Publ. Astron. Obs. Belgrade No.

85 (2008), 19 - 23 Contributed paper

SENENMUT: AN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ASTRONOMER

BOJAN NOVAKOVIĆ
Astronomical Observatory, Volgina 7, 11060 Belgrade 38, Serbia
E–mail: bnovakovic@aob.bg.ac.yu

Abstract. The celestial phenomena have always been a source of wonder and interest
to people, even as long ago as the ancient Egyptians. While the ancient Egyptians did not
know all the things about astronomy that we do now, they had a good understanding of some
celestial phenomena. The achievements in astronomy of ancient Egyptians are relatively well
known, but we know very little about the people who made these achievements. The goal of
this paper is to bring some light on the life of Senenmut, the chief architect and astronomer
during the reign of Queen Hatshepsut.

1. INTRODUCTION

As early as several thousand years ago people were interested in astronomy and they
had some knowledge about celestial phenomena. This kind of interest existed in
almost all ancient civilizations, although it rose from different purposes and motiva-
tions. The ancient Egyptians were interested in astronomy, mainly for practical and
religious purposes.
This paper is devoted to achievements of the ancient Egyptian astronomy (Section
2.) and to the life of an ancient Egyptian astronomer Senenmut (Section 3.).

2. ASTRONOMY IN ANCIENT EGYPT

Astronomy was very important to the ancient Egyptians and played a different part
for that people than it does in many cultures. Although their achievements were far
less advanced than those of some other ancient civilizations, many of them are very
important and deserve our attention. Here, we will mention some of them.
- The invention of the 365-days calendar, based on astronomical observation. The
development of this type of calendar probably took place at least as far back as 2,000
B.C., but the first calendar developed in Egypt was a lunar calendar introduced about
3000 B.C – the first measurement of time in human history.
The beginning of the Egyptian year was declared when there was a flood, as they
noticed that the flood begins with the star Sirius, the brightest star in the sky. This
incident represented the beginning of the agricultural year in Egypt. The year had 365
days divided into 12 months and each month had 30 days. They made the remaining

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five days feast days, called the Epagomenal Days, or the days upon the year, and
added them at the end of the year. Months of the year were divided into three
seasons, namely: the flood season, the planting season, and the harvest season. The
year, the season, the month and the day in which a king came to power was usually
recorded by the Egyptians in their documents.
- The development of instruments of quantitative astronomical measurement. These
included the sundial, water clocks, and the merkhet. The ancient Egyptians used
instruments or indicators for observing the circumpolar stars. They would then draw
a north-south axis line on the ground marking its direction, which was required for
the proper orientation of important building projects. One of the instruments used
was called ”Merkhet,” (similar to an astrolabe), which could mean ”indicator.” It
consisted of a horizontal, narrow wooden bar with a hole near one end, through which
the astronomer would look to fix the position of the star. The other instrument, called
the ”bay en imy unut,” or palm rib, had a V-shaped slot cut in the wider end through
which the priest in charge of the hours looked to fix the star.
- Telling time by the stars. Astronomy in ancient Egypt was the best way to tell
the time during the night. They recognized a number of constellations and other
groups of stars. These groups of stars, called decans, were used for telling time at
night. Each group of stars rose forty minutes later each night. Observing the position
of a group of stars in relation to the day of the year would tell a person what time
it was. Theoretically, there were 18 decans, however, due to dusk and twilight only
twelve were taken into account when reckoning time at night. Since winter is longer
than summer the first and last decans were assigned longer hours to. Tables to help
make these computations have been found on the inside of coffin lids. The columns
in the tables cover a year at ten day intervals. The decans are placed in the order in
which they arise and in the next column, the second decan becomes the first and so
on.
The achievements in astronomy of ancient Egyptians also include:
- Knowledge of stellar constellations - at least 43 constellations were familiar to the
Egyptians in the 13th century B.C.
- Knowledge of planetary astronomy - the Egyptians knew five planets; the retro-
grade motion of Mars was known; the revolution of Mercury and Venus around the
Sun was known.
- Astronomy was also used in positioning the pyramids. They are aligned very
accurately, the eastern and western sides run almost northwards and the southern
and northern sides run almost westwards.

3. SENENMUT

The earliest known star maps in Egypt have been found as a main part of a decor in a
tomb (TT 353) at Thebes on the West bank of the Nile (e.g. Leser 2006). The tomb
was built during the Egyptian 18th dynasty, and it belonged to Queen Hatshepsut’s
vizer and calendar registrar Senenmut (also known as Senmut or Senemut).
But, who really was Senenmut? Senenmut was of low birth, born to literate provin-
cial class parents, Ramose and Hatnofer. Despite his non-royal origin Senenmut was

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given more prestigious titles and became high steward of the king. There is no doubt
that much more is known about Senenmut than about any other non-royal Egyptian.
The list of Senenmut’s titles is very long, but first of all he was an architect,
government official and tutor of Neferure - Queen Hatshepsut’s daughter. Senenmut
originally entered the royal court during the reign of Tuthmosis II, under Hatshepsut
he would eventually hold over 80 titles (Dorman 1988) during his period as an official
and administrator working in the royal court. Other dimensions of his career are
suggested by the presence of an astronomical ceiling in his tomb at Deir el Bahari
and about 150 ostraca in his tomb at Qurna, including several drawings, as well as
lists, calculations, various reports and literary works. No doubt the workmen were
instructed to decorate his tomb with items of interest in Senenmut’s life.
The social classification of the family has also been a central point of the discus-
sion. Probably at that time about 5% of the population was able to reading and
writing. Therefore, Tyldesley (1996) placed the family in the ”upper” social class,
which mastered these stages of civilization, because in her opinion Senenmut would
not have been able to start successfully into his career without these abilities. In this
connection it is also unclear, how or where Senenmut started his career. Able to read
and write he could have started his career as a low civil servant. However, it is also
possible that he started a military career and then changed it into administration. As
far as we know, it was quite usual that retiring officers were awarded with an admin-
istrative position. The destroyed inscriptions in his monument, TT71, which contain
text fragments possibly, give some information about the beginning of his career.
Beside the offices mentioned above, which he surely executed, he also got numerous
”courtly titles” - like the one called ”Only friend of the Pharao”. These titles most
likely testify the extraordinary confidence of Hatshepsut.
Concerning the end of Senenmut’s life there are more speculations than facts. At
least until regnal year 16 of Hatshepsut/Thutmosis III. he held his offices. Apparently
thereafter, his tracks are lost. His unfinished monument, TT353, was closed, some
his figures therein, and also in TT71, were destroyed. There is no information that
he had been buried in one of his tombs.
The astronomical ceiling in Senenmut’s tomb (TT 353) is divided into two sections
representing the northern and the southern skies. The southern (Fig. 1) is decorated
with a list of decanal stars, as well as constellations of the southern sky belonging to
it like Orion and Canis Major. Furthermore, the planets Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury
and Venus are shown and associated deities who are travelling in small boats over
the sky. Thus, the southern ceiling marks the hours of the night. The northern one
shows constellations of the northern sky with the Great Bear (Ursa major) at the
centre. The other constellations could not be identified. On the right and left of it
there are 8 or 4 circles shown and below them several deities each carrying a sun disc
towards the centre of the picture. The inscriptions associated with the circles mark
the original monthly celebrations in the lunar calendar, whereas the deities mark the
original days of the lunar month (Meyer 1982).
The map on the southern panel proves to reflect a specific conjunction of planets
around the longitude of Sirius. The four planets Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury and Venus
are relatively easily recognizable. The planet Mars is not included in the actual

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grouping and at first sight seems to be missing in the map. However, Mars is also
pictured in the Senenmut map, but it is represented by an empty boat in the west.
This seems to refer to the fact that Mars was retrograde so that in this backward
movement (well known phenomenon to the Egyptians) the Mars position was perhaps
not consider to be ”concrete”. Using these facts, Egyptologists were able to date that
this particular configuration of planets occurred in the sky in 1534 BC (van Spaeth
2000).
Modern chronologists tend to agree that Hatshepsut reigned as pharaoh from 1479
to 1458 BC, but there is no definitive proof of the beginning date. Some other
sources proposed that Hatshepsut could have assumed power as early as 1512 BC.
Consequently, it is not clear whether or not the celestial phenomenon, mentioned
above, was happened within the lifetime of Senenmut.

Figure 1: The southern part of the astronomical ceiling in Senenmut’s tomb (TT353).

4. CONCLUSIONS

A short review of the achievements in astronomy of ancient Egyptians, presented here,

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References
Dorman, P. F.: 1988, Monuments of Senenmut, Problems in Historical Methodology, London.
Leser, K. H.: 2006, Senenmut, Electronic version is available Online at http://www.maat-
ka-ra.de/
Lockyer, J. N.: 1964, The Dawn of Astronomy, M.I.T. Press.
Meyer, C.: 1982, Senenmut. Eine Prosopographische Untersuchung, Verlag Borg GmbH,
Hamburg.
Shaw, I.: 2003, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press.
Tyldesley, J.: 1996, Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh, Viking van Spaeth, O., 2000, Cen-
taurus, 42, pp. 159-179.

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