Abstract

The term ‘topsoil’ generally refers to the A soil horizon which is usually darker than the underlying soil
because of the accumulation of organic matter Brady (2000). Topsoil primarily provides a suitable growth
medium for vegetation. It is the major zone of root development and biological activity. All the microbial
activities that enhance plant growth are present in this layer, including insects, earthworms, bacteria, fungi,
nematodes, and actinomycetes. They help in decaying of organic matter to form humus by mineralisation
process and release plant nutrients in inorganic form. In addition, topsoil enhances soil structure and
improves texture, infiltration characteristics and overall fertility status of mine spoils. Top soiling is essential
for rejuvenation of microbial life in the bare mine spoils. Topsoil, being a precious natural resource, is also
required under legislation to remove, store and reuse appropriately in the eco-restoration work at the mine
degraded lands. It may require establishing vegetation on shallow soils, soils containing potentially toxic
materials, stony soils and soils of critically low pH (high acidity).

Keywords
Biomass Clay Porosity Phosphorus Sludge

5.1 Introduction
The term ‘topsoil’ generally refers to the ‘A-soil horizon’ which is usually darker than the
underlying soil because of the accumulation of organic matter Brady (2000). Topsoil
primarily provides a suitable growth medium for vegetation. It is the major zone of root
development and biological activity. All the microbial activities that enhance plant growth
are present in this layer, including insects, earthworms, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, and
actinomycetes. They help in decaying of organic matter to form humus by mineralisation
process and release plant nutrients in inorganic form. In addition, topsoil enhances soil
structure and improves texture, infiltration characteristics and overall fertility status of
mine spoils. Topsoiling is essential for rejuvenation of microbial life in the bare mine
spoils. Topsoil, being a precious natural resource, is also required under legislation to
remove, store and reuse appropriately in the eco-restoration work at the mine degraded
lands. It may require establishing vegetation on shallow soils, soils containing potentially
toxic materials, stony soils and soils of critically low pH (high acidity).

In eco-restoration purposes, topsoil not only consists of only upper 15-cm layer of the
surface horizon but may also consist of the A, B and C-soil horizons or any combination
thereof and which has been determined through soil surveys, laboratory analyses and
field trials found to be suitable as a plant growth medium for the post-mining land use.

Soil is unconsolidated mineral material in the immediate surface of the earth that serves
as a natural medium for the growth of plants and differs from material from which it was
derived in many physical, chemical, biological and morphological properties and
characteristics. Subsoil means any subsurface earthen materials, excluding any material
within the topsoil layer, which is capable of supporting plant life (Wyoming ELQD 1994).
 Fig. 5.1 : Depicted the ideal horizon of a pedon unit

The topsoil lower limit is set at 30-cm depth or at a root growth-inhibiting layer
whichever is shallower. This layer can be hard rock, a pedogenetically indurated layer, a
chemically unfavourable layer or a strongly contrasting layer. Litter layer, if exists, occurs
above the topsoil. Topsoil can usually be differentiated from subsoil by texture as well as
colour. Clay content usually increases in the subsoil. Where subsoil is often high in clay,
in such case, the topsoil layer may be significantly coarser in texture. The depth of topsoil
may be quite variable. On severely eroded sites, it may be gone entirely.
Figure 5.1 illustrates the ideal pedon units showing topsoil, subsoil and weathered
overburden layers above the mineral deposit.

5.2 Factors Influencing Topsoil Properties

The characteristic of topsoil is strongly influenced by soil-forming factors, both externally
and internally. The characterisation and subsequent stratification of top soils, therefore,
has to take into account all these factors which are interdependent; they are related to
each other and influence one another. The factors influence the characteristics of topsoil
are climate, vegetation and organic matter, topography and physiography, mineralogical
constituents, surface processes, biological activity and human activity (FAO 1998):

1. Climate: Climate is the dominating factor that influences, directly or indirectly, the
topsoil properties. It has a profound influence not only on the topsoil but also on topsoil-
forming factors such as vegetation, topography and human activity. Climatic parameters
which are important for the topsoil are temperature, moisture, radiation and wind.
2. Vegetation: Vegetation contributes in several ways to the formation of topsoil
characteristics, such as

 Penetrating roots loosen the soil and improve porosity and aeration.
 Litter, decaying branches and stems are transformed into organic matter (OM).
 Enhances aggregation.
 Increases structural stability.
 Increases water-holding capacity.
 Contributes to the nutrient-holding capacity.
 Provides the soil with N, P and S and other nutrients which were stored in the above
ground biomass.

3. Biological activity comprises soil faunal and soil microbial activity. It enhances

 Physical mixing of organic matter within the soil profile.

 Inoculation of the plant litter with decomposer populations.
 Adjustment of soil physical properties to a level more conducive for OM decomposition.
 Physical disintegration of organic matter.
 Stimulation of decomposer populations.
Soil microbial activity is responsible for the biochemical breakdown of plant tissue,
involving fungi, yeasts, bacteria, etc., thus liberating plant nutrients and synthesising
relatively stable organic compounds which are added to the soil organic matter fraction.

4. Organic matter (OM): A change in OM invariably affects physical and chemical

properties of the topsoil:

 One of the important functions of OM is to bind the soil particles. If the amount of OM is
reduced, this binding will become less; therefore, structural stability is decreased.
 Second important function of OM is to increase the water-holding capacity of soil; hence,
loss of OM decreases water-holding capacity of soil. It has been reported that soil OM can
hold up to 20 times more water than a similar amount of mineral soil particles, so this
effect can be fairly drastic (FAO 1998).
 Third most important physico-chemical property influenced by OM is the CEC. It has
been reported that 1% of OM gives the soil about 3–4 cmol(+) CEC kg−1 soil. This drop can
be very important especially in soils that have a low mineral CEC, like many soils in
tropical regions.

5.3 Components of Topsoil Management

Topsoil management includes-inventory and characterisation, salvaging, storing,
redistribution and quality assurance during the entire process. Detailed steps of topsoil
management are shown Fig. 5.2.
 Fig. 5.2 : Important steps of topsoil management (After Maiti 2010)
The important planning issues of topsoil management are
 Inventory of topsoil resource
 Topsoil removal (salvaging operation)
 Topsoil storage (stockpile)
 Topsoil redistribution
 Topsoil monitoring and quality

5.3.1 Inventory of Topsoil Resources

The following important activities are to be followed for proper inventory of topsoil
resources for a project (Wyoming ELQD 1994):
1. Soil survey: In-depth soil survey will assist the identification of suitable topsoil material
for salvage. Thus, site-specific characteristics of topsoil may influence soil stripping and
stockpiling, and redistribution should be specifically noted.
2. Preparation of topsoil map: Prepare a topsoil map indicating areas to be affected and not
to be affected during mining operations. Affected areas should be intensively mapped
covering details of physico-chemical characteristics and depth of topsoil and subsoil
(stripping depth), in the scale of 1:4,000. The soil map should include mapping unit
numbers which will be based on stripping depth, characteristics and topography. The soil
should show the boundary of all mapping units.
3. Description on mapping unit: similarities or dissimilarities of topsoil in terms of
characteristics, depth of suitable topsoil, etc.
4. Soil sampling: Sampling locations should be clearly marked on the soil map. Numbers of
sampling locations are site specific and depend on nature and characteristics of soil.
Profile description should be taken for each soil being sampled. The major horizons (A, B,
C) should be separately described, sampled and analysed. Generally, soil profile should be
sampled up to 1.5 m or bedrock. Even below the 1.5-m depth, suspected that soil is
 suitable for reclamation, sampling should be continued beyond the depth of 1.5 m, if
topsoil is limited in the area.
5. Soil analysis: Soil sample should be placed in a clean polythene bag, labelled and
transported to the laboratory immediately. The sample is air dried at 30–35 °C (room
temperature) as soon as possible for 4–5 days (or 1 week). After drying, grind the sample
and sieve through 2-mm size. Greater than 2-mm size retains in the sieve, weights and
expresses as coarse fraction. Less than 2-mm size soil particle is used for further analysis.
6. Data presentation: All analytical results should be presented in a tabular form with
respect to depth (profile basis) and same to be the reference with mapping unit, sampling
site location and soil horizon. The analysis report should provide the name of the
laboratory conducting the analyses, sampling dates, dates of analyses, analytical methods
adopted and their references.
7. Topsoil stripping: It is recommended that as a part of mining plan, the guideline should
outline how the operator proposes to salvage all suitable topsoil. The plan should include:
 Delineating procedure for the removal of entire topsoil material.
 Training of equipment operators in proper topsoil salvage procedures.
 Monitoring of topsoil salvage activities in the field by qualified personnel.
8. Volumetric presentation: Using data derived from soil survey (salvaging depth) and
analysis, volume of topsoil that will be salvaged and available for reclamation is
estimated.
Identification of the quality and depth of topsoil is essential for any salvaging operation.
There are five factors which could be taken as preliminary guidelines, depicted in
Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 : Identification of topsoil quality in the field (Modified after Ferris 1996)
Factors Description

Location Deep topsoil is usually located in valley floors, while ridge tops generally have
and depth very shallow topsoil. Shallow ridge topsoil usually covers subsoil or unweathered
overburden that may not be favourable for reclamation

Colour Brownish earth-tone surface colour indicates topsoil and when colour changes to
light brown usually means topsoil has ended. Soil moisture darkens the soil so
recent rainfall saturation should not be mistaken for an actual change of colour

Structure Structure is the best indication of topsoil, and well-developed topsoil that lies
below the immediate surface can be identified by its blocky hexagonal shape

Texture It is a very important property of topsoil and has an effect on plant growth; silty
loam soil is the best for stripping. Heavy clay soils have limited water infiltration
capacity, while very sandy soils have poor water retention capacity and often
very low in nutrients

Density of Roots can be indicators of topsoil. Presence of dense mass of roots indicates the
root growth depth of stripping. However, isolated roots, especially shrub roots, can penetrate
well beyond topsoil. Therefore, only root growth cannot be used as only factor
for determining topsoil depths
Removal and preservation of flora

It is well understood that, for the successes of any ecorestoration project, it is essential
that native flora should be preserve by developing a ‘floral bank’ (if it is not use
immediately) or it may be transplanted and use for the new ecorestoration of sites. It is
always advisable that, during topsoil inventory, floral inventory also be carried out.
Generally, it should include classification of tree species (number, height, DBH and
crown cover), types of shrubs, climbers, herbs, grasses, ferns, mosses (bryophytes),
legumes etc. All these species must be documented in a scientific manner (local name,
botanical name and family), category of species (rare or common, uniqueness if any), any
red-data book species, economic and medicinal value etc. This information should be well
documented along with the photographs of the species, so that, they are easily
recognizable/identified by the non-botanist, which is an essential for the development of
floral bank/during transplantation work. Before transplantation of plants, operator
should ensure that soil is properly moistened, otherwise roots will get damaged
(especially feeder roots). Therefore, all the transplantation work must be carried out
during monsoon, when soil pore is saturated with water.

5.3.2 Topsoil Removal (Stripping)

It is advisable that limit of disturbance should always be kept minimum. Strip topsoil
only from those areas that will be disturbed by excavation, filling, road building or
compaction by equipment. A 10–15 cm (102–152 mm) stripping depth is common, but
depth varies depending on the site. For example, in Photo 5.1 shows a vertical section of
topsoil and subsoil layer in KD Heslong project, where thickness of topsoil layer is very
thin and in such cases, both topsoil and subsoil layer (up to the depth of bedrock) may be
stripped. While, in another Photo 5.2, a thick topsoil cover is shown, where well-
developed topsoil and subsoil layer of 10-m depth can be stripped and used for eco-
restoration work. Before stripping operation, determine the depth of topsoil by taking soil
cores at several locations within each area to be excavated. Topsoil depth generally varies
along a gradient from hilltop to toe of slope. Before starting topsoil stripping operation,
sediment basins, diversions and other erosion control structure should be constructed.

Determine depth of topsoil on 10-m spacing. The depth of topsoil material should be at
least 7 cm. Soil factors such as rock fragments, slope and layer thickness affect the ease of
excavation of topsoil. Generally, the upper part of the soil that is richest in organic matter
is most valuable. Keep topsoil separate from overburden, and store layers separately to
ensure that material is restored in the same order that it was removed.

Photo 5.1: View of topsoil layer in KD Heslong project, CCL (Photo Maiti, 2009)
 Photo 5.2 : Thick topsoil (dark brown colour) and subsoil (light brown colour) found in
eastern part of Raniganj Coalfield (Photo: Maiti)
 Removal of vegetation: Topsoil should be removed after the removal of vegetation cover
otherwise it will interfere the activities.
 Timing of topsoil stripping: Should not strip when it is too dry or too wet, as this can lead
to compaction, loss of soil structure, loss of viability of seed and importantly loss of
microbes and mycorrhiza fungi.
 Double stripping: The topsoil should be stripped at an interval of 5–10 cm, next 10–
30 cm.
 All topsoil shall be removed in a separate layer from the areas to be disturbed. ‘A’
horizon, that is, rich in organic matter and other soil nutrients. If A-layer is very thin,
then the quality of B-horizon is to be evaluated (in between A-horizon and bedrock).
 Subsoil segregation: The ‘B’ horizon and portion of ‘C’ horizon and other underlying layer
that has potential capacity for root development shall be segregated and replaced as
subsoil. When there is no topsoil or it is very thin, in such cases, topsoil substitute and
supplement is needed.
 The quality of topsoil materials should be ascertained by physico-chemical analysis like
pH, conductivity, organic matter, CEC, nutrient content (NPK) and texture class that are
generally monitored.
 Limits on topsoil removal area: The removal of vegetation material, topsoil or other
material may result in erosion, which may cause air/water pollution.
Precautions
 The size of the area from which topsoil is removed at one time shall be limited.
 The surface soil layer shall be disturbed at a time when physical and chemical properties
of topsoil can be protected and erosion can be minimised.
Many workers stated that, in most area, the ‘A horizon’ of natural soil is vastly superior to
any underlying state. Even it is only 7–10-cm thick (3- or 4-in. thick), careful handling
and return of this horizon to the surface is required for most successful reclamation. The
soil survey indicates that the properties of ‘A horizon’ that are important for reclamation
are:
 Texture—loam, sandy loam and silt loam are best; sandy clay loam, silty clay loam, clay
loam, and loamy sand are fair. Do not use heavy clay and organic soils such as peat or
muck as topsoil.
 Structure
 Organic matter—generally, the upper part of the soil, which is richest in organic matter,
is most desirable; however, material excavated from deeper layers may be worth storing if
it meets the other criteria.
 pH

Plass (1978) stated that proper topsoiling may involve the removal and storage of A, B, C
horizons.

Topsoil Stripping Equipment

There are three general types of equipment suitable for stripping and transportation of
topsoil (Hanks 2003); these are
1. Scrapers
2. Loaders, trucks and dozers
3. Shovels and trucks

1. Scrapers

Scrapers are best for striping the topsoil and universally used. They are capable of
removing very thin layer of materials, which added advantage for separation of topsoil
and subsoil. Scraper cuts should not be more than 50% of topsoil depth for a 15 cm thick
topsoil layer (6″) or more. Stripping should proceed from higher to lower topographical
areas, that is, shallower to deeper depth of topsoil; thus, scrapers are always being
pushed downhill side, which will give better productivity. It is important that after
stripping operation is completed, the topsoil should be dragged out of the cut and onto
stripped ground. Otherwise, loose topsoil inadvertently dragged onto previously stripped
areas which will be difficult to salvage and quality likely to be lost.

2. Loaders, Truck and Dozers

Loaders work well in 60 cm (2 ft) and thicker topsoil on flat and gently rolling topography
with 60 cm or more of a subsoil which is suitable as substitute of topsoil. Thus, if topsoil
and subsoil is dozed into piles or rows and loader cuts suitable subsoil under the topsoil
while loading, the topsoil quality will not be impacted. While in irregular topography with
shallow depth topsoil on overburden, the loader and dozer fleet will significantly cut and
load overburden and deteriorate the topsoil resource.

3. Shovels and Trucks

Shovels and trucks are very cost-effective combination in salvaging and moving large
topsoil stockpiles. If the shovel and truck operation is trying to remove all the topsoil
stockpiles, the economics of the operation will be reduced by 50% for the volume that is
represented by the stockpile edges and floor.

5.3.3 Topsoil Storage (Stockpiles)

It is advisable that, in Indian conditions, stockpile the topsoil if it is absolutely essential.
Topsoil stripped from an area prior to mining has to be stockpiled for reclamation
purpose in later stage. It has to be stabilised from wind/water erosion and used wherever
practical for establishing permanent vegetation. The topsoil stockpile should be
 surrounded by a silt fence. The principles of stockpiling of topsoil and the rationale
behind it are as follows:
 Topsoil from the roads to and from stockpiles has to be removed prior to use. Location
boundary of stockpiles should be marked before stockpiling is begun.
 Topsoil and other materials removed should be stockpiled only when it is impractical to
promptly redistribute such materials on regraded areas.
 Height of the stockpiles should be kept as low as possible with a large surface area,
preferably within 2 m or less. (Higher height leads to formation of anaerobic zone, and all
soil properties will be lost because of anaerobicity.)
 Stockpiled materials should be selectively placed on a stable area (not disturbed) and
protected from wind and water erosion and unnecessary compaction.
 The establishment of a quick-growing vegetation cover on the topsoil stockpiles is
advantageous to reduce erosion and losses and may also be required by regulation.
Proper construction of slopes as well as a ditch/berm (1.5 ft of higher) around the
stockpile will also aid in erosion control and topsoil conservation.

 Revegetated topsoil dumps with legumes (Stylosanthes) and grasses (Pennisetum

pedicellatum), which not only protect the stockpiles from wind and water erosion but also
maintain active soil microbe population and help restore the nutrient cycling. This can be
done either by temporary seeding or development of permanent vegetation cover:

1. (i)Temporary seeding—protect topsoil stockpiles by temporarily seeding as soon as

possible, within 30 days after the formation of the stockpile.
2. (ii)Permanent vegetation—if stockpiles will not be used within 12 months, they should be
stabilised with permanent vegetation to control erosion and weeds.
 Provide adequate access to and fro to the storage area.
 Ascertain about the quality and quantity of the material to be stored.
Note:Mycorrhiza fungi are obligate symbiont; therefore, quickly establish the vegetation
cover, otherwise these important fungi will die. In Indian condition it is advisable to
always identify a land from where topsoil could directly borrow and use, so that all the
microbes will remain active.

Geometry of Topsoil Dump

During the storage of topsoil, care should be maintained to protect maximum level of
biological activity; therefore, they should be constructed as follows:
 To provide the maximum surface area
 To have slopes capable of avoiding erosion and gully formation
In opencast mining project, geometry of dumps is controlled by space constraints,
particularly, if it is stored for longer duration of time. If possible, the maximum height
should be 5 m, with a slope of 1 in 3 (i.e. 18.5° to the horizontal) (Fig. 5.3). A stockpile of
heavier soils should be as shallow as possible, ideally less than 1 m in height. As a rule of
thumb, the following stock geometry should be maintained as far as possible to preserve
the topsoil:
Height of topsoil dump:
1. 5.0 m (max.) for sandy soil
2. 2.0–3.0 m for loamy soil
3. 1 m for heavy clayey soil
4. 0.5–1.0 m (max.) for intermediate soil texture
2. Slope: less than 20–25°

Fig. 5.3 :Schematic diagram of topsoil dump (Ghose 2004)

Process of Topsoil Preservation
It is advisable to avoid topsoil storage, especially long term. However, if storage is
unavoidable, upon completion of the surface of the heap, the following steps are to be
followed to keep the soil in good condition:
1. (a)The surface should be thoroughly ripped with suitable subsoiling machinery for the
purpose of (1) relieving surface compaction caused by the passage of scrapers and other
machines, (2) aeration of the soil and (3) encouragement of deep-rooting plants by
introduction of vegetation.
2. (b)Following ripping, the heap should immediately be cultivated with suitable low-
maintenance species, such as dwarf grasses, to prevent erosion and gully formation.
3. (c)The surface vegetation should be actively maintained with seeding and weed control
operations.
The important guidelines for topsoil preservation are given in Box 5.1.
Importance of Soil Microorganisms During Topsoil Preservation
Symbiotic Microorganisms

Plants form beneficial symbiotic associations with a number of soil microorganisms,

including fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes (single-celled plants usually found in soil).
Mycorrhizae are a natural component of the ecosystem in most Indian soils. They are very
important in India, as they are necessary to ensure the establishment of some plant
species. The majority of native plant species used in restoration probably form
associations with vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) and ectomycorrhizal fungi.
These fungi have been shown to be effective in increasing the uptake of phosphorus by
plants growing in phosphorus-deficient soils. Some species of orchids only become
established in the presence of particular mycorrhizal fungi.

The ability of VAM fungi to associate with plants is rapidly depleted by topsoil
disturbance and stockpiling. This often results in low levels of infection in the early years
of restoration (Miller and Cameron 1976). Similarly, only limited numbers of
ectomycorrhizal fungi species have been seen in recent restoration. As a result, some
species may not recolonise restored areas until specific mycorrhizae have recolonised. To
conserve mycorrhizal inocula, topsoil should be (a) directly returned wherever possible,
and (b) when stockpiling is unavoidable, the piles should be low and revegetated as soon
as possible.
 Nitrogen fixation by legumes relies on a symbiotic association between the plant and the
bacteria known generally as rhizobia. Rhizobia appear to be more tolerant to disturbance
and stockpiling than mycorrhizal fungi. Cooke and Johnson (2002) suggested important
aspects of topsoil conservation during movement and storage (Table 5.2).
Table 5.2
Considerations and practice in topsoil conservation (After Cooke and Jhonson 2002)

Soil Determine depth and horizon of each profile, which will be needed to
characteristics handle topsoil, subsoil and overburden separately

Texture class, plastic limit, structural status and bulk density in relation to
loss of porosity and other physical and biological changes during soil
moving

Soil movement Carefully lift, transport, store and reinstatement the topsoil to avoid
compaction, killing of soil fauna and the release of dormancy of buried seed
bank

Avoid spreading over dissimilar underlying material to prevent hydraulic

discontinuity and slope instability

Changes during Physical: loss of organic matter and the alteration of binding of soil
storage particles, loss of aggregate stability, soil compaction

Chemical: At the centre of stockpile, anaerobic conditions develop, which

leads to increase ammonium nitrogen, redox potential and pH

Biological: initial increase in bacterial populations in response to dead

fungal biomass, soil fauna and plant roots. Sharp declines in soil
invertebrates especially earthworms

5.3.4 Spreading of Topsoil

Before spreading of topsoil on derelict site, site preparation is essential for effective
utilisation of topsoil. Thus, before spreading topsoil, erosion and sedimentation control
devices must be established, which are consisting of diversions, berms, dikes, waterways
and sediment basins. Other important measures, which are to be taken, are as follows:
 Grading: Maintain grades on the areas to be topsoiled according to the approved plan.
Adjust grades and elevations for the spreading of topsoil.
 Roughening: Immediately prior to spreading of topsoil, loosen the surface by disking or
scarifying to a depth of at least 10 cm (4 in.), to ensure bonding of the topsoil and subsoil,
so that water can flow one layer to another. If no amendments have been incorporated,
loosen the soil to a depth of at least 15 cm (6 in.) before spreading topsoil. This can be
accompanied by applying 5–8 cm topsoil, tilling them into subsoil by using rotary tiller,
and then remaining topsoil, that is, additional 10 cm, should be applied, so that a
minimum depth of 15 cm of topsoil is applied above the subsoil.

 Uniformly distribute the topsoil to its pre-mining thickness. If sufficient topsoil is

available, a minimum compacted depth of a 50 cm on 3:1 slopes and 1 m on flatter slopes
is suggested. To determine the volume of topsoil required to various depths, use the
Table 5.3. Do not spread topsoil while it is muddy condition.
 Table 5.3 : Volumes of topsoil required for various depths (NRCS 2001)

Depth (mm) Volume of topsoil (m3/100 m2) Volume of topsoil (m3/ha)

2.5 5.0 7.5

10 12.5 15.0

25 50 75

100 125 150

250 500 750

1,000 1,250 1,500

 Compaction: Compact the topsoil enough to ensure good contact with the underlying soil,
but avoid excessive compaction, as it increases run-off and inhibits seed germination.
Light packing with a roller is recommended where turf is to be established. In an area,
where topsoil to be spread is compacted, in such case, up to 50 cm (20 in.) of surface can
often be treated with ripping, before the application of topsoil or plantation.
 Strength of typical topsoil after compaction may be around 6,000 kPa, whereas limit of
root growth is restricted at 3,000 kPa. Therefore, care should be taken that compact
should not exceed 1,400 kPa (according to cone penetrometer guidelines) (Hanks 2003).
 Ensure that soil horizons are replaced in the same order that they were removed.
 All the tilling operation should be parallel to the contour.

Mulching: If possible, after the application of topsoil, a layer of mulch (2–3″ or 5–8 cm
thick) may apply to cover topsoil and provides organic matter initially. The mulch layer
will prevent soil to dry out and crusted, reduce evaporation, ameliorate extreme
temperature, prevent erosion and create congenial microhabitat for soil biological
community.

On slopes and areas that will not be mowed, the surface may be left rough after spreading
topsoil. A disc may be used to promote bonding at the interface between the topsoil and
subsoil.

After topsoil application, follow procedures for temporary or permanent seeding, taking
care to avoid excessive mixing of topsoil into the subsoil.

Sources of Topsoil
Before commencement of any ecorestoration work, sources of topsoil have to be
identified. There are generally two sources, either from (a) previously stored topsoil
dump or (b) identify nearby land to borrow topsoil material. In Indian conditions, during
pit plantation of tree species, topsoil is put in the plantation pit only along with
weathered overburden in the ration of 1:4. However, it is recommended that, for
ecorestoration purposes, if sufficient topsoil is available, it should be spread in the entire
area. The use of topsoil during ecorestoration practices is shown in Table 5.4.
 Table 5.4 : Issues related to the use of topsoil during ecorestoration process (Maiti 2010)
 Spreading in Spreading of topsoil (by scraper)—at least 10 cm, sometimes 15 cm or
entire area even 60 cm, thick topsoil cover is spread, which is based on type of
vegetation to be raised (fruit orchards or good timber-yielding plants).
Uniformly distribute topsoil to a minimum compacted depth of 2" (51 mm)
on 3:1 slopes and 4" (102 mm) on flatter slopes

 Pouring in Stockpile the topsoil in the plantation area itself, and put about one basket
plantation pit (20–30 kg) in each plantation pit; quantity depends on types of plants and
quality of topsoil. However, in overburden materials, topsoil in the ratio of
4:1 is recommended

Non availability of In such situation, find out alternative to topsoil. There could be various
good quality reasons for unavailability of topsoil in plantation site, like–the cost of
topsoil transportation is prohibitive or topsoil is of very poor quality or topsoil
was not preserved properly. Such case improves the quality of waste
materials by use of organic matter, amendments, farm yard manures
(FYM), mulches, etc.

Drainage— Drainage—minimise percolation/infiltration by providing about 1 m deep

important activity compaction layer above which topsoil to be spread
when topsoil is
spread Provision for catch drain/sediment retention trap/garland drain with weir
netting/boulder mounting on the side wall

Provision for installation of diversion structure

Live Topsoiling

Live topsoiling is extracting topsoil from its place of origin and placing it directly onto an
area that has already been mined, backfilled and graded for reclamation. This is the most
desirable topsoil management option, as the topsoil is handled only once and does not
compact during storage within stockpiles.

Topsoil and other materials shall be redistributed in a manner that

 Achieve an approximate uniform, stable thickness consistent with proper contouring,
surface water drainage system
 Prevent excess compaction of soil
 Protect from water/wind erosion

5.4 Box 5.1: Important Guidelines for Topsoil Preservation

Location of stockpiling: Avoid slopes, natural drainage ways and traffic routes during the
selection of stockpile location. On large sites, respreading is easier and more economical
when topsoil is stockpiled in small piles located near areas where they will be used.

Sediment barriers: Use sediment fences or other barriers where necessary to retain
sediment.

Temporary seeding: Protect topsoil stockpiles by temporarily seeding as soon as possible,

no more than 30 days after the formation of the stockpile. Use grass–legume mixture
(Dinanath grass–Stylosanthes legumes) as fast-growing cover species as well as to retain
the quality of topsoil.
 Permanent vegetation: If stockpiles will not be used within 12 months, they must be
stabilised with permanent vegetation to control erosion and weed growth. Sowing of
grass–legume mixture along with seeds of small shrubs at the periphery of the stock piles
should be done.

5.5 Alternatives to Topsoil

If topsoil is unavailable, the cost of transportation is prohibitive, or topsoil is very inferior
quality, which is unsuitable for restoration, then subsoil, overburden, waste rock or
similar materials must be used as a substitute for revegetation (Riley 1978). These
materials will generally require techniques to increase their organic matter and nutrient
content. Their physical characteristics may require amelioration, and their pH may need
to be adjusted. The physical and chemical properties of the proposed substrates should be
thoroughly investigated prior to their use in restoration.

The following techniques which can improve the ability to support plant growth in the
long term are
 Application of organic matter such as animal manures, sewage sludge or other organic
wastes.

 Chemical amendments such as

 Gypsum to improve the structure and reduce the pH of highly alkaline substrates
 Lime to raise the pH of acid substrates
 Inorganic fertilisers
 Soil conditioners: Many proprietary soil conditioners, such as polyvinyl alcohol polymers,
are available which may be useful in certain situations. However, field trial should be
conducted to assess the ecorestoration purposes before it is applied in larger area.
 Growing green manure crops which can be incorporated into the substrate.
 Establishing nitrogen-fixing species such as legumes to increase the organic matter and
nitrogen content of the substrate.
 Applying mulch.
 Seeding rates will probably have to be increased compared to those for topsoil in order to
establish a satisfactory cover of plants on these alternative substrates.

5.5.1 Evaluation of Present and Potential Productivity of Existing Overburden

Material
As discussed earlier, if suitable quality of topsoil is not available easily, selected
overburden material can be used as supplement of topsoil. In such cases, detailed
analysis of overburden materials and laboratory trials of vegetation growth along with the
various doses and combinations of amendments could be performed well in advance.

The planning process must address the following:

 Nutrient contents of overburden materials and weathering characteristics.
 Types of species tested and type and quantity of soil amendments/fertiliser used.
 Clearly mention the quantity of soil amendments/fertiliser that shall be required along
with cost against topsoil redistribution.
 The availability of mineral elements essential for plant growth varies considerably in
strata of overburden. So, if strata of overburden contain good mineral nutrients, they can
 be used after testing and stored separately. Soil survey and overburden investigation
before mining are used to determine the suitability as topsoil for plant growth media.

5.6 Monitoring of Post-mining Soil Development on Ecorestored

Site
It is very essential to monitor and check whether the purpose for which topsoil has been
redistributed is showing satisfactory progress or not in terms of following parameters,
like:
 Monitor soil genesis process, in terms of accumulation organic matter, leaf litter, root
density, enrichment of microbes, formation of soil structure and development of soil
horizon.
 Minesoils have wider C:N ratio than natural soil, so monitor the improvement of C:N
ratio.
 Monitor the improvement of bulk density of minesoils: Bulk density is closely related
with machinery used. Compact zones with bulk density of 1.7–1.9 g/cm3 all are found
within 20 from the surface.
 Monitor the improvement of water in relation to (1) infiltration rates because ground
cover enhances water infiltration, (2) increase in moisture content and (3) recuperation
of water table.
 Microbial activity: Regularly monitor the enhancement of microbial activity in terms of
CO2- flux (soil respiration), root density, mycorrhiza colonisation, soil enzyme activity,
ATP measurement, etc.

5.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Use of Topsoil

Advantages of topsoil include its high organic matter content and friable consistence
(soil aggregates can be crushed with only moderate pressure) and its available water-
holding capacity and nutrient content. Most often it is superior to subsoil in these
characteristics. The texture and friability of topsoil are usually much more conducive to
seedling emergency and root growth. In addition to being a better growth medium,
topsoil is often less erodible than subsoils, and the coarser texture of topsoil increases
infiltration capacity and reduces run-off.

Disadvantages: Although topsoil may provide an improved growth medium, there may
be some disadvantages. Stripping, stockpiling, hauling and spreading topsoil (importing
topsoil) may not be cost-effective. Handling may be difficult if large amounts of branches
or rocks are present or if the terrain is too rough. Most topsoil contains weed seeds, which
compete with desirable species.

5.8 Limitations of Application of Topsoil

Do not apply topsoil to slopes steeper than 2:1 (to avoid slippage) or to a subsoil of highly
contrasting texture. For example, sandy topsoil over clay subsoil is a particularly poor
combination especially on steep slopes. Water may creep along the junction between the
soil layers and cause the topsoil to slough. In addition, in some cases, handling costs may
be too high to make topsoiling beneficial. In site planning, compare the option of
topsoiling with that of existing subsoil.