Protection Control Journal: Capacitor Bank

Protection Basics -Introduction to Symmetrical Components pg 79
Protection & Control Journal

December 2007
7 Transmission Line Protection Principles
In-depth Analysis: 19 Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large
Capacitor Bank Capacitor Banks
Protection
35 Implementation and Performance of Synchrophasor
Function within Microprocessor Based Relays
Page 19 47 Application of Modern Relays to
Dual-Breaker Line Terminals
61 A Utility’s Experience in the Implementation of

Substation Automation Projects
69 Wireless Radio Application Guide
79 Protection Basics: Introduction to Symmetrical

Components
D90Plus
- Advanced Line Distance Protection
C70
- Dedicated Capacitor Bank Protection
g Multilin www.GEMultilin.com
Protection
Contents
& Control Journal December 2007
Pg 7
Transmission Line Protection Principles
Pg 19
Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large
Capacitor Banks
Pg 35
Implementation and Performance of Synchrophasor
Function within Microprocessor Based Relays
Pg 47
Application of Modern Relays to Dual-Breaker Line Terminals
Pg 61
A Utility’s Experience in the Implementation of
Substation Automation Projects
Pg 69
Wireless Radio Application Guide
Pg 79
Protection Basics: Symmetrical Components
Pg 82
Industry Innovations
Pg 87
Upcoming Events
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L4G 1B3. All rights reserved. GE and g are trademarks of the General Electric Company.
Copyright © 2007 GE Multilin. All rights reserved.
ISSN 1718-3189
unmatched...
D90Plus - Line Distance Protection System
The most advanced line distance protection

system in the market, GE Multilin’s D90Plus
delivers maximum performance, flexibility and
functionality. Designed as a true multifunction
device, the D90Plus eliminates the need for
external devices reducing system complexity,
commissioning time and capital costs.
Featuring advanced automation and control,
dedicated digital fault recording, comprehensive
communications including IEC61850, and an
extensive local HMI, the D90Plus represents the next
benchmark in protective relaying.
g Multilin
GE Multilin Worldwide North America Europe/MiddleEast/Africa

www.GEMultilin.com/D90Plus Tel: 905-294-6222 Tel: 1-800-547-8629 Tel: +34 94 485 88 00
gemultilin@ge.com
Worldwide North America Europe/MiddleEast/ Africa
Tel: 905-294-6222 Tel: 1-800-547-8629 Tel: +34 94 485 88 00
Transmission Line
Protection Principles
1. Introduction
Transmission lines are a vital part of the electrical distribution
system, as they provide the path to transfer power between
generation and load. Transmission lines operate at voltage levels
from 69kV to 765kV, and are ideally tightly interconnected for
reliable operation.
Factors like de-regulated market environment, economics, right-

of-way clearance and environmental requirements have pushed
utilities to operate transmission lines close to their operating
limits. Any fault, if not detected and isolated quickly will cascade
into a system wide disturbance causing widespread outages for a
tightly interconnected system operating close to its limits.
Transmission protection systems are designed to identify the

location of faults and isolate only the faulted section . The key
challenge to the transmission line protection lies in reliably
detecting and isolating faults compromising the security of the
system.
2. Factors Influencing line Protection

The high level factors influencing line protection include the
criticality of the line (in terms of load transfer and system stability),
fault clearing time requirements for system stability, line length, the
system feeding the line, the configuration of the line (the number
of terminals, the physical construction of the line, the presence
of parallel lines), the line loading, the types of communications
available, and failure modes of various protection equipment.
The more detailed factors for transmission line protection directly

address dependability and security for a specific application. The
protection system selected should provide redundancy to limit
the impact of device failure, and backup protection to ensure
dependability. Reclosing may be applied to keep the line in service
for temporary faults, such as lightning strikes. The maximum load
current level will impact the sensitivity of protection functions,
and may require adjustment to protection functions settings
during certain operating circumstances. Single-pole tripping
applications impact the performance requirements of distance
elements, differential elements, and communications schemes.
The physical construction of the transmission line is also a factor

in protection system application. The type of conductor, the size of impact relaying, as mutual coupling influences the ground
conductor, and spacing of conductors determines the impedance current measured by protective relays. The presence of tapped
of the line, and the physical response to short circuit conditions, transformers on a line, or reactive compensation devices such
as well as line charging current. In addition, the number of line as series capacitor banks or shunt reactors, also influences the
terminals determines load and fault current flow, which must choice of protection system, and the actual protection device
be accounted for by the protection system. Parallel lines also settings.
Transmission Line Protection Principles 7

3. GE Multilin Application Advantages protection, and phase distance elements associated with the
faulted phase (for example, AB and CA elements for an AG fault).
Before considering using a GE Multilin relay for a specific The Open Pole Detector also resets and blocks the Phase Selector
transmission line protection application, it is important to so the other distance elements may operate for evolving faults.
understand how the relay meets some more general application The Open Pole Detector also accounts for line charging current
requirements for simplicity, security, and dependability. GE Multilin and for weak infeed conditions.
relays provide simplicity and security for single pole tripping,
dependability for protection communications between line Once the Open Pole Detector operates, a further trip will cause
terminals, security for dual-breaker line terminals, and simplicity the Trip Output to declare a three pole fault, indicating either an
and dependability of redundant protection schemes. evolving fault condition or a reclose onto a permanent phase-
to-ground fault. This total logic simplifies the setting of the D60
3.1 Single-Pole Tripping for single pole tripping, and ensures dependable and secure
operation when faced with single line-to-ground faults.
Single pole tripping using distance protection is a challenging
application. A distance relay must correctly identify a single- The L90 Line Differential Relay and the L60 Line Phase Comparison
phase fault, and trip only the circuit breaker pole for the faulted Relay are both phase-segregated, current only relays. Single pole
phase. The relay also must initiate the recloser and breaker failure tripping on these relays does not present any unusual challenges,
elements correctly on the fault event. The distance elements as each phase of the protection element operates independently
protecting the unfaulted phases must maintain security during of the other unfaulted phases.
the open-pole condition and any reclosing attempts.
The D90Plus Line Protection System and D60 Line Distance

3.2 Communications
Relay use simple, dedicated control logic for single pole tripping Often transmission lines are protected by using schemes
applications. This control logic uses a Phase Selector, Trip Output that require communications with relays located at other line
and Open Pole Detector in conjunction with other elements as terminals. The reliability of the communications obviously
shown in the simplified block diagram. impacts the reliability of the protection system. GE Multilin relays
include features that maintain reliable operation of the protection
The Trip Output is the central logic of single pole tripping. The Trip communications during power line faults, communications
Output combines information from the Open Pole Detector, Phase channel delays, communications channel switching, and
Selector, and protection elements to issue a single pole or three communications channel dropout.
pole trip, and also to initiate automatic reclosing and breaker
failure. The Phase Selector is the key element for maintaining the Pilot protection: Pilot protection schemes, such as directional
security of single pole tripping applications, quickly and accurately comparison blocking and permissive over-reaching transfer trip,
identifying the faulted phase or phases based on measured use simple on/off communications between relays. There are
currents and voltages, by looking at the phase angles between many methods to send this signal. The most common method is to
the positive sequence, negative-sequence, and zero-sequence use contact closure to an external communication circuit, such as
components. power line carrier, microwave, radio, or fiber optic communications.
GE Multilin relays simplify fiber optic communications method
The Open Pole Detector ensures the relay operates correctly during by using internal fiber optic communications via Direct I/O,
a single pole trip, placing the relay in an open pole condition when eliminating the need for external communications devices. Direct
a single pole trip command is issued, or one pole of the circuit I/O is a reliable mechanism that is simple to configure, securely
breaker is open. The Open Pole Detector asserts on a single pole transmits digital status points such as tripping or blocking
trip command, before the circuit breaker pole actually opens, to commands between relays via directly-connected or multiplexed
block protection elements that may misoperate under an open fiber optic channels. Direct I/O operates within 2ms for high speed
pole condition, such as negative sequence elements, undervoltage communications to the remote line end.
Direct I/O is available in any of the transmission line relays by

Reset Open Pole adding an internal communications card. The output of the card
V, I
Phase Selector Trip Output
Open Pole(s)
can be IEEE C37.94, RS422 or G.703 communications to interface
with fiber optic multiplexers, or may be a direct fiber connection
to other relays. The communications card can be single-channel
21P Init BF
or dual-channel, to support point-to-point communications, dual
point-to-point communications, or ring communications between
AR
21G up to 16 relays.
Dir. Supv.
Line Current Differential: Communications is an integral piece of
a line differential relay, as the currents from one line terminal must
Open Pole
Detector be sent to relays at other line terminals to perform the differential
calculation. This requires the use of a digital communications
channel, which is commonly a multiplexed channel where channel
Figure 1. switching may occur. The analog information must be precisely
Single pole trip logic.

time synchronized between the line ends for the differential The L60 Line Phase Comparison Relay directly solves two common
calculation to be correct. Synchronization errors show up as challenges with the carrier signal. The first issue is channel delay.
phase angle offset, where identical currents produce phasors The channel delay is measured during commissioning and is
with different phase angles, and transient errors, where changes entered as a setting in the phase comparison element. The
in current are seen at different times at different measurement remote phase angle measurements are buffered and delayed by
points. For example, on a 60 Hz system, every 1ms of time this value to match the incoming pulses from the remote relays.
shift between terminals introduces a 21.6° phase shift into the The L60 has two communications channels, and two independent
measured currents. channel time delays, to support three-terminal lines.
There are two methods to account for the phase shift between The other common issue is pulse asymmetry of the carrier signal.
line terminals due to the communications channel delay. One Carrier sets may extend, either the mark (on) or space (off) signals
method is to measure the round-trip channel delay, and shift at the receiving end compared with the originally sent signal.
the local current phase by an angle equal to ½ of the round-trip This difference is measured during commissioning by using
delay time. This method is simple to implement, but creates a oscillography data, and simply entered as a setting in the phase
transient error when the communications channel is switched. comparison element.
In addition, the differential element will be temporarily blocked
when the communications channel switches, or noise in the In addition, the L60 supports some other methods to improve
communications channel causes communications packet loss. the reliability of protection communications. For short lines with
negligible charging current, the channel delay measurement can
The L90 Line Differential Relay employs a different method, be automated by running a loop-back test during normal system
using synchronous sampling by internally synchronizing the conditions and measuring the difference between the sent and
clocks on each L90. This method achieves high reliability, as the received pulses. The L60 also supports automated check-back of
round-trip channel delay is not vitally important. The differential the carrier system. Under normal conditions, the relay can initiate
element successfully operates during channel switching or after transmission of and modulate the analog signal to exchange small
packet loss, because the communications packets are precisely amounts of information. This automatic loop-back can replace
synchronized. the carrier guard signal, and more importantly, verifies the entire
communications path, including the relays on both ends.
In the L90, synchronization is accomplished by synchronizing the
clocks to each other rather than to a master clock. Each relay 3.3 Security for Dual-Breaker Terminals
compares the phase of its clock to the phase of the other clocks
and compares the frequency of its clock to the power system Dual-breaker terminal line terminals, such as breaker-and-a-half
frequency and makes appropriate adjustments. The frequency and ring bus terminals, are a common design for transmission
and phase tracking algorithm keeps the measurements at lines. The standard practice is to sum the currents from each
all relays within a plus or minus 25 microsecond error during circuit breaker externally by paralleling the CTs, and using this
normal conditions for a 2 or 3 terminal system. In all cases, an external sum as the line current for protection relays. This practice
estimate of phase error is computed and used to automatically
adapt the restraint region of the differential element. The time
synchronization algorithm can also use a GPS satellite clock to Relay 1 Relay 2
f f
compensate for channel asymmetry. The use of a GPS clock is not +
System
Frequency +
normally required, except in applications such as a SONET ring
where the communications channel delay may be asymmetric. Compute
Frequency
- - Compute
Frequency
f - f1 Deviation f1 f2 Deviation f - f2
This method produces synchronization accurate to within 125

microseconds between the relays on each end of the protected
Phase Frequency Phase Frequency
line. By using internally synchronized sampling, the L90 can Loop Filter Loop Filter
accommodate 4 consecutive cycles of communications channel 1 2
loss before needing to block the differential element. If the
( 2 - 1)/2 Ping-Pong Ping-Pong ( 2 - 1)/2
communications channel is restored within 5 seconds of channel Phase
time stamps
Phase
Deviation Deviation
loss, the L90 differential element will restart on the first received
packet, without any time synchronization delay, due to the inertia
of the internal clocks of the relays. ( 2 - 1)/2 GPS time stamps GPS ( 2 - 1)/2
Phase Phase
Deviation Deviation
Line Phase Comparison: As with line differential, communications

is an integral part of phase comparison relaying. Simple binary GPS GPS
Clock Clock
communications, such as power line carrier or microwave, is used
to send a pulse to the remote end when the phase angle of the
measured current is positive. Coordination between the pulses Figure 2.
from the remote end, and the phase angle measured at the local Clock synchronization block diagram for a two terminal system using L90
end, must be maintained. current differential system.

works well during actual line faults. However, for some external not impact the speed or sensitivity of the protection elements,
fault events, poor CT performance may lead to improper operation operates during all load conditions, and correctly allows tripping
of line protection relays. during an evolving external-to-internal fault condition.
When current flows through a dual-breaker line terminal, the line The dual-breaker line terminal supervisory logic essentially
current measured by a relay using external summation matches determines if the current flow through each breaker is either
the actual line current only if the two CTs are accurate. The most forward or reverse. Both currents should be forward for an internal
significant relaying problem is CT saturation in either CT. The current fault, and one current should be forward and one reverse for an
measured by the relay may contain a large error current, which external line fault. The supervisory logic uses, on a per-phase
can result in the relay operating due to an incorrect magnitude or basis, a high-set fault detector (FDH), typically set at 2-3 times the
direction decision. This incorrect operation may also occur if the nominal rating of the CT, and a directional element for each CT
linear error current of the CTs due to accuracy class is close to the input to declare a forward fault, for each breaker. The logic also
through current level. These errors appear in the measured phase uses, on a per-phase basis, a low-set fault detector (FDL), typically
currents. As a result, relays that calculate the negative sequence set at 1.5-2 times the nominal rating of the CT, and a directional
and zero sequence currents from the measured phase currents element to declare a reverse fault, for each breaker.
may also see errors.
Tripping is permitted during all forward faults, even with weak
Distance: Distance relays applied at dual-breaker line terminals infeed at the dual-breaker terminal. Tripping is blocked for all
are vulnerable to mis-operation on external faults. During a close- reverse faults when one breaker sees forward current and one
in reverse external fault, the voltage is depressed to a very low breaker sees reverse current. During an evolving external-to-
level, and the security of the relay is maintained by directional internal fault, tripping is initially blocked, but when the second
supervision. If one of the line CTs saturates, the current measured fault appears in the forward direction, the block is lifted to permit
by the relay may increase in magnitude, and be in the opposite tripping.
direction of the actual fault current, leading to an incorrect
operation of the forward distance element for an external fault. Line Differential: Line differential protection is prone to tripping
due to poor CT performance on dual-breaker terminals, as the
The D90Plus Line Protection System and the D60 Line Distance error current from the CTs is directly translated into a differential
Relay handles the challenge of dual-breaker line terminals by current. The only possible solution for traditional line differential
supporting two three-phase current inputs to support breaker relays is to decrease the sensitivity of the differential element,
failure, overcurrent protection, and metering for each circuit which limits the ability of the differential element to detect low
breaker. The relays then mathematically add these currents magnitude faults, such as highly resistive faults.
together to form the total line current used for distance and
directional overcurrent relaying. The L90 Line Differential Relay supports up to four three-phase
current inputs for breaker failure, overcurrent protection, and
Directly measuring the currents from both circuit breakers allows metering for each circuit breaker. The relay then uses these
the use of supervisory logic to prevent the distance element individual currents to form the differential and restraint currents
and directional overcurrent elements from operating incorrectly for the differential protection element.
for reverse faults due to CT error. This supervisory logic does
CT 1 saturates
i2 is reduced 10 - 15 pu
i2 i
IF + ILine IF + ILine
2 >0.1 pu error with
> 0.1 pu error
CT 1 CT 1 iLine shows incorret
magnitude, direction
iLine iLine Id > 0.2 pu
52 52 52 >0.2 pu error 52
Ir = 10 - 15 pu
Relay Relay Relay L90 NO TRIP
ILine ILine
10 - 15 pu 10 - 15 pu
Id > 0.2 pu
IF IF Ir > 0.2 pu
52 52 52 503 TRIP 52 503
10 - 15 pu
with
CT 2 CT 2 > 0.1 pu error
i1 i1 >0.1 pu error
Figure 3. Figure 4.
Impact of CT saturation on two-breaker line applications Sensitivity of line differential system for dual-breaker applications.
a) Accurate CTs preserve the reverse line current direction under weak
remote feed.
b) Saturation of the CT carries the reverse current may invert the line
current as measured from the externally summated CTs.

The L90 differential element design explicitly accounts for the The values of ILOC and ILOC_RESTRAINT are transmitted to the L90
performance of the CTs for dual-breaker line terminals. Each L90 relays located at the other line ends. The differential and restraint
protecting a transmission line calculates differential and restraint values used in the actual tripping decision combine both the
quantities based on local information directly measured by the local differential and restraint current, and the differential and
relay, and information received from relays located at the remote restraint currents from the remote line ends. These calculations
line ends. Tripping decisions are made locally be each relay. are performed individually on each phase.
The information sent by one L90 to the other L90s on the line is I DIFF  I LOC  I REMOTE 1  I REMOTE 2
the local differential and restraint currents. The local differential
current is the sum of all the local currents on a per-phase basis. I REST  2  I LOC _ RESTRAINT  2  I REM 1 _ RESTRAINT  2 I REM 2 _ RESTRAINT  2
One L90 can accept up to 4 current measurements, but only 2
currents are used for a dual-breaker application. Considering the worst case external fault with CT saturation, the
differential current IDIFF will increase due to the CT error that
I LOC  I 1  I 2  I 3  I 4 appears in ILOC. However, the restraint current IREST will increase
more significantly, as the ILOC_RESTRAINT uses the maximum of
The local restraint current is defined by the following equation for the local currents, that is increased based on the estimation of CT
each phase. errors and presence of CT saturation. The end result is a correct
restraining of the differential element.
I LOC _ RESTRAINT  I LOC _ REST _ TRAD   MULT  I
2
LOC _ ADA  2
Phase Comparison: The L60 Line Phase Comparison Relay
supports two three-phase current inputs for breaker failure,
The starting point for the restraint is the locally measured overcurrent protection, and metering for each circuit breaker. The
current with the largest magnitude. This ensures the restraint is relay then uses these individual currents to form the local phase
based on one of the measured currents for all fault events, and angle information for use in the phase comparison scheme.
increases the level of restraint as the fault magnitude increases.
A phase comparison relay operates by comparing the relative
ILOC_REST_TRAD is this maximum current magnitude applied
phase angles of the current from each end of the transmission line.
against the actual differential characteristic settings. ILOC_ADA is
When the measured current exceeds the level of a fault detector,
the sum of the squares estimate of the measurement error in the
and the phase angles from each end of the line are in phase, the
current, and is used to increase the restraint as the uncertainty of
phase comparison relay operates. For a dual-breaker application
actual measurement increases, such as during high magnitude
using an external sum, the saturation of one CT may cause the
fault events and CT saturation. MULT is an additional factor that
relay current to increase high enough to operate the fault detector.
increases the error adjustment of the restraint current based
Because the current from the unsaturated CT predominates in this
on the severity of the fault event and the likelihood the fault is
waveform, the phase angle of the relay current may change. If the
an external fault, when CT saturation is most likely to cause an
phase angle of the relay current is in phase with the relay current
incorrect operation.
at the remote end of the line, the relay will trip.
CT 1 CT 1
52 52
52 52
CT 2 CT 2
Multilplexed Fiber Optic

D90Plus Distance - D90Plus Distance -
POTT Scheme POTT Scheme
Multilplexed Fiber Optic

D60 Distance - D60 Distance -
POTT Scheme POTT Scheme
Multilplexed Fiber Optic (different channel)

L90 Line L90 Line
Differential Differential
Power Line Carrier

L60 Phase L60 Phase
Comparison Comparison
Figure 5.
Redundancy Requirements - Alternate main protection possibilities from GE Multilin.

The L60 in dual-breaker applications selects the appropriate phase An alternative way to increase reliability through redundancy is to
angle, based on the information measured from the current flow use multiple protection methods on the same line such as phase
through both circuit breakers. The relay uses fault detectors on comparison and permissive over-reaching transfer trip, using
each current input, and develops the phase angle for each current different communications channels. This method protects against
input, and then special dual breaker logic consolidates the fault individual element failure of both relays and communications
detector flags and the phase angle pulses for the line terminal. channels. More importantly, it protects against the failure of one
of the protection methods. For example, a VT circuit fuse failure
The fault detector flag is set for a line terminal if either fault blocks a distance relay from operating, while a line differential
detector from the two breakers is picked up. The type of phase system or phase comparison system will continue to operate. For
comparison protection scheme, tripping or blocking, controls the this reason, often at least one current-only scheme, such as phase
pulse combination logic. For a tripping scheme, a positive polarity comparison or line differential, and then one pilot protection
is declared for the terminal if one breaker displays positive polarity scheme based on distance relays are employed.
with its respective fault detector picked up, while the other breaker
either does not show negative polarity or its fault detector is not A second advantage of using multiple protection methods to
picked up. protect one line is the ability to increase the security of the line.
It is possible to implement a “voting” scheme, where at least 2
3.4 Redundancy Considerations to Enhance protection methods must operate before the line can be actually
Reliability tripped. Such a voting scheme may be applied permanently on lines
where security is an issue, such as major inter-tie lines. A voting
The reliability of transmission system protection is dependent on scheme may also be applied only when the system is at risk, such
the reliability of the protection scheme used and the individual as during wide-area disturbances, either automatically based on
components of the protection scheme. Transmission protection system conditions, or by command from system operators.
systems typically use redundancy to increase the dependability
of the system. There are two general methods of implementing GE Multilin simplifies solutions when multiple protection schemes
redundancy. One method is to use multiple sets of protection are used by providing both protective relays that only use current
using the same protection scheme. The other method is to use and protective relays that use both current and voltage. The L60
multiple sets of protection using different protection principles. Line Phase Comparison Relay and the L90 Line Differential Relay
Depending on the voltage class, either method of redundancy are both current-only protection relays with different operating
may involve using 2 or 3 sets of protection. In both cases, the goal principles. The D90Plus, D60 and D30 Line distance protection
is to increase dependability, by ensuring the protection operates systems are full-featured distance relays. These relays are on a
for a fault event. Security may be improved through the use of so- common hardware and software platform, simplifying engineering,
called voting schemes (e.g. 2-out-of-3), potentially at the expense design, installation, and operations issues. All of these relays
of dependability. support multiple communications options, including power line
carrier, microwave, and fiber optic communications. The relays
Multiple sets of protection using the same protection scheme are also designed to communicate with each other, to implement
involves using multiple relays and communications channels. voting schemes, reclosing control, and other applications.
This is a method to overcome individual element failure. The
simplest method is to use two protection relays of the same type,
using the same scheme and communications channel. This only
protects against the failure of one relay. In some instances, relays
4. Typical Applications
of different manufacturers are used, to protect against common This section highlights some typical application of GE Multilin line
mode failures. It is also common to use redundant communications protection relays. This section is not intended as a comprehensive
channels, in case of failure on one communications channel. list of possible applications. For questions about the correct relay
Often, the communications channels use different methods, such for a specific application, visit www.GEMultilin.com to review the
as power line carrier and fiber optic. This is especially true due to brochure for a specific relay model, or contact GE Multilin.
the concerns of power line carrier operation during internal fault
events.

Directional Overcurrent
Typical Functions Additional Functions
67P Phase directional overcurrent 25 Synchrocheck
3Y
67N Neutral directional 79 Reclosing
52 overcurrent V, S Voltage and Power metering
3Y
or Functions Typical Product Order Code
2D
Typical Functions F60-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-MXX-PXX-UXX-WXX
Alternative D30-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-MXX-PXX-UXX-WXX
+ Additional functions Included in typical

Alternative Included in typical
67P 67N 25 79 Alternative Included in typical
V S
Directional Overcurrent – Dual Breaker

1

67P Phase directional overcurrent 25 Synchrocheck
3Y
67N Neutral directional 79 Reclosing
overcurrent V, S Voltage and Power metering
52
Functions Typical Product Order Code
Typical Functions D60-N02-HCH-F8L-H6P-M8L-PXX-UXX-WXX
3Y External electrical sum of

breaker currents (traditional F60-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-M8L-PXX-UXX-WXX
or
2D method)
D30-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-MXX-PXX-UXX-WXX
Only 1 synchrocheck function in
F60 and D30 D60-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-MXX-PXX-UXX-WXX
52
3Y 67P 67N 25 79
2
V S
Stepped-Distance Protection Typical Functions Additional Functions

21P Phase distance 67P Phase directional overcurrent
21G Ground distance 67N Neutral directional
overcurrent
50BF Breaker Failure
3Y 25 Synchrocheck
52 Synchrophasors 79 Reclosing
Phasor Measurement Unit V, S Voltage and Power metering
3Y

Typical Functions D30-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-MXX-PXX-UXX-WXX
Alternative D60-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-MXX-PXX-UXX-WXX
21P 21G 67P 67N 50BF D90P-A-E-S-S-01-S-S-S-X-H-X-A-X-A-X-X-01-X
3 3 + Additional functions Included in typical
V S 25 79 No 50BF in D30
+ Synchrophasors D60-N06-HCH-F8L-H6P-MXX-PXX-UXX-WXX
D90P-A-E-S-S-01-P-S-S-X-H-X-A-X-A-X-X-01-X

Stepped-Distance Protection – Dual Breaker Typical Functions Additional Functions
1 21G Ground distance 67N Neutral directional
overcurrent
25 Synchrocheck
79 Reclosing
3Y
V, S Voltage and Power metering
Synchrophasors
52
Phasor Measurement Unit

Typical Functions D90P-A-E-S-S-01-S-S-S-X-H-X-A-X-A-X-X-01-X
D60-N02-HCH-F8L-H6P-M8L-PXX-UXX-WXX
3Y
External electrical sum of

breaker currents (traditional D60-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P- MXX-PXX-UXX-WXX
52 method)
Only 1 synchrocheck function D30-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-MXX-PXX-UXX-WXX
In D30
3Y 21P 21G 67P 67N 50BF
2 + Synchrophasors D90P-A-E-S-S-01-P-S-S-X-H-X-A-X-A-X-X-01-X
3 3
D60-N08-HCH-F8L-H6P-M8L-PXX-UXX-WXX
V S 25 79
2
Pilot Protection Schemes

21G Ground distance 67N Neutral directional
overcurrent
85 Power line carrier /
microwave transmitter & 50BF Breaker Failure
receiver / fiber or digital Synchrocheck
channel 25
79 Reclosing
3Y V, S Voltage and Power metering
52
Other Communications Options Synchrophasors
3Y 85
85 Inter-Relay Communications Phasor Measurement Unit
85 Sonet Multiplexer

21P 21G 67P 67N 50BF
3 3
85 by others D60-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-MXX-PXX-UXX-WXX
V S 25 79 85
+ Synchrophasors D90P-A-E-S-S-01-P-S-S-X-H-X-A-X-A-X-X-01-X
D60-N06-HCH-F8L-H6P-MXX-PXX-UXX-WXX
Other Communications Options
Direct I/O, 1300nm Singlemode D60-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-M8L-PXX-UXX-W7K

Laser, 64km
RS422 interface D60-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-M8L-PXX-UXX-W7W
G.703 D60-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-M8L-PXX-UXX-W7S
C37.94 D60-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-M8L-PXX-UXX-W77
SONET Multiplexer JungleMux with 86448 and 86441 units

Pilot Protection Schemes – Dual Breaker Typical Functions Additional Functions
1 21G Ground distance 67N Neutral directional
overcurrent
85 Power line carrier /
microwave transmitter & 50BF Breaker Failure
receiver Synchrocheck
25
79 Reclosing
3Y
52 Other Communications Options Synchrophasors

85 Sonet Multiplexer

3Y 85
85 by others D60-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-M8L-PXX-UXX-WXX
52 + Additional functions Included in typical
+ Synchrophasors D90P-A-E-S-S-01-P-S-S-X-H-X-A-X-A-X-X-01-X
3Y 21P 21G 67P 67N 50BF D60-N06-HCH-F8L-H6P-M8L-PXX-UXX-WXX
3 3 2 External electrical sum of D60-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P- MXX-PXX-UXX-WXX
V S 25 79 85 breaker currents (traditional
2 method)
Other Communications Options
Direct I/O, 1300nm Singlemode D60-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-M8L-PXX-UXX-W7K

1 Laser, 64km
RS422 interface D60-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-M8L-PXX-UXX-W7W
G.703 D60-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-M8L-PXX-UXX-W7S
C37.94 D60-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-M8L-PXX-UXX-W77
Line Differential Protection Typical Functions Additional Functions

87L Line differential 21P Phase distance
85 Sonet Multiplexer 21G Ground distance
67P Phase directional overcurrent
1 67N Neutral directional
overcurrent
25 Synchrocheck
3Y 79 Reclosing
52 V, S Voltage and Power metering
3Y 85 Other Communications Options Synchrophasors


Typical Functions L90-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-LXX-NXX-SXX-UXX-W7W
87L 67P 67N 50BF Identical relay
on other line + Additional functions Included in typical
terminals
21P 21G 25 79 85 + Synchrophasors
L90-N06-HCH-F8L-H6P-LXX-NXX-SXX-UXX-W7W
3 3
Other Communications Options D60-N08-HCH-F8L-H6P-M8L-PXX-UXX-WXX
Direct I/O, 1300nm Singlemode Included in typical

Laser, 64km
+ Synchrophasors L90-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-LXX-NXX-SXX-UXX-W7K
G.703 L90-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-LXX-NXX-SXX-UXX-W7S
C37.94 L90-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-LXX-NXX-SXX-UXX-W77

Line Differential Protection – Dual Breaker Typical Functions Additional Functions
87L Line differential 21P Phase distance
1
85 Sonet Multiplexer 21G Ground distance
67P Phase directional overcurrent
67N Neutral directional
overcurrent
3Y 50BF Breaker Failure
25 Synchrocheck
79 Reclosing
52 V, S Voltage and Power metering
Other Communications Options Synchrophasors


Typical Functions L90-N02-HCH-F8L-H6P-L8L-NXX-SXX-UXX-W7W
3Y 85
+ Synchrophasors
52 L90-N08-HCH-F8L-H6P-LXX-NXX-SXX-UXX-W7W
Electrical sum of breaker

currents (traditional method) L90-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-LXX-NXX-SXX-UXX-W7W
87L 67P 67N 50BF
3Y SONET Multiplexer JungleMux with 86448 and 86443 units
2
21P 21G 25 79 85 Other Communications Options
3 3 2
Direct I/O, 1300nm Singlemode L90-N02-HCH-F8L-H6P-L8L-NXX-SXX-UXX-W7K
Identical relay Laser, 64km
on other line
terminals G.703 L90-N02-HCH-F8L-H6P-L8L-NXX-SXX-UXX-W7S
1
C37.94 L90-N02-HCH-F8L-H6P-L8L-NXX-SXX-UXX-W77
Phase Comparison Protection Typical Functions Additional Functions

1
87PC Phase Comparison 21P Phase distance
85 Power Line Carrier / 21G Ground distance
Microwave Phase directional overcurrent
67P
3Y 67N Neutral directional
52 overcurrent
3Y 85 25 Synchrocheck
79 Reclosing

87 Typical Functions L60-N00-HCH-F8P-H6P-L8L-NXX-SXX-UXX-WXX
PC 67P 67N 50BF Identical relay
on other line
terminals
21P 21G 25 79 85
3 3
Phase Comparison Protection – Dual Breakers

1 Typical Functions Additional Functions
87PC Line differential 21P Phase distance
85 Power Line Carrier / 21G Ground distance
Microwave 67P Phase directional overcurrent
3Y
67N Neutral directional
overcurrent
52 25 Synchrocheck
79 Reclosing

3Y 85 Typical Functions L60-N00-HCH-F8P-H6P-L8L-NXX-SXX-UXX-WXX
52
87
3Y PC 67P 67N 50BF
Identical relay
2
on other line
21P 21G 25 79 85 terminals
3 3
0925-v5

ELECTRICAL & SYSTEMS ADVANCED CONTROL INC.
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specifically suit your needs. Our friendly staff work with you from functional specification and
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www.esac.com (519) 686-6722
All banks need
protection
Today, shunt capacitor banks play an increasingly vital role
in blackout prevention and supporting the growth of distributed
generation facilities like wind farms. Protecting this equipment has
historically involved complex, custom protection schemes consisting
of multiple products that rarely addressed the inherent system and
bank unbalance.
Now, there’s a single universal product combining advanced

capacitor bank protection with automatic capacitor control.
The C70’s superior protection elements provide sensitive protection
with unprecedented unbalance compensation while the Automatic
Voltage Regulator allows for intelligent automated cap bank control
to minimize VAR consumption costs.
GE Multilin’s C70 Capacitor Bank Protection and Control System

is based on the well-established and proven UR platform
g Multilin

www.GEMultilin.com/C70 Tel: 905-294-6222 Tel: 1-800-547-8629 Tel: +34 94 485 88 00
gemultilin@ge.com
Tel: 905-294-6222 Tel: 1-800-547-8629 Tel: +34 94 485 88 00
Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of
Large Capacitor Banks
Bogdan Kasztenny Joe Schaefer Ed Clark
GE Multilin Florida Power & Light Company Florida Power & Light Company
1. Introduction Presently, in many custom applications or even dedicated

capacitor bank protection products, compensation for inherent
Shunt Capacitor Banks (SCB) are installed to provide capacitive unbalance is based on subtracting historical values from the
reactive compensation and power factor correction. The use of operating quantities, and thus making the relay respond to
SCBs has increased because they are relatively inexpensive, easy incremental, “delta” signals.
and quick to install, and can be deployed virtually anywhere in
the grid. SCB installations have other beneficial effects on the This paper will show that such simplified approaches are not
system such as improvement of the voltage profile, better voltage optimal. Instead this paper derives technically accurate operating
regulation (if they were adequately designed), reduction of losses equations for capacitor bank protection that are derived assuming
and reduction or postponement of investments in the transmission both inherent capacitor bank and system unbalance.
and generation capacity. It is important that the relay is capable of dynamically compensating
The role of SCBs increased recently in the light of blackout for unbalances between the power system phase voltages. These
prevention activities, and increasing penetration of distributed differences are constantly changing and may be on the order of
generation, wind farms in particular, which add generation without 2 percent or more under normal conditions, and tens of percent
addressing the problem of reactive power support. Moreover, during major system events such as close-in faults. The presented
capacitor banks are valuable assets that must be available for protection methods allow compensating simultaneously for the
the daily demands of system operation and must provide reliable bank inherent unbalance and system unbalance increasing both
operation through abnormal power system scenarios. sensitivity and security of protection.
From the protective relaying perspective, however, capacitor banks The presented methods also facilitate auto-setting and self-
are historically considered a relatively low-volume market, and tuning applications. Auto-setting is an operation of calculating
therefore, did not encourage development of advanced protective new accurate relay constants to account for the inherent bank
relays dedicated to capacitor banks. Quite often protection unbalances following the bank repair, and is performed in response
for SCBs is provided by general-purpose multi-function relays, to the user’s request and under user supervision. Self-tuning is an
with only a very few products on the market offering protection operation of constantly self-adjusting the balancing constants in
functions specifically tailored to capacitor bank protection. order to maintain optimum sensitivity of protection when the bank
The utility relay engineer has generally needed to combine the reactances change slowly in response to seasonal temperature
functionality of multiple relays and customize their programming variations and other conditions. The self-tuning applications
to provide the necessary protective system that will avoid false require monitoring the total changes in the balancing constants
tripping for system disturbances and obtain the sensitivity for in order to detect slow failure modes, and account for a series of
detecting capacitor CAN faults and minimizing damage. small changes that do not trigger alarms on their own.
The SCBs are assembled out of individual cans that are highly
repairable. The need for advanced protection functions is 2. Capacitors
particularly visible when SCBs are operated under conditions
where one or more capacitor cans are temporarily removed but Protection engineering for shunt capacitor banks requires
the bank is returned to service pending completion of repairs. knowledge of the capabilities and limitations of the capacitor unit
However, continuous operation and repairs if needed can be done and associated electrical equipment including individual capacitor
only if the bank is protected by a reliable and sensitive relay. This in unit, bank switching devices, fuses, location and type of voltage
turn, can be accomplished by deploying protection principles that and current instrument transformers.
are developed assuming an inherent unbalance in the protected
bank.
Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large Capacitor Banks 19

A capacitor unit, Figure 1, is the building block of any SCB. The fused capacitor units are configured with fewer capacitor units
capacitor unit is made up of individual capacitor elements, in parallel, and more series groups of units than are used in banks
arranged in parallel/series connected groups, within a steel employing externally fused capacitor units. The capacitor units
enclosure. The internal discharge device is a resistor that reduces are built larger because the entire unit is not expected to fail.
the unit residual voltage allowing switching the banks back after
removing it from service. Capacitor units are available in a variety 2.3 Fuseless Capacitors
of voltage ratings (240V to 25kV) and sizes (2.5kVAr to about
1000kVAr). Fuseless Capacitor Bank designs are typically the most prevalent
designs in modern day. The capacitor units for fuseless capacitor
The capacitor unit protection is based on the capacitor element banks are connected in series strings between phase and neutral,
failing in a shorted mode. A failure in the capacitor element as shown in Figure 4. The higher the voltage for the bank, the more
dielectric causes the foils to weld together and short circuits the capacitor elements in series.
other capacitor elements connected in parallel in the same group,
refer to Figure 1. The remaining series capacitor elements in the The expected failure of the capacitor unit element is a short
unit remain in service with a higher voltage across each of them circuit, where the remaining capacitor elements will absorb the
and an increased capacitor can current. If a second element fails additional voltage. For example, if there are 6 capacitor units in
the process repeats itself resulting in an even higher voltage for series and each unit has 8 element groups in series there is a
the remaining elements. total of 48 element groups in the string. If one capacitor element
fails, this element is shorted and the voltage across the remaining
There are generally four types of the capacitor unit designs to elements is 48/47 of the previous value, or about 2% higher. The
consider. capacitor bank remains in service; however, successive failures of
elements would aggravate the problem and eventually lead to the
2.1 Externally Fused Capacitors removal of the bank.
An individual fuse, externally mounted between the capacitor unit The fuseless design is usually applied for applications at or above
and the capacitor bank fuse bus, protects each capacitor unit. 34.5kV where each string has more than 10 elements in series to
The capacitor unit can be designed for a relatively high voltage ensure the remaining elements do not exceed 110% rating if an
because the external fuse is capable of interrupting a high-voltage element in the string shorts.
fault. However, the kilovar rating of the individual capacitor unit is
usually smaller because a minimum number of parallel units are 2.4 Unfused Capacitors
required to allow the bank to remain in service with a capacitor
can out of service. A SCB using fused capacitors is configured Contrary to the fuseless configuration, where the units are
using one or more series groups of parallel-connected capacitor connected in series, the unfused shunt capacitor bank uses a
units per phase, as shown in Figure 2. series/parallel connection of the capacitor units. The unfused
approach would normally be used on banks below 34.5kV, where
2.2 Internally Fused Capacitors series strings of capacitor units are not practical, or on higher
voltage banks with modest parallel energy. This design does not
Each capacitor element is fused inside the capacitor unit. A require as many capacitor units in parallel as an externally fused
“simplified” fuse is a piece of wire sized to melt under the fault bank.
current, and encapsulated in a wrapper able to withstand the
heat produced by the arc during the current interruption. Upon the
capacitor failure, the fuse removes the affected element only. The 3. Configurations of Shunt Capacitor
other elements, connected in parallel in the same group, remain in
service but with a slightly higher voltage across them. Banks
Figure 3 illustrates a typical capacitor bank utilizing internally Protection of shunt capacitor banks requires an understanding
fused capacitor units. In general, banks employing internally of the basics of capacitor bank design and capacitor unit
Figure 1. Figure 2.
Capacitor unit. Externally fused shunt capacitor bank and capacitor unit.
20 Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large Capacitor Banks

connections. As a general rule, the minimum number of units and require more maintenance to ensure correct operation. As a
connected in parallel is such that isolation of one capacitor unit in result, fuseless capacitor banks have become increasingly popular.
a group should not cause a voltage unbalance sufficient to place Elimination of the fused connection results in a lower initial cost,
more than 110% of rated voltage on the remaining capacitors reduced maintenance costs, smaller bank footprint, and fewer
of the group. Equally, the minimum number of series connected losses. Also, this bank design typically makes catastrophic can
groups is that in which the complete bypass of the group does not rupture less likely since the discharge energy of a failed element
subject the other capacitors remaining in service to a permanent will be small.
overvoltage of more than 110%. The value of 110% is the
maximum continuous overvoltage capability of capacitor units as However, the fuseless bank design has two main disadvantages
per IEEE Std 18-1992. that increase the emphasis on requiring sensitive relaying
protection. One, the elimination of the external fuse means
The maximum number of capacitor units that may be placed in that visual indication of the failed capacitor has been lost. In
parallel per group is governed by a different consideration. When addition, an element failure results in an overvoltage condition
a capacitor bank unit fails, other capacitors in the same parallel of the remaining elements, stressing them. Without a fuse as a
group contain some amount of charge. This charge will drain off means of isolating the failed can, the protective relay must now
as a high frequency transient current that flows through the failed be sensitive enough to detect a failed element and alarm before
capacitor unit. The capacitor can fuse holder, when used, and the additional elements fail causing a higher overvoltage condition on
failed capacitor unit must withstand this discharge transient. the remaining units. Because of these two factors, it is especially
important to utilize a sensitive protective relay which can correctly
The discharge transient from a large number of paralleled isolate a bank for a failed element. Also, the use of faulted phase
capacitors can be severe enough to rupture the failed capacitor identification assists field personnel in locating a failed capacitor
unit or explode a fuse holder, which may damage adjacent units can without having to test the entire bank.
and even cause a major bus fault within the bank. To minimize the
probability of failure of the explosion of the fuse holder, or rupture The optimum connection for a SCB depends on the best utilization
of the capacitor case, or both, the standards impose a limit to the of the available voltage ratings of capacitor units, fusing, and
total maximum energy stored in a parallel-connected group to protective relaying. Virtually all HV and EHV banks are connected
4650 kVAr. In order not to violate this limit, more capacitor groups in one of the two wye configurations listed below [1,2]. Distribution
of a lower voltage rating connected in series (with fewer units capacitor banks, however, may be connected in wye or delta.
in parallel per group) may be a suitable solution. However, this Some banks may use an H configuration on each of the phases
may reduce sensitivity of applied unbalance detection schemes. with a current transformer in the connecting branch to detect the
Splitting the bank into two sections as a double wye may be the unbalance.
preferred solution, and may allow for better unbalance detection
scheme. 3.1 Grounded Wye-Connected Banks
Two prevalent designs of SCBs are the externally fused bank and Grounded wye capacitor banks are composed of series and
the fuseless bank. There are advantages to each design. parallel-connected capacitor units per phase and provide a low
impedance path to ground. This offers some protection from surge
Externally fused banks typically have a higher unbalance current
overvoltages and transient overcurrent conditions.
when a unit fails which is used to operate a fused disconnect
device. This design typically results in a simpler bank configuration When a capacitor bank becomes too large, making the parallel
and provides an easy method for field identification of a failed energy of a series group too high for the capacitor units or fuses
unit. A fused design also requires less sensitive unbalance (above 4650kVAr), the bank may be split into two wye sections.
protection since the fuse is the principal method used for isolating The characteristics of the grounded double wye are similar to a
a can failure. However, this style of bank has a higher initial cost grounded single wye bank. The two neutrals should be directly
and usually higher maintenance costs. Since the fused element connected with a single path to ground.
is exposed to the environment, the fuses become less reliable
Figure 3. Figure 4.
Internally fused shunt capacitor bank and capacitor unit. Fuseless shunt capacitor bank and series string.

The double wye design facilitates better protection methods. Even 4. Sensitive Capacitor Bank Protection
with inherent unbalances the two banks will respond similarly to
system events, and therefore, methods based on comparing one Methods
split-phase versus the other are more sensitive and less prone to
system events (phase current balance technique, for example). 4.1 Voltage Differential (87V)
With reference to Figure 5, this function is based on a voltage
3.2 Ungrounded Wye-Connected Banks
divider principle – a healthy capacitor string has a constant and
Ungrounded wye banks do not permit zero sequence currents, known division ratio between its full tap (typically the bus voltage)
third harmonic currents, or large capacitor discharge currents and an auxiliary tap used by the protection. The principle could
during system ground faults (phase-to-phase faults may still occur be used on both grounded (Figure 5a) and ungrounded (Figure
and will result in large discharge currents). Another advantage is 5b) banks. In the latter case the neutral point voltage (VX) must
that overvoltages appearing at the CT secondaries are not as high be measured by the relay, and used to derive the voltage across
as in the case of grounded banks. However, the neutral should be the string.
insulated for full line voltage because it is momentarily at phase
The function uses the following operating signal:
potential when the bank is switched or when one capacitor unit
fails in a bank configured with a single group of units.
V
VOP ( A) V kk AA V
V11 AA V22 AA
for grounded banks (1a)
OP ( A )
3.3 Delta-Connected Banks
Delta-connected banks are generally used only at distribution V
VOP ( A)
OP ( A )
V kk AA V
V11 AA V
V22 AA VXX kk AA
11
voltages and are configured with a single series group of capacitors
rated at line-to-line voltage. With only one series group of units no for ungrounded banks (1b)
overvoltage occurs across the remaining capacitor units from the n 2
isolation of a faulted capacitor unit. V
VOP ( A ) V
V 1A
kk A nVT
VT 2 V2 A
V2 A
OP ( A )k is a1division
Where A
A nnVTfor
A ratio
1 the A-phase of the bank.
VT 1
3.4 H-Configuration Identical relations apply to phases B and C.
Some larger banks use an H configuration in each phase with a Note that equations (1) n nVTX
current transformer connected between the two legs to compare V
VOP
or magnitudes. V
V

1 A During
can
VT 2be implemented
kk A nno-fault
V
conditions and
using either phasors
VT 2 V2 A V X nVTX k A 1
V k A small
1 bank
nnVT 1under
( A)
OP ( A ) 1A A n 2A X
the current down each leg. As long as all capacitors are balanced, unbalances caused byninternal VT 1
VT 1 bank failures,
VT 1the two voltages
no current will flow through the current transformer. If a capacitor will be almost in phase, suggesting the phasors and magnitude
fuse operates, some current will flow through the current versions would yield similar results. However, the function is set
transformer. This bridge connection facilitates very sensitive nnVT 2 and given possible angular errors of the used VTs,
kk A sensitive
very VT 2 | 1
|1
protection. The H arrangement is used on large banks with many there
A will nnVTbe
1 differences in performance between the two possible
capacitor units in parallel. VT 1
versions. The performance depends on the type of security
measures used to deal with errors of instrument transformers.
More V
ˆ information
V1 A is provided in one of the following sections.
kkÂ 1A
A V
V22the
Typically, A method is used on grounded banks and equation (1a)
A
is used. In theory, the algorithm could be applied on ungrounded
banks using equation (1b), but it requires both the neutral voltage
V V

VAA the V
VBB
VXXtapvoltagesVVXXto beV C VX Such arrangements may
Vmeasured.
C VX
and 00
not Z Z
be practical (the
tap voltages Z not measured on ungrounded
Z A Z B
banks).A If the tap voltages
B Z C
are measured,
C one could apply multiple
overlapping protection zones to the ungrounded bank as long as
§§ 11 relay(s)
the applied 11 ·· theV
11 support required
VB number
VSpecifically, V of inputs and
V ¨ ¸ A VB equation
VCC 0(1b) can be
A
associated protection functions.
V ¨voltage
X differential;
¸ two neutral voltage0unbalance
usedXfor¨ ©© Z
Z AA Z Z BB Z Z CC ¸¹¹ andZ
Z AA Z Z BB Z ZC
protection elements can be used – one balancingCthe bus voltages
with the neutral voltage, and another balancing the tap voltages
against the § 1neutral1voltage. 1 · V
§¨ 1 1 1 ¸· VAA VBB VCC VBB VBB V
V V V V VCC V
VCC

V
V X ¨ ¸
Equations
X ¨© Z Z
Z BB toZ
(1) apply ¹ Z
C ¸
Zprimary Z A and
Avoltages, Z
Z AA as Z
Zsuch Z
Z AA Z
they
Z CC Z
Figure 5.
Voltage differential application to grounded (a) incorporate © Z AAthe voltage-dividing
C ¹ Z A ofZthe
ratio A capacitor,
B
B ignore
but
Z AA
and ungrounded (b) banks. the ratios of applied instrument transformers. In secondary
voltages,§ the
1 operating
§ 1 1 · is:1
1 voltage
1 1 ·¸ 1 V V V V §¨ 1 11 ··¸
§ 1
V
VXX ¨¨¨ Z Z Z VAAgrounded
¸¸ Z for C VB ¨
VBB Vbanks ¨© Z Z ¸¸
V
VOP ( A) © Z AV k V
Z BA Z2 AC ¹¹ Z AA C B (1c)
© B Z AA ¹¹
Z
OP ( A ) © V A kBA V2 AC
B
A11 A
VOP ( §§A) V
V (¨
Z
) V1AA
A1
ZAAAA ··¸V
kkZ
Z1AA V22 AA3 VV kk AA §§¨111 ZZ AA ··¸ V §§¨1 ZZ AA ··¸
V0XX V 00
VX ¨1 Z Z ¸ 3 V0 VBB ¨¨1 Z ¸¸ VCC ¨¨1 Z ¸¸
OP
X ¨ ¸
©© Z BB Z CC ¹¹ ©© Z BB ¹¹ © ZC ¹
for ungrounded banks © (1d) C ¹
n 2
V
VOP V
V1A kk A nVT VT 2 V2 A
VZ
OP ( A ) Z X Z2 AA | X
( A)
kk AB Z AA | 1 A X AA , knnAC
A XA
AB Z | X , k VT 1
VT
AC 1
Z | XA
Z BB Capacitor
X BB Banks Z CC X CC
22 Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large
n 2 n
V V k nVT VT 2 V V nVTX VTX k 1
V1 A k A V2 A VX k A 1 nnVT nnVT 1
VOP ( A) VOP ( A) V1 A k A VT21
V2 A VX VTX k A 1
nVT 1 nVT 1
nVT 2
VOP ( A)n V1 A k A V2 A
nVT 1
VkOP A V1 A|1k A V2 A Bank Neutral Voltage
VT 2
n
VOP ( A)the operating
Where V1 A k Asignal
VT 2is inVsecondary
2A
volts of the bus VT, and 4.2 ( ACompensated
n)nVT
nVT 1for ratios of the bus, tap, and neutral
the nVT1, nVT2 and nVTX stand kA
Unbalance
VT21
|1
n k Vk (59NU) nVT 2 nVTX
X 1 k A 1
voltage transformers, respectively. V V
X k A
V
VOP OP ( A ) VT VV11AA kA A nV2 A VV
1
OP ( A ) 1A
2 A V
A 2A
( A)
With reference V1 A to Figure VT 1 6 this function nVT 1 is applicable to ungrounded
Normally the VT ratios are selected so that the secondary Vkˆ A V k V V k 1
nVTtap
2 voltages are n
banks, and is based on the Kirchhoff’s currents law for the neutral
under
OP ( A ) 1A A 2A X A
VOP ( A) forVthe
voltages
1A k A
bus and V2 A VX similar
VTX
k A 1nominal ˆ nof V12AA
VT 2the bank: nVT 2
nVT 1 factor for the VVkkOP
node
system voltage. This leads nVTto1 the effective matching A ( A )
A
nVTV
|11A nk A
V V2 A
V1 2 A k n VnVT 1
VT 2
secondary voltages being close to unity: OP ( A ) 1A A 2A
VA VX VB VX VC VX VT 1
(3a)
nVT 2 V1 A n 0
Vkˆ Z V V Z V
n n Z
V V n
kA |1 V A AV X k B VB VTX2V C kC X1 VTX
V2nA VX 0 k A 1
VT 2 VTX
) 2 A V1
(1e) A
VOP ( AV A nk A
OP ( A ) 1A A 2A X A
nVT 1 ZA Z BnVT 1 Z C nVT 1

VT 1 VT 1
Thenabove expression can be rearranged as follows:

kV A V X|§1 1 VB VX1 VC 1VX· V
VT 2
VB VC
Voltage-based capacitor protection functions are set sensitive. nn ¨ ¸ 0 A
V 0
A
V k A A §¨© | Z11A B Z1B Z1CC ·¸¹ VZAA VZ

Z Z Z
kÂ the1 Aformat of equations (1) both the bus and tap voltages
VT 1
X
Given VT 2
VZ
shall be V2measured accurately in order to gain sensitivity of VVXnVT ¨¨1
kˆ
¸¸ B C 0 B C (3b)
V § ©1Z A 1 Z B1 · ZV Z Z Z
1A
A
¸¸ A ¹ B C 0
A
protection. As a result the VT ratios shall be selected so that the C V AV B C
VX ¨¨
2A
resultant secondary voltages fall in the region of maximum relay

V Z§ 1 Z 1 Z 1Z · Z V Z V V V V V V
VA VX andVBthe Vtwo VC work
VXwithin their maximum class and VkÂ Vfurther © 1 A A B C ¹ A B C
accuracy, VTs ZVXV ¨¨V Zto A
Z V 0 ¸¸form
V anVequivalent
X B X
of: AC
B C B B C C
X
accuracy under nominalsystem voltage.0The latter is ensured for

X
2§ A Z
1 Z1 Z1 · VZ VZ VZ VZ VZ VZ VZ
the Z A voltage; Z Z C VT for the tap voltage shall be VVX §¨ ¨¨©1 A 1 B1 ·¸ VCA ¸¸¹VB AA VC BVA B VCBA VC BB VC BA0 CC CA
A B C
bus selection
B of the
¨ Z Z1VA Z1 V Z· BV ¸ZVZCV¹V ZZ0 A Z Z AZ ZZA ZZ B Z Z A Z C Z A
¨¨V©X©
X§ 1
done carefully to minimize VT and relay errors for the tap voltage. VVA A B B ¸¸ XZ C ¹V
A B C
Z Z
X
Z ¹ Z Z ·Z
C A X A
0 A B A C A
Relay setting range for the ratio-matching factor is another Z © § 1 Z 1 A B
1Z C
1 A B C
§ 1 1 ·
condition
VX ¨
§ that
¨
1 · Vof
1 may1 limit selection
¸ A thisVVT

VC
B ratio.
0 V A
§
¨
¨ B
·
C
¸
¸ V V V V ¨
(3c)
¨ §
¸
1 Z11 ·¸·
V §¨ 1 1 ·¸ V§ Z
X A B C B
¸ § ¨1 §1 Z 11 1 1 Z·1 1V ¸ Z 1 1 ·V Z1
1
© Z A characteristics
Z B Z C ¹ apply Z A toZ Bthe voltage
ZC V ©
VXX¨© Z¨©§is ¨¨Zidentical
V
¹
VV V
¸ ZZ¸ ZZ ¸Z A Z B ZV C Z V BZ
V V V V ¨ V © ¨ ¹¸
Z AV¸¹B ¨¨ ¨© Z C Z A ¸¸¸¹
¨ A ¸ B C A B A
1AZ Z1ZB ¹with:
V A
B
0 C B B C C
The following differential which X
C1 ¹ · VA¸ VB VCA B ©Z BC
C
VX ¨¨ © Z A ZB ¸¸ZC ¹ Z A © ZB Z A ¹
A B C A A A B A C A
function [3]:
A
0
§ §©1 A 1
Z Z B · ZC ¹ Z A Z B ZC
Z ¸·Z · ZVA · ¨¨§ §Z A¸¸ ·Z § ¸¸ Z 0A ·
1 1 § 1 1 · § 1 1 ·
• The§element
Vcope ¨
1

1 · V
1shall support
¸
individual
A

VB per-phase

VC Vsettings
B

VBto VCV

V §¨¨
VXX ¨¨V
©1 ¨¨ZC1 ZZA 0AZZA ¸¹¸¸ZA3 ¸¸V V03VVBV§¨¨0V1V
X
B ¸©¨
¸ Z1V
¨ C Z
¨¨1 ¹ ¸
A
¸
V A ·¨¨
B
© ZC 0 ¨
¸¸V C
¨Z1 ¹
B
¸¸ 0 C
©§©§ 1 Z BZ Z C ¹Z · § © AB ·¹ZV § ·
A B C A B A C A
X ¨ with different unbalances ¸ between the phases (repairs © V Z B ¹V © Z C ¹ Z
Z A Zunits).
and©shorted B Z C ¹ Z A Z A Z A Z B Z A Z CV V X§X ¨
Z¨ ¨1A ¸ ¸3 V
B
A 1 C
A1
¸
¹ · V
§ Z 0·
A V B ¨
§B ¨
1C B ¸¸ BVC ¨¨C1 (3d)C ¸¸¹0 0
Z ·
V V © V C
A
¨Z Z ·
V ¨¨1 ©© ZA Z B¸¸ZB3 V ¸
Z CZ VC¹ ¹Z¨¨1 ZZAX¸¸ VZ A ¨¨1 Z©ZA ¸¸ ZZ0 BB ¹ Z A Z©C ZZAC ¹
A A A A
Z
Z A Z X¹A
X
©A | ¹A ©
0
¹
B C
k AB© |
Z Aboth , k
Xsides andXZ X A the sum of the phase
• The element is capable of indicating the affected phase, and AC
B C B C
Multiplying Z X byZ substituting

§ 1 the1 number
potentially ·
1 of faulted1 capacitor elements, to aid 1 voltages § k 1 by · | § 1 A
, k 1 · A
|
Vbank.
A VB VC VB ¨
B B C C
¨
Vtroubleshooting ¸¸ of the k AB Z¸¸§¨ 1XV 3, k•¨1XV0 Z 1| ·XAC ¸1 Z0
X ¨ repairs ¨ |Z
¨ ¸ V X AC V V §¨ 1 1 ·¸ V §¨ 1
A A A A
and V BC ¸ C V
Z Z Z Z Z k Z A
| Z BZ
A
, k Z A
A|
AB AC
Z X X
© A B C ¹ A © B AB
yields:
X ¨
VOP © Z
A ¹ Z1A k Z©X
1 B
B k Z C ¹
C ¸ B
Vx Z3AV
AC A ¹ Z V XB1 k C V B ¨©1 Z kB Z A ¸¹ C ¨© Z C
C C
• The function shall apply appropriate security measures for 13

B AB B AC 0C B C AB C AC
VOPsensitive V1but k A V2operation:

A secure
V 1 1
k k V 3 V V 1 k V 1 k
OP§ V Z V 1 Zk AB· k AC Vx § 3ZV0· VB §1 Zk AB· VC 1 k AC
appropriate restraint signal
§ (1).Z A · V
OP AB AC x 0 B AB C AC
( A) A 3
§ be
could Z A · to accompany§ the operating
Z Adeveloped ZA · signal V OP ¨1 1 X3 A
¨¨1 range
VX Setting shall¸¸ allow
3 Vdisabling
V
B the¨
¨ 1 ¸
¸
restraint V ¨
C ¨ so.
if desired 1 ¸
¸
V
V
V 0
X ¨V V
1
0
k
A
¸¸ 3 V0 VB ¨¨1 A ¸¸ VC ¨¨1 A ¸¸ 0
k AC Vx © 3 ZVB0¹ VB ©1 ZkCAB¹ VC 1 k AC
0 Z Z
VOP (©A) ZVB1 A ZkCA ¹ V2 A VX k A © 1 Z B ¹ © ZC ¹ © C ¹
OP X 0
OP AB
3 B
• Several independent pickup thresholds shall be provided for VOP VX V0 (3e)
alarming and tripping. ZA X A ZA X A
ZA X A ZA X A Vk AB
OP ZV X XV0
| , k AC |
k AB
• V The Zvoltage
| , k n
AC | B B ZC X C
OP ( A ) B V1 A Xmatching
k VT 2coefficients
B A
V2 A X C(k) shall be individually
Z
setable per phase. nVT 1 C
1
• Both auto-setting and self-tuning applications of this method
VOP 1 k AB k AC Vx 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC
1 3
VOPare possible.
1 k ABProvision
knAC could
Vx 3beVmade
0 nVB 1 k AB VC
to calculate the 1 k AC
3
VOP ( A) V1 A k A
matching factors k V2 A VX
automatically
VT 2 under manual
VTX
k A 1 of
supervision VOP VX V0
nVTor1 remotely (auto-setting),
the user, either locally nVT 1 or calculate
the factor constantly in a slow adjusting loop (self-tuning).
VOP VX V0
nVT 2
k
TheA process
|1
nVT 1 of finding the constant balancing a given phase of
protection is based on the following simple equation:
V1 A
kÂ (under no-fault conditions) (2)
V2 A
The
VA voltage
VX differential
V V method V Vcan be used in a number of
0 wide range of ratio
asB longX as theC relayX allows
configurations
Z A for the compared
matching ZB Z C tap voltage can be compared
voltages:
with the bus voltage; two taps can be compared on the same bank;
Figure 6.
two taps can be compared between two parallel banks, etc.
Compensated bank neutral overvoltage application.
§ 1 1 1 · VA VB VC
VX ¨¨ ¸¸ 0
Z
© A Z B Z C ¹ Z A Z B Z C
A ¨©
V X ¨V ¸¸ ¹ 0
© Z2 AA Z B Z C ¹ Z A Z A Z A Z B Z A Z C Z A
§ Z Z · § Z · § Z ·
VVXVA ¨¨ 1§¨VX1 AV1B VA1X¸¸·¸3V1CV0VVVXBV ¨¨1V AV¸¸ §¨V1C ¨¨11·¸ AV ¸¸ §¨ 01 1 ·¸ 0
following matchingA k-valuesB 0 Cto
©A© Z A Zthe
Introducing
X ¨
BZ B ZZZ C ¹¸ Z A Z © Zreflect
B ¹ ¨ Z B © Z A ¸Z C ¹ ¨ Z C
B the inherent C saturation ¸of the relay input – the function shall be blocked in this
bankZunbalance: © ¹ ZA ¹
B C ¹ C ©case under external faults either by time delay or explicit logic in
order to cope with the spurious unbalance caused by saturation
§ ZZ ZX · Z § ZXA · § Z · of the VX measurement. In any case, one shall observe the thermal
k XAB ¨¨1 § A1A |
V 10 ·VB V¨Ä1A|
A1A¸¸ , 3k VAC VA¸¸B VCV C¨¨1 A ¸¸ 0 (4) withstand rating of the relay input when selecting relatively low-
¨
V©X ¨Z BB XC B¹
Z Z ¸
¸ Z C© XB C¹ © Z0C ¹
Z
ratio VT for the measurement of the VX signal.
© ZA ZB ZC ¹ ZA ZB ZC
allows Zre-writing
X the balance
Z A Xequation (3e) into the following When written for secondary voltages the key operating equation
k 1A | A , k AC | A
§B 1 B AB 1 C· xVCA V0B BVC VBAB VB C V 1 k ACV becomes:
VAB Z signal:
operating
OP 1X k k Z VX 3 V V 1 k V
1 AC
VX ¨¨3 ¸¸ C• When
C
0
measuring the 3 • V0 internally and expressing the
1© A Z Z B Z C ¹ Z A Z A Z A Z B Z A Z C Z
operating
A signal in secondary volts of the bus voltage:
VOP
V 1 k AB k AC Vx 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC
OP 3V X V0
§ 1 1 1 · 1 §(5) 1 V 1 ·1 nVTX 1§ k1 k 1 V· 3 V V 1 k V 1 k

¨X V0
VOPV V ¸ V
¸not magnitudes, V V V ¨¨ OP ¸¸3 nV ¨ AB AC ¸¸x 0 0 B
VTC ¨
AB C AC
Equation¨
X A B C B
© Z
(5) A Z
involvesB Z
phasors,
C ¹ Z A
i.e. the vectorial sum © Z B Z A ¹ © Z C Z A ¹
of the voltages is created by the protection function implementing (7a)
the method. 1 nVTX nVT 0
§ Z ·
Z A the capacitor impedances Z § · Z § · • When3 nVTmeasuring the 3 • V0 nfrom VT an open-delta VT and
Note ¨¨1 theAratios
VX that of VC ¨¨phase
¸¸ 3 V0 VB ¨¨1 A ¸¸between 1 A ¸¸ 0
VOP
1 nVTX
expressing the operating signal in secondary volts of the bus
1 k AB k AC Vx 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC
the Z ZC ¹
A and
© two other
B
phases are close
© ZB ¹
to unity, and
© ZC
therefore
the correcting factors for the B and C-phase voltages are small
¹ Re ^1voltage:
VT k AC V X 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC `
3 knAB
0
numbers, while the coefficient in front of the VX voltage is close
Im ^1
1 knVTX k V 3 V V nVT10 k V 1 k ` 0
AB 1 ACk
Z X Z X AB k AC Vx 3 VB 1C k AB AC
VC 1 k AC
to 3. V X 0 B V0 AB
k AB | , k AC |
A A A A OP
3 nVT nVT
EquationZ(5)
B X B following Z
while X C(4) is a proper neutral
relations
C Z1 A Z 2 A (7b)
overvoltage function compensated for both the system unbalance IReDIF^(1 VBANK
A ) k AB k AC ( A ) V X 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC ` 0
Z1 A Z 2 A
(V0), and the bank unbalance (kAB, kAC). To understand it better The following characteristics apply to the compensated bank
assume 1 Im ^1 kvoltage V X 3 V0 function
VB 1 k[3]:
AB VC 1 k AC ` 0
precise k ACtakes
equation
Vx afamiliar
3 V0 simplified
VB 1 form
the bank is perfectly balanced (kAB = 1, kAC = 1). If so, the
VOP operating
1 k AB k AB [1]: VC neutral
1 k
I A AC
AB k AC unbalance
Z Z 2A
3 V BANK ( A) 1 A
• The singleZ 1element ZA Z 2ZA2 A function does not indicate explicitly the
I DIF ( A) VBANK ( A) 1 A
effected phase. Z1 A ZIt2 A could, however, aid troubleshooting and
VOP VX V0 (6) repairs by reporting Z Z the k-factors Z (pre-fault
Z and fault values).
VBANK ( A) I DIF ( A) 1 A 2 A I A 1 A 2 A
Z 1 A ZZ12AA Z 2 A Z1 A Z 2 A
• I A TheV BANKfunction
( A) shall apply appropriate security measures for
Equation (5) identifies the source of the inherent bank unbalance, Z1A Z 2 A
sensitive but secure operation: appropriate restraint signal
and therefore allows for proper compensation. In addition, this key Z1 A be Z 2 Aused with Z Z 2 A operating signal (5). Disabling the
I DIF ( could Z I A Z 1 A the 0 Z
ZI2 A Zif1 Adesired
A)
equation allows analyzing the impact of imperfect compensation VBANKrestraint Z Zshould be Z12AAallowed so.
( A ) 1 AI DIF ( A2)A
1 A 2A
A
and/or errors of instrument transformers on sensitivity of Z1 A Z 2 A Z1 A Z 2 A
protection as explained later in this paper. • SeveralZindependent pickup thresholds shall be provided for
1A Z 2 A
I DIF ( alarming
A) Z1IAA Z 2 Aand tripping. Z1 A0 Z 2 A
Equation (5) can be implemented using either derived neutral I DIF ( A) Z ZI A2 A 0
Z1 A Z12AA Z1 A Z 2 A
component in the bus voltages (vectorial sum of the phase • The inherent bank unbalance constants (k-values) shall be
voltages calculated by the relay), or directly measured neutral Z1 A Z 2 A X 1 A X 2 A
voltage component (open-delta VT voltage). Slightly different kI A settable. Z1 A |Z 2 A
DIF ( A )Z I A Z X 1A 0X
1A Z 1A Z 2 A
2A
1 nauto-setting
2A
errors would occur in these two approaches. • Both
VOP VTX
1 k AB and k ACself-tuning
Vx 3 Vapplications
voltage are possible as
0 VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC
long 3 as
n the neutral point is non-zero and is measured
When deriving the 3 • V0 internally the relay is presented with I OP ( A)Z1 1A I ZVT2(AA) Xk 1AA I AX 2 A
nDIF
near-nominal voltages under internal failures that require high
k A
VTX
|
13A n 2kA automatically

VOP Z Z 1 X k AB X k AC Vx 3 V0 VB 1 k ABto
with adequate accuracy. Provision could be made calculate
VC 1 k AC
factors VT
1A 2A under manual supervision of the user,
protection sensitivity, typically has maximum accuracy of voltage 1 nVTX nVT 0 or continuously in a
measurement under such conditions, and calculates the vectorial VI OP either I
locally1kk korIABremotely
nCTk AC V(auto-setting),
I x 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC
I OP
OP (( A )) 3 DIF
Aslow I nDIF
adjusting
(A(A)) A A loop A (self-tuning).
nCT DIF
A n
voltage sum with relatively high accuracy. 1 n VT n VT
VOP VTX
1 k AB k AC Vx 3 VT 0 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC
3 n
Re ^1I k AB k AC VnCT nVT
X 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC ` 0
When measuring the 3 • V0 directly the relay is presented with a VT
I ( A) I DIF kA IA
very small signal under internal failures that require high protection kÔP DIF ( A) ( A)
nCT DIF
Re ^1 IkA AB k AC V X 3 V0 VB 1
k AB VC 1 k AC ` (8a)
A
sensitivity. In order to keep high accuracy a high-sensitivity voltage
relay input shall be used. At the same time, this voltage could
Im ^1 k AB k AC V X 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC ` 00
I DIF ( A)
reach as high as system nominal voltage during external faults. kˆ
ImA ^1 I Ak AB k AC V X 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC ` 0
Therefore, the input range shall be high enough to measure this Z Z2A
voltage correctly and balance it accurately against the VX signal.
I DIF ( A) VBANK ( A) 1 A
Z Z (8b)
Z 1 A Z22AA
The VX voltage, in turn, is relatively small under internal failures that I DIF ( A) VBANK ( A) 1 A
The process ofZfinding Z1 A Zthe
2 A two unknown constants is based on
1A Z 2 A
require high protection sensitivity. Therefore either the relay shall
be equipped with a high-sensitivity voltage input, or the VT ratio I
theA V
following
BANK ( A ) principle. When the bank is healthy, equation (5) is
perfectly balanced, Z 1 A and
Z 2 Atherefore it can be zeroed out. Writing the
is selected to create this signal and improve measuring accuracy Z1A Z 2 A
of this signal, or both. In any case, the ratio must be selected such I A and
real V BANK
imaginary
( A) parts of the equation separately one obtains
two equations Z 1 Atwo
for ZZ 2unknowns.
A Z Z Z
as the input voltage does not exceed the conversion range of a VBANK ( A) I DIF ( A) 1 A 2 A I A 1 A 2 A
given relay. Sometimes this requirement may be relaxed allowing Z1 A Z 2 A Z1 A Z 2 A
Z Z Z Z
VBANK ( A) I DIF ( A) 1 A 2 A I A 1 A 2 A
Z ZCapacitor Z 1A Z Z 2AZ Z 1A Z 2 A
24 Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large Banks
I DIF ( A) 1 A 2 A I A 1 A 2 A 0
Z1 A Z 2 A Z1 A Z 2 A
I A V BANK ( A) ZZ ZZ ZZ ZZ
VBANK ( A) I DIF (ZA1) A Z11AA2 A 22AA I A 11AA 22AA
Z1 A Z 2 A Z1 A Z 2 A
Z1 A Z 2 A Z ZZ1 A Z 2 A Z Z2 A
The above is now solved for the two unknowns kAB and kAC while VI BANK
Dividing
DIF ( A ) both sides
( A )ZZ IDIFZ Z ( A)
Icoefficient
by the 1AA
Z
Z
2A

ZZ I Ato 0the1 Adifferential
next current
treating the involved voltages as knowns (the k-values are treated I DIF ( A)
gives: 1
1 AA 2 2AA
ZI1AA Z 2 A
1
1 A
A 22AA
0Z1 A Z 2 A
as real numbers per equations (4)). The method works as long as Z1 A Z 2 A Z1 A Z 2 A
the Vx voltage is above the measuring error level. The procedure Z Z
does not call for the system to be unbalanced (V0 can be zero) as I DIF ( A)1Zn1IVTX AA Z 2 A
1A 2A Z
10A Z 2 A (9e)
the unknowns (k) do not appear as multipliers for the V0 value in VI DIF ( A ) Z 1

k
Z I A k AC Vx 30 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1 k
equations1(8).nVTX
I DIF ( A) 3Z1InAAVT Z 2 A
OP 1
1 A
A AB2
2 A
A Z10A Z 2 A
VOP 1 k AB k AC Vx 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VIntroducing C 1 k AC
Z 1 A Z 2 A
3 nVT the inherent unbalance compensating factor, k:
Z1 A ZZ2 A ZX 1 A X 2 A
4.3. Phase Current Balance (60P) kI A 1 nIVTX 1 A | 2 A 0 nVT 0
1 nnVTX VDIF ( AZ)
11AA A ZZ22A1A kZXAB11AAk X AC22AA Vx 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VC
11kkABABk kACAC VxVx 33V0V0nVVT B V B11kABk AB VCV1CA k1AC3k ACnVT
k |
With reference VTXto Figure 7, this function is based on the balance OP
VVOP 1 n 1 A 2 A nVT (10)
OP
VOP 3phase
between nnVTVT
currents
VTX
1 k of the k
two
andAB ungrounded AC
V
parallel
x
3
banks, andV0
V
is applicable
B
1 k AB
V Z
C
1
A
1 Z k2 A
AC
X 1 A X 2 A
to both 3 nVT
grounded nVT 0 Higher
arrangements.
I I kXA 1AI A X 2 A
OP^ Z
(A1) 1 A DIF (2AA)
Z 1 kcurrent
Re the k AB k AC V X signal
3 V0 of the VB phase AB V C 1 k AC ` 0
sensitivity can be achieved when using a window CT (compared
with the1 nnVTX n k
yields following |
operating balance
1 two individual CTs summated electrically). n With the two I A
I k I
VVOPOP ^slightly
Re
banks 13 nkVTX AB
11kAC
different, AB X k
k AC3V
kkABaVcirculating
AC V xV 3V3Bn flows,
0xcurrent
VT
1VTV00kVAB
0
VB
0
and VB1 C 1kbeAB
shall
V 1k AB
kV COP(A1)Z1kA1ACDIFZk(AC
AC `VC 0
protection: 2AA) X A 1A A X 2A
3 n VT
compensatedVTfor in order to increase sensitivity VTn
VT of the function. Im ^1 k AB k AC V X nCT 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC ` 0
This protection element is founded on the following theory. I OP ( A) I DIF ( A) k A I
^ I OP`( A) 0 I DIF ( A) k A InAnCTCTDIF A (11)
ReIm ^ 1
Re ^parallel
1
k k
1 k ABbanks
k k V V
VunderX 3 V0 0VB 1
3 V V B k AB
1 k V
V 1 k 1 ` k 0
B 1 and VC 1 k AC OP` ( A0) DIF ( A) ZA n Z
k AC V0 Vvoltage, k AB therefore: I I k I
X 3identical
AB AB AC AC X AB C C AC AC
Both work A
I V
DIF ( A ) relations BANK (apply A)
1 A CT DIF 2A
Im ^1 k AB k AC VZX1 A3 ZV20A VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC ` Identical 0 I DIF Z1toA phases

ZnCT
B and C.
Im ^1( A) k ABVBANK
I DIF k AC V 3 V V
1 k V
(9a)1 k Ik
ˆ` 0 I
( A)
k
2A
I A proper compensation for
( A) X
Z1 A Z 2 A
0 B AB C ACThe
ˆ
OP A)
I DIF
A (operating
I DIFsignal
( A)
( A) (11)
A implements
n
Z Z k A inherent unbalance
the A CT DIF
of the bank. The equation identifies that
Z 1 A toZ the
I DIF ( A) VBANK ( A) Z1 A Z2 A I
the errorV I Aproportional
is 2 A amount of the total phase current
A BANK ( A )
I DIF ( A) VBANK ( AZ) 1 A1 A Z 22AA Z 1 A Z 2 A (I ) and the difference Z 1 A Z 2 A the impedances of the two banks
between
I A V BANK ( A) Z1 A Z 2 A (9b)
A
(kÂ). When I DIF (not A ) compensated, the straight differential current
Z1A Z 2 A k A display a non-zero value “leaking” from the phase current.
would
Z1A Z 2 A I
I V SubtractingA the historical Z1 Avalue
Z 2 Aof such leakage Z1 A Zcurrent, often
Utilizing
A the
BANKfact ( A ) the Z
voltage Z
Z 11AA Z 2 A2 A
is the same in expressions (9a) and V
applied
BANK ( today,
A ) I improves
DIF ( A ) sensitivity but I it
A
is not a
2A
correct way of
I A oneVwrites:
(9b) BANK ( A ) Z1 A Z 2 A Z1 A Z 2 A compensating this functions. Z1 A More Z 2 A discussion Z1 Afollows
Z 2 Ain section 5
VBANK ( A) I DIFZ(1AA) Z 2 A IA of this paper.
Z1 A Z 2 A Z Z
Z1 A Z 2 A Z1 A 1ZA2 A 2 A
VBANK ( A) I DIF ( A) I A
(9c) Note that Zequation 1 A Z 2 A(11) is a vectorial Z1 A Z 2 Adifference between the two
Z1ZA1
Z Z Z Z Z Z I DIF ( A )
signals. However,
I A
the k-factor
0
VBANK ( A) Z1IADIF Z( A2 )A A Z12 AA Z 2IAA 1 A 2 A
2 A 1 A 2 A
Z1 A Z 2as A Z1 A Zis2aA real number (very small
I DIF ( Athe
creating ) following
1IAA Zequation:
Z
balance 2A Z01 A Z 2 A or zero imaginary part), the two currents are in phase and their
Z
Z 1 A Z 2 A Z Z
Z 1 AZ 2 A Z magnitudes, not phasors, could be used as well.
I DIF ( A) 1 A 2 A I A 1 A 2 A 0 Z1 A Z2A
ZZ1 A Z Z 2A Z1ZA ZZ2 A I
Typically
DIF ( A ) I
CTs
A
used to measure 0 the total phase current and the
I DIF ( A) 1 A Z21AA ZI A2 A 1 A 2 A 0 (9d) differential current Z1 A would Z 2 A have drastically different ratios. The
I DIF ( A)Z1 AIA Z 2 A Z 0 Z 2 A differential CT might have much lower ratio in order to increase
Z1ZA 1A Z2ZA 2 A 1 A magnitude of the secondary current under internal bank failures
I DIF ( A) I A 0 Z1 Ahigh Z sensitivity X of X
Z1 A Z 2 A requiring protection. During external fault
Z1 A Z 2 A kA
conditions,
2A
the differential | 1 Acurrent2 Aremains low further promoting
I DIF ( A) Z1IA A Z 2 A X 1 A 0 X 2 A the usage
Z1 Aof low-ratio
Z 2 A XCT. Xthe2 Arelay side, a sensitive ground
1 A On
k A Z ZZ1 A |XZ 2 A X
kA Z
1A
1A Z 2|
2A
A
1XA
1A X 2 A
2A current input shall be used for better sensitivity and accuracy.
Z1 A Z 2 A X 1 A X 2 A I OP ( A)written
When I DIFin( Asecondary
) k A I A terms, the key equation (11) when
Z1 A Z 2 A X 1 A X 2 A expressed in secondary amperes of the differential CT becomes:
k AI I DIF | k I
OP ( AZ ) Z ( A) X A AX
I OP ( A) 1 AI DIF ( A2)A k A 1IAA 2A
n
I OP ( A) I DIF ( A) k A CT I A (12)
I OP I k I n n CT DIF
I ( A) I ( A()A) kA A nACT CT I A
DIF
I OPOP( A()A) I DIFDIF ( A) k A nCT DIF IA
nCT DIF The following characteristics apply to the phase current balance
functionI DIF [3]:( A)
nCT kÂ
I OP ( A) I I DIF ( A) k A IA • The element IA shall support individual per-phase settings.
ˆkˆ I DIFDIF ( A)
( A) nCT DIF
kA A
I AI A • The function indicates the effected phase, as well as reports
the change in the current division ratio, k (pre-fault and fault
I DIF ( A)
kÂ
values) to aid troubleshooting and repairs of the bank.
IA • The element shall apply appropriate security measures for
Figure 7. sensitive but secure operation: appropriate restraint signal
Phase current balance application. could be provided to accompany the operating signal (11).
Disabling the restraint shall be possible if desired so.

Z Z2A
IICB11 VVCB VVXX Y YC1B;1 ; I CI2 B 2 VCVBVX V XYC2YB 2
I DIF ( A) I A 1 A 0 I C1 VC V X YC1 ; I C 2 VC V X YC 2
Z1 A Z 2 A
IINC11 IV V Y ; I CV
A1C I B1 X I C1C1 V A 2 X V YCA1 VVXB YVCX2 YB1 VC VX YC1
• Several independent thresholds shall be provided per phase AtI Nthe I A1 time
1 same I B1the
Itotal VA VinX each
C1 currents YA1phase
VBare X Yby
Vdriven B1 the VC VX YC
for Z1 A Z 2and X1A X 2 A
kA
alarming A tripping.
| IINN21 IIAA21 IIBB21 IICC21 V VAAVVX X YAY2A1 VBVB VXVX YB2YB1VCVCVX V XYC
total admittance of the two banks in each phase:
TheZcurrent
1 A Z dividers
X(k) Xindividually I N 2 I A 2 I B 2 I C 2 VA VX YA2 VB VX YB 2 VC VX
• 2A 1 Aare 2A set per phase.
I A I A1 I A2 V A V X YA1 YA 2 (15a)
• Both auto-setting and self-tuning applications of this method
IIDIF IIN 1 IIN 2 V I A VXV YAV1 YAY2 VV B V V
X Y BY1 YB2V
VVC X
I DIF I N 1 I N 2 VA VX YA1 YA 2 VB VX (15b) YB1 YB 2 V
N2 A2 B2 C2 A X A2 B X B2 C
I OPare I DIF ( AProvision
( A ) possible. ) k A Icould
A be made to calculate factors k I B I B1 I B 2 VB V X YB1 YB 2
automatically under manual supervision of the user, either IIA I A1I IA2 I V A VV XV YA1 YYA 2 Y V V Y Y
locally or remotely (auto-setting), or constantly in a slow
adjusting loop (self-setting).
IIDIF
A II
N1
I
A1 IA 2
N2
V
V
A V
A
V X YY
X
A1 YAY2 A2
A1

B X
(15c)
B1 B2
nCT IB IB1 IB2 VB VX YB1 YB2

C C1 C2 C X C1 C2
I
OPprocess
( A) DIFfinding
( A) I
A balancing constants
A k I I A I A1 I A2 V A V X YA1 YA 2
IB2 VB(15) X equations
YB1 YB2 (14) allows eliminating the
The of the nCT DIF for each phase of
protection is based on the following simple equation:
IB IB1 equations
Inserting Vinto
I C I C1and
voltages I Cderive V the V X YC1 YC 2
all-current balance equation for the two
IIB IBI1 IB2I VBV VX V YB1Y YB2 Y
2 C
banks:
I DIF ( A)
kÂ
C C1 C2 C X C1 C2
(under no-fault conditions) (13)
Y Y Y Y Y Y
IA IIDIF II A IA1 A2V IBV B1 Y B 2YI C C1 C 2 (16)
C1 YYAC 1A12YY YY B1B YCY C 2 YCY 1C Y 2C 2
1 B 1 CY
C 2 2C
AA X 12
I DIF I A IB B2
IC
4.4 Neutral Current Balance (60N) YA1 YA2 YB1 YB 2 YC1 YC 2
Labeling:
YA1 YYA 2A1 YA 2 YB1 YYBB2 1 YB 2 YC1 YYCC21 YC 2
With reference to Figure 8, this function is based on the balance kI ADIF I A ; k B I B ; k C I C
between interconnected neutral currents of two parallel banks, YYAA11YYAA2A21 YA 2 YYB1B1YYY 2B12 YB 2 YCY
BB 1C YYC2C1 2 YC 2
1 CY
and is applicable to both grounded and ungrounded installations. kA ; kB ; kC (17)
A window CT measuring the vectorial difference between the two YA1 YA 2 YB1 YB 2 YC1 YC 2
neutral currents allows for better accuracy/sensitivity. I OP YIADIF k I A kY
1 YA 2 A YBk2C I C YC1 YC 2
B B 1I B
k A gets the following
One ; koperating equation ; kbalancing the protected
With the two banks possibly slightly different, a circulating zero- I
bank:
OP
Y I
A 1
DIF
Y
A 2k A I
B
A Y
k B1
I B
Y
B 2k
C
C IC
YC1 YC 2
sequence current may be present and shall be compensated for I OP I DIF k 0 I 0 k1 I1 k 2 I 2
in order to increase sensitivity of the function.
I OP
OP I DIF kk0A II0 Ak1kBI1 IBk2 kIC2 I C
DIF
(18)
Proper inherent unbalance compensation is founded on the I OP I DIF k1 I1
following theory.
DIF 1k 0 1 I 0 k1 I 1 k 2 I 2
Both parallel banks work under identical voltages, therefore their I OP
OP IIDIF k I
ˆ I
phase currents are driven by the individual admittances in each k1 the banks are identical, i.e. phases A are equal, phases B
When DIF
phase of each bank: are equalI1 and phases C are equal, the operating equation (18)
IkÔP I DIF
simplifies I DIF k1 I1 overcurrent condition for the measured
to astraight
1
I1
II A1 VV AA VV XX YYAA11 ;; II AA22 VVAA VVXX YYAA22 (14a)
neutral differential current.
I AA11 V A V X YA1 ; I A2 VA VX YA2 I OP I I DIF
nCT
k A I A k B I B kC I C
kˆ1 DIF nCT DIF
II B1 V V YBB11 ;; II BB 22 VVBB VVXX YYBB 22 n
I OP II1 DIF CT k A I A k B I B kC I C
I BB11 V VBBB V V XXX Y
(14b)
YB1 ; I B 2 VB V X YB 2 n DIF
VOP V1 k SET CT V2
III C1 V V
V XXX Y YCC11 ; I CC 222 V
V V V V
Y ; YI C1 ;; V II C V YVCC V XX Y Y
A1
I CC11 VCCC
A X A1 A2 A
VC V
X
V X YCCC 222
A2
(14c)
I OP VI DIF
n
VCT k A I A k B I B kC I C
V k
II A1 A VV VV YY ;; II VV VV YY
X A1 A2 A X A2
OP 1 nCT DIF
SET 2
III NN 11 sumIII AAof11 the II BB11two IIneutral VVcurrents V VXX can YAA11be
Y derived
VBB V X Ythe
Vfrom YBB11 VVCC VVXX YYCC11
B1 B X B1 B2 B X B2
A V
1 IYB1; II C1 VV X YA1 VB V X YB1 VC V X YC1
The C
C11 A X
Iabove N 1 V AV AV V Y
I B1 B Vequations:
V Y ; I
X B1 B2 V V YB X B2
C1 C X C1 C2 C X C2
V V k SET V2
IIII N 22 V I IAAV22 III CC 22 V V
YII BB 22; V V
VY XX Y
YAA22 V VBB V VXX Y V
YBB 22 VCCOP
V VXX 1 Y
Y
C1
N1 I N 2 I A 2 I B 2 I C 2 VA VX YA2 VB VX YB 2 VC VX YCCC 222
N C
A1 I I X
B1 I C1
C1 V V
C2
A
X
V
Y
A
A
C VA1
X V
C2
B Y VX V Y B1 C X C1
II
I VI V I Y I; I VVVV YY V V Y V V Y(14d)
III DIF I IINI1 III N 2 VV VAV V V YXX Y Y YAA Y22
VV
VBB VXX Y Y
V V YBB11
Y YBB 22
VVCC VVXX Y
YCC11
YYCC 22
A1 A X A1 A2 A X A2
N1 A1 B1 C1 A X A1 V A1 VY B X B1 C X C1
V VI NN 11Y ; I NNI 22 VVAAV V Y X YA A1 YA 2 VB V X YB1 YB 2 VC V X YC1 YC 2

N2 A2 B2 C2 A X A2 B X B2 C X C2
I DIF
B1 DIFB X B1 B2 B X B2
1
II II II I V V V VY YY VV V V Y Y V Y V V
Y V Y Y
YI ; I V V VV Y Y Y
N2 A2 B2 C2 A X A2 B X B2 C X C2
II V I V
DIF N1 N2 A X A1 A2 B X B1 B2 C X C1 C2
I AA I AA11 I AA22 V A V X Y A11 Y A
AV2 Y Y V V Y Y
C1 C X C1 C2 C X C2
A X A A 22 (14e)
III A I I IA 1
I I I AV2V V V VA YVX
Y Y Y Y A1V Y
DIF
I
NA1 AA
11
N1
I I I
B1 A 2 C1
N2
V V Y V V Y V V Y
A
AA XX
X
A1A1
A1
B
A2
A2 X B1
B
C
X
X
B1
C1
B2 C X C1 C2
IIcurrents.
IB IB1 I I VBBVVVV(14e)
The differential current is a vectorial difference between the two
YYYVBB11V(14d)
Y V obtains:
IIIBB I II IBB11I I
B
A2
N
B1
A21
A BA
B2
22
I IIBBsubtracting
By 22I V VV
B2V V
C2
B
AVB Y VXXXYYY from
X
A X X
B1 YB1 YY BBBY222 one
AA12
B2
A
B2 X V Y
B2 C X C2
IIII I II IIII VIVVVV V

II CC II CC11
DIF N1 N2
I
A
VVCC Y VVXXY YYCC11 YYCC 22
YY YY V V Y Y V V Y Y
X A1 A2 B X B1 B2 C
Figure 8. X C1 C2
V V YC1 YC 2
B B1 B2 B X B1 B2
C 22 Neutral current balance application.
C C1
I
C2
I C I IC1 V C 2V Y C Y X
C
C X C1 C2
(14f)
I CA IA1C1 AI2YC 2 AYVCX V XA1Y YAC21
Y YC 2 YC1 YC 2
II DIFI II A VA1 YV A2Y Y IBY B1 B 2 Y IC Y YCC11 YCC 22
B
III DIF
B1
I
B2 Y B Y
IY A
Y
Y
X
B1 Y
A1 Y AA12 Y A 2YB
A 1 A 2
I YB 2 Y
A 2YB1 YBB 2 B1 YY
B2
1
I B Y B
B11 YY B2
C 1B C2 I
2 Y
B2YC2 I C
Y
YC1 Y YC 2
DIF I YA1V
I C1IAIC 2 A VY
A AA12
IY
Y I Y
BA12 YC 2 B Y BI 1C Y
Y IC Y
C
Y C 11 YCC 22
YC1 Y
II DIFDIF A1 C 1
C A1 X YC
B22
YA1 YYAA12 YYAA12 Y YBA1 2YBY1B2 YB 2 YB1YC1YCY1YBC2Y2 C 2 YC 2
C A 2 B1 B C
kA ; kB ; kC
YI A1 YA1YAY2 A2 I YYB1B1 YBY2 YC1 YYCC21 YC 2
I DIF Y AY
A1Y Y2 kAA 22B YYBB1 1YBY2BB22Y
2YA;Y
AAY11A YI;CBB11k Y YYYBBCC2221 YC 2 Y
C1 Y Y Y YCC 22
26 kkA Y
kk AA YA1YAY1 A2 YAB2 ;;; YkkkB1BB YB 2YB1 C YFundamentals
A 1
Y
; k C YCCCof111
B 2 ; Yk C YC 2 Protection of Large Capacitor Banks
Adaptive
I OPA Y IY YDIF kY
YA1 Y AA YI2A Yk BB I B Y YkYBC1 I Y
YCYB 2
C 1 ; kC Y
C 2
YC1 Y YC 2
k A1 YA1 ;k YA 2
A2 B1 B2
;k YB1 YB 2C1 C2
YC1 YC 2
IINI1B2YAI1NV2BYAV2VXA IYVB1XY
IIBIDIF IB1 B1YYAY1 B2 YA2 VCB1 VCX2 YB1 YI BN22 IVAC2 VI BX2 IYCC21 YVC A2 VX YA2 VB VX YB 2 VC V
BV VB2 Y ICV

I NDIF I XYC 2YB 2 VC VX YC 2
A I I
2 A 2 Y AB
1 2 Y AC 22 AYB1 X YB 2 A 2 YBC1 V
VCA V X YCA1 YCA2
I N 1 I N 2 VA VX YA1 YA2 VB VX YB1 YB 2
I CA I CA1 I CA2 I DIF
ItIisDIF YIA1Nto
justified 1 assume
YAI2N 2 theVbalancing
AY
BV1 X Yconstants,
Y YAk,2 are
B 2 A1 YC1real
VBYnumbers.
V YB1 5.
C2 X
YSensitivity
B 2 VC V X to YInternal
C1 YC 2 Bank Failures
k A this leaves
Still, k B equation
the ;balance (18) k C 3 unknowns.
; with These
IB IB1Y
IB2YYAAbe
VBYA 2VX Y
12calculated

BY1 YBB2on
BY1B1Y 2YB 2severalYCmeasurements
Y1 Y CY2 TheI Akey equations
I A1 I A2defining
VA
Voutlined
X Y A1 Y A 2
unknowns A1 can
IIDIF under
taken I I A I
unbalanced V I B based
V
conditions. Y Y I C C1 C 2 the capacitor bank protection
methods ((1), (5), (11) and (18)) allow not only proper compensation
A A1 YAA12 YA2A X Y A
B1
1 Y A2
B2 Y C1 Y C2
I COP I CI1 DIF
Alternatively,
Iequation
C2 kA V
VkXBmay
ICA(18)
IYB Cbe1 YCI2C
k Cre-written from phase
for the inherent bank unbalance, but also facilitate analysis of
IB IB1 of
protection.
IB2 VB VX YB1 YB2
IB IBY1
coordinates, IBinto
2Y sequence
VB VX Y
YB1 Y YB2
components:
Y Y
sensitivity
kA A1
YA1 k; YkABI2 Yk IYYB1 k Y
A2 B1 B2
; kC C1 C2
Y C1Y YC 2(19)
Each of the four methods as described in this paper is founded on
I OP YAI1 DIF
II DIF Y I B Y Y I C BI2
Y I C I Cequation
a balance 1 IC2
thatVassumes:
C V X YC1 YC 2
C I CI1A YI C 2 YVC V
A2 0 0
X Y C
B11 1 B 2 2
1 Y C2 Y
2 C1
YC 2
C2
A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 First, that the bank is intact in terms of experiencing a ground or
It is justified to assume that the positive-sequence current would
IIOP
leakOP into the

I DIF operating
kk1 A I1I Aquantity
YAand
k B I Bmore
k Cconsiderably
IC
YC1Ycompared
YC 2
phase fault. Y Y Y Y Y Y
1 Y YYB1 YBcomponents. I I I I
A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2
Ik DIF AI1A A 2 ; k I BB1 B 2 ; k I Y
with Y
the
zeroY A2 Y
negative-sequence 2
C C1 Therefore
C2
DIF
Second, thatA the
YA1 inherent
B
YA2 unbalance
YB1 Ybetween
C
YCcapacitor
the
1 YC 2
only
Y Y
Y A1 Y A 2
A the positive-sequence B leakage
Y YYB1 YB 2
can be Celiminated
Y YC1to
Y YC 2
improve phases does not change.
B2
IÔP I DIF
sensitivity.
k1
IA1DIF 2k I yields
ThisAapproach
0 0 k B1 I a
1 1
Bk
slightly
2 2
2 I simplified
C1 form C 2 of the
A ground or phase fault violating the first assumption results
mathematically accurate equations (18) and (19): YA1 YA 2 in the Yoperating
B1 YB 2 equations,YC1 YC 2
YIA11 YA 2 Y Y Y Y in ksevere unbalance ; kB ; kC and leads to
I OP
k I DIF k;A k IB A kBB1 I BB2 k; CkCI C C1 C 2 (20) A
YAoperation
I OPA I k I protection 1 YA 2 YB1 YThis
as expected. B 2 aspect Y YC 2 is
ofC1operation
YADIF
1 YA 2
1 1 YB1 YB 2 YC1 YC 2 backed-up by overcurrent protection, and therefore is of secondary
nCT importance.
I OP IWith kunknown
DIF one kbalancing
0 I 0 k1A I 1 A k 2 B I2IB(k1)
I kfactor IC
kC auto-setting
the I I k I k I k I
OP
I DIF
nkCTA DIF as:
kIˆ1OP I DIF procedures I A can
kbe I B k C I C simply
B implemented
OP DIF
or self-tuning
DIF A short or open in a AsingleA B B
or several C
cans C
violates the second
I1 assumption, causes a minor unbalance in the operating equations,
I OP I DIF k1 I1 (under no-fault conditions)
V
I OP VI1DIF k 0 V I20 k1 I1 k 2 I 2
kSET
(21)
the OP
I 0 k1 I1 k 2 I 2
and results in operation of protection set sensitive enough given
I size of the
I DIFinternal
k 0 failure.
OP
n
IÔP I DIF I DIF CT kthis
Unlike in previous methods,
A I A k B I B kC I C
compensating coefficient may be This latter way of responding to internal failures is critical for
I OP ofI DIF
analysis k1 I1sensitivity. For this purpose one could
protection
akcomplex number.
I 1OP II DIF kn1CT IDIF 1 assume nominal system voltages and resulting currents, and use
1
Operating signal (18) or (19) implements proper compensation the operating equations to determine the amount of the operating
for the inherent unbalance of the bank. Equation (20) is a good
VÔP I V
practical 1 k SET V2
approximation.
ˆ inI DIF
signals
k1
response to any given unbalance in the bank.
k1 DIF
n I1
I OP I(18)
Equation I1 DIFholds k Acurrents,
forCTprimary I A kwhen
B I applied
B k C to C
Isecondary 5.1 Sensitivity of the Voltage Differential
n CT DIF
amperes, it takes the following form: Function
nCT on the application to grounded banks.
n ForI simplicity
I DIFletus focus k A I A k B I B kC I C
VI OP VI1DIF V2 k A I A k B I B kC I C
kSET CT (22) OP
Neglecting the phase nCTindex, the operating signal in this method is
nCT DIF (equation (1a):
DIF
Typically the differential CT would be of lower ratio in order to VOP V1 k SET V2

VOP Vthe
increase 1 k SETof the
level V2secondary current for internal failures that
call for increased sensitivity of protection. During external faults,
the differential current will be increased but not dramatically. The actual voltage-dividing ratio during internal failures of the
bank is:
The following characteristics apply to the neutral current balance
function [3]: Z BUS TAP ZTAPGND Z BUS TAP CTAPGND
k FAIL 1 1
ZTAPGND ZTAP GND C BUS TAP
• The single element function does not indicate explicitly the
Z Z Z CTAPGND
effected phase. k FAIL Z BUS TAP Z TAPGND 1 Z BUS TAP 1 C(23a)
1 Z TAPGND 1 ZTAP GND 1 CTAP
Vk2FAIL
BUS TAP TAP GND BUS TAP GND
• The function shall apply appropriate security measures The V1voltage
tap during the failure is:
BUS TAP
for sensitive but secure operation (provision for a restraint k FAIL Z TAPGND ZTAP GND C BUS TAP
signal). 1
V2 V1 1 (23b)
• Several independent thresholds shall be provided that can be VOP VV1 1 k1FAILk
V 2 SET
freely used for alarming and tripping. k FAILk FAIL
and the operating signal becomes:
• The positive-sequence compensating factor k1 shall be a k
setting. VOP
V V1 k1 k SET
VOP
OP
k100
1V1 1SET FAIL %
SET
(23c)
• Provision could be made to calculate the k-factor V1 k FAIL k FAIL
automatically under manual supervision of the user, either
locally or remotely (auto-setting), or continuously in a slow V
'VOP
k
'k FAIL C%
'full bus voltage 'CTAP
% 1 100
adjusting loop (self-tuning). As aOP
percentage of% the
SET the operating signal is:
VVOP kkSET BUS TAP % GND %
1 1 FAIL 100%
V1 1 k FAIL
'VOP %3 'k FAIL % 'C BUS TAP % 'CTAPGND %
'VOP % 'k FAIL % 'C BUS TAP % 'CTAPGND %
1 Capacitor Banks
Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large 27
VOP 1 1 k k Vx
VOP 31 1 kABAB AC
k AC Vx 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC
kTAP GND TAP GND BUS TAP
V1 OP % k FAIL
FAIL
FAIL % BUS TAP % TAP GND %
VOP V1 1 SET
1
'VOP %1 1' k FAIL
k AB% k'ACCBUS 3%V0'CVTAP B 1 k AB VC 1 k AC
k FAIL V VxTAP GND %
1 V OP
31 1k k k V
V2 V1 VOP 3 '1kSET k AB%100 k'% CBUS VxTAP %3 V0'CVTAP 1 %k AB VC 1 k AC
B GND
OP AB AC x
' OPOP %1
V
k FAIL AsV both 1 3
the k FAIL
k-values
AC
are close to unity, the abovesimplifies to:
VOP k SET V 1
1 1 k
FAIL k V 3 V V 1 k VC 1 k AC
1 100% 3V 1 k AB k AC Vx
(24d) OP AB AC x 0 B AB
VVOP |
V1 k FAIL 311 x1 k k V 3 V V 1 k (26b)
1kFAIL VxxTAP % 0'CTAP VC 1 k AC
OP
k SET V
'V V ' kAB k'AC C BUS
VOP V1 1 OP
OP OP %
133
AB % AC B GND % AB
VBx11 Vx
k FAIL Equation (3e) helps calculating the amount of the neutral point
V k system k ACzero-sequence
AB VC 1 k AC
Equation (24d) yields a proportional relationship between kFAIL and
' V ' k ' C
the operating voltage: a change by 1% in the k-value, yields an
OP FAIL BUS TAP ' C TAP GND V OP | V
voltage.
OP 3 Assuming k AB voltage nil, the equation
% % % %
Vx be re-arranged
1
OP | Vx1 k VVxx 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC
can to calculate the value of Vx:
extra 1% of nominal in the operating signal. VVOP OP 11kkABAB AB
k kkAC AC AC
VOP 1 k SET 3
What is more 1 1interesting,
V the bus-tap
inVOP k and 100
k ABtap-ground %
AC Vcapacitances
khowever, x 3 V0 V B the k AB VinC 1 V
is the relation between changes
1 increase VOPk AC|VVBx1 k AB VC 1 k AC (27a)
1 3 FAIL
the operating voltage. Given equation (23a) one can write:
and
V
VVOP
x
B a1 V 2

B
V1 A
1, k
V k
| Vx1 k AB k AC Vx
AB C Va k
C
V1
A , k AC a 1 120 0
V AB AC
3 B 1 1kABkAB VCk1AC k AC
OP
x
V
'VOP %1 '
V kFAIL
k % k'CBUS V 'CTAPGND % (25) Vx
OP
3
1 AB AC TAP %
x
Assuming
V V 1
k
k1CABkVaABkAC
a balanced bus voltage:
VB a 2 VAa,12 V
VA ,a a1 k1
1 k 0
AC120
VVOP x | V B AB
a 2Ax VA , VC1 ak AB
C
V
AC
a 11200
A , k AC
The above signifies that a 1% change in either of the bus-to-tap xB
(27b)
1 1 k k
V | 3Vx1 voltage. AB k AC V x 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1
k capacitances VBk AC a 2 VAa,2 V
or tap-to-ground would yield 1% of bus nominal in
VOP
the OP operating Vx simplifies
One VA further:
1CAB k AB a VA a, 1a k1AC
AC
120 0
V 1 ak2 11kVkAB 1 akkAC AC13 k AC 0
Depending on the serial/parallel arrangement of the cans, it will VVBxx aV21BAV 1A ,2kAB V k aC AB

V , j a k1 AC k AB
120
1 1 amount
take a certain
VVOP V B AB k
AB k AC
C Vx AC
ofVshorted/opened
1 k cans to cause a single Vx
Vx V A
2a1 ABk1AB
C
1kABAC

k AB
AC
A
a k 12
AC k AC (27c)
percentage 3 change in the capacitance and an equivalent increase
x V 1a 1 k AB 1 1
k k k k
in the operating1voltage. k AB The k ACfinal assessment of sensitivity has to
take into account the actual arrangement of the capacitor bank. VVVBxx aV21AV 2A1,k AB
A 2
VC kaAB
,aj ACa13kk1
AC V
AB AC
AC k0AB
AC 120
2 3
kj AC k AC and using
A
V | V Observing 1 k
the k-values 1are
k kACABreal numbers ktoABunity
close
An OP x
a 2 VA , question
VB interesting VC ais Vthe , optimum
a 1 0
location
120 of the tap. VVAx
properties of 12
the
AB
a-operand 1 k AB kthe
yields 23 following:
11 a 2k AB ACk aj k31 kk AC k AB
AC
31 1kk1AB
A
Regardless of the number of parallel cans, the longer the string,
VV
the higher the impedance. If so a single can failure would cause a VVxxA VA 12 j k ABj 2AC 3k
AC
smaller V B 1 2k ABchange VC in1the AC impedance/capacitance.
koverall V 1 k AB 1kACkABAB j kACAC k AC kk1AB
2 2 1 2 k k 2
Vx percentage
a
Vx bestVZsensitivity
1 k a 1 k V
VxA
A
x
2 2
1 kZboth 3 2 1 k 2k
AB AC
For
A AB k ACportions
the (bus-tap and tap-ground)
Z BUS TAP CTAPGND 1 3 (27d)
k FAIL be kept
shall as short
BUS TAP
1as
TAP
kpossible
GND
1 k as measured 1 in the number of V j 1 kk j k k
cans. In reality, ZTAP the
AB
number of cans
AC
ZTAPisnot C BUS Within
GND a variable. this VAx 21 1 23 21
AB
233
AC k 1
k
GND TAP
1 j k k k jj k k
restriction,
VVxAx 12 2 AB 232 AC2kk1AB
2 half of the total length is the smallest0possible length.
VB a VA , VC a VA , a 1120 23 2 12AC k
1 1 of3the j
actual k jequation
operating k (5)2compensates
V2 V1 1the
Therefore
Vx of view exact k ABmiddle
k FAIL2of sensitivity.
j the
k ACposition mid-tap AB
tapis koptimum
k AC from the
VVVAxA bank
Because
inherent
the
2 unbalance, 2 21 2kitk isABfurther
k2ACjustified k 1k
to assume the
for the
ratios
point Under 2 both the portions 1 3 1 3
(bus-tap and Z a 2

tap-ground)1
k
Z
are a
protected1 k Z
with the same C
sensitivity ofV the
Vx ratio
impedances j to2

be kka j
perfect k
unity 2
(say
k 1
kk ), and treat the
kVFAIL TAP 1 k AB k AC1 BUS TAP 1 TAPGND other A
V xA
measured VAinBUSthe number of cans.
AB
TAP GND AC
2 as a variable
2 2(kAC correspondingly): 2
AB
k Z 1 k k AC ZTAP GND C BUS TAP V

VOP V1 1 SETTAP GND AB A 2k 2k
Often, the tap kisFAIL installed below the mid-point in order to apply 1 3 1 3
lower voltage VTs. This creates a classical trade-off between
Vx j k j k
optimum 1 11
performance and low cost 3of installation. 2 2 2 2 k 1 (27e)
VOP2 V11k SET k 3 k1 j 3 k k
V
V
Vx 1 k j AB
100
2 2 of the % ACk j k AC AB V 2 k 2 k
5.2 2k FAIL
V1x Sensitivity FAIL
2 Compensated 22 k 1Bank A
VVAA 1 k
k AB k 2k
Neutral Voltage2 Unbalance AC
Function
'VOP % 'k FAIL % k SET 'C BUS TAP % 'CTAPGND % The above equations means that only 1/3rd of the percentage
VOPanalysis
The V1 shall
1 start with the full operating equation (5): change in the ratio of impedances between any two phases will
k FAIL be seen as a percentage of nominal bus voltage:
1
VOP 11 k AB 3k AC 1Vx 3 V03 VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC
Vx 3 2 j 2 2 k j 2 k k 1 'VOP %
1
'k%
1
'C% (28)
VOP k SET
inVwhich 1 100 % 3 3
1 k k Vk
1 the following2 assumptions k
can be 2 made:
VVA OP1 FAIL
AB AC x
- 3 1-k terms can be neglected for simplicity.
The For example it will take 3% in the drop of the phase A impedance,
C% nominal
to see 1% of'bus VBUS voltage as the Vx signal, and thus the
V'OPVOP
n
- |The% 'k FAIL
Vxsystem % 'C BUS voltage
zero-sequence TAP % 'Cbe
can considered zero
TAP GND %
VTX
operating3signal
3 of
V the function.
(the system is practically always strong enough to maintain SEC ( MIN )
the balance at the bus despite few cans affected within the The operating signal has an arbitrary factor 1/3rd to comply
VB11itself).
k AB VC 1 k AC with the common understanding of this method (equation (6)).
V bank
VxOP 11kk ABk k AC Vx 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1
0.01 345kV
k ACmicroprocessor-based
Using relay technology this scaling is not
3 to the following
AB AC nVTX 1328
This leads relationship: important 3as any
3 0scaling
.5V can be handled accurately. What is
important is the 1:3 ratio between the measured neutral point
VB a2 1
VA , VC a VA , a 11200 voltage and changes in the capacitor impedance.
VOP 1 k AB k AC Vx (26a) I OP I DIF k SET I
3
a 1 k AB a 1 k AC
2

Vx VA
1 k AB k AC 'I OP 1
VOP | Vx 'k%
I 100
1
1 k AB k AC j 3 k ACFundamentals
k
28 Vx VB21 k AB VC 12 k AC AB of Adaptive Protection of Large Capacitor Banks
X1 X 2
Vx
V 1 k AB k AC k
A
IOP % 3100 V )%
3'C3% 0 V .5(MIN
%SEC
nVTX 3BUS
3 3 VSEC ( MIN )
X 1I0.01 'X C%2345 kV
nkInVTX
OP DIF k VSET
BUS I 1328
This reinforces using low-ratio VTs for measuring the neutral-point Again,Xthe
VTX
13 X332V 0SEC
3above .5V
observation may be used to select the ratio of
0.01 345 kV) target accuracy allows calculating the
( MIN
voltage. then'VTXI
split-phase CT:
1 3 0operating
the 1328
Relation (28) can also be used to calculate the required ratio.
minimum
I OPOP I0DIF 3
primary
1.01 345kVk ' SETk .
%1
5
V
I signal; the minimum relay sensitivity
For example, assuming target sensitivity for the function, one
allows
' kI% determining
nVTX 100 'X % the minimum C% accurately measured secondary
'1328
signal; the32ratio 0.5V2 the maximum CT ratio that can be applied
3 dictates
calculates the effective operating signal as percentage of the bus I'OP I DIF
in I OP case:
this 1 k SET I
voltage. Using relay accuracy claim, one determines the minimum X X '2 k%
1 that is1required for the proper operation of the
secondary voltage kI OPI I1DIF 100
' C k I I
'VCombining
relay. OP % k%two requirements
'the 'C% allows calculating the ratio n'DIF X 1 X%2 SETNOM (31)
3 3 I OP 2 1I
for the VT: ' (kMIN )
X 1X 2 SEC
k'IIOP 1 100
%
1 1 1 'k% 1
'VOP % '' Ck%% VBUS'C% 5.4 X 1 100
'kI%Sensitivity X2
'XZ% of ' theC%Neutral Current Balance
nVTX 3 3 (29)
2 1 A 2Z 2 A
3 3 VSEC ( MIN ) ItI DIF (XA )1 IXA 2 that this method
noticing 0
k is worth
current X1 1 X 2 Z1approach
balance A1
is a derivative of the phase
Z 2 A (60P), and as such it has identical
C% V k
'k% 1 ' %2 X X 'C%
Forn example,'with the BUStarget sensitivity of 1% of impedance sensitivity. X 1 'C X2 I 2
change VTX
on30a.01 3V
345kV 345 bus, kVand the minimum relay voltage of 0.5V nDIF 2 % NOM
nVTX the maximum
secondary,
SEC ( MIN )
1328is:
VT ratio The balance Z1(BMIN
2 Iequations )Zfor all three phases per the 60P protection
3 3 0.5V I DIF ( B ) ' 1 1CI B SEC
are: I 1 1 2B 0
' ' k
principle
k '
nDIF%% 2 % %1B 2 2%B % ' X
% X Z NOM ' ZC ' C
0.01 345kV 22 I 2
nVTX 1328 SEC Z( MIN) Z (32a)
I OP I3DIF 3 k 0SET .5V I I DIF ( A) I A Z1 A Z2 A 0
1 1 InDIF ''CC I%C%Z ZI NOM
1C Z 2 C
1IANOM
Z 2 A2 A 0
1 A
With 'Vthis OP %ratio, under 'k% SLG fault 'C%on the bus, the secondary voltage InDIFDIF ( C )
DIF
2
( A ) 2 AII
I Z 1C ) Z 2 C 0
would I'OPI OPbe I150V. 3 k SETis Iwell
DIF1This
3 within the range of modern relays. SEC ( MIN
Z
SEC ( MIN Z)
Assuming a relay' k% Z1 A1B Z2 A2 B (32b)
I 100 conversion range of 260VRMS, the ratio can be I DIF ( B ) I BZ Z 0
lowered to 1328*150/260 '1 C V 1 = 766, yielding the operating signal of II DIF ( A) I I A1Z1A I A22Z ,A I DIF I I , I I C1 I C 2
A ZZ 1B ZZ 2B 0 (B) B1 B2 DIF ( C )
'V I OP 1 'at
n' 'kk%1% 'C%in the capacitor impedance.
% BUS DIF ( A )
0.87V VTX secondary
OP % change IDIF I
DIF((BA)) I BA 1 A
Z 1B1 A Z 2 B2 A
0 0
I X1 3
100 3 3 V
X 2 SEC ( MIN % 3 ) ZZ1B1 AZZ
2A
I N 1 Z1CI N2 Z 2CI A1 I B1 I C1 I A 2 I B 2 (32c) IC 2

2 B2 A
5.3 k Sensitivity of the phase current balance I
X1 X 2 II DIFDIF
( C ) I I C 1B
Z Z2B 0
function X
nnVTX 1 01.01
'C %345
X VkV
1BUS 1328
DIF ( B ) B ZZ
ZZ
C ZZ2Z Z2C2C 0
DIF ( B)I A1 B Z I A 2 ZBI B2 1B 0I0B 2 I C1 I C 2
k 2
I I 11BC11B
' V 1 ' k 1 'Cthe IDIF I
OP % 3 Xphase
33'23k3%%V
( C ) C
'VOP %X 1 1the
VTX
Observing thatZ 1C Z
Neglecting %
0SEC.index, 'C) % operating signal of this method is
513V( MIN in1B the 60P 2C
2 Bmethod:
'k% (11)):
(equation 3'X % 3 'C% I DIF ( A) I AZ1 1C I AZ22,C I DIF ( B ) I B1 I B 2 , I DIF ( C ) I C1 I C 2
2 2 I DIF ( C ) I C 0
10' . 01
C 345
V 1 kV IIDIFDIF( A ) I DIF I A1Z Z A 2IZ,DIF
1)CI 2Z ( B )( B) I DIF
IC DIF I B(1C) I B 2 , I DIF ( C ) I C1 I C 2
nI OP
k% I DIF % k BUS'I C%1328 (A
'
nVTX VTX ''CX % VSETBUS I DIF I 1C 2C
0
I NC 1 Z I N2 Z I A1 I B1 I C1 I A 2 I B 2 (33a) IC 2
nVTX 32' 3C3%%V 3 SEC
I 0NOM.5(2MIN
V) I DIF
(C )
It isnjustified I DIF II A11 IImethod:

AN22, I DIF I A( B1) IIBB11IICB12,IDIF ) I BI2C1IICC22
1C 2C
DIF 3 to 3
2 I V
assume SEC ( MINtotal
the capacitor current does not change I DIF
( A) I A(2C
' I 1 ) While in theN60N
I A1 I A2 I ,I BI1 I B 2 I I C1 I I C,2 I
in response to the SEC ( MIN
internal ) failure of limited size, therefore the
OP
' C %' I
kaskNOM
nI OP I 0Icurrent .DIF
01
100 345 % I
kV I DIF (AI) INI1IA1 I A 2 I ADIF ( BB)1 I CB11IIBA22 IDIF I C1 I C 2
B2 IC 2
operating a percentage of the total capacitor current
A 2 N2 I B1
SET
n
DIF
2 I 1328 I DIF 1 IB I
(C )
equals
VTX the 0.percentage
01 SEC 345
Z ( MINkV )change in the k-value:
Z
A1 2 C1 C2
nVTX I DIF ( A)33 I A33 001..A55V 2 A1328
0
'I OPX 1 1X 2Z V I DIF I I DIF IIDIF( BI) IDIF
k Z'1 Ak% Z 2 A
1 A Z 2 A (30a) I I A1 I (IA(1AA)2) II NDIF
DIFDIF I DIF N 2B1( B ) (ICIB)C(1C1
IBAI21DIF ) IIC 2 I
C1 A2 I B 2 I C 2
I I X
I OPDIF ( AI) DIF 1
100
I X
A k2 SET I 0 (33b)
I OP I DIF kZZSET 1 A I

Z2A
Z I DIF II DIF( AI) IDIF
(BI ) I DIF
I (C
) I I
ForI example, 1% of 1B change 2 B in the k-factor yields 1% of the full
IXB 2 by1the split-phase
A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2
DIF (X B )1 0 allows one to insert (33a) into (33b) and obtain:
kI OP
current as 1
measured Z Z CT.
''
'IIDIF k% 11'X 'Z2k%11B%B 2Z 2'2BBC% 0
X) 1is2toI BXunderstand I DIF I DIF ( A) I DIF ( B ) I DIF ( C ) (33c)
Next IOPstep
( B 100 'Zk% Z the impact of impedance/capacitance
changes I on 100 the changes 1B
Z Z
2inB the k-factor. From equation (10):
I DIF ( C ) ' 1 C I C 1IC 1 2C 0

k' nDIF k%X
X
1 X'2XZ
X
% Z NOM
%
Z'CC
11CC Z 22 C %
Now inserting (32a-c) into (33c) yields:
k I DIFX(C11)2XICI22 SEC ( MIN2)

0
Z Z2 A Z Z2B Z Z
X 1 X 2 Z1C Z 2C I DIF I A 1 A I B 1B I C 1C 2C (34a)
I I I , I I I , I I I Z1 A Z 2 A Z1B Z 2 B Z1C Z 2C
Observing 'C 1 Itwo
DIF ( A ) thatAthe A 2reactances DIF ( B ) are Bvery
1 similar,
B2 one obtains:
DIF ( C ) C1 C2
nI DIF 1 I % Z 1A 1
NOM Z2A
'kDIF % ( A1 'XAIA1% (IMIN A 2 ,'C I DIF ( B )0 I B1 I B 2 , I DIF ( C ) I C1 I C 2
Z1 AI12')ZC2 A%%I I I I I (30b)
DIF ( A )) 2
B 2 I C 2 I I
'k%I DIF2 'IXN%SEC Y1 A Y2 A Y Y Y Y2C
2 1
2N 2 A1 B1 C1 A2
DIF A I B 1B 2 B I C 1C 0
I DIF I N 1 I N 2 I A1 I B1 I C1 I A 2 I B 2 I C 2 Y 1 A Y 2 A Y 1 B Y 2 B Y 1C Y 2 C
Z
Equations

nDIF I
I DIF
capacitance A'
DIF (( B

CI%mean
'))I(30)
AC
IZ
I%BAone
1 of
I NOM
2 ofthe
11B
IZANOM
AthatZ
ZIfor 22 B
Bparallel I Cthere
0B 2banks, 2 be increase in
A each % of change in the impedance/
1 I0 1 IC will
I2A1 ISEC Z n ACTUAL nIDEAL b, b 1 0.0050.30
2 I 1B) by 2 I C 1 I C 2
n
theDIF differential Z
I A(2MIN
current1 A Z
I B210.5%
2 B I Bof
A the total bank current.
SEC ( MIN )
I DIF I DIF ( A) I DIF ( B ) I DIF ( C )
ZZ11BCIDIF ZZ2Z(A2B2BC) I0DIF (C )
I DIF II DIF
I
I II B(ZA1) A 00 VOP ( A) V1 A k A VT 2 V2 A
n
A CZ1ZA ZZ
DIF ( B ) DIF
DIF
( A()C )
I DIF ( A) I A Z1ZA11BC Z 2ZA22BC 0 2 A nVT 1
Z1 A Z 2 A
Z11Z1CI Z 2C Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large Capacitor Banks 29
II DIF
I DIFDIF ( A ) II A
( C) I CZ
B AZ2 ,2 BI DIF ( B0)
Z 2ZB 0
I B1 I B 2 , I DIF ( C ) I C1 I C 2
VOP ( A) V1 A k A b
nVT 2
V2 A
(B) B 1ZB
IIIDIF I Z11AA Z22AAI BII B Z11BB Z22BB IC IIC Z1C1C Z2C2C0 0
DIF IIAAA Y Y
YY1n1AAYY2 A2 Ab, bBY1YYB1B Y2Y
Y.13C Y
YC1C0Y Y
A I B Z11B1 BB
DIF
nI DIF IA Z
ACTUAL A Z22A
A
11IDEAL B
Y0BZ22.2005
B
I Z1C1C02CYZ22CC2C 0
C
Y1 A Y2 A Y1B Y2 B Y1C Y2C
Z1 A Z 2 A Z Z B Z Z C n n b, b 1 0.0050.30
I DIF I A the
Observing I B 1B the2impedance
relationbetween I C 1C and 2admittance nACTUAL
Now assume YnIDEAL b,nequation
Ythe
that bY1B 1was
Y20Bperfectly
.005 Y10Cbalanced
.3 Y2C making 0
Z1 A Z 2 A Z1B Z 2 B Z1C Z 2C I DIF I A V1 Asignal
ACTUAL IDEAL2A
I B2a perfect
VT Ibut 0
one can re-write the above into: VnOP
the operating
( A)
ACTUAL n k
Y11AAIDEAL
b ,
above b V
Y2AA n Y1B 2A Y2 B1 0 .
005
zero, 0 .
C one of
Y1C 30Y2the
C
VTs, say
the tap VT (#2), works with
n VT2 1an error of b. If so, the operating signal
Y1 A Y2 A Y Y Y Y2C V
becomes V k VT
non-zero: nVT 2 V
I DIF I A I B 1B 2 B I C 1C 0 (34b) V OP ( A )
n OP ( A) V1n1AA kAAb,nnVT 1b V 2A
12A 0.0050.30
Y1 A Y2 A Y1B Y2 B Y1C Y2C n
VOP ( A) V1 A k A VTn1VT V
ACTUAL IDEAL VT 2
VOP ( A) V1 A k A bnVT 1 2 2AV2 A (35a)
nVT 1
Which
n is precisely
n b, b 1 0.0050.3
the 60N balance equation as
0 derived in section
n
n 2VT 2 V
4.4ACTUAL
(equationIDEAL (18)). VVOPOP (( AA))
V
V11AA kkAA b VT nVTV2 A 2 A
VOP ( A) aVperfect
Assuming 1 A k Abalance, nbVTn1VT nnVT1 equation V2 A (1c) can be solved for the
The above proves, that neglecting CT and relay accuracy the 60P
n 2 V
tap OPvoltage:
A V A nk A b VT 1 V
2
n
VOP (60N
and V1 A k Ahave
functions V2 A sensitivity. Specifically, per each
VT identical
( ) 1
0 V1 A k A VT 2 V2nAVTo 1
k2AA VT 2 V2 A V1 A
nnVTVT2 1 nVT 2 nVTn2VT 1
A)
percent of change innVT the
1 impedance/capacitance of one of the
banks, the differential CT would see an increase of 0.5% of the V 0OP (V A)1 A V k A

1 A nnA k b V 2 A o k
V V
2 A n nVT 2 2 A
A V1 A (35b)
total bank current. 0 V 1A k A n VT
VT 2
1 V n 2VT A1 o k A n VT 1 V 2A V1 A
VOP (phase Vvariant
nVT 2 V0OP (V A )1 A Vk 1 AA nbVT VTV 1 1AV Vo
2
2 A 1A k A
1 nbVTVT 1 V
2
V1 A
1 A k Aof bthe
method V2 A(60P) is easier to compensate for 2A
The A) Substituting (35b) n into (35a) yields: n
n V V 1A n b
VTV 1 V 1 b VT 1
the inherent bank unbalance. VT 1 The neutral variant of the method OP ( A ) 1A 1A n
(60N) requires 1 CT and relay input, compared with 3 sets for the 0V V1 A Vk A VT
V b
2
V V2 A o V k A 1 VTb2 V2 A V1 A (35c)
phase version (60P). If applied concurrently on one relay, the two
OP ( A
OP ( A ) )
1
1

A
b nVT100 1 %
1 A 1 A nVT 1
n 2 n V
VOP V b V V 1 b
0 V1 A may
functions k A beVTtreated V2 A o k A VT 2 redundant
as partially V2 A V1 Ausing different V1((AAA)) 1 1 Athe
OP
Or expressing b 100
error%
1A 1A
as a proportion of the bus voltage:
nVT 1 nVT 1
VVOP
CTs and relay inputs. VOP1 A( A) V b V
11 A b 100 1 A % V1 A 1 b
VV ( A)
VOP ( A)
1 b 100% (35d)
V1(AA) 1 1 0.0050.03 100% 0.72%
1A
VOPSensitivity
6. ( A) V1 A b V1 to A V1 A 1 b
Instrumentation Errors V
OP ( A) 0
VOPV1(AA) 1 1 0.0050.3 100% 0.72%
OP
V 1 b 100%
This section analyses impact of finite accuracy of Instrument V
ForV
VOP ( A)
Transformers (ITs) and the relay on the four protection methods.
1 b 100% VV
OP1 A( A )
1example,
A 1 with 1 negative 0.005 0.5%0.30magnitude
100% error 0.72and % 0.3 deg
angleOP ( A error,
)
11 1 0.0050.3 100% 0.72%
the spurious operating voltage
0 would read:
It V nVTX 1 k AB k AC Vx nVT VA k AB nVT VB k
1A
is1 Aimportant to notice that errors of instrument transformers VOPV 1
V VOPOP1(AA ) 3 nVT nVTX 1 k AB 0k AC Vx nVT V A k AB nVT VB k AC
3 n1VT 1 0.0050.3 100% 0.72%
and the relay can be accounted for when tuning the coefficients.
IfVthe tuning coefficients (k) are implemented as real numbers, the V1 A 1
1 0can be VOP 1n nVTX 1 k AB k AC Vx nVT VA k AB nVT VB k
OP ( A ) 0
magnitude1errors .005 0.3 100and
eliminated, % the 0.72 % of angular
impact
31VVencroaches Vthenx VTtargeted
V 3 1
VOPerror is1atVTthennlevel k AB n kAC nVT Vsensitivity
errors1 A could be reduced. If the coefficients are implemented as
V VTX that A k AB nVT VB k
x VAVA nVTwould VBVaccommodate
B nVTnVTVC VC
The on
complex numbers, both magnitude and angle errors can be V OP
3 1nnVT however,
3Note,
nVTX VTX 3
x this nVTVTmethod
nVTVT nVTX 1 k AB k AC Vx nVT VA k AB nVT VB k AC
settings.
OP that
accounted for. VOP of3the
1 some 3 n1VTerror in the matching factor k, leaving only a small
VOP n 1 k AB k AC Vx nVT VA k AB nVT VB variable kVAC n fraction
OP VT 1C
V nofVTXthis Vx unaccounted
3error nVT VA nfor. VT VB nVT VC
Assuming 0.15%
However, 3 nthe ITVTXand relay errors will slightly change with the
V 3 1n
1 VT n 3 V nVTn VAV nVTn VB0.2deg nVTnangle
V
VTX b VBnoperating
VT magnitude error for both the ITs and the relay, and
magnitude of the signal and /or other factors such as residual flux
V VOP
error
OP
OP gives 3 1 n0.38% n nVTX
VTXof b
bus 3 Vx V
3voltage x nVT
read
VT V as AanVT
spurious
VTV VCCVC
VT VT
or temperature. Even if tuned at one particular operating point, 3 n
VOP 3 nVTVT nVTX 3 Vx nVT VA nVT VB nVT VC
signal.
VT x A B
the method 1 will show some errors at different operating point due 3 n1VT
VOP nVTX 3 Vx nVT VA nVT VB nVT VC
to the IT3and nVTrelay inaccuracies. It is important to realize, though, ItVOPis important 1n nto nVTX b 3 Vxthat
understand nVT the Vmethod
A nVTcompares VB nVTtwo VC
that these errors occur regardless of the protection principle. By n
VVTX
voltages. 33 3
VV
Bothxx errors
n
nVTVT V V
AbA play n
3VT n V V
VVTax role.
n n
B nB VTThey V
VVTAmay V
C n VB mutually,
nVT VC
VTX will cancel
VTX VT VT C VT
3 1nVT n b 3 V n V n V n V
OP
compensating for bank inherent unbalance, and partially for IT and or add up.
relay errors, 1Z the methods
V OP VTX x VT A VT B VT C
VOP Z b2A3 presented
nAVTX Zn1VTB in
VAZthis
2 Bnpaper VBare
Z1Cnalready
ZVC2Cless 31VnVT n V n V n V
I DIF 3I nAVT to 1instrumentation VIx Berrors. Ianalysis n 3 1
bb1of 1n Instrumentation
VVA AVV VCVC b bErrors
susceptible Detailed VT VTfollows.
Z1 A Z 2 A Z1B Z 2 B
C
Z1C Z 2C 6.2
VOP VTX Impact x VT A
B B
VT B VT
11V0 V0on the
C
nVTX
OP 3 V
33 VT V A nVT VB nVT VC
Magnitude and angle errors of ITs and the relay can be modeled as Compensated
nVTX 3 Vx nVT Bank
x
VA nNeutral Voltage Unbalance
ancomplex multiplier applied for the analysis purposes to the ideal 1 VT VB nVT VC
3 V n V n V n V
VTX
transformation
x VT
Y1 A ratio
A
Y2 Aof a given
VT B
Y1Bsignal.
VT C
Y2 B For example, Y1C Ya2Cnegative VOP 1 b 1 VA VB VC b 1 V0
Function
1 b illustrated1 VA inVthe VC subsection
I I I I 0 VOPapproach 3 b 1 V0applies to this
0.5%DIF magnitude A error combined with a 0.3 Cdeg angle error can The B previous
1 Z11AAYZ2 A2 A B Y1ZB1
Yas: B Y2ZB 2 B Y1CZ1CY2CZ 2C V 3 method
b 1 as VAwell. VBExamining VC the b key V0
1 operating
beI
VOP modeled
DIF IAb 1 VA VB BVC b 1 V0 C
I I protection
OP
3
equation
3 Z1 A Z 2 A Z1B Z 2 B Z1C Z 2C for secondary voltages (7) leads to a conclusion that during
n ACTUAL nIDEAL b, b 1 0.0050.30
normal system conditions four voltage components, each of a
very small or zero magnitude, are added as vectors: neutral point
Y1 A Y2 A Y1B Y2 B Y1C Y2C bank voltage, system neutral voltage and two phase voltages
I DIF I A IB IC 0 – the latter two with very small multipliers.
6.1 Impact Y1 Aof YInstrumentation
2 A nVT 2 Y1B Y2 B Errors Y1C onY2the
C
VOP ( A) V1 A k A V2 A These four voltages are delivered by four VTs: (A,B,C,X) in case of
Voltage Differential nVT 1Function implementation (7a) with internally derived system zero-sequence
n ACTUAL
For simplicity nIDEAL
consider b 1 0.005
b, applications 0.3 banks. The voltage; and (0,X,B,C) in case of implementation (7b) with externally
on grounded
0
operating signal in secondary volts is (equation (1c)): supplied system zero-sequence voltage. For the purpose of error
n analysis, each of the VTs shall be represented with its own ratio,
VOP ( A) V1 A k A bn VT 2 V2 A potentially slightly different than the nominal value.
VOP ( A) V1 A k A VTn2VT V
1 2A
nVT 1
n n
0 V1 A k A VT 2 V2nA o k A VT 2 V2 A V1 A
VOP ( A) V1 A nkVTA 1 b VT 2 V2 A nVT 1
30 nVT 1 Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large Capacitor Banks
V0OP ( A)V V1 Akb V1 AnVT V nVT 2
OP ( A ) 1A 1A 1A
2 1A 1 b
1A A n V o k
2A A n V2 A V1 A
0 V1 A k A nVTVT1 2 V2 A o k AnVT 1VT 2 V2 A V1 A
VVOPOP nVT nVT
0 ( A)( V 1 A b1k
A ) 1

VT 12 V
Ab% 100%
100 2A o kA
VT 12 V
2A V1 A
V1 A
V deriving theVTsystem n n
VOP1(AA)
When V1 A b V1 A 1 V1 A 1 b
zero-sequence
VT 1 voltage internally the In other words, 1/3rd of the bus voltage “leaks” as a spurious
three
VOPOP( A)( Aphase Vvoltages
b Vare added
V1 A as 1vectors
b – small errors could operating signal due to errors in the measurement. For example,
V
yield 1 1 A0.005significant
a) 1 relatively 1A
0.30 100% spurious
0.72% system zero-sequence assume 0.3% magnitude error and 0.2 deg angle error. These
VVVOP Vfollowing
1 A b Vderivative V1 Aof0 1equation
b (7a) is useful:
11 b1100% 0.3 100%
voltage.
1 A ( A)) The
OP 1A errors in the A-phase voltage with all the other measurements
( A) 0.005 0.72% intact, i.e. with errors not adding and not canceling, would yield
VVVOP1 A( A)1
VOP 1 A n1VTXb1 100
k AB % according to equation (37c) 0.18% of bus voltage as an error in the
k AC Vx nVT VA k AB nVT VB k AC nVT VC
VV OP (3A)nVT operating signal of this protection method.
1A 1 b 100% (36a)
V V 1
V
VOP
OP
OP
1( AA ) 1
1 1n
VTX 0 .
0051 k 0
AB .
3 0k
100
nVTX 3 Vx nVT VA nVT VB nVT VC
AC
% V x 0 n. 72
VT
% V A k AB nVT VBWhen k ACusing
nVT externally
VC derived system zero-sequence voltage
For the
VVunity, 3 3
n n
purpose VT of error analysis, the k-factors can be assumed to (equation (7b)), requirements for the bank and system neutral
beOP
VV
1 A( A ) VT
and 1
therefore:
1 0 . 005 0 . 3 0
100 % 0 .72 % voltage measurements are relaxed, and the accuracy of
1n1VTXb1 3V0x .005

nVT V
OP ( A )1 measurement of the two phase voltages becomes secondary
VOP 1 A
1 A 0n.VT30VB100
nVT% VC 0.72%
VOP
V V VT 3 n
nnVTX
VTX 3 1 Vkx AB nVTk VA V nVTn VB V nVTk VC n V because of the low value of multipliers applied to the B and C
k AC nVT VC
OP1 A 3 n AC x VT A AB VT B voltages.
3 nVT VT
nVTX 3 Vx n1VT VA nVT VB nVT VC
VOP n 1 k AB k AC Vx nVT VA k(36b) AB nVT VB k AC nVT VC
Generally speaking the method is most impacted by the accuracy
3 1nVT VTX
VOP 1 the
V
1
1 above
nnVTXis b perfectly
13 Vk AB nbalanced
k ACV An Vand
xn n V VnA inkVAB nVT of
Vthe measurement of the system neutral voltage. This quantity is
k AC nVT ofVCthe method applied (internally, externally to
B regardless
Assume
V
V OP b31n VAn VB 3VCV
VTX bxn1 VVT V V
VT an
VT error
B n V
VT
the
C derived
OP 3 3 n VT VTX
OP x VT 0 A VT B VT C
measurement 3 nVT VT of the bank neutral voltage is added, represented the relay) out of three vectors each having significant magnitude
by the complex 1 number b: compared with the target sensitivity. Small magnitude and angle
VOP nVTX 3 Vx nVT VA nVT VB nVT VC
1
nVTX 33 V1xnVT nnVT VA3 V nVT VnB nVVT VC V n V errors in sensing any of the three vectors would become significant
V
V OP n VTX b 3 Vx n VT V A nnVT V B n VT V C for this sensitive protection function.
33nnVTVT
OP VTX x VT A VT B VT C
1 1 6.3 Impact of Instrumentation Errors of the

VOP b 1nVTX VAb V 3B VVx CnVT bVA1 Vn0VT V B nVT(36b) VC Phase Current Balance Function
333Vx1nVT (36b):
OP
nVTX equation
From
V nVT
nVTX VA bn3VT V V B nVT V
nVT VC n V n V 1
OP
3 nVT
x A VT B VT C VOP using a window-type
When nVTX 3 VCTx to nVT b Vthe
measure A nVT VB current,
differential nVT VC
3 n
this method isVTquite immune to instrumentation errors. From
1 Vx nVT VA nVT VB nVT VC
VnOP
VTX 3
(36c)
b 1 VA VB VC b 1 V0 equation (12) the method balances the differential current with
nVTX 33Vx nVT VA nVT VB nVT VC a small fraction of the total bank current. Both signals are low:
3 V
Substituting (36c) into (36b) gives:
nformer
the VTX x nVT of
because
Vthe
B near-zero
nVT VC circulating
nVT VA current; the latter
1
VOP
13
b 1 VA VB VC b 1 V0 because of the multiplier. As a result the errors are decimated
VOP b 1 VA VB VC b 1 V0 (36d)
when they1“leak” into the operating signal.
VOP b 1 VA
3 Analysis of3equation (12) yields the following expression the error
In other words, the error in the operating signal is proportional to analysis:
the system unbalance, with a small multiplier. As a result, errors
in the measurement of the bank neutral voltage are of secondary I OP b 1 I DIF b 1 k I (38)
importance. For example, assume a system unbalance (V0) of 3%
of bus nominal voltage, and a 5% magnitude and 1 deg angle For example, assume 2% of full bank current circulating in the
error for the neutral point transformer. Using equation (36d) one ' Vx CTV0(k =!0.02),
window P and 5% magnitude and 3 deg angle error in
concludes that this error introduces about 0.16% of bus nominal the phase CT. According to equation (38) the spurious operating
voltage as a spurious operating signal. signal will reach 0.14% of the total bank current.
' I DIF ! P
Bus VTs must be much more accurate to facilitate sensitive 6.4 Impact of Instrumentation Errors of the
protection. Assume, a phase A VT is now exposed to measurement
errors: Neutral1Current Balance Function
VOP
As explained
1 k AB k AC Vx 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC
1 3 in the previous section, the neutral and phase current
VOP nVTX 3 Vx nVT b VA nVT VB nVT VC balance methods are equivalent. The differential neutral current
3 nVT is compensated for inherent unbalance by all three currents (per
(37a) VOP (18)),
equation Vx butV0similarly to the phase current balance method
1 the multipliers for the phase currents are small. Therefore, equation
V OP 3
nVTX
From nVTX
V 3 n Vx V nVTnVTb V
Vx n(36b):
equation VAA nVT VB nVT VC (38) applies to this method, and yields the same results as to the
3 nVT VT B VT C
VRESTof measurement
impact Vx V0 errors.
nVTX 3 Vx nVT VB nVT VC nVT VA (37b)
1 Overall the relative insensitivity of the current balance methods to
V b 1 V
VTX 3 Vx nVT AVB nVT VC
nOP nVT VA
3 (37b) into (37a) gives: instrumentation
0.2 pu00 errors0can .17bepuunderstood
50 by realizing only small
Substituting portions of the phase currents are used for compensation, while
the differential currents – if measured via window CTs – are not
I OP
V OP
b1 b1 1I DIF
VA b 1 k I (37c) exposed
V to0any significant
.2 pu 00 0errors.
.17 pu50 0.034 pu
3 OP
' Vx V0 ! P
I OP b 1 I DIF b 1 k I VREST 0.2 pu00 0.17 pu50 0.37 pu
' I DIF ! P
' Vx V0 ! P V0 0.05 pu00 , Vx 0.05 pu0 0 0.02 pu1800 0.07 pu
1
V'OPI 1 k AB k AC Vx 3Fundamentals
V0 VB 1 ofkAdaptive
AB VC 1 k ACV
Protection of Large Capacitor 0Banks 31
DIF 3! P OP 0.07 pu0 0.05 pu0 0 0.02 pu
nn
VVTX
VTX V1
33 x VbxnVT n V
1 VVTB V nVT VCnVT nVTVC VA nVT VA
OP AB
nVTX 3 Vx nVT VB nVT VC nVT VA 1 3 1
VOP 1 1 VOP
VOP

13b 1 VA

k AB 3bkAC1 VV A
x 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC
7. Comparison with Traditional Methods V I OP
In other3b b111 1the

words, Voperating
InDIF A 3 bV 1 nk isIba vectorial
signal difference of two
1 V
V OP 3 n V x n b V
V AI n
n V n
VC
VBB penalizing
nVT
VOP b 1 VA 3 VT VC
OP
voltages. In orderI VTX
to b 1
better Icope VT
b
with 1 k
errors andVT
avoid
OP 33 nnVT OP VTX xDIF VT A VT
3 either a given function is desensitized to account
Traditionally, V
Isensitivity
OPOP b 1xanV V
IVTDIFoptimized
0 b 1 krestraining
I signal can be created as
for inherent bank unbalances and instrumentation errors. Or, a follows:
I OP x b 0 1!'PIVDIF
'V V x V0 ! P
b 1 k I
3 V0 V !x P VT V B n V VA
historical value of the non-zero operating quantity is subtracted n n n
I OP b 1before
(D-changes) I DIFcomparing
b 1 with
k aIpickup threshold (P) resulting ' n
VVTX V
VTX x 3 V V
x x VTn V0 B nVT
V VT VC
C nVT VT VA (40b)
REST
in the rate-of-change mode of operation: ' I ! P
' 'IVI xDIF!1VP!0 P! P DIF
' Vx V0 ! P (neutral unbalance) (39a)

Note
V 2 puor 1 0b0n1 V3A0V.17
DIFthat1the above signal is not a classical restraint in the form of
npu V0A nThis
a0
V VOP.OP
OPsum b VTX
3naverage
33 1V ofA1the VT
x magnitudes. b 5 VT V B nVT
would VC sensitivity
affect
of VT VOP
1!1 Pk Instead 1 k k V 3 V V B 1of AB two
kthe VC 1 k AC
'OPthe
V
Vvoltages.I DIF1function. 1 AB k AB
the restraint is a vectorial sum
k AC3 kVACx 3V
AB AC
Vx0 V3B V 10k ABVB V1C 1kABk AC VC 1 k AC
x 0
OP 3
' I DIF ! P (phase or neutral current unbalance) (39b) VInOP 3 Vb30 x .21npu VB 00nVT
VT I 0bVV.C17
1 npuVT k
VA5I0
0.034 pu
IToOPOP
b 1 V I V b 1 k I works, consider external
VTX
understand better DIF
OP
DIF how x this
0 approach
Vfault V1 x V0
The rate-of-change approach improves sensitivity to some extent
but has 1
V OP and
VOP OP 1 Vinternal
b
1 Vk0 ABbank
x 1 V
kfailure.
0 AC
Vx 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC
1 k AB k AC Vx 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1 VVAssume
limitations. OP
VOP ' k V 3 3Van 0 .
! 2VP
externalpuA
REST 0 V
fault x 0V.017 pu50
producing 20% of system pu
0.37zero-sequence
'RESTVx VVx0 !V0P
REST
AC x 0
First, it is3an approximation. As derived in section 4, the “leaking” voltage. Assume further, the bank neutral point voltage is
values are proportional to present values of some other signals VI OP
measured
REST b
OP V01xV as .20Vpu
0V
xI DIF 00b010 while
k I0the pu50 zero-sequence voltage
.17system
VOP toVxthe
related Vbank
0
(example: differential current in the phase 0V
is'
' IIpu
.20measured
DIF 0.005
!
! P
Ppu as 0.017 ,puVx 5 due 0
0.05topu finite
0
0accuracy 0.02ofpuinstrument1800 0.07 pu0
balance method proportional to the total bank current). When DIF
transformers and the relay, transients, etc. If so, the function even
V2x pu
'perfectly V 0 !
0P VOP 0.2 pu00 00.17 pu50 0.034 pu
the currents do not change, the delta method works satisfactory. if0
V .
VOPREST 0.2 pux0 0 0.17 0
V 0V
compensated 0 . 17 pu
for
pu5 05
the bank inherent unbalance would
0.034 pu
But
VRESTwhen the Vx currents
V0 change, such as during close-in external V V
see an operating 110.07 pusignal 00k of:0.05 pu0 0 0.02 pu
I DIF !3P1 VREST
1 k pu V 0xx 03
V 0 V 50BB 1
10.37k AB VC 1 k AC
AB VC 1 k AC
OP
faults, subtracting an old value will not compensate correctly. V'OP OP k AB
AB 0k.2AC
AC V 0
3.17 V pu
0 V kpu
Time delay or other inhibit method may be needed to ride through V0 VREST 2 pu
.OP 300.02.2pupu
0 00 0
0
0
0..17
17 0pu.pu
17 5pu0 0 0
505.37 pu0.034 pu
such conditions.
0.2 pu00 0.17 pu50 VREST 1 0.07 V pu0 .050
0
pu 00.05 0
Vxpu0 00pu000.120.pu pu180 0 0
V VIf used to V 1
trip k V 0 k
instantaneously V 3
,without
V V
.a05
restraint the02
B 1 k AB 0VC 1 k AC 0
function will 0.07 pu0
1
Second, the nrate-of-change
V approach will not provide for a V
Vhave OP
OP 0to
OP
.05 V
3 bepu
x V
0above
AB00
0, Vx 0 this
AC 00
0.05 pu0 00.020 pu180 0.07 pu0 .
x
VTX 3 Vx nVT b V A nVT VB nVT VC
xset
OP
sustained3 nVToperating0 signal. When 0the delta-t window slides V0OP REST 0.0 2.pu2 pu 0 00 0level..017 .17 pupu 5 5 0.0034 .37pu pu
VOP into
entirely 0.2the pufault,
0 the .17 pusignal
0operating 5 will reset.pu
0.034 This creates a
VOP 0.07 pu00 0.05 pu0 0 0.02 pu
Calculate
VOP 0V.07 x
the V0 proposed restraining signal:
V V
VOPREST V
Vpu x 0V0 0 0.05 pu0 0 0.02 pu
x V0 0 0
problem when time-delayed operation is assumed.
nVTX 3 Vx nVT VB nVT VC nVT VA REST 0 0 0
1 VREST 0 0.050.pu 2Vpu00, 0V.07 x 0pu 0.05
.17 0pu0 pu
0.5 050pu 000.037
.02pu 0pu
.12 pu180 0.07 pu
Methods
VREST for
0 .inherent
2 pu 0 bank
0
0compensation
. 17 pu 5 0 presented in section 4
0 . 37 pu V V V REST
n 3 V n b V n V n V V REST
00..22 pu 0 . 07
x
0 pu 0
0 0
0 . 05 pu 0 0
0 0 . 12 pu
identify1 the ntrue cause 000 applied00definition 17 pu
..17 pu of55the
OP VTX of thexunbalance, VT andA as such
VT are B accurate
VT C REST
b3
0
V
under system 1VT VA
balanced conditions, minor unbalances, and major
Note puthatthe 0
restraint practically doubles
0
OP
3
system events such0 as close-in faults. Their
V
the0 .0OP 0.05
2 pu
two 0 00
.
involved07 pu
pu0 , Vx 0.05 pu0slope
0
. 0
17 0
signals.pu
50 0
. 05
Assuming pu
a 0 0 is00 .02pu
.02
used for 1800 it 0.07 pu0
putripping,
0 operating signals 0are 0
V0 0.05 pu 0 , Vx delayed 0.05 pu0 and 0.02 pu180 with no 0.07
will
V putake 00.034/0.37 . pu0=00 9.2% of slope to restrain the operation.
0.17 pu500 0
VOP 0 0..2 034 pu
0..034
sustainable
n 3 V allowing n Vtime n V alarmingn V tripping
I OPVTX b 1x I DIFVT b B 1 kVT I
restrictions. C VT A
VOP
OP 2 pu
0.2anpuinternal 0 0 0.17 0pu5
.17 pufailure
0 0bank 5 under pu of system unbalance
0.0345% pu
Consider
0 0
V
(system
OP 0.007.07pupu

REST zero-sequence 000voltage).
0
0.005 pu
.05 pu
0 000further,
Assume 0.002 pupu
.12
the bank failure
VOP system
Major 0.07 pu 0 0is.05
unbalance an pu 0.02 pu to consider.
0 condition
important
V01 ! Passume a close in ground fault elevating both the
0 0
' Vxexample, V
VREST
V 0
changes the
0.0 . 2 pu 00point
neutral
2 .pu
2 0 0
pu
pu0 00.17 . 17 0pu
voltage
0.175 pu
by52%0 of0bus
. 37
37 pu 0.37 pu
0.5 pu
voltage at the
VOP
For b 1 VA REST
angle
REST of 180 deg (worst case):
3
system zero-sequence voltage and the bank neutral point voltage.
VREST 0.07 pu0 0 0.05 pu00 0.12 pu
VREST
The
' I DIF ! P0.07 pu
compensated 0 0
neutral unbalance 00 is0based
0.05 pumethod .12 puon equation
00 ,0V00x , V0.05 pu
V0 0.05 pupu 0 0pu
0.02 0pu180 0 pu000 . .07 pu0
0.07180
(5): V
V00 00..05 0 , Vxx 00..05
05 pu 05 pu00 0 02 pu
00..02 pu1800 0 0.07 pu0
I OP b 1 I DIF b 1 k I The operating signal is:
1 VOP 0.07 pu00 0.05 pu0 0 0.02 pu
VOP 1 k AB k AC Vx 3 V0 VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC 0 0
3 V
VOP 07 pu
00..07 000
pu 05 pu
00..05 00 0
pu 02 pu
00..02 pu
' Vx the
During
V0outlined
! P ground fault event, V and V assume significant
OP
0 0
VRESTrestraining
The 0.07 pusignal
0 is:0.05 pu0 0.12 pu
V
values
OP V
and V0 balance perfectly as long
x will
x 0
as the relay uses proper 0 0
settings for the inherent bank unbalance compensation (k-values) VREST
V 00..07 pu
07 pu00
00..05
0 pu
05 pu000 00..12 pu
12 pu
' I DIF
and the V!P
instrumentation errors are low enough compared with REST
V REST x V0
the applied setting. The other two voltage components are of Assume a 10% slope setting is applied. The ratio between the
secondary importance as they use small multipliers. operate and restraining signals is 0.02/0.12 = 17% allowing for
0V.2 pu010 1 k0.17puk 50 V 3 V V 1 k V 1 k AC operation given the slope of 10%.
sensitive
Simplifying
OP one canAB write the
AC following
x balance
0 B equation
ABfor this
C
function:
3
Change in the voltage at 180 degrees is the worst case. Under the
VOP 0.2 pu00 0.17 pu50 0.034 pu
best case scenario one obtains 0.08pu of restraint, or 0.02/0.08 =
VOP Vx V0 (40a) 25% of the operate-to-restraint ratio.
0 0
VREST 0.2 pu0 0.17 pu5 0.37 pu Careful application of restraint allows further improvement of
VREST Vx V0 security while maintaining good sensitivity of the capacitor bank
V0 0.05 pu00 , Vx 0.05 pu0 0 0.02 pu1800 0.07 pu0 . protection functions.
0
0.2 pu0
VOP
00 0.17 pu50
.07 pu00 0.05 pu0 0 0.02 pu
0 0
VVREST
OP 2 pu
00..07 000 0.005.17
pu pu0
pu 0 5
pu.034 pu
0.12 0
32 VREST 0.2 pu00 0.17 puFundamentals

50 0.37ofpuAdaptive Protection of Large Capacitor Banks
8. Summary The paper analyses sensitivity of the developed methods and derives
practical equations for the amount of the operating signals given
This paper derives correct balance equations for short circuit the size of the bank failure. Also, impact of instrumentation errors
protection of shunt capacitor banks taking into account inherent (instrument transformers and relays) is analyzed quantitatively
unbalances in the protected bank. Four methods are derived: allowing one to optimize the secondary system design, and select
voltage differential, compensated neutral voltage unbalance, phase settings based on data.
current balance, and neutral current balance.
As can be seen from key equations (1), (5), (11), and (18) the proper
way of balancing the bank (or banks) involves instantaneous
9. References
values of currents or voltages. Subtracting the residual unbalance [1] IEEE Std. C37.99-2000: “Guide for the Protection of Shunt
as a time-delayed signal (a historical, or a constant value), and Capacitor Banks”, June 2000.
responding to the delta changes does not constitute a proper,
sensitive and secure operating equation for protective relaying [2] Kasztenny B., Brunello G., Wester C.: “Capacitor Bank
purposes. Fundamentals and Protection”, Proceedings of the 56th Annual
Conference for Protective Relay Engineers, College Station, TX,
The methods presented in this paper compensate for both bank
April 8-11, 2003.
and system unbalances. Therefore they are insensitive to major
system events such as close-in faults. Presently used relaying [3] Capacitor Bank Protection and Control Relay, Instruction
techniques might misoperate on such system conditions, as they Manual, General Electric Publication, 2006.
typically disregard system unbalances and compensate for the
bank unbalance assuming no, or minor system unbalances.
The exact balance equations developed in this paper open a chance
to perform manual, or automated adjusting of the operating logic
in order to accommodate the inherent unbalance of the bank either
due to un-repaired failures, temperature or seasonal changes, or
changes due to removing, shorting, or repairing the cans. This can
be done as auto-setting, i.e. one time adjustment after the repair
and under user supervision, or as self-tuning, i.e. a continuous
tracing of the slightly changing capacitor reactances in order
to maintain optimum sensitivity to internal failures, and security
during system unbalances.
The voltage differential, phase and current balance methods are

subject to self-tuning under any conditions; the neutral voltage
unbalance is subject to self-tuning as long as the neutral point
voltage is above the measuring error level. When applied in the
self-tuning mode the methods continuously compensate for
temperature and seasonal changes, in a slow loop of modifying
their balancing coefficients based on actual values. Note that the
majority of the balancing coefficients developed in this paper are
ratios of impedances. As such they are already greatly insensitive
to temperature and seasonal changes.
If implemented in the self-tuning mode a given method shall still

monitor the total drift in the operating signal even if very slow,
and alarm if the amount of the drift signifies a danger of possible
future failure, or a series of minor failures that went undetected or
unattended to.
The involved balancing factors although in theory are complex

numbers, could be very well represented by real numbers (uneven
loss tangents of the capacitors in the bank, and errors of instrument
transformers cause small imaginary parts of the matching factors).
With the matching factors being real numbers, inherent unbalance
of a capacitor bank can be easily zeroed out in the protection
equations using only 1, 2 or a maximum of 3 coefficients. These
coefficients can be tuned by measurements, and simple engineering
calculations.
0925-v4
Implementation and Performance of
Synchrophasor Function within
Microprocessor Based Relays
Bogdan Kasztenny Mark Adamiak
GE Multilin GE Multilin
1. Introduction This paper reviews the basic aspects of synchrophasor

implementations integrated with protective relay functionality. It
Synchronized phasor measurements have come a long way since presents the key technical challenges, and discusses solutions that
their conception [1]-[3]. Many potential applications have been eliminate the risk of impacting the core protection functionality
identified [2], including improved state estimation, frequency of the relay. The paper offers simple tests that can be applied to
estimation, instability prediction, adaptive relaying, and wide area gauge the impact of an integrated PMU on the overall performance
control, for example. The recently published IEEE Standard C37.118 of a given relay.
[3] will assure that compliant phasor measurement units will all
report phasors using the same convention for measuring phase The overall goal of this paper is to educate the user and allow
angle, particularly when the underlying power system frequency for more rational decision making with respect to deploying
is off-nominal. integrated PMUs versus standalone PMUs.
Even though today’s installations of Phasor Measurement Units

(PMUs) are limited in cover-age and enterprise communication 2. Issues when Implementing
performance, it is clear the technology will advance quickly
yielding significant benefits. Synchrophasors on Protection Platforms
Widespread deployment of the PMUs providing for both appropriate It is self evident that wide penetration of PMUs facilitating both
penetration and redundancy of synchronized measurements is a faster accumulation of experience in preparation for advanced
key factor. Such widespread deployment can be achieved when applications, and redundancy of measurements required for the
integrating the PMU function within modern microprocessor-based future critical applications of synchrophasors, can be naturally
relays - similar to the relay integration trend seen with metering, achieved by integrating PMU functions with protection and control
fault recording, and sequence of event re-cording capabilities. platforms. Successful integration of sequence-of-events (SOE) and
digital-fault-recorder (DFR) capabilities with protective relays is
Implementation of PMU functions, however, imposes new a historical lesson to follow when considering cost-efficient and
requirements on protection plat-forms. Most importantly PMUs widespread deployment of PMUs.
require correlation of the waveform samples with the absolute
time driven by the Global Positioning System (GPS), and reporting Modern protection platforms are capable of supporting
the measured phasors with reference to such absolute time. synchrophasor measurements, local re-cording and reporting.
Traditional relay implementations sample their input voltages and This relates to internal architectures, time synchronization,
currents asynchronously from any external process such as the metering accuracy, communication capabilities, and processing
GPS time, and derive measurements as quickly as possible for power required to comply with the C37.118 requirements.
speed of response.
However, microprocessor-based protection relays have been
Additional processing requirements are presented for the relay to designed historically without regard to the notion of absolute
measure, communicate and record the PMU data in addition to time. Time stamping for SOE and DFR recording is probably
providing for their core protection functionality. the only instance of reference to an absolute time in protective
relaying. Sampling and synchronization, even in critical and
All this raises potential concerns with respect to integrating PMU high performance systems such as the line current differential
functions in protective re-lays. Whether on new platforms or as a protection, is typically achieved without reference to the absolute
part of an upgrade of an existing product, changes to the existing time. This is a prudent protection approach as it limits exposure of
or commonly deployed data acquisition system of a relay in order mission-critical protection functions to availability and misbehavior
to accommodate synchrophasors can have serious consequences other devices such as the GPS system and associated receivers/
for all the other functions of the relay- protection in particular. clocks.
Implementation and Performance of Synchrophasor Function within Microprocessor Based Relays 35

Predominantly protection relays sample asynchronously with Not only does a given device needs to synch with the 1pps signal
respect to the absolute time, but in synch with power system but between the pulses, the device must internally maintain a very
frequency. The latter is to keep the digitally implemented precise notion of time so that each of the synchrophasor reference
measurements accurate should the power frequency depart from points (referred in this paper as “synchrophasor interrupts”)
its nominal value. occurring within the period of the full second is maintained with
an error not larger than few microseconds.
The following sections provide some insight on implementation
of synchrophasors on a typical microprocessor-based relay [4]. It Figure 1 illustrates this process. In one particular implementation
presents some solutions, and highlights certain aspects that need a precise phase lock loop is run with the objective to null out the
to be understood and evaluated by a protection engineer to make positional error between the 1pps signal and the last synchrophasor
sure the extra functionality put on a relay does not jeopardize the interrupt that ought to occur exactly at the top of the second. This
core protection task of the device. phase lock loop compensates for the natural drift of the internal
IED oscillator, and the finite resolution of the latter.
For example, a given oscillator could have an error of say 25

3. Design Principles when Implementing parts per million as specified by the component manufacturer.
Synchrophasors on Existing Platforms This means it could drift up to 25 microseconds over a period
of 1,000,000 microseconds (1 second). This value would prevent
It is prudent to follow these design principles when implementing successful implementation of synchrophasors. Moreover, the
synchrophasor measurements on existing or new protection error can change with temperature and between different articles
platforms: (samples) of the oscillator. The drift, however, is easily measurable
with the aid of the 1pps signal. When measured, validated, and
1. The underlying sampling process of the relay shall not be averaged, the drift of the oscillator is an input to the phase lock
altered. Sampling and data collection potentially affects all loop making the internal time keeping mechanism extremely
other functions of the relay. To minimize the risk, this area accurate.
shall not be modified. Sampling in synchronism with the
absolute time is not only unnecessary; it actually yields a
substandard solution from the point of view of metering
accuracy as shown later in this paper.
2. The synchrophasor calculations shall be added in parallel

to the existing protection, control and metering functions to
minimize the risk of affecting these critical functions.
3. Hardware modifications shall be minimized for the reason of

stability of the design.
4. Calculations shall be organized in a way that the extra

processing power is optimally distributed and can be
accommodated by existing platforms with appropriate
security margin, even under fault conditions and other Figure 1.
periods of increased activity of an IED. Defining synchrophasor interrupts and timing errors.
The key design areas for implementation are: timing accuracy;

sampling and correlating input signals with the absolute time, The compensation process works as follows. The algorithm, using
algorithms for accurate measurement of the phasors, data a precise hardware-implemented interrupt service, captures
storage, recording and streaming. the local relay time (oscillator value) at the exact moment of the
1pps reference pulse. If the internal relay oscillator is perfect,
the captured value should be exactly 1,000,000 microseconds
from the last 1pps pulse. A reading of 1,000,015 microseconds,
4. Timing Accuracy for example, means the oscillator is 15 microseconds / second
Accuracy of synchrophasors as measured by the C37.118 is defined too fast; while the reading of 999,994 microseconds means the
as a Total Vector Error (TVE) being the percentage magnitude of a oscillator is 6 microseconds / second too slow.
vectorial difference between the measured and actual phasors
The value of the second-over-second drift is checked for validity,
treated as vectors.
and averaged over longer periods of time. The secure and
As such the TVE has three major components: magnitude error, smoothed out value is now used to control the oscillator or as
angle error as related to the input signals, and angle error as a correction in the algorithm generating the synchrophasor
related to the measurement of the absolute time. interrupts. Our solution uses the measured drift of the internal
oscillator to discipline the synchrophasor interrupt generator
It is enlightening to think of time as a quantity that needs to be rather than control the oscillator [4]. This avoids changes to the
“measured” by a given device based on a standard physical relay and thus following the design goals outlined in section 3
input, such as the 1 pulse per second (1pps) marker embedded above.
in the standard IRIG-B input. Assuming 1% TVE target as per the
C37.118, and budgeting accordingly for the three sources of error,
leaves up to 5-8 microseconds for the total timing error.
36 Implementation and Performance of Synchrophasor Function within Microprocessor Based Relays

Another issue is the required resolution of the internal oscillator. Relays and other devices measuring sine waves apply frequency
Assuming 60 synchrophasors are produced per second, the tracking. These devices calculate features of sine-waves
synchrophasor interrupts are to be generated every 1,666.66(6) (magnitude, for example) using their measuring algorithms such
microseconds. When this number is rounded to a practical as the Fourier Transform. These algorithms assume typically a
oscillating frequency, an error would accumulate making the constant pre-defined number of samples taken in each period
last synchrophasor interrupts in a given second inaccurate. For of the waveform. If the system frequency changes, the period
example assume an implementation using 0.25-microsecond changes, and the number of samples in a period would change
resolution that is generating synchrophasor interrupts every as well if using a constant sampling rate. This would yield certain
1,666.50 microseconds. The 1,666.50 microsecond interval is off finite measurement error. In order to eliminate this error either the
only by 0.166(6) microseconds from the ideal value. However, sampling rate is made variable to follow the system frequency, or
after 1 full second when this error adds up 59 times, the last a numerical compensation is programmed in the device.
interrupt within the second will come after 60*1,666.50 = 999,990
microseconds that is a 10 microsecond error from the required The first approach is typically more popular and referred to as
time. “frequency tracking”. Effectively, frequency tracking varies the
length of the data window used for digital measurements to
In addition, assume the oscillator is too slow by 12 microseconds follow the length of the signal period as it varies under off-nominal
in each second (example). To compensate for the drift each frequencies and power swings.
synchrophasor interrupt will have to be adjusted by 12/60 = 0.2
microsecond, while a practical resolution of the oscillator can be Another misconception is that staying in synchronism with the
in the range of a quarter of a microsecond. The 0.25 – 0.20 = 0.05 system frequency (for accuracy) and staying in synchronism
microsecond error repeated 60 times within each second would with the absolute time (for phase reference) are contradicting
yield 3 microseconds of error eating away from the tight timing targets, and require convoluted solutions such as measuring the
error budget required by synchrophasors. magnitude and angle using different algorithms.
To minimize this error, a dithering algorithm is applied yielding a high The former is about adjusting the length of the data window so
accuracy of timing for the synchrophasor interrupts. An internal that it covers pre-selected multiplies of power cycles; the latter is
variable is used to count the time with a nanosecond accuracy, about positioning of this data window so that the measurement
while the interrupts are generated with a 0.25 microsecond complies with the C37.118 angle convention.
resolution. The device keeps track of the error accumulated due Both can be controlled independently with no major obstacles.
to the finite resolution of the oscillator. Once the error reaches half One may think about these two processes as having two
the resolution period, the synchrophasor interrupt is moved by controllers: one positions the center of the data window to align it
one resolution period. In this way the error is kept below half the precisely with the synchrophasor interrupts; the other controls the
period of the oscillator, and never accumulates. sampling rate to keep the length of the data window in relation to
The discussion on timing presented in this section is an excellent the slightly changing system frequency.
illustration of issues and challenges faced when implementing Although the samples must be correlate-able to absolute time,
synchrophasors on existing relay platforms or traditionally they can be taken at any time instant. Figure 2 presents a solution
designed new relay platforms. The solutions outlined in this section in which the samples are collected asynchronously with respect to
are elegant and avoid any changes to the existing relay hardware, absolute time. The platform applies frequency tracking to keep the
thus minimizing the risk and avoiding expensive internal oscillator number of samples constant in the actual period of the waveform
upgrades. The “time keeping” is implemented in software based a as the period changes [4]. When the synchrophasor interrupt is
on carefully crafted algorithm. asserted, the device locks the sample index and collects half its
data window from the samples that follow the interrupt and half
– from the samples preceding the interrupt. In this way, without
5. Sampling for protection and altering the sampling process the device gets a data window that
synchrophasors is placed very closely with respect to the required reporting point
in time.
Protective relays typically do not sample synchronously with
respect to the absolute time. In-stead, they sample based on a
free-running sample and hold timer and often apply frequency
tracking or compensation so that the measurement calculations
retain accuracy even if the system frequency departs from the
nominal value. It is a common misconception that measuring
synchrophasors requires sampling synchronously to absolute
time.
Some applications force the data acquisition system (A/D converter)

to take samples at precise pre-defined points in time with respect to
absolute time. This, however, results in unnecessarily complicated
designs, and is not required. In order to measure synchrophasors
one needs to know the absolute time of each sample taken by the
A/D, but these samples can be taken at any point in time. They do
not have to be “hard-synched” to the GPS clock.
Figure 2.
Data window based on asynchronously taken samples.

Note that in this approach:
• The length of the data window is already correct and adequate

as the sampling period is controlled by the frequency tracking
mechanism;
• The position of the window is within half of the sampling

period from the required position as per the synchrophasor
convention.
• It is trivial for the device to calculate the offset between

the center of such “best-placed” window and the required
position of the window. Calculate of this difference does
not require referring to absolute time. This time difference is
used to compensate the synchrophasor measurements as
explained below.
The device calculates the center of the window by averaging the

time stamps of the samples within the window. This averaging is
done using any time reference, not necessarily the absolute time Figure 3.
reference. In our implementation a free running microsecond CPU & DSP architecture for synchrophasor implementation.
counter is used to calculate the position of the center of the data
window. The same free running counter is used to capture the
time of the synchrophasor interrupt asserted based on the true
absolute time. Even though the free running microsecond counter
is not a true time, the time difference between the synchrophasor
interrupt (point when the center of the window should be), and
the calculated center of the window (point when the data window
actually is) is precise and can be used for compensation.
Following the window selection procedure illustrated in Figure 2 the

DSP places the window to within few degrees to the synchrophasor
interrupt. The inherent displacement is precisely measured and is
used for very precise compensation of the calculated phasor (an
Figure 4.
angular rotation of 2-3 degrees as described later in this paper).
Processing of best-placed raw data windows into synchrophasor values.
This approach is ideal for typical relay architectures: samples
are taken by data acquisition systems typically incorporating an
A/D converter and a Digital Signal Processor (DSP). These data The X and Y windows are produced at nominal system frequency
acquisition subsystems typically do not have a notion of absolute regardless of the recording or reporting rates set for the PMU
time. In our approach a very simple solution is adopted. In this function. A pair of Y windows (the present and past windows) is used
architecture (Figure 3) the Central Processing Unit (CPU) of the IED to implement the four-parameter signal estimator as described
synchronizes to the 1pps signal and executes the phase lock loop later in this paper. As a result a new, more accurate estimate of
that generates precise synchrophasor interrupts. These interrupts the phasor is calculated at the rate of nominal system frequency
are captured by the DSP using a “local DSP time” in the form of (windows P in Figure 4). The P-values are calculated assuming
a free running counter. The interrupt triggers calculations for the the phasor may change in time, and as such are extensions of
synchrophasor instant and allows the DSP to obtain the notion of the C37.118 synchrophasor standard, aimed at future dynamic
time, and produce the phasor precisely aligned with the time mark applications of synchrophasors.
as driven by the interrupt.
In order to control the balance between speed and accuracy of the
measurement, the device further implements user selectable post-
filtering, that is, a number of P-measurements can be combined
6. Post-processing and Extra Filtering into the filtered synchrophasor output, S, effectively extending the
estimation window. The post-filtering is not a straight average, but
As depicted in Figure 4, our device uses “best-placed” windows
takes into account the value and rotation speed of each of the
for synchrophasor measurement without altering the sampling
used P-values as described later in this paper.
process (windows X). It measures the small shift between the
required and actual positions of such windows and compensates
for the difference by a simple phasor rotation. This yields
synchronized full-cycle Fourier windows (windows Y).

7. Compensating for Analog Errors Analog filters, necessary in any digital measuring system to deal
with aliasing of samples, introduce a phase shift, which also needs
Synchrophasor implementation calls for accuracy above a typical to be compensated. When the analog filter is set relatively high,
protection accuracy or metering accuracy as typically provided the phase shift for the frequency band around the nominal is very
on protective relays. When implemented on a protection platform, linear, and can be easily compensated. Figure 7 shows the
synchrophasors may need correcting for errors of the IED’s input measured (red dots) and applied (blue line) correcting angles
transformers. accounting for the impact of analog filters in the solution [4].
Figure 5 shows a correcting function for the current inputs: the

correction is small – in the order of 0.2 – 1.8 degrees – and depends
on both the magnitude and frequency of the signal. In particular
at very low signal levels and lower frequencies the excitation
current of the input trans-formers starts causing some angular
errors, and the device applies higher correction for the measured
angle for the current inputs.
Figure 7.
Correction for the Analog Filter.
The few implementation details outlined above are meant to

direct attention to the way synchrophasors are implemented on
protective relays, and the potential impact on the existing mission-
critical protection functionality. In the outlined implementation
minor hardware changes were required to provide synchrophasor
interrupts from the central processing unit, having the notion of the
absolute time (from the IRIG-B input), to the digital signal processor,
Figure 5. which is responsible for the majority of the calculations but has
Correction of current input transformers. no direct relationship with absolute time. All the other aspects of
the synchrophasor implementation have been accommodated
in software, in subroutines completely detached from the key
protection functions. This minimizes the risk and allows claiming
Figure 6 shows the correction applied to the voltage inputs. The a very secure implementation [4].
required angle shift to keep the measurements accurate is smaller
(up to 0.2 degrees), and again depends on the magnitude and
frequency of a given voltage input. 8. Implementation of the Data
Communication Protocol
An important part of the C37.118 synchrophasor standard is the
interoperable data communication protocol. The C37.118 protocol
is a low-overhead “lean” protocol well suited for real-time data
communication. The communication is organized around 4 types
of frames:
• Configuration frames describing either present or maximum

device configuration are sent to the higher order system
(Phasor Data Concentrator, PDC) on demand or automatically
upon configuration change of the PMU. These frames are
therefore sent only exceptionally and are intended for the
PDCs.
• Header frame is similar to the configuration frames but is

not standardized and contain human-readable information
about the PMU.
Figure 6.
Correction of voltage input transformers.

• Command frame is sent by a PDC and received by the PMU Proper engineering of the recording function needs to allow for
(relay when integrated). Commands are sent to stop and the following:
resume data transmission, request configuration data,
or execute actual commands by sending data that could • Safe recording for tens of minutes during which faults and
be used to close/open an out-put and execute other user- other events can occur.
programmable actions.
• Safe power down when recording – the control power can be
• Data frames are sent continuously by the PMU (relay) at removed when the PMU function is recording and producing
regular and C37.118 standardized time intervals. massive records. No data corruption or other unexpected
deficiencies should take place under such circumstances.
Streaming data frames is of primary concern when considering
integrating PMUs with micro-processor-based relays. The • Safe retrieval of stored data. When using a slow
standard specifies 30 frames per second as the fastest reporting communication media to access the relay, it may take
rate, but some implementations support up to 60 frames/second. minutes to download the stored records. During this time
Data content may vary from a single phasor (typically the positive- faults, system events, or new records may occur. The relay
sequence voltage) to several sets of three-phase voltages and needs to respond accordingly always giving priority to the
cur-rents (frequency and rate-of-change of frequency are always protection functions.
sent).
Recording capabilities are standard on modern relays. The
Assume sending 6 phasors (3 currents and 3 voltages) each above problems exist today, and have been solved. The
represented by 2 numbers (real and imaginary or magnitude and only difference between an existing fault recorder and an
angle); with each number encoded on 2 bytes and reported at 30 added PMU re-corder is the amount of data and duration
frames a second. Ignoring the overhead one gets the bit rate of: of recording or extracting the record from the device.
6 (phasors) x 2 (real, imaginary) x 2 (bytes) x 8 (bits) x 30 (frames /

second) » 5.76kbps 10. Requirements for the Extra
Even when accounting for the protocol overhead and doubling Processing Power
the reporting rate, as increasing the packet size by including
Measuring (calculating) synchrophasors including: precise
frequency, rate of change of frequency, etc. one stays within the
timing, data collection and data processing, and various required
DS0 level of 64kbps.
corrections as described earlier; communicating the measured
Modern protection relays are built to comfortably serve 64kbps data as well as serving requests from the PDC; and performing
real-time traffic. Such channels are used for teleprotection or in local triggering and recording re-quire extra processing power.
line current differential applications.
Modern relays use multiple processors for data processing, logic
In additions, multi-function relays have been used for years engines, and communications. As a result it is achievable and safe
to support SCADA and automation functions by providing for to integrate the PMU function, assuming a prudent approach is
server functionalities of typical SCADA protocols (DNP, Mod-bus, taken with respect to the architecture.
UCA and IEC61850). Compared with these protocols the C37.118
In our solution each set of 8 analog signals (ac voltage and
synchrophasor protocol is neither complex nor demanding and
currents) is given a separate DSP to process the associated data.
can be safely implemented on a modern microprocessor-based
This results in a scalable architecture when adding more inputs
relay.
to a given relay does not put more requirements on the DSP.
This is no different with the synchrophasor calculations. When
interrupted by the synchrophasor time tag, a DSP gathers a data
9. Implementation of the Recording window, calculates the full-cycle Fourier phasor, calculates the
Functionality center of the window and the offset of the center with respect to
the synchrophasor interrupt, compensates (rotates) the phase to
Typically PMUs provide for data recording functions. These are account for the small offset, and compensates for the errors of
useful in applications when no real-time communication is VTs, CTs and the impact of analog filtering. These operations are
provided between the PMUs and the PDC, or in cases when the very lean and account for only a small portion of the full set of
communication fails or is temporarily unavailable. Because system typical DSP calculations required.
events are of interest, the time horizon for practical recorders is in
the range of minutes or tens of minutes. This calls for mega-bytes The rest of the process of calculating synchrophasors runs only at
of storage space. 60 times a second, and is relatively simple (Figure 4).
Assume again the 5.67kbps data rate from the previous example, The communication protocol runs at up to 60 times a second,
and consider a system event recorded for 10 minutes. The required and therefore is relatively lean as well. The same applies to the
storage space is in the range of: integrated PMU recorder.
10 (minutes) x 60 (seconds / min) x 5.67kbps » 3402kb, or 3.402/8 In our approach, the processing power required to provide for
MB » 0.42MB. the PMU function even when reporting at the rate of 60 phasors
a second, is at the level similar to calculations required to run
Modern relay may provide for tens of MB of data storage, allowing one zone of distance protection. We consider it moderate and
records as long as few tens of minutes even at very high recording acceptable. No protection functions are suspended or delayed as a
rates. result of synchrophasor activities/calculations. No synchrophasor
functions are suspended or delayed as a result of protection
events or activities.

11. TVE Accuracy Achievable when The described implementation details, and the test results prove
that when carefully engineered, modern P&C platforms allow
Integrating PMUs on Protection for both secure and accurate implementation of synchrophasor
Platforms measurement, recording and reporting. When integrated with
protection platforms the PMU functionality is provided universally
The following summarizes the steady state performance as tested with wide coverage of the metering points, at a fraction of the cost
on the IED hardware [4]: of stand-alone PMU solutions.
• TVE for voltages, frequency range 45-70Hz < 0.30%
• TVE for currents, frequency range 45-70Hz < 0.40%

12. Examples of Synchrophasors
Measurements under Fault Conditions
• TVE at 10% of THD, nominal frequency < 0.45%
This section presents few examples of synchrophasor
Figure 8 presents results of the interfering frequency test when measurements under simulated fault conditions.
reporting at 60 times per second, and using a user-selectable 7-
point post-filtering algorithm. Figure 9 shows a case of a reverse ABG fault as recorded by a line
current differential relay. During the fault the system frequency
was 59Hz, and the relay frequency tracking mechanism was
intentionally disabled in order to test the response of both
protection and PMU functions under frequency errors.
The top three traces show current waveform recorded by the

relay. The next three traces are voltages, with the A and B voltages
dropping to zero during the fault.
The last trace shown in Figure 9 is the operand of the 87L function.
As expected, the integrity of this key function is not jeopardized by
either the external fault, off nominal frequency, or PMU function
operational on the same IED platform. Similarly other protection
functions respond correctly. For example, the neutral directional
reverse-looking overcurrent element picks up during the fault and
stays operated for the entire duration of the fault.
The “PMU1 Va Mag” trace shows the magnitude of the phase A

voltage as measured by the synchrophasor algorithm. The value
Figure 8.
TVE under interfering frequency tests is steady and accurate regardless of the off nominal frequency
(reporting at 60/second, 7-point post-filter applied). (signal at 59Hz, relay sampling at 60Hz). The “PMU 1 Va Angle”
trace is the angle measurement. This value is recorded at 60
times / second and makes one full revolution every second. This is
Figure 9.
Sample record of a line-current differential relay containing both oscillography data (samples) and PMU data (synchrophasors).

expected as the signal is at 59Hz, thus recorded 60 times a second
it changes at (60-59)*360deg/sec.
For comparison the “3403 Vag Mag” trace is the voltage magnitude
as measured for protection purposes. The synchrophasor version
(PMU1 Va Mag) and the relaying version (3403 Vag Mag) are
better shown in Figure 10. The synchrophasor measurement is
implemented using an algorithm optimized for accuracy. As such
this trace does not show the ripple distinctive for the off nominal
frequency situation, and is accurate to within 1% of TVE. The
protection measurement is affected by the off nominal frequency
(visible ripple and the average value slightly off). This is because
the relay was configured with frequency tracking disabled for the
purpose of the test. Even with tracking disabled this particular
relay shows only 2-3% of error in voltage for every Hz of frequency
difference.
Figure 10 also illustrates that the synchrophasor values are

Figure 11.
recorded every 1/60th of a cycle (user setting), while the protection Sample record of a line-current differential relay containing both
values are refreshed 8 times a cycle or every 1/480th of a second. oscillography data (samples) and PMU data (synchrophasors).
Also, having less filtering and being optimized for speed rather
than accuracy, the protection version of the voltage measurement
responds much quicker to the voltage changes, exhibiting a short
lasting overshoot when the voltage recovers after clearing this
external fault. At the same time the synchrophasor measurement
is very well controlled showing no overshoot or other problems.
Figure 12.
Phase C voltage decays after the breaker opens. The PMU measurement
tracks the dynamic of this signal. The measured frequency registers the
actual 50.3Hz resonant frequency between the line and its shunt reactors.
Figure 10.
Synchrophasor and protection measurements on the same voltage signal
in the record of Figure 9.
The phase A voltage registers small values coupled via the shunt
Figure 11 shows and internal fault occurring under off nominal reactors after the breaker is opened and the fault removed. It is
frequency (59Hz while the re-lay intentionally tracked to 60Hz). worth observing the phase angle of this voltage as measured
The fault is cleared by the 87L function as expected. Other via the synchrophasor algorithm. Figure 13 displays the phase A
protection, such as zone 2 shown in the Figure, operate as voltage angle. Before the fault the angle changes at the rate of
expected and stay picked up for the en-tire duration of the fault. 360deg/sec because it is reported at 60 times a second while the
signal is of 59Hz ((60-59)*360deg/sec). When the voltage is driven
This test was done as a closed loop test resulting in opening the by the 50.3Hz resonant fre-\quency on the disconnected line, the
breaker. Once the breaker opened, the line-side VTs measure angle changes much faster at (60-50.3)*360deg/sec = 3500deg/
the voltage oscillating between the line capacitance and shunt sec, or one full revolution every in less than 100ms.
reactors. The phase C voltage decays exponentially and the
frequency measured by the relay changes from 59Hz in the pre- Examples presented in this section demonstrate the power of
and fault periods, to about 50.3Hz being the resonating frequency synchronized measurements to post-mortem analysis, including
between the line and its shunt reactors (Figure 12). faults. Also, they depict secure co-existence of protection and
PMU functions on the same IED platform.

Figure 13.
Phase A voltage coupled after the breaker opens. The PMU measurement
reflects the frequency of this signal (seen as the rotating phase position of the
voltage vector).
13. Testing Recommendations for PMUs of frequency change. Increased demand on PMU accuracy
under abnormal frequency conditions may result in shifting
integrated with Protective Relays the design targets - potentially impacting performance of the
core protection functions of the device.
Protection and control platforms integrating PMU functions should
be tested in both protection and PMU modes of operation. • PMU functionality shall be checked under fault conditions. This
The protection functionality shall be tested given specific includes any impact on accuracy after the fault is cleared, as
evaluation and approval philosophy for protection and control well as integrity during the fault condition. For example, are all
relays. During those tests the PMU functions should be enabled data frames produced during the fault or some of them may
and configured in a way representative for a typical or worst- be lost? Is the post-fault steady state accuracy as expected
case future application. Similarly, the PMU functionality should be or is the disturbance is having a long lasting impact on the
tested with a set of protection functions enabled and configured accuracy of subsequent measurements?
to reflect typical or worst-case future applications.
• Integrity of both protection and PMU functions shall be
Having both sets of functions enabled and configured allows checked under periods of simultaneous activity. For example,
identifying any natural or unintended interactions between the a command frame can be issued toward the IED just before a
two functionalities. fault is applied – response to the fault should be checked as
well as response to the command frame.
While the above general rules are followed, a few specific tests are
worth recommending as follows: • Integrity of protection functions should be checked under
impairments of IRIG-B input signal. Having to correlate
• Speed of response of key protection function shall be measurements with the absolute time, IEDs implementing
checked during PMU-related activities. This includes normal PMU functions may become affected by impairments of the
PMU operation and extra activities such as coincidence of a IRIG-B timing signal. Adding noise, particularly to generate
system fault with a PMU command issued towards the IED spurious 1pps patterns, or invalidating the time and date
from the PDC, local recording being initiated or in progress, code is a meaningful check when overlaid on fault conditions.
retrieval of local records, and so on. Step changes in time and date generated at the IRIG-B clock,
or leap seconds, are good tests as well. Overall integrity of
• Accuracy and integrity of key protection functions shall be protection – both speed and selectivity – should be verified
checked during increased PMU activity. under such abnormal activities of the IRIG-B input.
• Accuracy and speed of response of key protection functions • Communication impairments related to the PMU-PDC data
shall be checked during off-nominal frequencies. This includes exchange should be tested with respect to integrity of key
steady state frequency deviations as well as frequency ramps. protection functions. Classical channel impairments such
Modern protective relays are typically designed to retain full as bit error rates corrupting the packets, multiple requests,
functionality under steady state off nominal frequencies, and invalid requests, etc. should be placed simultaneously with
exhibit only slightly degraded performance under frequency fault conditions. Selectivity and speed of protection should
ramps, with the extent of degradation depending on the rate not be compromised.

• Dynamic response of the synchrophasor measurements It is well known that the classical algorithms for computing phasors
under fault conditions should be tested and understood. on a per-phase basis from sequences of samples incur errors
The C37.118 standard does not mandate any specific during off-nominal frequency operation [5], [7] or during power
performance under dynamic conditions, such as during swings [6]. Most of the errors cancel out in positive sequence
system faults. However, PMU records will be a valuable source phasors that are computed from per-phase phasors, provided
of information for post-mortem fault analysis. Response of that the negative sequence value is equal to zero. If there is some
a particular synchrophasor algorithm under fault condition negative sequence, the errors in per-phase phasors do not exactly
needs to be tested and understood before the records can be cancel, so there is residual error in the positive sequence phasor.
used for fault analysis.
It is impossible in principle to tell the difference between off-
nominal frequency operation and a constant time rate of change
of the phase angle of the phasor. In either case, if the sampling
14. Synchrophasor Measurement rate is not matched to the power system frequency, errors arise
Algorithm [5], [7] in the classical algorithms. For constant amplitude and
phase angle signals, the computed per-phase phasors trace
This paper describes implementation of synchrophasors on an elliptical trajectory [7]. The eccentricity of the ellipse can be
modern relay platforms. Our particular implementation uses an predicted from the frequency. If the frequency is known, the errors
optimized algorithm aimed at measurements under dynamic in the per-phase phasors can be exactly compensated, though
conditions. there will still be an issue of incomplete harmonic rejection. Two
other solutions to the off-nominal issue include frequency tracking
Under steady-state operation of a power system at a constant and re-sampling.
known frequency, the appropriate definition of a synchrophasor
is intuitive and obvious, and is the one specified by the C37.118 The off-nominal frequency effect is equivalent to a backward
standard [3]. However, during dynamic conditions, it is not as clear rotating error [6]. If the underlying phase signals are balanced, the
what the definition should be. Also it is well known that off-nominal backward rotating errors cancel in the positive and zero sequence
frequency operation [5] or power swings [6] can cause issues in phasors computed from phase values, although there will be an
the accuracy of the results of a classical phasor computation. apparent negative sequence component. If the phase signals are
For example, a power swing is actually equivalent to at least not balanced, there is trouble in general.
two closely spaced, distinct power frequencies with comparable
amplitudes. Which one should be reported? Our implementation The power swing case has been analyzed in [6], and one method for
uses a multi-parameter model that resolves these issues, as well greatly improving the accuracy using a raised cosine windowing
as matching the classical model under steady state operation at function has been described.
a single frequency. Another method, described here, uses a Taylor’s series expansion
Under steady-state conditions, a synchrophasor is the cosine and to represent a time varying phasor to address both the off-nominal
sine projections of a power system signal, at whatever frequency frequency effects as well as power swing issues with a simple
the power system is operating [3]. It is not necessary or likely for the extension of the classical algorithms for computing phasors.
power system to be operating exactly at the nominal frequency. To solve this problem our implementation assumes both the
The phase angle of a synchrophasor is defined to be the angle magnitude and “phase” of a phasor to be linear function of
between the reporting time-tag and the peak of the signal, at time, and estimates such varying phasors to fit them best to the
the actual frequency [3], so the issue of steady state off-nominal measured waveforms. As a result our model gives much better
frequency does not arise in the definition of synchrophasors, only response under dynamic system conditions.
in their implementation [5].
The question arises how to define a synchrophasor during

changing conditions? A logical approach is to define the power 15. Conclusions
system signals to be projections of phasors that themselves are
changing in time: This paper discusses various implementation issues related
to integration of synchrophasor measurements and PMU
functionalities on microprocessor-based relay platforms.
The paper alerts prospective users to possible pitfalls of the

(1) integration and allows making a more informed decision based
on the understanding of both the synchrophasor and relay
technologies.

The paper discusses sample tests that could be used to probe the
Definition (1) encompasses both changes in phase angle as well as
robustness of the integrated PMU/relay implementation.
changes in amplitude, so it models both the off-nominal frequency
case, as well as power swings. The value of a phasor at a time-tag We presented one particular way of implementing synchrophasors
is simply the value of the time varying phasor in (1) when the time is that calls for practically no changes to the underlying relay
equal to the value of the time-tag of the reported synchrophasor. architecture. The sampling, frequency tracking, data collection and

manipulation processes have been preserved with no changes. References
All the synchrophasor related calculations and operations are
kept completely separated within a framework of object-oriented [1] A.G.Phadke, J.S.Thorp, M.Adamiak, “A New Measurement
programming. The only change is the addition of one new Technique for Tracking Volt-age Phasors, Local System
interrupt between the CPU and DSP. This interrupt is not used at all Frequency, and Rate of Change of Frequency,” IEEE
by any of the protection functions, thus minimizing any danger of Transactions on PAS, May 1983.
unintended changes.
[2] A.G.Phadke, “Synchronized Phasor Measurements,” IEEE
The presented implementation is based on a novel multi-parameter Computer Applications in Power, April 1993.
algorithm for estimating synchrophasors under dynamic system
conditions. The approach assumes slow transients in the estimated [3] IEEE Std. C37.118, IEEE Standard for Synchrophasors for
phasors and solves the assumed multi-parameter signal model Power Systems, 2005.
accordingly to provide for both accurate and fast synchrophasor
measurements. [4] D60 Line Distance Protection System, Instruction Manual, GE
Publication GEK-113270. Available at www.multilin.com.
Test and simulation results prove equivalency with classical
algorithms under steady states, and superior performance under [5] T.Funaki, S.Tanaka, “Error Estimation and Correction of DFT
system transients. in Synchronized Phasor Measurement,” Transmission and
Distribution Conference and Exhibition 2002: Asia Pacific.
Test results on the actual hardware allow claiming accuracy of
IEEE/PES Volume 1, 6-10 October 2002, pages: 448-453.
approximately twice as good as the most stringent requirements
of the IEEE Std. C37.118. [6] J. A. de la O Serna, K.E.Martin, “Improving Phasor
It is justified to assume that synchrophasors will follow SOEs, DFRs, Measurements Under Power System Oscillations,” IEEE
RTU and metering functions and become universally integrated on Transactions on Power Systems, February 2003.
modern relay platforms. This is not only possible with future new
[7] M.Adamiak, B.Kasztenny, W.Premerlani, “Synchrophasors:
platforms, but also within existing presently used relays. Careful
Definition, Measurement, and Application”, Proceedings of
engineering allows safe implementations and the accuracy equal
the 59th Annual Georgia Tech Protective Relaying, Atlanta,
if not better than standalone PMUs.
GA, April 27-29, 2005.
Integrated PMUs will allow wider penetration of this new
technology, faster learning curve, and cost savings related to
purchasing, installing and operating the equipment.
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Application of Modern Relays to
Dual-Breaker Line Terminals
Bogdan Kasztenny Ilia Voloh
GE Multilin GE Multilin
1. Introduction 2. Capabilities of Modern Line IEDs

Standard practice today with respect to protecting dual-breaker Modern microprocessor-based line protection relays (or Intelligent
line terminals – breaker-and-a-half or ring-bus – is to sum the Electronic Devices, IEDs) allow for protection and control of the
two breaker currents externally and feed a single-input line relay dual-breaker line arrangement from a single device. Application of
(distance, line current differential or phase comparison) with separate breaker failure and/or synchrocheck relays is no longer
the total cur-rent flowing into the protected line. Breaker failure dictated by limitations of the main protection relay, but driven by
protection requires monitoring the two breakers and currents the user’s protection philosophy to either combine the required
separately, and is typically implemented as a stand-alone device functions, mostly for the for cost benefit, or to keep them separate
out-side of the main protection relay. Reclosing and synchrocheck for security, retaining present testing and maintenance practices,
control functions require monitoring and controlling both breakers avoiding re-training the personnel, etc.
as well as measuring two pairs of voltages for the purpose of
With reference to Figure 1, a modern IED capable of the dual-
synchrocheck, are also – in majority of cases – implemented
outside of the main line protection device. breaker application supports two three-phase current inputs in
order to measure both the currents individually for the breaker
This paper discusses several protection and control aspects in failure protection (50BF), backup overcurrent protection (51P),
relation to dual-breaker line terminals. and associated metering functions. The two currents are
added internally in the relay’s software to become the input for
First, breaker failure and reclosing functions are discussed as the distance (21) or high-set overcurrent (50) functions. When
applied to dual-breaker configurations. properly implemented, the line current differential (87L) and phase
comparison (87PC) functions use individual currents for stability
Second, the paper talks about protection security as related to
under through fault conditions.
saturation of Current Transformers (CTs) under fault currents
flowing locally through the two breakers. When the two currents
are summated externally, the CT errors – if significant – can
override the potentially low actual line current, and cause stability
problems for the main line protection. Not only sensitive ground
overcurrent functions are jeopardized, but also distance, current
differential, or phase comparison. The paper explains the problem
and presents solutions.
Stub bus protection is also discussed as pertaining to dual-breaker

configurations.
The paper looks at the above applications from the point of view
of a modern micro-processor-based relay. New generation of line
relays support dual CT inputs to monitor both breakers individually,
and three voltage points to provide for the main line protection,
and synchrocheck across both breakers. These relays often
include two breaker failure, two synchrocheck, and dual-breaker
autoreclose functions. This allows integrating protection, breaker Figure 1.
failure and reclose functions into a single relay. The paper points to Modern dual-breaker line IEDs.
advantages and disadvantages of such integration, and provides
some guidance regarding dual-breaker line applications.
Application of Modern Relays to Dual-Breaker Line Terminals 47

Such modern IED typically support one three-phase voltage input protection function. Predominately, we deploy one BF function per
required for the main (distance) or backup protection (distance breaker, and the associated performance characteristics primarily
backup on line current differential or phase comparison relays), in terms of spurious operations, are closely related to this practice.
and at least two single-phase voltage inputs in order to facilitate Currently this performance is considered satisfactory.
synchrocheck (25) across both the breakers. A dual-breaker
autorecloser (79) controlling both breaker simultaneously and Wide penetration of simple integrated BF schemes that follow the
capable of advanced reclose modes (sequential, simultaneous, approach of Figure 2a with codependency on the common signal
breaker out of service, etc.) completes the application. A suite path and relay hardware, and with 2 to 4 BF elements per each
of backup and auxiliary functions are typically attached to the breaker, may significantly elevate the risk of large outages due to
voltages and the three currents (breaker 1, breaker 2, line). BF misoperations.
In addition to the required AC inputs these IED are designed to This danger can be alleviated while integrating the BF functions
support enough binary inputs (breaker status, external breaker fail but at price of increased complexity.
initiate) and output contacts (trip for both breakers, reclose per Figure (c) shows a crosscheck scheme. Each fault detection function
breaker, breaker fail re-trip and trip, etc.) to facilitate protection initiates its own BF function. This BF function is placed on the other
and control of a dual-breaker line terminal from a single IED. relay so that a crosscheck is made between detecting the fault
and detecting the BF condition. This scheme calls for wiring the
BFI signals, and cross-monitoring of relay fail safe outputs so that
3. Breaker Failure Considerations upon the failure of one of the relays the other relay could switch to
its own internal BF function.
Being a backup function, the BF protection may be required to
use a different CT core, an independent current path, independent Figure (d) presents a solution with a single BF allocated statically
relay hardware, and a separate tripping path. This requirement is to one of the relays.
naturally met when using a stand-alone BF relay, but can as well
be accomplished on multi-function relays without a separate BF Figure (e) shows an integrated and single BF but in a switchover
device, at the expense of extra signaling between the relays. scheme. Normally both relays initiate the same integrated BF (one
internally and one externally). Upon the failure of the relay that
Figure 2 presents four approaches to distributing the Fault normally performs the BF function, the other relay switches to its
Detection (FD) and BF functions between multiple relays. own integrated BF element.
Figure (a) is a traditional scheme with a dedicated BF relay. The configuration of a stand-alone BF relay (Figure 2a) fits
naturally the past protection practice with external summation of
Figure (b) presents a simple scheme with an integrated BF function
CTs for the line relay. Traditional line relays did not measure the
per each fault detection function. No external BFI signals are
two currents individually and could not integrate the BF function
used.
for both the breakers anyway.
Dependability is directly proportional, while security is adversely
proportional, to the number of operational copies of a given
Figure 2.
Allocations of the fault detection (FD) and BF functions between relays.
48 Application of Modern Relays to Dual-Breaker Line Terminals

With modern line relays the BF for dual-breaker terminals can be • Impact on security: Multiple copies of the BF function
integrated using any of the approaches outlined in Figure 2. For operational for the same breaker potentially increase the
example, Figure 3a shows the “one BF per each fault detection probability of misoperation. As a backup function, the BF
function” approach of Figure 2b; and Figure 3b shows an should not be duplicated or quadrupled. This problem can be
implementation of the crosscheck scheme of Figure 2c. solved by using a switchover scheme of Figure 2e or a pre-
selected BF location of Figure 2d.
Note that with the BF initiation from the adjacent zone for one of the
two breakers, the other breaker of the dual breaker arrangement The above advantages and disadvantages should be weighted
needs to be tripped. With this respect the solution of Figure 3a accordingly taking into account other factors, relaying philosophy
requires wiring the BF Trip signals while avoiding wiring the BFI and maintenance practice in particular. Factors to consider are:
signals; and solution of Figure 3b calls for wiring more BFI signals,
but some BF trips are routed internally in the relays. • Preferred degree of security and reliance on remote versus
local backup.
Advantages of integrating BF in dual-breaker applications are:
• Degree of integration of primary (fault detection) and backup
• Cost and space advantage by eliminating stand-alone (BF) functions on a single multifunction relay.
Breaker Failure relay(s).
• Existing maintenance/testing practice, willingness and
• Simplified wiring and interlocking. Every wiring termination is capacity to adjust.
a potential point of failure, so reducing the amount of wiring
increases reliability. • Preferences with respect to simplicity and cost targets.
• BF simpler and easier to test thus reducing probability of

spurious BF trips due to human errors during maintenance.
4. Automatic Reclosing Considerations
• More flexible initiation logic such as from voltage or frequency Similarly to the BF protection function, the Autoreclosure (AR)
triggered trips. control function can reside in a standalone dedicated breaker
control relay, one per each breaker; or can be integrated in a
• Easier application of multiple setting groups (banks) to adapt
multifunction line relay.
the BF function to changing system conditions.
In any case, fundamental AR issues are the same; initiation,
• Direct access to the existing DTT/pilot channels via line relays blocking, lockout, switch onto the fault logic, dead time for different
for tripping re-mote breakers. types of the faults and different shot counts, tripping during
Disadvantages of utilizing integrated BF in dual-breaker evolving faults in single-pole tripping and reclosing applications,
applications are: and the master-follower logic.
Proper treatment of the middle breaker is yet additional factor

• Impact on security: The BF function uses same current
specific to dual-breaker applications. The middle breaker is
inputs, hardware and software, and the tripping paths as
controlled from both the line zones that intersect at the breaker.
the fault detection function. This minor disadvantage can be
addressed by crosschecking as explained in Figures 2c and In the case of integrated BF, multiple BF functions for the same
3b. breaker may not be viewed as beneficial from the security point of
view, but are certainly acceptable as a simple solution.
Figure 3.
Selected BF schemes of Figure 2 as applied to dual-breaker line terminals.

On the other hand, multiple copies of the AR function for the cur-rents. Because the relay does not respond to the individual
same breaker are typically considered not acceptable. The AR is currents, but to the sum of thereof, a combination of restrained
a complex and sequential controller. Paralleled, not synchronized and unrestrained differential principles is effectively applied, and
instances of the AR would cause performance problems and pose as such, it may face stability problems. For example, with weak
testing and maintenance challenges. As a result, solutions depicted feed from the remote terminal(s), and a large through fault current
in Figure 2a (stand-alone AR), 2c (single preselected internal AR) or along the breaker-and-a-half diameter, CT saturation errors
2d (internal AR in a switch-over scheme or “hot stand-by”) can be would manifest themselves as a spurious differential current
considered. while relatively small restraint would be produced from the small,
remote-end currents (high through-diameter current not seen by
The “one AR at a time” philosophy applies to multiple possible the relay, low through-line current seen by the relay as depicted
allocations of the AR function (A and B systems, 2 adjacent in Figure 4b).
zones).
Beyond the common requirements ARs for dual-breaker

applications should support the following features:
• Allowing choosing sequence of reclosing (1-2, 2-1 or

simultaneous reclose operation).
• Ability to transfer the close command from one breaker to

another if the breaker pre-selected to close first is taken out
of service or failed to close.
• Ability to recognize that breaker was open prior to the

line fault either manually or by adjacent protection. If
used, lockout relays solve this problem. If the operational
philosophy relies on the reclosers to lockout under the time-
extended trip commands, the dual breaker AR needs to be
designed/configured accordingly to lockout one breaker
while permitting to control the other.
• If required for a given system topology, ability to check

synchronism across each breaker individually, as the
transmission system may become electrically isolated across
each breaker and/or remote terminals.
• When required, ability to perform single-pole operation

including tripping and reclosing under evolving faults
considering simultaneous or near simultaneous faults on the
parallel line that call for tripping and reclosing of the common Figure 4.
(middle) breaker. Dual-breaker arrangement: external CT summation (a), through fault under
weak remote and strong local systems (b), through fault in a single-breaker
application (c).
5. Protection Security under CT Saturation
Fed with externally added currents (Figure 4a) a typical line relay This problem does not exist in single breaker applications (Figure
responds to a vectorial sum of the two local currents. If both the 4c). With the line cur-rent measured directly in single-breaker
CTs operate with no errors, the sum of the cur-rents is an accurate applications there is no danger of producing a large error signal
representation of the line current at this terminal. If one of the CTs even if the line CT saturates. If an error occurs due to CT saturation,
saturates, the produced error signal will effectively superimpose it is properly restrained by the principle of percent differential
on the true line current and cause potential problems for the protection.
protection security. The situation is particularly dangerous if the The problem in the dual-breaker configuration demonstrates itself
feed through the line is weak, and the CT carrying the reverse not only under severe CT saturation, but could become significant
current saturates on a close in external fault (Figure 4b). A portion under relatively small CT errors, including linear errors related to
of the missing reverse current will leave the forward current the CT accuracy class. As long as the through current of the line is
not balanced, and appear to the relay in the forward or tripping considerably higher compared with the error current produced by
direction. the CTs, there is no danger of the CT error signals overriding the
It may appear that line current differential relays would not actual through line current. When the error current is comparable
have problems with saturated CTs. This is true only if a given with the through current, the protection system is in danger of
relay measures all currents of its differential zone individually misoperation. The through current could be low for long lines and/
and produces proper restraint or other countermeasures to the or when the remote system is relatively weak. The short circuit
problem of CT errors. If fed with externally summated currents a level of the local system alone controls the current flowing along
line current differential relay produces the restraint signal as per the dual-breaker diameter. With the local terminal strong, and the
its design equations based on the summation of the two local remote terminal weak, any relay could be brought to its design
limits by saturating one or more CTs on the diameter.

Distance relays are also exposed to this problem. During close-in 6. Supervision Logic for Impedance-
reverse faults, the volt-age is depressed to very low levels, and
stability of the relay is maintained solely by the directional integrity based Protection
of the currents as measured. If, under such circumstances, CT
This section outlines a simple supervisory logic to ensure security
that carries the current away from the terminal saturates (CT1 in
of the main line protection during through current conditions
Figure 4b), an error current appears in the direction of the line.
on the dual-breaker diameter with weak feed through the
With enough error current, the through line current becomes
line. The logic can be programmed from a number of standard
over-ridden, and the actual reverse fault direction may be seen
Instantaneous Overcurrent elements (IOCs) and Phase Directional
as forward by the relay. As a result, with the voltage depressed
(Ph Dir) elements of a relay.
and the current elevated and flowing spuriously in the for-ward
direction, distance functions may pickup inadvertently. This The supervisory logic has been developed to meet the following
includes a directly trip-ping under-reaching zone 1, as well as an requirements:
overreaching zone 2 typically used by communication-assisted
schemes. In both cases, a false trip could occur. • The supervision should not penalize the speed of response
to internal faults (trip time) or sensitivity of the relay to high-
Current-reversal logic, application of a blocking or hybrid resistance internal faults. Therefore, permission to trip should
permissive schemes, or similar approaches, may enhance the be given all the time unless a through fault condition is
performance and solve the problem partially. These approaches, detected.
however, often rely on a reverse-looking distance zone 4. The latter
may spuriously drop out when the effective current gets inverted • Permission to trip should be maintained during transitions
from the true reverse to a false for-ward direction due to CT errors. from load conditions, possibly a reverse load, to internal
Extending the blocking action by using timers is a crude solution, faults.
but would jeopardize dependability and speed of operation on
evolving external-to-internal faults. • The supervision should allow the relay to trip an evolving
external-to-internal fault, in particular with both faults
Ground directional overcurrent functions, neutral and negative- present at the same time, i.e. before the external fault is
sequence specifically – being both fast and sensitive – are good cleared by the associated protection system.
supplements enhancing performance of communication-assisted
schemes [4]. They, however, face similar security problems in the • The supervision should respond to elevated phase currents
dual-breaker applications. With reference to Figure 5 consider an as the high phase currents cause CT errors and the latter
external line-to-line fault on the diameter. In this case performance could jeopardize security of the line protection. Responding
of all four CTs (A1, A2, B1 and B2) affects the neutral current. to sequence components is not preferred because under
With any of the CTs saturating, a spurious neutral current will evolving faults flows of negative-sequence and neutral
be created. There is no real neutral current through the line for currents may be considerably changed from expected.
this type of fault. Therefore, the operating signal for the Neutral
Directional Overcurrent function is entirely driven by CT errors. The • The supervision shall be easily applied to distance, differential,
remote terminal will see the fault via its distance function and key and overcurrent directional functions.
permission to trip, unless separate pilot channels are used to key
from distance and ground directional functions. Combined with
the spurious operation of the neutral directional function at the
local terminal, the received permission would cause a false trip.
The above problem with sensitive ground directional overcurrent

functions also exists in single-breaker applications. However, in
single-breaker applications the relay would measure the elevated
phase currents. Modern relays allow for positive-sequence restraint
in neutral or negative-sequence directional overcurrent functions,
effectively solving the problem [4]. In a dual-breaker terminal with
external CT summation, the positive-sequence restraint would not
work.
Phase comparison relays supplied with the external sum of

the currents would face the same stability problems in dual-
breaker applications. Contrary to the commonly understood
immunity of the phase comparison principle to CT saturation, the
87PC function requires all currents of its zone to be measured
individually and included in its coincidence timing. Only by looking
at the two local currents individually, a phase comparison relay
would have a chance to recognize the through fault condition and Figure 5.
develop a proper countermeasure as per the principle of phase Danger of a spurious neutral current in a dual-breaker line application.
comparison.

6.1 Protection Elements Used by the A forward direction for CB-1 (Figure 6b) is declared if the current
is elevated in the CB-1 leg and appears in the forward direction.
Supervisory Logic Declaration of the forward direction is not impacted by the situation
With reference to Figures 1 and 6 the following elements are in the second leg of the diameter. Similar logic is implemented for
used: CB-2, and phases B and C.
• IOC 1 to respond to forward current of CT-1. The element As shown in Figure 6c, the blocking action is established if any of
shall be set at 2-3 times the nominal of CT-1, and is used to the three phases shows a through current flowing outside of the
unblock the relay on external-to-internal evolving faults. zone, either through CB-1 or CB-2.
For security, the blocking action gets artificially extended for

• IOC2 to respond to elevated current of CT-1; set at 1.5-2
extra 2.5 cycles after being present for 0.75 of a cycle (switch off
times the nominal of CT-1 and used to supervise the blocking
transient logic to cope with clearance of the external fault).
action.
The blocking action gets cancelled if any of the currents is elevated,
• PHS DIR 1 to respond to reverse current direction at CT-1. appears in the forward direction, and is not accompanied by the
reverse direction in the other breaker in the same phase. A 0.25
• IOC3 – similar to IOC1, but for CT-2.
cycle delay is added for security.
• IOC4 – similar to IOC2, but for CT-2.
6.3 Performance Analysis and Explanation
• PHS DIR 2 – similar to PHS DIR 1, but for CT-2.
During load conditions (current below some 1.5 times CT nominal)
The directional functions in one particular application [1-3] use none of the IOCs is picked up and the trip permission is asserted
quadrature polarization with memory action, if required. permanently.
During internal fault conditions with very weak feed from the local
6.2 Supervisory Logic terminal, the current is not elevated and may appear in the reverse
A reverse direction for CB-1 (Figure 6a) is declared if both currents direction as dominated by the load – permission is maintained as
are elevated (IOC2 and IOC4) and the directional element sees none of the IOCs picks up.
a reverse direction (PHS DIR 1 BLK). Similar logic is implemented
During high current internal faults, none of the directional elements
for CB-2, and phases B and C. The reverse direction flags will
operates in the re-verse direction, and the trip permission is
be asserted only if an elevated current is flowing through the
maintained.
diameter, and the direction is re-verse in one of the breakers.
During external faults with one breaker opened, the blocking
action is not established, but it is not needed either.
During external faults with both breakers closed, the blocking

action is established as long as both the currents flowing through
the diameter are above the pickup of IOC2 and IOC4.
During evolving external-to-internal faults in different phases, the

blocking action is first established (phase A for example), and then
canceled when the second fault appears in the forward direction
in a different phase (phase B for example).
The output flag, CT SAT SUPV of Figure 6c, shall be used to

supervise distance and ground directional functions of a distance
relay, and the differential function of a line current differential
relay, if required.
6.4. Transient Response Examples

Figure 7 presents an external fault example. The trip supervision
is removed in 0.5 of a power cycle when using one particular IED
[1-3] to implement the logic of Figure 6c.
Figure 8 shows an evolving fault example. The trip supervision is

removed in 1 cycle after the external fault, but is re-established in
0.75 of a cycle after the fault evolves into internal.
Figure 6.
Supervisory logic to cope with CT errors in the dual-breaker configuration.

7. Line Current Differential Solution • Backwards compatibility of the operating principle shall
be maintained if the relay is applied in a single breaker
This section presents a description of a line current differential configuration.
algorithm [5-6], but ex-tended to dual-breaker applications.
The following subsections address the above design constraints
The concept [5-6] has been originally implemented for a single- and goals.
breaker arrangement. In such an application, each relay [2] sends
phasors of local current in all three-phases calculated using a 7.1 Phasor Estimation
half-cycle estimator (6 numbers) as well as dynamic terms used for
adaptive restraint (3 numbers). Some extra data is appended to this The input currents are sampled at 64 samples per cycle and
core of the packet such as relay ID, virtual I/Os for teleprotection, pre-filtered using an optimized MIMIC filter aimed at removing dc
time stamps to facilitate synchronization with the use of the ping- component(s) and other low-frequency oscillations. The optimized
pong algorithm [6], GPS-driven time stamps to facilitate channel filter is a Finite Response Filter (FIR) with the window length of
asymmetry compensation [7], CRC-check, etc. approximately 1/3rd of a power system cycle.
The presented solution targets communications channels of The digitally pre-filtered currents are converted into phasors
64kbps. The baud-rate of the channel imposes certain limitation by applying half-cycle Fourier algorithm. The half-cycle values
for the packet size. Application to dual-breaker configurations calls are either used as calculated, or two consecutive half-cycle
for producing a proper restraining signal out of all the currents of measurements are combined into an equivalent full-cycle
the zone. For example, in three-terminal applications with each of measurement. The operation of switching from full- to half-cycle
the terminals being breaker-and-a-half or ring-bus, 6 three-phase upon detecting disturbance in currents is referred to as “window
currents surround the line differential zone. Exchanging all these resizing” and is implemented to speed up operation of the relay.
currents between the terminals would increase the packet size. The differential system transmits half-cycle values, and the resizing
is done independently at each terminal of the line.
The following design targets have been stated for the line current
differential function capable of secure operation at multi-breaker Half-cycle magnitudes are also calculated and transmitted in
terminals: order to reflect properly through fault conditions at each terminal
of the line.
• The packet size should remain unchanged. A total of 9
numbers must represent currents at each terminal in terms In addition “a goodness of it” factor is calculated for each current in
of phasors (real, imaginary) and static and dynamic restraint order to measure the error between the waveform and its Fourier-
factors. estimated phasor [7]. The goodness of fit factor is further used to
produce an extra restraint to countermeasure the estimation error,
• Window resizing shall be applied for fast relay operation. and increase security of the relay. Conceptually, the goodness of
fit factor is proportional to the following value:
• Proper restraint shall be produced to secure the differential
system on external faults through the local terminal’s
breakers. (1)
• Up to four currents could be used at each terminal in order to

facilitate combined bus and line protection for small buses. In equation (1), the present magnitude and phase estimate (X,Q)
at the k-th sample is compared with the actual waveform (x) over
the duration of the data window (N), and the sum of squares error
measure is calculated.
Figure 7. Figure 8.
External Fault. Phase-to-phase fault through the diameter causes enough External-to-Internal Evolving Fault Example. The relay trips single-pole the
CT error to operate spuriously the Neutral Directional OC function. The CT correct phase despite the pre-existing external fault. The CT logic unblocks
logic blocks in 0.5 cycle. in 0.75 of a cycle.

7.2. Consolidating Local Currents • In two-terminal applications:
– the Outgoing Packet If
Each terminal of the current differential system consolidates the
local signals into an outgoing packet. Compression of information Then
takes place in order to reduce the packet size and distribute the (4a)
calculations between the two or three relays of the line current Else
differential system. This is possible without compromising
operating equations or accuracy if the operating equations are
shaped accordingly.
(4b)
First, the phasors (real, imaginary) of all the local currents are • In three-terminal applications:
summated to give a sub-sum of the total differential current of
the protected line:
If
(2) Then
Equation (2) is applies to up to four local current inputs and holds (4c)
true for both real and imaginary parts, in all three phases. Equation Else
(2) is not a differential current, but a portion of the differential
current that involves the local currents only.
(4d)
Second, the measure of a through fault current is estimated
locally using magnitudes of all the local currents via the following
The adaptive portion of the restraint is a geometrical sum of
equation:
errors derived from equation (1) and a measure of the clock
synchronization error [5-6]. The traditional and adaptive restraints
(3) are combined geometrically using a concept of an extra arbitrary
multiplier:
Equation (3) selects, on a per phase basis, the largest among the
local currents to be a measure of the local restraint.
Figure 9 illustrates the principles behind equations (2) and (3).
Third, the protection system applies differential characteristic (5)

locally to each of the re-straining currents. The presented system
does not use an explicit restraining characteristic, but the total The multiplier increases the impact of signal distortions on
operating and restraining value [5-6]. The latter incorporates the restraint, and is used to provide better restraint during CT
values of the pickup, slopes (S1, S2) and breakpoint (B). The saturation conditions on through line faults.
following equations are used to accommodate the characteristic:
Values defined by equations (1-5) are based on half-cycle windows,
and constitute the following outgoing packet:
(6)
7.3 Total Differential and Restraint Currents

The local and remote data when received are used to calculate the
total differential and restraining signals for the current differential
system.
Before the data is used, a decision is made to either use the full-
or half-cycle measurements. The half-cycle data is used one time
after detecting a fault. After such half-cycle window is used, the
relay switches back to the full-cycle version when proceeding into
the fault. Also, when a packet is lost, the next packet that arrives
triggers window resizing. This is simply to enable protection using
the latest packet even though the previous packet required to
calculate the full-cycle quantities is lost due to the communication
Figure 9. channel impairments.
The differential current is created from partial sums of all the local currents
(a). The restraining current is created based on the maximum local current
(b).

The following equations are used to combine the half-cycle values The first multiplier is calculated as follows:
into full-cycle measurements:
Step 1. Select the greatest current from the local currents. The
selection is based on half-cycle magnitudes: I1_MAG, I2_MAG,
I3_MAG, I4_MAG. Assume the largest current is in the k-th circuit
(7a) (k = 1,2,3 or 4).
Step 2. Calculate two auxiliary currents:
(7b) (11a)
(11b)
(11c)
Equation (7b) is accurate; equation (7b) is a good approximation. (11d)

Equations (7) apply to both local and remote signals, all three
phases, and real and imaginary parts.
The X-current is the maximum current among the local currents.
Next, the relay calculates the total differential and restraint The Y-current is the sum of all the local currents but the maximum
currents: current. Note that during through faults with no feed from the
remote terminals IX = -IY if no CT saturation. With CT saturation
the cur-rents differ, but remain approximately out of phase.
(8a)
Step 3. Calculate the multiplier as follows:
If (12a)
(8b)
And applies the so-called fault severity equation in order to decide Then (12b)
if the line should not should not be tripped [5-6]:
Then (12c)
(9)
The relay (87L function) operates if the fault severity, S, is positive. else (12d)
P is the pickup of the characteristic (the slopes and breakpoints
were already accommodated before sending the data in equations (12e)
Else
(4)).
As indicated by all the equations, the algorithm is fully phase-

segregated. Equations (12) check if both currents (the maximum among the
local currents, and the sum of all the other local currents) are
7.4 CT Saturation Detection large enough to cause significant CT saturation. If so, the relative
direction of the two currents is checked. If the angle is less than 90
The algorithm has a built-in immunity to saturated CTs owing to the degrees, the multiplier stays at the “neutral” value of 1.00. If the
concept of the dynamic restraint. The goodness of fit (1) becomes angle is larger than 90 degrees, the multiplier is proportional to the
degraded on saturated waveforms, producing a measure of error angle difference and could reach the maximum value of 5.00 if the
(1), which added to the restraining signal allows for extra security. currents are exactly out of phase.
In order to boost this natural effect, the system is using an The second multiplier is calculated applying exactly the same
adaptive multiplier in order to increase further the impact of the procedure, but instead of using local currents, the procedure uses
dynamic portion of the restraint (5) on the overall performance of the sum of the local currents, and the remote cur-rents. In other
the relay. words the currents into the line at each of up to three terminals
of the line, regardless of the number of local currents at each
The multiplier is calculated adaptively per phase as follows: terminal of the line. The second multiplier detects through fault
conditions of the entire line.
(10)
Figure 10 illustrates operation of the presented algorithm under
The first component is based on local currents only, and as such through fault conditions. In this example the traditional restraint
is instantaneous. This component is meant to detect through fault of 15pu, is additionally augmented by adding the dynamic factor.
condition on the local diameter of the breaker-and-a-half or ring- The dynamic restraint is naturally increased by saturated CT,
bus configuration. and artificially multiplied by the multiplier. In this example, the
T3 terminal sees CT saturation in the circuit carrying the current
The second component is based on local and remote currents, out of the line toward the fault. This CT saturation will jeopardize
and as such is lagging the real time by the channel propagation stability of all terminals. However, all terminals will use high values
time. This component is meant to detect through fault conditions of the multiplier to boost the effect of dynamic restraint, and will
between terminals of the line. not misoperate.

7.5 Field Example It is the “pulse” combination logic that ensures security and
dependability of the 87PC function. With this respect a distinction
A permanent AG fault occurred on line L2 in the system of Figure 11. must be made between tripping and blocking schemes.
The line was tripped and reclosed from the A2 breaker. Shortly after
a line current differential relay protecting the L1 line misoperated. For tripping (permissive) phase comparison schemes, a positive
Note that this installation used line current differential re-lays fed polarity is declared for the terminal if one breaker displays positive
with externally summated currents. polarity when its FDL flag is set, while the other breaker either
does not show the negative polarity or its FDL flag is dropped out
Figure 11 shows traces of the phase A currents at both ends of the (Figure 12a). This is similar to a Hybrid POTT scheme when a given
L1 line. The remote end current is not distorted. The local current terminal sends a per-missive signal unless is restrained locally by
is heavily distorted and suspicious. Detail analysis reveals that a reverse fault condition. Note that this logic displays the following
the A1 and A2 breakers carried about 22kA of fault current, or desirable features:
22kA/0.8kA = 27.5 times rated when A2 closed onto the fault. The
CTs saturated quickly due to a combination of large ac current, • Under through fault conditions, when both currents are
remnant flux due to the original fault, and dc off-set. The through elevated and out of phase, the positive pulses in one breaker
current in the L1 circuit was only 1.36kA. Relatively minor errors of get “erased” by the negative pulses in the other breaker.
the CTs carrying 22kA augmented considerably the true “1.36kA
reverse” signal causing a false operation. • Under reverse or forward fault with one breaker opened or
its current below the lower fault detector, the logic behaves
The remote end relay measured 1.36kA -20° (correct) while as for a single breaker. The elevated current in the closed
the local relay measured 1.77kA -112° (incorrect, due to CT breaker drives the response of the scheme. In this way a small
saturation). out-feed can be tolerated and will not impair dependability of
the scheme.
As a result, the differential signal appeared to be 2.19kA. The
restraining signal calculated by the relays was 1.73kA (assuming • Under forward fault with both breakers closed and both
a pickup of 0.16kA and a slope setting of 50%). The operating currents above the fault detection level, the two-breaker
(differential) signal was far above the restraining signal, hence the logic effectively creates a coincidence pulse out of the two
spurious trip. individual pulses (logical AND). This corresponds to a multi-
Should the L1 relay at the A terminal be deployed in a dual-breaker terminal phase comparison where all individual current
manner, and measured the A1 and A2 current separately, it would pulses are AND-ed before feeding the trip integrators.
apply the restraint of: The above logic is used for keying in permissive schemes, and
0.16kA + 0.5*(max(23.3kA,21.9kA,1.36kA)) = 11.8kA. regardless of the scheme type for derivation of local pulses sent to
the trip integrators of the phase comparison relay.
The above restraint is several times higher than the operating
signal resulting in no operating for this external fault case. Transmission logic for the blocking logic follows a different
reasoning (Figure 12b). Here, a blocking action must be established
if any of the two breakers sees a reverse direction. It must be kept
in mind that the positive and negative pulses do not necessarily
8. Phase Comparison Solution complement each other, and therefore one must not substitute
As explained in section 5, phase comparison principle would face the “not positive polarity” by “negative polarity”.
security problems when fed from externally summated currents Figure 13 shows a sample response of the permissive logic to a
in dual-breaker applications. In order to maintain the excellent through fault condition at a two-breaker terminal. The terminal
immunity to CT saturation of the original (“single-breaker”) phase does not produce permissive pulses and inhibits as expected.
comparison principle, one needs to process the two currents
individually and use both the phase and magnitude information Figure 14 shows a case of an internal fault with strong feed from
to detect the through fault condition. both the breakers.
The dual breaker logic consolidates two pieces of information: More information on modern implementations of the phase
fault detector flags signaling the rough current levels, and the comparison principle, including dual-breaker applications and the
“phase” pulses signaling current direction [8]. CT saturation issue, can be found in [8].
The fault detector flags (Fault Detector Low and Fault Detector
High) are OR-ed between the two breakers (breakers 1 and 2):
9. Stub Bus Protection and Issues
(13) In dual-breaker applications a line disconnect can be opened
while the two breakers are closed to facilitate continuous service
of other circuits. At the same time the line may be energized from
The rationale behind it is that regardless which breaker, or both the other end or ends, to service tapped loads or transmit power
carry a current; the elevated current condition (FDL) shall be between the other two line terminals (Figure 15).
declared to signal permission or blocking as per the scheme type,
and fault location; similarly with the trip supervision condition
(FDH).

Figure 10. Figure 11.
An example of calculating the restraints (a) and multipliers for CT saturation System configuration for the presented filed case.
algorithm (b).
Under such circumstances the following needs to be assured: 1 is applied at the remote end under the circumstances.
In three-terminal applications or with tapped loads, it may
• The stub bus zone between the two breakers and the opened happen that the remote end will “see” the fault in the stub bus
disconnect is properly protected. In single-breaker application zone despite the opened disconnect (Figure 16). This creates
a simple overcurrent function supervised with the “disconnect security problems if permanent permission or an echo
opened” signal is sufficient. In dual-breaker applications such scheme is used. If the fault current closes through the third line
simple solution would face security problems under through terminal, no permission will be sent from that terminal. But if
fault conditions and saturated CTs as explained in section 5. the line closes via an unmonitored tapped load, the problem
Either a differential-type stub bus protection is implemented remains. Avoiding too sensitive overreaching functions at the
with the use of proper restraint to counterbalance the impact remote end solves the problem.
of saturated CTs, or the supervisory logic presented in section
6 is adopted for trip-ping. • Under the circumstances blocking directional comparison
schemes are practically equivalent to permissive schemes
• When tripping on stub bus faults, no DTT is to be sent to the with permanent permission or echo as described above.
remote end(s) as they are already isolated from the fault by Making sure the overreaching forward looking fault detectors
the opened disconnect switch. Upon failure of one of the never pickup for faults in the stub bus zone soles the
breakers, no BF trip is to be sent to the remote ends either. problem.
• A fault in the stub bus zone must not result in tripping the • With the respect of the stub bus protection and application
remote line terminals. Solutions to this requirement depend phase comparison relays can be dealt with as the same way
on the applied protection principle, as explained below. as direction comparison schemes.
• Permissive directional comparison schemes typically do not • Line current differential schemes require the relay under the
have a problem. A permanent permission is keyed under the stub bus condition to transmit zero currents regardless of its
circumstances (disconnect opened while the breakers are actual measurements. In this way under the stub bus fault, the
closed); an echo scheme is used; or an overreaching zone 87L function will not trip the line at the remote terminal(s).

Figure 12.
Dual-breaker logic for the phase comparison relay [8]:
Permissive (a) and blocking (b) transmit schemes.
Figure 13.
Illustration of the dual-breaker logic: permissive, dual-comparison scheme, through fault condition (relay [3]
COMTRADE record).

Figure 14.
Illustration of the dual-breaker logic: permissive single-comparison scheme, internal fault condition
(relay [3] COMTRADE record).
Figure 15. Figure 16.

Stub bus situation (three-terminal line). Example of fault detectors too sensitive and causing problems under
remote stub bus faults.

10. Conclusions 11. References
This paper presents practical application solutions for protection [1] GE Publication GEK-112989A, 2005, D60 Line Distance Relay,
of lines in dual breaker applications. Instruction Manual.
Integration of breaker failure and autoreclose is discussed first. [2] GE Publication GEK-112994A, 2005, L90 Line Differential
Relay, Instruction Manual.
Next a problem of stability under CT saturation when using
externally summated cur-rents for protection is described. [3] GE Publication GEK-106412A, 2005, L60 Phase Comparison
Relay, Instruction Manual.
A simple supervisory logic that could be implemented on modern
line relays is presented to ensure security under CT saturation [4] B.Kasztenny, D.Sharples, B.Campbell, M.Pozzuoli, “Fast
during through faults on the breaker-and-a-half or ring-bus Ground Directional Overcurrent Protection – Limitations and
diameter. Solutions”, in Proc. 27th Annual Western Protective Relay
Con-ference, Spokane, WA, October 24-26, 2000.
A novel line current differential system is described suitable not
only for dual-breaker configurations, but also for applications with [5] A.Adamiak, G.Alexander, W.Premerlani, “A New Approach
up to four local inputs at each of the up to three terminals of the to Current Differential Protection for Transmission Lines”, in
line. The solution is designed to produce correct restraining signal Proc. Electric Council of New England – Protective Relaying
as per the principle of differential protection without sending all Committee Meeting, Portsmouth, NH, October 22-23, 1998.
the raw local currents between all terminals of the line.
[6] M.Adamiak, G.Alexander, W.Premerlani, E.Saulnier, B.Yazici,
Phase comparison algorithm addressing the security concern “Digital Current Differential System”, U.S. Patent 5 809 045,
related to CT saturation in dual-breaker applications is also September 15, 1998.
presented.
[7] G.Brunello, I.Voloh, I.Hall, J.Fitch, “Current Differential Relaying
Finally notes are included on stub bus protection as related to – Coping with Communications Channel Asymmetry”, in
dual-breaker applications. Proc. of the 8th Developments in Power System Protection
Modern multi input multifunction line protection relays allow more Conference, Amsterdam, April 5-8, 2004, pp.821-4.
sophisticated applications on dual-breaker line terminals. [8] B.Kasztenny, I.Voloh, E.A.Udren, “Rebirth of the Phase
Comparison Line Protection Principle”, in Proc. of the 59th
Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers, April 4-6,
2006, College Station, Texas.
0925-v4

A Utility’s Experience in the Implementation
of Substation Automation Projects
D. T. Brown A. L. Gielink
eThekwini Electricity eThekwini Electricity
1. Introduction 2. History
eThekwini Electricity has embarked on substation automation Prior to 2000, eThekwini Electricity substations were designed
projects since the early introduction of substation specific with the protection and control arrangement shown in
communications standards and is presently in the process of Figure 1.
implementing substation automation projects based on the
IEC61850 standard at eight new substations. All signals were transmitted between the primary plant and the
protection and control system by means of hard-wired secondary
This paper describes actual substation projects to illustrate the cabling. Protection and control panels located in control rooms
evolution of the introduction of substation automation in terms of were equipped with protection relays, panel mimics and control
objectives, applicable standards and specification methodology. switches. The primary plant and protection and control panels
Positive and negative outcomes of the various evolutionary were hard-wired to a supervisory remote terminal unit (RTU)
phases are highlighted. via a supervisory junction board. The RTU was networked to
eThekwini Electricity’s supervisory control and data acquisition
The positive and negative outcomes of the use of substation (SCADA) system. After the introduction of microprocessor based
automation solutions for the various projects are discussed and protection relays with communications facilities, simple multi-
compared with the initial objectives. The paper concludes with drop networks were included to permit remote protection setting
the envisaged adoption of the full IEC61850 model for substation and engineering.
automation.
The protection and control system was normally included with
one of the primary plant contracts and the secondary cabling and
testing carried out by the applicable primary plant contractor.
While this arrangement provided most of the protection, control and

monitoring functionality required of the more modern substation
automation systems, it suffered from several disadvantages. The
arrangement is not easily factory tested and is susceptible to on
site wiring errors resulting in longer commissioning times. The
secondary cabling is time consuming and costly to install. The
provision of protection and control systems via a primary plant
supplier often led to problems due to the indirect relationship with
the system supplier.
During the 1990’s bay controllers and protection relays with inherent
bay control functionality became available. These products could
provide SCADA functionality by being networked with an RTU
master, which could act as a data concentrating SCADA RTU. The
main drawback of these systems was that they predominantly
used proprietary communications protocols that were limited to
the “master/slave” topography. Each manufacturer’s system was
Figure 1. unique with the result that utilities would either be locked into the
Legacy protection and control automation. use of one manufacturer’s product or would need to have the
resources to maintain many unique solutions, each of which could
only be extended by that particular manufacturer’s products.
A Utility’s Experience in the Implementation of Substation Automation Projects 61

While eThekwini Electricity recognized the potential benefits 4. Pilot Project 2 :
offered by the use of communication networks to replace hard-
wired secondary cabling, the problems associated with the use
of proprietary protocols resulted in the decision to maintain the
4.1 Plangweni 132/11KV Substation
status quo. During the late 1990’s products that made use of a In 2002, tenders were advertised for a 132/11kV substation
“standard” communication protocol (UCA2.0) over a standard consisting of two 132kV bays, two 132/11kV 30MVA transformers
physical layer (Ethernet) became available. Work on the IEC61850 and an eighteen panel indoor 11kV switchboard. A Protection
standard had commenced but was far from complete. Based on tender was advertised separately from the primary plant tenders
the assumption that much of the UCA2.0 protocol would find its for the first time in order that a “first-hand” relationship could
way into the IEC61850 protocol and that the IP transport layer and be established with the Protection supplier and to ensure that
Ethernet physical layer would definitely be used for IEC61850, two the overall responsibility for the substation automation system
pilot projects using communication networks between protection remained with a single party. Protection relays were free issued
relays for substation automation were embarked upon. to the 11kV switchgear supplier for installation in the 11kV
switchboard.
3. Pilot Project 1 : A new Protection And Control specification was drawn up from
scratch for this project. An arrangement similar to that shown in
Figure 2 was specified.
3.1 Quarry 132kV Switchyard
The specification called for a Human Machine Interface (HMI)
In 2000, a tender was advertised for a 132 kV switchyard consisting
computer to provide substation control of primary plant and
of eight 132kV feeder bays. The protection and control aspect of the
a SCADA Gateway to facilitate remote control. The HMI and the
specification was based on a non-networked, hardwired (“legacy”)
SCADA Gateway were required to communicate with protection
system and “legacy” wiring schematics were used to indicate the
relays over an Ethernet physical layer. As the IEC61850 standard
requirements. Tenderers were requested to offer a UCA2.0 based
had not yet been published, the HMI was specified to make use
solution and to rationalise the “legacy” arrangement accordingly.
of the UCA2.0 protocol and the SCADA Gateway was specified
The solution provided made use of a combination of the UCA2.0 to make use of the DNP3.0 protocol. The protection relays were
and DNP3.0 protocols. UCA2.0 was used to implement peer-to- required to handle these protocols simultaneously over Ethernet.
peer messaging (UCA GOOSE or GSSE) for interlocking and tripping
UCA2.0 was also specified to provide peer-to-peer messaging
purposes. The Ethernet physical layer for UCA2.0 was also used
(UCA GOOSE or GSSE) for interlocking and indication. Peer-to-peer
for protection setting and engineering. A DNP3.0 master/slave
messaging was not used for protection tripping due to the lessons
network over RS485 was used for SCADA purposes. The solution
learnt in Pilot Project 1. Protection setting and engineering were
did not make use of a human machine interface (HMI) computer.
required to be carried out over the Ethernet physical layer.
A traditional mimic and control switches were provided as part of
the protection panels. Due to the dramatic reduction in secondary cabling, the
Transformer Protection and Tap Change Control schemes were
While the solution provided the required functions perfectly,
specified to be accommodated in one physical panel.
several important lessons were learned from this pilot project:
In an attempt to reduce the cost of protection relays and the
• The use of “legacy” protection and control specifications communications network, the use of one protection relay to
and drawings resulted in requirements being misinterpreted provide protection and control for more than one 11kV feeder was
and philosophy decisions needing to be made by the system allowed. A multi-feeder system comprising one relay for three 11
integrator. kV feeders was offered and accepted.
• The SCADA RTU selected for this project was provided by the
existing SCADA Master Station supplier and did not have a
means of communicating with the protection relays using
TCP/IP over Ethernet. Although the relays were capable of
communicating using UCA2.0 or DNP3.0 over Ethernet, the
final solution used DNP3.0 over RS485. There were products
from other manufacturers available that could have used
DNP3.0 over Ethernet and so minimized wiring.
• GOOSE messaging was used for trip and breaker-fail

signals between the Busbar Protection scheme and feeder
bays. This required a dual redundant Ethernet network for
reliability purposes with associated additional costs. The
use of GOOSE messaging resulted in there being no simple
means of isolating Busbar Protection and associated Breaker
Fail tripping which is normally required when testing on a
live system. The reliability and speed of GOOSE messaging
was, however, proven. The objective of minimizing on-site
secondary cabling was achieved in this project. Figure 2.
Present protection and control arrangement.
62 A Utility’s Experience in the Implementation of Substation Automation Projects

The supplier provided a system compliant with the specification Wiring schematics were used to indicate all hard-wired
and, for the first time, all communication within a substation (other connections between the protection and control schemes and the
than time synchronisation) was provided by one physical network. primary plant. These included analogue inputs such as CT’s and
The main objective of minimizing hardwired secondary cabling VT’s, digital inputs such as switchgear auxiliary switches and alarm
had been achieved. The number of panels to be accommodated contacts and contact outputs for closing and tripping switchgear.
in the control room was vastly reduced allowing the physical size These wiring schematics were also used for the primary plant
of the control room to be reduced. specifications.
The lessons learned from this pilot project were: Logic schematics showed how inputs and protection functions
were to be marshalled through logic gates, latches and timers
• The HMI hardware failed shortly after commissioning to operate virtual and contact outputs. These schematics also
apparently due to over-heating. This was despite the indicated which logical nodes need to be linked to the HMI and the
specification calling for an “industrial grade” PC. The hardware SCADA Gateway and which were to be available for peer-to-peer
was replaced but concerns remain over its expected lifespan in links (GOOSE messages).
comparison with the remainder of the equipment supplied.
Issuing logic schematics with the specification proved to be
• A conventional office/home operating system or a UNIX based invaluable when addressing queries and approving protection
operating system were specified as options for the HMI. The designs.
conventional home/office operating system was offered and
accepted. This operating system has proved unreliable.
• The HMI software used an unproven third-party UCA2.0 driver

7. Communications Arrangement
arrangement which has been unreliable. On many occasions The specification called for an arrangement similar to that for
when the system has been left unattended for a number of Pilot Project 2, shown in Figure 2. The HMI computer and SCADA
weeks it has been found in a “crashed” state by operators. Gateway were to communicate with protection relays by means
of the IEC61850 protocol over the Ethernet physical layer. Peer-
• The arrangement of one protection relay providing protection to-peer (GOOSE) messaging was to be carried out according to
and control for more than one 11kV feeder was found to be IEC61850. Protection setting and engineering were required to be
limiting in terms of the allocation of electricity customers carried out over the Ethernet physical layer and could make use of
and distributor substations to feeder circuits. Customers and an alternative standard protocol.
distributor substations were required to be fed on circuits
which did not share a protection relay to avoid protracted All Ethernet links to protection relays were to be by means of
loss of supply for a common source of failure. optic-fibre (100baseF). The Ethernet switches were required to be
suitable for use in a substation environment. They were to have no
moving parts such as fans and be powered from the substation
5. Development of a specification for battery.
substation automation project based on Time synchronisation was to be achieved using a separate IRIG-B
time synchronisation network. Other options are available that
IEC61850 achieve this using the Ethernet network.
During 2005, a specification was developed for Protection And
Control equipment for eight new substations. The specification for
Pilot Project 2 was used as a basis, but was modified to conform 8. The SCADA RTU
to the IEC61850 standard and to eliminate problems identified in
The existing eThekwini Electricity SCADA Master Station uses the
the pilot projects. The main features and philosophies are detailed
DNP3.0 protocol for communication with substation SCADA RTU’s.
below:
The SCADA Gateway was therefore required to provide a DNP3.0
database that could be polled by the Master Station. In previous
specifications the SCADA Gateway communicated with protection
6. Scheme Drawings relays on a substation DNP3.0 network.
Traditionally, tender drawings showed proposed wiring schematics This network was over an RS485 physical layer for Pilot Project 1
with discrete functional devices to convey protection and control and over Ethernet for Pilot Project 2.
philosophy. These drawings were used by suppliers to develop
protection and control schemes using their products. With the introduction of IEC61850, several manufacturers
produced devices capable of populating a DNP3.0 database
With the introduction of microprocessor based relays, much of the by communicating with protection relays using the IEC61850
protection scheme functionality was programmed into the relays protocol. This functionality was specified for the SCADA Gateway.
instead of being implemented with discrete wired components.
With modern substation automation systems virtually all of the
scheme functionality is programmed into the relays and only
inputs and output contacts are physically wired. Scheme drawings
were thus split into wiring schematics and logic schematics.

9. The Human Machine Interface (HMI) Some HMI systems are able to provide both HMI and SCADA RTU
functionality in one device. eThekwini Electricity’s philosophy is
The HMI was required to provide a graphical user interface to that both points of remote control (HMI and SCADA) for the entire
allow an operator to view status and carry out control of the substation should not be disabled for a single device failure.
primary plant. The HMI was also required to maintain an event Separate devices were thus specified for the HMI and SCADA
record database which could be viewed using the graphical user Gateway. The same device was offered for both applications,
interface. Operator interaction was required to be via a touch the only difference being the provision of a touch screen and
screen. A locked keyboard was to be provided for maintenance of keyboard with the HMI device. The benefit arising from this is that
the HMI by select personnel only. the HMI and SCADA Gateway have a common configuration, have
common spares and can perform each other’s functions allowing
The HMI was required to have a default screen showing an both functions to be available after a single device failure.
overall substation mimic depicting the status of all primary plant,
selected measured values and indication of the presence of It is envisioned that vastly improved reliability will be achieved
alarm conditions and their location(s). The default screen was also with the HMI offered over that supplied for Pilot Project 2.
required to display an overall event record window showing all
substation events and their time stamps in chronological order.
From the overall screen, it was to be possible to “drill-down” into

10. The IEC61850 Substation
any bay to show the detailed mimic for the bay with measured Configuration Language (SCL)
values and status of alarms. Operation of primary plant was to
be carried out from this bay-level screen. The bay-level screen IEC61850-6 defines a substation configuration language allowing
was also required to display a bay-specific event record window all IEC61850 communication within a substation to be configured
showing all events related to the particular bay and their time with a substation configuration tool.
stamps in chronological order.
The substation configuration tool, which could be provided by
Pilot project 2 provided valuable experience regarding the reliability any party, comprises software that imports the capability data
of hardware, operating system and software for the HMI. During of protection relays in a standard format, carries out substation
the preparation of the latest specification, static electronic HMI communication configuration and produces configuration files
products having no moving parts such as fans and hard drives that are sent to the relays or other devices to fully configure them
became available. These HMI’s make use of more robust embedded for the required communications arrangement.
operating systems scaled down to the minimum overhead for
This substation configuration tool effectively configures all relays
the application and are designed specifically for substations
to serve the appropriate information from their available logical
in that they make use of the IEC61850 protocol, are designed
nodes to the HMI and SCADA Gateway clients. It configures the
for DC supplies and conform to the same IEC specifications as
HMI and SCADA Gateway to subscribe to this information and it
normal protection relays. An HMI with the above characteristics
configures all relays for the required peer-to-peer (GOOSE or GSSE)
was requested as an option in the tender and was offered and
requirements.
accepted. In future specifications static electronic systems will be
specified. It needs to be stressed that the substation configuration tool is
only required to configure the communications arrangement
Suppliers have often marketed the many additional features that
and in no way affects logic configuration or settings within a
HMI systems can provide such as data-logging and trending,
device. Configuration and settings are performed by the device
condition monitoring, interlocking and operation sequencing.
manufacturer’s configuration software using proprietary
eThekwini Electricity’s philosophy is that the primary function
methods.
of the HMI is to provide a point of control and monitoring of the
substation plant and that the HMI system should not be burdened For most IEC61850 compliant HMI and SCADA Gateway systems
with secondary “nice-to-have” functionality that could result available, the substation configuration tool forms part of the HMI
in reduced reliability of the primary function. “Mission critical” or Gateway configuration software. All relays that are IEC61850
functionality such as tripping should not be routed via the HMI compliant are supplied with an IED Capability Description (ICD) file.
and important functionality such as interlocking and operation All the ICD files for the relays in the substation can be imported
sequencing can be carried out at relay level which is deemed to into the substation configuration tool. When the substation
be more secure. configuration is complete a Substation Configuration Description
(SCD) file is produced by the substation configuration tool. For
Many HMI systems offer complex options for operators. eThekwini
most relay manufacturers, this file is then imported by the relay
Electricity’s philosophy is that operators are not required to have a
configuration software, which applies the necessary configuration
high level of computer literacy and should thus be able to interact
to the relays. This file is also used within HMI or SCADA Gateway
with the HMI via a touch screen using simple buttons to navigate
configuration software to configure these devices.
and operate the system. The logging in of users was even excluded
to improve ease of use. This “shallow learning curve” approach Configuration using an IEC61850-6 compliant substation
is believed to more likely to gain the acceptance and “buy-in” of configuration tool was specified, offered and accepted.
operators.

11. Peer-To-Peer Messaging Using integration method is thus for the relevant contact outputs from
the non-compliant relay to be hardwired to digital inputs of the
IEC61850 GOOSE And GSSE compliant relay. These inputs are assigned to logical nodes within
the compliant relay that are then available for inclusion in the
The specification required peer-to-peer GOOSE or GSSE messaging
substation automation system. This method was specified, offered
to be used where information is required to be transmitted from
and accepted.
one relay to another. Examples of applications of peer-to-peer
messaging are interlocking schemes, automatic switching
sequence schemes and indication.
13. Implementation Conformance
The speed and reliability of GOOSE messaging was proven in Pilot
Projects 1 and 2. A frequently overlooked feature of GOOSE is the
Statements
fact that it is continuously supervised. In between changes of state IEC61850 specifies a standard format for device conformance
initiating the sending of a message, the message is continuously statements.
sent at configurable intervals indicating no change of state. A
subscribing relay that does not receive the message within the Protocol Implementation Conformance Statements (PICS) provide
configurable interval can assume a loss of communication and information regarding the features of the IEC61850 standard
initiate an appropriate alarm. The subscriber can also be configured included in the device. Model Implementation Conformance
to assume a default state if the message is not received. Statements (MICS) provide details on the device’s available logical
nodes and how they are implemented. This information allows the
GOOSE messages were not to be used for any tripping signals. In client to raise questions on how the specified arrangement will be
feeder and transformer protection schemes GOOSE messaging is implemented with the available features.
of little use for tripping purposes as each protection relay issues
a hard-wired trip to the associated circuit breaker/s. For bus bar The specification required conformance statements to be included
protection and breaker fail protection schemes there was scope with tenders for all IEC61850 compliant devices and assisted
for using GOOSE messaging. eThekwini Electricity has adopted immensely during adjudication.
a philosophy not to use this option due to the inability to easily
isolate tripping for testing purposes as learnt in Pilot Project 1. A
bus-zone and breaker-fail scheme using hard-wired bus wires for 14. Relay Mimics, Controls and LED’s
tripping signals was specified.
All modern protection relays are provided with LCD screens. It has
been found that, for a marginal price increase, many models can
12. Integration Of Non- IEC61850 be ordered with screens large enough to display bay mimics. This
feature provides a backup mimic in the event of the failure of the
Compliant Devices HMI. This functionality was specified, offered and accepted.
There are many instances where relays that are not IEC61850 Many relays are now provided with front-face push-buttons for
compliant are required to be integrated into substation automation circuit breaker control. EThekwini Electricity’s philosophy is that
systems. The most common instance is the inclusion of a feeder operators do not interact with relays in any way except to observe
differential protection relay that is required to match with an information displayed on LED’s and LCD’s and to reset the relay
existing remote end. when required after a protection trip. This results from the vast
number of different relay models in use and the inability to train
One option of including such devices into a substation automation
operators on the functionality of each and every relay model. The
scheme is by means of a proxy server comprising an IEC61850
use of relay push buttons for local control of indoor switchgear
compliant device that communicates with the non-compliant
would result in the loss of local control in the event of a relay
devices by means of another (typically master/slave) protocol.
failure. Hard-wired panel mounted local control switches are thus
This would add another, normally non-standard, communications
specified for local control and all remote control is via either the
network with its associated hardware into the substation. The
HMI or SCADA.
proxy server does not fall into the category of a protection relay,
a point of control or a standard communications device, which The specification required all alarm states within a relay, whether
are the categories of devices that have been allocated to divisions from internal or external sources, to be displayed by means of
in eThekwini Electricity’s organizational structure in terms of LED’s. This provides backup indication in the event of the failure
maintenance responsibility. eThekwini Electricity thus does not of the HMI and has previously proven invaluable during testing.
have a division who could logically be assigned to maintain such a Although relays that have insufficient LED’s can often display this
system. This option is not accepted by eThekwini Electricity. information by scrolling through relay menus this solution is not
accepted due to the philosophy that operators do not interact with
In all cases where non-compliant devices have been required there
relays. To date the solutions accepted have always had sufficient
is an associated relay in the protection scheme that is required
LED’s.
to be IEC61850 compliant. eThekwini Electricity’s preferred

15. Integration Of Substation 17. Financial Implications
Automation Into The Utility An exercise has been carried out to determine the financial impact
Organizational Structure of the new philosophy. This exercise has produced some better
than expected results.
With the introduction of the new technologies and methodologies
One of the 132/11 kV substations included in the latest protection
associated with Substation Automation an exercise needed
and control tender having four transformers and twenty 11 kV
to be performed to determine how these systems would be
feeders was used as an example. The tendered prices for the
implemented and then maintained by the resources available in
new philosophy protection and control equipment and contracts
the organizational structure.
currently in place for legacy protection and control equipment
The resources used for project implementation remained the were used to determine the value of “take-out” and “add-in” items
same as for previous schemes. The HV Projects division remained as follows:
responsible for the specification, bid adjudication and project
An exercise for a 132 kV Switchyard having nine feeders and a bus-
management. The Protection & Test division will continue to
section indicated little difference in price between the legacy and
provide assistance with testing and protection settings while the
new philosophy protection and control equipment. The reduction
HV Operations division will assist with testing the SCADA system.
in costs of the secondary cabling and the omission of the legacy
The protection systems will continue to be maintained by the supervisory equipment is cancelled by the additional costs of the
Protection & Test division which is the only division authorised communications network and HMI. The improved functionality
to re-configure relays. The communication network, including all achieved through substation automation is therefore achieved for
Ethernet switches and communications links whether galvanic or no extra cost in these cases.
optic fibre, is to be maintained by the Communications division.
It was noted that the addition of IEC61850 functionality has not
This division requires no knowledge of protection or control
increased the prices of protection relays.
systems and is required to maintain standard non-configurable
components only. Take-Out Items
The SCADA Gateway remains the responsibility of the HV Secondary Cabling R 200 000
Operations division. The new component in substation automation Remote Control Panels R 160 000
systems, the HMI, is to be maintained by the HV Operations
Tap Change Control Panels R 500 000
division. In the latest contract the SCADA Gateway and the HMI
consist of the same hardware and software platform, justifying 11 kV Bus-Zone Scheme R 20 000
this arrangement. Where applicable, specific training has been Supervisory Junction Board R 15 000
organized with solution providers for the various components of
Supervisory Outstation R 115 000
the substation automation systems.
Reduction in Control Room size R 220 000
TOTAL R 1 230 000
16. IEC61850 Based Protection and
Control Projects Add-In Items
During the second half of 2005 the new specification was used 11 kV Bus-Zone Scheme with R 55 000
in a tender for protection and control equipment for eight new bay processing for bus-sections
substations. By the end of 2005 tenders had been adjudicated and and coupler
a contract awarded.
SCADA Gateway R 80 000
Only one tender offered products that could implement the
substation automation systems as specified. The tender was HMI R 130 000
also the cheapest and was recommended and accepted. Communications Network R 165 000
Several products offered by other manufacturers were either not TOTAL R 430 000
compliant or not fully compliant with IEC61850. These solutions
required additional hardware such as proxy servers for their
implementation, which increased the complexity and probably the The savings are thus
price of the solutions.
Take-Out Items R (1 230 000)
Most of these non-compliant manufacturers indicated a proposed Add-In Items R 430 000
“road map” to full compliance with IEC61850 for their products. SAVING R 800 000
It is anticipated that fully compliant tenders will be received in
future which will result in a more competitive environment for
suppliers and hopefully savings for utilities. Most of the systems
to be supplied have passed the approval phase and are in the
factory testing phase. To date it appears that the philosophies and
methodologies required by the specification have been followed.

18. Envisaged Adoption of the Full 19. Conclusion
IEC61850 Model for Substation The substation automation pilot projects and the subsequent
Automation contract for eight substation currently underway have allowed
eThekwini Electricity’s philosophies and specifications to evolve
It is envisaged that the development of the IEC61850 process bus from systems that used relatively low technology solutions to ones
will revolutionise substation communication with links between using the latest communication technologies.
primary plant such as outdoor circuit breakers and instrument
The “legacy” systems were heavily dependant on on-site hard-
transformers and IED’s being provided by communication
wired secondary cabling with associated disadvantages. The
networks with traditional secondary cabling being eliminated
new systems allow for factory tested components to be delivered
completely.
and connected together via communication networks with only a
It is hoped that in the near future our specification will be developed minimum of on-site secondary cabling.
further to incorporate a process bus. The envisaged substation
The reduction in secondary cabling and the rationalization of
arrangement is shown in Figure 3.
functionality in relays made possible by substation automation
has enabled significant cost savings to be achieved.
The adoption of the IEC61850 standard has allowed utilities to

avoid being locked into proprietary communications standards
by allowing the interoperability of devices from different
manufacturers. This has contributed to a more competitive
environment for suppliers resulting in savings to utilities.
It is envisaged that future protection and control relays and

products will be provided with IEC61850 compliance as standard
with no price premium for this functionality.
The IEC61850 standard which has predominantly been driven by

suppliers will be increasingly influenced by feedback from utilities
and system integrators as more projects are implemented.
Figure 3.
Envisaged process bus protection and control arrangement.
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Wireless Radio
Application Guide
Steel McCreery
GE Multilin
1. Introduction 1.1 Typical Protective Relaying Applications

The age of modern industrial radio data communications Suitable for MDS Radio links
was ushered in when it was proven that digital data could be Within the scope of protective relaying LAN architectures there are
economically and reliably transmitted from one device to another three areas of application that are appropriate for the use of radio
using a voice radio set known as narrow band radio fitted with a links: SCADA, LAN extension and digital I/O status information
modem. Packet radio is a term coined by amateur radio enthusiasts exchange. The DNP3 protocol is very popular in wide area SCADA
that refers to this type of digital radio communications equipment. applications. The DNP3 unsolicited response mode of operation
The modern MDS 9700 and 9710 radios that are applied to similar allows for the optimization of the communications link while at
applications can trace their design heritage back to the days of the the same time provides very fast updates of status changes. For
first packet radios. Over the years technological advancements in this reason, it is a very desirable mode of operation for DNP3 slave
the area of digital radio communications have allowed companies devices. It should be noted that the system architect must ensure
such as MDS to develop a wide range of radio equipment for that there is a mechanism in place to resolve the issue of media
applications ranging from simple voice communications to the contention. When using a Ethernet LAN media, DNP3 unsolicited
simultaneous transmission of multiple high-speed data channels messaging via TCP/IP resolving the contention issue and provides
over a wide band radio link. The intent of this application note is confirmable messaging.
to serve as a guide for the correct selection and configuration of
MDS radios for common industrial and utility protective relaying
applications using GE Multilin relays.
1.2 Terminology
Here are the definitions of some common terms that will be used
Currently at the physical layer GE Multilin relays and MDS radios
through the rest of this application note.
share two interface standards: RS485 and 10BaseT Ethernet. The
MDS TransNet radios support RS232 and RS485 making them an Spread Spectrum Radios: Radio transmission using the spread
excellent choice for SCADA applications involving relays that have spectrum technique was originally developed to provide jam-
only a RS485 networking port. The iNET 900s and iNET-II 900’s resistant military communications. Spread spectrum uses a
support RS232 and Ethernet making them an excellent choice for modulation technique that distributes a transmitter’s signal over
Ethernet enabled SR and Universal Relays. Table 1 is a summary a very wide bandwidth, making it virtually undetectable to a
of MDS radios, interfaces, on air speeds, supported protocols and conventional radio receiver. Today the two primarily methods that
typical distances. are used by spread spectrum technology to transmit messages
Radio Interface Supported Protocols On-air-Speed Type of Radio Typical Maximum

Distances
MDS TransNET RS485, RS232 DNP3, Modbus 160 kbps Spread spectrum: 30 miles (terrain
No license required permitting)
MDS iNET 900 10BaseT DNP3 via TCP/IP, 0.5Mbps Spread spectrum: 30 miles (terrain
Modbus via TCP/IP, No license required permitting)
IEC61850
MDS iNET-II 900 10BaseT DNP3 via TCP/IP, 1.0 Mbps Spread spectrum: 15-20 miles (terrain
Modbus via TCP/IP, No license required permitting)
IEC61850
Table 1.
Wireless Radio Application Guide 69

are “Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum” and “Direct Sequence Notes:
Spread Spectrum.
1. All tests were conducted with iNET-II 900 radios.
Narrowband Radios: In communications, narrowband is a
relative term. For these applications, this term refers to voice 2. For correct operation a switch was required between the iNET
channel radios or the modern equivalent of the old packet radios. 900 radio and the relay.
With baud rates of up to 9.6k they are typically used in SCADA
applications supporting a single protocol such as DNP or ModBus. 2.1.1 Hardware Configuration:
The 9790 and 9710 are licensed MDS narrow band radios that can
be used in applications involving distances of up to 50 miles while Figure 1 shows the typical equipment that would be deployed at
the TransNET radios are unlicensed spread spectrum radios used each site. It consists of a relay, radio and an antenna. At least one
in applications where the distance can be up to 30 miles at serial of the radios must be capable of operating as the access point
baud rates up to 115.2 kbps. radio.
Wideband Radios: In communications, wideband is also a relative Note: For the lab tests the radios were equipped with whip
term. Within MDS this term applies to radios such as the LEDR 900 antennas and 50 ohm loads.
which have a bandwidth of 200 KHz allowing multiple channels of
data to be transmitted at the same time.
Access Point Radio: The radio that connects the remote radios
together to form the wireless network. The access point radio
usually connects to a wired network, and can relay data between
the remote radios and devices on the wired network. Sometimes it
is referred to as the Wireless Access Point (or WAP).
DB (Decibel): A measure of the ratio between two signal levels. EnerVista

Frequently used to express the gain (or loss) of a system. Viewpoint
Monitoring
DBi: Decibels referenced to an “ideal” isotropic radiator in free
space. Frequently used to express antenna gain.
DBm: Decibels referenced to one milliwatt. An absolute unit used Figure 1.

to measure signal power such as a transmitters output power.
The pin out for the cross over cable (sometimes referred to as a
Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power (EIRP): the amount of patch cable) used to connect the iNET-II radio to the Universal
power that would have to be emitted by an isotropic antenna Relay’s 10BaseT Ethernet port is shown in Figure 2 while Figure 3
to produce the peak power density observed in the direction of shows the cable pin out for the transceiver configuration cable.
maximum antenna gain. EIRP can take into account the losses
in the transmission line and connectors and includes the gain of
the antenna. The EIRP is often stated in terms of decibels over
a reference power level, that would be the power emitted by an
isotropic radiator with an equivalent signal strength.
FCC: Federal Communications Commission
Standing-Wave Ratio (SWR): A parameter related to the ratio

between the forward transmitter power and the reflected power
from the antenna system. As a general guideline, reflected power
should not exceed 10% of the forward power. Figure 2.
2. iNET-II 900 Radio Applications

This section documents the hardware and software configure
procedures that are required to apply the iNET-II radios to the
applications identified earlier.
2.1 Application: Point to Point or Point to Multi-

Point SCADA
In this first example we will look at the configuration procedure
and performance of the radio link in a SCADA application. The
Figure 3.
application layer protocols that are supported include ModBus via
TCP/IP and DNP3 via TCP/IP.

2.1.2 Configuration
The following is the minimum steps required to configure the
radios for the application. It is recommended that the engineer
read the entire instruction manual to become familiar with all of
the options that are available
1. Connect the computer to the access point radio via the serial
transceiver configuration cable and then launch a terminal
emulation program such as HyperTerminal with the following
communication port settings:
• 19,200 bps data rate
• 8 data bits, no parity
• One stop bit, and no flow-control

Figure 6.
2. Press the enter key to receive the login: prompt
6. Once a unique IP address and the subnet mask have been
entered select E to store these settings and then select the
escape key to go to the previous menu. The access point has
been configured. Note all radios within the network will have
the same subnet mask.
Figure 4.
3. Enter the default password ”admin” in lower case and then

press the enter key.
4. You will be presented with the main menu shown in Figure 5.

Type the letter G on the keyboard to access the main menu.
5. Note that the default “Device Node “ is set to “Access Point”.
Figure 7.
7. The above procedure is repeated for each additional radio in

the network. Each of these radios must be set for the Device
Mode “ Remote”.
Figure 5.
There should be only one access point per network and so

we will set this as the access point. The access point radio, is
the radio that controls the information exchange between all
radios on the network. The operating mode of all other radios
within the network must be set to remote. Enter B to configure
the unique network name. In this example we will use ”steel”.
The same network name must be programmed into all radios
within the network. To support remote management of the
radio, a unique IP address and subnet mask must also be
Figure 8.
assigned to each radio. You should contact your IT department
for a valid range of IP addresses and a subnet mask. For our
test network we will use the IP address range 3.94.247.1 to 8. Configure each of the Universal Relay’s Ethernet ports. Using
3.94.247.254 and a subnet mast of 255.255.255.0. the specified cable, connect the Universal Relays to the
radios.

9. The ping instruction should be used to test connectivity to 2. The two Universal Relays are configured such that a GSSE
both the radios and the Universal relays. message would be transmitted from the first relay to
the second relay which would cause the second relay to
2.1.3 Performance Tests: immediately send a GSSE message back to the first relay. The
first relay’s FlexLogic would measure the total time for the
Once the network of three UR’s and INET-II radios were configured sequence of these two messages and then increment one
the performance of the network was tested using EnerVista UR of four counters based on the round trip time. The counters
setup software. With an effective “on air” bit rate of approximately represent the following round trip times:
1Mbps the performance of the INET II radio link from a users
perspective seemed to be comparable to the performance of a - less then or equal to 20 milliseconds
hardwired Ethernet network utilizing 10 Mbps Ethernet switches.
- greater then 20 and less then or equal to 30 milliseconds
10. Once operation is verified, refer to the site installation
and commissioning section of this document for addition - greater then 30 and less then or equal to 40 milliseconds
information and guidelines.
- greater then 40 and less then or equal to 80 milliseconds
2.2 Application: Automation I/0 via IEC61850 If we assume that the time to travel from one relay to the
GSSE and MDS iNET-II radios other is approximately half the round trip time we have an
indication of the latency of the communication link between
the two relays. A fifth counter was used to count the total
number of message sequences generated. This number was
checked to ensure it was equal to the sum of the other four
counters to ensure all message sequences generated were
measured. The FlexLogic used in this evaluation is as shown
in section 6.0.
2.2.2 Test Results:

The following are the test results based on the point-to-point
Figure 9. topology and the measurement of 29672 consecutive message
sequences.
The reliability and latency of the radio link are the two performance
characteristics we will examine in the investigation of the suitability
of the MDS radio link to transport IEC61850 GSSE messages
Round trip times:
between two universal relays • Percentage of messages with a round trip time less than 20
Topology: Point-to-Point milliseconds: 0.78% (232)
Protocol: IEC61850 GSSE • Percentage of messages with a round trip time between 20 to
30 milliseconds: 98.79% (29303)
2.2.1 Configuration: • Percentage of messages with a round trip time between 30 to
1. To improve performance, modifications to the default 40 milliseconds: 0.43% (127 messages)
radio configuration settings are required. From the main
• Percentage of messages with a round trip time between 40
configuration screen type C to select the Radio Configuration
and 80 milliseconds: 0.03% (10).
Menu shown in Figure 10. Set the Beacon Period to Slow and
the Dwell Time to 32.8 milliseconds as shown. • Percentage of messages with a round trip time greater then
80 milliseconds 0% (0).
The transmission latency for point-to-point I/O exchange is

such that this configuration is suitable for many distribution and
automation applications. We should note that when topologies
are expanded beyond a point-to-point topology the number of
variables that impact latency become too numerous to be able to
accurately predict latency without testing.
Figure 10.

3. Site Installation and Commissioning end of the antenna (furthest from the support mast) should face
the access point radio. Final alignment of the antenna heading
Procedures can be accomplished by orienting it for maximum received signal
strength. Most radio equipment includes provisions for measuring
The following is a brief description of recommended commissioning
the receive signal strength.
procedures and measurements that should be taken during the
commissioning process.
3.4 Antenna Mounting Considerations
3.1 Site Selection-Basic Requirements The antenna manufacturer’s installation instructions must
be strictly followed for proper operation of a directional or
For optimum radio performance, the installation sites for the
omni-directional antenna. Using the proper mounting hardware
access point and remote stations must be carefully considered.
and bracket ensures a secure mounting arrangement with no
Suitable sites should provide:
pattern distortion or de-tuning of the antenna. The following
• Protection of the radio equipment from direct weather recommendations apply to all antenna installations:
exposure
• Mount the antenna in the clear, as far away as possible from
• A source of adequate and stable power supply obstructions such as buildings, metal objects, dense foliage,
etc. Choose a location that provides a clear path in the
• Suitable entrance for antenna cable direction of the associated station.
• Interface or other required cabling • Polarization of the antenna is important. Most systems
use a vertically polarized omni-directional antenna at the
• Antenna location that provides an unobstructed transmission master station. Therefore, the remote antennas must also be
path in the direction of the associated station(s) often referred vertically polarized (elements perpendicular to the horizon).
to as “a line of sight path” were the access points antenna Cross-polarization between stations can cause a signal loss
has a clear path to the remote location(s). The next section of 20 decibels (dB) or more.
expands further on this point.
3.2 Evaluating Path Quality

A line-of-sight path is ideal and provides the most reliable
transmission in all cases. However, minor obstructions in the
signal path will not necessarily block communication. In general,
the need for a clear path becomes greater as operating frequency
and transmission distance increases. With the exception of short-
range paths that can be visually evaluated, a path study is generally
recommended for new installations. A path study predicts the
signal strength, reliability and fade margin of a proposed radio link.
While terrain, elevation and distance are the major factors in this
process, a path study must also consider antenna gain, feedline
loss, transmitter power, and receiver sensitivity. MDS provides this
service and it is recommended in all applications.
3.3 Antenna Selection and Orientation Figure 11.

The most important item affecting radio performance is the
antenna system. Careful attention must be given to this part of The above omnidirectional antenna is a typical antenna that
an installation, or the performance of the entire system will be would be use by the access point radio.
compromised. High quality, gain antennas should be used at
all access point radios and remote radios. The antennas should
be specifically designed for use at the intended frequency of
operation.
Communication antennas are made by a number of

manufacturers and fall into two general categories,
omni-directional, and directional. An omni-directional antenna
(Figure 11) provides equal radiation and response in all directions
and is therefore appropriate for use at the access point radio, which
must communicate with an array of remote radios scattered in Figure 12.
various directions. At remote radios, a directional antenna such as a
Yagi (Figure 12) is typically used. Directional antennas allow greater The Yagi antenna is a typical antenna that would be used at the
communication range, and reduce the chance of interference to remote radio. Note: The polarization of the Yagi antenna in Figure
and from other radio networks. It is necessary to aim the remote 12 is correct if used with either of the above omni-directional
radio antennas in the desired direction of communication. The antennas of Figure 11.

3.5 Feedlines Antenna System Gain vs Power Output Settings
The choice of feedline used with the antenna should be carefully Antenna System Gain Maximum Power Maximum Power EIRP
(Antenna Gain in dBI2 Setting Setting (In dBm)
considered. Poor-quality coaxial cables should be avoided, as
minus Feedline Loss (PWR Command) (PWR Command)
they will degrade system performance for both transmission in dBt) iNET Radio iNET-II Radio
and reception. The cable should be kept as short as possible to
minimize signal loss. For cable runs of less than 20 feet (6 meters), Omni 6 (or less) 30 28 36
or for short-range transmission, an inexpensive feedline such as Omni 9 27 26 36
Type RG-8A/U are acceptable. Otherwise, we recommend using a Yagi 12 24 23 36
low-loss cable type suited for 900 MHz, such as Heliax®
Yagi 14 22 Not allowable 36
Length vs. Loss in Coaxial Cable at 900 MHz Yagi 16 20 Not allowable 36
Cable Type 10 Feet 50 Feet 100 Feet 500 Feet (152.4 M)
(3.05 m) (15.24 m) (30.48 m)
Table 3.
RG214 .76 dB 3.8 dB 7.6 dB Unacceptable Loss

LMR-400 .39 dB 1.95 dB 3.90 dB Unacceptable Loss 3.7 SWR of the Antenna System
1/2” HELIAX .23 dB 1.15 dB 2.29 dB 11.45 dB
A proper impedance match between the transceiver and the
7/3” HELIAX .13 dB .64 dB 1.28 dB 6.40 dB antenna system is very important. It ensures the maximum signal
1-1/4” HELIAX .10 dB .48 dB .95 dB 4.75 dB transfer between the radio and antenna. By measuring the SWR
1-5/8” HELIAX .08 db .40 dB .80 dB 4.00 dB
(standing-wave ratio) of the antenna system the impedance match
can be checked. The reflected power should be less than 10% of
Table 2. the forward power (≈2:1 SWR). Higher readings usually indicate
problems with the antenna, feedline or coaxial connectors. If the
results are normal, record them for comparison for use during
3.6 Setting the Output Power future routine preventative maintenance. Abnormal readings
indicate possible trouble with the antenna or the transmission line
The transceiver is normally supplied from the factory set for a
that will need to be corrected.
nominal +30 dBm (+29 dBm for iNET-II) RF power output. This
is the maximum transmitter output power allowed under FCC
rules. The power must be decreased from this level if the antenna
system gain exceeds 6 dBi. The allowable level is calculated and 4. TransNET Radios Applications
is based on the antenna gain, feedline loss, and the transmitter As stated earlier, the TransNet radios support both RS232 and
output power setting. RS485 physical interface standard. Both the ModBus and DNP3
Note: In some countries, the maximum allowable RF output may protocols can be used over the TransNet radio link. Most GE Multilin
be limited to less than the Figures referenced here. Be sure to relays have at least one RS485 networking port making the MDS
check for and comply with the requirements for your area. TransNet radios an ideal choice for applications involving relays
supporting either protocol and having an RS485 networking port.
Example:
4.1 Application: Point to Point or Point to Multi-
To determine the maximum allowable power setting of the radio, Point SCADA Hardware Configuration:
perform the following steps:
The following diagram depicts the typical equipment that would
1. Determine the antenna system gain by subtracting the be deployed at each site. It consists of a relay, a radio, and an
feedline loss (in dB) from the antenna gain (in dBi). For antenna. Note that one of the radios must be capable of acting as
example, if the antenna gain is 9.5 dBi, and the feedline loss the access point radio.
is 1.5 dB, the antenna system gain would be 8 dB. (If the
antenna system gain is 6 dB or less, no power adjustment is
required.)
2. Subtract the antenna system gain from 36 dBm (the maximum

allowable equivalent isotropically radiated power or (EIRP).
The result indicates the maximum transmitter power (in dBm)
allowed under the rules. In the example above, this would be
28 dBm.
3. If the maximum transmitter power allowed is less than 30

dBm, set the power to the desired level (Main Menu>>Radio
Configuration>>RF Output Power Setpoint). For convenience,
Table 3 lists several antenna system gains and shows the
maximum allowable power setting of the radio. Note that a
gain of 6 dB or less entitles you to operate the radio at full
power output: 30 dBm for iNET and 28.7 dBm for iNET-II’s.

Figure 13.
Note: For the lab tests, the radios were equipped with whip antennas and 50 ohm loads.
enter MODE M to set the radio to master. This radio’s port will
be connected to the computer with the SCADA software and
4.2 Configuration: so the radio port should be set to RS232. We will be using the
Universal Relays configuration software to talk to a Universal
Relay which has one of its RS485 ports set to 9600 baud, 8,
no parity and one stop bit. Therefore this radio’s port baud
rate, data bits, parity and stop bits must be set to 9600, 8, no
parity and one stop bit respectively. Figure 16 shows these
settings.
Figure 14.
1. The easiest way to configure the radio is with the TransNet

configuration software while connected to the diagnostic
port with a serial cable consisting of an RJ11 to DB9 female
adapter part number 73-2434A02 and a cable 03-3246A01.
2. With the antennas connected to the radios, power the

radios and connect to the access point radio and launch the
software.
Figure 16.
5. Select the Network Settings tab 1. Set the Network Address to

a unique number. This same number must now be set in all
radios that are to be used in this network.
Figure 15.
3. Select Commport and then Port open
4. Connect to the radio by clicking on the connect icon. (see

Figure 16). Select the Radio Settings tab1 and ensure that the
Radio Mode is set to M for master (this radio will be the access
Figure 17.
point radio). If the Radio Mode is not set to M double click and

6. The EnerVista UR Setup software uses the ModBus RTU
protocol to communicate to the Universal Relay. ModBus RTU
has strict rules with respect to the time between characters
in a valid command. To ensure this timing is maintained the
“Data Buffering” option within the radio must be enabled. To
do this, select the Network Settings 2 tab and enable data
buffering by setting the Data Buffering to Buff ON. To stop the
communication to this radio, select the Com Port menu at
the top of the screen and then select Close or left click on the
close icon (see Figure 18)
Figure 20.
9. Once all radios have been configured, connect the computer

running the EverVista UR Setup Software to the access point
radio’s RS232 port and then connect the remote radio’s port
configured for RS485 to the Universal Relay’s port using
a cable with a pin configuration corresponding to that of
Figure 21. The ability to configure and monitor the Universal
Relay via the computer and radio network verifies the correct
operation of the radio network.
Figure 18.
7. Connect to the first remote radio and open communications.

Select the Radio Setting tab 1 and set the radio mode to
remote with the command MODE R. If the serial port of this
remote is to be connected to a relay’s RS485 port, set the
port mode to RS485 by typing the setting “PORT RS485” in the
window labeled Port. Set the baud rate, bits per character,
Figure 21.
parity, and stop bits as described earlier.
5.0 Security of MDS Spread Spectrum

Radios
For protective relaying applications engineers there are three
areas of concern:
- Freedom from mis-operation
- Data corruption and
- Cyber Security
The robust nature of modern data communications technology

implemented within the radios and the error checking of the
protocols ensure end to end error free transmission. This negates
Figure 19. the possibility of mis-operation and data corruption. The increasing
focus on Cyber Security has led MDS to ensure the radios are
compatible with current security software and standards such
8. Select the Network Settings tab 1 and set the network
that the radios fit into the customers’ cyber security just as any
address to the same value as the access point radio. Repeat
other compliant IT devices would. The common cyber security
this procedure for each slave.
concerns and issues addressed by MDS radios are:
• Protection of privacy: prevent data from being reviewed by

people who are not authorized to do so.
• Protection from unauthorized access from the network.

Prevent people from accessing the network who shouldn’t
have access.

• Protection against or mitigation of denial of service attacks: 5.3 Protection From Denial of Service Attacks:
A denial of service attack is to make the network not do what
it is supposed to do. Typical strategies include redirection There are many different attacks, including an attempt to redirect
of traffic, overloading the network with messages or traffic. The predominant strategy against denial of service attacks
control commands. The next few paragraphs describe how is to prevent unauthorized people from configuring the radios. To
MDS addresses these issues within the design of the radio protect against dictionary attacks, which a hacker may try to use
equipment. to break the password, MDS radios have a feature were after three
login failures the transceiver ignores login requests for 5 minutes.
5.1 Protection of Privacy: There are network configuration tools that allow the network
Spread spectrum technology was developed during World War II administrator the ability to configure the entire network from one
and used subsequently by the military because of its ability to reject location using telnet sessions as opposed to configuring each
jamming and the difficulty it presents to the enemy attempting to managed device, such as a switch, locally. If there exists, in the
intercept its transmissions. At the RF level or physical layer a signal network, unprotected remote access points a hacker could use an
with the information is being emitted from the radio’s antenna. Ethernet packet sniffer such as Ethereal and see the telnet sessions
The first concern is that someone can intercept this information and gain the passwords which would allow remote access to the
and gain access. The term “AirSnort’ refers to a device used by radios. With this information the hacker could reconfigure radios
hackers located close to the facility, that receives the RF signal. remotely through this interface and enter bad parameters that
Upon successful reception of the signal the hacker would then could potentially bring the network down. This is a concern for any
use typical encryption cracking software to gain access to the network whether it uses radios as part of the network medium or
network. MDS radios are not interoperable with WIFI RF signals not To counter this attack, larger organizations may insist upon
and so WIFI hardware cannot be used as an “AirSnort”, making implementing remote login to network managed devices with SSH
MDS unlicensed spread spectrum radios inherently secure against management or HTTPS. The SSH or HTTPS management standard
this type of attack. The RF or physical layer is MDS proprietary. If is basically an encrypted telnet for IT equipment configuration.
the hacker was able to obtain a MDS radio, the radio’s design is This would prevent someone who is monitoring the network with
such that it cannot be put into a promiscuous mode such as a a sniffer from an unsecured access point from seeing the data
laptop WIFI card can. Lets explain this a little further: There are within the telnet session.
no software divers that reside in an external device such as a In addition, MDS radios are compliant with SNMP version 3 which
computer to make the MDS radios work, as is the case with WIFI. may be implemented on larger systems. SNMP version 3 is an
Therefore, hackers cannot get access to the data stream as they interoperable standards-based protocol for network management.
would be able to do with WIFI technology. This fact also aids in SNMPv3 provides secure access to managed devices by a
the protection against a denial of service. Let’s assume that the combination of authenticating and encrypting packets over the
hacker has obtained or stolen MDS radio in an attempt to use it network. The security features provided in SNMPv3 are:
to eavesdrop and intercept messages. The MDS radios support
both the AES-128 and RC4 encryption standard. Both of these • Message integrity—Ensuring that a packet has not been
encryption standards use a key. This key is required to decrypt tampered with in-transit.
the data. Unlike earlier encryption technology the key isn’t static,
rather it is rotated with other keys after a short period of operation. • Authentication—Determining the message is from a valid
Both of these encryption techniques are industry standard for source.
cyber security. The stolen radio is useless without the key.
• Encryption—Scrambling the contents of a packet to prevent it
5.2. Protection From Unauthorized Access: from being seen by an unauthorized source.
This next level of security assumes that a hacker is already

connected to the network using a stolen radio (This is a big
assumption). To prevent break-ins in the case of this unlikely event
the network uses a method of authentication before the radio is
allowed access to the network. There are several cyber security
authentication standards. For standard IT equipment such as
routers, switches, and WIFI, the authentication standard that
applies is 802.1x RADIUS authentication. Larger organizations
that choose to implement authentication will implement 802.1x
RADIUS. 802.1x RADIUS is quite complex and requires servers,
so smaller organizations may not have chosen to implement
authentication due to the company’s size, cost of implementation
and the likelihood that unobserved access to the network could
be obtained. If 802.1x RADIUS has been implemented, MDS radio’s
comply with this standard. The same radios will also work without
802.1x RADIUS and have local authentication that will provide the
user with a high level of security.

6.0 Latency FlexLogic for IEC61850 GSSE
Flexlogic Operation:
This section outlines the FlexLogic for iNet-II 900 application in
section 2.2. In Figure 22, FlexLogic Timer #1 acts as a 2 second
oscillator with a 50:50 duty cycle that initiates each transmission
as follows. Every off to on transition of Virtual Output #1 changes
the status of User Remote Output #1. Each change in User Remote
Output #1’s status causes UR #1 to transmit a GSSE message
containing the status of all of the Remote Outputs including User
Remote output#1. UR#2 is configured to store the status of User
Remote Output #1 in its local Remote Input#1 and it’s User Remote
Output #1. The change in status of UR#2’s Remote Output #1 will
initiate the transmission of a GSSE message from UR#2. UR#1 will
receive this transmission. As seen in Figure 23, depending on the
round trip time UR#2’s Remote Output#1 will increment one of
the counters 1 through 4 in UR#1 which corresponds to the round
trip time being less then 20, 30, 40 or 80 milliseconds respectively.
Counter#5 is used to count the total number of messages sent. If
no messages have been lost or have a round trip time greater then
80 milliseconds, the total of counters 1 through 4 should equal the
accumulated count in counter #5.
Setting Parameter
Digital Counter 1 Function Enabled
Digital Counter 1 Name Trip < 20ms
Digital Counter 1 Units
Digital Counter 1 Preset 0
Digital Counter 1 Compare 0
Digital Counter 1 Up Vrt Op 10 On (V010)
Digital Counter 1 Down OFF
Digital Counter 1 Block OFF
Digital Counter 1 Set To Preset OFF
Digital Counter 1 Reset CONTROL PUSHBUTTON 1 ON
Digital Counter 1 Freeze/Reset OFF
Digital Counter 1 Freeze/Count OFF
Digital Counter 2 Up T<20ms 11 On (V011)
Digital Counter 2 Set to Preset OFF
Digital Counter 3 Up 30 <T>40ms 12 On (V012)
Digital Counter 3 Freeze/reset OFF

Digital Counter 4 Up 40 <T> 80ms 13 On (VO13)
Figure 22. Digital Counter 4 Block OFF
Figure 23.
1005-v10

Protection Basics:
Introduction to Symmetrical Components
1. Introduction
Symmetrical components is the name given to a methodology,
which was discovered in 1913 by Charles Legeyt Fortescue
who later presented a paper on his findings entitled, “Method of
Symmetrical Co-ordinates Applied to the Solution of Polyphase
Networks.” Fortescue demonstrated that any set of unbalanced
three-phase quantities could be expressed as the sum of three Figure 3.
symmetrical sets of balanced phasors. Using this tool, unbalanced Zero Sequence Components
system conditions, like those caused by common fault types may
be visualized and analyzed. Additionally, most microprocessor- 3. Introduction to Symmetrical
based relays operate from symmetrical component quantities
and so the importance of a good understanding of this tool is Components
self-evident.
The symmetrical components can be used to determine any
unbalanced current or voltage (Ia, Ib, Ic or Va, Vb, Vc which
reference unbalanced line-to-neutral phasors) as follows:
2. Positive, Negative and Zero Sequence
Ia = I1 + I2 + I0 Va = V1 + V2 + V0
Components
Ib = a2I1 + aI2 + I0 Vb = a2V1 + aV2 + V0
According to Fortescue’s methodology, there are three sets of
independent components in a three-phase system: positive, Ic = aI1 + a2I2 + I0 Vc = aV1 + a2V2 + V0
negative and zero for both current and voltage. Positive sequence
voltages (Figure 1) are supplied by generators within the system The sequence currents or voltages from a three-phase unbalanced
and are always present. A second set of balanced phasors are set can be calculated using the following equations:
also equal in magnitude and displaced 120 degrees apart, but
Zero Sequence Component:
display a counter-clockwise rotation sequence of A-C-B (Figure 2),
which represents a negative sequence. The final set of balanced I0 = ⅓ (Ia + Ib + Ic) V0 = ⅓ (Va + Vb + Vc)
phasors is equal in magnitude and in phase with each other,
however since there is no rotation sequence (Figure 3) this is Positive Sequence Component:
known as a zero sequence.
I1 = ⅓ (Ia + aIb + a2Ic) V1 = ⅓ (Va + aVb + a2Vc)
Negative Sequence Component:
I2 = ⅓ (Ia + a2Ib + aIc) V2 = ⅓ (Va + a2Vb + aVc)
The independence of the symmetrical components and their

resultant summation follow the principle of superposition, which
is the basis for its practical usage in protective relaying.
Before proceeding further, a mathematical explanation of the “a”

operator is required. Within Fortescue’s formulas, the “a” operator
shifts a vector by an angle of 120 degrees counter-clockwise,
and the “a2” operator performs a 240 degrees counter-clockwise
Figure 1. Figure 2. phase shift. According to Fortescue, a balanced system will have
Positive Sequence Components; Negative Sequence Components; only positive sequence currents and voltages. For example, as
A-B-C A-C-B
Protection Basics: Introduction to Symmetrical Components 79

shown in Figure 4, the calculation of symmetrical components 5. References
in a three-phase balanced or symmetrical system results in only
positive sequence voltages, 3V1. Similarly, the currents also have [1] J. L. Blackburn, T. J. Domin, 2007, “Protective Relaying, Principles
equal magnitudes and phase angles of 120 degrees apart, which and Applications, Third Edition,” Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, Boca
would produce a result of only positive sequence and no negative Raton, FL, pp.75-80
or zero sequence currents for a balanced system.
[2] GE Publication, “Fundamentals of Modern Protective Relaying,”
For unbalanced systems, such as an open-phase there will be Instruction Manual, Markham, Ontario, 2007
positive, negative and possibly zero-sequence currents. Referring
to the open-phase example in Figure 5, it can be seen that the
calculation of the symmetrical components results in positive,
negative and zero sequence currents of 3I1, 3I2, and 3I0. However,
since the voltages are balanced in magnitude and phase angle,
the result would be the same as the balanced system in Figure 4,
which produces only positive sequence voltage.
Similarly for a single phase to ground fault as shown in Figure 6,

there will be positive, negative and zero sequence currents (3I1, 3I2,
and 3I0) and voltages (3V1, 3V2, and 3V0).
4. Summary
Under a no fault condition, the power system is considered to
be essentially a symmetrical system and therefore only positive
sequence currents and voltages exist. At the time of a fault, Figure 5.
positive, negative and possibly zero sequence currents and Open-Phase Unbalanced / Non-Symmetrical System
voltages exist. Using real world phase voltages and currents
along with Fortescue’s formulas, all positive, negative and zero
sequence currents can be calculated. Protective relays use these
sequence components along with phase current and/or voltage
data as the input to protective elements.
Figure 4.
Three-Phase Balanced / Symmetrical System
Figure 6.
Single Phase-Ground Fault Unbalanced / Non-Symmetrical System
80 Protection Basics: Introduction to Symmetrical Components

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to include Synchrophasor measurement, delivering unparalleled capabilities to monitor,
identify, protect and control a power system network from instabilities. G60 also includes new
protection and control functions such as Accumulated Over/Underfrequency and enhanced
RTD monitoring, to provide a complete solution for generator protection and management.
A New Professional Line of Insulation Testers

S1 Series 5kV/10kV Insulation Testers
Megger
www.megger.com
Introduced just this year, the Megger S1 series includes two 5kV models (S1 552 and 554) and
two 10kV models (S1 1052 and 1054). All of these models include the highest charging current
in the industry…5mA. These models also feature excellent noise immunity (2mA for the S1 552
and 1052 and an industry best 4mA for the S1 554 and 1054). Other features include data
storage and download, battery or line operation, built-in industry standard tests and extended
measurement ranges.
Power System Monitoring & Simulation

ETAP Energy Management System
Operation Technology Inc.
www.etap.com
ETAP Enterprise Solution for real-time power management systems is an integrated suite of
software products providing intelligent power monitoring, energy management, optimization,
substation automation, fast load shedding, and real-time prediction applications. ETAP extends
traditional data acquisition systems to an intelligent power management solution for operators,
dispatchers, engineers, and decision makers.
84
Relay your Faults
Cash in on your existing fault recording capability

Advancements in modern microprocessor-based protective relays are providing utility
companies with unprecedented fault and disturbance recording power. With extended
memory storage, high sampling rates, and the ability to log IEC61850 GOOSE messages,
protective relays have now surpassed the fault recording capabilities of
traditional, centralized Digital Fault Recorders.
GE Multilin’s new DDFR – Distributed Digital Fault Recorder

detects, collects, and stores fault, disturbance, and sequence
of event records from relays into one central location for easy
archiving and analysis. With the ability to also send information
collected locally to an enterprise-wide archiving system, the DDFR
provides a complete fault and disturbance recording solution at a
fraction of the cost of conventional, centralized system.
g
GE Multilin
Multilin
Worldwide North America Europe/MiddleEast/Africa

visit our website at www.GEMultilin.com/ddfr Tel: 905-294-6222 Tel: 1-800-547-8629 Tel: +34 94 485 88 00
or email us at gemultilin@ge.com
Upcoming Events
Indonesian Electric 2007 Oct 31 - Nov 3 Kemayoran, Jakarta, Indonesia
New developments in Indonesia’s infrastructure sector, particularly for the power industry, has created
a huge opportunity for technology and equipment providers supplying products and services from
around the world. The Electric Indonesia Exhibition includes products and technology ranging from
power, transmission and distribution right through to electrical contracting supplies. The show is part of
the Energy & Mining Indonesia series, so you can add value to your visit by re-registering and visiting the
adjoining halls to see related technology displays. There are also seminar programs covering important
issues facing the industry today.
www.pamerindo.com/2007/electric/ele07exh.htm
GE Multilin Tradeshow Stand

• Visit GE Multilin at booth #264, Hall A2
2007 Offshore Communications November 6 - 8 Houston, Texas, United States

Offshore Communications 2007 Conference & Exhibition will focus on state-of-the-art technology,
standards, business trends, and critical regulatory considerations. The program will feature key
players in the communications services arena, including operators, manufacturers, value-added
resellers, distributors and retailers. The event coincides with unprecedented developments in
the provision of new broadband solutions capable of delivering Internet, voice, video and other
communications services. Major operators and broadcasters either have launched or are making
plans to unveil offerings tailored for oil & gas applications, as well as disaster recovery, emergency
management and maritime operations.
www.offshorecoms.com
GE MDS Tradeshow Booth

• Visit GE MDS at Booth #128
2007 Energy 21C November 11 - 14 Sydney, Australia
The Energy 21C conference addresses the current and future issues facing the electricity and gas,
transmission and distribution sectors, as well as allied product and service industries. It is focussed
on stimulating debate and innovation, providing solutions for the changing needs of the 21st century.
Energy 21C is a conference organized by industry, for industry.
www.e21c.com.au
Product Demonstration
• CSE-Uniserve will be showcasing GE Multilin products and services
The Workboat Show November 28 - 30 New Orleans, Louisiana, United States
The International WorkBoat Show is the largest commercial marine tradeshow in North America serving
people and businesses working on the coastal, inland and offshore waters. 1,000 exhibitors will display
products and services for commercial vessels and the companies that build, service and operate them.
www.workboatshow.com
GE Multilin Tradeshow Booth

• Ernest N. Memorial Convention Center
87
Upcoming Events
2007 Power-Gen December 11 - 13 New Orleans, Louisiana, United States
Join more than 17,000 industry professionals in New Orleans at the world’s largest power
generation event. This dynamic 3-day, multi-track conference program covers the most
important issues and trends impacting the industry, including:
• Power Industry Trends • Gas Turbine Technologies
• Competitive Power Generation • Renewable Emerging Technologies
• Environmental Issues • On-site Power
• Fossil Technologies • Plant Performance Issues
http://www.power-gen.com
GE Multilin Tradeshow Booth

• Visit GE Multilin at Booth #3401
2008 Distributech January 22 - 25 Tampa Bay, Florida, United States
Entering its 18th year, DistribuTECH provides more of the current resources, new
industry technologies and fast-track networking opportunities than any other
event in the industry. The Leading Annual T&D Event, DistribuTECH encompasses
automation and control systems, IT, T&D engineering, power delivery equipment and
water utility technology.
http://dt08.events.pennnet.com/fl/index.cfm
Product Demonstration
• Visit GE Multilin at Booth #3401
0904-v2
88
Advanced Training
GE Multilin 2008 Course Calendar
Comprehensive Training Solutions for
Protection, Control and Automation
SCHEDULED COURSES IN NORTH AMERICA

CEU
Courses for 2008 Tuition* Credits JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Fundamentals of Modern
$2,400 2.8 21-24 21-24 21-24 15-18 17-20
Protective Relaying
Power System Communications $1,800 7-8 1-2 5-6 10-11 9-10
Introduction to the IEC61850

$1,800 2.1 4-6 16-18 6-8
Protocol
Distribution Protection Principles

$1,800 2.1 3-5 3-5
& Relaying
Motor Protection Principles &

$1,800 2.1 11-13 7-9 1-3 2-4
Relaying
UR Platform $1,800 2.1 18-20 8-10 2-4 18-20 3-5
UR Advanced Applications $3,000 3.5 12-16 27-31
Enervista Viewpoint Monitoring $600 14 2 19 6
All North American courses are located in Markham, Ontario, Canada unless otherwise stated
*Tuition quoted in US dollars
SCHEDULED COURSES IN EUROPE

CEU
Courses for 2008 Tuition* Credits JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
UR Advanced Applications $2,400 2.8 11-15 12-16 22-26 10-14
UR Platform $1,800 2.1 6-8 7-9 17-19 5-7
Distribution Protection Principles

$1,800 2.1 3-5 9-11
& Relaying
Fundamentals of Modern
$2,400 2.8 2-5 15-18
Protective Relaying
Motor Management Relays $1,800 2.1 10-14 14-16
F650 Platform $1,800 2.1 14-16 16-18 6-8 3-5
Introduction to the IEC61850

$1,800 2.1 17-18 9-10
Protocol
All European courses are located in Bilbao, Spain unless otherwise stated
*Tuition quoted in US dollars
Course dates are subject to change. Please visit our website at www.GEMultilin.com/training for the most up-to-date schedule.
89
Content Index
Articles Product Listings
Transmission Line Protection Principles 7 D90Plus Line Distance Protection System 82
GE Multilin
Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection Cable Bus 82

of Large Capacitor Banks 19 MP Huskey
B. Kasztenny, J. Schaefer, E. Clark DDFR - Distributed Digital Fault Recorder 82
Implementation and Performance of Synchrophasor GE Multilin
Function within Microprocessor Based Relays 35 OS550 82
B. Kasztenny, M. Adamiak
Omega
Application of Modern Relays to Dual Process Fieldbus 83
Breaker Line Terminals 47
Phoenix Contact
B. Kasztenny, I. Voloh
Quantum LMV Motors 83
A Utility’s Experience in the Implementation
GE Motors
of Substation Automation Projects 61
D. T. Brown, A. L. Gielink Pole-Top RTU and Radio Box 83
Viralec
Wireless Radio Applications 69
Steel McCreery MX6 iBrid 83
Industrial Scientific
Protection Basics: Introduction to Symmetrical Components 79
Model CT-2500 84
Optimized Devices
Advertiser Listings G60 - Generator Protection System 84

GE Multilin
Megger 2
S1 Series 5kV/10kV Insulation Tester 84
www.Megger.com
Megger
Virelec 5
ETAP Real-Time 84
www.virelec.com
Operation Technology Inc.
ESAC 17
www.ESAC.com
ETAP 34
Trade Shows/Conferences
www.etap.com 2007 Indonesian Electric 87
GE Multilin Kemayoran, Jakatra, Indonesia
6, 18, 46, 86
www.GEMultilin.com 2007 Offshore Communications 87
GE Electrical Distribution Houston, texas, USA
81
www.GEElectrical.com 2007 Energy 21C 87
GE MDS Sydney Autralia
68
http://www.GEMDS.com 2007 Power Gen 88
MP Husky New Orleans, Louisiana, USA

85
www.mphusky.com 2008 Distributech 88
Optimized Devices Tampa Bay, Florida, USA
91
www.optdev.com
Omicron 92
www.omicronusa.com
90

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Protection Basics -Introduction to Symmetrical Components pg 79

Protection & Control Journal

7 Transmission Line Protection Principles

In-depth Analysis: 19 Fundamentals of Adaptive Protection of Large

Capacitor Bank Capacitor Banks

61 A Utility’s Experience in the Implementation of

69 Wireless Radio Application Guide

79 Protection Basics: Introduction to Symmetrical

D90Plus - Line Distance Protection System

The most advanced line distance protection

GE Multilin Worldwide North America Europe/MiddleEast/Africa

Factors like de-regulated market environment, economics, right-

Transmission protection systems are designed to identify the

2. Factors Influencing line Protection

The more detailed factors for transmission line protection directly

The physical construction of the transmission line is also a factor

Transmission Line Protection Principles 7

The D90Plus Line Protection System and D60 Line Distance

Direct I/O is available in any of the transmission line relays by

8 Transmission Line Protection Principles

This method produces synchronization accurate to within 125

Line Phase Comparison: As with line differential, communications

Transmission Line Protection Principles 9

10 Transmission Line Protection Principles

Multilplexed Fiber Optic

Multilplexed Fiber Optic

Multilplexed Fiber Optic (different channel)

Power Line Carrier

Transmission Line Protection Principles 11

12 Transmission Line Protection Principles

+ Additional functions Included in typical

Directional Overcurrent – Dual Breaker

Typical Functions Additional Functions

+ Additional functions Included in typical

3Y External electrical sum of

Stepped-Distance Protection Typical Functions Additional Functions

Functions Typical Product Order Code

Transmission Line Protection Principles 13

Functions Typical Product Order Code

External electrical sum of

Pilot Protection Schemes

Functions Typical Product Order Code

Other Communications Options

Direct I/O, 1300nm Singlemode D60-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-M8L-PXX-UXX-W7K

RS422 interface D60-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-M8L-PXX-UXX-W7W

SONET Multiplexer JungleMux with 86448 and 86441 units

14 Transmission Line Protection Principles

52 Other Communications Options Synchrophasors

Functions Typical Product Order Code

Other Communications Options

Direct I/O, 1300nm Singlemode D60-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-M8L-PXX-UXX-W7K

RS422 interface D60-N00-HCH-F8L-H6P-M8L-PXX-UXX-W7W

SONET Multiplexer JungleMux with 86448 and 86441 units

Line Differential Protection Typical Functions Additional Functions

3Y 85 Other Communications Options Synchrophasors

Functions Typical Product Order Code

Other Communications Options D60-N08-HCH-F8L-H6P-M8L-PXX-UXX-WXX

Direct I/O, 1300nm Singlemode Included in typical

Transmission Line Protection Principles 15

V k A A §¨© | Z11A B Z1B Z1CC ·¸¹ VZAA VZ

resultant secondary voltages fall in the region of maximum relay

accuracy under nominalsystem voltage.0The latter is ensured for

VOPsensitive V1but k A V2operation:

§ 1 1 1 · 1 §(5) 1 V 1 ·1 nVTX 1§ k1 k 1 V· 3 V V 1 k V 1 k

Im ^1 k AB k AC VZX1 A3 ZV20A VB 1 k AB VC 1 k AC ` Identical 0 I DIF Z1toA phases

nCT IB IB1 IB2 VB VX YB1 YB2

V VI NN 11Y ; I NNI 22 VVAAV V Y X YA A1 YA 2 VB V X YB1 YB 2 VC V X YC1 YC 2

IIII I II IIII VIVVVV V

Typically the differential CT would be of lower ratio in order to VOP V1 k SET V2

k Z 1 k k AC ZTAP GND C BUS TAP V

I N 1 Z1CI N2 Z 2CI A1 I B1 I C1 I A 2 I B 2 (32c) IC 2

It isnjustified I DIF II A11 IImethod:

I DIF ( C ) ' 1 C I C 1IC 1 2C 0

k I DIFX(C11)2XICI22 SEC ( MIN2)

1n1VTXb1 3V0x .005

' Vx V0 ! P (neutral unbalance) (39a)

32 VREST 0.2 pu00 0.17 puFundamentals