Modeling Oceanic Transport of Floating Marine Debris

2016 NOAA Marine Debris Program Report
Modeling
Modeling Oceanic Transport of
Floating Marine Debris
2016 MARINE DEBRIS MODELING REPORT

May 2016
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Ocean Service
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National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Marine Debris Program. 2016 Report on Modeling Oceanic Transport of Floating Marine Debris. Silver Spring,
MD. 21 pp
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Acknowledgements
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Marine Debris Program would like to acknowledge William L. Balthis (National Centers for Coastal
Ocean Science – Center for Coastal Environmental Health and Biomolecular Research) for his effort in synthesizing the wide range of modeling research and efforts
into this paper, and Peter Murphy for providing guidance and support throughout this process. Special thanks go to Dr. Amy MacFadyen, Dr. James Potemra, and
Laurent Lebreton for reviewing this paper and providing helpful comments. An additional thank you goes to Krista Stegemann for a copy/edit review of this report
and Catherine Polk for graphic design. Funding for this project was provided by the NOAA Marine Debris Program.
This publication does not constitute an endorsement of any commercial product or intend to be an opinion beyond scientific or other results obtained by the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. No reference shall be made to NOAA, or this publication furnished by NOAA, to any advertising or sales
promotion which would indicate or imply that NOAA recommends or endorses any proprietary product mentioned herein, or which has as its purpose an interest
to cause the advertised product to be used or purchased because of this publication.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Executive Summary 1
Background 2
Synthesis of Literature 6
Surface Currents 6
Ocean General Circulation Models 8
Linked Ocean General Circulation Models

- Particle Tracking Models 10
Conclusion 13
State of the Science 13
Recommendations 14
Cited References 16
Glossary 20

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Man-made debris in the ocean is now found from the poles Currents can be calculated from satellite-derived
to the equator and from shorelines, estuaries, and the sea measurements of sea-surface height and wind stress.
surface to the ocean floor (STAP, 2011). General oceanic
Ocean general circulation models (OGCMs): solve
circulation patterns, particularly surface currents, greatly
equations of motion in horizontal and vertical
affect the redistribution and accumulation of marine
dimensions and include both physical and
debris in the world’s oceans, as do the mass, buoyancy,
thermodynamic processes. OGCMs provide the surface
and persistence of the material (Moore, Moore, Leecaster &
currents layer used to simulate debris transport. A
Weisberg, 2001). Because of the relatively sparse amount
number of systems have been developed to update
of directly observable data on marine debris relative to
(through a process called data assimilation) these models
the immensity of the ocean and the need to predict its
with satellite and in situ measurements in near-real time.
movement, numerical models are used to simulate the
Many of these model outputs are available online.
transport of floating marine debris. Computer modeling
simulations, based on data from about 12,000 satellite- Because some of the terms used in this report may be
tracked drifters deployed since the early 1990s as part of unfamiliar to readers, a glossary of terms is provided at
the Global Drifter Program (GDP, 2011), indicate that debris the end of this document. Terms or acronyms found in the
tends to accumulate in a limited number of subtropical glossary are indicated by an asterisk on first use, unless
convergence zones associated with persistent, long-term defined explicitly in the text.
currents in the world’s oceans (Wakata & Sugimori, 1990;
Kubota, Takayama & Namimoto, 2005; Maximenko & Niiler
2008). Recent analyses of data on floating debris in the
Pacific Ocean (Eriksen et al., 2013; Law et al., 2014), Atlantic
Ocean (Law et al., 2010; Morét-Ferguson et al., 2010), and
the world’s oceans combined (Eriksen et al., 2014) have
confirmed these modeling results. Modeling simulations
can help to understand not only the likely fate of debris
from known point sources, population centers, or extreme
events such as hurricanes and tsunamis, but also to identify
potential sources of debris. This paper reviews and briefly
describes some of these methods, gives examples of their
application for modeling the movement and transport of
marine debris, and attempts to identify gaps in knowledge
and recommend potential areas of further research.
The following overview presents some of the numerical
modeling techniques that have been applied to simulate
the transport of marine debris. The primary approach to
modeling the transport of drifting objects, with marine
debris being one application, typically has involved the use
of particle tracking models (PTMs) to estimate or simulate
the movement of ‘particles’ over time. This movement
depends on transport (advection) by ocean surface currents,
and some PTMs may incorporate additional factors such
as movement resulting from the proportion of buoyant
objects floating high in the water and exposed to the wind
(windage), or a random motion component (turbulent
diffusion).
The surface currents used to drive PTMs have been derived
using a number of different methods. The main approaches
identified from this review of the literature include:
Surface current modeling: focuses only on the surface
layer, where most floating debris is found. Surface
currents can be estimated in various ways:
Currents can be inferred from the paths of drifters,
either ship drift data or satellite-tracked drifters.
Currents can be estimated from long-term historical
measurements of temperature, salinity, depth, and
sea level pressure.

BACKGROUND
Marine debris is one of the most smaller fragments, and different types
pervasive pollution problems affecting of materials can degrade at varying “...attempting to simulate
the world’s oceans and waterways. rates. ocean circulation... is much
Debris makes its way into the marine Numerical models can be utilized
environment by way of numerous to simulate the movement of debris more complex since it must
land-based and at-sea sources. Besides for a number of different purposes.
the negative visual and aesthetic Models can be used to interpolate or take into account a large
impacts of marine debris, there can be interpret sparse data in a consistent number of effects...”
a number of other detrimental effects way. Due to the relative immensity
in terms of potential harm to marine of the ocean, observations of marine
life by ingestion or entanglement debris or other floating/drifting
(NOAA MDP, 2014a, 2014b), hazards objects, and direct measurements an observer standing on a rock in
to navigation (Johnson, 2001), acting of ocean surface currents that move the middle of the river describes the
as a pathway or vehicle for invasive them, are relatively sparse. Models current velocity at that particular
species (Ruiz, Carlton, Grosholz & can be used to “fill in the gaps” where point (Eulerian perspective), while
Hines, 1997; USEPA 2012), or posing few observations are available. We a boater being carried along by the
a chemical hazard due to the sorption can also use models to evaluate “what current experiences the flow from
of organic contaminants to plastic if ” scenarios by varying conditions a Lagrangian viewpoint. In the
debris (Van et al. 2011; Rochman, or parameters one at a time and context of marine debris modeling,
Hoh, Hentschel & Kaye, 2013). Some observing the outcome. It may be current velocities are obtained, by
types of debris may sink to the bottom of interest, for example, to vary the various methods, for points or nodes
or be washed up on beaches and amount of windage of simulated on a discrete (Eulerian) grid over a
shorelines, but a large proportion debris items to estimate its effect on series of time steps. The resulting
can remain suspended in the water travel time. Furthermore, models can current velocities may then be
column or floating at the surface for make predictions, either forecasting used to calculate the trajectory of
days or years and can be transported the likely state of the system at some an object over time, in a technique
over great distances. time in the future, or simulating sometimes referred to as Lagrangian
Modeling the transport and the current state based on past particle tracking. The location of
fate of marine debris must take observations. We often know either a particle at the end of each time
into account winds, ocean surface where debris originates (a spill or step becomes the start point for the
currents, and other factors including natural disaster) or where it ends next time step, and the process is
the type of debris. Lightweight, up (beached debris). Models can repeated. Most of the particle tracking
buoyant materials such as some be applied to forecast the probable models presented in this paper
plastics tend to float high in the trajectories of debris of known origin, use Lagrangian particle tracking
water so that they are pushed along or to identify potential sources of techniques (i.e., describing the
partially by winds as well as surface debris by predicting the likely paths trajectories of individual particles).
currents. Such materials are referred taken to reach a known destination. However, some techniques use an
to as having high “windage.” Other, The equations governing motion Eulerian approach, which describes
heavier buoyant materials such as in the ocean are continuous. Solving the concentration of passive tracers
wooden construction debris float them on a computer, however, at every (Eulerian) grid point at each
just below the surface (low windage) requires discretizing, selecting time step. Both of these particle
and so are influenced primarily by distinct points from the range. This tracking techniques are relatively
surface currents. Still other types creates a system of distinct grid straightforward, in the sense that
of debris, such as derelict fishing points on which to solve them. the equations describing transport
gear, may be suspended lower in Modeling of marine debris transport of an object (or concentration of
the water column and drift mainly by ocean currents is often carried tracers) depend only on current
with subsurface currents. Since out within an Eulerian-Lagrangian* velocity at each time step (although
subsurface currents generally move framework, which is related to the some models also incorporate terms
at a much slower speed than surface frame of reference of an observer. for other factors such as windage,
currents, the vertical position of The Eulerian perspective describes diffusion, or vertical mixing). In
debris in the water column influences the current velocity (speed and contrast, attempting to simulate
how fast it gets transported from a direction) at a fixed point (or points) ocean circulation, whether focused
point of origin (source) to its final over time, while the Lagrangian only on currents in the surface layer
destination (receptor). Additionally, approach follows the trajectory, or or circulation throughout the water
the characteristics of debris items path, of a debris “particle” being column, is much more complex since
can change over time; encrusting carried along by currents over time. it must take into account a large
organisms can affect the buoyancy of These two points of view can be number of effects, some of which are
objects, large items can be broken into visualized by imagining river flow: described below.
2 2016 MARINE DEBRIS MODELING REPORT

Oceanic Circulation - A
Balancing Act
Ocean dynamics are governed by

Newton’s laws of motion, expressed
as a set of equations (i.e., primitive
equations) that describe relationships
among a number of variables,
including pressure, density, wind a.
stress (friction between wind and
ocean), temperature, and salinity.
The dominant influences that drive
oceanic circulation are gravity,
wind stress, and the apparent forces
resulting from the earth’s rotation
(Stewart, 2008). Steady ocean currents
(those that persist over time in a
prevailing direction) result from a
balance between these forces (Sudre,
Maes & Garcon, 2013). Also at play
are the Sun, moon, and other celestial
bodies which exert a gravitational
pull on the ocean. Changes in their
relative positions with respect to
the Earth, due to both the Earth’s
rotation and orbital movements,
lead to tides, tidal currents, and tidal b.
mixing in the interior of the ocean.
Gravity also affects the buoyancy of
parcels of water depending on their
density, which in turn depends on
temperature, salinity, and pressure.
Horizontal pressure gradients are
caused by differences in water density
or variations in sea surface elevation.
Wind stress from prevailing winds
(westerlies at mid-latitudes, easterly
trades at lower latitudes), through
friction on the ocean surface, causes
currents by transferring horizontal
momentum to the ocean. All currents
are subject to the Coriolis effect*,
which arises from the rotation of the
earth and causes flow to be deflected.
Because of the Coriolis effect, the
shallow layer of surface water set in c.
motion by the wind is deflected to
the right of the wind direction in the
Northern Hemisphere (setting up a
clockwise rotation pattern) and to
the left of the wind direction in the
Southern Hemisphere (causing a
counter-clockwise rotation) (Figure
1a). At the surface, the balance
between frictional wind stress and
the Coriolis effect results in wind- Figure 1. Dominant influences driving large-scale
driven, or Ekman*, flow (Figure 1b), ocean surface currents: a) Earth’s rotation, b)
giving rise to circular current systems surface winds, c) gravity.
known as gyres*. The deflection
towards the center causes water to
move towards the central region of a
gyre. This mounding of water towards
the center of a gyre results in the sea
2016 MARINE DEBRIS MODELING REPORT 3

other areas of accumulation exist,
such as the one associated with a
climatological high pressure zone in
the oceanic region between California
and Hawaii (i.e., North Pacific
Subtropical High). Debris accumulates
in this convergence zone since the
wind around high pressure areas in
the Northern Hemisphere rotates
clockwise and the Ekman currents of
the ocean are deflected to the right
of the downwind direction (Wakata
& Sugimori, 1990). This corresponds
to the area shown in Figure 3 as the
Eastern Garbage Patch.
The circulation patterns presented
above describe long-term global
or basin-scale ocean currents. It is
important to note, however, that ocean
circulation operates at different scales,
Figure 2. The time-averaged, surface circulation of the ocean during the northern hemi both temporally and spatially. Current
sphere’s winter, deduced from a century of oceanographic expeditions.
velocities also vary with depth. For
example, the wind-driven surface
layer can have currents that move
surface being higher in elevation (up at velocities of 20 cm/s or more, but
the continental masses bordering the these velocities decrease with depth.
to a meter or so) than the surrounding major ocean basins. Major boundary
sea surface, which creates a horizontal Hence, debris objects that change
currents such as the Kuroshio Current buoyancy over time and sink lower
pressure gradient. Since the force of and the Gulf Stream link up with
gravity causes water to move from a in the water column will experience
equatorial and other currents to form currents of different velocity and
high to low pressure area, there is a large oceanic gyres (Figure 2). In the
flow outward and down slope from the direction. Also, instabilities in the
North Pacific, the prevailing winds large-scale circulation, interactions
center of the gyre. As the water moves, form two large oceanic gyres, each
it is deflected by the Coriolis effect. between currents and bottom
bounded by major current systems topography (bathymetry), and direct
Eventually, the outward-directed (Figure 3). These major currents
pressure gradient force balances the effects of the wind can create swirling
delineate three major oceanographic currents, or eddies. The size and
apparent force due to the Coriolis zones: a subtropical zone to the south,
effect and water flows around the gyre, persistence of eddies varies. Some,
a subpolar zone to the north, and a called mesoscale eddies, are tens to
parallel to contours of elevation of sea transition zone between them (Howell,
level. The horizontal movement of hundreds of kilometers in diameter,
Bograd, Morishige, Seki, & Polovina, and can persist for several days to
surface water resulting from a balance 2012).
between the pressure gradient force several months. The resolution of an
Oceanic gyres can retain debris, ocean model is determined by the
and the Coriolis force is known as since the Ekman flow deflects water
geostrophic flow* (Figure 1c). Large- spacing of grid points and also by the
towards the center of the gyre, as
scale circulation patterns can be described above. However, zones
inferred from sea surface height just as of subtropical convergence and
meteorologists use sea level pressure transition, such as where the North
maps to derive wind. Pacific Subtropical and Subpolar
In the global ocean, these Gyres collide and interact, have been “Oceanic gyres can retain
influences give rise to large-scale identified as areas important to the
circulation patterns constrained by debris, since the Ekman flow
concentration and accumulation of
marine debris. Along the North Pacific deflects water towards the
Transition Zone (Figure 3), westerly
winds force Ekman transport of cool, center of the gyres...”
“The dominant influences saline water to the south. Since this
water is more dense, it sinks beneath
that drive oceanic the warmer subtropical waters
associated with the Subtropical Frontal
circulation are gravity, wind Zone. The horizontal convergence time step (the interval between one set
causes objects that are sufficiently of solutions and the next). Hence, a
stress, and the apparent model with widely spaced grid points
buoyant (to overcome the vertical
forces resulting from earth’s flow of sinking water) to accumulate and a large time step may be suitable
in the Subtropical Convergence only for resolving long-term average
rotation (Stewart, 2008).” flow on a global or basin-wide scale.
Zone (Pichel et al., 2007; Howell et
al., 2012). In addition to this large- Other, higher-resolution models are
scale frontal convergence zone, able to represent mesoscale circulation

Figure 3. Schematic representation of the major oceanic currents and zones in the North Pacific.
(so-called ‘eddy-resolving’ models), Types and Sources of Data pressure, surface winds, and other
or model circulation regionally within measurements.
an ocean basin, sea, or gulf and over a With the advent of satellite remote
Numerical ocean models require sensing, many of these quantities
shorter time period. input of measured data for model can be measured directly on a global
setup, initialization, and validation. scale and made available in near-
Different kinds of models require real time. Sea surface height can be
various types of information, and measured using altimetry, which
the methods for acquiring the data involves sending a microwave pulse
“Different kinds of models
have evolved with the development of to the ocean’s surface and recording
require various types
new technologies. Current velocities the time it takes to return. Altimetry
can be measured directly using measurements from NASA satellites,
of information, and the
(Lagrangian) drifters, or measured such as Topex/Poseidon*, Jason-1/2*,
at fixed (Eulerian) locations using and the European Space Agency
methods for acquiring the
moored current meters. Currents can (ESA) ERS-1/2*, make it possible to
data have evolved with
also be calculated from measurements measure sea surface height to within
of the physical factors that drive them. a few centimeters. Satellites such
the development of new
For example, long-term geostrophic as NASA’s Quikscat/Seawinds* and
currents can be obtained by calculating ESA’s ERS-1/2 can also measure ocean
technologies. “
variations in sea surface height (and near-surface wind speed and direction
resulting pressure gradients) from in using a microwave radar sensor called
situ measurements of temperature a scatterometer. Such measurements of
and salinity with depth. Such sea surface height and winds are made
measurements have been compiled available online. Global surface current
in the Levitus (1982) Climatological products calculated directly from
Atlas of the World Ocean, which satellite altimetry and ocean vector
provided monthly global temperature winds are also provided, for example,
and salinity climatologies with a by OSCAR* (Ocean Surface Current
spatial resolution of 1x1 degree at 19 Analysis – Real Time), which provides
depth levels (surface – 1000m). The long-term, monthly, or 5-day mean
Levitus Atlas has been updated as surface currents from 1992 to the
the World Ocean Atlas, and the most present on a 1° grid (OSCAR, 2014). A
recent version provides higher vertical similar global surface current product
resolution for all variables, with 102 is provided by Mercator/SURCOUF
vertical levels from the surface to (Larnicol et al., 2006) and AVISO*
5500m depth (WOA, 2013). Other (Sudre & Morrow 2008).
products, such as the International
Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere
Data Set (ICOADS), provide
observations and monthly summaries
of sea surface temperature, sea level

SYNTHESIS OF LITERATURE
Overview Surface Currents

“The typical modern drifter
Different approaches have been Drifters is a high-tech version of
used to model the general circulation
and associated transport of material For many years, ocean surface the “message in a bottle.” It
in the ocean. Because marine debris currents have been estimated directly
modeling techniques make use of by how they carry drifting objects,
consists of a surface buoy
these approaches, either separately from the well-known “message in a and a subsurface drogue
or in various combinations, they are bottle” to glass balls used by Japanese
reviewed briefly below. fishermen that have washed up on (sea anchor), attached by a
First, we describe a number beaches in California. An early source
of methods for modeling surface long, thin tether. The buoy
of ocean current information was
currents, which are mainly a based on the collection of ship drift measures temperature and
combination of Ekman currents data, in which currents were estimated
driven by local wind and geostrophic from the difference between a ship’s other properties, and has a
currents maintained by the balance predicted course and its actual speed
between pressure gradients and the transmitter to send the data to
and direction (Meehl, 1982). With
Coriolis force (Maximenko & Niiler, the development of satellite tracking passing satellites. The drogue
2008), as described above. These capability in the 1970s, it became
methods include the calculation of possible to track drifting buoys, or dominates the total area of the
surface currents from long-term “drifters”. Many competing drifter instrument and is centered at a
historical data, direct estimation of designs were developed and evaluated,
surface currents from the paths of and a uniform design was proposed depth of 15 meters beneath the
drifters, and currents derived from in 1992 (Sybrandy & Niiler, 1992;
satellite-based measurements of the see sidebar). The design of satellite-
sea surface.”
ocean surface. tracked drifters was standardized and
Next, a class of ocean general a global array of drifters was deployed
circulation models (OGCMs) that in the world’s oceans as part of the distribution of simulated drifters.
simulate motion throughout the Global Drifter Program (GDP, 2011). Their overall results agreed well with
water column in three dimensions Drifters provide direct measurements the observed trajectories of satellite-
are introduced. Brief descriptions of of ocean surface currents, which tracked drifters in the North Pacific
these methods along with specific are composed mainly of Ekman described by Kirwan, McNally, Reyna,
applications to the problem of and geostrophic components (see and Merrell (1978). The simulations
modeling marine debris are presented glossary). The successive drifter also confirmed areas of debris
below. For more information on position measurements can be used accumulation in the North Pacific,
these approaches, the reader is to calculate surface layer current reported by Mio, Takehama, and
referred to the citations given in the velocities or to calibrate or validate Matsumura (1988), as well as other
text, as well as reviews of techniques ocean surface current models. While areas of accumulation in the center
for application to marine debris by these global arrays of drifters describe of the South Atlantic Ocean and the
Potemra (2012) and overviews of large-scale global and basin-wide Indian Ocean west of Australia.
satellite-based methods of estimating ocean currents, drifters can also Kirwan et al. (1978) described the
ocean surface currents by Sudre provide insight into processes, such large-scale near-surface circulation
and Morrow (2008), Dohan and as ocean eddies, which operate on the of the eastern North Pacific based on
Maximenko (2010), Dohan et al. mesoscale (50-500 km, lasting 10-100 the trajectories of 23 satellite-tracked
(2010), and Freeman et al. (2010). days, with currents of a few kilometres drifters. Embedded in the main flow
The surface current velocities per hour). The paths of drifters also were numerous mesoscale eddies. In
obtained from these various methods suggest the likely paths of floating subsequent studies, Kirwan, Merrell,
typically are coupled with a particle marine debris. Lewis, Whitaker, and Legeckis
tracking model (PTM), which Various approaches have been used (1984) and Kirwan, Lewis, Indest,
describes the resulting transport to model the movement or dispersion Reinersman, and Quintero (1988)
of a given “particle” of debris over of drifters. Wakata and Sugimori developed a model to describe such
the selected or modeled time step. (1990) used a global ship drift dataset mesoscale features, specifically
Alternatively, the evolution of tracer of surface current velocities on a 5° Loop Current eddies in the Gulf
distribution and density over time x 5° latitude-longitude grid (Meehl, of Mexico. Modeling of mesoscale
throughout the model domain can be 1982) as input to a Lagrangian PTM eddies is more complex than large-
estimated with a statistical model. (based on Newton’s equation of scale currents, since the model must
motion and conservation laws) to describe not only the movement or
investigate the trajectories and density translation of the eddy center, but also

the circulation characteristics of the and used QuikSCAT (satellite 10°N to the Bering Strait from 1901
eddy itself. Additional investigations scatterometry) ocean surface wind to the present (Ingraham, 1997).
of Loop Current eddies were carried data to calculate the wind-driven OSCURS derives mean geostrophic
out by Glenn and Forristall (1990) Ekman component (Maximenko & currents from long-term average
and Glenn and Ebbesmeyer (1993), Hafner, 2010). Maps of total currents density distributions, computed
who also estimated model parameters were produced daily on a ¼° latitude/ from historical averages of measured
based on satellite-tracked drifter longitude grid starting in August temperature and salinity versus
trajectories. Eddies may “pinch off ” 1999 and running to November depth. These were combined with
from the main, large-scale current 2009, the time span of QuikSCAT wind speed and direction calculated
flow, and can transport debris within data. SCUD coefficients were derived from daily sea-level pressure data
mesoscale patches as they propagate such that model estimates matched to obtain surface current velocities.
or migrate over large distances closely with the velocities of surface The OSCURS model was developed
(Howell et al., 2012). drifters obtained from the Global for the North Pacific and Bering
More recently, the paths of Drifter Program. The goal of the Sea and calibrated or “tuned” with
more than 10,000 satellite-tracked project was to diagnose near-surface satellite-tracked drifter data for
drifting buoys were combined with currents consistent with trajectories the Gulf of Alaska (Ingraham &
information from satellite altimetry, of Lagrangian drifters using satellite Miyahara, 1989). Incorporating
winds, and gravity measurements observations (Maximenko & Hafner, drifter data allows the parameters
to create high-resolution maps (½° 2010). Recently, the SCUD model of the model to be adjusted so that
grid) of the mean dynamic ocean has been used to to forecast potential modeled outputs agree more closely
topography (sea surface height trajectories of Japan tsunami marine with actual measurements. Surface
adjusted for variations in the shape of debris (JTMD*) from the March current velocities calculated on the
the earth due to gravity) and to derive 2011 Tohoku tsunami (Maximenko OSCURS grid are used to obtain
the mean geostrophic (resulting & Hafner, 2012). In contrast to the continuous trajectory of drifting
from pressure gradients) and Ekman Lagrangian PTMs, the SCUD model objects (i.e., Lagrangian PTM, as
(wind-driven) circulation in the upper tracks virtual tracer distributions over described previously). OSCURS
ocean (Maximenko et al., 2009). The the Eulerian grid, as in Maximenko has been used to hindcast* the drift
combination of drifter and satellite et al. (2012). The first version of the trajectories of 1,300 shoes spilled
data revealed new features of the model tracked debris solely using from a shipping container lost at sea
ocean surface mesoscale circulation ocean currents, while the refined in the North Pacific (Ebbesmeyer &
and yielded ocean dynamic model includes tracers sensitive Ingraham, 1992) and later used to
topography patterns at a spatial to windage. The accuracy of the model trajectories of intentionally
resolution higher than that achievable SCUD model deteriorates near released drift bottles (Ebbesmeyer et
from satellite data alone and with shore due to higher errors in satellite al., 1993) and accidentally released
better accuracy than those obtainable data (due to intrinsic difficulties in bathtub toy animals (similar to the
from drifter data alone. corrections applied for atmospheric shoe spill), with adjustments for
In a subsequent study, Maximenko, effects) and increased complexity of increased windage of the plastic toys
Hafner, and Niiler (2012) used oceanographic and tidal dynamics (Ebbesmeyer & Ingraham, 1994).
the same satellite-tracked drifter (Carson et al., 2013). The model has also been applied to
trajectories to develop a statistical The Ocean Surface CURrent estimate the orbital period (the time
model describing the movement Simulations (OSCURS) numerical required for one complete rotation)
of drifters over time. The observed model (Ingraham & Miyahara, of the Pacific Subpolar Gyre based
displacement of each drifter was 1988) is a research tool originally on subsequent sightings of the
used to calculate the probability of a developed to investigate how ocean aforementioned toys and other objects
statistical drifter, or tracer, to move currents might have influenced (Ebbesmeyer, Ingraham, Royer, &
into or over ½° bins surrounding its various fish populations in the Grosch, 2007). The OSCURS model
original position. The model was then North Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea. has been applied to simulate the
initialized with uniformly-distributed The model allows oceanographers dispersal of marine debris (derelict
“drifters” and the evolution of drifter and fisheries scientists to perform fishing nets) in the North Pacific
density with time over the (Eulerian) retrospective analyses of daily ocean (Ingraham & Ebbesmeyer, 2001) and
grid was tracked for up to 1,000 surface currents anywhere in a 90-km to forecast possible paths of JTMD
years, under the assumption that the North Pacific Ocean-wide grid from (Ebbesmeyer & Ingraham, 2012). To
prevailing winds and currents remain Baja California to China and from account for the varying amounts of
steady during the simulation period. windage on the different debris items,
Similar to the results of Kubota et al. model parameters for current speed
(2005), the simulations resulted in “The combination of and angle were adjusted systematically
areas of accumulation corresponding to determine which model trajectories
roughly to the centers of the five drifter and satellite data ended near reported landfall
subtropical gyres and associated areas locations.
of convergence. revealed new features of the Kubota (1994) used the same
The (Surface CUrrents from ocean surface mesoscale Lagrangian PTM as Wakata and
Diagnostic) SCUD model utilized Sugimori (1990) and derived surface
AVISO satellite altimetry to determine circulation...” current velocities in an approach
the geostrophic current component, similar to that used in the OSCURS

model, but used different data Ocean General Circulation surface winds, and satellite-tracked
sets on which to base calculations. Models (OGCMs) drifter trajectories. Systems have been
Geostrophic surface currents were developed for assimilating satellite
calculated on a 1°x 1° latitude- data, drifter data, and in situ vertical
longitude grid (~100km at mid- Prior to the proliferation of profiles of salinity, temperature, and
latitudes) from temperature and numerical ocean simulation models, depth obtained from ship-deployed
salinity data found in the Levitus a number of simplified analytic and instruments. While these in situ
(1982) atlas. Winds were obtained mechanistic models of basin-scale data are generally too sparse to
from monthly wind data (1° grid) ocean circulation were developed to characterize the horizontal variability,
in the Comprehensive Ocean- describe wind-driven flow (Sverdrup, they provide valuable information
Atmosphere Data Set (COADS) 1947; Stommel, 1948; Welander, about the vertical stratification
derived from ships, fixed research 1959), abyssal circulation (Stommel (Chassignet et al., 2007). Since
vessels, buoys, and other devices & Arons, 1960), and thermohaline OGCMs incorporate multiple vertical
(Slutz et al., 1985). The data were used effects (Wyrtki, 1961). The first levels, the surface currents they
to derive Ekman drift, geostrophic numerical simulation ocean model provide are connected to and reflect
currents, and combined currents in was developed by Kirk Bryan and the influence of processes or features
order to provide a mechanism for the Michael Cox (Bryan & Cox, 1967, (for example, mixing, stratification, or
observed accumulation of floating 1968; Bryan, 1969) at the Geophysical bottom topography) below the surface
debris (documented by Mio et al. Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) layer.
(1988)) in the North Pacific, especially in Princeton and is the predecessor A number of ocean modeling
north of Hawaii. to many ocean general circulation systems now exist, which can
Kubota et al. (2005) carried out a models (OGCMs) in use today. assimilate the available data in near-
similar set of simulations, but using Most ocean simulation models solve real time and provide daily outputs
satellite-derived measurements. the basic equations of motion (i.e., of model runs. Many of the global
Geostrophic currents were calculated primitive equations) on a horizontal OGCMs in use today operate at a
from TOPEX/POSEIDON altimetery grid (Figure 4a), where the spacing of horizontal grid resolution of 1/10°
and surface winds were derived from grid points determines the horizontal or less, which is sufficient to resolve
ERS-1/2 scatterometry. Simulations, resolution of the model. Vertical mesoscale eddies (see previous
which were run on a 1° x 1° grid processes (Figure 4b) are handled section for description). One such
(~100km) and initiated with pseudo- in various ways, by using several
marine debris distributed uniformly horizontal levels (velocities computed
over the grid, identified areas of at specific depths, z-coordinate), “... all numerical simulation
accumulation associated with the layers of different density (isopycnal,
five subtropical gyres and zones of ρ-coordinate), or a fixed number of models are limited in the
convergence, most notably an area of levels regardless of depth (terrain degree to which they are able
accumulation northeast of Hawaii. following, σ-coordinate).
Martinez, Maamaatuaiahutapu, Such models contribute greatly to represent the effects of
and Taillandier (2009) investigated to our understanding of oceanic
the accumulation and convergence processes that determine how
circulation, but all numerical
of floating debris in the eastern- simulation models are limited in and where water will move.”
central region of the South Pacific the degree to which they are able
subtropical gyre, using a PTM to represent the effects of processes
coupled to surface currents derived that determine how and where water eddy-resolving numerical circulation
in several different ways. In an initial will move. The complex dynamics model, the HYbrid Coordinate
experiment, surface currents were of ocean circulation occur on spatial Ocean Model (HYCOM*; Bleck et
calculated from satellite altimetry scales from millimeters to hundreds al., 2002), has been applied to global
(combined TOPEX/POSEIDON of kilometers and temporal scales ocean simulations at a resolution
and ERS-1/2) and sea surface wind from seconds to decades and beyond of 1/12° (6.5km on average), with
data (ERS-1/2 scatterometry) on a (Potemra, 2012). Limits on computing higher resolutions in basin-specific
1/3° grid. Comparisons were made resources require that sub-grid and regional applications (e.g., 1/25°,
to results obtained using a lower- scale processes be simplified or or ~3.5km, in the Gulf of Mexico).
resolution product (OSCAR, 1° approximated (i.e., parameterized) to High-resolution regional models
grid), also derived from satellite estimate their effects. Hence, practical can be nested within basin-scale or
altimetry and scatterometry winds. models must necessarily be simpler global models, with the larger scale
While they noted differences in than the real ocean. model providing initial conditions or
simulation results, the same large- Within the context of marine boundary conditions for the nested
scale trends in drift trajectories were debris transport modeling, OGCMs model.
found: convergence, eastward drift, provide the surface current velocities HYCOM uses a hybrid vertical
accumulation. that can be used to drive PTMs. coordinate system, where vertical
There has been an increase over the coordinates remain isopycnic
past 20 – 30 years in the amount (following surfaces of constant
and availability of satellite-derived density) in the open, stratified ocean.
measurements of sea-surface height However, they transition smoothly
(SSH), sea-surface temperature (SST), to z-coordinates in the weakly

a. using observations and short range
forecasts. This approach combines
information from past observations
brought forward in time by a model
(background, or first guess) with
information from new observations.
This best estimate of the current state
of the system, called an analysis, is
then used as the starting point for
the next analysis cycle. In HYCOM,
the analysis computes corrections
to the first-guess fields using all of
the observations (e.g., temperature,
salinity, SSH, velocity) that have
become available since the last
analysis was made (Cummings, 2005).
Data-assimilative ocean modeling
systems can provide short-term
b. forecasts (typically several days). In
most of the studies reviewed in this
paper, these models have been used
in hindcasting debris transport, over
the time period for which data are
available, up to the present. However,
these types of models can also be
employed to do statistical probability
modeling to make predictions much
in the same way the historical data has
been used.
“most of the studies reviewed...

have been used in hindcasting
debris transport...”
Figure 4. Illustrations of a) horizontal (global and nested regional) grids,
b) approaches for handling vertical processes.
Linked Ocean General
Circulation Models - Particle
stratified upper-ocean mixed layer, to “A number of ocean modeling Tracking Models
terrain-following sigma coordinates
in shallow-water regions, and back systems now exist, which can
Yoon, Kawano, and Igawa (2010)
to level coordinates in very shallow assimilate the available data simulated marine debris drift and
water (Chassignet, Smith, Halliwell, beaching in the Japan Sea using a
& Bleck, 2003; Chassignet et al., 2006; in near-real time and provide Lagrangian PTM coupled to ocean
Chassignet et al., 2007; Wallcraft, current velocities provided by the
Carroll, Kelly, & Rushing, 2003). daily outputs of model runs.”
Japan Sea Forecasting System from
HYCOM is being used by a broad the Research Institute for Applied
partnership of institutions in the expendable bathythermographs Mechanics ocean circulation model
United States to build global, basin- (XBT), conductivity-temperature (RIAM OCM) and to wind data
scale, and regional ocean current depth (CTD) profilers, and profiling from the Global Spectral Model of
and water properties prediction floats (e.g., Argo, which measures the Japan Meteorological Agency.
systems (Chassignet et al., 2006; temperature and salinity in the The RIAM OCM is an example of a
Chassignet et al., 2007) in the context upper 2000 m of the ocean), as z-coordinate model, where the model
of a coordinated international effort, well as from statistics determined operates on multiple horizontal layers
The Global Ocean Data Assimilation using past observations in a in the vertical dimension. This is the
Experiment (GODAE). The HYCOM process called data assimilation. simplest choice of vertical coordinate,
system integrates the numerical A technique commonly used in where z represents the vertical
model with information about the weather forecasting and prediction, distance (i.e., depth) from a resting
ocean surface’s space-time variability the purpose of data assimilation is to ocean surface at z = 0 (Griffies et al.,
obtained from instruments aboard determine a best possible ocean state 2000). The RIAM OCM operates at a
satellites, vertical profiles from

horizontal resolution of 1/12° (~6km estimated by the inverse method year (1994-2007) to consider potential
at mid-latitudes). by hindcasting quantities of debris influence of seasonal variation in
Isobe, Kako, Chang, and Matsuno actually observed using the forward- ocean currents on marine debris
(2009) adopted the Princeton Ocean in-time PTM. Particle outflows sources and receptors for each release.
Model (POM; Blumberg & Mellor, computed using the inverse method The General NOAA Operational
1987), a regional, terrain-following are given for each source and month, Modeling Environment (GNOME*)
model, with a horizontal grid spacing and particle motion is governed by is an interactive environmental
of 1/12° (~9km), to compute the surface currents computed in an ocean simulation system designed for
current field covering the Yellow circulation model (POM) driven by the rapid modeling of pollutant
Sea, the East China Sea, and part of QuikSCAT/SeaWinds data. Quantity trajectories in the marine environment
the North Pacific. Terrain-following of beach debris was also forecast using (Zelenke, O’Connor, Barker, Beegle-
models are particularly useful for the same ocean circulation model, Krause, & Eclipse, 2012) that has also
studying regional ocean circulation but short-term (34-day) forecast wind recently been applied to the modeling
in coastal areas since they provide a data from the Japan Meteorological of JTMD. GNOME is a modular and
smooth representation of the ocean Business Support Center (JMBSC) integrated software system that accepts
bottom topography (see for example, were used in lieu of driving the model input in the form of maps, bathymetry,
Veneziani, Edwards, Doyle, and by QuikSCAT/Seawinds observed numerical circulation models,
Foley (2009)), and subtle details in data. The hindcast computation was location and type of spilled substance,
ocean bathymetry can make the conducted in parallel with the forecast oceanographic and meteorological
difference between erroneous and computations, and the hindcasted observations, and other environmental
accurate simulations of the large-scale particle positions at the beginning of data. Spilled substances are modeled in
circulation (Gille & Smith, 2003). each forecast computation were used GNOME as point masses, or particles,
Using surface currents obtained from for the initial condition in forecasting whose trajectories depend on “movers”,
the POM, Isobe et al. (2009) then used the particle positions. Model hindcast which include winds, currents, and
a two-way PTM to specify statistically performance was validated (that horizontal diffusion.
significant starting locations (sources) is, model predictions compared to For the JTMD application, GNOME
of drifting objects carried by ocean observations) by estimating the area used currents from HYCOM,
currents. First, a backward-in-time covered by debris on the surveyed described previously. GNOME
PTM was used to identify multiple beach using sequential snapshots taken produced a regular series of hindcasts
candidate sources for an initial ending by a webcam (Kako et al., 2010b). of the probable location of debris
location (receptor) by releasing virtual Hardesty and Wilcox (2011) since the last update cycle. In addition
particles carried by modeled ambient investigated potential sources and to particle trajectories forced by
currents with direction reversed receptors of floating marine debris HYCOM surface currents, observed
in sign for both horizontal current around the Australian continent using near real-time winds (NOAA blended
components. The number of particles a 2-way PTM together with an eddy- winds product) were incorporated
at each source suggests the probability resolving (1/12° in the Australian into the model runs and combined
of the object sources. Second, using a region studied) OGCM based on with estimated debris windage
forward-in-time PTM, particles were the Modular Ocean Model (MOM4; based on USCG Search and Rescue
released from all source candidates Griffies, Harrison, Pacanowski, & research data. Simulated particles were
identified in the backward-in-time Rosati, 2004), which is an example randomly assigned windage values
PTM to specify statistically significant of a z-coordinate model as described from 1-5%, meaning that they were
object sources: after a specified above. Release points of virtual moved not only by ocean currents,
amount of time, a candidate source is particles were based on debris data but were also moved by 1-5% of wind
considered statistically significant if collected by various organizations speed in the downwind direction
the true (known) receptor falls within involved in beach cleanups and state (NOAA MDP, 2014c).
a region that is two times the standard agencies that have operating marine Lebreton, Greer, and Borrero
deviation of the distance between debris monitoring programs. In (2012) simulated the transport and
simulated particle positions and their one simulation, the PTM was run accumulation of marine debris,
averaged position (Isobe et al., 2009). backward in time from four of the particularly floating plastic, by
In a subsequent study, Kako, Isobe, beach cleanup sites to identify possible extracting surface currents from
Seino, and Kojima (2010a) compared sources. Additional experiments ran the HYCOM system (Cummings,
model outputs obtained as described the PTM forward in time to simulate 2005), and then coupling the velocity
above to the results of a beach debris releases from locations (sources) data extracted from HYCOM to
survey carried out every two months at the boundary of the Australian the Lagrangian PTM Pol3DD
from 2007 through 2008. Additionally, Exclusive Economic Zone and from (Black, 1996). The Pol3DD model
they applied an inverse method using major population centers along the tracks virtual particles to simulate
the beach survey results to compute Australian coast. The PTM allowed for waterborne dispersion of material
the quantity of debris (object outflows) specifying various values of windage including neutrally buoyant
originating from each source detected (i.e., leeway drift, influence of the drag anthropogenic material, larvae, oil
in the two-way PTM. force exerted directly by winds). They spills, outfall discharges, and estuarine
Building on the previous two ran the particle tracking code using or beach sediment transport (Lebreton
studies described above, Kako et al. five different windage values for each et al., 2012). While the full HYCOM
(2011) and Kako, Isobe, Kataoka, and release area, tracking the released model contains 32 vertical layers,
Hinata (2014) validated the source particles over 80 days. The model was only velocities in the surface layer
quantities (outflows) of marine debris also run twice (January and July) each were considered as the principal

Model Name SCUD OSCURS GNOME
Surface CUrrents from General NOAA Oceanographic
Model Full Name James Ingraham
Diagnostic Modeling Environment
NOAA Alaska Fisheries Science
Nikolai Maximenko,
Lead Scientists Center \ Resource Ecology and
Jan Hafner NOAA Office of Response &
Fisheries Management
Restoration Team
North Pacific Ocean,
Organization University of Hawaii
Bering Sea
US Navy Fleet Numerical
Meteorology & Oceanography
Pacific Ocean Center sea level pressure data Global oceans, though most
Areas Primarily Used applications in territorial
Indian Ocean Long term average waters of United States
distributions/measurements
of forcing
AVISO for currents and
Forcing Data Sources
US Navy Fleet Numerical Varied: GNOME can integrate
Commonly Used QuikSCAT for winds,
Meteorology & Oceanography forcing data from multiple
(in known debris applications) With debris coefficients tuned
Center sea level pressure data sources
to velocities from Global
Drifter Program
Japan Tsunami Marine Oil spill modeling
Debris (JTMD)
Incident debris modeling
Long term average
General N. Pacific debris
Example Applications distributions/measurements
concentration and Ad-hoc support of response
of forcing
movement patters agency trajectory requests
MH370 debris hindcast JTMD

http://apdrc.soest.hawaii. http://www.afsc.noaa.gov/REFM/ http://response.restoration.
Website
edu/datadoc/scud.php docs/oscurs/get_to_know.htm noaa.gov/gnome
Transport model approaches frequently used to estimate debris movement.
driver of floating particles. Their Pacific gyre/accumulation zone and the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth
simulation results were in agreement pushed towards the west coast of Science and Technology (JAMSTEC)
with both measured and modeled North America or the windward to reproduce the dynamic state of
descriptions of concentrations of shores of the Hawaiian Islands. the seasonal to interannual time
floating debris, showing areas of However, the bulk of the material scale global climate and to create
accumulation associated with the would eventually accumulate in areas a comprehensive reanalysis and
five major ocean-wide gyres (North of subtropical convergence associated forecast dataset of ocean currents
Atlantic, South Atlantic, North Pacific, with the North Pacific Subtropical and and ocean surface winds (MOEJ
South Pacific, and Indian Ocean). Subpolar gyres, adding significantly to 2014). Additionally, particle diffusion
In contrast to models starting from the total mass of debris contained in simulations were carried out using
initial uniform distribution of floating the “Great Pacific Garbage Patch”. a particle random-walk model, the
objects (for example, Maximenko et The Government of Japan and SEA-GEARN, developed at the Japan
al. (2012), described in the previous Kyoto University researchers have Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA). The
section), Lebreton et al. (2012) conducted simulations of JTMD SEA-GEARN uses ocean current data
evaluated scenarios of debris input drift and transport using the Japan calculated by an OGCM as input
determined by the relative proportion Meteorological Research Institute variables. Wind drift current and
of impervious watershed area, coastal (MRI) Multivariate Ocean Variational leeway, with parameters determined
population density, or global shipping Estimation system (MOVE; Usui et for various kinds of debris by the Japan
routes to produce more realistic al., 2006). The OGCM used in the Coast Guard, also were incorporated
estimates of the relative concentrations MOVE system is the eddy-resolving into the experiments (MOEJ 2014).
of debris in accumulation zones. (1/10°) Meteorological Research Model predictions were validated
Lebreton and Borrero (2013) used a Institute Community Ocean Model against information on sightings of
similar modeling approach to simulate (MRI COM; Tsujino et al., 2010). Data debris reported by ships, as well as
dispersion and transport of JTMD. assimilation and forecast experiments high-resolution image analysis based
Their results suggested that some were performed by using the coupled on synthetic aperture radar (SAR)
isolated debris items would be shed atmosphere-ocean 4D-VAR data satellite observations.
from the clockwise-rotating North assimilation system developed by

CONCLUSION
State of the Science with dense concentrations in the satellite altimetry, scatterometry, and
area of the North Pacific Subtropical gravity measurements to calculate
High (Eastern Garbage Patch, Figure surface current velocities, but with
Although knowledge of large-scale 3). Additional simulations revealed
ocean surface currents has existed model parameters tuned to reproduce
similar convergence features in velocities derived from trajectories of
since the Age of Sail in the 16th to mid-latitude regions of other ocean
19th centuries, the increased accuracy standard drifters drogued at 15 meters
basins. Currents derived from satellite depth (Maximenko & Hafner, 2010).
and availability of oceanographic altimetry and scatterometry were also
measurements in recent decades has The approaches for modeling
used to drive a PTM in simulations of surface currents based on long-term
helped to refine and improve surface debris drift and accumulation in the
current models. average conditions provide a means
South Pacific Ocean (Martinez et al., of predicting the likely paths of
Modeling simulations using a 2009). The simulations were initiated
Lagrangian PTM driven by currents marine debris, with the models often
with virtual particles homogeneously tuned, calibrated, or adjusted using
derived from ship drift data (Wakata distributed on a 1/3° grid, and also
& Sugimori, 1990) suggested regions information on reported sighting
with targeted releases from South locations. These models are not able
of the world’s oceans (5° x 5° global America, Australia, New Zealand,
grid) where surface currents would to represent small-scale oceanic
and South Pacific Island nations. The processes, such as mesoscale eddies,
result in areas of debris accumulation. results suggested that debris would be
Subsequent studies using in situ nor do they model coastal processes,
transported and concentrated in the such as tides, freshwater inputs, and
measurements of temperature, salinity, eastern portion of the South Pacific
and depth to calculate geostrophic estuarine circulation. Hence, such
Subtropical Gyre. Windage of drifting models are not accurate in nearshore
currents and surface winds to derive objects was not considered in either
Ekman currents together with a PTM areas or in areas where mesoscale
study. turbulence might be expected to have
also suggested zones of accumulation,
focusing on the North Pacific a large or frequent impact on overall
Ocean basin at a spatial resolution “The availability of global patterns of water movement (Walter,
of approximately 1° x 1° (Ingraham satellite measurements Scandol, & Healey, 1997). The value
& Miyahara, 1988; Kubota, 1994). of these models is in their ability to
These latter studies initially did represented a significant forecast or predict the transport of
not incorporate an adjustment for debris resulting from long-term mean
windage of drifting objects, although advance in our ability to circulation patterns.
later applications of the OSCURS model ocean surface currents In contrast to forecast models
model (Ebbesmeyer & Ingraham, based on long-term mean currents,
1994, 2012; Ebbesmeyer et al., 2007) and floating debris with OGCMs are regularly updated with
added a windage factor, used to tune satellite-derived surface measurements
model parameters so that simulations greater accuracy. “ of SSH, SST, and winds, as well as in
matched closely the known trajectories situ vertical profile measurements of
of debris items. Simulated release Besides the Lagrangian particle- temperature, salinity, and depth, and
locations of virtual drifters were tracking approaches described above, simulate three-dimensional dynamics.
uniformly distributed over the which describe the trajectories of OGCMs simulate the state of the ocean
model grid (Wakata & Sugimori, virtual particles, statistical models at a particular instant in time, based
1990; Kubota, 1994), targeted on have also been developed to describe on the most recent (near real-time)
known debris spill locations (e.g., the evolution of tracer density over measurements. Hence, in most of
Ebbesmeyer & Ingraham, 1994), or an Eulerian grid. One such statistical the examples presented in this paper,
evenly spaced along a specific length model of drifter spread (Maximenko et OGCMs have been used in hindcasting
of coastline (e.g., area of the Japanese al., 2012) used satellite-tracked drifter applications, although statistical
coast impacted by the 2011 tsunami; trajectories to calculate the probability methods can be used to produce
Ebbesmeyer & Ingraham, 2012). of a drifter to move between bins of forecasts, as pointed out previously.
Using altimetry data to calculate size ½° x ½° over a time step of 5 days Besides their capacity to model the
geostrophic currents and scatterometry for 10 years, starting from a condition ocean in three dimensions, another
to derive wind-driven Ekman currents, of uniform tracer distribution. advantage of OGCMs is their ability
PTM simulations were initialized with Rather than following individual to resolve finer-scale (mesoscale)
virtual particles distributed uniformly trajectories of many simulated drifters processes, with some regional models
on each 1° x 1° grid in the North over time, these kinds of statistical capable of 1/25° to 1/36° horizontal
Pacific Ocean (Kubota et al., 2005). models describe the distribution and resolution and 20 to 30 vertical layers.
The simulations resulted in areas of density of tracers throughout the Several different OGCMs have
accumulation corresponding roughly grid domain at each time step. The been used as sources of information
to the North Pacific Subtropical Surface CUrrents from Diagnostic on surface currents to drive PTMs,
Convergence Zone (see Figure 3), model (SCUD model) combines depending on the specific application.

For the Yellow Sea, East China Sea, used HYCOM currents together with Recommendations
Japan Sea, and the Asian-Australian the GNOME pollution spill model to
region studies presented earlier, investigate the movement of JTMD.
surface currents were derived from the In this application, 1,000 simulated Future research should focus on
z-coordinate RIAM OCM (Yoon et al., particles were released from each of 8 improvements to existing models,
2010) and MOM (Hardesty & Wilcox, locations on the Japan coastline where particularly nesting of high-resolution
2011), or the terrain-following POM tsunami wave heights were 3.5 meters regional models within basin-scale
(Isobe et al., 2009; Kako et al., 2010a; or greater. In another investigation, or global models. Global and basin-
Kako et al., 2011; Kako et al., 2014). the Japan Meteorological Institute’s scale models have suggested regions
Simulated releases were from uniform MRI COM provided surface currents of convergence where debris is likely
initial distribution, or targeted releases for simulations of JTMD transport to be concentrated. Higher-resolution
from large cities, major rivers, or other (MOEJ, 2014). Surface currents from models targeting specific areas
known sources of debris (e.g., beach an eddy-resolving (1/10° grid) ocean could be useful in providing insight
debris survey locations). One- and model were used together with a PTM into finer-scale patterns of debris
two-way PTMs were used in these (which also incorporates windage) accumulation or dispersion. The North
studies, but the ability of the two-way to provide short-term forecasts. The Pacific Ocean has been the focus of
PTM approach to identify statistically- results of these short-term forecasts many studies, and for good reason:
significant sources provides an provided initial conditions for long it is the largest of the world’s oceans
advantage over one-way PTMs (Isobe term forecasts (more than 2 years) and is located in the more highly-
et al., 2009). Some of these studies using surface currents from a coupled developed northern hemisphere.
incorporated adjustments for windage ocean-atmosphere model (“K7”; However, additional studies of other
or investigated effects of release Sugiura et al., 2008). ocean basins, particularly those with
quantities, debris types, and buoyancy a regional application, could help
ratios on movement and beaching to shed light on local patterns of
characteristics of debris. Horizontal transport and fate. Approaches similar
spatial resolution of these models has to those applied in the Yellow Sea and
ranged from 1/6° – 1/12°. Japan Sea (Isobe et al., 2009; Kako et
Surface currents provided by al., 2010a; Kako et al., 2011; Kako et
HYCOM on a 1/12° global grid have al., 2014) using a two-way PTM to
been used to drive PTMs in other identify statistically-significant sources
studies that investigated different of debris could be useful in focusing
debris release quantities (Lebreton et efforts to reduce debris loadings.
al., 2012; Lebreton & Borrero, 2013) Long-term historical measurements
or windage values for various debris of temperature, salinity, depth, and
types (NOAA MDP, 2014c). The latter winds from a variety of sources have
Key Outputs
Increased accuracy and availability of oceanographic wind and current measurements has provided opportunity
for significant and relatively rapid improvement in modeling.
Improved understanding and quantification of windage has improved application of wind data to better esti
mate the speed and direction of debris movement, and its eventual fate.
For long term forward-looking estimates, modeling methods that use statistical long term averages of forcing
(currents & winds) or drifter data can give a good picture of debris movement based on those averages. How
ever, they cannot anticipate fine scale temporal or spatial variations in forcing (e.g. to estimate the weather for
some time in the future, looking at an almanac can tell you the general trends for a given location and timeframe,
but not a specific forecast for a given day in the future).
For short-term trajectories, modeling approaches that use detailed forecasts of currents & winds (forcing) can
provide fine scale temporal and spatial projections of debris movement, but are limited by the availability and
duration of those forecasts, typically only 72 hours into the future as of this writing.
Additional research & data on the behavior and life cycles of debris over time will improve modeling. The effects
of bio-fouling and degradation and the resulting change in the behavior of an object over time can have a signifi
cant impact on the object’s fate and movement.
Improved communications and information sharing between the modeling community and those collecting real-
world observations of debris concentrations and behavior have the potential to help validate and even improve
modeling processes, products and accuracy.

been used to calculate geostrophic and measured in the field that could
Ekman currents, and have provided provide a source of model calibration
a means of forecasting large-scale data. A number of at-sea field
movement of debris. However, there data collection efforts have been
are now several decades of satellite undertaken, involving researchers
altimetry, scatterometry, gravity from various organizations and
measurements, and drifter trajectories institutions. Some examples include:
from which to derive surface currents Sea Education Association (Law et
and circulation patterns, as well as al., 2010; Law et al., 2014; Morét-
additional in situ measurements Ferguson et al., 2010), Five Gyres
of temperature, salinity, and other Institute, Algalita Marine Research
parameters. With the development of and Education, and related efforts
systems to assimilate the data and to (e.g., Eriksen et al., 2013; Eriksen et
provide increased accessibility of the al., 2014). Establishing a common
data online, maps of ocean surface measurement protocol, debris
currents can be produced with ever- definition, and data storage and
higher levels of accuracy. Similarly, retrieval system to give modelers
operational OGCMs provide near-real access to systematic, coherent data
time depictions of ocean circulation sets on floating marine debris is
with high resolution (1/36° for some needed.
regional models). While most of the
applications in this paper have used
such models to hindcast debris, the
forecasting capability of these models
should improve as model outputs
increase and as a long-term record of
these kinds of data expands. The use
of coupled atmosphere-ocean models
to extend forecasting ability (as in
MOEJ, 2014) should be explored
further.
Also needed are experiments that
provide insight into the life cycle
of different kinds of debris. Effects
of windage, encrusting organisms,
and degradation on debris behavior
should be explored, and models
could be refined to include these
effects on different debris types.
Investigations into nearshore and
surf-zone dynamics of debris
movement, deposition, and refloating
also could help to inform marine
debris models. Additionally, increased
interaction and communication
between modelers and individuals
involved in the collection of data
related to marine debris monitoring
and detection could help to refine
modeling efforts. Accurate data on
observed debris concentrations can
either validate or improve parameters
and starting conditions for models,
while model outputs can be helpful
in focusing monitoring and detection
efforts.
Global circulation debris models
are all likely to give similar results
in terms of convergence zones
and areas of accumulation. A gap
exists, however, in terms of linking
with information on real-world
observations of relative debris
concentrations and particle densities

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GLOSSARY
AVISO - Archiving, Validation and Interpretation of Satellite Oceanographic data. Aviso distributes satellite altimetry
data from Topex/Poseidon, Jason-1, ERS-1 and ERS-2, EnviSat, and Doris precise orbit determination and positioning
products.
Coriolis effect - Apparent force that must be included if Newton’s laws of motion are to be used in a rotating system.
First described by Gustave Gaspard Coriolis (1792–1843) in 1835, the force acts to the right of the direction of body
motion for counterclockwise rotation and to the left for clockwise rotation. On Earth, an object that moves along a
north-south path, or longitudinal line, will be apparently deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to
the left in the Southern Hemisphere. The deflection is related to the motion of the object, the motion of the Earth, and
latitude.
Ekman flow - The Ekman spiral, named after Swedish scientist Vagn Walfrid Ekman (1874-1954) who first theorized it
in 1902, is a consequence of the Coriolis effect. When surface water molecules move by the force of the wind, they drag
deeper layers of water molecules with them. Each layer of water molecules is moved by friction from the shallower layer,
and each deeper layer moves more slowly than the layer above it, until the movement ceases at a depth of about 100
meters (330 feet). Like the surface water, however, the deeper water is deflected by the Coriolis effect—to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. As a result, each successively deeper layer of water
moves more slowly to the right or left, creating a spiral effect. Because the deeper layers of water move more slowly than
the shallower layers, they tend to “twist around” and flow opposite to the surface current.
ERS-1/2 - European Remote Sensing satellites (ERS-1, ERS-2).
Eulerian-Lagrangian - In fluid dynamics the Eulerian-Lagrangian specification of the flow field is a way of looking at
fluid (or particle) motion. In the Eulerian framework, velocities of the flow are given at fixed points in space as time
varies (this can be visualized as measuring the flow of a river from a fixed location on the riverbank). In the Lagrangian
framework, the observer follows an individual fluid parcel as it moves through space and time (this can be visualized as
sitting in a boat and drifting down a river).
Geostrophic flow - The horizontal movement of surface water arising from a balance between the pressure gradient
force and the Coriolis force.
GNOME - General NOAA Operational Modeling Environment. GNOME is an interactive environmental simulation
system designed for the rapid modeling of pollutant/particle trajectories in the marine environment.
Gyre - Component of a large system of circular ocean currents formed by global wind patterns and forces created by
Earth’s rotation. There are five major ocean gyres: North Atlantic, South Atlantic, Indian, North Pacific, and South
Pacific.
Hindcast - A way of testing a mathematical model. Known or closely estimated inputs for past events are entered into
the model to see how well the output matches the known results.
HYCOM - HYbrid Coordinate Ocean Model. An eddy-resolving numerical Ocean General Circulation Model
(OGCM*).
Jason-1/2 – NASA’s altimetry satellites, used to measure sea surface height. Jason-1 and Jason-2 are the successors to
TOPEX/POSEIDON.
JTMD - Japan Tsunami Marine Debris.
OCGM - Ocean General Circulation Model.
OSCAR - Ocean Surface Current Analysis - Real time. A collaborative project to derive ocean surface currents from
satellite altimeter and scatterometer data.
OSCURS - Ocean Surface CURrent Simulations.

PTM - Particle Tracking Model.
QuikSCAT/SeaWinds - NASA’s Quick Scatterometer satellite. The SeaWinds instrument on the QuikSCAT satellite is a
specialized microwave radar that measures near-surface wind speed and direction under all weather and cloud conditions
over Earth’s oceans.
SCUD - Surface CUrrents from Diagnostic model. A simple diagnostic model that utilizes AVISO satellite altimetry to
determine geostrophic current component, and QuikSCAT ocean surface wind data to calculate the wind-driven Ekman
component.
Stokes drift - The average velocity of a particle floating at the ocean surface, caused by wave motion. A particle on the
surface experiences a net Stokes drift velocity in the direction of wave propagation.
TOPEX/POSEIDON - A joint satellite altimetry mission between NASA, the U.S. space agency, and CNES, the French
space agency, to measure sea surface height (i.e., map the ocean surface topography).

Penny Pritzker
United States Secretary of Commerce
Dr. Kathryn D. Sullivan
Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere
Dr. Russell Callendar
Assistant Administrator, National Ocean Service

Modeling Oceanic Transport of Floating Marine Debris

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2016 NOAA Marine Debris Program Report

2016 MARINE DEBRIS MODELING REPORT

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

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Ocean General Circulation Models 8

Linked Ocean General Circulation Models

State of the Science 13

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Ocean dynamics are governed by

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Overview Surface Currents

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“most of the studies reviewed...

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MH370 debris hindcast JTMD

Transport model approaches frequently used to estimate debris movement.

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ERS-1/2 - European Remote Sensing satellites (ERS-1, ERS-2).

JTMD - Japan Tsunami Marine Debris.

OCGM - Ocean General Circulation Model.

OSCURS - Ocean Surface CURrent Simulations.

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United States Secretary of Commerce

Dr. Kathryn D. Sullivan

Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere

Dr. Russell Callendar

Assistant Administrator, National Ocean Service

2016 MARINE DEBRIS MODELING REPORT

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