 1)(6 − 2)(6 − 3)
p(6) = g(6) + 6 = + 6 = 16.
6
Practice 107

709 Example The polynomial p(x) has integral coefficients and p(x) = 7 for four different values of x. Shew that p(x) never
equals 14.

Solution: The polynomial g(x) = p(x) − 7 vanishes at the 4 different integer values a, b, c, d. In virtue of the Factor Theorem,

g(x) = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c)(x − d)q(x),

where q(x) is a polynomial with integral coefficients. Suppose that p(t) = 14 for some integer t. Then
g(t) = p(t) − 7 = 14 − 7 = 7. It follows that

7 = g(t) = (t − a)(t − b)(t − c)(t − d)q(t),

that is, we have factorised 7 as the product of at least 4 different factors, which is impossible since 7 can be factorised as
7(−1)1, the product of at most 3 distinct integral factors. From this contradiction we deduce that such an integer t does not
exist.

Practice

710 Problem If p(x) is a polynomial of degree n such that 711 Problem The polynomial p(x) satisfies p(−x) = −p(x). When p(x) is divided
p(k) = 1/k, k = 1, 2, . . . ,n + 1, find p(n + 2). by x − 3 the remainder is 6. Find the remainder when p(x) is divided by x2 − 9.

6.4 Viète’s Formulae

Let us consider first the following example.

712 Example Expand the product

(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 4)(x − 5)(x + 6).

Solution: The product is a polynomial of degree 5. To obtain the coefficient of x5 we take an x from each of the five binomials.
Therefore, the coefficient of x5 is 1. To form the x4 term, we take an x from 4 of the binomials and a constant from the
remaining binomial. Thus the coefficient of x4 is

1 − 2 + 4 − 5 + 6 = 4.

To form the coefficient of x3 we take three x from 3 of the binomials and two constants from the remaining binomials. Thus
the coefficient of x3 is
(1)(−2) + (1)(4) + (1)(−5) + (1)(6) + (−2)(4) + (−2)(−5) + (−2)(6)
+(4)(−5) + (4)(6) + (−5)(6) = −33.
2
Similarly, the coefficient of x is

(1)(−2)(4) + (1)(−2)(−5) + (1)(−2)(6) + (1)(4)(−5) + (1)(4)(6) + (−2)(4)(−5)

+(−2)(4)(6) + (4)(−5)(6) = −134

and the coefficient of x is

(1)(−2)(4)(−5) + (1)(−2)(4)(6) + (1)(−2)(−5)(6) + (1)(4)(−5)(6) + (−2)(4)(−5)(6) = 172.

Finally, the constant term is (1)(−2)(4)(−5)(6) = 240. The product sought is thus

x5 + 4x4 − 33x3 − 134x2 + 172x + 240.

From the preceding example, we see that each summand of the expanded product has “weight” 5, because of the five given
binomials we either take the x or take the constant.
108 Chapter 6

If a0 &= 0 and
a0 xn + a1 xn−1 + a2 xn−2 + · · · + an−1x + an
is a polynomial with roots α1 , α2 , . . . , αn then we may write

a0 xn + a1xn−1 + a2 xn−2 + · · · + an−1 x + an = a0 (x − α1 )(x − α2 )(x − α3 ) · · · (x − αn−1 )(x − αn ).

From this we deduce the Viète Formulæ:

n
a1
− = αk ,
a0
k=1

a2
= α j αk ,
a0
1≤ j<k≤n

a3
− = α j αk αl ,
a0
1≤ j<k<l≤n

a4
= α j αk αl αs ,
a0
1≤ j<k<l<s≤n
..........

..........

...........
an
(−1)n = α1 α2 · · · αn .
a0

713 Example Find the sum of the roots, the sum of the roots taken two at a time, the sum of the square of the roots and the
sum of the reciprocals of the roots of
2x3 − x + 2 = 0.

Solution: Let a, b, c be the roots of 2x3 − x + 2 = 0. From the Viète Formulæ the sum of the roots is

0
a+b+c= − = 0
2
and the sum of the roots taken two at a time is
−1
ab + ac + bc = .
2
To find a2 + b2 + c2 we observe that

a2 + b2 + c2 = (a + b + c)2 − 2(ab + ac + bc).

Hence
a2 + b2 + c2 = 02 − 2(−1/2) = 1.
Finally, as abc = −2/2 = −1, we gather that

1 1 1 ab + ac + bc −1/2
+ + = = = 1/2.
a b c abc −1

714 Example Let α , β , γ be the roots of x3 − x2 + 1 = 0. Find

1 1 1
+ + .
α2 β 2 γ2
Viète’s Formulae 109

Solution: From x3 − x2 + 1 = 0 we deduce that 1/x2 = 1 − x. Hence

1 1 1
2
+ 2 + 2 = (1 − α ) + (1 − β ) + (1 − γ ) = 3 − (α + β + γ ) = 3 − 1 = 2.
α β γ

Together with the Viète Formulæ we also have the Newton-Girard Identities for the sum of the powers sk = α1k + α2k + · · · + αnk
of the roots:
a0 s1 + a1 = 0,
a0 s2 + a1s1 + 2a2 = 0,
a0 s3 + a1 s2 + a2 s1 + 3a3 = 0,
etc..

715 Example If a, b, c are the roots of x3 − x2 + 2 = 0, find

a 2 + b 2 + c2

a 3 + b 3 + c3
and
a 4 + b 4 + c4 .

Solution: First observe that

a2 + b2 + c2 = (a + b + c)2 − 2(ab + ac + bc) = 12 − 2(0) = 1.

As x3 = x2 − 2, we gather

a3 + b3 + c3 = a2 − 2 + b2 − 2 + c2 − 2 = a2 + b2 + c2 − 6 = 1 − 6 = −5.

Finally, from x3 = x2 − 2 we obtain x4 = x3 − 2x, whence

a4 + b4 + c4 = a3 − 2a + b3 − 2b + c3 − 2c = a3 + b3 + c3 − 2(a + b + c) = −5 − 2(1) = −7.

716 Example (USAMO 1973) Find all solutions (real or complex) of the system

x + y + z = 3,

x2 + y2 + z2 = 3,
x3 + y3 + z3 = 3.

Solution: Let x, y, z be the roots of

p(t) = (t − x)(t − y)(t − z) = t 3 − (x + y + z)t 2 + (xy + yz + zx)t − xyz.

Now xy + yz + zx = (x + y + z)2/2 − (x2 + y2 + z2 )/2 = 9/2 − 3/2 = 3 and from

x3 + y3 + z3 − 3xyz = (x + y + z)(x2 + y2 + z2 − xy − yz − zx)

we gather that xyz = 1. Hence

p(t) = t 3 − 3t 2 + 3t − 1 = (t − 1)3 .
Thus x = y = z = 1 is the only solution of the given system.
110 Chapter 6

Practice

717 Problem Suppose that find the sum

n n−1 n−2
α1100 + α2100 + · · · + α100
100
.
x + a1 x + a2 x + · · · + an
= (x + r1 )(x + r2 ) · · · (x + rn )
721 Problem Let α , β , γ be the roots of x3 − x − 1 = 0. Find
where r1 , r2 , . . . ,rn are real numbers. Shew that

(n − 1)a21 ≥ 2na2 . 1 1 1
+ 3+ 3
α3 β γ
718 Problem (USAMO 1984) The product of the roots of
y
x4 − 18x3 + kx2 + 200x − 1984 = 0 α5 + β 5 + γ5.

is −32. Determine k.
722 Problem The real numbers α , β satisfy
4 3 2
719 Problem The equation x − 16x + 94x + px + q = 0 has two double roots. Find
p + q. α 3 − 3α 2 + 5α − 17 = 0,

720 Problem If α1 , α2 , . . . , α100 are the roots of β 3 − 3β 2 + 5β + 11 = 0.

x100 − 10x + 10 = 0, Find α + β .

6.5 Lagrange’s Interpolation

723 Example Find a cubic polynomial p(x) vanishing at x = 1, 2, 3 and satisfying p(4) = 666.

Solution: The polynomial must be of the form p(x) = a(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3), where a is a constant. As
666 = p(4) = a(4 − 1)(4 − 2)(4 − 3) = 6a, a = 111. The desired polynomial is therefore p(x) = 111(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3).

724 Example Find a cubic polynomial p(x) satisfying p(1) = 1, p(2) = 2, p(3) = 3, p(4) = 5.

Solution: We shall use the following method due to Lagrange. Let

p(x) = a(x) + 2b(x) + 3c(x) + 5d(x),

where a(x), b(x), c(x), d(x) are cubic polynomials with the following properties: a(1) = 1 and a(x) vanishes when
x = 2, 3, 4;b(2) = 1 and b(x) vanishes when x = 1, 3, 4; c(3) = 1 and c(3) = 1 vanishes when x = 1, 2, 4, and finally, d(4) = 1,
d(x) vanishing at x = 1, 2, 3.
Using the technique of the preceding example, we find
(x − 2)(x − 3)(x − 4)
a(x) = − ,
6
(x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 4)
b(x) = ,
2
(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 4)
c(x) = −
2
y
(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)
d(x) = .
6
Thus
1
p(x) = − · (x − 2)(x − 3)(x − 4) + (x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 4)
6
3 5
− · (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 4) + (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3).
2 6
It is left to the reader to verify that the polynomial satisfies the required properties.
Practice 111

Practice

725 Problem Find a polynomial p(x) of degree 4 with 726 Problem Find a polynomial p(x) of degree 4 with
p(1) = 1, p(2) = 2, p(3) = 3, p(4) = 4, p(5) = 5. p(1) = −1, p(2) = 2, p(−3) = 4, p(4) = 5, p(5) = 8.
Chapter 7
Inequalities

7.1 Absolute Value

−1 if x < 0,
727 Definition (The Signum (Sign) Function) Let x be a real number. We define signum(x) = 0 if x = 0,
+1 if x > 0.

728 Lemma The signum function is multiplicative, that is, if (x, y) ∈ R2 then signum(x · y) = signum(x) signum(y).

Proof: Immediate from the definition of signum. ❑

729 Definition (Absolute Value) Let x ∈ R. The absolute value of x is defined and denoted by

|x| = signum(x) x.

730 Theorem Let x ∈ R. Then

−x if x < 0,
1. |x| =
x if x ≥ 0.

2. |x| ≥ 0,

3. |x| = max(x, −x),

4. |−x| = |x|,

5. − |x| ≤ x ≤ |x|.
√
6. x2 = |x|

7. |x|2 = |x2 | = x2

8. x = signum(x) |x|

Proof: These are immediate from the definition of |x|. ❑

731 Theorem (∀(x, y) ∈ R2 ),

|xy| = |x| |y| .

112
Triangle Inequality 113

Proof: We have
|xy| = signum(xy) xy = (signum(x) x) (signum(y) y) = |x| |y| ,
where we have used Lemma 728. ❑

732 Theorem Let t ≥ 0. Then

|x| ≤ t ⇐⇒ −t ≤ x ≤ t.

Proof: Either |x| = x or |x| = −x. If |x| = x,

|x| ≤ t ⇐⇒ x ≤ t ⇐⇒ −t ≤ 0 ≤ x ≤ t.

If |x| = −x,
|x| ≤ t ⇐⇒ −x ≤ t ⇐⇒ −t ≤ x ≤ 0 ≤ t.
❑

x + y + |x − y| x + y − |x − y|
733 Theorem If (x, y) ∈ R2 , max(x, y) = and min(x, y) = .
2 2

Proof: Observe that max(x, y) + min(x, y) = x + y, since one of these quantities must be the maximum and the
other the minimum, or else, they are both equal.

Now, either |x − y| = x − y, and so x ≥ y, meaning that max(x, y) − min(x, y) = x − y, or |x − y| = −(x − y) = y − x,

which means that y ≥ x and so max(x, y) − min(x, y) = y − x. In either case we get max(x, y) − min(x, y) = |x − y|.
Solving now the system of equations

max(x, y) + min(x, y) = x+y

max(x, y) − min(x, y) = |x − y|,

for max(x, y) and min(x, y) gives the result. ❑

7.2 Triangle Inequality

734 Theorem (Triangle Inequality) Let (a, b) ∈ R2 . Then

|a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|. (7.1)

Proof: From 5 in Theorem 730, by addition,

−|a| ≤ a ≤ |a|

to
−|b| ≤ b ≤ |b|
we obtain
−(|a| + |b|) ≤ a + b ≤ (|a| + |b|),
whence the theorem follows by applying Theorem 732. ❑

By induction, we obtain the following generalisation to n terms.

735 Corollary Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be real numbers. Then

|x1 + x2 + · · · + xn | ≤ |x1 | + |x2 | + · · · + |xn | .

114 Chapter 7

Proof: We apply Theorem 734 n − 1 times

|x1 + x2 + · · · + xn | ≤ |x1 | + |x2 + · · · xn−1 + xn |

≤ |x1 | + |x2 | + |x3 + · · · xn−1 + xn |
..
.
≤ |x1 | + |x2 | + · · · + |xn−1 + xn |
≤ |x1 | + |x2 | + · · · + |xn−1 | + |xn | .

736 Corollary Let (a, b) ∈ R2 . Then

||a| − |b|| ≤ |a − b| . (7.2)

Proof: We have
|a| = |a − b + b| ≤ |a − b| + |b|,
giving
|a| − |b| ≤ |a − b|.
Similarly,
|b| = |b − a + a| ≤ |b − a| + |a| = |a − b| + |a|,
gives
|b| − |a| ≤ |a − b| =⇒ − |a − b| ≤ |a| − |b| .
Thus
− |a − b| ≤ |a| − |b| ≤ |a − b|,
and we now apply Theorem 732. ❑

7.3 Rearrangement Inequality

737 Definition Given a set of real numbers {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } denote by

x̌1 ≥ x̌2 ≥ · · · ≥ x̌n

the decreasing rearrangement of the xi and denote by

x̂1 ≤ x̂2 ≤ · · · ≤ x̂n

the increasing rearrangement of the xi .

738 Definition Given two sequences of real numbers {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } and {y1 , y2 , . . . , yn } of the same length n, we say that
they are similarly sorted if they are both increasing or both decreasing, and differently sorted if one is increasing and the other
decreasing..

739 Example The sequences 1 ≤ 2 ≤ · · · ≤ n and 12 ≤ 22 ≤ · · · ≤ n2 are similarly sorted, and the sequences
1 1 1
2
≥ 2 ≥ · · · ≥ 2 and 13 ≤ 23 ≤ · · · ≤ n3 are differently sorted.
1 2 n
Mean Inequality 115

740 Theorem (Rearrangement Inequality) Given sets of real numbers {a1 , a2 , . . . , an } and {b1 , b2 , . . . , bn } we have

ǎk b̂k ≤ ak bk ≤ âk b̂k .

1≤k≤n 1≤k≤n 1≤k≤n

Thus the sum ak bk is minimised when the sequences are differently sorted, and maximised when the sequences are
1≤k≤n
similarly sorted.

☞ Observe that
âk b̂k = ǎk b̌k .
1≤k≤n 1≤k≤n

Proof: Let {σ (1), σ (2), . . . , σ (n)} be a reordering of {1, 2, . . . , n}. If there are two sub-indices i, j, such that the
sequences pull in opposite directions, say, ai > a j and bσ (i) < bσ ( j) , then consider the sums

S = a1 bσ (1) + a2bσ (2) + · · · + ai bσ (i) + · · · + a j bσ ( j) + · · · + anbσ (n)

S- = a1 bσ (1) + a2bσ (2) + · · · + ai bσ ( j) + · · · + a j bσ (i) + · · · + anbσ (n)

Then
S- − S = (ai − a j )(bσ ( j) − bσ (i) ) > 0.
This last inequality shews that the closer the a’s and the b’s are to pulling in the same direction the larger the sum
becomes. This proves the result. ❑

7.4 Mean Inequality

741 Theorem (Arithmetic Mean-Geometric Mean Inequality) Let a1 , . . . , an be positive real numbers. Then their geometric
mean is at most their arithmetic mean, that is,
√
n
a1 + · · · + an
a1 · · · an ≤ ,
n
with equality if and only if a1 = · · · = an .

We will provide multiple proofs of this important inequality. Some other proofs will be found in latter chapters.
First Proof: Our first proof uses the Rearrangement Inequality (Theorem 740) in a rather clever way. We may
assume that the ak are strictly positive. Put
a1 a1 a2 a1 a2 · · · an
x1 = , x2 = , ..., xn = = 1,
(a1 a2 · · · an )1/n (a1 a2 · · · an )2/n (a1 a2 · · · an )n/n
and
1 1 1
y1 = , y2 = , ..., yn = = 1.
x1 x2 xn
Observe that for 2 ≤ k ≤ n,

a1 a2 · · · ak (a1 a2 · · · an )(k−1)/n ak
xk yk−1 = k/n
· = .
(a1 a2 · · · an ) a1 a2 · · · ak−1 (a1 a2 · · · an )1/n

The xk and yk are differently sorted, so by virtue of the Rearrangement Inequality we gather

1 + 1 + · · · + 1 = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + · · · + xn yn
≤ x1 yn + x2 y1 + · · · + xn yn−1
a1 a2 an
= + + ··· + ,
(a1 a2 · · · an )1/n (a1 a2 · · · an )1/n (a1 a2 · · · an )1/n
116 Chapter 7

or
a1 + a2 + · · · + an
n≤ ,
(a1 a2 · · · an )1/n
from where we obtain the result. ❑

Second Proof: This second proof is a clever induction argument due to Cauchy. It proves the inequality first for
powers of 2 and then interpolates for numbers between consecutive powers of 2.

Since the square of a real number is always positive, we have, for positive real numbers a, b
√ √ √ a+b
( a − b)2 ≥ 0 =⇒ ab ≤ ,
2
proving the inequality for k = 2. Observe that equality happens if and only if a = b. Assume now that the
inequality is valid for k = 2n−1 > 2. This means that for any positive real numbers x1 , x2 , . . . , x2n−1 we have
n−1 x1 + x2 + · · · + x2n−1
(x1 x2 · · · x2n−1 )1/2 ≤ . (7.3)
2n−1
Let us prove the inequality for 2k = 2n . Consider any any positive real numbers y1 , y2 , . . . , y2n . Notice that there
are 2n − 2n−1 = 2n−1 (2 − 1) = 2n−1 integers in the interval 2n−1 + 1 ; 2n . We have

n n−1 1/2n−1
(y1 y2 · · · y2n )1/2 = (y1 y2 · · · y2n−1 )1/2 y2n−1 +1 · · · y2n
n−1 n−1
(y1 y2 · · · y2n−1 )1/2+ y2n−1 +1 · · · y2n 1/2
≤
2
y1 + y2 + · · · + y2n−1 y2n−1 +1 + · · · + y2n
+
≤ 2n−1 2n−1
2
y1 + · · · + y2 n
= ,
2n
where the first inequality follows by the Case n = 2 and the second by the induction hypothesis (7.3). The theorem
is thus proved for powers of 2.

Assume now that 2n−1 < k < 2n , and consider the k positive real numbers a1 , a2 , . . . , ak . The trick is to pad this
collection of real numbers up to the next highest power of 2, the added real numbers being the average of the
existing ones. Hence consider the 2n real numbers

a1 , a2 , . . . , ak , ak+1 , . . . , a2n
a1 + a2 + · · · + ak
with ak+1 = . . . = a2n = . Since we have already proved the theorem for 2n we have
k
a1 + a2 + · · · + ak
a1 + a2 + · · · + ak 2n −k 1/2n a1 + a2 + · · · + ak + (2n − k)
a1 a2 · · · ak ≤ k ,
k 2n
whence
a1 + a2 + · · · + ak a1 + a2 + · · · + ak
a1 + a2 + · · · + ak 1−k/2n k + (2n − k)
1/2n k k
(a1 a2 · · · ak ) ≤ ,
k 2n
which implies
a1 + a2 + · · · + ak 1−k/2n a1 + a2 + · · · + ak
1/2n
(a1 a2 · · · ak ) ≤ ,
k k
a1 + a2 + · · · + ak
Solving for gives the desired inequality. ❑
k
Mean Inequality 117

Third Proof: As in the second proof, the Case k = 2 is easily established. Put
a1 + a2 + · · · + ak
Ak = , Gk = (a1 a2 · · · ak )1/k .
k
Observe that
ak+1 = (k + 1)Ak+1 − kAk .
The inductive hypothesis is that Ak ≥ Gk and we must shew that Ak+1 ≥ Gk+1 . Put
ak+1 + (k − 1)Ak+1 1/k
A= , G = ak+1 Ak−1
k+1 .
k
By the inductive hypothesis A ≥ G. Now,
(k + 1)Ak+1 − kAk + (k − 1)Ak+1
A + Ak + Ak
= k = Ak+1 .
2 2
Hence
A + Ak
Ak+1 =
2
≥ (AAk )1/2
≥ (GGk )1/2 .
1/2k
= Gk+1 k−1
k+1 Ak+1
We have established that
1/2k
Ak+1 ≥ Gk+1 k−1
k+1 Ak+1 =⇒ Ak+1 ≥ Gk+1 ,
completing the induction. ❑
Fourth Proof: We will make a series of substitutions that preserve the sum
a1 + a2 + · · · + an
while strictly increasing the product
a1 a2 · · · an .
At the end, the ai will all be equal and the arithmetic mean A of the numbers will be equal to their geometric mean
a1 + a2 + · · · + an nA
G. If the ai where all > A then > = A, impossible. Similarly, the ai cannot be all < A.
n n
Hence there must exist two indices say i, j, such that ai < A < a j . Put a-i = A, a-j = ai + a j − A. Observe that
ai + a j = a-i + a-j , so replacing the original a’s with the primed a’s does not alter the arithmetic mean. On the
other hand,
a-i a-j = A (ai + a j − A) = ai a j + (a j − A) (A − ai) > ai a j
since a j − A > 0 and A − ai > 0.

This change has replaced one of the a’s by a quantity equal to the arithmetic mean, has not changed the
arithmetic mean, and made the geometric mean larger. Since there at most n a’s to be replaced, the procedure
must eventually terminate when all the a’s are equal (to their arithmetic mean). Strict inequality hence holds if
when at least two of the a’s are unequal. ❑

742 Theorem (Cauchy-Bunyakovsky-Schwarz Inequality) Let xk , yk be real numbers, 1 ≤ k ≤ n. Then

n n 1/2 n 1/2
xk yk ≤ x2k y2k ,
k=1 k=1 k=1

with equality if and only if

(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) = t(b1 , b2 , . . . , bn )
for some real constant t.
118 Chapter 7

First Proof: The inequality follows at once from Lagrange’s Identity

n 2 n n
xk yk = x2k y2k − (xk y j − x j yk )2
k=1 k=1 k=1 1≤k< j≤n

(Theorem ??), since (xk y j − x j yk )2 ≥ 0. ❑

1≤k< j≤n

n n n
Second Proof: Put a = x2k , b = xk yk , and c = y2k . Consider the quadratic polynomial
k=1 k=1 k=1
n n n n
at 2 + bt + c = t 2 x2k − 2t xk yk + y2k = (txk − yk )2 ≥ 0,
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1

where the inequality follows because a sum of squares of real numbers is being summed. Thus this quadratic
polynomial is positive for all real t, so it must have complex roots. Its discriminant b2 − 4ac must be non-positive,
from where we gather
n 2 n n
4 xk yk ≤4 x2k y2k ,
k=1 k=1 k=1
which gives the inequality ❑
For our third proof of the CBS Inequality we need the following lemma.

743 Lemma For (a, b, x, y) ∈ R4 with x > 0 and y > 0 the following inequality holds:

a2 b2 (a + b)2
+ ≥ .
x y x+y
a b
Equality holds if and only if = .
x y

Proof: Since the square of a real number is always positive, we have

(ay − bx)2 ≥ 0 =⇒ a2 y2 − 2abxy + b2x2 ≥ 0

=⇒ a2 y(x + y) + b2x(x + y) ≥ (a + b)2 xy
a2 b2 (a + b)2
=⇒ + ≥ .
x y x+y
Equality holds if and only if the first inequality is 0.❑

☞ Iterating the result on Lemma 743,

a21 a22 a2 (a1 + a2 + · · · + an )2
+ + ···+ n ≥ ,
b1 b2 bn b1 + b2 + · · · + bn
a1 a2 an
with equality if and only if = = ··· = .
b1 b2 bn
Third Proof: By the preceding remark, we have
x21 y21 x22 y22 x2n y2n
x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n = + + · · · +
y21 y22 y2n
(x1 y1 + x2 y2 + · · · + xn yn )2
≥ ,
y21 + y22 + · · · + y2n
and upon rearranging, CBS is once again obtained.❑
Mean Inequality 119

744 Theorem (Minkowski’s Inequality) Let xk , yk be any real numbers. Then

n 1/2 n 1/2 n 1/2

2
(xk + yk ) ≤ x2k + y2k .
k=1 k=1 k=1

Proof: We have
n n n n
(xk + yk )2 = x2k + 2 xk yk + y2k
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1
n n 1/2 n 1/2 n
≤ x2k + 2 x2k y2k + y2k
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1
1/2 1/2 2
n n
= x2k + 2
yk ,
k=1 k=1

where the inequality follows from the CBS Inequality.❑

Practice

745 Problem Let x, y be real numbers. Then 753 Problem Prove that if r ≥ s ≥ t then

2 2
0 ≤ x < y ⇐⇒ x < y . r2 − s2 + t 2 ≥ (r − s + t)2 .

746 Problem Let t ≥ 0. Prove that 754 Problem Assume that ak , bk , ck , k = 1, . . . ,n, are positive real numbers. Shew that

|x| ≥ t ⇐⇒ (x ≥ t) or (x ≤ −t). 4 2
n n n n

ak bk ck ≤ a4k b4k c2k .

747 Problem Let (x, y) ∈ R2 . Prove that max(x, y) = − min(−x, −y).
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1

748 Problem Let x, y, z be real numbers. Prove that

755 Problem Prove that for integer n > 1,

max(x, y, z) = x + y + z − min(x, y) − min(y, z) − min(z, x) + min(x, y, z). n

n+1
n! < .
2
749 Problem Let (x1 , x2 , . . . ,xn ) ∈ Rn be such that

756 Problem Prove that for integer n > 2,

x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n = x31 + x32 + · · · + x3n = x41 + x42 + · · · + x4n .

Prove that xk ∈ {0, 1}. nn/2 < n!.

750 Problem Let n ≥ 2 an integer. Let (x1 , x2 , . . . ,xn ) ∈ Rn be such that 757 Problem Prove that ∀(a, b, c) ∈ R3 ,

x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n = x1 x2 + x2 x3 + · · · + xn−1 xn + xn x1 . a2 + b2 + c2 ≥ ab + bc + ca.

Prove that x1 = x2 = · · · = xn .
758 Problem Prove that ∀(a, b, c) ∈ R3 , with a ≥ 0, b ≥ 0, c ≥ 0, the following
inequalities hold:
751 Problem If b > 0 and B > 0 prove that
a3 + b3 + c3 ≥ max(a2 b + b2 c + c2 a, a2 c + b2 a + c2 b),
a A a a+A A
< =⇒ < < .
b B b b+B B
a3 + b3 + c3 ≥ 3abc,
Further, if p and q are positive integers such that
1 2
a3 + b3 + c3 ≥ a (b + c) + b2 (c + a) + c2 (a + b) .
7 p 11 2
< < ,
10 q 15
759 Problem (Chebyshev’s Inequality) Given sets of real numbers {a1 , a2 , . . . ,an }
what is the least value of q?
and {b1 , b2 , . . . ,bn } prove that

752 Problem Let a < b. Demonstrate that

1 1 1 1
ǎk b̂k ≤ ak bk ≤ âk b̂k .
a+b n n n n
|x − a| < |x − b| ⇐⇒ x < . 1≤k≤n 1≤k≤n 1≤k≤n 1≤k≤n
2
120 Chapter 7

760 Problem If x > 0, from 766 Problem (Nesbitt’s Inequality) Let a, b, c be strictly positive real numbers. Then

√ √ 1
x+1− x = √ √ , a b c 3
x+1+ x + + ≥ .
b+c c+a a+b 2
prove that
1 √ √ 1
√ < x+1− x < √ . 767 Problem Let a, b, c be positive real numbers. Prove that
2 x+1 2 x
Use this to prove that if n > 1 is a positive integer, then (a + b)(b + c)(c + a) ≥ 8abc.
√ 1 1 1 √
2 n + 1 − 2 < 1 + √ + √ + ··· + √ < 2 n − 1
2 3 n 768 Problem (IMO, 1978) Let ak be a sequence of pairwise distinct positive integers.
Prove that
n n
761 Problem If 0 < a ≤ b, shew that ak 1
≥ .
k2 k
1 (b − a) a+b √
2
1 (b − a) 2
k=1 k=1
· ≤ − ab ≤ ·
8 b 2 8 a

769 Problem (Harmonic Mean-Geometric Mean Inequality) Let xi > 0 for

762 Problem Shew that
1 3 5 9999 1 1 ≤ i ≤ n. Then
· · ··· < . n
2 4 6 10000 100 ≤ (x1 x2 · · · xn )1/n ,
1 1 1
+ + ··· +
x1 x2 xn
763 Problem Prove that for all x > 0,
with equality iff x1 = x2 = · · · = xn .
n
1 1 1
< − .
(x + k)2 x x+n
k=1 770 Problem (Arithmetic Mean-Quadratic Mean Inequality) Let xi ≥ 0 for
1 ≤ i ≤ n. Then

1/2
764 Problem Let xi ∈ R such that |xi | = 1 and xi = 0. Prove that x1 + x2 + · · · + xn x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n
≤ ,
i=1 i=1 n n

n with equality iff x1 = x2 = · · · = xn .

xi 1 1
≤ 1− .
i 2 n
i=1
771 Problem Given a set of real numbers {a1 , a2 , . . . ,an } prove that there is an index
m ∈ {0, 1, . . . ,n} such that
765 Problem Let n be a strictly positive integer. Let xi ≥ 0. Prove that

n n
ak − ak ≤ max |ak | .
(1 + xk ) ≥ 1 + xk . 1≤k≤n
1≤k≤m m<k≤n
k=1 k=1

When does equality hold? If m = 0 the first sum is to be taken as 0 and if m = n the second one will be taken as 0.
Appendix A
Answers, Hints, and Solutions

10 Since their product is 1 the integers must be ±1 and there must be an even number of −1’s, say k of them. To make the
sum of the numbers 0 we must have the same number of 1’s. Thus we must have k(1) + k(−1) = 0, and k + k = 34, which
means that k = 17, which is not even.

11 Clearing denominators, there are 2000 summands on the sinistral side of the form a1 a2 · · · ai−1 ai+1 · · · a2000 , and the dextral
side we simply have a1 a2 · · · ai−1 ai+1 · · · a2000. If all the ak were odd, the right hand side would be odd, and the left hand side
would be even, being the sum of 2000 odd numbers, a contradiction.
a
12 If log2 3 = , with integral a, b &= 0 then 2a = 3b . By uniqueness of factorisation this is impossible unless a = b = 0, which
b
is not an allowed alternative.

13 If the palindrome were divisible by 10 then it would end in 0, and hence, by definition of being a palindrome, it would start
in 0, which is not allowed in the definition.

14 Assume AC ≥ BC and locate point D on the line segment AC such that AD = BD. Then 'ADB is isosceles at D and we
must have ∠A = ∠B, a contradiction.
√
15 If a ≤ α then α ≤ α 2 , which implies that α (1 − α ) ≤ 0, an impossible inequality if 0 < α < 1.
1
16 We have 1 − < α < 1. Squaring,
102000
2 1
1− + < α 2.
102000 104000
1 1
Since − + , we have
102000 104000 < 0
1 1 1 1
1− < 1 − 2000 − 2000 + 4000 < α 2 .
102000 10 10 10
26 There are n possible different remainders when an integer is divided by n, so among n + 1 different integers there must be
two integers in the group leaving the same remainder, and their difference is divisible by n.

27 20

66 (i) −3.5, (ii) 45

67 x2 = (x + 3 − 3)2 = (x + 3)2 − 6(x + 3) + 9

89 Substitute t by t 2 − u2 + v2 , in 2.5.
√ √ √ √
98 Use the fact that (b − a)2 = ( b − a)2 ( b + a)2 .

121
122 Appendix A

1
104 Suppose that all these products are > . Use the preceding problem to obtain a contradiction.
4
117 52

131 Write
22225555 + 55552222 = (22225555 + 45555)
+(55552222 − 42222)
−(45555 − 42222).

136 Consider x = 2n − 1.

139 we have
2n − 1 = 2ab − 1 = (2a − 1)((2a )b−1 + (2a )b−2 + · · · + (2a )1 + 1).
Since a > 1, 2a − 1 > 1. Since b > 1,

(2a )b−1 + (2a )b−2 + · · · (2a )1 + 1) ≥ 2a + 1 > 1.

We have decomposed a prime number (the left hand side) into the product of two factors, each greater than 1, a contradiction.
Thus n must be a prime.

140 We have
km k k k k
2n + 1 = 22 + 1 = (22 + 1)((22 )m−1 − (22 )m−2 + · · · − (22 )1 + 1).
k
Clearly, 22 + 1 > 1. Also if m ≥ 3
k k k k k
(22 )m−1 − (22 )m−2 + · · · − (22 )1 + 1 ≥ (22 )2 − (22 )1 + 1 > 1,

and so, we have produced two factors each greater than 1 for the prime 2n + 1, which is nonsense.

149 1

166 Observe that (1 + i)2004 = ((1 + i)2 )1002 = (2i)1002 , etc.

167 Group the summands in groups of four terms and observe that

kik+1 + (k + 1)ik+2+
(k + 2)ik+3 + (k + 4)ik+4
= ik+1 (k + (k + 1)i − (k + 2) − (k + 3)i)
= −2 − 2i.

168 If k is an integer, ik + ik+1 + ik+2 + ik+3 = ik (1 + i + i2 + i3 ) = 0.

183 Argue by contradiction. Assume a = 3k ± 1 or b = 3m ± 1.

187 13

195 Think of n − 6 if n is even and n − 9 if n is odd.

197 Try x = 36k + 14, y = (12k + 5)(18k + 7).

302 63

322 Consider, separately, the cases when n is and is not a perfect square.
50
347
99
Answers, Hints, and Solutions 123

348 9

356 3030
5973
358
1993
378 Shew first that csc 2x = cotx − cot2x.

379 Observe that

y 1 1
2
= − .
1−y 1 − y 1 − y2
1
392 xn = + 2.
3n
393 xn = 5n + 5n.

394 xn = 6n2 + 6n + 1.

395 xn = 2n + 3(5n ).
j
396 a j+1 = 62 − 1.

399 Let un = cos vn .

413 a0 = 0, an = an−1 + (n − 1)3n.

423 Let Ak ⊆ A be the set of those integers divisible by k.

➊ Notice that the elements are 2 = 2(1), 4 = 2(2), . . . , 114 = 2(57). Thus card (A) = 57.
57
➋ There are ! " = 19 integers in A divisible by 3. They are
3
{6, 12, 18, . . ., 114}.

Notice that 114 = 6(19). Thus card (A3 ) = 19.

57
➌ There are ! " = 11 integers in A divisible by 5. They are
5
{10, 20, 30, . . ., 110}.

Notice that 110 = 10(11). Thus card (A5 ) = 11

57
➍ There are ! " = 3 integers in A divisible by 15. They are {30, 60, 90}. Notice that 90 = 30(3). Thus card (A15 ) = 3,
15
and observe that by Theorem ?? we have card(A15 ) = card (A3 ∩ A5 ).
➎ We want card(A3 ∪ A5 ) = 19 + 11 = 30.
➏ We want
card (A \ (A3 ∪ A5 )) = card (A) − card (A3 ∪ A5 )
= 57 − 30
= 27.

➐ We want
card ((A3 ∪ A5 ) \ (A3 ∩ A5 )) = card ((A3 ∪ A5 ))
− card (A3 ∩ A5 )
= 30 − 3
= 27.
124 Appendix A

424 We have
100
➊ ! " = 50
2
100
➋ ! " = 33
3
100
➌ ! " = 14
7
100
➍ ! " = 16
6
100
➎ ! "=7
14
100
➏ ! "=4
21
100
➐ ! "=2
42
➑ 100 − 50 − 33 − 14 + 15 + 7 + 4 − 2 = 27

➒ 16 − 2 = 14

➓ 52

425 52%

426 22

427 Let A be the set of students liking Mathematics, B the set of students liking theology, and C be the set of students liking
alchemy. We are given that
card (A) = 14, card (B) = 16,
card (C) = 11, card(A ∩ B) = 7, card (B ∩C) = 8, card (A ∩C) = 5,
and
card (A ∩ B ∩C) = 4.
By the Principle of Inclusion-Exclusion,

card (Ac ∩ Bc ∩Cc ) = 40 − card(A) − card (B) − card(C)

+ card (A ∩ B) + card(A ∩C) + card (B ∩C)
− card (A ∩ B ∩C).

Substituting the numerical values of these cardinalities

40 − 14 − 16 − 11 + 7 + 5 + 8 − 4 = 15.

428 We have

➊ 31

➋ 10

➌ 3

➍ 3

➎ 1
Answers, Hints, and Solutions 125

➏ 1
➐ 1
➑ 960
429 Let Y, F, S, M stand for young, female, single, male, respectively, and let H stand for married.1 We have
card (Y ∩ F ∩ S) = card (Y ∩ F) − card(Y ∩ F ∩ H)
= card (Y ) − card(Y ∩ M)
−(card (Y ∩ H) − card(Y ∩ H ∩ M))
= 3000 − 1320 − (1400 − 600)
= 880.
430 34
431 30; 7; 5; 18
432 4
433 Let C denote the set of people who like candy, I the set of people who like ice cream, and K denote the set of people who
like cake. We are given that card(C) = 816, card (I) = 723, card (K) = 645, card (C ∩ I) = 562, card (C ∩ K) = 463,
card (I ∩ K) = 470, and card (C ∩ I ∩ K) = 310. By Inclusion-Exclusion we have
card (C ∪ I ∪ K) = card (C) + card(I) + card (K)
− card (C ∩ I) − card (C ∩ K) − card(I ∩C)
+ card (C ∩ I ∩ K)
= 816 + 723 + 645 − 562 − 463 − 470 + 310
= 999.
The investigator miscounted, or probably did not report one person who may not have liked any of the three things.
434 A set with k elements has 2k different subsets. We are given
2100 + 2100 + 2card(C) = 2card(A∪B∪C) .
This forces card (C) = 101, as 1 + 2card(C)−101 is larger than 1 and a power of 2. Hence card(A ∪ B ∪C) = 102. Using the
Principle Inclusion-Exclusion, since card(A) + card(B) + card (C) − card(A ∪ B ∪C) = 199,
card (A ∩ B ∩C) = card (A ∩ B) + card (A ∩C) + card(B ∩C) − 199
= (card (A) + card (B) − card(A ∪ B))
+(card (A) + card (C)
− card (A ∪C)) + card(B) + card(C)
− card (B ∪C) − 199
= 403 − card(A ∪ B) − card(A ∪C) − card (B ∪C).
As A ∪ B, A ∪C, B ∪C ⊆ A ∪ B ∪C, the cardinalities of all these sets are ≤ 102. Thus
card (A ∩ B ∩C) = 403 − card(A ∪ B) − card (A ∪C)
− card (B ∪C) ≥ 403 − 3 · 102
= 97.
By letting
A = {1, 2, . . . , 100}, B = {3, 4, . . . , 102},
and
C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . ., 101, 102}
we see that the bound card(A ∩ B ∩C) = card ({4, 5, 6, . . ., 100}) = 97 is achievable.
1
Or H for hanged, if you prefer.
126 Appendix A

435 Let A denote the set of those who lost an eye, B denote those who lost an ear, C denote those who lost an arm and D
denote those losing a leg. Suppose there are n combatants. Then

n ≥ card (A ∪ B)
= card (A) + card (B) − card(A ∩ B)
= .7n + .75n − card(A ∩ B) ,

n ≥ card (C ∪ D)
= card (C) + card (D) − card(C ∩ D)
= .8n + .85n − card(C ∩ D) .

This gives
card (A ∩ B) ≥ .45n,

card (C ∩ D) ≥ .65n.

This means that

n ≥ card ((A ∩ B) ∪ (C ∩ D))
= card (A ∩ B) + card(C ∩ D) − card(A ∩ B ∩C ∩ D)
≥ .45n + .65n − card(A ∩ B ∩C ∩ D) ,

whence
card (A ∩ B ∩C ∩ D) ≥ .45 + .65n − n = .1n.

This means that at least 10% of the combatants lost all four members.

451 210 = 1024

452 I can choose a right shoe in any of nine ways, once this has been done, I can choose a non-matching left shoe in eight
ways, and thus I have 72 choices.
Aliter: I can choose any pair in 9 × 9 = 81 ways. Of these, 9 are matching pairs, so the number of non-matching pairs is
81 − 9 = 72.

453 = (20)(19)(20)(19)(20)(20) = 57760000

454 103 53 − 10252 = 122500

455 The number of different license plates is the number of different four-tuples (Letter 1 , Letter 2 , Digit 1 , Digit 2 ). The first
letter can be chosen in 26 ways, and so we have

26 .

The second letter can be chosen in any of 26 ways:

26 26 .

The first digit can be chosen in 10 ways:

26 26 10 .

Finally, the last digit can be chosen in 10 ways:

26 26 10 10 .
By the multiplication principle, the number of different four-tuples is 26 · 26 · 10 · 10 = 67600.
Answers, Hints, and Solutions 127

456 (i) In this case we have a grid like

26 26 10 9 ,
since after a digit has been used for the third position, it cannot be used again. Thus this can be done in 26 · 26 · 10 · 9 = 60840
ways.
(ii) In this case we have a grid like
26 25 10 10 ,
since after a letter has been used for the first position, it cannot be used again. Thus this can be done in 26 · 25 · 10 · 10 = 65000
ways.
(iii) After a similar reasoning, we obtain a grid like

26 25 10 9 .
Thus this can be done in 26 · 25 · 10 · 9 = 58500 ways.

457 [1] 8, [2] 52 32 = 225, [3] 52 · 3 · 2 = 150, [4] 5 · 4 · 32 = 180, [5] 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 = 1680.

458 432

459 Solution:
➊ The first letter can be one of any 4. After choosing the first letter, we have 3 choices for the second letter, etc.. The total
number of words is thus 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 24.
➋ The first letter can be one of any 4. Since we are allowed repetitions, the second letter can also be one of any 4, etc.. The
total number of words so formed is thus 44 = 256.

460 The last digit must perforce be 5. The other five digits can be filled with any of the six digits on the list: the total number
is thus 65 .

461 We have
➊ This is 5 · 86 = 1310720.
➋ This is 5 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 = 25200.
➌ This is 5 · 85 · 4 = 655360.
➍ This is 5 · 85 · 4 = 655360.
➎ We condition on the last digit. If the last digit were 1 or 5 then we would have 5 choices for the first digit, and so we
would have
5 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 2 = 7200
phone numbers. If the last digit were either 3 or 7, then we would have 4 choices for the last digit and so we would have

4 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 2 = 5760

phone numbers. Thus the total number of phone numbers is

7200 + 5760 = 12960.

462 26 · 254 = 10156250

463 For the leftmost digit cannot be 0 and so we have only the nine choices

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

for this digit. The other n − 1 digits can be filled out in 10 ways, and so there are
9 · 10 · · ·10 = 9 · 10n−1.
n−1 10- s
128 Appendix A

464 The leftmost digit cannot be 0 and so we have only the nine choices
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
for this digit. If the integer is going to be even, the last digit can be only one of the five {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}. The other n − 2 digits can
be filled out in 10 ways, and so there are
9 · 10 · · ·10 ·5 = 45 · 10n−2.
n−2 10- s

465 9 1-digit numbers and 8 · 9n−1 n-digit numbers n ≥ 2.

466 One can choose the last digit in 9 ways, one can choose the penultimate digit in 9 ways, etc. and one can choose the
second digit in 9 ways, and finally one can choose the first digit in 9 ways. The total number of ways is thus 9n .
467 m2 , m(m − 1)
468 We will assume that the positive integers may be factorised in a unique manner as the product of primes. Expanding the
product
(1 + 2 + 22 + · · · + 28 )(1 + 3 + 32 + · · · + 39 )(1 + 5 + 52)
each factor of 28 39 52 appears and only the factors of this number appear. There are then, as many factors as terms in this
product. This means that there are (1 + 8)(1 + 9)(1 + 3) = 320 factors.

The sum of the divisors of this number may be obtained by adding up each geometric series in parentheses. The desired sum is
then
29 − 1 310 − 1 53 − 1
· · = 467689684.
2−1 3−1 5−1
☞A similar argument gives the following. Let p , p , . . . , p
1 2 k be different primes. Then the integer
a
n = pa11 pa22 · · · pk k
has
d(n) = (a1 + 1)(a2 + 1) · · · (ak + 1)
positive divisors. Also, if σ (n) denotes the sum of all positive divisors of n, then
a +1
pa11 +1 − 1 pa22 +1 − 1 p k −1
σ (n) = · ··· k .
p1 − 1 p2 − 1 pk − 1

469 The 96 factors of 295 are 1, 2, 22 , . . . , 295 . Observe that 210 = 1024 and so 220 = 1048576. Hence
219 = 524288 < 1000000 < 1048576 = 220 .
The factors greater than 1, 000, 000 are thus 220 , 221 , . . . 295 . This makes for 96 − 20 = 76 factors.
470 (1 + 3)(1 + 2)(1 + 1) = 24; 18; 6; 4.
471 16
472 A. [1] 10000, [2] 5040, B. [1] 12 , [2] 10
473 n = 1 + 1 + · · · + 1. One either erases or keeps a plus sign.
n−1 +- s

474 There are 589 such values. The easiest way to see this is to observe that there is a bijection between the divisors of n2
which are > n and those < n. For if n2 = ab, with a > n, then b < n, because otherwise n2 = ab > n · n = n2 , a contradiction.
Also, there is exactly one decomposition n2 = n · n. Thus the desired number is
d(n2 ) (63)(39)
! " + 1 − d(n) = ! " + 1 − (32)(20) = 589.
2 2
Answers, Hints, and Solutions 129

475 The total number of sequences is 3n . There are 2n sequences that contain no 0, 1 or 2. There is only one sequence that
contains only 1’s, one that contains only 2’s, and one that contains only 0’s. Obviously, there is no ternary sequence that
contains no 0’s or 1’s or 2’s. By the Principle of Inclusion-Exclusion, the number required is

3n − (2n + 2n + 2n ) + (1 + 1 + 1) = 3n − 3 · 2n + 3.

476 The conditions of the problem stipulate that both the region outside the circles in diagram 5.3 and R3 will be empty. We
are thus left with 6 regions to distribute 100 numbers. To each of the 100 numbers we may thus assign one of 6 labels. The
number of sets thus required is 6100 .

484 21

485 56

486 (262 − 252 ) + (263 − 253 ) = 2002

487
9+9·9
+9 · 9 · 8 + 9 · 9 · 8 · 7
+9 · 9 · 8 · 7 · 6 + 9 · 9 · 8 · 7 · 6 · 5
+9 · 9 · 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 + 9 · 9 · 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3
+9 · 9 · 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2
+9 · 9 · 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1
= 8877690

488 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 = 30.

489 8; 12(n − 2); 6(n − 2)2; (n − 2)3

Comment: This proves that n3 = (n − 2)3 + 6(n − 2)2 + 12(n − 2) + 8.

490 We condition on the first digit, which can be 4, 5, or 6. If the number starts with 4, in order to satisfy the conditions of the
problem, we must choose the last digit from the set {0, 2, 6, 8}. Thus we have four choices for the last digit. Once this last digit
is chosen, we have 8 choices for the penultimate digit and 7 choices for the antepenultimate digit. There are thus
4 × 8 × 7 = 224 even numbers which have their digits distinct and start with a 4. Similarly, there are 224 even numbers will all
digits distinct and starting with a 6. When they start with a 5, we have 5 choices for the last digit, 8 for the penultimate and 7
for the antepenultimate. This gives 5 × 8 × 7 = 280 ways. The total number is thus 224 + 224 + 280 = 728.

491 When the number 99 is written down, we have used

1 · 9 + 2 · 90 = 189

digits. If we were able to write 999, we would have used

1 · 9 + 2 · 90 + 3 · 900 = 2889

digits, which is more than 1002 digits. The 1002nd digit must be among the three-digit positive integers. We have
813
1002 − 189 = 813 digits at our disposal, from which we can make ! " = 271 three-digit integers, from 100 to 270. When
3
the 0 in 270 is written, we have used 189 + 3 · 271 = 1002 digits. The 1002nd digit is the 0 in 270.

492 4

493 There is 1 such number with 1 digit, 10 such numbers with 2 digits, 100 with three digits, 1000 with four digits, etc.
Starting with 2 and finishing with 299 we have used 1 · 1 + 2 · 10 + 3 · 100 = 321 digits. We need 1978 − 321 = 1657 more
1657
digits from among the 4-digit integers starting with 2. Now ! " = 414, so we look at the 414th 4-digit integer starting
4
with 2, namely, at 2413. Since the 3 in 2413 constitutes the 321 + 4 · 414 = 1977-th digit used, the 1978-th digit must be the 2
starting 2414.
130 Appendix A

494 19990

495 [1] 125, [2] 25, [3] 25, [4] 5 + 2 · 3 + 3 · 6 = 29.

496 8

497 4095

498 144

499 First observe that 1 + 7 = 3 + 5 = 8. The numbers formed have either one, two, three or four digits. The sum of the
numbers of 1 digit is clearly 1 + 7 + 3 + 5 = 16.

There are 4 × 3 = 12 numbers formed using 2 digits, and hence 6 pairs adding to 8 in the units and the tens. The sum of the 2
digits formed is 6((8)(10) + 8) = 6 × 88 = 528.

There are 4 × 3 × 2 = 24 numbers formed using 3 digits, and hence 12 pairs adding to 8 in the units, the tens, and the
hundreds. The sum of the 3 digits formed is 12(8(100) + (8)(10) + 8) = 12 × 888 = 10656.

There are 4 × 3 × 2 · 1 = 24 numbers formed using 4 digits, and hence 12 pairs adding to 8 in the units, the tens the hundreds,
and the thousands. The sum of the 4 digits formed is 12(8(1000) + 8(100) + (8)(10) + 8) = 12 × 8888 = 106656.

The desired sum is finally

16 + 528 + 10656 + 106656 = 117856.

500 Observe that

➊ We find the pairs

{1, 6}, {2, 7}, {3, 8}, . . ., {45, 50},
so there are 45 in total. (Note: the pair {a, b} is indistinguishable from the pair {b, a}.

➋ If |a − b| = 1, then we have
{1, 2}, {2, 3}, {3, 4}, . . ., {49, 50},
or 49 pairs. If |a − b| = 2, then we have

{1, 3}, {2, 4}, {3, 5}, . . ., {48, 50},

or 48 pairs. If |a − b| = 3, then we have

{1, 4}, {2, 5}, {3, 6}, . . ., {47, 50},

or 47 pairs. If |a − b| = 4, then we have

{1, 5}, {2, 6}, {3, 7}, . . ., {46, 50},

or 46 pairs. If |a − b| = 5, then we have

{1, 6}, {2, 7}, {3, 8}, . . ., {45, 50},

or 45 pairs.
The total required is thus
49 + 48 + 47 + 46 + 45 = 235.
Answers, Hints, and Solutions 131

501 If x = 0, put m(x) = 1, otherwise put m(x) = x. We use three digits to label all the integers, from 000 to 999 If a, b, c are
digits, then clearly p(100a + 10b + c) = m(a)m(b)m(c). Thus

p(000) + · · · + p(999) = m(0)m(0)m(0) + · · · + m(9)m(9)m(9),

which in turn
= (m(0) + m(1) + · · · + m(9))3
= (1 + 1 + 2 + · · ·+ 9)3
= 463
= 97336.
Hence
S = p(001) + p(002) + · · ·+ p(999)
= 97336 − p(000)
= 97336 − m(0)m(0)m(0)
= 97335.

510 120

511 479001600; 4838400; 33868800

512 720; 24; 120; 144

513 1440

514 128

515 81729648000

516 249

517 We have

➊ This is 8!.

➋ Permute XY in 2! and put them in any of the 7 spaces created by the remaining 6 people. Permute the remaining 6
people. This is 2! · 7 · 6!.

➌ In this case, we alternate between sexes. Either we start with a man or a woman (giving 2 ways), and then we permute
the men and the women. This is 2 · 4!4!.

➍ Glue the couples into 4 separate blocks. Permute the blocks in 4! ways. Then permute each of the 4 blocks in 2!. This is
4!(2!)4.

➎ Sit the women first, creating 5 spaces in between. Glue the men together and put them in any of the 5 spaces. Permute
the men in 4! ways and the women in 4!. This is 5 · 4!4!.

525 1816214400

526 548

527 18

528 We have

➊ This is
10!
4!3!2!
132 Appendix A

➋ This is
9!
4!3!2!
➌ This is
8!
2!3!2!
529 36

530 25

531 126126; 756756

10
545 = 45
2

7 5
546 = (7)(10) = 70
1 3

N
547
2

8
548 4! = 1680
4

25
549 = 300
2

4
550 Let the subsets be A and B. We have either card(A) = 1 or card (A) = 2. If card (A) = 1 then there are = 4 ways of
1
3 4
choosing its elements and = 1 ways of choosing the elements of B. If card (A) = 2 then there are = 6 ways of
3 2
2
choosing its elements and = 1 ways of choosing the elements of B. Altogether there are 4 + 6 = 10 ways.
2

6
551 = 20
3
552 We count those numbers that have exactly once, twice and three times. There is only one number that has it thrice
3
(namely 333). Suppose the number xyz is to have the digit 3 exactly twice. We can choose these two positions in ways.
2
3
The third position can be filled with any of the remaining nine digits (the digit 3 has already been used). Thus there are 9
2
2 3
numbers that the digit 3 exactly twice. Similarly, there are 9 numbers that have 3 exactly once. The total required is
2
3 3
hence 3 · 1 + 2 · 9 · + 92 = 300.
2 1

5
553 = 10
3

5 5 5
554 + + = 5 + 10 + 1 = 16.
1 3 5
555 10 × 3! = 60

556 We have
Answers, Hints, and Solutions 133

➊ (E + F + S + I)!
➋ 4! · E!F!S!I!
E +F +I+1
➌ S!(E + F + I)!
1
E +F +I+1
➍ S!(E + F + I)!
S
F +I+1
➎ 2! S!E!(F + I)!
2
20
557 We can choose the seven people in ways. Of the seven, the chairman can be chosen in seven ways. The answer is
7
thus
20
7
= 542640.
7
Aliter: Choose the chairman first. This can be done in twenty ways. Out of the nineteen remaining people, we just have to
19 19
choose six, this can be done in ways. The total number of ways is hence 20 = 542640.
6 6
20
558 We can choose the seven people in ways. Of these seven people chosen, we can choose the chairman in seven ways
7
20
and the secretary in six ways. The answer is thus 7 · 6 = 3255840.
7
Aliter: If one chooses the chairman first, then the secretary and finally the remaining five people of the committee, this can be
18
done in 20 · 19 · = 3255840 ways.
5
10
559 For a string of three-digit numbers to be decreasing, the digits must come from {0, 1, . . ., 9} and so there are = 120
3
three-digit numbers with all its digits in decreasing order. If the string of three-digit numbers is increasing, the digits have to
9
come from {1, 2, . . ., 9}, thus there are = 84 three-digit numbers with all the digits increasing. The total asked is hence
3
120 + 84 = 204.
20
560 We can choose the four students who are going to take the first test in ways. From the remaining ones, we can
4
16 12 8
choose students in ways to take the second test. The third test can be taken in ways. The fourth in ways and
4 4 4
4
the fifth in ways. The total number is thus
4
20 16 12 8 4
.
4 4 4 4 4
561 We align the thirty-nine cards which are not hearts first. There are thirty-eight spaces between them and one at the
40
beginning and one at the end making a total of forty spaces where the hearts can go. Thus there are ways of choosing
13
the places where the hearts can go. Now, since we are interested in arrangements, there are 39! different configurations of the
40
non-hearts and 13! different configurations of the hearts. The total number of arrangements is thus 39!13!.
13
562 The equality signs cause us trouble, since allowing them would entail allowing repetitions in our choices. To overcome
that we establish a one-to-one correspondence between the vectors (a, b, c, d), 0 ≤ a ≤ b ≤ c ≤ d ≤ n and the vectors
(a- , b- , c- , d - ), 0 ≤ a- < b- < c- < d - ≤ n + 3. Let (a- , b- , c- , d - ) = (a, b + 1, c + 2, d + 3). Now we just have to pick four different
n+4
numbers from the set {0, 1, 2, 3, . . ., n, n + 1, n + 2, n + 3}. This can be done in ways.
4
134 Appendix A

563 We have

➊ (T + L +W )!

➋ 3!T !L!W ! = 6T !L!W !

T +L+1
➌ (T + L)!W !
W
T +L+1
➍ (T + L)!W !
1

564 The required number is

20 20 20 20
+ + ···+ = 220 − = 1048576 − 1 = 1048575.
1 2 20 0

565 The required number is

20 20 20 20 20
+ + ···+ = 219 − − = 524288 − 1 − 190 = 524097.
4 6 20 0 2

566 We have
13!
➊ = 86486400
2!3!3!
11!
➋ = 3326400
2!3!
11!
➌ = 4989600
2!2!2!
12 11!
➍ = 13305600
1 3!3!
12 11!
➎ = 73180800
2 3!3!
10 9!
➏ = 50400
1 3!3!2!

567 We have
M +W
➊
C
M W
➋
C−T T
M +W − 2
➌
C−2
M +W − 2
➍
C

568
M +W M +W − 2 M +W − 2 M +W − 2
− =2 + .
C C−2 C−1 C

569 2030
Answers, Hints, and Solutions 135

50
570 2
2

n+k−1
571
k

572 [1] For the first column one can put any of 4 checkers, for the second one, any of 3, etc. hence there are 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 24.
[2] If there is a column without a checker then there must be a column with 2 checkers. There are 3 choices for this column. In
4 4
this column we can put the two checkers in = 6 ways. Thus there are 4 · 3 4 · 4 = 1152 ways of putting the checkers.
2 2
16
[3] The number of ways of filling the board with no restrictions is . The number of ways of of of filling the board so that
4
16
there is one checker per column is 44 . Hence the total is − 44 = 1564.
4

573 7560.

1 8 6 4
574 .
4! 2 2 2

15 8
575 .
7 4

575 There are 6513215600 of former and 3486784400 of the latter.

17 12 7 3 17 14 10
576 ; 2 .
5 5 4 3 3 4

7
7
577 = 99
k
k=3

10
577 210 − 1 − 1 − = 1024 − 2 − 252 = 770
5

n n n−1
577 ; n − 1; ;
2 3 2

12 11 6 4
578
1 5 2 4

20
6
579 = 104857600000000000000000000
3

9 5
580 = 840
3 3

b g
581 c!
c c

582 (23 − 1)(24 − 1)(22 − 1) = 315

10 8
585 2
2
136 Appendix A

586 We have
n−1 n−1 (n − 1)! (n − 1)!
+ = +
k−1 k (k − 1)!(n − k)! k!(n − k − 1)!
(n − 1)! 1 1
= +
(n − k − 1)!(k − 1)! n − k k
(n − 1)! n
=
(n − k − 1)!(k − 1)! (n − k)k
n!
= .
(n − k)!k!
n
= .
k
A combinatorial interpretation can be given as follows. Suppose we have a bag with n red balls. The number of ways of
choosing k balls is n. If we now paint one of these balls blue, the number of ways of choosing k balls is the number of ways of
n−1
choosing balls if we always include the blue ball (and this can be done in ) ways, plus the number of ways of
k−1
n−1
choosing k balls if we always exclude the blue ball (and this can be done in ways).
k
587 The sinistral side counts the number of ways of selecting r elements from a set of n, then selecting k elements from those
r. The dextral side counts how many ways to select the k elements first, then select the remaining r − k elements to be chosen
from the remaining n − k elements.

588 The dextral side sums

n n n n n n n n
+ + + ···+ .
0 0 1 1 2 2 n n
By the symmetry identity, this is equivalent to summing

n n n n n n n n
+ + + ···+ .
0 n 1 n−1 2 n−2 n 0
Now consider a bag with 2n balls, n of them red and n of them blue. The above sum is counting the number of ways of
choosing 0 red balls and n blue balls, 1 red ball and n − 1 blue balls, 2 red balls and n − 2 blue balls, etc.. This is clearly the
2n
number of ways of choosing n balls of either colour from the bag, which is .
n
589 11754

590 2844

591 432
15
592 ; 15!/6!
9
593 29.

595 24
8
596 5!
5
597 175308642
k+1
598 Hint: There are k occupied boxes and n − k empty boxes. Align the balls first! .
n−k

n−k+1
599 There are n − k empty seats. Sit the people in between those seats. .
k
Answers, Hints, and Solutions 137

608 36

609 36 − 9 = 25
14
610
4

50
612 = 19600
3

17 12 7 3 17 14 10
633 ; 2
5 5 4 3 3 4

641 Write k = m − (m − k). Use the absorption identity to evaluate

n
m−k−1
(m − k) .)
n−k−1
k=0

643 11

644 a = 1990

645 True.

646 True.
20
647 (28 )(312 )
8

15
648
8
649 840

651 The 166-th

1000
655
6

15 15 15 15
656 0, as = , = , etc.
1 14 2 13

657 0
200 200
658 False. Sinistral side = , dextral side =
5 17

659 The 62-nd.

12
663
2

10 10
664 6 + 34 .
1, 1, 8 0, 4, 6

10
665
2, 3, 5

681 cos2 x = 1 − sin2 x

138 Appendix A

683 loge x > 1 if x > e

697 Let y = mx and divide the equations obtained and solve for m.
6.2 Put u = x + 2, v = y + 3. Divide one equation by the other.
699 Let u = x + y, v = x − y.
749 The given equalities entail t
n
(x2k − xk )2 = 0.
k=1
A sum of squares is 0 if and only if every term is 0. This gives the result.
750 The given equality entails that
1
(x1 − x2 )2 + (x2 − x3 )2 + · · · + (xn−1 − xn )2 + (xn − x1 )2 = 0.
2
A sum of squares is 0 if and only if every term is 0. This gives the result.
a a+A
751 Since aB < Ab one has a(b + B) = ab + aB < ab + Ab = (a + A)b so < . Similarly
b b+B
a+A A
B(a + A) = aB + AB < Ab + AB = A(b + B) and so < .
b+B B
We have
7 11 7 18 11 7 25 18 11
< =⇒ < < =⇒ < < < .
10 15 10 25 15 10 35 25 15
25 5 5 11 4 7
Since = , we have q ≤ 7. Could it be smaller? Observe that > and that < . Thus by considering the cases with
35 7 6 15 6 10
denominators q = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, we see that no such fraction lies in the desired interval. The smallest denominator is thus 7.
753 We have
(r − s + t)2 − t 2 = (r − s + t − t)(r − s + t + t) = (r − s)(r − s + 2t).
Since t − s ≤ 0, r − s + 2t = r + s + 2(t − s) ≤ r + s and so
(r − s + t)2 − t 2 ≤ (r − s)(r + s) = r2 − s2

which gives
(r − s + t)2 ≤ r2 − s2 + t 2 .
n
754 Using the CBS Inequality (Theorem 742) on (ak bk )ck once we obtain
k=1

n n 1/2 n 1/2
a k b k ck ≤ a2k b2k c2k .
k=1 k=1 k=1

n 1/2
Using CBS again on a2k b2k we obtain
k=1

n n 1/2 n 1/2
a k b k ck ≤ a2k b2k c2k
k=1 k=1 k=1
n 1/4 n 1/4 n 1/2
≤ a4k b4k c2k ,
k=1 k=1 k=1

which gives the required inequality.

Answers, Hints, and Solutions 139

755 This follows directly from the AM-GM Inequality applied to 1, 2, . . . , n:

1 + 2 + ···+ n n + 1
n!1/n(1 · 2 · · · n)1/n < = ,
n 2
where strict inequality follows since the factors are unequal for n > 1.

756 First observe that for integer k, 1 < k < n, k(n − k + 1) = k(n − k) + k > 1(n − k) + k = n. Thus

n!2 = (1 · n)(2 · (n − 1))(3 · (n − 2)) · · ·((n − 1) · 2)(n · 1) > n · n · n · · ·n = nn .

757 Assume without loss of generality that a ≥ b ≥ c. Then a ≥ b ≥ c is similarly sorted as itself, so by the Rearrangement
Inequality
a2 + b2 + c2 = aa + bb + cc ≥ ab + bc + ca.
This also follows directly from the identity
2
b+c 3
a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca = a − + (b − c)2 .
2 4
One can also use the AM-GM Inequality thrice:

a2 + b2 ≥ 2ab; b2 + c2 ≥ 2bc; c2 + a2 ≥ 2ca,

and add.

758 Assume without loss of generality that a ≥ b ≥ c. Then a ≥ b ≥ c is similarly sorted as a2 ≥ b2 ≥ c2 , so by the
Rearrangement Inequality
a3 + b3 + c3 = aa2 + bb2 + cc2 ≥ a2 b + b2c + c2 a,
and
a3 + b3 + c3 = aa2 + bb2 + cc2 ≥ a2 c + b2a + c2b.
Upon adding
1 2
a3 + b3 + c3 = aa2 + bb2 + cc2 ≥ a (b + c) + b2(c + a) + c2(a + b) .
2
Again, if a ≥ b ≥ c then
ab ≥ ac ≥ bc,
thus
a3 + b3 + c3 =≥ a2 b + b2c + c2a = (ab)a + (bc)b + (ac)c ≥ (ab)c + (bc)a + (ac)b = 3abc.
This last inequality also follows directly from the AM-GM Inequality, as

a 3 + b 3 + c3
(a3 b3 c3 )1/3 ≤ ,
3
or from the identity
a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca),
and the inequality of problem 757.

759 We apply n times the Rearrangement Inequality

ǎ1 b̂1 + ǎ2b̂2 + · · · + ǎn b̂n ≤ a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn ≤ â1 b̂1 + â2b̂2 + · · · + ânb̂n

ǎ1 b̂1 + ǎ2b̂2 + · · · + ǎn b̂n ≤ a1 b2 + a2 b3 + · · · + an b1 ≤ â1 b̂1 + â2b̂2 + · · · + ânb̂n
ǎ1 b̂1 + ǎ2b̂2 + · · · + ǎn b̂n ≤ a1 b3 + a2 b4 + · · · + an b2 ≤ â1 b̂1 + â2b̂2 + · · · + ânb̂n
..
.
ǎ1 b̂1 + ǎ2b̂2 + · · · + ǎn b̂n ≤ a1 bn + a2 b1 + · · · + an bn−1 ≤ â1 b̂1 + â2b̂2 + · · · + ânb̂n

Adding we obtain the desired inequalities.

140 Appendix A

√ √ √ √
761 Use the fact that (b − a)2 = ( b − a)2 ( b + a)2 .

762 Let
1 3 5 9999
A= · · ···
2 4 6 10000
and
2 4 6 10000
B= · · ··· .
3 5 7 10001

Clearly, x2 − 1 < x2 for all real numbers x. This implies that

x−1 x
<
x x+1
whenever these four quantities are positive. Hence

1/2 < 2/3

3/4 < 4/5
5/6 < 6/7
.. .. ..
. . .
9999/10000 < 10000/10001

As all the numbers involved are positive, we multiply both columns to obtain
1 3 5 9999 2 4 6 10000
· · ··· < · · ··· ,
2 4 6 10000 3 5 7 10001
or A < B. This yields A2 = A · A < A · B. Now
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9999 10000 1
A·B = · · · · · · ··· · = ,
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10000 10001 10001
√
and consequently, A2 < A · B = 1/10001. We deduce that A < 1/ 10001 < 1/100.

763 Observe that for k ≥ 1, (x + k)2 > (x + k)(x + k − 1) and so

1 1 1 1
< = − .
(x + k)2 (x + k)(x + k − 1) x + k − 1 x + k
Hence
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + ··· + + < + +
(x + 1)2 (x + 2)2 (x + 3)2 (x + n − 1)2 (x + n)2 x(x + 1) (x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 2)((x + 3))
1 1
+··· + +
(x + n − 2)(x + n − 1) (x + n − 1)(x + n)
1 1 1 1 1 1
= − + − + −
x x+1 x+1 x+2 x+2 x+3
1 1 1 1
+··· + − + −
x+n−2 x+n−1 x+n−1 x+n
1 1
= − .
x x+n
764 For 1 ≤ i ≤ n, we have
2 2
2 1 1 2 1 1 4 4 1 4 (i − n)(i − 1)
− 1 − ≤ 1 − ⇐⇒ − 1+ ≤ 1− ⇐⇒ − 1+ + ≤ 0 ⇐⇒ ≤ 0.
i n n i n n i2 i n n i2 n
Thus
n n
xi 1 2 1
= − 1+ xi ,
i 2 i n
i=1 i=1
Answers, Hints, and Solutions 141

as xi = 0. Now
i=1
n n n
2 1 2 1 1 1
− 1+ xi ≤ − 1 − |xi | ≤ 1 − |xi | = 1 − .
i n i n n n
i=1 i=1 i=1

765 Expanding the product

n n n n
(1 + xk ) = 1 + xk + xi x j + · · · ≥ 1 + xk ,
k=1 k=1 1≤i< j≤n k=1

n
since the xk ≥ 0. When n = 1 equality is obvious. When n > 1 equality is achieved when xi x j = 0.
1≤i< j≤n

766 Assume a ≥ b ≥ c. Put s = a + b + c. Then

1 1 1
−a ≤ −b ≤ −c =⇒ s − a ≤ s − b ≤ s − c =⇒ ≥ ≥
s−a s−b s−c
1 1 1
and so the sequences a, b, c and , , are similarly sorted. Using the Rearrangement Inequality twice:
s−a s−b s−c
a b c a b c a b c a b c
+ + ≥ + + ; + + ≥ + + .
s−a s−b s−c s−c s−a s−b s−a s−b s−c s−b s−c s−a
Adding these two inequalities
a b c b+c c+a c+a
2 + + ≥ + + ,
s−a s−b s−c s−a s−b s−c
whence
a b c
2 + + ≥ 3,
b+c c+a a+b
from where the result follows.

767 From the AM-GM Inequality, √ √ √

a + b ≥ 2 ab; b + c ≥ 2 bc; c + a ≥ 2 ca,
and the desired inequality follows upon multiplication of these three inequalities.

768 By the Rearrangement inequality

n n n
ak ǎk 1
≥ ≥ ,
k2 k2 k
k=1 k=1 k=1

as ǎk ≥ k, the a’s being pairwise distinct positive integers.

769 By the AM-GM Inequality,

1 1 1
1/n + + ···+
1 1 1 x1 x2 xn
··· ≤ ,
x1 x2 xn n
whence the inequality.

770 By the CBS Inequality,

(1 · x1 + 1 · x2 + · · · + 1 · xn)2 ≤ 12 + 12 + · · · + 12 x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n ,

which gives the desired inequality.

142 Appendix A

771 Put
Tm = ak − ak .
1≤k≤m m<k≤n

Clearly T0 = −Tn . Since the sequence T0 , T1 , . . . , Tn changes signs, choose an index p such that Tp−1 and Tp have different
signs. Thus either Tp−1 − Tp = 2|a p| or Tp − Tp−1 = 2|a p|. We claim that

min Tp−1 , Tp =≤ max |ak | .

1≤k≤n

For, if contrariwise both Tp−1 > max |ak | and Tp > max |ak |, then 2|a p| = |Tp−1 − Tp | > 2 max |ak |, a contradiction.
1≤k≤n 1≤k≤n 1≤k≤n