Programming in Linux

Self learning with Linux

Team Emertxe
Linux Introduction
Let us ponder…
 What exactly is an Operating System (OS)?

 Why do we need OS?

 How would the OS would look like?

 Is it possible for a team of us (in the room) to create an OS of our

own?

 Is it necessary to have an OS running in a Embedded System?

 Will the OS ever stop at all?

 Operating System
Humans
User 1 User 2 User 3
Program
interface
User
Programs
Compiler Assembler Text editor Database system
OS
interface
System and application programs
OS

Hardware Operating System

interface/
privileged
instructions
Computer
Disk/memory hardware
What is Linux ?
 Linux is a free and open source operating system that is
causing a revolution in the computer world.
 Originally created by Linus Torvalds with the assistance
of developers called community
 This operating system in only a few short years is
beginning to dominate markets worldwide.
Why use Linux?
 Free & Open Source
 Reliability
 Secure
 Scalability
What is Open Source?

Freedom of
software

Freedom of Freedom of
use redistribute

Freedom of Freedom of
modify copy
 How it all started?
 With GNU (GNU is not UNIX)

 Richard Stallman made the initial announcement in 1983, Free Software

Foundation (FSF) got formed during 1984

 Volunteer driven GNU started developing multiple projects, but making it as

an operating system was always a challenge

 During 1991 a Finnish Engineer Linus Torvalds developed core OS

functionality, called it as “Linux Kernel”

 Linux Kernel got licensed under GPL, which laid strong platform for the
success of Open Source

 Rest is history!
 How it evolved?
 Multiple Linux distributions started emerging around the Kernel

 Some applications became platform independent

 Community driven software development started picking up

 Initially seen as a “geek-phenomenon”, eventually turned out to be an

engineering marvel

 Centered around Internet

 Building a business around open source started becoming viable Kernel

 Redhat set the initial trend in the OS business Applications

Customization
Where it stands now?
OS Databases Server/Cloud Enterprise

Consumer Education CMS eCommerce

 More details
Open Source SW vs. Freeware

OSS Freeware
 Users have the right to access &  Freeware is usually distributed in a
modify the source codes form of binary at ‘Free of Charge’,
 In case original programmer but does not open source codes
disappeared, users & developer itself.
group of the S/W usually keep its  Developer of freeware could
support to the S/W. abandon development at any time
 OSS usually has the strong users & and then final version will be the
developers group that manage and last version of the freeware. No
maintain the project enhancements will be made by
others.
 Possibility of changing its licensing
policy
GPL
 Basic rights under the GPL – access to source code,
right to make derivative works

 Reciprocity/Copy-left

 Purpose is to increase amount of publicly available

software and ensure compatibility

 Licensees have right to modify, use or distribute

software, and to access the source code
Problems with the GPL

 Linking to GPL programs

 No explicit patent grant
 Does no discuss trademark rights
 Does not discuss duration
 Silent on sub-licensing
 Relies exclusively on license law, not contract
Linux: Properties
 Multitasking

 Multi-user

 Multiprocessing

 Protected Memory

 Hierarchical File System

Directory structure
/boot/ Static files for boot loader
/dev/ Device files
/bin/ Essential user command binaries
/etc/ Host specific system configuration
/home/ User home directories
/lib/

/
Essentilal shared libraries and kernal modules
/media/ Mount point for removable media
/mnt/ Mount point for temporarily mounted file systems
/opt/ Add-on application software package
/sbin/ User specific system binaries
/tmp/ Temporary files
/usr/ Multi-user utilities and applications
/var/ Variable file (logs)
/root/ Home directory for root user
/proc/ Virtual file system documenting kernel and process status
x86 Booting
Kernel structure
 Hardware Controllers: This subsystem is comprised of all
the possible physical devices in a Linux installation
 Linux Kernel: The kernel abstracts and mediates access
to the hardware resources, including the CPU. A kernel is
the core of the operating system
 O/S Services: These are services that are typically
considered part of the operating system (e.g. shell)
 User Applications: The set of applications in use on a
particular Linux system. (e.g. web-browser)
Kernel structure
Command Line Interface
 Command Line
Interface
• CLI
• Textual mode
• Executes requested command
• GUI
• Mouse, keypad
The Shell
 What is a shell?
 Different types of shells
• Login-shell
• Non-login shell
• Sh
• Bash
• Ksh
• Csh
 Hands-on:
• echo $0
• cat /etc/shells
How Shell Invokes

The main task of a shell is providing a user environment

Input (ls)

Shell

List all the

Error
files
Bash Files
 Bash
• Command interpreter
• .bash_profile (During login)
• .bashrc (New instance)
• .bash_logout (Logout)
• .bash_history (Command history)
 Hands-on:
• Enter ls -a in your home directory
• Display contents of all files mentioned above
Environment Variables
 Login-shell's responsibility is to set the non-login shell and
it will set the environment variables
 Environment variables are set for every shell and
generally at login time
 Environmental variables are set by the system.
 Environmental variables hold special values. For instance
,$ echo $SHELL
 Environmental variables are defined in /etc/profile,
/etc/profile.d/ and ~/.bash_profile.
 When a login shell exits, bash reads ~/.bash_logout
The 'bash' variables &
Friends
Name Meaning
env Lists shell environment variable/value pairs
export [var_name] Exports/sets a shell variable
HOME Path of user’s home directory
PATH Executable search path
PWD Present working directory
PS1 Command prompt
N=10 Assigning the variable. This a temporary variable
effective only inside the current shell
unset N Unset the environment variable N
 Basic Shell Commands

Command Meaning
ls Lists all the files
pwd Gives present working directory
cd Change directory
man Gives information about command
exit Exits from the shell
which Shows full path of command
Shell: Built-in Commands

 Built-in commands are contained with in the shell

itself, means shell executes the command directly,
without creating a new process
 Built-in commands:
break,cd,exit,pwd,export,return,unset,alias,echo,print
f,read,logout,help,man
VIsual editor
VIsual editor

 vi or vim

 To open a file
$ vi <filename> or vim <filename>
VIsual editor…
 vi opens a file in command mode while starting
 The power of vi comes from its 3 modes
• Escape mode (Command mode)
Search mode
File mode
• Editing mode
Insert mode
Append mode
Open mode
Replace mode
• Visual mode.
Cursor Movement
 You will clearly need to move the cursor around your file.
You can move the cursor in command mode.
 vi has many different cursor movement commands. The four
basic keys appear below

Character Meaning
k Move up one line
h Move one character to the left
l Move one character to the right
j Move down one line

 Yes! Arrow keys also do work. But these makes typing faster
Basic vi commands

 How to exit
Command Meaning
:q Quit without saving
:wq Close the file with saving
:q! Quit the file forcefully without saving

 Already looks too complicated?

 Try by yourself, let us write a C program
 Try out vimtutor. Go to shell and type vimtutor
 Escape mode or
Command mode
 In command mode, characters you perform actions like moving the
cursor, cutting or copying text, or searching for some particular
text
• Search mode
• vi can search the entire file for a given string of text. A
string is a sequence of characters. vi searches forward with
the slash (/) key and string to search.
• To cancel the search, press ESC .You can search again by
typing n (forward) or N (backward).
• Also, when vi reaches the end of the text, it continues
searching from the beginning. This feature is called wrap
scan. Instead of (/), you may also use question (?). That
would have direction reversed
• Now, try out. Start vi as usual and try a simple search. Type
/<string> and press n and N a few times to see where the
cursor goes.
Escape mode...
 File mode
• Changing (Replacing) Text

Command Meaning
:%s/first/sec Replaces the first by second every where in the file
%s/old/new/gc For all lines in a file, find string “old" and replace with
string “new" for each instance on a line
:e filename Open another file without closing the current
set all Display all settings of your session
:r filename Reads file named filename in place
Editing Modes...
Command Mode name Insertion point
a Append Just after the current character
A Append End of the current line
i Insert Just before the current character
I Insert Beginning of the current line
o Open New line below the current line
O Open New line above the current line
 Editing Text
 Deleting Text Sometimes you will want to delete some
of the text you are editing.
 To do so, first move the cursor so that it covers the first
character of the group you want to delete, then type
the desired command from the table below.
Command Meaning
dd For deleting a line
ndd For deleting a n lines
x To delete a single character
shift + d Delete contents of line after cursor
dw Delete word
ndw Delete ‘n’ words
Some Useful
Shortcuts
Command Meaning
shift-g Go to last line in file
shift-j Joining the two lines
. Repeat the previous command executed
ctrl+a Increment number under the cursor
ctrl+x Decrements numbers under the cursor
Visual Mode
Visual Mode
Visual mode helps to visually select some text, may
be seen as a sub mode of the command mode to switch
from the command mode to the visual mode type one of
• ctrl+v Go's to visual block mode.
• Only v for visual mode
• d or y Delete or Yank selected text
• I or A Insert or Append text in all lines (visual block
only)
File related commands
File redirection

 Out put redirection ( > )

 Redirecting to append ( >> )
 Redirecting the error (2>)

eg : $ls > /tmp/outputfile

eg : $ls -l >> /tmp/outputfile
eg : $ls 2> /tmp/outputfile
Piping
 A pipe is a form of redirection that is used in Linux
operating systems to send the output of one program to
another program for further processing.
 A pipe is designated in commands by the vertical bar
character
eg: $ ls -al /bin | less
File Related
commands
 Every thing is viewed as a file in Linux. Even a
Directory is a file.
 Basic Shell Command Set
Command Meaning
df Disk free space
du Disk usage
cp <source> <dest> Copy file from one to another
mv <source> <dest> Rename a file
rm <file> Remove a file
stat File related statistics (i-node)
ln Linking between files (-s option for soft link)
Continued
Command Meaning
mkdir <dir_name> Make directory
rmdir <dir_name> Remove a particular directory
touch Change file timestamps
wc Counts the number of lines in a file
cat Display contents of the file in standard output
more Display contents, navigate forward
head Display first 10 lines of the file (-n to change)
tail Display last 10 lines of the file (-n to change)
sort Sort lines of text files
 File Detailed
Listing

File Created time

permissions Owner Filename
& size & Date
group
 Linux file types

1st column Meaning

•- • Plain text
•d • Directory
•c • Character driver
•b • Block driver
•l • Link file
•s • Socket file
• = or p • FIFO file
File permissions

 r or 4 -r--r--r-- Read
 w or 2 --w--w--w- Write
 x or 1 ---x--x--x Execute
rwx rwx rwx
421 421 421
user group others
Changing the File Permissions
$ chmod – Change file permessions
$ chown – Change file owner
$ chmod [ ug+r, 746 ] file.txt
$ chown -R user:group [ filename | dir ]
Linux kernel: Subsystems
Subsystems

 The Process Scheduler (SCHED)

 The Memory Manager (MM)

 The Virtual File System (VFS)

 The Network Interface (NET)

 The Inter-Process Communication (IPC)

Kernel Structure
Kernel design
 Most older operating systems are
monolithic, that is, the whole operating
system is a single executable file that
runs in 'kernel mode'
 This binary contains the process
management, memory management, file
system and the rest (Ex: UNIX)
 The alternative is a microkernel-based
system, in which most of the OS runs as
separate processes, mostly outside the
kernel
 They communicate by message passing.
The kernel's job is to handle the message
passing, interrupt handling, low-level
process management, and possibly the
I/O (Ex: Mach)
System Calls
System calls

 A set of interfaces to interact with hardware devices

such as the CPU, disks, and printers.
 Advantages:
• Freeing users from studying low-level programming
• It greatly increases system security
• These interfaces make programs more portable
System call
 System Call...

Logically the system call and regular interrupt follow the same flow of steps. The
source (I/O device v/s user program) is very different for both of them. Since
system call is generated by user program they are called as ‘Soft interrupts’ or
‘traps’
 Stay connected
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