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HANDOUT (1) : ABOUT SOCIOLINGUISTICS

l. Sociolinguistics is a scientific study of language in relation to its social users.

'Scientific' implies empirical (what actually happen or/and are observable), exact (based on f,acts or
data), and Objective (describes everything as what it is).
2. Sociolinguistics investigates the relationship between language and the society for befter understanding
of ( 1) the structure of language and (2) how language functions in communication; language use is
govemed by social conventions.
Sociology of language discovers how social structure can be better understood through the study of
language. (e,g. how certain linguistic features serve to characterize particular social arrangements.); the
sfudy ofsociety in relation to language use; how social structure is reflected in language use.
3.How is language related to the society? Learn the following propositions and get the points.
a. Social structure may either influence or determine language stmcture and/or behavior.
b. Language structure and/or behavior may either influence or determine social structure
c. Influence is bi-directionai : Ianguagg and sociefy rnay influence each other.
d. There niay' be no relatia*ship betweeri ianguage structure and sociai struoture

4. How dues learning gramfirar differ from learning Saciolinguistics?

In terms of its Gramntar, language is supposed to be homogeneous and speakers are supposed {o talk in
the same way (as they are supposed to have learned the sarne grammar rules) and in the same sounds (as
. they are suppose<i to have lear*eri the same sound system). Although forms labeled 'colloquial' are
introduced in the grammar book, Grammar commonly deals more with 'standardized' rules that wilj
generate 'standard' variety of language, rather than other, non-standard varieties. The primary focus of
Grammar is usage, i.e. rules for the production of grammatically correct or accurate language
forms/expressions. When you successfully learn English merely through its grammar, a native speaker of
English may comrrent,'You speak like a book'.
In the view of Sociolinguistics, language is factually helerogeneous, as speakers speak in different
ways. Even no two speakers speak in exactly the same way. Peoples who claim to speak English actually
. speak different 'kinds' of English, so that British English, American English, Australian Engliih, Canadian
English, Indian English etc. emerge. Similarly, peoples who claim to speak Javanese actually speak
different 'kinds' of Javanese, and so Banyumasan, Pesisiran, Surabayan, Solo-Yogya, Osing Jivanese
varieties emerge. A keen observation rvill reveal that people speaking tire same languige diffeifrom each
other in almost all aspects: individualities, age, sex, occupations, professions, social stitus, social classes,
power, education etc. all resulting in different language varieties, varying in sounds, grammar and
vocabulary. The primary focus of Sociolinguistics is use, i.e. what sp€akers actually say whJn aking and
appropriacy (social acceptability) rather than grarnmatical accuracy of laoguage expressions produced.

YE9
::::#:ffiX;-:i,;",HJ:ffi
+ l) Doesitmakesensetoask,'HbwmanyEnglishesarethereintheworld\?
;;:;''1ffi"1^***sra/ru'(e:
/n'-*
2) Does every native speaker know the grammar of his language ? Refer to formal and functional
knowledge of languagc and what knowing means.
3) much is one's knowledge of languagg_usage compared with his language use ? The same,
-p
(more)or less ? [6ram[Ur rt{g2
4) FIow much does the gftImmar book say compared with the users'knowledge of the language ?
5) Is knowledge of grammar sufficient for one to be able to use the language in authentic
N0, f\ggd h +
communication? Refer to grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, strategic and pragm*tic
-
competeRces that 'ideal' adult speakers should have. (This is a topic to be discussed latei.)
, - ,nc.
* q_-
knour ru\0 q When commenting on the quality of your Englis[ a native speaker slEnglish may say; ,tou speak
like a booV, what does she mean? pabb to Speak,wiite .
Llw yurpse"
7) Does one doing good in language usage also do good in language useZ Mag{'be Yeg /HO
8) Does it make sense to claim that one language or language varieryEdetter ttr'an anott eri Yes/fi,g, Aegeadtry on
9) When a foreign speaker says that Indonesian language has no grarlmar, what is your opinion?
l0) When one says, oWhat rnatters is not what you say, but how you say it', what does he mean?

lntettr6abifiU o Ket*ryham,
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HANDOUT (2) : LANGUAGE VARIETIES
Note ; Sociolinguistics concerns with language use rather than usage, Ianguage heterogeneity rather
than homogeneity; and varieties rather than standard form.
Following are some terms showing language heterogeneity.
l. Language Variety is specific form of language in terms of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary,
normally associated with some contexts of use. (Refer to the definition of context,)
rhe term variety is introduced later than dialect, defined similarly with it, but it has
a larger coverage, to include all variations ofa language
2. Code refers to any language or language variety one is using when he is making a verbal (language)
communication. (Recall the terms code switching, code mixing, code shifting that
you may be familiar with.) 4-U-hTffi- @de g^ti kale
3. Accent is varieties ofpronunciation of a certain language.
a- - Kita kEtEmu sEtEngah Enam b. - kitha thidha? dhapa& unthung
- Kita ketemu setengah enam. - kita tidha? dhapat onturg
c.- It's toim to taik arest- d. - get your boarding pAs
- lt's taim to teik a rest. - get your boarding pas
e.- Let me be doing something. f^- Oleh-olehe nongkotho?
- Let me do something lah. - Oleh-olehe nangkathok.
Note : Words or expressions used primarily in speech rather than writing are referred to as colloquial
rather than accsnt.
4. Dialect is differences/variations of pronunciation, grammar and voeabulary of tle same language.
Dialect used to refer and now refers to regional language variety.
e.g. :a.- We have ro go out b -I could not find the elevator
- We have got to go out. - I could not find the lift
But : He speaks 'in a dialect = He speaks in non,standard variety.
He speaks 'in an accent = He speaks in non received pronunciation (Rp).
Note : Whether two persons speak different languages or different vmieties of the same language
depends on (1) the structure (elements and organizations) of the code they are using in their talk,
(2) the degree of intelligibility (level of understandability) of the code to ttre interlocutors, and
(3) a person's claim (whether he speaks a certain language or dialeclvariety rather than another).
Eefer to the case of Osing that people in Banyuwangi speak).
5. Stereotype is particular features of individuals' speech that determine the social meaning assigned to
variables ofaccent and dialect.
6' Idiolect is lamgnage variations (including persoral idiosyncrasies) ofindividuals; it is also defined as
language vmiations in fte individuals and in the community; social and individual variations are two
sides of the same coin. In a single community the number of idiolects corresponds the number of
individuals. (In Sociolinguistics, idiolect is Iess useful, as an individual may modiS his idiolect
through life.)
7. Standard dialect is specified features / stereotypes ofa language variety or dialect. The general
characteristics of standard dialect are that (l) it is commonly used in formal situations ana (Z) it is
more or less identical (in grammar and vocabulary) with its written form^ (Think of the laoguage
variety I paper writer uses in a seminar, conference or workshop as an example). Note that-standard
dialect/vaiety/languag€ is one of the dialects/varieties of a language, and that within a standard
variety/dialect there are also variations.
8. Vernacular is non-standard dialect, referring genetically to unrelated dialects, It is current spoken
daily language of apeople or of a geographical area, a,s distinguished from the literary language used
primarily in schools and in literatrne.Whether some variety is called a standard oraveniacular.
depends on how much prestige one thinks it has, and formost people this is a cler-cut mater which
depends on q/hether it is used in formal witing. (Hudson, 1980)
9. Slang is a variety of speec! characterized by newly coined aod rapidly changing vocabulary, used by
the young or by social aud professional groups for 'in-group' communication and thus tending to
prownt undersanding by the rest ofthe speech community.
10' A word or ofrer linguistic item rryhich is no lorger used in speech or uniting except to crsafie a special
effect or as a deliberde revival for practical puposes is called archaic.
 Handout (2b ) : List of Terminologr.

Sonrce (I) : Coulmas, Florian, 2N15, Sociolinguktics, The Stt$t of Speakers'

Choices, Cambridge University Press, pgs.233 -233.
i. Code switching : The systematic choice by one speaker of elements of two or
more languages,-dialects. or varieties during a single conversation.
2. Creole A pidgin that has acquired native speakers
3. Dialect : A language variety in which pronunciation, grarnrnar and vocabulary
are indicative ofthe regional background ofthe speakers.
4. Diglossia A situation where two distinct varieties of one language coexist
throughout a speech community, each being allotted a range of
different functions with little overlap
5. Idiolect A variety characteristic of an individual speaker.
6. Jargon Expressions used by a group of specialists, which are not generaliy
understood by the speech community at large
7. Language maintenance:: A situation where in spite of strong incentives to shift to another
language, people continue to use thir native language.
8. Language planning: Any systematic, theory-oriented designto solve t}e comrnunication
problems of a society by influencing speakers' choices concerning
languages and varieties (status planning) as well as structural
features of language such as pronunciation, grammar vocabulary and
terminology (corpus planning)
9. Language shift : The process of a community to increase the use of one language at the
expense of another
l0.Marked : Unusual and deviating from a norm or common expectation.
ll.Nomr : An(officiallylrecommended form of alanguagewhich defines
correct usage.
l2.Pidgin : A speech form created by speakers in a language contact situation
who share no cofirmon language. It has no native speakers and is
characterizsd by instability. .
l3.Politeness : A dimension of linguistic choice and social behaviorwhich includes
such notion as courtesyo formality, rapport, deference, respect and
distance.
l4.Prestige Variety : A speeeh form associated with high social standing.
i5"Received Pronunciation (FP) : An accent of British English which is not marked for a
geographic region but for a relatively high level of education and
relatively high social class.
l6.Register : A speech form considered appropriate to a situation. Speech situations
vary with respect to several factors, such as formality, the medium,
of communication, e.g. speech or writing, and the subject matter of
the discourse.
l1.Repertoire totality of speech forms of an individual or speech community
: The
l8.Social Class A qystem of social stratification defined in terms of occupation,
:
income, education. The study of class distinction in speech in Westem
societies has been the point of departure of Sociolinguistics. No
universally accepted definition of 'class' is available.
l9.Speech commurity : A group of people who share the same language and/or the
same knowledge about the disftibution and differential use of a set
of languages and varieties.
20.Standard : a prestige variety of language, providing a wriften institutionalized
norrn as a reference form for such purposes as language teaching and
the media.
2l.Style : Any situationally distinct choice of language made by individuals
and social groups.
22.Terms of address : Kinship terms, names, titles and second-person pronollns, used to
address other speakers and to express social relationships. A T/V
differentiation in second-person pronouns is common in several
European languages where the singular T form (from French ru)
marks closeness and familiarity and the plural V form (from French
voa,r) marks distance and politeness.
23.Variable : A cluster of linguistic features, such as sounds or grammatical forms,
which speakers choose according to circumstances.
25.Variation : Systematic changes of pronunciation, gramrnar and vocabuiary brought
about by speakers' choices
26.Yariety : Any language or dialect that can be identified by its speakers and
speakers of other varieties.
2T.Yernacular : The indigenous variety of a community, as distinct from its standard
or prestige variety.
2S.Vitality : An aggregate of factors that determine a group's ability to function
as a distinct collective entity by maintaining its language.

Souree (2) : Yan lluang, 20A7. Pragmarics, Oxford University Press, Oxford, l\ew York.)

29. Context : Any relevant features of the dynamic setting or environment in

which a linguistic unit is systematically used.(Yan Huang 2AA7)
30. Communicative competencs: Functional language proficiency; f}te expression,
interpretation, and negotiation of meaning involving interaction
between two or more person belonging to the same (or different)
speech community (communities), or between one person and a
written or oral text (Savignon, Sndra J., 1983)
31. Language competence/prforrrance : A dichotoury proposed by Chomsky to
distinguish between what an ideal hearer or speaker knows about
the structure of his / her native language (competence) and the
manifestation of this knowledge in actual language use
(performance)
32. Discourse Competence : fiib ability to recognize different patterns of discourse, to
connect sentences or utterarrces to an overall theme or.topic; the
ability to infer &e meaning of large units of spoken or written texts.
33. Grarnmatical competence : Knowledge ofthe sentence structure of a language.
34. Sociolinguistic competence : The ability to use language appropriate to a given
communicative context, taking into account6 the roles of the
participants, the setting and the purpose of the interaction.
35. Strategic Competence : The ability to cornpensatc for imperfect knowledge of
linguistic, sociolinguistic aud discourse rules or limiting factors in
their application, such as fatigue, di$ractiorU inattention; the
effective use of coping strategies to sustain or enhance
commuoication.
36. Pragmatic Competence : The ability to say what one(s) mean(s) or understand what
one(s)mean(s) by what is said in relation to the ongoing context (situxion).

4
 Ilandout ( 2c) :LANGUAGE AS A SOCIAL FACT
(Adopted from Coulmas)

1. The Nature of Language

Language as a Natural Fact vs Language as a Social Fact

Inborn (:+LAD /NativisnlCognitivism vs Leamt (Empirism/behaviorism)

Genetically fixed (parents' factor) vs Culturally Varied (culture factor)
Universal (general characteristics) vs Variable (individuals' characteristics
Species-specific (man-sPecifi c) vs Group-specific
Timeless (eternal) vs Historical (changes over time)
Governed by natural law (S-R process) vs Governed bY convention (users'
agreement).
2. Yariability af tr-amguag*
* Speakers make choices from the r,arietY of the expressive means offered in their
environment.
(Expressive means : mealts of expressing oneself, using either language or para
lur,guug", Iike gestures; r,vhat language/language variety speakers use depend 0n the
context.).
o Their choices are subject to restrictiors (choices have limitations)
(subject to restriction : limitation is inevitable in cases where people have to make a
choice or choices ofcodes)
r Speech communities and smaller social groups are recognizable by virtue of (based on)
the restrictions they place on the linguistic choices of their members,
( Social groups are identifiable by the languagellanguage varieties they use)
r Membership is accomplished and maintained through cooperation (agreement)
(To which language community individuals belong depend on each ot}er's agreernent on
the use of language)
o Speech behavior is cooperative
(Speech behavior of members is characterized by each other's agreement, negotiation
or acceptance of 'social rules' of language use.)
. Every language and language variety is the result of collective choiee, that is, cooperative
creation,
(Social language use is governed by its members' creation of codes.)
r Where a common language exists it restricts its speakers' choices; where no such
language exists one is creatbd by virtue ofinteractants' choice.
(When a graup of sfangers are familiar with a common language, they do not make
resrrictioni in the use of language; when they are not familiar with a common language,
they make an agreement to make a language choice)-
 IIANDOUT (3 ) : LANGUAGE TypOLOGy
1. Language Typology: language, code, classical language, international language, artificial
language, lingua franca. slang. vemacular, dialect. idiolect,
pidgin, creole, register, patois.
Language: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group communicate. (Written
language is a secondary representation oflanguage.)
code : a neutral term referring to language or any other language variety or dialect
Classical language : a language once widely used, norv used and Iearned in specific, Iimited pulposes,
(e.g. Greek and Latin languages.)
International language : language{s) accepted to be used as means of communication among nations and
peoples using different languages. (e.g. English, French)
Artificial language : the opposite of nafural language, a system of communication created (by experts) for
specific/international purposes, (Special note on Esp er ant o)
Lingua franct : a language chosen as a means of communication among people or peoples speaking
differeni langiiages. (e.g. Sanskrit used by traders ia the past-)
Slang : a language style in conlmon use, producerl b,y popuiar *rlapration and extension of the meaning ol
words and by coining new words peculiar to certain scciai grcup.
Yernacular : the speech of a particular cormtry or rcgion: or a form of speech transmitted fiom parent to
chjld as a primary medium of conrmunicarion.
Dialect : a language variation in sounds, srammar anii vocabulary.
Idiolect : a language variety that an individuai speaks; including one's idiosyncrasy.
Pidgln : a 'reduced' variety of a language used as an agreed means of cornmuniiation among speakers of
different languages.
Creole : an acquired pidgin b}z its users' children used as a native language.
Register :a set of Ianguage items associated with discrete occupational or social groups.
Patois : a regional language variety that lacks association with literary rradition.

2. Properties of Language & Language variefy. [to otas*ig)

Standsrdization : the codifisafi9[ and acceptance, within the iommunity of users, of a formal set ofnorrns
defining'correctusage'. 4cammar
Autonomy : the Ianguage system functions as an irdependent and unique one.
Ilistoricity : : &e linguisfic system is known and betrieved to be the result of normal development over
time.
Vitality : the linguistic system is used by an unisolated community of native speakers.
Prestige : the users ofthe linguistic system takes pride in it..

lang Clasl Intl Artl Ling code vern dial slng pidg creol pato idio reg
lans lans lans Frnc
Stand + + r + +/- +/- (+) +
aut + + + + + f f t -l-
+ +
hist + + + + + + + + + +
vir + + + + + + f + + ? + I

prstg high high low Ior,v low Iow low Iow low hish
hieh

ClaeduL lnng.,r,ge , Greek g eanseke,b . Latrn .

6
7 I

HANDOUT (3b) : TYPOLOGY OF LANGUAGE

The following table shows a bit different typolory of language, covering more properties that a
Ianguage type has

Types l,anguag Classical Vemacula Dialect Patois Lingua Intemat- Artificial Pidgin Creole
e Languag r Franca Ional Languag
Attribures e Languag
e
Standard- yes yos n0 no Us€d to Yes/no 0ne yes no No
ization have cnuntR
Vitalitv Yes no ves ves ves ves ves no Yes Yes
Autonom yes yes yes no yes yes yes yes no no

Historicit yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no no No

Repfftoir rich rich rnoderate mo<ierai moo6l:u m(}{leml Very reoSceo reouce R.educe
e e rich d d
of
elemeniss
Number One or One or one one 0ne plural many plural Single Single
ofEthnics many many plural plural
rrsins
Number One cr Grc or one one otle one marv several erle 0ne
of ItLlfiy mtrty
counfiies
rrgins
Used by yes ye3 yes yes yes yes yes n0 no No
natives
Mixfure no no no no no no no yes yes Yes
of
lnnquges
Prestige hich hi$t low low Very Iow hiCh nolhing Iow Low
low
Norrns of yes yes yes no no no yes no no No
use
Bom naural natural latural ndural ndural natural nafural Man- nalural natural
made

7
 HAIT[DOUT ( 4 ):
ITYMES' ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION

The types of expressions one uses naturally depend on the 'context' in which the utterances are
produced. Hymes says that 'context' refers to eight factors governing the way communication
(including verbal communication) achieves its goal. The eight factors are referred to as
SPEAKING, an acron)rrn constituting the ethnography of communication. (Ethnogaphy refers
to culture, i.e. people's knowledge, beliefs and practices). The eight points are factors, as any
change in any of them is inherently followed by certain change in some related aspect
The 'S' refers to 'settingt or 'scenario' referring to time and place, the physical
situation where the (verbal) communication takes place. Two speakers will use different
language varieties (and types of expressions) when cornmunicating in different settings, i.e. in
differenttimes and places (in a private room, in the office, in a fomal meeting in the presence of
a third person, in a public place, in a job interview, etc.)
The 'P' refers to 'participants', that is, the social roles the interlocutors play : friends,
teacher-student, boss-secretary, etc A speaker may have to change the language varieties (and
types of expressions) he uses following any change in participants.
The 'E' refers to 'end', the communication goal, of both participants (speaker and
hearer). Participanls will use different language varieties (and types of expressions) in accordalce
with the goals they want to ashieve (a mere phatic communication, a business projecl a
consultation, a proposal, an invitation, etc.)
The 'A' stands for 'act sequence', the choice of words and ideas the communisants
will say in relation to the topic being communicated. (What one says and what he means.) As
expressions tend to be ambiguous, the choice of words determines the quality, flow and type of
communication developed.
The oK' stands for 'keyt, tone or mode in which the message is delivsred, i-e. in a
leisure, serious, sarcastic, cynical, or bombastic tone or mode. Different tones are normally
indicated by different choices of words and expressions.
The 'I' is 'instrumentnlit5r', that is, the channel chosen : oral (face-to-face), written,
by phone, or other means. Different channels do require different choices of words and types of
expressions.
The 'N' stands for 'norus of interaction and iuterpretation', that is, special
behaviors or elemeots related to verbal acts, Iike loudness of voice , eye contacts, turn taking and
silences, which will determine the quality and flow of communication being developed.
The 'G' refers to 'genre', the type of 'text' developed : a promotion, a lecfure, a
of these text f,vpes will faeilitate
service, a proverb, an agitation, a. provocation etc. Knowledge
the speaker in choosing words and styles.
Problems:.
i. Supposing you norv have serious financial problems so that you cannot pay your latest tuition
fees. You want someone to concern with your present financial problems. Think of the
expressions you say referring to the eight factors above
2. Take a look at the model dialogues English textbooks presenf focus on the linguistic forms
used and justify the appropriacy of the talk exchanges
-

HANDOUT (5) : IIYMES' COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

N. Chomsky (1967),4 prominent thcorctical linguist proposed a dichotomy to distinguish

betweon what an ideal hearer or speaker knows about the structure of his or her native language
(competence) and the manifestation of this knowledge in actual language use (performance). In
Chomsky's idea, knowledge of the structure of language is the primary variable affecting one's
ability to use a language in actual communication.
D. Hymes, however, integrates linguistic theory with a more general theory of communication
and culture. He says that speakers behave and interpret others' behavior according to the
communicative systems available to them, and knowledge of linguistic system is only one of
components of communicative competonce. To develop a general theory of competence, Hl.rnes
(1971) proposes four parameters to the system of rules underlying communicative behavior, as
follows:
l. whether (and to what exlent) something is formally possible;
2. whether (and to what exlent) something is possible.
3. whether (and to what extent) something is appropriate (adequate, huppy,
successful) in relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated.
4. whether (and to what extent) something is in fact done, actually perforrnecl, and what its doing
entails.
Hymes, flen, proposes four components of communicative cornpetence consisting of
grammatic*l competence, sociolinguistic competence, diseourse competence, and strategic
competence. To these four competences, Nunan adds one mors component, i.e. pragmatie
competence. Competence is these concepts refers to tacit knowledge and ability to use.It is
believed that only with these five competences, verbal (language) communication runs nafurally
and successfully.
Grammatical competence is knowledge of (and ability to use) the grammatical system of the
language used. With this competence one is able to differentiate (and produce) correct linguistic
forms and pattems flom those that are incorrect. In practice, though, one must bE able to produce
grammatically and semantically well-formed sentences and avoid producing sentences that are
grammatically and semantically ill.
Sotiolinguistic competence is knnwledge of (and abilig to usc) social nrles of language use.
This competence enables one to differefiiate (and produce) socially appropriate forms and
pafierns from those that are not appropriate. Think ofwhat words you will use when you talk to
your boss, your close friend, your wife, your consumer etc.
Discourse competence is knowledge (and ability to us$ rules of discpurse development. This
competence enables one to arrange expressions or sentences into unified discourse, conveying
interconnected msanings or ideas. think of how you will say when you want to sxpress an idea
face-to-face, via SMS, in a letter or in a full paper.
Strategic competence is knowledge (and ability to use) strategies to make communication nrn
successfully. With ttris competence one is able to find out appropriate solutions to overcome any
failure or handicap in the communication, Iike forgetting a word, unexpected change of situation,
etc. Think of what you do when you forget a word while talking in any language.
Pragmatic competence is knowledge of (and ability to use) the dual meanings of language
expressions, i.e, words meaning and speaker meaning. With this comptence one is able to
differentiate what one's expression semantically me:ms &om what the speaker means by what he
says, i.e. he would not rely merely on the words used. Note tmtthe expression 'What time
is it?'is not ahnrays a question about time, but expresses various meanings depending on the
context in which it is uttered-

9
-

HAI\DOUT ( 6 ) : BILINGUALISM AND RELATED ISSUf,S

Bilingualism is defined in different ways.

Lado : bilingualism is used technically to refer to any degree of knowledge of two languages by
the same person., (1964 :214): ,
Hartrnan & Stork : Bilingualism refers to the use of two languages by a speech community (1972
: 27) . A speech community is one, all of'whose members share at least a single speech variety
and the norms for its appropriate use.(in Fishman, 1972 :22)
Bilingualism can be described in tsrms of tbur aspects : degree (of language skills), function
(frequency of use), alternation (shifts from one to another language), interference (errors caused
by carrying over the speech habits of the native language/dialects into the second
larguage/dialect.)
There are three levels of bilingualism : compound bilingualism, coordinate bilingualism,
subordinate bilingualisrn" Compound bilingualism rievelops when the two ianguages (two Lls)
are learned and acquired in the same conditions (as when tle parents ;re bilinguals) and the
speaker Iearns the same semantic system.. Coordinate bilingualism develops when the two
languages are learned in different conditions, as Ll is learned at home while the L2 is learned at
school, and consequently the speaker leams different systems of meanings. Subordinate
bilingualism develops when before a (bilingual) speaker uses lhe L2, he thinks in Ll and then
translates ( provides L2 words) to express his idea. So, this is the lowest level of bilingualism.
Which phenomena are referred to in the following circumstances ? The use of two or more
languages by an individual or society results in the any of these phenomena : diglossi#diglossic
sifuations, code switching, interference, (negative) transfer, fossilization. Identify which
phenomenon is referred to in each case.
1. In a bilingupl community, one language is considered "prestigious' and is used appnrpriate$
only in 'formal' siEations, while the othe(s) 'less prestigious' and is (are) used in non-formal,
leisure, daily communication" Relate it with the status of Bahasa Indonesia and the other
vernaculars in your surrounding communi4r.
2. In a Javanese community speaking different language varieties, one varielr, that is, 'lsama
inggil' variety, is considered 'prestigious' and is used in 'formal' situations as in public speech
and formal writings, while ths other varieties are used in non-formal, leisure situations-
3. Bitingualism results is various linguistic phenomena: code switching (code mixing), code
shifting interfercnce, negative tansfer, fossilizatioa)
a). A bilingual speaker naturally switches from a language to another in a single speech overt.
\Vhat factors cause this phenomenon ? (Refer to relevant researches.)
b). A bilingual speaker consciously 'inserts' words Ilom different languages when using a given
language or language variety in his tatk. What factors cause this phenomenon ?
c). A bilingual speaker uses the 'rules' of one language when expressing ideas in another
language, resulting in either'sorrect" or 'incorrect' linguistic expressions.
Think of : Who that took my book?Me very enjoy livefootball./I caught marryfish-
d). A bilingual speaker produces 'incorrect' expressions in one language, which are assumed to
be the equivalents of similar (inconect) expressions in another language.
(Aecording to Francis says that/ We are dfficult to say it/ Which boy that took my baok?
e). A bilingual speaker makes opermanent errors" in one of the languages he speaks, as a resuft of
his acquiring another languags/mother tongue.
fl A trew$-independentcounty rpplaces the language (that of the colonizer's) its people have
used with another language accepted as a the national language.
g), Code switching, code mixing orborrowing is a matter of frequency of use (Coulmas).
Comment onthis simple exampte : R*et ini menggtmsklm data kualitclil; yang diperoleh dengwt
tektik interttiu, observasi dan malisis dohmen (anefah). Kami tidak care at all pada test scares,
meskfinm readyfor use untukpenelitiot lain

10
-

HANDOUT (7) : CODE SWWITCHING VARIABLES

Note : Learn from Coulmas how cade switching. code mixing and borrowing differ
from each other. :,
Some factors motivate bilingual speakers to choose, switch or mix the code{s} they are
using in a bilingual interaction.: settiirg, parties and classes, content (topic), and social
distance. Tanner (1957) reported a case of a group of bilingual speakers from lndonesia staying
for several years in London to take a post-graduate study there. Indeed they have good English
competence. They have long stayed in Jakarta but some are native Javanese speakers (15), some
are native Sundanese speakers (10) and the others are native Betawian people (11). They stay in
London with their families. The linguistic repertoire of the members of this group in general
include Javanese (in its various varieties), Sundanese (and its varieties), Bahasa Indonesia,
Betawi vemacular, Dutch, and English. Following are the variables that governed their choices of
language and.or language varieties and/or codes.
Setting includes meetings, parties, classes, informal gatherings and excursions. What
code(s) members choose depend on the language repertoire of the participants or those who are
involved in the events. Are they all native speakers of a language ? Are they made up of two or
more groups of native speakers of different languages ? Do they speak a common language they
do not speak natively ? Is there an agreed 'lingua franca' for all of the particip*nts ? Is the
presence of a third person a factor influencing the choice of code participants do ? Discuss what
codes they use in a student's birthday parfy attended by both the Indonesian students and some of
their English friends ??
'Partles' rsfers to social groups and 'classes' refers to formal collection of people made
up of srudents and teacheds) in the formal education settings. What code(s) participants choose in
parties depend on how heterogeneous they are in their linguistic repertoire. Moreover, members
of parties may vary in &e culfures of the languages they speak.. The language or code used in
formal classes is certainly English (as they are in England), except when the Iecturer is a guest
lecturer and does not speak English. Discuss what code(s) they use in a rneeting for raditional
arts lovers attended by various language speakers.
Content or topic is the nrbject mater being talked about in a given forum : sciences,
cultures, religions, arts, etc. A certain language is said to be appropriate for a certain topic,
another language for another topic. Concepts in certain cultures, for examples, caonot be defrned
or translated accurately in aoy other language Discuss what language is appropriate for what
topic, and what language is appropriate for anothertopic or content...
Social distance is how.close interlocutors are tc each other personally. Persons may
vmy in their choice of codes when intemcting with individuals they do not know well. There are
also social groups identified by their vertical dimension (different social levels/strata/classes)
and horizontal dimension (varying levels of intimacy), which is anotler factor determining code
choices. Topic : Discuss what Javanese variety a son of a former high officer and the daughter of
a well-to-do businessman use in their interpersonal communication, and why.
Setting, content, social distance and participants' language repertoire constitute
situational factors influencing code choices. One other factor is motivation (specific purposes),
including cthnic solid*rity (when fie interactants have the sarne ethnic background), national
solidarity (when the communicants have the sarne nationality), deference (expressing respects
like .rft mas, yang) and politeness (showing effort to avoid attacking the addressee's solf
esteem) and expertise (one's professional or academic background).

ll
 HANDOUT (7b) ! LAITGUAGE AniD CULTURE:
DEFERENCE, TERMS OT ADDRESS, INDIRECTNESS
AND POLITENESS

t2
-

HANDOUT(B ): LANGUAGE pOLrCy

r'anguage Policy usually
covers two sub-topics : Ianguage planning
Langaage phnning is. a and Ianguage prlicy.
rartguage Lhorg", t.i.-)ironge,
le(berate
code or speaking or b-ot! that are tle systems of a ranguage
ptinri
t7 o$onirorin -ir;
given a mandate tofurfiil'iuch pirpos.l-s. -::tabtxhed for such purposes or
language planning reifers lxrnniay, igsrwhtte a"co.ding to Boey (r9g5),
t, o tri oy'aitiorri, iliii,i* riilr*oti"otty
develop the language resowces of thi designed to organize oncr
communitl,t in ari ordered ,inraof,
policv/planning is an important issrie
forrndon";i-*noJ r*rf oyii*r. f*guug"
Problems : l.whatreasons motivate
language pranning (effiary
il;;;#i*"t tanguages.
in Indonesia)?
2.What activities ar* .ou*.rJ i" ilgr"g" firir"ir_' z
3.what organizations are involv"a ii r#gI"e"
4.What language systems are concerned;,
p'r'irirs r
S.What language resourcss are ccr:cerned
f*dr"s planning ??
?
6.Can a language die out.?
7.Is language created, acquired cr inherited
?
t in ths caie of choosing a national
language, we are rucky.
i:ffi,:1'that
9.A foreigner refuses to leam Indonesian
as ithas tro grammar. Explain
10 The quarity of language one speaks
depends o* t ;s *trrnic background.
Wlat is your point ?

Fishman (196s) proposes four activities

referyng t9 ranguage pranning process.
l'Language poticy,.when the problem
is chising t["-irJ."oae, among
competing for
varying national functions. consiier *tui t upprued
Ianguage varieties
*l,led11ca1io-n)yorooiu(.ffi ;i;ll;;suase) in Malaysia, America
lo,,f
r' Lootrlcation/standardization' when
sociolinguistic variabres. Think of what
t[e p.out"r, is deterrnining stability in regional
is goi,g on in * and
3' Elaboration, when the probrem i;;ag today-
"o*ty
with newrv-created terms ir ;;;;;;;i;;#fi;.'*,ruto the:to*r codeg for exarnpre to
new functions
;1:4., orwhat we have done so
4' cultivation' when the problem concerns-with
de&rmining firnctions : .standard
and style- Think ofwhat ri" of correctness,
qao""iu go;e.rrment) have done so far.
Questions :1-what reasons motivated oui founding
ii a"o i" ,r" yuruy language ?
2.what seemed conrroversiar in dre
ctIice oi;;;;"* as a national
Ianguage ? Think ofthe .fate, of
otherl-an;r;;;'
3' Have Indonesian p"oqr" acquired
u rirgt","*i?;J language system
Indonesian language ? of
4.Discuss the quality of Indonesian
Ianguage we use today.

;#if,T:Jl;.,":::?fftrand'invasiln';r;;sr#inrirdonesiatoday.
7.What criteria are used in choosing
a standard language ?
8.what potricies does the Government
take in
language ? "urtrvlitn of Indonesian
g'whathas been
done in eraborating_rndonesian
Ianguage fimctioffi
I0. Discuss the .fare, ofEngtish analavanesei;;;"-,

13

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 !

Handout (9) :SOCIOLINGUISTICS & LANGUAGE TEACIIING

A. Triggcring Questions :
L Commenting on the language a non-native English learner produces, a native
speaker of English says, '!You speak like a book".. Discuss this case.
1. The language variety that is taught in all schools is the Standard English. What is
your point ? Think of and discuss the rationale behind this practice.-

B. To what extent does Sociolinguistics contribute in each of the following cases?

l,Choice of Language Teaching Approach & targets :
a.OraUAudio-linguaUAural-oral Approach :within a limited vocabulary learners
master the sound and grammatical system of TL.
b Cognitive Approach : learners identifu, produce and understand grammatical
and acceptable sentences ofTL-
c Communicative Approach :. learners understand and produce appropriate TL
in terms of grammatical, sociolinguistic, strategic, discourse and pragmatic
aspect.

2"Choice of Syllabus Designs

a. Grammar/StructuraMFormal/Linguistic Syllabus (tenses, clauses, voices etc.)
b Situational Syllabus (in &e airport, meeting fiiends, talking about
hobbies,etc)
c Functional-Notional Syllabus (agreeing, cornplaining, giving advices, etc.)

3.Choice of Resources
a- Textbooks
b Authentic language sample/texts
c Teacher-made texts
C. Choice of (Language) Focus
1. Corrsctiless/accuracy (grammal rules-oriented)
2. Appropriacy/appropriateness (context oriented : who, where, wheru end
factors)
3. SPEAKING (setting/scenario, participants, endslpurposes, act sequences,
keyltone, instrumentality, norms of interaction, genre)

D. Choice of Language Variety

l.Standard
2.@egional) Dialects :British, American, Australian
3.Registers

t4
 HANDOUT (9b): SOCIOLINGUISRTICS & LANCUAGE TEACHING

Guiding questions (referring to p. 83 of Roulet's)

1. Why is Language Teaching (LT) centered around sociolinguistic situations ?
) language teaching objbctive/language use vs usage/four language skills/natural
contexts

2. What is the significance of Sociolinguisstic Theory (Sociolinguistcs) in LT ?

) Language & its speakers/social rules of languagc use/language varieties/dialectsl
language and culture

3. What is the significance of linguistic theory (Structural Linguistics) in LT ?

) Lan$rage systemllanguage structure/grammar/ normVrules

4. Sociolinguistic description
) Sefting (who speaks to whonr for what purposes), who * relative power, intimacy,
number of interlocutors, formal i ry-

5. Language description
) TL structure : sounds, morphemes, words, syntactic constructions {phrases, clauses,
sentences)

6. Content ltems
) Syllabus, textbooks, topics, areas of discollrse

7. Modes of presentation
+ BMJYESA/EEC/OMC etc.
Building Knowledge. Modeling, Joint Construction, Independent Construction
Engage, Study, Activate
Exploration, Elaboratiort Confirmation
Opening, Main Activity, Closing

8. Media
) Model Texts/maps/film sjirips/flash cards/ picture series etc.

9. Psycholinguistics
) Theories of Language processing. Language leaming/acquisition.

10. Learning Strategies and models of performance (students' individual traits)

) knitation/repetitiorfdrilling, grammarlrule leaming

1l language Teaching
i Approach, method, techniquesl.

l2.Practical Learning
) How leamers do actual learning (classroom) activities.

15
 HAI{DOUT (10) : WHAT ONE SAYS Ys WHAT ONE MEANS

In verbal (language) communication, the act of producing meaningfirl language expressions

is called speech act. In Austin's idea, saying something is actually doing something using
language. So, speech act is the act of doing something (asking, ordering, inviting etc.) using
Unluage. Any meaningful language expression one produces has three dimensions, that is,
lociUon, illocution, and perlacution. Loctttion is the linguistic form of the expression, illocution
is what tire speaker *"uri by what he says, and perlocution is the effect that the expression has
on the addressee. For example, when the expressian is W'hat time is it?, the three dimensions can
be explained as follows.
1. In its locution, the expression is a question or interrogative sentence.
2. By this expression, what the speaker means ( its illocution) is
a.asking about time (corresponding dre linguistic meaning)' or
b.asking about when to start or stop (doing something), or
c.demanding something, or
d.showing boredom , or
e.showing impatience, b to e suggesting pragmatic (context-based) meanings,
3. Hearing this expression, that is, its perlocution, the addressee (hearer) will do
something depending on whether the hearer successfully understands what the
speaker actually means. (Irnplicitly there is some 'regotiation of meaning' between
the speaker and addressee and this is how misunderstanding often happens in
language communication.)
Producing a language expression is thus a three-dimension act : locutionary act,
iltocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. Locutionary act is the act of producing a linguistic
expression of any type (declarative, interrogative, imperative, an ellipsis - a word or a phrase,
etc.).Illocutiooary aci is the act of conveying a meaning (ide4 intention, purpose, etc) using a
linguistic expression. While perlocutionary act is the act of affecting someone (the addressee)
oI
,ring u linguistic expression. For examplo, by safng, need a board marker'. a speaker is
producing a linguistic expression in the form of dgclqratiye (a locutionary act). With this
ixpression, the speaker actually' asks for a board marker' or' orders the addressee to get a
board marker for him' (illocutionary act). And with this same expression , the speaker expcts
that the addressee gets a board marker for him (perlocutionary act)-
There are either direct or indirect speech acts. A direct speech act is one using words
co /L'
or intention . In other words, a direct speech act is
one whose linguistic form corresponds the speaker's meaning.
1. I request you to open the..\Mindow (a request)
2. I promise to some here tomorrow (a promise)
3. I order you not to make noise (a prohibition), etc-
An indirect specch act is one using different words or types of linguistic expressions to
convey its speaker's meaning or purpose. ln other words, an indirect speech act is one
whose linguistic form is different from the speaker's meaning.. For example, when one
wants to have the lights put on, he could say any of the following expressions-
1. It is too dmk in here, isn't it?
2. Sorry, but I can't stand dartaess
3. Sorry, but I can do nothing in the dark. .
4. Are you happy working in a dark room?, etc-
What should be noted is that rrrosr speakers use indirect speech acts in conveying
their meanings, mainly for the sake of politcnws. Orly in certain cotditions speakers
prcduce direct speech acts, as in formal meetings, business transactions, stc.

t6
 HANDOUT (10b) : TYPOLOGY OF'SPEECII ACTS
A speaker means more than the words say (Thomas, 1995). Utterances do not only have
seltse, but also force, that is, illocutionaq,, foroe or pragmatic force : that force to influence
(affect) the addressee. Searle, then, classifies speech acts into fle : representatives, directives,
commissives, expressives, alid declarations. The classification is based primarily on speaker's
meaning rather than linguistic form : a single form may convey varying meanings, and one
meaning may be conveyed in varying linguistic forms.
Reprcsentatives or essertives assure the truth of the expressed proposition, whose notions
include oassure', 'acknowledge', 'conclude', 'report', 'state', which make the words suit the
world. (e.9. Ail living beings needwater.)
Directives show the speaker's effort to influence the addressee to do or not to do
oask', 'request',
something, whose notions include 'advice', 'order', 'command', which make the
world suit the words. (e.g. You rmtst be honest to your teacher.)
Commissives assure the speaker's action in the future, whose notions include 'offer',
'promise', 'refirse', 'threat', which make the rvorld agree with the words. (".g. I will appoint yoa
head of the organization.)
Expressives convey the speaker's attitude and psychological conditions like 'surprise',
'happiness', 'sorrow', 'anger', whose notions include 'blame', 'apologize', 'congratulate',
'thank' (e.g. Wow. Tfuit's great !).
Declarztions cause immediate changes in the situation so that this type is also called
performatives, which can be felicitous or infelicitous but cannot be true nor false. (Compare it
with constatives, which be true or false). This type of speech act requires extra-linguistic
institutions to make it felicitous, and makes the world correspond the words, The notions include
'bet', 'homiflate', 'name','declate'. (e.g. The thesis examination is hereby oficially opened.)
There are direct and indirect speech acts. In direct speech acts the speakerusss verbs or
words that convey the notions expressed, while in indirect speech acts the speker uses words
that do not explicitly convey the notions he expresses. Speakers tend to use indirect speech aets
to show politeness.
Compare ; Switch on the lamps (direct)
I cannot do anything in a dorkroom like r&rs (indirect)
There are performative acts and constative acts. Constative acts are either true or falsg
perforrnativs acts are either felicitous or irfelicitous, sincere or insincere. Naming for example,
needs valid doer, participants, fonrm, procedure in orderto be felicitous.
Compare : I declare this examination open (performative)-
Tig*s conswne ft uits (constative).
Pragmatics concerns ryith how the 'meaning' of an utterance depends on the
gircumstances in which it is uttered, i.e. on how people usc linguistie actions. The expressions
below range from less polite to more polite, from direct to indirect.
- Answer the phone
- Iwantyou to answer the phone
- Will you rmswer the phone ?
- Canyou answer the phone ?
- Would you mind answering the phane ?
- Couldyou possibly afisy,er the phone ?
- Whot about answeringthe phone 7
Note that the morc options the addressee has in responding to the exprecsion address$d to
him, the more polite it is. The first two expressions above are direct utterances, the least polite
as the addressee has a single response, i.e. doing what is told while giving any other responses is
not a common practice in the culture. The other expressions are more polite as each provides
opportrmities to give varying responsss to acc€pt or reject the order in any dogree.

l7
 HANDOUT ( r{h): vARmTmS OF ILLOCUTIONARY ruNCTIONS

Leech (1983:104) classifies utterances in terms of their illocutionary functions (speaker

meaning) . In Leech's idea, an utterance is aimed at achieving some social goal, that is,
establishing and maintaining eomity. In other words, an utterance has the illocutionary function
of establishing and maintaining comiry.. Different from Searle, then, Leech classifies utterances
into four types according to this sccial goal, tlat ig eompetitive, convivial, collaborative and
conflictive..Of these four types, competitive and convivial chiefly involve politeness.
In competitive type, the illocutionary goal competes with the social goal, e.g. ordering,
asking, demanding, begging. Competitive goals are those which are essentially discourteous,
such as getting someone lend you some money, getting someone do something for you, or getting
things done.
Examples : l. John, lend me some mooey.
2. Lift this box and put it on the chair.
3. You enter the room one by one.
In conrrivial type, the illocutionary goal coincides with the social goal, e.g- offering, inviting,
greeting, thanking, congratulating. Utterances of this type are intrinsically courteous.
Examples : L Let me open the door for you.
2. Let's do what we have to do-
3.I wish you have a good sleep.
ln collaborative type, the illocutionary goal is indifferent to the social goal, e.g. asserting,
reporting, announcing, instructing. Most written discourse comes into this collaborative type.
Examples : 1. Prices of fuel will never go down.
2. One hundred people die of traffic accidents each day.
3. Indonesians will vote for a new President next year.
ln conflictivetype, the illrcutionary goal conflicts with the social goal, e.g. threatening accusing
cursing reprimanding. In this conflistive type, politeness is out of the question. "
Examples : 1- You pay on time or be sent away from yourhouse.
2. You are the cause of this tragedy.
3. Can't you talk a bit slower?
Leech describos syntactic, semantic and pragmatic representatirm of sentences as follows.

SYNTACfiC : DECLARATIVE INTERROGATTVE IMPERATTYE

! ! !
SEMANTIC : PROPOSITION QTIESTION MAND
! ! !
PRAGMATIC : ASSERTION " ASKING IMPOSITWE

Syntactically, a sentence may be a declarative, an interrogative or an imperative as indicated by

the words, words order (pattern) and intonation. Semantically, then, a declarative signals a
proposition (some truth), interrogative signals a question (requiring a response) and an imperative
signals 'maild' (affecting). Pragmatically, on the other hand, a proposition signals assertion, a
question signals asking, and 'mand' signals impositive (influencing). A sentence saying 'Mca
needs money' ( a declarative) signals a proposition that asserts some fact. A sentence saying
'Yflhat caase deatlfl' (an interrogative) signals a question that ask about something and the
sentence saying 'Do your best' (a1t imperative) sigr,,als 'mand' that imposes (affects/forces)
somsone to do as said.

18
 I

HANDOUT (11) : LEECH'S POLITENESS PRINCIPLES (PP)

Communication is aimed at among other things, building and nraintaining good personal relations
between speaker (se10 and hearer (other). According to Leech ( I 983),to achieve the goal speaker has to try
to avoid using expressions that potentially disappoint or insult the addressee, hurt his feeling or break his
self-esteem, or place him in difficult position. For that purpose, (adult) language users have shared a set of
politeness principles and maxims. These principles csntol on ctxt and bcnefit- .
1. Tact Maxim : Minimize cost to other, Maximize benefit to other
e.g. Please invite me to your dinner (not polite)
Please come to have dinner with us-{?)
It's your birthday, isn't it? Why don't you treat us? (?)
2. Generosity Maxim : Minimize benefit of self, Maximize cost to self.
e.g. You have to tidy up your own room (not polite)
I will have your room tidied uP'(?)
Shall we tidy uP Yourthings? (?)
3, Approbation Maxim : Minimize dispraise of olher, Maximize praise erf other-
e.g. You always look handsome in that dress ( ? )
You will look more handsome if you put on a hat ( ? )
. Don't you have a better dress? (?)
4 Modesty Maxim : Minimize praise of self, maximize dispraise of self
e.g. Please accept this wor&less gift as a token of our thanks-(polite)
Sorry to have let you stop at my dusty home' (polite)
I wonder whether auy of you could do as weil as I. (?)
5. Agreement Maxim : Minimize disagreement between self and other,
maximize agreement between self and other.
e.g. Your idea is very good, and we only disagree in minor cases. (polite)
I think we will have to learn from each other -(polite)
I am always the initiator of any change.(?).
6. Maxim of $ympathy :Minimize antipathy betlveen self and other- Maximize
sympathy between self ard other
e.g. Your last accident is truly beyond man's control. (Polite)
I am sorry to hear ofyour accident..(polite)
Nobody but you has got that silly accident. (?)
7. lrony : Say the opposite (Apply only for close friendsicompanions)
e.g. You got 5 in mafh ? How smart you are !
The greatest efror you have made is accepting my proposal. (?)
8. Banter : Being impolite, unserious, using snarl words (For close friends)
e.g. Here you are, the trouble maker ! (untrue + impolite) (?)
How can you a loser be a champion? (?)
9. Hyperbole : Overstatement
e.g. We've been waiting for decades.
She has not been anywhere even for a minute.
10. Litotes : understatemenl referring to the speaker ratler than the hearer.
e.g.. That wasn't a bad meal that I cooked.
I did not perform too carelessly, I think.

Analyze each expression in terms of Leeeh's politeness prirciples

1. Let me clean the seat for you 9. Coutd you have luneh with me now?
2. What about giving me a lift every day? 10. Didn't you want the last aecident?
3. You have broken it and now you have to repair it ll. lVon't you get nny bctter dresses?
4. Wil you hand that Pen to me? 12. IIey, youo the worst loser, come herc.
5. No one but I know the answer ofthe question. 13. I am working my whole waking time.
6. We both have given the best solution to this problem, 14. I only make small errors in the text .
7. Nohdy but you could stand the sulfering 15. Who can lift that box?.IIow light it b!
& TYhatever you wear makes you more beautifoL 16. You

l9
 I

HANDOUT (11b) : MORE ABOUT LEtrCH POLITENESS

Discuss each of the following expressions in terms of politeness principles as proposed by
Leeeh (19S3) : These principles eoncern with henefits arrd casts for either self (the speaker) or
other (the addressee).
1. Tact Maxim : maximize cost and maximize benefit to other.
2. Generosity Maxim ; minimize benefit to self and maximize cost to self.
3. Approbation Maxim : Minimize dispraise and maximize praise of other.
4. Modesty Maxim Minimize praise of selfand maximize dispraise of self.
5. Agreement Maxim : Minimize disagreement aild maximize agreement other between
self and other
6. Sympathy Maxim : Minimize aatipathy and maximize sympathy between self and
other
1.a. Please come to our house this evening for dinner (impositive/directive)
b. Just stay there. I'll fetch some drink and macks for you' (cornmissive)
c. lnvite me to your birthday party, will you ?
d.I will tell you nothing until you ask me about something (?).
2.a.Lel me do this task myself.(impositive)
b. i can solve this problem by myself. (commissive)
c. Ncbody but I myself am responsible for &is simple case..
d. I am paid for this job !
3.a. Good ! Good ! (expressive)
b. Your joining this hard raoe deserves appreciation. (assertive)
c. What a silly loser you are.! (?)
d. This must be your first and last competition. (?)
4.a. God has given me thebestNOW- (expressive)
b. I won this race only because of luck factor (assertive)-
c. Who do you think is better than I am ? (?)
d. I am the special one ! (?)
5.a. We are not different, acfually, are we ? (assertive)
b. What for do we maintain our ego ?
c. We were born to be different &om each othtr !. This is a fact.(?)
d. There are as many ideas as there are individuals ! Don't you see this ? (?)
6.a. You should have learned &om your forrner failures.(asssrtive)
b. Anyone is subject to any failme.
c. What you need is only introspection ! (?)
el. There are othcr opportunities foryou to gain the best. (?)

PRAGMATIC SCALES : Beforeyou choose an utterance in any Ianguage communication,

consider the following pragmatic scales
I The cost-benefit scale (The impact ofthe utterance : whether it gives more cost or benefit to the
Addressee/addres see).
2.The optionality scale (The number of possible utterances to be chosen and used)
3. The indirectness scale (The availability of indirect utteraaces to be chosen and used.)
Which ofthe following expressions is polite or not polite according to Leech's pragmatic scales?
-He$ yourself./ Letyour toe mend itselflt et me fetch the tea foryorlGo to hell with your car.
-Help me/You help me/ Could you possibly help me?/ Wouldyou do me a favor?
-Atteation! The library will close in ten minutes-/ I'm sorry, but the book you're reading is
mine./ I'm sorry, but your car is blocking may way? / Do you have a spare pen with you?

20
 HAIYDOUT (12): BROWIY & LEYINSON'S POLITENESS

In Brown & Levinson's theory, Politeness is face management'

Face = one's freedom, prestige, feeling, self-image, self-worth., self-esteem before others.
Face is either positive or negative.
positive face : one's desire to be liked, agproved of, respected, appreciated by others.
Negative face : one's desire not to be impeded or put upon to have freedorn to act as he likes'
Notes:
l. An utterance is polite when it approves o{ respects and appreciates the addressee, and
does not impede or put upon what the addressee wants to do'
2. Certain expiessions'or iliocutionary acts can potentially damage or threaten one's face; this
is a case oiFa"" Threatening Acts (tr'TA). The opposite is Face Saving Aet (FSA), that
ref,ers to expressions or illocutionary acts that potentially save one's face.
3. FTA can damage H's positive or negative face and S' own positive or negative face'
Think of the following cases
.Tlris party is only for high-class students. who do you think you are?'
a..
b.. 'Come in only when the boss has instructed you to-'
c.. 'I am sorry for keeping you waiting too long'.
d.. 'Just go to the phone box. Let me guard your things'.
4. To avoid damaging one's face, a speaker adopts certain strategies, by assessing fhe size
(degree of effect) of the FTA As an illustration, when one is about to enter a wtong room
(in a hotel), do the following :
a. Consider the power (P) , that is, whether H is higher' lower of sarne in power as S'
H -> I am sorry, but we have chosen for you another place.
L -> Do not you know you are in the u,"ong place ?
b. Consider the distauce/intimacy : whether S and H have dishnt (D) or close (C) intimacy.
D -> I am sorry, but you are supposed not to be in here.
C -> Sorry, but you are not to be in here.
c. Consider the rate of imposition/effect to the addressee : whether the expression has strong
(S) or weak (W) imposition.
S -> Sorry, but you have to be where you are supposed to bc.
W-> Sorry, but I am afraid you are not in the right place.
5. The first thing to decide is to perform or not to perform an FTA. When the decision is to
perform FTA, there are four possibilities/alternatives or supemtrategies. (Consider what one
says when the context is that lhc addressee is about to errlet o irrong room in a hotel.)
l.Ferform FTA cn-record without.redressive action {bald-on - record)
- No ! That's not your room'
2.Perform FTA on record using posifive politeness
- It's your room, isn't it?
3.Perform FTA on-record using negative politeness.
- Be sure you enter Your own room.
4.A set of o$record strategies.
- * Let the H do what he decides to do
- * \ryait for what happens then

*J,HfJ:lfii*trpr"ro", r,rA, the speaker will avoid perror:ndng f,'rA altogether

(hewill say nothing).

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 HANDOUT ( 12b ): BROWN & LEVINSON'S SUPER STRATEGIES

l. BOLD ON RECORD strategr could be used in situations such as emergency, task -

oriented, request, and alert. Think of (identifu) the addressee of the following
expression, the cbhtext, and the effect of the expression on him.
1. Stop. Stop! (e.g. when the patient under treatment suddenly lays unconscious.)
2. Read the instruction before dbing the test segment!
3. Everyone has to vote
4. Beware!. Road construction ahead.
II. POSITM PILITENESS strategy could be used in situations such as making notices,
ex*ggerafing interest, approval, sympathy, intensifying interest (to the
addressee), seeking agreemento avoiding disagreement. presupposing, joking.
and offering Think of (identify) the notion of each of the fallowing expressions,
context, and the expected effect of the expression on him.
1. Srnoking comer
2. You may be the only one the company is looking for
3. You can have a fiee test if you like to.
4. Anyone is subject to failure
5. May I see your work now?
6. We find John the best candidate that rve have nominated
7. It's time everyone of us worked, isn't it?
8. Don't we think everyone was born unique?
9. Why don'tyou say NO for something you like doing?
10. What do you think of doing what you can do at your best?

III. NEGATM POLITENESS strategy could be used in situations such as making

promises, questions, hedges, being pessimistic, apologizin& behg direct
(conventionatly indirect), and minimizing impositions. Think of (identify) the
addrcssee of the expression below, context, and the effect ofthe exprossion ou him.
1. I hope I am free the day you come and meet you then.
2. Haven\t you planned your near future?
3. Will you pay less and ga little or pay more and get much?
4- I
I myself am not sure that what do will yield what I want
5. Even you could not always get what you have been expecting
6. Do smoke, enjoy its delicacy
7. I intentionally refuse to learn how delicious smoking is

fV. OFF RECORD strategy could be used when one finds ithard to choose the best
expression in response to someone's behavior. For example, when you find a Frson
is taking a bag of snack someone has left, you may take one of three options.
t. Let him do what he decides to do then
2. Wait for what happens then
3. Wait for what he says then

V. NON FTA sfiat$ry is usd when one decides to neglect anything one does or says.

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