FUNDAMENTALS OF

FLUID MECHANICS
Chapter 11 Analysis of
Compressible Flow

Jyh-Cherng Shieh
Department of Bio-Industrial Mechatronics Engineering
National Taiwan University
1
MAIN TOPICS

™Ideal Gas Relationships

™Mach Number and Speed of Sound
™Categories of Compressible Flow
™Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas
™Nonisentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas
™Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow

2
Ideal Gas Relationships

3
Introduction
™ Fluid compressibility is a very important consideration in numerous
engineering applications of fluid mechanics. For example,
►The measurement of high-speed flow velocities requires
compressible flow theory.
►The flows in gas turbine engine components are generally
compressible.
►Many aircraft fly fast enough to involve a compressible flow
field.
™ In this study of compressibility effects, we mainly consider the
steady, one-dimensional, constant (including zero) viscosity,
compressible flow of an ideal gas.
4
Ideal Gas relationships 1/2
™ Before to develop compressible flow equation, we need to become
more familiar with the fluid.
™ The equation of state for an ideal gas

p = ρRT (1) R is gas constant

The gas constant, R, represents a constant for each distinct ideal gas
or mixture of ideal gases
λ
R= (2) λis the universal gas constant.
M gas Mgas is the molecular weight of the ideal gas or gas mixture.

5
Ideal Gas relationships 2/2
™ For an ideal gas, internal energy is a function of temperature
only. Thus, the ideal gas specific heat at constant volume
( (
⎛ ∂u ⎞ du
cv = ⎜ ⎟ = (3) is function of temperature only
⎝ ∂T ⎠ v dT
Where the subscript v on the partial derivative refers to
differentiation at constant specific volume, v=1/ρ.
( ( (
du = c v dT ⇒ u 2 − u1 = c v (T2 − T1 ) (5)

( ( T2
u 2 − u1 = ∫ cvdT (4)
T1

6
Enthalpy 1/2
™ The fluid property enthalpy
( ( p
h=u+ (6)
ρ
( (
For ideal gas u = u(Ｔ)
p
From the equation of state = RT
ρ
( ( ( (
h = u + RT h = h(Ｔ)

The ideal gas specific heat at constant pressure

(
⎛ ∂h ⎞
(
dh
( (
c P = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = (7) h 2 − h1 = c P dT (8)
⎝ ∂T ⎠ p dT
( (
h 2 − h1 = c P (T2 − T1 ) (9) 7
Enthalpy 2/2
( (
h = u + RT (10)
( ( ( ( ( (
( ( dh du ⎛ ∂h ⎞ dh ∂
⎛ ⎞u d u
⇒ dh = du + RdT ⇒ = + R (11) c P = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = cv = ⎜ ⎟ =
dT dT ⎝ ∂T ⎠ p dT ⎝ ∂T ⎠ v dT

cp − cv = R (12)

The specific heat ratio, k, is defined as

cP
k= (13)
cv
k 1
(12) + (13) cP = R (14) cV = R (15)
k −1 k −1 8
Example 11.1 Internal Energy, Enthalpy,
and Density for an Ideal Gas
z Air flows steadily between two sections in a long straight portion of
4-in.-diameter pipe as is indicated in Figure E11.1. The uniformly
distributed temperature and pressure at each section are T1=540°R,
p1=100 psia, and T2=453°R, p2=18.4 psia. Calculate the (a) change
in internal energy between sections (1) and (2), (b) change in
enthalpy between sections (1) and (2), and (c) change in density
between sections (1) and (2).

9
Example 11.1 Solution1/2
The change in internal energy between sections (1) and (2)
( (
u 2 − u1 = c v (T2 − T1 )
1
cV = R (15)
k −1
From Table 1.7 k = 1.4 R = 1716(ft ⋅ lb ) /(slug ⋅ °R ) = 53.3(ft ⋅ lb ) /(lbm ⋅ °R )
( (
u 2 − u1 = c v (T2 − T1 )
= 133(ft ⋅ lb) /(lbm ⋅ °R ) × ( 453°R − 540°R ) = −11,600ft ⋅ lb / lbm
( ( cP
h 2 − h1 = c P (T2 − T1 ) (9) k= (13)
cv
10
Example 11.1 Solution2/2

c P = kc v = ... = 186(ft ⋅ lb) /(lbm ⋅ °R )

( (
h 2 − h1 = c P (T2 − T1 ) = ... = −16,200ft ⋅ lb / lbm

p = ρRT (1)

p2 p1 1 ⎛ p 2 p1 ⎞
⇒ ρ 2 − ρ1 = − = ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
RT2 RT1 R ⎝ T2 T1 ⎠
= ... = −0.389lbm / ft 3

11
Entropy 1/3
™ For any pure substance including ideal gases, the “first T ds
equation” is
( ⎛1⎞
Tds = du + pd ⎜ ⎟⎟ (16) T is absolute temperature
ρ
⎝ ⎠
( ( ⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
dh = du + pd⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎟dp (17)
⎝ρ⎠ ⎝ρ⎠
( ⎛1⎞
(16)+(17) Tds = dh − ⎜ ⎟⎟dp (18) “second T ds equation”
⎝ρ⎠
dT R ⎛ 1 ⎞
(1)+(3)+(16) ds = c v + d⎜ ⎟⎟ (19)
T yρ ⎝ ρ ⎠
dT dp
(1)+(7)+(18) ds = c P −R (20)
T P 12
Entropy 2/3

If cp and cv are assumed to be constant for a given gas

T2 ρ1
(19)Ö s 2 − s1 = c v ln + R ln (21)
T1 ρ2
T2 p2
(20)Ö s 2 − s1 = c P ln − R ln (22)
T1 p1

13
Entropy 3/3
For the adiabatic and frictionless flow
ds = 0, s1 = s 2
T2 ρ T p Constant entropy flow
⇒ c v ln + R ln 1 = c P ln 2 − R ln 2 = 0 (23) or isentropic flow
T1 ρ2 T1 p1

k / k −1 k
⎛ T2 ⎞ ⎛ p2 ⎞ ⎛ ρ2 ⎞ (24)
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎝ p1 ⎠ ⎝ ρ1 ⎠

p
= cons tan t (25)
ρ k

14
Example 11.2 Entropy for an Ideal Gas

z For the air flow of Example 11.1, calculate the change in entropy,
s2-s1, between sections (1) and (2).

15
Example 11.2 Solution

T2 ρ1 T2 p2
s 2 − s1 = c v ln + R ln (21) s 2 − s1 = c P ln − R ln (22)
T1 ρ2 T1 p1
ρ1 p1 T2 100 psia 453°R
= = = 4.56
ρ 2 T1 p 2 540°R 18.4 psia

T2 ⎛ p1 T2 ⎞
s 2 − s1 = c v ln + R ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ... = 57.5(ft ⋅ lb ) /(lbm ⋅ °R )
T1 ⎝ T1 p 2 ⎠

T2 p2
s 2 − s1 = c P ln − R ln = ... = 57.5(ft ⋅ lb) /(lbm ⋅ °R )
T1 p1
16
Mach Number and
Sonic Speed

17
Mach Number
™ The Mach number, Ma, was a dimensionless measure of
compressibility in a fluid flow.
™ The Mach number is defined as the ratio of the value of the local
flow velocity, V, to the local speed of sound, c.

V
Ma =
c
What we perceive as sound generally consists of weak pressure pulse
that move through air. When our ear drums respond to a succession
of moving pulse, we hear sounds.

18
Speed of Sound 1/6
™ To better understand the notion of speed of sound, we analyze the
one-dimensional fluid mechanics of an infinitesimally thin, weak
pressure pulse moving at the speed of sound through a fluid at rest.
™ Select an infinitesimally thin control volume that move with the
pressure pulse.
™ The speed of the weak Ahead of the
pressure pulse
pressure pulse is
considered constant and
in one direction only; Behind the
thus, out control volume pressure pulse
is inertial.

19
Speed of Sound 2/6
™ For an observer moving with this control volume, it appears as if
fluid is entering the control volume through surface area A with
speed c at pressure p and densityρand leaving the control volume
with speed….

Entering CV

Leaving CV

20
Speed of Sound 3/6
™ Apply the continuity equation to the flow through this control
volume
ρAc = (ρ + δρ) A(c − δV ) (26)
small
ρc = ρc − ρδV − (δρ)(δV) (27)

ρδV = cδρ (28)

21
Speed of Sound 4/6
™ Apply the linear momentum equation to the flow through this
control volume
− cρcA + (c − δV )(ρ + δρ)(c − δV ) A = ρA − ( p + δp) A (29)

− cρcA + (c − δV )ρAc = − δpA

(26)+(29) δp (30)
ρδV =
c
δp δp
(28)+(30) c2 = c= (31)
δρ δρ
This expression for the speed of sound results from application
of the conservation of mass and conservation of linear
momentum principles to the flow through the control volume.
22
Speed of Sound 5/6
™ Apply the conservation of energy principle to the flow through
this control volume
δp ⎛ V 2 ⎞ (32) (δV )2 << cδV
+ δ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + gδz = δ(loss)
ρ ⎝ 2 ⎠
δp (c − δV ) 2 c 2 δp
gδz≒0 δ(loss)= 0 + − =0 ρδV = (33)
ρ 2 2 c

δp δp
(28)+(33) c =
2
c= (31)
δρ δρ
This expression for the speed of sound results from application
of the conservation of mass and conservation of energy
principles to the flow through the control volume.
23
Speed of Sound 6/6
Further assume that the frictionless flow
through the control volume is adiabatic,
δp then the flow is isentropic. ⎛ ∂p ⎞
c= c = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (34)
δρ δp → ∂p → 0 ⎝ ∂ρ ⎠s
For isentropic flow of an ideal gas Used to designate that partial differentiation
p = (cons tan t )(ρ k ) (25) occurs at constant entropy.

⎛ ∂p ⎞ p p
⇒ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = (cons tan t ) kρ k −1 = k kρ k −1 = k = RTk (35)
⎝ ∂ρ ⎠s ρ ρ

Ev
c = RTk (36) c = RTk = (38)
ρ
dp ⎛ ∂p ⎞
Bulk modulus of elasticity for any fluid Ev = = ρ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (37)
dρ / ρ ⎝ ∂ρ ⎠s
24
Example 11.3 Speed of Sound / Solution

z Verify the speed of sound for air at 0℃ listed in Table B.4.

In Table B.4, we find the speed of sound of air at 0℃ given as

331.4 m/s.

c = RTk
k = 1.4 R = 286.9J /( kg ⋅ K )

c = RTk = [286.9J /( kg ⋅ K )]( 273.15K )(1.401) = 331.4( J / kg )1 / 2

= 331.4m / s

25
 Categories of
Compressible Flow

26
Compressibility and Mach Number 1/2
™ The effects of compressibility become more significant as the Mach
number increase. The incompressible flows can only occur at low
Mach number.
™ The compressibility has a large influence on other important flow
variables.

27
Compressibility and Mach Number 2/2
™ Experience has demonstrated
that compressibility can have a
large influence on other
important flow variables.
™ For example. The variation of
the drag coefficient of a sphere
with Reynolds number and
Mach number. Ö
D Compressibility effects can be
of considerable importance.

28
 To illustrate some curious
features of compressible flow
Emission of weak pressure pluses from
a point source

29
Emission of Pressure Pulse 1/5
™ Image the emission of weak pressure pulse from a point source.
™ These pressure wave are spherical and expand radially outward from
the point source at the speed of sound, c.
™ For a stationary point source, the wave pattern is symmetrical.
™ When the point source moves to the left with a constant velocity, V,
the wave pattern is no longer symmetrical.
™ If instead of moving the point source to the left, we held the point
source stationary and moved the fluid to the right with velocity V.

30
Pressure Wave Pattern 1/2

(a) Pressure waves at t = 3s, V = 0; (b) pressure waves at t = 3s, V< c.

31
Pressure Wave Pattern 2/2

(c) pressure waves at t = 3s, V = c. (d) pressure waves at t = 3s, V > c.

32
Emission of Pressure Pulse 2/5
™ When the point source and the fluid are stationary, the pressure
wave pattern is symmetrical and an observer anywhere in the
pressure field would hear the same sound frequency from the point
source.
™ When the velocity of the point source (or the fluid) is very small in
comparison with the speed of sound, the pressure wave pattern will
still be nearly symmetrical.
™ When the point source moves in fluid at rest (or when fluid moves
past a stationary point source), the pressure wave patterns vary in
asymmetry, with the extent of asymmetry depending on V/c.

33
Emission of Pressure Pulse 3/5
‹ When V/c < 1, the flow is
considered subsonic and
compressible. A stationary
observer will hear a different
sound frequency coming from the
point source depending on where
the observer is relative to the
source because the wave pattern is
asymmetrical. This
phenomenon is called the The pressure information can still travel
Doppler effect. unrestricted throughout the flow field, but
not symmetrically or instantaneously.
34
Emission of Pressure Pulse 4/5
‹ When V/c =1, pressure wave
are not present ahead of the
moving point source. The
flow is sonic. If you were
positioned to the left of the
moving point source, you
would not hear the point
source until it was coincident
with your location. Mach wave
The pressure waves are all tangent to a plane that is perpendicular to the flow
and that passes through the point source. This plane is called a Mach wave.
The communication of pressure information is restricted to the region of flow
downstream of the Mach wave. 35
Emission of Pressure Pulse 5/5
‹ When V/c >1, the flow is
supersonic. A cone (Mach
cone) that is tangent to the
pressure wave can be
constructed to represent the
Mach wave that separates the
zone of silence from the zone
of action.

c 1
The angle of Mach cone sin α = = (39)
V Ma
36
Compressible Flow Visualization
™ An abrupt density change can be visualized in a flow field by using
special optics.
™ Flow visualization methods include the schlieren, shadowgraph ,
and interferometer techniques.

The schlieren visualization of

flow (supersonic to subsonic)
through a row of compressor
airfoils.
37
Categories of Fluid Flow
™ Incompressible flow: Ma ≤ 0.3. Unrestricted, nearly symmetrical
and instantaneous pressure communication.
™ Compressible subsonic flow: 0.3 < Ma < 1.0. Unrestricted but
noticeably asymmetrical pressure communication.
™ Compressible supersonic flow: Ma ≥ 1.0. Formulation of Mach
wave; pressure communication restricted to zone of action.
™ Transonic flow: 0.9 ≤ Ma ≤ 1.2.
™ Hypersonic flow: Ma > 5.

38
Example 11.4 Mach Cone
z An aircraft cruising at 1000-m elevation, z, above you moves past in
a flyby. How many seconds after the plane passes overhead do you
expect to wait before you hear the aircraft if it is moving with a
Mach number equal to 1.5 and the ambient temperature is 20℃?

39
Example 11.4 Solution
The angle α is related to the elevation of the plane, z, and the
ground distance, x
z −1 1000 1
α = tan −1
= tan sin α =
x Vt Ma
1
Ma = The speed of the aircraft V = Ma ⋅ c
sin[tan −1 (1000 / Vt )]

From Table B.4 (20℃), c=343.3m/s. Using Ma=1.5

1
1.5 = ⇒ t = 2.17s
⎧ −1 ⎡ 1000 ⎤⎫
sin ⎨ tan ⎢ ⎥⎬
⎩ ⎣ (1. 5)( 343 .3m / s ) t ⎦⎭ 40
 Isentropic Flow Through
Converging-Diverging Duct

41
Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas
™ Consider the steady, one-dimensional, isentropic flow of an ideal
gas with constant specific heat values (cp and cv).
™ Shaft work cannot be involved.
™ Consider flows through finite control volume with uniformly
distributed velocities and fluid properties at each section of flow.
™ An isentropic flow is not achievable with actual fluids because of
friction. Nonetheless, the study of isentropic flow trends is useful
because it helps us to gain an understanding of actual
compressible flow phenomena.

42
Effect of Cross-Sectional Area 1/10
™ When fluid flows steadily through a conduit that has a flow cross-
sectional area that varies with axial distance, the conservation of
mass (continuity) equation
& = ρAV = cons tan t
m (40)

™ In chapter 3, Newton’s second law was applied to the inviscid

(frictionless) and steady flow of a fluid particle. For either
compressible or incompressible flow along the streamwise direction,

1
dp + ρd( V 2 ) + γdz = 0 (41)
2
Can be dropped because of its small size in
comparison to the other terms 43
Effect of Cross-Sectional Area 2/10
™ An appropriate equation of motion in the streamwise direction for
the steady, one-dimensional, and isentropic (adiabatic and
frictionless) flow of an ideal gas is obtained from Eqs. (41).
1 dp dV
dp + ρd ( V 2 ) + γdz = 0 ÷ ρV 2 = − (42)
2 ρV 2 V

& = ρAV = cons tan t ⇒ ln ρ + ln A + ln V = cons tan t

m (43)

dρ dA dV − dV dρ dA
(43) + + =0 = + (44)
ρ A V V ρ A

(42)+(44) dp ⎛ V 2 ⎞ dA (45)
⎜1 −
2 ⎜
⎟⎟ =
ρV ⎝ dp / dρ ⎠ A 44
Effect of Cross-Sectional Area 3/10
V ⎛ ∂p ⎞
Mach number definition Ma = (46) c = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (34)
c ⎝ ∂ρ ⎠ s
dp dA
(34)+(45)+(46) (1 − Ma ) =
2
(47)
ρV 2
A

dV dA 1
(42)+(47) =− (48)
V A (1 − Ma 2 )

dρ dA Ma 2
(44)+(48) =− (49)
ρ A (1 − Ma 2 )

45
Effect of Cross-Sectional Area 4/10

dV dA 1
=− (48)
V A (1 − Ma 2 )

™ When the flow is subsonic

(Ma<1), velocity and section
area changes are in opposite
directions.
™ When the flow is supersonic
(Ma>1), velocity and area
changes in the same direction.
(a) A diverging duct. (b) A converging duct.
46
Effect of Cross-Sectional Area 5/10
™ A diverging duct will accelerate a
supersonic flow.
™ A converging duct will decelerate a
supersonic flow.
™ Subsonic flow through a converging
duct involves an increase of velocity.
™ Subsonic flow through a diverging
duct is accompanied by a velocity (a) A diverging duct.
decrease. (b) A converging duct.

47
Effect of Cross-Sectional Area 6/10

dρ dA Ma 2
=− (49)
ρ A (1 − Ma 2 )
™ For subsonic flow (Ma<1), density and area changes are in the
same direction.
™ For supersonic flow (Ma>1), density and area changes are in the
opposite direction.

48
Effect of Cross-Sectional Area 7/10
dV dA 1 dA A 2
=− 2
⇒ = − (1 − Ma ) (50)
V A (1 − Ma ) dV V
™ For Ma =1, this equation requires that dA/dV=0.
™ This means that the area associated with Ma=1 is either a minimum
or a maximum amount.
If the flow enter converging-diverging duct
were subsonic, the fluid velocity would
increase in the converging portion of the
duct, and achievement of a sonic condition
(Ma=1) at the minimum area location
appears possible.
49
Effect of Cross-Sectional Area 8/10

If the flow enter converging-diverging duct

were supersonic, the fluid velocity would
decrease in the converging portion of the
duct and the sonic condition at the minimum
area is possible.

If the flow enter diverging-converging duct

were subsonic, the fluid velocity would
decrease in the diverging portion of the duct
and the sonic condition could not be
attained at the maximum area.
50
Effect of Cross-Sectional Area 9/10

If the flow enter diverging-converging duct

were supersonic, the fluid velocity would
increase in the diverging portion of the duct
and the sonic condition could not be
attained at the maximum area.

51
Conclusion 10/10
1. Sonic condition (Ma=1) can be attained in a converging-diverging
duct at the minimum area location.
2. This minimum area location is often called the throat of the
converging-diverging duct.
3. To achieve supersonic flow from a subsonic state in a duct, a
converging-diverging area variations is necessary.
4. A converging-diverging duct is referred as a converging-diverging
nozzle.
5. A converging-diverging duct can also decrease a supersonic flow to
subsonic conditions.
6. A converging-diverging duct can be a nozzle or a diffuser depending
on whether the flow in the converging portion of the duct is
subsonic or supersonic.
52
 Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 1/11
™ To develop equations that help us determine how other important
flow properties vary in the steady isentropic flow of an ideal gas
through a variable area duct.

The atmospheric pressure

and temperature would
represent the stagnation state
of the flowing fluid.

(a) A converging-diverging duct. (b) A diverging-converging duct.

53
Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 2/11
™ For the isentropic flow of an ideal gas
Stagnation state
p p0 It is convenient to use the stagnation
= cons tan t = k (25) state of the fluid as a reference state for
ρ k
ρ0 compressible flow calculations.

™ The streamwise equation of motion for steady and frictionless flow

can be expressed for an ideal gas
Note: The stagnation state is can
also be achieved by isentropically
dp ⎛ V2 ⎞
(41) + d⎜ ⎟=0 (51) decelerating a flow to zero velocity.
ρ ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
p10/ k dp ⎛ V2 ⎞
Incorporating (25) into (51) + d⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0 (52)
ρo p 1/ k
⎝ 2 ⎠
54
Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 3/11
Integrating (52) between the
common stagnation state of
k ⎛ p0 p ⎞ V 2
the flowing fluid to the state ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ − =0 (53)
k − 1 ⎝ ρ0 ρ ⎠ 2
of gas at any location in the
converging-diverging duct

kR V2
(53)+(1) (To − T ) − = 0 (54)
k −1 2
V2 ( ⎛ ( V2 ⎞
(14)+(54) c P (To − T ) − =0 ho − ⎜ h + ⎟ = 0 (55)
2 ⎜ 2 ⎟⎠
⎝
k Stagnation enthalpy
cP = R (14) ( (
k −1 h 2 − h1 = c P (T2 − T1 )
55
Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 4/11
c = RTk (36)
V
Ma = (46)
c (46)+(36)+(54)
kR V2
(To − T ) − = 0 (54)
k −1 2

T 1
= (56) Pressure variation ?
To 1 + k −1 M a2
2
With this equation we can calculate the temperature of an
ideal gas anywhere in the converging-diverging duct if the
flow is steady, one-dimensional, and isentropic, provided
we know the value of the local Mach number and the
stagnation temperature. 56
Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 5/11
Develop an equation for pressure and density variation
p ρo T p p0
p = cons tan t =
= RT = (57) ρk ρ0k
(25)
ρ po ρ To
k / k −1
p ⎛ T ⎞
(57)+(25) = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (58)
po ⎝ To ⎠
k / k −1
p ⎡ 1 ⎤
(58)+(56) = ⎢ ⎥ (59)
k −1 2
po ⎢1 + Ma ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
1 / k −1

ρ ⎡ 1 ⎤
(56)+(57)+(59) = ⎢ ⎥ (60)
ρo ⎢1 + k −1 Ma 2
⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ 57
T-s Diagram For Isentropic Flow
™ A useful means of keeping track of the state of an isentropic flow of
an ideal gas involves a temperature-entropy (T-s) diagram.
™ An isentropic flow is confined
to a vertical line on a T-s
diagram. The vertical line is
representative of flow between
the stagnation state and any
state within the converging-
diverging nozzle.

58
Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 6/11

T 1 Fluid temperature decreases with

= (56) T Ì Ma Ê
To 1 + k −1 Ma 2
2 an increase in Mach number.

k / k −1
p ⎡ 1 ⎤ Fluid pressure decreases with
=⎢ ⎥ (59)
po ⎢1 + 2
k −1 Ma ⎥ an increase in Mach number. p Ì Ma Ê
⎣ 2 ⎦

Lower fluid temperature and pressures are

associated with higher Mach number in an
isentropic converging-diverging duct.
59
Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 7/11
™ One way to produce flow through a converging-diverging duct is to
connect the downstream end of the converging-diverging duct to a
vacuum pump.
™ When the pressure at the downstream end of the duct (the back
pressure) is decreased slightly, air will flow from the atmosphere
through the duct and vacuum pump.
T 1
=
T0 1 + k −1 Ma 2
2
k / k −1
p ⎡ 1 ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥ Used to describe steady
⎣1 +
k −1 2
p0 Ma ⎦
2
+ T-s diagram flow through the
ρ ⎡ 1 ⎤
1 / k −1
converging-diverging duct.
= ⎢ ⎥
ρ0 ⎣1 +
k −1
2 Ma 2
⎦ 60
Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 8/11
™ If the pressure in the duct is only slightly less than atmospheric
pressure, the Mach number levels in the duct will be low Eqs. (59)
and the variation of density in the duct is also small Eqs. (60).
™ There is a small amount of
fluid flow acceleration in the
converging portion of the duct
followed by flow deceleration
in the diverging portion of the
duct. Eqs. (40)

The T-s diagram for Venturi meter flow

61
Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 9/11
™ When the back pressure is lower further, the fluid flow from the
rest upstream of the converging portion may be accelerated to a
maximum Mach number 1 at the nozzle throat.
™ When Ma=1 at the throat of the converging-diverging duct, we have
a condition called choked flow.
™ Use the stagnation state for which Ma=0 as a reference condition.
™ Use the state associated with Ma=1 as another reference condition
called critical state, denoted ( )*.
k / k −1
p ⎡ 1 ⎤ k / k −1
= ⎢ ⎥ (59) Ma=1 p* ⎡ 2 ⎤
k −1 2 = ⎢ ⎥
po ⎢1 + Ma ⎥ po ⎣ k + 1⎦
(61)
⎣ 2 ⎦
Critical pressure ratio 62
Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 10/11
T 1 Ma=1 T* 2
= = (63)
To 1 + k −1 Ma 2 To k + 1
2
1
ρ* ⎛⎜ p* ⎞⎟⎛ To ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ k −1
= ⎜ *⎟=⎜ ⎟ (65)
⎜ ⎟
ρ o ⎝ Po ⎠⎝ T ⎠ ⎝ k + 1 ⎠

The relationship between the

stagnation and critical states.

63
Converging-Diverging Duct Flow 11/11

For k=1.4, the nominal value of k for air

*
p k =1.4 = 0.528p atm (62)

Tk*=1.4 = 0.833Tatm (64)

ρ*k =1.4 = 0.634ρ atm (66)

64
Example 11.5 Isentropic Flow in a
Converging Duct
z A converging duct passes air steadily from standard atmospheric
conditions to a receiver pipe as illustrated in Figure E11.5a. The
throat (minimum) flow cross-sectional area of the converging ducts
is 1×10-4 m2. Determine the mass flowrate through the duct if the
receiver pressure is (a) 80 kPa (abs), (b) 40 kPa (abs). Sketch
temperature-entropy diagrams for situations (a) and (b)

65
Example 11.5 Solution1/6
To determine the mass flowrate through the converging duct we
use (40)
& = ρAV = cons tan t (40)
m Stagnation density
ρ 0 = 1.23kg / m 3 k = 1 .4
& = ρ th A th Vth
m (11.5.1)
1 / k −1

ρ th ⎡ 1 ⎤
(60) = ⎢ ⎥ (11.5.2)
ρo ⎣1 +
k −1
2 Ma 2
th ⎦
k / k −1
p th ⎡ 1 ⎤
(59) = ⎢ ⎥ (11.5.3)
⎣1 +
k −1 2
po 2 Ma th ⎦

(62) p*k =1.4 = 0.528 p0 = 0.528 p atm = 53.3kPa(abs)

66
Example 11.5 Solution2/6
If the receiver pressure, pre is greater than or equal to p*, then
pth=pre. If pre<p*, the pth=p* and the flow is choked.
With pth, p0, and k known, Math can be obtained from Eqs. (11.5.3)
and pth can be obtained from Eqs. (11.5.2).
The flow velocity at the throat
(36)+(46) Vth = Ma th c th = Ma th RTth k (11.5.4)

The value of temperature at the throat Tth

Tth 1
(56) = (11.5.5)
To 1 + k2−1 Ma 2th

67
Example 11.5 Solution3/6
For pre=80 kPa (abs) > 53.3 kPa (abs) = p*, we have pth=80 kPa.
Then from Eq. (11.5.3)
k / k −1
p th ⎡ 1 ⎤
= ⎢ 2 ⎥
(11.5.3) Ma th = 0.587
⎣ 1 + 2 Ma th ⎦
k −1
po
From Eq. (11.5.2)
1 / k −1

ρ th ⎡ 1 ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥ (11.5.2) ρ th = 1.04kg / m3
ρo ⎣1 +
k −1
2 Ma 2
th ⎦
From Eq. (11.5.5)

Tth 1 Tth = 269 K

= (11.5.5)
To 1 + k2−1 Ma 2th 68
Example 11.5 Solution4/6
From Eq. (11.5.4)

Vth = Ma th c th = Ma th RTth k (11.5.4) Vth = 193( J / kg)1 / 2 = 193m / s

From Eq. (11.5.1)

& = ρ th A th Vth
m (11.5.1) & = 0.0201kg / s
m

69
Example 11.5 Solution5/6
For pre=40 kPa (abs) < 53.3 kPa (abs) = p*, we have
pth=p*=53.3kPa (abs) and Math=1. The converging duct is chocked.
Then from Eq. (11.5.2)
1 / k −1

ρ th ⎡ 1 ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥ (11.5.2) ρ th = 0.780kg / m3
ρo ⎣1 +
k −1
2 Ma 2
th ⎦
From Eq. (11.5.5)

Tth 1 Tth = 240K

= (11.5.5)
To 1 + k2−1 Ma 2th

Vth = 310( J / kg)1 / 2 = 310m / s & = 0.0242kg / s

m
70
Example 11.5 Solution6/6

71
Example 11.6 Use of Compressible Flow
Graphs in Solving Problems
z Solve Example 11.5 using Figure D.1 of Appendix D.

72
Example 11.6 Solution1/3
Need the density and velocity of the air at the converging duct
throat to solve for mass flowrate from
& = ρ th A th Vth
m (11.6.1)

Since the receiver pressure, pre=80 kPa (abs) > 53.3 kPa (abs) = p*,
we have pth= pre.
p th 80 kPa
= = 0 . 792
po 101 kPa

From Figure D.1, for p/p0=0.792, we get from the graph

Tth ρ th
Ma th = 0.59 = 0.94 (11.6.2) = 0.85 (11.6.3)
T0 ρ 73
Example 11.6 Solution2/3
From (11.6.2) (11.6.3)
Tth = (0.94)( 288K ) = 271K ρ th = (0.85)(1.23kg / m 3 ) = 1.04 kg / m 3

(36)+(46) Vth = Ma th c th = Ma th RTth k = ... = 194m / s

& = ρ th A th Vth = (1.04 kg / m 3 )... = 0.0202 kg / s

m
For the receiver pressure, pre=40 kPa (abs) < 53.3 kPa (abs) = p*,
we have pth= 53.3 kPa (abs)..
From Figure D.1, for Ma=1, we get from the graph
Tth ρ th
= 0.83 (11.6.4) = 0.64 (11.6.5)
T0 ρ 74
Example 11.6 Solution3/3
From (11.6.4) (11.6.5)
Tth = (0.83)( 288K ) = 240 K ρ th = (0.64)(1.23kg / m 3 ) = 0.79 kg / m 3

(36)+(46) Vth = Ma thc th = Ma th RTth k = ... = 310m / s

& = ρ th A th Vth = (1.04 kg / m 3 )... = 0.024 kg / s

m

75
Example 11.7 Static to Stagnation
Pressure Ratio
z The static pressure to stagnation pressure ratio at a point in a flow
stream is measured with a Pitot-static tube (Figure 3.6) as being
equal to 0.82. The stagnation temperature of the fluid is 68ºF.
Determine the flow velocity if the fluid is (a) air, (b) helium.

Figure 3.6
The Pitot-static tube
76
Example 11.7 Solution 1/2
To determine the flow velocity
(36)+(46) V = Ma RTk
For air, p/p0=0.82; thus from Figure D.1
T
Ma = 0.54 = 0.94 k = 1.4
T0

T = (0.94)[(68 + 460)°R] = 496°R

V = Ma RTk = (0.54)... = 104(ft ⋅ lb / lbm)1 / 2 = 590ft / s

77
Example 11.7 Solution 2/2
For helium, p/p0=0.82 and k = 1.66
k / k −1
p ⎡ 1 ⎤
= ⎢ 2
⎥ (59) Ma = 0.499
po ⎢1 + k −1 Ma ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦

T 1
= (56)
To 1 + k −1 Ma 2
2

⎧⎪ 1 ⎫⎪
T=⎨ 2⎬
[(68 + 460)°R] = 488°R
⎪⎩ 1 + [(1.66 − 1) / 2](0.499) ⎪⎭

V = Ma RTk = (0.499)... = 279(ft ⋅ lb / lbm)1 / 2 = 1580ft / s

78
Choked Flow 1/2
™ When Ma=1 at the throat of the converging-diverging duct, we have
a condition called choked flow.
™ For choked flow through the converging-diverging duct, the
conservation of mass equation yield
A ⎛ ρ* ⎞⎛ V * ⎞
ρAV = ρ A V
* * *
= ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ (67)
(40)
A* ⎜⎝ ρ ⎟⎠⎜⎝ V ⎟⎠

(36)+(46)
V* = RT*k (68) V = Ma RTk (69)

A 1 ⎛⎜ ρ* ⎞⎛ ρ o
⎟⎜ ⎞ T * / T0
(67)+(68)+(69) = ⎟⎟ (70)
A * Ma ⎜⎝ ρ o ⎟⎜⎝ ρ ⎠ T / T0
⎠ 79
Choked Flow 2/2
™ The variation of area ratio with Mach number
( k +1) / 2 ( k −1)
(56)+(60)+ A 1 ⎧1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma ⎫
2
= ⎨ ⎬ (71)
(63)+(65)+(70) A *
Ma ⎩ 1 + ( k − 1) / 2 ⎭
™ For isentropic flow
of an ideal gas (k=1.4)

The variation of area ratio with Mach

number for isentropic flow of an ideal
gas (k = 1.4, linear coordinate scales).
80
Figure D.1

Value of p/p0, T/T0, ρ/ρ0, and A/A* are graphed in Figure D.1 as a
function of Mach number for air (k=1.4).
1 / k −1

T 1 ρ ⎡ 1 ⎤
= (56) = ⎢ ⎥ (60)
To 1 + k −1 Ma 2 ρo ⎢1 + k −1 Ma 2
⎥
2 ⎣ 2 ⎦
k / k −1
p ⎡ 1 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥ (59)
po ⎢1 + k −1 Ma 2 ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
( k +1) / 2 ( k −1)
A 1 ⎧1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma ⎫ 2
(71)
= ⎨ ⎬
A *
Ma ⎩ 1 + ( k − 1) / 2 ⎭
81
Example 11.8 Isentropic Choked Flow in a
Converging-Diverging Duct with Subsonic Entry

z Air enters subsonically from standard atmosphere and flows

isentropically through a choked converging-diverging duct having a
circular cross-sectional area, A, that varies with axial distance from
the throat, x, according to the formula
A=0.1+x2
where A is in square meters and x is in meters. The duct extends
from x = -0.5 m to x = +0.5 m. For this flow situation, sketch the
side view of the duct and graph the variation of Mach number, static
temperature to stagnation temperature ratio, T/T0, and static pressure
to stagnation pressure ratio, p/p0, through the duct from x = -0.5 m
to x = +0.5 m. Also show the possible fluid states at x = -0.5 m, 0 m,
and +0.5 m using temperature – entropy coordinates.
82
Example 11.8 Solution1/6

The side view of the converging-diverging duct is a graph of radius r

from the duct axis as a function of axial distance. For a circular flow
cross section we have

A = πr 2 where A = 0.1 + x 2
1/2
⎛ 0.1 + x 2 ⎞
r=⎜ ⎟ (11.8.3)
⎜ π ⎟
⎝ ⎠

83
Example 11.8 Solution2/6

Since the converging-diverging duct is chocked, the throat area is

the critical area, A*
2
A 0. 1 + x
A* = 0.1m 2 ⇒ = (11.8.5)
A* 0.1
Values of A/A* can be used in Eq. (71) to calculate corresponding
values of Mach number, Ma.
( k +1) / 2 ( k −1)
A 1 ⎧1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma ⎫ 2
= ⎨ ⎬ (71)
A *
Ma ⎩ 1 + ( k − 1) / 2 ⎭

84
Example 11.8 Solution3/6

For air with k=1.4, we could enter Figure D.1 with values of A/A*
and read off values of Mach number.
DWith values of Mach number ascertained, we could use Eqs.
56 and 59 to calculate related value of T/T0 and p/p0.

T 1
= 2
(56)
To 1 + k −1 Ma
2
For k=1.4 and value T/T0
of A/A*; thus from p/p0
Figure D.1 Æ Ma k / k −1
p ⎡ 1 ⎤
=⎢ 2
⎥ (59)
po ⎢1 + k −1 Ma ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
85
Example 11.8 Solution4/6

1/2
⎛ 0.1 + x 2 ⎞
r=⎜ ⎟
⎜ π ⎟
⎝ ⎠

A 0.1 + x 2
=
A* 0.1

Figure D.1

86
Example 11.8 Solution5/6
™ With the air entering the chocked converging-diverging duct
subsonically, only one isentropic solution exits for the converging
portion of the duct.
™ Two isentropic flow solutions are possible for the diverging
portion of the duct – one subsonic, the other supersonic.
™ If the pressure ratio, p/p0, is set at 0.98 at x = +0.5 m, the subsonic
flow will occur.
™ Alternatively. if p/p0 is set at 0.04 at x = +0.5 m, the supersonic flow
field will exist.

87
Example 11.8 Solution6/6

The solution values for the entire duct

88
Example 11.9 Isentropic Choked Flow in a
Converging-Diverging Duct with Supersonic Entry

z Air enters supersonically with T0 and p0 equal to standard

atmosphere values and flows isentropically through the chocked
converging-diverging duct described in Example 11.8. Graph the
variation of Mach number, Ma, static temperature to stagnation
temperature ratio, T/T0, and static pressure to stagnation pressure
ratio, p/p0, through the duct from x = -0.5 m to x = +0.5 m. Also
show the possible fluid states at x = -0.5 m, 0 m, and +0.5 m using
temperature – entropy coordinates.

89
Example 11.9 Solution1/3
™ With the air entering the converging-diverging duct of Example 11.8
supersonically instead of subsonically, a unique isentropic flow
solution is obtained for the converging portion of the duct.
™ Now, however, the flow decelerates to the sonic condition at the
throat.
™ The two solutions obtained previously in Example 11.8 for the
diverging portion are still valid.
™ Since the area variation in the duct is symmetrical with respect to
the duct throat, we can use the supersonic flow values obtained from
Example 11.8 for the supersonic flow in the converging portion of
the duct.
90
Example 11.9 Solution2/3

The supersonic flow solution for the converging passage

91
Example 11.9 Solution3/3

92
Example 11.10 Isentropic Unchoked Flow
in a Converging-Diverging Duct
z Air enters subsonically and isentropically through the converging-
diverging duct described in Example 11.8. Graph the variation of
Mach number, Ma, static temperature to stagnation temperature ratio,
T/T0, and static pressure to stagnation pressure ratio, p/p0, through
the duct from x = -0.5 m to x = +0.5 m for Ma=0.48. Show the
corresponding temperature – entropy coordinates.

93
Example 11.10 Solution1/3
™ Since for this example, Ma=0.48 at x=0m, the isentropic low
through the converging-diverging duct will be entirely subsonic and
not chocked.
™ For air (k=1.4) flowing isentropically through the duct, we can use
Figure D.1 for flow field quantities. Entering Figure D.1 with
Ma=0.48 we read off p/p0=0.85, T/T0=0.96, and A/A*=1.4.
™ Even though the duct flow is not chocked in this example and A*
does not therefore exist physically, it still represents a valid
reference.
™ For given isentropic flow, p0, T0, and A* are constants.

94
Example 11.10 Solution2/3
A
™ At x=0 m A = 0.1 + x = 0.10m
2 2 A* = = 0.07 m 2
( A / A*)
™ With known values of duct
area at different axial locations,
we can calculate
corresponding area ratios,
A/A*, knowing A*=0.07m2.
™ With values of area ratio A/A*,
we can use Figure D.1 and
obtain related values of Ma,
T/T0, and p/p0.

95
Example 11.10 Solution3/3

96
Area Ratio vs. Mach Number 1/3
™ The isentropic flow behavior for the converging-diverging duct is
summarized in the area ratio – Mach number graphs.
™ The points a, b, and c represent states at axial distance x=-0.5m, 0m,
and +0.5m.

(a) Subsonic to subsonic isentropic flow (not choked).

(b) Subsonic to subsonic isentropic flow (Choked). 97
Area Ratio vs. Mach Number 2/3

(c) Subsonic to supersonic isentropic flow (choked),

(d) Supersonic to supersonic isentropic flow (choked).
98
Area Ratio vs. Mach Number 3/3

(e) Supersonic to subsonic isentropic flow (choked).

(f) Supersonic to subsonic isentropic flow (not choked).
99
Solution 1/3
™ For a given stagnation state (i.e., T0 and p0 fixed), ideal gas
(k=constant), and converging-diverging duct geometry, an
infinite number of isentropic subsonic to subsonic (not choked) and
supersonic to supersonic (not choked) flow solutions exist.
™ In contrast, the isentropic subsonic to supersonic (choked), subsonic
to subsonic (choked), supersonic to subsonic (choked), and
supersonic to supersonic (choked) from solutions are each unique.

Given stagnation state (i.e., T0 and p0 fixed), ideal gas

(k=constant), and converging-diverging duct geometry.
Solution?
100
Solution 2/3
™ When the pressure at x=+0.5 (exit) is greater than or equal to pI,
isentropic flows are possible.
™ When the pressure at x=+0.5 (exit) is less than or equal to pII,
isentropic flows are possible.
™ When the exit pressure is less than pI and greater than pII,
isentropic flows are no longer possible.

101
Solution 3/3

(a) The variation of

duct radius with
axial distance.
(b) The variation of
Mach number with
axial distance.
(c) The variation of
temperature with
axial distance.
(d) The variation of
pressure with axial
distance.

102
Normal Shock Wave 1/2
™ When the exit pressure is less than pI and greater than pII,
nonisentropic chocked flows are possible.
™ Each abrupt pressure rise within and at the exit of the flow passage
occurs across a very thin discontinuity in the flow called a normal
shock wave. Except for flow across the normal shock wave, the
flow is isentropic.

103
Normal Shock Wave 2/2
™ The less abrupt pressure rise or drop that occurs after the flow
leaves the duct is nonisentropic and attributable to three-dimensional
oblique shock waves or expansion wave.
™ If the pressure rises downstream of the duct exit, the flow is
considered overexpanded.
™ If the pressure drops downstream of the duct exit, the flow is called
underexpanded.

104
Nonisentropic Flow

105
Nonisentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas
™ Actual fluid flows are generally nonisentropic.
™ Examples of nonisentropic flow:
DFanno flow: adiabatic flow with friction.
DRayleigh flow: Flows with heat transfer
(diabatic flows) without friction.

106
 Fanno Flow
Adiabatic flow with friction

107
Fanno Flow Adiabatic flow with friction 1/6
™ Consider the steady, one-dimensional, and adiabatic flow of an ideal
gas through the constant area duct.
™ For the indicated control volume, the energy equation
Small Flow is steady
⎡ V −V
2 2
⎤ &
& ⎢ĥ L − ĥ1 +
m 2 1
+ g(z 2 − z1 )⎥ = Q net in + W&
Shaft net in
⎣ 2 ⎦ (72)
( V 2 ( Flow is adiabatic
h+ = h o = cons tan t
2
the stagnation enthalpy

A=constant
Adiabatic constant area flow.
108
Fanno Flow Adiabatic flow with friction 2/6
( (
For an ideal gas (9) h − h 0 = c P (T − T0 ) (73)

V2 (ρV) 2
(72)+(73) T+ = T0 = cons tan t T + = T0 = cons tan t (74)
2c P 2c Pρ 2

(ρV ) 2 T 2
Substituting (1) into (74) T+ 2 2
= T0 = cons tan t (75)
2c P ( p / R )

For particular Fanno flow, the stagnation temperature T0 is fixed

ρAV = cons tan t → ρV = cons tan t
Used to calculate values of fluid
(ρV) 2 T 2 temperature corresponding to
T+ = T0 = cons tan t (75)
2c P ( p 2 / R 2 ) value of pressure in the Fanno
flow. 109
Determined until later
T-s Diagram for Fanno Flow1/7
From the second Tds relationship, an expression for entropy variation
was already derived.
T2 p2
s 2 − s1 = c P ln − R ln (22)
T1 p1
If the temperature, T1, and entropy s1, at the entrance of the Fanno
flow duct as reference values
T p
(22) s − s1 = c P ln − R ln (76)
T1 p1

110
T-s Diagram for Fanno Flow2/7
T p Taken together result in a
s − s1 = c P ln − R ln (76)
T1 p1 curve with T-s coordinates
(ρV ) 2 T 2
T+ 2 2
= T0 = cons tan t (75)
2c P ( p / R )

This curve involves a given gas (cp

and R) with fixed values of
stagnation temperature, density-
velocity product, and inlet
temperature, pressure, and entropy.

T-s diagram for Fanno flow

111
Example 11.11 Compressible Flow with
Friction (Fanno Flow)
z Air (k=1.4) enters [section (1)] an insulated, constant cross-sectional
area duct with the following properties:
T0=518.67°R
T1=514.55°R
p1=14.3 psia
For Fanno flow, determine corresponding value of fluid temperature
and entropy change for various values of downstream pressures and
plot the related Fanno line.

112
Example 11.11 Solution1/3
To plot the Fanno line we use Eq. (75) and (76)

(ρV ) 2 T 2
T+ 2 2
= T0 = cons tan t (11.11.1)
2c P ( p / R )
T p
s − s1 = c P ln − R ln (11.11.2)
T1 p1
k = 1.4 R = 1716(ft ⋅ lb ) /(slug ⋅ °R ) = 53.3(ft ⋅ lb ) /(lbm ⋅ °R )

From Eq. (14) c = Rk = ... = 187(ft ⋅ lb ) /(lbm ⋅ °R ) (11.11.3)

p
k −1
p p (11.11.4)
(1)+(69) ρV = Ma RTk = ρ1V1 = 1 Ma1 RT1k
RT RT1
113
Example 11.11 Solution2/3
T1 514.55°R T 1
= = 0.992 = (56)
To 518.67°R To 1 + k −1 Ma 2
2
From Eq. (56) Ma1 = ⎛⎜ 1 − 1⎞⎟ / 0.02 = 0.2
⎝ 0.992 ⎠
RT1k = ... = 1112ft / s

(11.11.4) (14.3psia )(144in.2 / ft 2 )0.2(1112ft / s)

ρV = = 16.7lbm /(ft 2 ⋅ s)
{53.3(ft ⋅ lb ) /(lbm ⋅ °R )](514.44°R )
For p= 7psia

(ρV ) 2 T 2
(11.11.1) T+ 2 2
= ... = 518.67°R ⇒ T = 502.3°R
2c P ( p / R )
(11.11.2) T p
s − s1 = c P ln − R ln = ... = 33.6(ft ⋅ lb ) /(lbm ⋅ °R )
T1 p1 114
Example 11.11 Solution3/3

For p=6 psia T=496.8ºR s-s1=39.8 (ft·lb)/(lbm·ºR)

For p=5 psia T=488.3ºR s-s1=46.3 (ft·lb)/(lbm·ºR)
For p=4 psia T=474.0ºR s-s1=52.6 (ft·lb)/(lbm·ºR)

115
Fanno Flow Adiabatic flow with friction 3/7
™ To learn more about Fanno lines
Second Tds equation Tds = d h − ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟⎟ dp (18)
(
⎝ρ⎠
( dp dρ dT
For ideal gas dh = c P dT (7) p = ρRT (1) = + (77)
ρ ρ T
⎛ dρ dT ⎞
(1)+(7)+(18)+(77) Tds = c PdT − RT⎜ + ⎟⎟ (78)
⎝ ρ T ⎠
dρ dV (79)
From continuity equation ρV = cons tan t → =−
ρ V
⎛ dV dT ⎞
Tds = c P dT − RT⎜ − + ⎟
⎝ V T ⎠
Substituting (79) into (78) (80)
ds c P ⎛ 1 dV 1 ⎞
= − R⎜ − + ⎟
dT T ⎝ V dT T ⎠ 116
Fanno Flow Adiabatic flow with friction 4/7
dV c
Differentiating (74) =− P (81)
dT V
Substituting (81) into (80) ds c P ⎛ cp 1 ⎞
= − R ⎜⎜ 2 + ⎟⎟ (82)
dT T ⎝V T⎠
At state a
ds Rk
=0 cp = Va = RTa k (83)
dT k −1

Va = RTa k vs. c = RTk

ds
=0
dT
The Mach number at state a is 1.
117
Fanno Flow Adiabatic flow with friction 5/7
™ The temperature at point a is the critical temperature, T*, for the
entire Fanno line.
™ Fanno flow corresponding to the portion of the Fanno line above the
critical temperature must be subsonic, and Fanno flow on the line
below T* must be supersonic.
™ The second law of thermodynamics states that, based on all past
experience, entropy can only remain constant or increase for
adibatic flows.
™ For Fanno flow to be consistent with the second law of
Thermodynamics, flow can only proceed along the Fanno line
toward state a, the critical state.
118
Fanno Flow Adiabatic flow with friction 6/7
™ The critical state may or may not reached by the flow. If ti is, the
Fanno flow is choked.

subsonic
Supersonic

(a) Subsonic Fanno flow. (b) Supersonic Fanno flow. (c) Normal
shock occurrence in Fanno flow (an abruot change from
supersonic to subsonic flow in the Fanno duct).
119
Fanno Flow Adiabatic flow with friction 7/7
™ Subsonic Fanno flow is accelerated by friction to a higher Mach
number without chocking.
™ Supersonic Fanno flow is decelerated by friction to a lower Mach
number without chocking.
™ Sudden deceleration across a standing normal shock wave.

120
Qualitative Aspects of Fanno Flow

121
Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 1/12
™ To quantify Fanno flow behavior we need to combine a relationship
that represents the linear momentum law with the set of equations
already derived in this chapter.
™ Apply the linear momentum equation to the Fanno flow through the
control volume
Rx is the frictional force exerted by the
p1A1 − p 2 A 2 − R X & (V2 − V1 )
=m inner pipe wall on the fluid
A1 = A 2 = A, & = ρAV = cons tan t
m
RX (84)
p1 − p 2 = = ρV( V2 − V1 )
A

122
Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 2/12
Differential form of (84) , which is valid for Fanno flow through the
semi-infinitesimal control volume
τ w πDdx
− dp − = ρVdV (85)
A
The wall shear stress is related to the wall friction factor

8τ w
f= (86)
ρV 2

123
Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 3/12
Substituting (86) and A=πD2/4 into (85)
V 2 dx
− dp − fρ = ρVdV (87)
2 D
dp f ρV 2 dx ρ d ( V 2 )
+ + =0 (88)
p p 2 D p 2

dp fk 2 dx Ma 2 d ( V 2 )
(1)+(36)+(46)+(88) + Ma +k 2
= 0 (89)
p 2 D 2 V

V = Ma ⋅ c = Ma RTk 2 2
V = Ma RTk d( V 2 ) d ( Ma 2 ) dT (90)
= +
V2 Ma 2 T

124
Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 4/12
Apply energy equation to Fanno flow
(ρV) 2
T+ = T0 = cons tan t (74)
2c Pρ 2

dT d ( V 2 )
(74) is differentiated & divided by T + =0 (91)
T 2c P T

2
Substituting (14) (36) (46) into (91) dT k − 1 2 d( V ) (92)
+ Ma 2
=0
T 2 V

d( V 2 ) d ( Ma 2 ) / Ma 2
(92)+(90) = (93)
V 2
1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma 2

125
Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 5/12
dp 1 d( V 2 ) d ( Ma 2 )
(77)+(79)+(90) = 2
− (94)
p 2 V Ma 2
2
1 2 d( V ) d( Ma 2 ) fk 2 dx
(94)+(89) (1 + kMa ) 2
− 2
+ Ma =0 (95)
2 V Ma 2 D

(1 − Ma 2 )d ( Ma 2 ) dx
Incorporating (93) into (95) =f (96)
{1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma 2 }kMa 4 D

(96) can be integrated from one section to another in Fanno flow

duct. We elect to use the critical (*) state as a reference and to
integrate (96) from an upstream state to the critical state.
126
Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 6/12

M *a (1 − Ma 2 ) d ( Ma 2 ) l* dx
∫Ma 2
{1 + [( k − 1) / 2 ] Ma }kMa 4
=
∫
l
f
D
(97)

l is length measured from an arbitrary but fixed upstream

reference location to a section on the Fanno flow.
Friction factor is constant at an average value over the integration
length l*- l. K is also constant.

1 (1 − Ma 2 ) k + 1 ⎧⎪ [( k + 1) / 2]Ma 2 ⎫⎪ f (l − l *)
2
+ ln ⎨ 2 ⎬= (98)
k Ma 2k ⎪⎩ 1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma ⎪⎭ D

127
Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 7/12

For a given gas, value of f(l*- l)/D can be tabulated as a function of

Mach number for Fanno flow.
For example, values of f(l*- l)/D for air Fanno flow are graphed as a
function of Mach number in Figure D.2.
Note that the critical state does not have to be exist in the actual
Fanno flow being considered, since for any two sections in a given
Fanno flow

f (l * −l 2 ) f (l * −l1 ) f
− = (l1 − l 2 ) (99)
D D D

The physical meaning of (99) D NEXT PAGE

128
Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 8/12

(a) Unchoked Fanno flow.

(b) Choked Fanno flow.
129
Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 9/12
For a given Fanno flow (constant specific heat ratio, duct diameter,
and friction factor) the length of duct required to change the Mach
number from Ma1 to Ma2 can be determined from Eqs. (98) and
(99) or a graph such as Figure D.2. To get the values of other fluid
properties in the Fanno flow field we need to develop more
equations.

130
Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 10/12

(90)+(92)
dT
=−
(k − 1) d ( Ma 2
) (100)
T 2
2{1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma }
Integrating Eqs. (100) from any state upstream in a Fanno flow to
the critical (*) state

T ( k + 1) / 2
= (101)
T * 1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma 2

V Ma RTk T
(68)+(69) = = Ma (102)
V* RT k* T*
1/ 2
Substituting (101) into (102) V ⎧⎪ [( k + 1) / 2]Ma 2 ⎫⎪ (103)
=⎨ ⎬
V * ⎪⎩1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma 2 ⎪⎭
131
Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 11/12

Continuity equation (40) ρV = ρ * V * (104)

1/ 2
(104)+(103) ρ V * ⎧⎪ 1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma 2 ⎫⎪
= =⎨ ⎬ (105)
ρ * V ⎪⎩ [( k + 1) / 2]Ma 2 ⎪⎭

p ρ T
Ideal gas (1) = (106)
p* ρ* T*
1/ 2
p 1 ⎧⎪ ( k + 1) / 2 ⎫⎪
(106)+(105)+(101) = ⎨ ⎬ (107)
p * Ma ⎪⎩ 1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma 2 ⎪⎭

132
Quantify Fanno Flow Behavior 12/12

The stagnation pressure ratio

po po p p *
= ⋅ ⋅ * (108)
p*o p p * po

By using of Eqs. (59) (107)

[( k +1) / 2( k −1)]
po 1 ⎡⎛ 2 ⎞⎛ k −1 2 ⎞⎤
= ⎢⎜ ⎟⎜ 1 + Ma ⎟⎥ (109)
p o Ma ⎣⎝ k + 1 ⎠⎝
* 2 ⎠⎦

133
Figure D.2

Value of f(l*- l)/D, T/T*, V/V*, p/p*, and p0/p0* for Fanno flow of
air (k=1.4) are graphed as a function of Mach number in Figure D.2.
f (l * −l 2 ) f (l * −l1 ) f
− = (l1 − l 2 ) (99)
D D D
1/ 2
T ( k + 1) / 2 V ⎧⎪ [( k + 1) / 2]Ma 2 ⎫⎪
= (101) =⎨ ⎬
T * 1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma 2 V * ⎪⎩1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma 2 ⎪⎭ (103)
1/ 2
p 1 ⎧⎪ ( k + 1) / 2 ⎫⎪
= ⎨ ⎬ (107)
p * Ma ⎪⎩ 1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma 2 ⎪⎭

[( k +1) / 2( k −1)]
po 1 ⎡⎛ 2 ⎞⎛ k −1 2 ⎞⎤
= ⎢⎜ ⎟⎜ 1 + Ma ⎟⎥ (109)
p o Ma ⎣⎝ k + 1 ⎠⎝
* 2 ⎠⎦
134
Example 11.12 Choked Fanno Flow 1/2
z Standard atmospheric air [T0 = 288K, p0=101 kPa (abs)] is drawn
steadily through a frictionless, adiabatic diverging nozzle into an
adiabatic, constant area duct as shown in Figure E11.12a. The duct
is 2-m long and has an inside diameter of 0.1 m. The average
friction factor for the duct is estimated as being equal to 0.02. What
is the maximum mass flowrate through the duct? For this maximum
flowrate, determine the values of static temperature, static pressure,
stagnation temperature, stagnation pressure, and velocity at the inlet
[section (1)] and exit [section (2)] of the constant area duct. Sketch a
temperature-entropy diagram for this flow.

135
Example 11.12 Choked Fanno Flow 2/2

136
Example 11.12 Solution1/5
™ Consider the flow through the converging nozzle to be isentropic
and the flow through the constant area duct to be Fanno flow.
™ A decrease in the pressure at the exit of the constant area duct (back
pressure) causes the mass flowrate through the nozzle and the duct
to increase.
™ The flow throughout is subsonic. The maximum flowrate will occur
when the back pressure is lowered to the extent that the constant
area duct chokes and the Mach number at the duct exit is equal to 1.
™ Any further decrease of back pressure will not affect the flowrate
through the nozzle – duct combination.

137
Example 11.12 Solution2/5
™ For the maximum flowrate condition, the constant area duct must be
chocked, and
f ( l * − l1 ) f ( l 2 − l1 ) (0.02)( 2m)
= = = 0.4 (11.12.1)
D D (0.1m)
Entering Figure D.2 with f ( l * −l 1 ) / D = 0.4
We read
T1
Ma1 = 0.63 = 1. 1
T*
V1 p1 p 0,1
= 0.66 = 1 .7 = 1.16
V* p* p0 *
138
Example 11.12 Solution3/5
Entering Figure D.1 with Ma1=0.63
We read
T1 p1 ρ1
= 0.93 = 0.76 = 0.83
T0 p 0,1 ρ 0,1

Since T0=288K
T1 = 0.93T0 = 267.84 K T* = T1 / 1.1 = 243.49 K
V* = RT * k = ( 286.9J / kg ⋅ K )( 243.49 K )(1.4)
= 312.73( J / Kg)1 / 2 = 312.73m / s

139
Example 11.12 Solution4/5
V1 = 0.66V* = 0.66 ⋅ 312.73m / s = 206.40m / s
ρ1 = 0.83ρ 0,1 = 0.83 ⋅ 1.23kg / m 3 = 1.02 kg / m 3
⎡ π ( 0 . 1m ) 2⎤
m& = ρ1A1V1 = (1.02 kg / m 3 ) ⎢ ⎥( 206.40m / s) =
⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦
T1 = 0.93 ⋅ T0 = 0.93 ⋅ 288K =
p1 = 0.76 ⋅ p 0,1 = 0.76 ⋅ 101kPa (abs) = 77 kPa (abs)

The stagnation temperature, T0, remain constant through this

adiabatic flow at a value of
T0,1 = T0,2 = T0 = 288K

140
Example 11.12 Solution5/5
The stagnation pressure, p0, at the entrance of the constant area
duct is the same as the constant value of stagnation pressure
through the isentropic nozzle.
p 0,1 = p 0 = 101kPa (abs)
The duct exit pressure
p * p1 1
p 2 = p* = p 0,1 = (0.76)101kPa (abs) =
p1 p 0,1 1. 7

The duct exit stagnation pressure

p * 1
p 0,2 = p 0 * = 0 p 0,1 = 101kPa (abs) = 84 kPa (abs)
p 0,1 1.16
141
Example 11.13 Effect of Duct Length on
Choked Fanno Flow
z The duct in Example 11.12 is shortened by 50%, but the duct
discharge pressure is maintained at the chocked flow value for
Example 11.12, namely,
Pd=45 kPa (abs)
Will shortening the duct cause the mass flowrate through the duct to
increase or decrease? Assume that the average friction factor for the
duct remains constant at a value of f = 0.02.

142
Example 11.13 Solution1/4
™ We guess that the shortened duct will still choke and check our
assumption by comparing pd with p*. If pd < p*, the flow is chocked.
If not, another assumption has to be made.
For chocked flow
f ( l * − l 1 ) f ( l 2 − l 1 ) (0.02)(1m )
= = = 0 .2
D D (0.1m )

Entering Figure D.2 with f ( l * − l 1 ) / D = 0.2

We read
p1 T1 V1
Ma1 = 0.7 = 1 .5 = 1.05 = 0.73
p* T* V*
143
Example 11.13 Solution2/4
Entering Figure D.1 with Ma1=0.7
We read
T1 p1 ρ1
= 0.92 = 0.72 = 0.79
T0 p 0,1 ρ 0,1
The duct exit pressure
p * p1 1
p 2 = p* = p 0,1 = (0.72)101kPa (abs) = 48.5kPa (abs)
p1 p 0,1 1 .5

pd<p*. Our assumption of chocked flow is justified.

144
Example 11.13 Solution3/4

ρ1 = 0.79ρ 0,1 = 0.79(1.23kg / m 3 ) = 0.97 kg / m 3

V1
= 0.73
V*
Since T0=288K

T1 = 0.92T0 = 264.96 K T* = T1 / 1.05 = 253.34 K

V* = RT * k = ( 286.9J / kg ⋅ K )( 252.34 K )(1.4)
= 318.37( J / Kg)1 / 2 = 318.37 m / s
V1 = 0.73V* = 232.31m / s ⇒ m
& = ρ1A1V1 = 1.77 kg / s
145
Example 11.13 Solution4/4

™ Conclusion
1. The mass flowrate associated with a shortened tube is large
than the mass flowrate for the longer tube.
2. This trend is general for subsonic Fanno flow.
3. For the sane upstream stagnation state and downstream
pressure, the mass flowrate for the Fanno flow will decrease
with increase in length of duct for subsonic flow.
4. If the length of the duct remains the same but the wall friction
is increased, the mass flowrate will decrease.

146
Example 11.14 Unchoked Fanno Flow
z If the same flowrate obtained in Example 11.12 is desired through
the shortened duct of Example 11.13 ((l2- l1 =1 m), determine the
Mach number at the exit of the duct, Ma2, and the back pressure, p2,
required. Assume f remain constant at a value of 0.02.

147
Example 11.14 Solution
From Example 11.12, Ma1=0.63 and from Figure D.2
f (l * −l1 ) f (l 2 − l1 ) f (l * −l1 ) f (l * −l 2 )
= 0. 4 = −
D D D D
f (l * −l 2 )
⇒ = 0 .2
D
From Figure D.2, Ma1=0.7
p2
= 1 .5 From Example 11.12
p*
p 2 p * p1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
p2 = p 0,1 = (1.5)⎜ ⎟(0.76)101kPa (abs) = 68kPa (abs)
p * p1 p 0,1 ⎝ 1 .7 ⎠
148
 Rayleigh flow
Flows with heat transfer
without friction

149
Rayleigh Flow Frictionless, heat transfer 1/6
™ Consider the steady, one-dimensional, and frictionless flow of an
ideal gas through the constant area duct with heat transfer. This is
Rayleigh Flow.
™ Apply linear momentum equation to Rayleigh flow through the
finite control volume
(ρV) 2
p1A1 + m
& V1 = p 2 A 2 + m
& V2 + R X p+ = cons tan t (110)
ρ
Frictionless

150
Rayleigh Flow Frictionless, heat transfer 2/6
(ρV) 2 RT
(1)+(110) p+ = cons tan t (111)
p
ρV = cons tan t

For a given Rayleigh flow, the constant, ρV, and R are all fixed.
Eqs. (111) can be used to determine values of fluid temperature
corresponding to the local pressure in a Rayleigh flow.

151
T-s Diagram for Rayleigh Flow

Using Eqs. (76), which was developed earlier from the second Tds
relationship. Eqs. (111) and Eqs. (76) can be solved simultaneously to
obtain temperature-entropy diagram

(ρV) 2 RT
p+ = cons tan t (111)
p
T p
s − s1 = c P ln − R ln (76)
T1 p1
These two equations can be solved
simultaneously to obtain the Rayleigh
lines. Rayleigh line. 152
Rayleigh Flow Frictionless, heat transfer 3/6
The physical meaning of point a ?? At point a, ds/dT=0
dp
Differentiating (110) dp = −ρVdV = − VdV (112)
ρ
( (
( ⎛ ∂h ⎞ dh
(112)+(18) Tds = dh + VdV (113) c P = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = (7)
∂T
⎝ ⎠p dT
(
Substituting (7) into (113) Tds = dh + VdV = c P dT + VdV
ds c p V dV (114)
= +
dT T T dT
(114)+(112)+(1)+(77)+(79)
ds c P V dV c P V 1 (115)
= + = +
dT T T dT T T [( T / V ) − ( V / R ) ]
153
Rayleigh Flow Frictionless, heat transfer 4/6
Hence, at point a where ds/dT=0, (115) Va = RTa k (116)

Comparison of (116) and (36) Mach number at state a Ma a = 1

At point b where dT/ds=0, From (115)

dT 1 1
= = (117)
ds ds / dT ( c p / T ) + ( V / T )[( T / V ) − ( V / R )] −1

dT 1
= 0 ⇒ Ma b = (118) The flow at point b is subsonic.
ds k

154
Rayleigh Flow Frictionless, heat transfer 5/6
™ To learn more about Rayleigh flow, we need to consider the energy
equation in addition to equation already used. Apply the energy
equation to the Rayleigh flow through the finite control volume
⎡( ( V22 − V12 ⎤
m ⎢ h 2 − h1 + &
+ g ( z 2 − z1 ) ⎥ = Q &
+W
net in shaft net in
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦

or in differential form for Rayleigh flow through the sem-

infinitesimal
( control volume
dh + VdV = δq (119)

The heat transfer per unit mass of fluid in the

semi-infinitesimal control volume 155
Rayleigh Flow Frictionless, heat transfer 6/6
(
By using dh = c P dT = RkdT /( k − 1) into (119)
−1
dV δq ⎡ V dT V ( k − 1) ⎤
2
= ⎢ + ⎥ (120)
V c P T ⎢⎣ T dV kRT ⎥⎦

dV δq 1
(36)+(46)+(1)+(77)+(79)+(112)+(120) = (121)
V c P T (1 − Ma 2 )

From (121), we see clearly that when the Rayleigh flow is subsonic
(Ma<1), fluid heating (δq>0) increases fluid velocity while fluid
cooling decreases fluid velocity.
When the Rayleigh flow is supersonic (Ma>1), fluid heating decrease
fluid velocity and fluid cooling increases fluid velocity.
156
Qualitative Aspects of Rayleigh Flow 1/2

(a) Subsonic Rayleigh flow.

(b) Supersonic Rayleigh flow.
(c) Normal shock in a Rayleigh flow.

157
Qualitative Aspects of Rayleigh Flow 2/2

™ Along the upper portion of Rayleigh line, which includes point b,

the flow is subsonic. Heating the fluids results in flow acceleration
to a maximum Mach number of 1 at point a.
™ Between points b and a along the Rayleigh line, heating the fluids
results in a temperature decrease and cooling the fluids leads a
temperature increase.
™ Along the lower portion of the Rayleigh line the flow is supersonic.
Rayleigh flows may or may not be chocked.
™ As with Fanno flow, an abrupt deceleration from supersonic flow to
subsonic flow across a normal shock wave can also occur in
Rayleigh flows.
158
Quantify Rayleigh Flow Behavior 1/4
™ To quantify Rayleigh flow behavior we need to develop appropriate
forms of the governing equations
™ We elect to use the state of the Rayleigh flow fluid at point a as
the reference state.
™ Apply the linear momentum equation to
Rayleigh flow between any upstream
section and the section, actual or imaged,
where state a is attained.
p + ρV 2 = p a + ρ a Va2
p ρV 2 ρa 2
+ =1+ Va (122)
pa pa pa
159
Quantify Rayleigh Flow Behavior 2/4
Substituting (1) into (122) and p 1+ k
= (123)
making use of (36)+(46) p a 1 + kMa 2
T p ρa
From (1) = (124)
Ta p a ρ
ρa V
From (40) with constant A = (125)
ρ Va
ρa T
(125)+(36)+(46) = Ma (126)
ρ Ta
2
T ⎛ p ⎞
(124)+(126) ⎜
=⎜ Ma ⎟⎟ (127)
Ta ⎝ p a ⎠
160
Quantify Rayleigh Flow Behavior 3/4
2
(127)+(123) T ⎡ (1 + k ) Ma ⎤
=⎢ (128)
Ta ⎣ 1 + kMa 2 ⎥⎦

ρa V ⎡ (1 + k ) Ma ⎤
(125)+(126)+(128) = = Ma ⎢ ⎥ (129)
ρ Va ⎣ 1 + kMa 2 ⎦

The energy equation tells us that because of the heat transfer involved
in Rayleigh flows, the stagnation temperature varies.

To ⎛ To ⎞⎛ T ⎞⎛ Ta ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟ (130)
To, a ⎝ T ⎠⎝ Ta ⎜ To,a ⎟
⎠⎝ ⎠

161
Quantify Rayleigh Flow Behavior 4/4
2⎛ k −1 ⎞
2( k + 1) Ma ⎜1 + Ma 2 ⎟
To ⎝ 2 ⎠
(130)+(56)+(128) = (131)
T o, a (1 + kMa 2 ) 2

po ⎛ p o ⎞⎛ p ⎞⎛ p a ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟ (132)
p 0 ,a ⎝ p ⎠ ⎝ p a ⎜ ⎟
⎠ ⎝ p 0 ,a ⎠
k / k −1
p0 1+ k ⎡⎛ 2 ⎞⎛ k −1 2 ⎞⎤
(132)+(123)+(59) = ⎢⎜ ⎟⎜ 1 + Ma ⎟ ⎥ (133)
p 0,a 1 + kMa 2 ⎣⎝ k + 1 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠⎦

162
Figure D.3

Value of p/pa, T/Ta, ρ/ρa or V/Va, T0/T0,a, and p0/p0,a are graphed in
Figure D.3 as a function of Mach number for Rayleigh flow of air
(k=1.4).
p 1+ k T ⎡ (1 + k ) Ma ⎤
2
= (123) =⎢ (128)
p a 1 + kMa 2 Ta ⎣ 1 + kMa 2 ⎥⎦
2⎛k −1 ⎞
2( k + 1) Ma ⎜1 + Ma 2 ⎟
ρa V ⎡ (1 + k ) Ma ⎤ To
= ⎝ 2 ⎠
= = Ma ⎢ ⎥ (129) 2 2 (131)
ρ T o, a (1 + kMa )
Va ⎣ 1 + kMa 2 ⎦

k / k −1
p0 1+ k ⎡⎛ 2 ⎞⎛ k −1 2 ⎞⎤
= ⎢⎜ ⎟⎜ 1 + Ma ⎟⎥ (133)
p 0,a 1 + kMa 2 ⎣⎝ k + 1 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
163
Example 11.15 Rayleigh Flow
z Air (k=1.4) enters [section (1)] a frictionless, constant flow
cross0sectional area duct with the following properties (the same as
in Example 11.11):
T0=518.67°R
T1=514.55°R
p1=14.3 psia
For Rayleigh flow, determine corresponding value of fluid
temperature and entropy change for various values of downstream
pressures and plot the related Rayleigh line.

164
Example 11.15 Solution1/3
To plot the Rayleigh line we use Eq. (111) and (76)

(ρV) 2 RT
p+ = cons tan t
p
T p
s − s1 = c P ln − R ln
T1 p1
k = 1.4 R = 1716(ft ⋅ lb ) /(slug ⋅ °R ) = 53.3(ft ⋅ lb ) /(lbm ⋅ °R )

From Eq. (14) c = Rk = ... = 187(ft ⋅ lb ) /(lbm ⋅ °R )

p
k −1
2 RT1
ρV = 16.7lbm /(ft ⋅ s) = ... = 13.3ft 3 / lbm
p1
165
Example 11.15 Solution2/3
(ρV) 2 RT
p+ = 15.10psia = cons tan t
p
With the downstream pressure of p=13.5 psia
(ρV) 2 RT
p+ = 13.5psia + [1.65 × 10 −3 (lb / in.2 ) / °R ]T = 15.10psia
p
⇒ T = 979°R
T p
s − s1 = c P ln − R ln = ... = 121(ft ⋅ lb) /(lbm ⋅ °R )
T1 p1
With the downstream pressure of p=12.5 psia……
166
Example 11.15 Solution3/3

167
Example 11.16 Effect of Mach Number and
Heating/Cooling for Rayleigh Flow
z The information in Table 11.2 shows us that subsonic Rayleigh flow
accelerates when heated and decelerates when cooled. Supersonic
Rayleigh flow behaves just opposite to subsonic Rayleigh flow; it
decelerates when heated and accelerates when cooled. Using Figure
D.3 for air (k=1.4), state whether velocity, Mach number, static
temperature, static pressure, and stagnation pressure increase or
decrease as subsonic and supersonic Rayleigh flow is (a) heated, (b)
cooled.

168
Example 11.16 Solution

169
Normal Shock Wave 1/3
™ Normal shock wave can occur in supersonic flows through
converging-diverging and constant area ducts.
™ Normal shock waves involve deceleration from a supersonic flow to
a subsonic flow, a pressure rise, and an increase of entropy.
™ To develop the equations that
verify the observed behavior of
flows across a normal shock, we
apply first principle to the flow
through a control volume that
completely surrounds a normal
shock wave.
170
Normal Shock Wave 2/3
™ For steady flow through the control volume, the conservation of
mass principle yields
ρV = cons tan t (134)
because the flow cross-sectional area remains essentially constant
within the infinitesimal thickness of the normal shock.. Equation
(134) is identical to the continuity equation used for Fanno and
Rayleigh flows.
™ The linear momentum equation describing steady gas flow through
the control volume is
2 For ideal gas (ρV) 2 RT
p + ρV = cons tan t p+ = cons tan t (135)
p
≣ Linear momentum equation (111) of Rayleigh flow
171
Normal Shock Wave 3/3
™ For the control volume containing the normal shock, no shaft work
is involved and the heat transfer is assumed negligible. Thus, the
energy equation can be applied to steady gas flow through the
control volume to obtain
( (
( V 2 ( For ideal gas h − h 0 = c p (T − T0 ) p = ρRT
h+ = h 0 = cons tan t
2
(ρV )2 T 2
T+ 2 2
= To = cons tan t (136)
2c P ( p / R )
≣ Energy equation (75) of Fanno flow

172
T-s Diagram for Normal Shock
™ The steady flow of an ideal gas across a normal shock is governed
by some of the same equation used for describing Fanno and
Rayleigh flows (energy equation for Fanno flows and momentum
equation for Rayleigh flows).
™ For a given ρV, gas (R,k), and
conditions at the inlet of normal
shock (Tx, ρx, and sx), the conditions
downstream of the shock (state y) will
be on both a Fanno line and a Rayleigh
line that pass through the inlet state
(state x).
173
 Equation for
Normal Shock Wave
The energy equation for Fanno flow and
the momentum equation for Rayleigh flow
are valid for flow across normal shocks.

174
Normal Shock Wave

™ The second law of thermodynamics requires that entropy must

increase across a normal shock wave.
™ This law and sketches of the Fanno line and Rayleigh line
intersections persuade us to conclude that flow across a normal shock
can only proceed from supersonic to subsonic flow.
™ Since the state upstream and downstream of a normal shock wave are
represented by the supersonic and subsonic intersections of actual
and/or imaged Fanno and Rayleigh lines.
Ö We should be able to use equations developed earlier for
Fanno and Rayleigh flows to quantify normal shock wave.

175
Normal Shock Wave py/px 1/2
Momentum equation for Rayleigh flow
™ For the Rayleigh line

py p y pa
=
p x pa p x (137)

p 1+ k
From = 2
(123)
p a 1 + kMa
py 1+ k
= (138)
pa 1 + kMa 2y

px 1+ k
= (139)
p a 1 + kMa 2x
(b) The normal shock in a Rayleigh flow 176
Normal Shock Wave py/px 2/2
py 1 + kMa 2x (140)
(137)+(138)+(139) =
px 1 + kMa 2y
Equation (140) can also be derived by …..
py py p *
=
px p * px py 1 + kMa 2x
1/ 2 = (140)
p 1 ⎧⎪ ( k + 1) / 2 ⎫⎪ p x 1 + kMa 2y
= ⎨ ⎬ (107)
p * Ma ⎪⎩ 1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma 2 ⎪⎭

From linear momentum equation

p x + ρ x Vx2 = p y + ρ y Vy2
ρV 2 / p = V 2 / RT = kV 2 / RTk = kMa 2
177
Normal Shock Wave Ty/Tx 1/2
Energy equation for Fanno flow
™ For the Fanno flow
Ty Ty T *
= (141)
Tx T * Tx
T ( k + 1) / 2
From = (101)
T * 1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma 2

Ty ( k + 1) / 2
= (142)
T* 1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma 2y
Tx ( k + 1) / 2
= (143)
T * 1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma 2x
(a) The normal shock in a Fanno flow 178
Normal Shock Wave Ty/Tx 2/2
Ty 1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma 2x
(141)+(142)+(143) = (144)
Tx 1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma 2y

179
Normal Shock Wave May 1/2

™ To develop an equation to determine the Mach number downstream

of the normal shock, May, when the Mach number upstream of the
normal shock, Max, is known.
ρ x Vx = ρ y Vy
py Ty ρ y py Ty Vx
(1) = (145) = (146)
px Tx ρ x p x Tx Vy
1/ 2
py ⎛ Ty ⎞ Ma x
(146)+(36)+(46) = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
(147)
p x ⎝ Tx ⎠ Ma y
1/ 2
p y ⎧⎪ 1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma 2x ⎫⎪ Ma x
(147)+(144) =⎨ ⎬ (148)
p x ⎪ 1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma 2y ⎪ Ma y
⎩ ⎭
180
Normal Shock Wave May 2/2
Ma 2x + [2 /( k − 1)]
(148)+(140) Ma 2y = (149)
[2 k /( k − 1)]Ma 2x −1

Equation (149) can be used to calculate values of Mach number

downstream of a normal shock from a known Mach number of the
shock. Max>1…..May<1

181
Normal Shock Wave py/px Ty/Tx 1/2
py 2k 2 k −1
(149)+(140) = Ma x − (150)
px k + 1 k +1
Ty {1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma 2x }{[2k /( k − 1)]Ma 2x − 1}
(149)+(144) = 2
(151)
Tx {( k + 1) /[2( k − 1)]}Ma 2x

ρy Vx
(40) = (152)
ρ x Vy

ρy p y Tx
(152)+(1) = (153)
ρ x p x Ty
182
Normal Shock Wave py/px Ty/Tx 2/2
ρy Vx ( k + 1) Ma 2x
(152)+(153)+(150)+(151) = = (154)
ρ x Vy ( k − 1) Ma 2x + 2

The stagnation pressure ratio across the shock

p 0,y ⎛ p 0,y ⎞⎛ p y ⎞⎛ p x ⎞
=⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ (155)
p 0,x ⎜ py ⎟⎜ p x ⎟⎜ p ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 0,x ⎠

(59)+(149)+(150)

2 k /( k − 1 ) k − 1 Ma 2 ) k /( 1 − k )
p 0,y ( k 2+ 1 Ma x ) ( 1 + 2 x
= (156)
p 0,x ( k2+k1 Ma 2x − kk +− 11 ) 1 /( k − 1 )
183
Figure D.4

Value of downstream Mach numbers, May, pressure ration, py/px,

temperature ratio, Ty/Tx, density ratio, ρy/ρx or velocity ratio Vy/Vx,
and stagnation pressure ratio, p0,y/p0,x are graphed in Figure D.4 as a
function of upstream Mach number, Max, for the steady flow across a
normal shock wave of an ideal gas having a specific heat ratio k=1.4.
Ma 2x + [2 /( k − 1)] py 2k
Ma 2x −
k −1
Ma 2y = (149) = (150)
[2 k /( k − 1)]Ma 2x −1 px k +1 k +1

Ty {1 + [( k − 1) / 2]Ma 2x }{[2k /( k − 1)]Ma 2x − 1} Vxρy ( k + 1) Ma 2x

= = = (154)
2 (151) ρ x Vy ( k − 1) Ma 2x + 2
Tx {( k + 1) /[2( k − 1)]}Ma 2x

2 k /( k − 1 )
p 0,y ( k 2+ 1 Ma x) (1 + k 2− 1 Ma 2x ) k /( 1 − k )
= (156)
p 0,x ( k2+k1 Ma 2x − kk +− 11 ) 1 /( k − 1 ) 184
Summary of Normal Shock Wave

185
Example 11.17 Stagnation Pressure Drop
Across a Normal Shock
z Designers involved with fluid mechanics work hard at minimizing
loss of available energy in their designs. Adiabatic, frictionless
flows involve no loss in available energy. Entropy remains constant
for these idealized flows. Adiabatic flows with friction involve
available energy loss and entropy increase. Generally, larger entropy
increases imply larger losses. For normal shocks, shows that the
stagnation pressure drop (and thus loss) is larger for heigher Mach
number.

186
Example 11.17 Solution
2 k /( k − 1 )
p 0,y ( k 2+ 1 Max) (1 + k 2− 1 Ma 2x ) k /( 1 − k )
= k=1.4
p 0,x ( k2+k1 Ma 2x − kk +− 11 ) 1 /( k − 1 )

p 0,y p 0,x − p 0,y

1− =
p 0,x p 0,x

py 2k 2 k −1
= Ma x −
px k + 1 k +1

187
Example 11.18 Supersonic Flow Pitot
Tube
z A total pressure probe is inserted into a supersonic air flow. A shock
wave forms just upstream of the impact hole and head as illustrated
in Figure E11.18. The probe measures a total pressure of 60 psia.
The stagnation temperature at the probe head is 1000ºR. The static
pressure upstream of the shock is measured will a wall tap to be 12
psia. From these data determine the Mach number and velocity of
the flow.

188
Example 11.18 Solution1/3

We assume that the flow along the stagnation pathline is isentropic

except across the shock. Also, the shock is treated as a normal
shock.
p 0,y ⎛ p 0,y ⎞ ⎛ p 0,x ⎞
=⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎟ (11.18-1)
px ⎜ p 0,x ⎟⎜ p x
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
Where p0,y is the stagnation pressure measured by the probe, and px is
the static pressure measured by the wall trap. The stagnation pressure
upstream of the shock, p0,x, is not measured.
2 k /( k − 1 )
p 0,y ( k 2+ 1 Ma x)
(11.18-1)+(156)+(59) =
px ( k2+k1 Ma 2
− k − 1 ) 1 /( k − 1 )
x k +1
Called the Rayleigh Pitot-tube formula 189
Example 11.18 Solution2/3
Figure D.4
p 0,y 60 psia
For k=1.4 = =5 Max=1.9
px 12 psia

To determine the flow velocity we need to know the static

temperature upstream of the shock.

V x = Ma x c x = Ma x RT x k

The stagnation temperature downstream of the shock was measured

and found to be
T o , y = 1000 ° R ⇒ T o , x = T o , y = 1000 ° R

190
Example 11.18 Solution3/3

T 1 Tx
From = or Figure D.1 = 0.59 ⇒ Tx = 590°R
To 1 + k −1 M a2 To,x
2

V x = Ma x RT x k = 1 . 9 =

191
Example 11.19 Normal Shock in a
Converging-Diverging Duct
z Determine, for the converging-diverging duct of Example 11.8, the
ratio of back pressure to inlet stagnation pressure, pIII/pa, that will
result in a standing normal shock at the exit (x=+0.5 m) of the duct.
What value of the ratio of back pressure to inlet stagnation pressure
would be required to position the shock at x=+0.3 m? Show related
temperature-entropy diagrams for these flows.

192
Example 11.19 Solution1/4

For supersonic, isentropic flow through the nozzle to just upstream

of the standing normal shock at the duct exit, we have from the
table of Example 11.8 at x= +0.5m.
px
M a x = 2 .8 = 0 . 04
p 0 ,x

From Figure D.4 for Max=2.8 we obtain

py
= 9 .0
px
py ⎛ p y ⎞⎛ p x ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = ( 9 . 0 )( 0 . 04 ) = 0 . 36 = p III
p 0 ,x ⎜ ⎟
⎝ p x ⎠⎝ p 0,x ⎠ p 0 ,x 193
Example 11.19 Solution2/4

When the ratio of duct back pressure to inlet stagnation pressure,

pIII/p0,x, is set equal to 0.36, the air will accelerate through the
converging-diverging duct to a Mach number of 2.8 at the duct exit.
The air will subsequently decelerate to a subsonic flow across a
normal shock at the duct exit.
The stagnation pressure ratio across the normal shock, p0,y/p0,x, is
0.38 (Figure D.4 for Max=2.8)
A considerable amount of available energy is lost across the shock.
For a normal shock at x=+0.3 m, we note from the table of Example
11.8 that Max=2.14 and
px
= 0 . 10
p 0,x 194
Example 11.19 Solution3/4

From Figure D.4 for Max=2.14 we obtain py/px=5.2 and May=0.56

and
p 0,y
= 0 . 66
p 0,x
From Figure D.4 for May=0.56 we get
Ay
= 1 . 24
A*
For x = +0.3m, the ratio of duct exit area to local area (A2/Ay) is
A2 0 .1 + ( 0 .5 ) 2 A2 Ay A2
= = 1 . 842 ⇒ = = 2 . 28
Ay 0 .1 + ( 0 .3 ) 2
A * A * Ay
195
Example 11.19 Solution4/4

With A2/A*=2.28 we use Figure D.1 and find Ma2=0.26 and

p2
= 0 . 95
p 0,y
p2 p 2 p 0 ,y
= = ( 0 . 95 )( 0 . 66 ) = 0 . 63
p 0 ,x p 0,y p 0 ,x

196
Compressible Flow vs. Open-Channel
Flow 1/6
™ The propagation of weak pressure pulse (sound wave) in a
compressible flow can be considered to be comparable to the
movement of small amplitude waves on the surface of an open-
channel flow.
™ The influence of the flow velocity on wave pattern is similar:
DWhen the flow velocity is less than the wave speed, wave fronts
can move upstream of the wave source and the flow is subsonic
(compressible flow) or subcritical (open-channel flow).
DWhen the flow velocity is equal to the wave speed, wave fronts
cannot move upstream of the wave source and the flow is sonic
(compressible flow) or critical (open-channel flow).
197
Compressible Flow vs. Open-Channel
Flow 2/6
DWhen the flow velocity is greater than the wave speed, the flow
is supersonic (compressible flow) or supercritical (open-channel
flow).
DNormal shock can occur in supersonic compressible flows.
DHydraulic jumps can occur in supercritical open-channel flows.

198
Compressible Flow vs. Open-Channel
Flow 3/6
V
For compressible flows, Mach number Ma =
c

For open-channel flows, Froude number Fr = Voc (157)

gy

Voc (159)
c oc = gy (158) Fr =
c oc

Voc is the velocity of the channel flow

coc is the velocity of a small amplitude wave on the surface of an
open-channel flow

199
Compressible Flow vs. Open-Channel
Flow 4/6

For compressible flows, Continuity equation ρAV = cons tan t (160)

For open-channel flows, Continuity equation ybVoc = cons tan t (161)

y and b are the depth and width of the open-channel flow.

Comparing Eqs. (160) and (161) we note that if flow velocities are
considered similar and flow area, A, and channel width, b, are
considered similar, the compressible flow density, ρ, is analogous
to open-channel depth, y.

200
Compressible Flow vs. Open-Channel
Flow 5/6
™ It should be pointed out that the similarity between Mach number
and Froude number is generally not exact.
™ If compressible flow and open-channel flow velocities are
considered to be similar, then it follows that for Mach number and
Froude number similarity the wave speeds c and coc must also be
similar.
™ From the development of the equation for the speed of sound in an
ideal gas

c = (cons tan t ) kρ k −1 (162)

201
Compressible Flow vs. Open-Channel
Flow 6/6
™ From equation (162) and (158), we see that if y is to be similar to ρ
as suggested by comparing equation (160) and (161), then k
should be equal to 2.
™ Typically k=1.4 or 1.67, not 2.

This limitation to exactness is, however, usually not

serious enough to compromise the benefits of the
analogy between compressible and open-channel flows.

202
Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow 1/8

™ Consider a supersonic flow over a wall with a small change of

direction

The component of velocity

parallel to the Mach wave is
constant across the Mach
wave. That is, Vt1=Vt2.
The flow accelerates
because of the change in
direction of the flow.

Flow acceleration across a Mach wave.

203
Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow 2/8

™ Consider a supersonic flow over a wall with several change of

direction

The supersonic flow

accelerates because of the
change in flow direction
across the Mach wave (also
called expansion waves).
Each Mach wave makes an
appropriately smaller angle
with the upstream wall.
Flow acceleration across a Mach wave.
204
Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow 3/8

™ Consider a supersonic flow over a wall with round corner

A rounder expansion corner

may be considered as a
series of infinitesimal
changes in direction.

Corner expansion fan..

205
Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow 4/8

™ Consider a supersonic flow over a wall with a small change of

direction

The flow decelerates and

static pressure increases
across the Mach wave.

Flow deceleration across a Mach wave

206
Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow 5/8

™ Consider a supersonic flow over a wall with several change of

direction

For several changes in wall

direction, several Mach
waves occur.
The supersonic flow
decelerates across the Mach
wave.

Corner expansion fan..

207
Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow 6/8

™ Consider a supersonic flow over a wall with round corner

A rounder compression
corner may be considered as
a series of infinitesimal
changes in direction.

Oblique shock wave.

208
Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow 7/8

™ Consider a supersonic flow incident on a wedge-shaped leading

edge with smaller wedge angle.

An attached oblique shock

can form.

Supersonic flow over a wedge: (a) Smaller

wedge angle results in attached oblique
shock. 209
Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow 8/8

™ Consider a supersonic flow incident on a wedge-shaped leading

edge with larger wedge angle.

A detached, curved shock

ahead of a blunt object can
result.

Supersonic flow over a wedge:

(b) Large wedge angle results in detached
curve shock. 210