RELAY

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a

switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used
where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation
between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one
signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming
in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in telephone
exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.A type of relay that can handle the
high power required to directly drive an electric motor is called a contactor. Solid-state relays
control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform
switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating
coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overloadfaults; in modern electric power systems
these functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".

Fig 6.1: Automotive-style miniature relay, dust cover is taken off

BASIC DESIGN AND OPERATION:

Fig 6.2: Simple electromechanical relay

Fig 6.3: Small relay as used in electronics

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core, an
iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and
one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to the
yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place by a
spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this
condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open.
Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in
the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the
circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit
board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that
attracts the armature and the consequent movement of the movable contact either makes or
breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts
was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks
the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched
off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its
relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in
industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage
application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing.

When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to
dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise
generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Some automotive
relays include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection network
consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series (snubber circuit) may absorb the surge. If the coil
is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), a small copper "shading ring" can be
crimped to the end of the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase current which increases the
minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.

A solid-state relay uses a thyristor or other solid-state switching device, activated by the
control signal, to switch the controlled load, instead of a solenoid. An optocoupler (a light-
emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor) can be used to isolate control and
controlled circuits.

TYPES:

a) LATCHING RELAY:

Fig : Latching relay with permanent magnet

 A latching relay has two relaxed states (bistable). These are also called "impulse",
"keep", or "stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the relay remains in its last state. This
is achieved with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing
coils with an over-center spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in
position while the coil is relaxed, or with a remanent core. In the ratchet and cam example, the
first pulse to the coil turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil example,
a pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay off. This type
of relay has the advantage that it consumes power only for an instant, while it is being switched,
and it retains its last setting across a power outage. A remanent core latching relay requires a
current pulse of opposite polarity to make it change state.

b) REED RELAY:

A reed relay is a reed switch enclosed in a solenoid. The switch has a set of contacts
inside an evacuated or inert gas-filled glass tube which protects the contacts against atmospheric
corrosion; the contacts are made of magnetic material that makes them move under the influence
of the field of the enclosing solenoid. Reed relays can switch faster than larger relays, require
only little power from the control circuit, but have low switching current and voltage ratings.

Fig: Top, middle: reed switches, bottom: reed relay

c) MERCURY-WETTED RELAY:

A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted with
mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less) where the mercury
reduces the contact resistance and associated voltage drop, for low-current signals where surface
contamination may make for a poor contact, or for high-speed applications where the mercury
eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are position-sensitive and must be mounted
vertically to work properly. Because of the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these relays
are now rarely used. See also mercury switch.

d) POLARIZED RELAY:

A polarized relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to
increase sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th Century telephone exchanges to
detect faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on screws, so a technician
could first adjust them for maximum sensitivity and then apply a bias spring to set the critical
current that would operate the relay.

e) MACHINE TOOL RELAY:

A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools,
transfer machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large number of
contacts (sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted from normally-open to
normally-closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly
installing many relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were the backbone of
automation in such industries as automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller (PLC)
mostly displaced the machine tool relay from sequential control applications.

f) CONTACTOR RELAY:

A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting
loads, although contactors are not generally called relays. Continuous current ratings for
common contactors range from 10 amps to several hundred amps. High-current contacts are
made with alloys containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the contacts to oxidize;
however, silver oxide is still a good conductor.[2] Such devices are often used for motor starters.
A motor starter is a contactor with overload protection devices attached. The overload sensing
devices are a form of heat operated relay where a coil heats a bi-metal strip, or where a solder pot
melts, releasing a spring to operate auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary contacts are in series with
the coil. If the overload senses excess current in the load, the coil is de-energized. Contactor
relays can be extremely loud to operate, making them unfit for use where noise is a chief
concern.

g)SOLID-STATE RELAY:

Fig:Solid state relay, which has no moving parts

Fig:25 A& 40 A solid state contactors

A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar
function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components, increasing
long-term reliability. With early SSR's, the tradeoff came from the fact that every transistor has a
small voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited the amount of current a given SSR could
handle. As transistors improved, higher current SSR's, able to handle 100 to 1,200 Amperes,
have become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they may be falsely
triggered by transients.

h) SOLID STATE CONTACTOR RELAY:

A solid state contactor is a heavy-duty solid state relay, including the necessary heat sink,
used for switching electric heaters, small electric motors and lighting loads; where frequent
on/off cycles are required. There are no moving parts to wear out and there is no contact bounce
due to vibration. They are activated by AC control signals or DC control signals from
Programmable logic controller (PLCs), PCs, Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) sources, or other
microprocessor and microcontroller controls.

i) BUCHHOLZ RELAY:

A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oil-filled
transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down the transformer if gas
is produced rapidly in the transformer oil.

j) FORCED-GUIDED CONTACTS RELAY:

A forced-guided contacts relay has relay contacts that are mechanically linked together,
so that when the relay coil is energized or de-energized, all of the linked contacts move together.
If one set of contacts in the relay becomes immobilized, no other contact of the same relay will
be able to move. The function of forced-guided contacts is to enable the safety circuit to check
the status of the relay. Forced-guided contacts are also known as "positive-guided contacts",
"captive contacts", "locked contacts", or "safety relays".

k) OVERLOAD PROTECTION RELAY:

Electric motors need over current protection to prevent damage from over-loading the
motor, or to protect against short circuits in connecting cables or internal faults in the motor
windings. One type of electric motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating element
in series with the electric motor. The heat generated by the motor current heats a bimetallic strip
or melts solder, releasing a spring to operate contacts. Where the overload relay is exposed to the
same environment as the motor, a useful though crude compensation for motor ambient
temperature is provided.

l) POLE AND THROW:

Fig : Pole and Throw

Circuit symbols of relays. (C denotes the common terminal in SPDT and DPDT types.)

Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays. A relay
will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil in
one of three ways:

 Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is
disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form A contact or "make" contact. NO
contacts can also be distinguished as "early-make" or NOEM, which means that the contacts will
close before the button or switch is fully engaged.
 Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is
connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form B contact or "break" contact. NC
contacts can also be distinguished as "late-break" or NCLB, which means that the contacts will
stay closed until the button or switch is fully disengaged.
 Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits: one normally-open
contact and one normally-closed contact with a common terminal. It is also called a Form C
 contact or "transfer" contact ("break before make"). If this type of contact utilizes a "make
before break" functionality, then it is called a Form D contact.

The following designations are commonly encountered:

 SPST – Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can be connected or
disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals in total. It is ambiguous
whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The terminology "SPNO" and "SPNC" is
sometimes used to resolve the ambiguity.
 SPDT – Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to either of two others.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in total.
 DPST – Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals. Equivalent to two SPST
switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay has six
terminals in total. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of each).
 DPDT – Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-over terminals. Equivalent
to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Such a relay has eight terminals,
including the coil.

The "S" or "D" may be replaced with a number, indicating multiple switches connected to a
single actuator. For example 4PDT indicates a four pole double throw relay (with 14 terminals).

EN 50005 are among applicable standards for relay terminal numbering; a typical EN 50005-
compliant SPDT relay's terminals would be numbered 11, 12, 14, A1 and A2 for the C, NC, NO,
and coil connections, respectively.

APPLICATIONS:

Relays are used to and for:

 Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems or audio
amplifiers,
 Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the startersolenoid of an
automobile,
 Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing circuit
breakers (protection relays),

Fig: A DPDT AC coil relay with "ice cube" packaging

 Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different
potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage switch.
The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily installed in
partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may also be controlled by room
occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve energy,
 Logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realised by connecting normally open
relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting normally open contacts in parallel. The
change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function. Similar functions for
NAND and NOR are accomplished using normally closed contacts. The Ladder programming
language is often used for designing relay logic networks.
o Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays were used as logical
elements in digital computers. See ARRA (computer), Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and Zuse
Z3.
o Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant than semiconductors to
nuclear radiation, they are widely used in safety-critical logic, such as the control panels
of radioactive waste-handling machinery.
  Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay closing a set of contacts.
A very short (a fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk between the armature and
moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field for a short time,
lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is used. A
dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly. The time period can be
varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a mechanical
clockwork timer is installed.

Selection of an appropriate relay for a particular application requires evaluation of many

different factors:

 Number and type of contacts – normally open, normally closed, (double-throw)

 Contact sequence – "Make before Break" or "Break before Make". For example, the old style
telephone exchanges required Make-before-break so that the connection didn't get dropped
while dialling the number.
 Rating of contacts – small relays switch a few amperes, large contactors are rated for up to 3000
amperes, alternating or direct current
 Voltage rating of contacts – typical control relays rated 300 VAC or 600 VAC, automotive types
to 50 VDC, special high-voltage relays to about 15 000 V
 Coil voltage – machine-tool relays usually 24 VAC, 120 or 250 VAC, relays for switchgear may
have 125 V or 250 VDC coils, "sensitive" relays operate on a few milliamperes
 Coil current
 Package/enclosure – open, touch-safe, double-voltage for isolation between circuits, explosion
proof, outdoor, oil and splash resistant, washable for printed circuit board assembly
 Assembly – Some relays feature a sticker that keeps the enclosure sealed to allow PCB post
soldering cleaning, which is removed once assembly is complete.
 Mounting – sockets, plug board, rail mount, panel mount, through-panel mount, enclosure for
mounting on walls or equipment
 Switching time – where high speed is required
 "Dry" contacts – when switching very low level signals, special contact materials may be needed
such as gold-plated contacts
 Contact protection – suppress arcing in very inductive circuits
 Coil protection – suppress the surge voltage produced when switching the coil current
 Isolation between coil circuit and contacts
 Aerospace or radiation-resistant testing, special quality assurance
 Expected mechanical loads due to acceleration – some relays used in aerospace applications are
designed to function in shock loads of 50 g or more
 Accessories such as timers, auxiliary contacts, pilot lamps, test buttons
 Regulatory approvals
 Stray magnetic linkage between coils of adjacent relays on a printed circuit board.