Author’s Accepted Manuscript

Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants used by

local Hoklos people on Hainan Island, China

Dong-lin Li, Fu-wu Xing

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PII: S0378-8741(16)30474-3
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.07.050
Reference: JEP10315
To appear in: Journal of Ethnopharmacology
Received date: 10 April 2016
Revised date: 29 June 2016
Accepted date: 16 July 2016
Cite this article as: Dong-lin Li and Fu-wu Xing, Ethnobotanical study on
medicinal plants used by local Hoklos people on Hainan Island, China, Journal
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Ethnobotanical study on medicinal plants used by local Hoklos people on Hainan Island, China
Dong-lin Lia,b, Fu-wu Xinga*
a
South China Botanical Garden, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
b
Graduate University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
∗Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 020 3725 2557; fax: +86 020 3725 2557. E-mail address: xinfw@scib.ac.cn (F.-w. Xing).

Abstract
Aims of the study
The aim of this study is to collect information on the use of medicinal plants by the local Hoklos people on Hainan Island, and compare medicinal traditions in the
study area with Li medicines (LM) and traditional Chinese medicines (TCM).
Materials and methods
Ethnobotanical data were collected by 3 means: semi-structured interviews, personal conversation and guided field trips. There were 27 informants from 9 towns and
14 villages who were visited. Quantitative indices (Informant Consensus Factor - FIC, Use Value – UV, and Fidelity Level-FL) were calculated.
Results
In the present study, 264 species from 92 families and 233 genera were recorded, with Compositae (20 species), Leguminosae (19 species), Rubiaceae (12 species)
and Gramineae (11 species) as predominate families. Leaves were the most frequently used parts in the preparation of local medicines. The most common
preparation method was decoction (452 mentions). The plant with the highest values was Eclipta prostrata (0.46). The 6 plant species with the maximum FL (100%)
were Atalantia buxifolia (Poir.) Oliv., Garcinia oblongifolia Champ. ex Benth., Hypericum japonicum Thunb. ex Murray, Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.,
Microcos paniculata L., and Psidium guajava L. In addition, 120 investigated human ailments were grouped into 10 categories, within which symptoms and signs
(184 mentions), diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue (139 mentions) and diseases of the digestive system (94 mentions) were the most mentioned in our
investigation. The informant consensus about using medicinal plants ranged from 0.27 to 0.48, which showed a high level of agreement among the informants on
symptoms and signs (0.48) and certain infectious and parasitic diseases (0.43). In comparison with TCM and LM, the results reflected a closer connection between
local medicine and TCM.
Conclusion
The information reported by Hoklos people is of great value to ethnic medicinal culture. However,this precious medicinal knowledge is at risk of being lost due to
rapid degradation of the environment. It is essential that more people engage in in-depth studies on local medicinal plants and relevant organizations address this
serious problem before the damage is irreversible.

Keywords: medicinal plants, traditional knowledge, Hoklos people, Wenchang, Hainan Island

1. Introduction
Plants continue to provide natural ingredients used in many drugs and it is estimated that about 25% of active drug ingredients are extracted from plant
materials (Weng et al., 2013). Medicinal plants play an important role in human health worldwide as more people turn to herbal medicine than before (Wondimu
et al., 2007). Nowadays many countries are devoted to research on ethnobotanical medicinal plants (Bourdy et al., 2000; Maroyi , 2011; Islam et al., 2014;
Leitão et al., 2014; Li et al., 2015; Silalahi et al., 2015; Van Wyk, 2015; Chinsembu et al.,2016). Hainan Island, the second largest island in China, is remarkable
for its rich diversity of plants, including plenty of local medicine sources (Zheng et al., 2013). The known medicinal plants on Hainan Island exceed 3,100
species; more than 1,100 plant species were documented as traditional Chinese medicines (TCM), with 250 species commonly used (Zeng et al., 2003) and 135
species officially recorded (Chinese Pharmacopoeia Committee, 2012).
Hainan Island is populated by people of Han, Li, and Miao nationalities. Recently, since the ethnobotanical studies concerning Li and Miao minorities have
attracted much attention, scholars have launched a series of studies in the central and western regions of Hainan Island, which is the main settlement for people
of Li and Miao descent (Gan et al., 2007; Zheng and Xing, 2009; Ye et al., 2012; Zheng et al., 2012; Zheng et al., 2013). However, few studies were conducted
to document the traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used on Hainan Island by Han people, the majority of whom are Hoklos. In China, Hoklos are a
relatively large subgroup of the Han nationality; they have a unique dialect (Hoklos dialect which belongs to Chinese), customs and beliefs. Wenchang lies in
the northeast of Hainan Province where most people are Hoklos. Early Hoklos people have accumulated a wealth of knowledge on using medicinal plants to
treat a vast range of diseases. This study aims to document this valuable knowledge on the local use of medicinal plants and to compare medicinal traditions in
the local region with the use of Li medicines (LM) and TCM.

2. Materials and method

2.1 study area
Wenchang lies in the northeast part of Hainan Island, located between 19° 20 '~ 20 ° 10' N and 108° 21 '~ 111 ° 03' E. This region has a tropical marine climate
that is influenced by monsoons, with rich sunshine and plentiful rainfall. The mean annual temperature is 23.9℃, and the mean annual rainfall is about 1886.2 mm.
The elevation of Wenchang is relatively low at an average of 42.55 m. Mt. Tongguling is the highest mountain with an altitude of 388 m (Zhou et al., 2013). The
study area included 14 villages in 9 towns of Wenchang (Fig. 1): Yushan village and Dongge Xu in Dongge; Dongri village and Dongjiao Xu in Dongjiao; Jianshan
village in Jinshan; Wutou village in Maihao; Gaofeng village in Puqian; Qingshan, Kengwei and Liaoyuan villages in Wencheng; Changfu and Lixin villages in

1
Wenjiao; Nanling village in Wengtian; and Baotu village in Changsa.

Fig. 1 Location of study areas

2.2 Ethnobotanical survey
Our survey was conducted from August 2015 to February 2016. Information was obtained from semi-structured interviews, personal conversations and field
trips (Martin, 1995; Zheng et al., 2009). In total, 27 informants were interviewed, of whom 22 were male and 5 were female ranging in age from 55 to 80 years old,
with an average age of 64 years old. Most of the participants are local herb healers or farmers. The names, genders, occupations, and ages of informants, local names
of utilized plants, cultivated or wild collected forms, plant parts used, method of preparation and medicinal use were recorded. During our field work, a local guide
with a medicinal background accompanied us because the informants only speak Wenchang dialect (one branch of the Hoklos dialect), so the local guide translated
into Mandarin for us. Plant vouchers were collected during our field trip with herbalists and then identified according to Flora of Hainan (South China Institute of
Botany Academia Sinica, 1964-1977) and Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae (Delectis Florae Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae Agendae Academiae Sinicae,
1959-2004). They were then deposited at South China Botanical Garden Herbarium (IBSC). We also referred to related literature about TCM (Jiang, 2005; The
Dictionary of Chinese Herbal Medicine Committee, 2006; Chinese Pharmacopoeia Committee, 2012; Wang, 2014) and LM (Zheng and Xing, 2009; Zheng et al.,
2012; Zheng et al., 2013), and the collected local medicinal plants were compared with plants documented in the literature.
The ethnobotanical data, such as frequency and percentage, were summarized and analyzed on Microsoft Office Excel using descriptive statistical methods.
120 ailments were grouped into 10 categories according to the medical literature International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10; WHO, 2004). Informant
Consensus Factor (FIC) was calculated for each category to identify the agreements on the reported treatments for the group of ailments based on the following
formula: FIC=Nur - Nt/Nur - 1, where Nur refers to the number of use mentions in each category and Nt is the number of species indicated in each category (Trotter
and Logan, 1986). FIC values range from 0 to 1 and when values are close to 1, it indicates a high proportion of informant consensus on plant species used against a
disease category, while a 0 possesses an opposite significance. The Use Value (UV) of a medical plant species, a quantitative parameter that demonstrates the
relative importance of species known by local people, was also calculated as follow: UV=U/V, where U refers to the number of mentions per species, and N means
the number of informants (Phillips et al., 1994). Fidelity level (FL) represents the preference to a species over others in the treatment of a given ailment (Friedman et
al., 1986). It was calculated according to the formula: FL = (Ip/Iu)* 100, where Ip is number of informants citing the use of the plant for treating a given disease; Iu
is the total number of informants citing any medicinal use of the plant. A high FL level authenticates high usage of a medical plant for a particular ailment, while a
low FL level confirms a wide range of medicinal uses but a low frequency for each ailment.

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Plant species and life form
A total of 264 medicinal plant species belonging to 233 genera of 92 families were recorded from our investigated area. The target medicinal plant species are
listed in Appendix 1. Large families contain more species to be used as potential medicinal plants. Presently, Compositae (20 species), Leguminosae (19 species),
Rubiaceae (12 species) and Gramineae (11 species) were predominate families, representing 23.5% of the total species. Other relevant reports also showed the
highest contribution of these large families to medicinal plants were concentrated in different areas in China (Zhang et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2007; Wu and Li, 2009;
Zhang and Zhang, 2009) or other countries (Giday et al., 2009; Bolson et al., 2015; Tugume et al., 2016).
Herbs were the primary source of medicinal plants (39.39%), followed by shrubs (21.59%), trees (19.70%) and lianas or vines (19.32%). This proportion was
consistent with previous ethnobotanical studies in China (Hong et al., 2015), Ethiopia (Giday et al., 2009) and Pakistan (Ahmad et al., 2014). The fact that herbs are
the main source of medicinal plants is possibly due to their diversity and collection convenience. According to Zhang et al. (2013), the Li and Hmong people on
Hainan Island used woody plants as their main resources. The difference between 2 regions may result from the different living environments as most Li and Hmong
people live close to the mountains with high elevations, where the diversity of woody plants is higher than herbs.

3.2. Habitat, parts used and route of administration

According to our study, 200 species were collected from the wild forest and 64 species were cultivated in home gardens. Compared with former studies
(Wondimu et al., 2007; Giday et al., 2009; Rokaya et al., 2010), the number of cultivated medicinal plants used by Hoklos people increased greatly, which is mainly
attributed to the destruction of the local environment. With the rapid development of local building construction, the planting industry, and the breeding industry, the
growth of medicinal plants was affected, and many healers found it increasingly difficult to locate and collect medicinal plants in the wild so they changed to
planting useful herbs around their houses.
Out of a total of 264 recorded plants, leaves were regarded as the most commonly used parts (40.06%), followed by whole plants (18.63%), roots (17.70%),
fruits (6.52%), barks (6.21%), aerial parts (2.8%), and stems (2.8%) , with seeds, rachis, buds, branches, latexes and insect galls being less used, which is in
agreement with Au et al (2008). At the same time, we needed to pay some attention to the problems caused by collecting whole plants and roots. Hong et al. (2015)
and Wondimu et al. (2007) pointed out such collection might kill or damage plants when harvesting, especially endangered species. To avoid destruction, we need to
learn from healers who dig up only a small portion of the lateral roots (Wondimu et al., 2007).
The major form of preparation was decoction (452 mentions), followed by mash (142 mentions), soup (74 mentions), and bath (60 mentions), while other
preparation methods such as shampoo and alcohol maceration were less mentioned. When Hoklos people prepared the remedies in the form of decoction and soup,
2
some additives are often used, such as honey, sugar, salt, ginger, milk and meat (pork, fish, or chicken), which were reported to increase nutrition and improve flavor
(Hong et al., 2015).

3.3 Medicinal uses

The informant consensus in the uses of medicinal plants ranges from 0.27 to 0.48 (Table 1). The highest 3 FICs were scored for symptoms and signs (0.48),
certain infectious and parasitic diseases (0.43), and diseases of the genitourinary system (0.35). The FIC values are rather low compared with findings from other studies, in
the ethnobotanical study of the Atlantic Forest region, the average FIC value for all categories was found to between 0.67 and 0.85 (Tribess et al., 2015), and in the study of Limu
Moutains of Hainan Island, 10 of 13 categories shown a factor > 0.5 (Zheng et al., 2013). However, the study conducted by Zheng and Xing (2009) indicated similar low FIC values
which may due to a high degree of secrecy concerning medicinal plants. Categories with high mentions are symptoms and signs (184 mentions), diseases of the skin and
subcutaneous tissue (139 mentions), and diseases of the digestive system (94 mentions). A large number of plant species were reported to treat hepatitis,
gastroenteritis, cold, skin problems (sore, abscess, itching and moniliasis) and rheumatism. The occurrence of these diseases is closely related to the local
environment, climate, living habits, and productive activity (Huai and Pei, 2004). Moniliasis is a childhood disease (characterized by small white sores on their lips
and severe itching) that is prevalent to the local area, natives call it “Kousu”, “Huchuang” or “Ridu”. There were 6 species Clausena lansium (Lour.)Skeels,
Dimocarpus longan Lour., Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC., Euphorbia hirta L., Ficus hispida L., and Jatropha curcas L. documented to relieve this disease, and 5
informants told us it is effective to use the latex of F. hispida to treat this ailment.

Table 1. Informant Consensus Factor (FIC) values for categories of ailments

Category Nura Ntb FICc

Certain infectious and parasitic diseases 59 34 0.43

Diseases of the eye and adnexa 16 12 0.27
Diseases of the respiratory system 63 42 0.34
Diseases of the digestive system 94 62 0.34
Diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue 139 100 0.28
Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue 44 30 0.33
Diseases of the genitourinary system 63 41 0.35
Symptoms and signs 184 96 0.48
Injury, poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes 75 50 0.34
Others 47 34 0.28
a
Number of use mentions
b
Number of species
c
Informant consensus factor

Appendix 1 shows that the highest use values were calculated for Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. (0.48), Scoparia dulcis L. (0.44), Eupatorium odoratum L. (0.41), H.
japonicum Thunb. ex Murray (0.41), Clerodendrum cyrtophyllum Turcz. (0.37), Piper sarmentosum Roxb. (0.37), Zanthoxylum nitidum (Roxb.) DC. (0.37) and
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl. (0.37), which indicated that these 8 species were widely distributed and frequently used in the local area. Many studies of
these plants have been conducted. For example, E. prostrata is reported to treat liver disease, inflammation, bleeding and snake bite (Huang et al., 2014); S. dulcis is
a folk medicine with a long history of use , it was used to treat respiratory diseases in Brazil (Latha et al., 2006), diabetes and hypertension in India (Tsai et al., 2010),
and stomach diseases in Paraguay (Latha and Pari, 2003); S. jamaicensis, which is called “jia mǎ biān cǎo” in Chinese, its whole plants were used for heat cleaning
in South China (Liu et al., 2015), while in the local region, different parts were applied to treat various diseases: leaves were boiled and the patients drank for cold,
leukorrhea, and diabetes; clean roots (5~6) were mashed with water and the suspension used against malaria (personal experience of one of our informants); and
aerial parts of S. jamaicensis were boiled and used in baths to relieve itchy skin.
Table 2 lists 10 species with high fidelity level (FL>60%) with the maximum fidelity level of 100% reported for 6 species, namely, Atalantia buxifolia (Poir.)
Oliv., Garcinia oblongifolia Champ. ex Benth., Hypericum japonicum Thunb. ex Murray, Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv., Microcos paniculata L. and
Psidium guajava L. When compared to some studies focused on adjacent areas, medicinal uses of these plants were not completely congruent. For example,
A. buxifolia is used to treat bronchitis in local area, which is considered as a remedy for cold by Li minority (Zheng et al., 2013) while G. oblongifolia, known as
“shān zhú” and widely distributed in the local area, has its bark mashed by natives to treat burns, and it was also reported to treat hepatitis, rheumatoid, arthritis, and
constipation (Zheng and Xing, 2009). F. hispida is known as a remedy to treat stomachache (Zheng and Xing, 2009; Zheng et al., 2012), but has not been previously
reported as a treatment for moniliasis.

Table 2 Plants with high FL (>60%), species cited by 5 or more informants.

Plant names Medicinal use FLa (%) Ipb Iuc

Hypericum japonicum Hepatitis 100 11 11

Atalantia buxifolia Bronchitis 100 9 9
Microcos paniculata Heat cleaning 100 9 9
Imperata cylindrica Heat cleaning 100 8 8
Garcinia oblongifolia Burn 100 6 6
Psidium guajava Diarrhea 100 5 5
Pavetta hongkongensis Osteoarthritis 88 7 8
Ficus hispida Moniliasis 83 5 6
Paederia scandens Heat cleaning 78 7 9
Eupatorium odoratum Bleeding 63 7 11
a
Fidelity level
b The number of informants citing the use of the plant for a specific disease
c The number of informants citing any medicinal use of the plant

There were 127 plant species that were documented to treat only one disease, whereas 137 species treated at least 2 diseases. In the local region, Hoklos people
preferred to use multiple species to treat one ailment. Some combinations are listed in Table 3. For instance, a decocted mixture of Desmos chinensis with
I. cylindrica, Fallopia multiflora, and C. lansium is used to treat urticaria. Similarly, a decocted combination of Asparagus cochinchinensis and Tabernaemontana

3
bufalina is used to treat breast cancer. In fact, the application of mixed formulas is accepted worldwide (Hong et al., 2015; Tribess et al., 2015; Ahmed, 2016)
because most healers hold the same idea: that combinations can increase function and efficacy of the drugs.

Table 3. List of plant combinations used for medicinal purposes

Scientific name Preparation method Medicinal use Inf. No.
Hedyotis auricularia var. mina (W) + Epaltes australis (W) D Snuffle 1
Hedyotis diffusa (W) + Lobelia chinensis (W) D Rhinitis 2
Sebastiania chamaelea (W) + Salvia plebeian (W) D Kidney heat 1
Polygonum chinense (L) + Microcos paniculata (L) + Paederia scandens (W) D Gastroenteritis 1
Polygonum hydropiper (L) + Pteris ensiformis (W) + Centella asiatica (W) D Dysentery 1
Hypericum japonicum (W) + Solanum americanum (Fr) + Hedyotis diffusa (W) D Cholecystitis 1
Aphanamixis grandifolia (L) + Tinospora hainanensis (Rh) + Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (L) D Traumatic injury 1
Calophyllum inophyllum (Se) + Jatropha curcas (La) D Sore 1
Cryptolepis sinensis (W) + Clausena excavata (L) + Clerodendrum cyrtophyllum (L) + Murraya exotica (L) + D Snakebite 2
Zanthoxylum nitidum (L)
Microcos paniculata (L) + Paederia scandens (W) D Flatulence 1
Youngia japonica (W) + Elephantopus scaber (R) + Leucas aspera (Ap) D Rheumatism 1
Leucas aspera (Ap) + Eupatorium odoratum (W) D Rheumatism 1
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (W) + Amaranthus spinosus (R) D Cold 1
Streblus asper (L) + Dimocarpus longan (B) + Clausena lansium (L) + Paederia scandens (W) D Cold 1
Scleria levis (W) + Uvaria macrophylla (L) + Calophyllum inophyllum (L) D Cold 4
Piper sarmentosum (R) + Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (Ap) D Cold 1
Psidium guajava (L) + Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (L) D Diarrhea 2
Scleria levis (W) + Brucea javanica (Fr) D Dysentery 1
Zehneria indica (W) + Psychotria rubra (L) + Elephantopus scaber (R) D Traumatic injury 1
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (Ap) + Achyranthes aspera (W) + Kyllinga brevifolia (W) D Malaria 2
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (S) + Amaranthus spinosus (S) D Cold 1
Leucas aspera (L) + Morus alba (L) D Tracheitis 1
Asparagus cochinchinensis（R）+ Tabernaemontana bufalina（R） D Breast cancer 1
Fallopia multiflora (R)+Paeonia lactiflora (R)+Rehmannia glutinosa (R) D Hair loss 2
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (S)+Pteris ensiformis (W) +Polygonum hydropiper (L) D Gastroenteritis 1
Tabernaemontana bufalina（R）+ Zanthoxylum nitidum（L） D Centipede-bite 1
Desmos chinensis (Fr) + Imperata cylindrica (R) + Fallopia multiflora (L) + Clausena lansium (L) D Urticaria 1
Tinospora hainanensis (Rh) + Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (L) D Traumatic injury 1
Abrus cantoniensis (W) + Hypericum japonicum (W) + Lobelia chinensis (W) + Psychotria rubra (L) D Hepatitis B 3
Mallotus paniculatus (L) + Polygonum chinense (W) D Itching 2
W, whole plant; L, leaves; Fr, fruits; Rh, rhizome; Se, seed; La, latex; Ap, aerial part; B, bark; D, decoction; and Inf. No.: informant number

3.4 Comparison to Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and Li Medicine (LM)

Compared to Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), 207 species (78.41%) were documented, of these 207 species, 116 species (43.94%) have been reported to
be used for similar purposes (Fig. 2), and the other 91 species (34.47%) were documented in TCM with different medicinal purposes. For instance, with
Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Rob., its bark was used to treat traumatic injury and bleeding in TCM, but in local areas, its bark was mashed and applied to affected
parts to treat skin erosion. The leaves of Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. were mentioned to treat rheumatism in TCM, while local informants told us it is most effective
to use its leaves to treat varicella in the form of decoction. From the overlap of medicinal plants, our results reflected a closer connection between local medicine and
TCM, and traditional medicinal plant knowledge in the local area was developed on the basis of TCM. In contrast, a majority of medicinal plants used by local
people are unrecorded or have different medicinal purposes than with TCM, indicating the particular knowledge of medicinal plants possessed by Hoklos people.
When compared to Li Medicine (LM) on Hainan Island, only 127 species (48.11%) were recorded; among these 127 species, 42 species (15.91%) have been
reported to be used for the same purpose, but there are some differences in purpose of medicinal use for another 85 species (32.19%), Heterosmilax japonica Kunth
is an example, healers in the Li minority collected its leaves, boiled them then used hot compress to treat traumatic injury (Zheng et al., 2012), while in the local area,
its roots were used to treat tumors in the form of decoction. Although they share a large number of similar medicinal plants due to their similar flora, few species
have been reported for same purpose, which indicated that local people and Li minority lack communication of medicinal knowledge.

60
51.9
50 43.94
Percentage (%)

40 34.47
32.19
30
21.59
20 15.91

10

0
LM TCM
similar use different use unrecorded

Fig. 2 Comparison to TCM and LM

Moreover, a total of 39 medicinal plants used by Hoklos people have rarely been reported in both TCM (Jiang, 2005; The Dictionary of Chinese Herbal
Medicine Committee, 2006; Chinese Pharmacopoeia Committee, 2012) and LM (Zheng and Xing, 2009; Zheng et al., 2012; Zheng et al., 2013). For instance,

4
Vernonia amygdalina Delile, which is called “nán fēi yè” is applied to treat hypertension; Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr. is used for diarrhea. Knowledge of the
medicinal uses of these species can provide the foundation for the expansion of TCM into new areas which is important to ensure the development of TCM.

4. Conclusion
A total of 64 species from 233 genera in 92 families were documented to treat 120 human ailments; these ailments were grouped into 10 categories, showing
greatest consensus (FIC) values for symptoms and signs and certain infectious and parasitic diseases. Compared to TCM and LM, the results reflected a closer
connection between local medicine and TCM. Although the Hoklos people and Li people have lived on Hainan Island for about 600 years, the communication and
sharing of medicinal knowledge between these groups is very limited. Furthermore, using the same plants to treat different diseases and a mixture of different plants
to treat the same ailment was also recorded. In addition, plants with high UV and FL were the most preferred species in the study area, these plants need more
attention and require additional research as do those plants that were rarely reported.
The regional diversity of medicinal plant resources played an important role in the development of the ethnic medicinal culture, and provided a valuable
reference for the research of modern medicinal products; however, with great environmental changes, many of the medicinal plants are becoming very rare
according to local informants. Moreover, as there is lack of attention and support from native populations and the government, it is difficult for healers to survive in
the local area and thus, the number of people who have valuable knowledge of medicinal plants has become scarce. The loss of medicinal plant knowledge may be
inevitable but it is hoped that further in-depth studies on local medicinal plants and other useful plants will be encouraged and that relevant organizations will
address this serious problem.

Authors’ contributions
Dong-lin Li carried out the wild investigation, participated in data analysis and drafted the manuscript; Fu-wu Xing provided guidance to the whole project and
contributed to the supervision of the research.

Acknowledgement
We would like to thank our informants who shared their valuable knowledge on medicinal use in the study area, the villagers who invited us into their home
gardens, and our local guide for his help with translating during our investigation. We are deeply grateful to all of the relatives of Professor Xing in the local area,
especially to the family of Uncle Che-Lei Fu for their cooperation and help. Thanks also go to Lei-Duan, Xi-long Zheng and Wen Ye who helped revised our article.

Appendix 1. Medicinal plants used by Hoklos people

Scientific name Family Local name Habitat PU MP Medicinal use LM TCM UV
in Wenchang
dialect
Abarema clypearia (Jack) Kosterm. Leguminosae jī yi shù W B, R D, Sh Dandruff, hypertension B 0.11
Abarema lucida (Benth.) Kosterm. Leguminosae jī sān shù W B Sh Dandruff B 0.04
Abrus mollis Hance Leguminosae fèng huáng W W D Heat cleaning, allergy 0.04
téng
Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet Malvaceae mó lang W R, Fr D, S Rheumatism, diarrhea, premature menopause, nephritis; deaf B A 0.30
zhuān
Acacia pennata (L.) Willd. Leguminosae hán ba téng W L D, S Burn, oculopathy B 0.07
Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae dào kòu cǎo W R D Tonsillitis, diuresis, dysmenorrhoea, premature menopause B B 0.11
Actinodaphne pilosa (Lour.) Merr. Lauraceae huáng máo W B D Inflammation 0.04
gǎo
Adenia heterophylla (Blume) Koord. Passifloraceae shuāng yǎn W L D, M Sore, snakebite B 0.15
lǐng
Albizia corniculata (Lour.) Druce Leguminosae rì luó hè W L,B D Dandruff, head louse, stomatitis, sore throat B 0.11
Allophylus viridis Radlk. Sapindaceae dà guǒ W L D, M Heat cleaning, traumatic injury B A 0.11
Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Araceae bù yu W S E Dysmenorrhea B B 0.07
Aloe vera var. chinensis (Haw.) Berg Xanthorrhoeaceae C L M Scald, acne A 0.07
Alpinia hainanensis K. Schum. Zingiberaceae guai W L, Fr, D, S Indigestion, inflammation B 0.11
Rh
Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae cì cài W R D, M Heat cleaning , furuncle, itching A 0.07
Amaranthus tricolor L. Amaranthaceae W L D Diarrhea, dysentery A 0.04
Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.)Nees Acanthaceae W W D, M Snakebite, sore A A 0.07
Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze Lamiaceae dà zǐ su W L D Cold A A 0.07
Annona squamosa L. Annonaceae yáng nai C L D Lymphadenopathy B 0.04
Anredera cordifolia (Tenore) Steenis Basellaceae C L, Fr M Abscess, sore A 0.04
Antidesma ghaesembilla Gaertn. Phyllanthaceae aó yè W L,B D, M Hepatitis, calculus of kidney B 0.07
Aphanamixis grandifolia Bl. Meliaceae sān liù gòu W L D Fracture B 0.07
Aralia decaisneana Hance Araliaceae ying bu po W R D Gout, pain B 0.07
Arcangelisia gusanlung H. S. Lo Menispermaceae huáng lián C L D Heat cleaning, cold B A 0.04
těng
Ardisia humilis Vahl Primulaceae jiǔ jie W R S, M Orchitis, osteoarthritis, osteitis 0.11
Ardisia villosa Roxb. Primulaceae niú shān xuě W AP E Diarrhea B 0.04
dān
Argyreia acuta Lour. Convolvulaceae bǎn bái téng W L M Abscess A 0.04
Aristolochia howii Merr. et Chun Aristolochiaceae W L D Oedema B 0.07
5
Artemisia argyi Levl. et Van. Compositae zhū mǔ ài C L D, B Bleeding, dysmenorrhoea, irregular menstruation, heat claeaning, B 0.15
herpesviral, arthritis
Artemisia lactiflora Wall. ex DC. Compositae yā jiǎo ài W L D Gynaecopathia A 0.04
Asparagus cochinchinensis (Lour.) Asparagaceae māo shǔ W Rh D Cough A A 0.04
Merr.
Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Anders. Acanthaceae W W D Hypertension 0.04
Atalantia buxifolia (Poir.) Oliv. Rutaceae gǒu jú cì W R, Fr, D, E Asthma, bronchitis, cough, sputum B B 0.33
In
Averrhoa carambola L. Oxalidaceae suān táo C Fr E Indigestion A 0.04
Baeckea frutescens L. Myrtaceae yáng nuai W AP B Head-louse, itching B 0.04
Basella alba L. Basellaceae C L D Heat cleaning A 0.11
Belamcanda chinensis (L.) Redouté Iridaceae C R D, S Cough, sputum A 0.07
Berchemia lineata (L.) DC. Rhamnaceae māo ni W L,R D, M Pneumonia, oculopathy B 0.15
Bidens pilosa L. var. radiata Sch.-Bip. Compositae W W D Stomachache, heat cleaning, rheumatism A A 0.11
Blechnum orientale L. Blechnaceae juǎn tóu W L M Abscess B 0.04
mang
Borreria articularis (L. f.) G. Mey. Rubiaceae sì fāng quán W w D Abscess 0.04
Breynia fruticosa (L.) Hook. f. Phyllanthaceae huǒ tàn shù W L,R D, M, Backpain, itching, cold, laryngitis B A 0.30
B
Brucea javanica (L.) Merr. Simaroubaceae kǔshān shù W L, Fr D, M Furuncle, sore, diuresis B B 0.19
Bryophyllum pinnatum (L. f.) Oken Crassulaceae pào po C L D, M Heat cleaning, abscess A A 0.07
Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. Leguminosae C L D Varicella B B 0.04
Calamus tetradactylus Hance Palmae jī téng W Fr D Diarrhea A 0.07
Callerya speciosa (Champ. ex Benth.) Leguminosae niú dà lì W Rh D Traumatic injury, gout A A 0.15
Schot
Calophyllum inophyllum L. Calophyllaceae hǎi táng W S M Abscess 0.07
Camellia oleifera Abel. Theaceae shān yòu W Fr Sh Dandruff, stomachache A 0.11
Canarium album (Lour.) Raeusch. Burseraceae bái lǎn C B D Osteoarthritis B 0.04
Canthium horridum Bl. Rubiaceae zhū dù cì, cì W R M Strain B A 0.04
ba
Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Sapindaceae tiān dēng W W D Itching A B 0.04
lóng
Carica papaya L. Caricaceae fān zǐ guā W Fl D Calculus B B 0.04
Caryota mitis Lour. Palmae jī nuó W L E Diarrhea 0.04
Cassytha filiformis L. Lauraceae wú tóu téng W W D, M Heat cleaning, diarrhea B 0.15
Castanopsis hainanensis Merr. Fagaceae niú zhuī W R E Renal disease 0.11
Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. Casuarinaceae C L D Diarrhea A 0.15
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don Apocynaceae C R D Hypertension A 0.07
Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Rubiaceae guǐ shí liu W L D Itching B A 0.04
Tirveng.
Celosia argentea L. Amaranthaceae W W D Eczema, dysmenorrhea A B 0.07
Centella asiatica (L.) Urban Umbelliferae beng dà wǎn W W D Diuresis A A 0.11
Chimonobambusa pachystachys Hsueh Gramineae cì zhú gu W L, Bu D,S Heat cleaning, lymphadenopathy B 0.07
et Yi
Chlorophytum laxum R.Br. Asparagaceae W W D Snakebite B A 0.07
Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. Compositae C Fl D Heat cleaning A 0.04
Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin. Gramineae W S M Furuncle 0.04
Claoxylon indicum (Reinw. ex Bl.) Euphorbiaceae dà qǐng yè W L D,M Sore, abscess, renal disease B 0.11
Hassk.
Clausena excavata Burm. f. Rutaceae xiǎo guǒ W L D Cold, sore, carbuncle A A 0.11
Clausena lansium (Lour.) Skeels Rutaceae huáng méi C L D, M, Cold, itching, moniliasis A B 0.11
B
Cleistanthus sumatranus (Miq.) Muell. Phyllanthaceae cì nium shù W L D Haematuria 0.04
Arg.
Clematis chinensis Osbeck Ranunculaceae W L,R D Rheumatism A 0.07
Clerodendranthus spicatus (Thunb.) C. Lamiaceae māo xū cǎo C L D Nephritis, hypertension, urethritis, cholecystolithiasis A 0.26
Y. Wu
Clerodendrum cyrtophyllum Turcz. Lamiaceae zhū shǐ qīng W L,B,R D, M, Hepatitis, dysentery, common cold, itching B B 0.37
B
Clerodendrum japonicum (Thunb.) Lamiaceae W R D Heat cleaning, skin erosion B 0.07
Sweet
Clinacanthus nutans (Burm. f.) Lindau Acanthaceae jiǎn bǒi cǎo C L D Furuncle 0.04
Cocos nucifera L. Palmae hóng ye C B,R D, S Diarrhea, jaundice A 0.07
Commelina communis L. Commelinaceae W W D Tonsillitis B 0.04
Costus speciosus (Koen.) Smith Costaceae zhāng liǔ tóu W L D Heat cleaning, abscess A 0.04
Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) Compositae yě shì cài W W S Heat cleaning B 0.11
S. Moore
6
Cratoxylum cochinchinense (Lour.) Bl. Hypericaceae jī xuě shù W L,S D Cold, furuncle A A 0.11
Crotalaria pallida Ait. Leguminosae zhū shǐ dòu W L D Rheumatism, oculopathy B A 0.07
Cryptolepis sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Apocynaceae W W D Snakebite A 0.04
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Hypoxidaceae C R Al Renal disease A 0.11
Cyclosorus interruptus (Willd. ) H. Ito Thelypteridaceae fèng wěi W L D Diarrhea 0.04
Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae tián tóu xiāng W R D Femal infertility A 0.04
Cyrtococcum patens (L.) A. Camus Gramineae shuāng màn W W D Cancer 0.04
cǎo
Dalbergia benthami Prain Leguminosae biǎn dùu téng W L, R D Nephritis B 0.07
Dalbergia odorifera T. chen Leguminosae huā lí C L, B, D Stomachache, itching B 0.07
R
Datura metel L. Solanaceae méng shān W L, Fl, M Asthma, sore, carbuncle, abscess, A 0.22
luó Fr
Desmodium styracifolium (Osbeck) Leguminosae W W D Hepatitis, cholecystolithiasis, heat cleaning A 0.07
Merr.
Desmos chinensis Lour. Annonaceae jī zhuǎ duo W L D Diarrhea B A 0.04
Dicliptera chinensis (L. )Juss. Acanthaceae W AP D Inflammation, hepatitis, cold B 0.11
Dimocarpus longan Lour. Sapindaceae lang hǎi W B D Moniliasis B 0.04
Dioscorea fordii Prain et Burkill Dioscoreaceae shān huái W R D Renal disease A 0.07
shān
Diploclisia glaucescens Bl. Menispermaceae guò shān W L M Traumatic injury B B 0.04
fēng
Dracaena cambodiana Pierre ex Gagn. Asparagaceae huì yīn shù W L D, B Allergy, traumatic injury A 0.11
Drynaria roosii Nakaike Drynariaceae W Rh D Rheumatism B 0.04
Eclipta prostrata (L. ) L. Compositae mò cǎo W W D, M, Hepatitis, nephritis, cancer, nosebleed, hypertension, gastric B 0.48
B bleeding
Elaeagnus gonyanthes Benth. Elaeagnaceae xián suan W L D Asthma, bronchitis B A 0.04
zhòng
Elephantopus scaber L. Compositae yáng ěr cǎo W W D Nephritis, common cold, heat cleaning, inflammation, laryngitis, A A 0.19
cough
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Gramineae W W D Cold B A 0.04
Eleutherine plicata Herb. Iridaceae C S S Heart diseases B 0.04
Embelia laeta (L.) Mez Primulaceae W L D Hypertension B 0.07
Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. Compositae niú bù chún W AP D, M Heat cleaning, oral aphthae, centipede-bite, moniliasis B B 0.33
cǎo
Entada phaseoloides (L.) Merr. Leguminosae guò gāng W S D Rheumatism B A 0.07
lóng
Epaltes australis Less. Compositae W W D, M Dysphagia B B 0.04
Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. Equisetaceae W L D Snakebite B 0.04
subsp. debile (Roxb. ex Vauch.) Hauke
Erycibe obtusifolia Benth. Convolvulaceae gǒu dǎi liáng W L, B, D, B Rheumatism; itching; hypertension B 0.11
R
Erythrina variegata L. Leguminosae cì táng W L B Itching B 0.11
Eucalyptus tereticornis Smith Myrtaceae C L D Cold, itching 0.11
Eupatorium odoratum L. Compositae fēi jī cǎo W L D, M, Cold, abscess, bleeding, itching A B 0.41
B, S
Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae W W D Moniliasis B B 0.04
Euphorbia tirucalli L. Euphorbiaceae C L E Diarrhea 0.04
Evodia lepta (Spreng.) Merr. Rutaceae sān zhī qiāng W L D, M Constipation, rheumatism, cold, osteoarthritis, strain, gastritis, B A 0.26
itching, heat cleaning
Ficus microcarpa L. Moraceae yè zǐ cháng C R D Dysmenorrhea B 0.04
Ficus hirta Vahl Moraceae niú nǎi shù W R S Cirrhosis, gout, diuresis A A 0.22
Ficus hispida L. Moraceae mǎ tǒng shù W Fr D Moniliasis , headache B B 0.22
Ficus pumila L. Moraceae wáng bù liú W Fr, Se D Irregular menstruation, renal disease B 0.07
xíng
Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Salicaceae cì méi W L, Fr D Diarrhea 0.07
Garcinia oblongifolia Champ. ex Guttiferae shān zhú W B M Burn A A 0.22
Benth.
Glossogyne tenuifolia Cass. Compositae xiāng rú W L D Cough B 0.04
Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) Schult. Apocynaceae gān yán téng W W D Hepatitis B 0.04
Gynura divaricata (L.) DC. Compositae xiǒng dǎn W L D,M Heat cleaning, sore A 0.11
cǎo
Gynura formosana Kitam. Compositae C Ap S Hypertension 0.04
Hedyotis auricularia L. var. mina Ko Rubiaceae zhòu miàn W W S Oculopathy 0.04
cǎo
Hedyotis corymbosa (L.) Lam. Rubiaceae W W D Heat cleaning, stomachache B 0.15
Hedyotis diffusa Willd. Rubiaceae shé shé cǎo W W D Chronic hepatitis, appendicitis, nephritis, heat cleaning A A 0.11
7
Hedyotis hedyotidea (DC.) Merr. Rubiaceae wǔ jiā pí W W D, Al Heat cleaning B 0.15
Helicteres angustifolia L. Sterculiaceae W W D Cold, liver disease B B 0.07
Heterosmilax japonica Kunth Smilacaceae yīng téng W R D Tumor B B 0.07
Hibiscus tiliaceus L. Malvaceae pō má W B D, M Sore, tumor, dysphagia B B 0.11
Houttuynia cordata Thunb Saururaceae C L D Pneumonia B 0.04
Hoya pottsii Traill Apocynaceae gǒu shé pò W L M, B Fracture, urticaria B A 0.07
Hylocereus undatus (Haw.) Britt. et Cactaceae lóng hǔ huā C Fl S Dorsalgia A A 0.04
Rose
Hymenocallis littoralis (Jacq.) Salisb. Amaryllidaceae C L M Inflammation of nail B 0.04
Hypericum japonicum Thunb. ex Hypericaceae W W D Hepatitis A A 0.41
Murray
Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae W AP D Cold B A 0.04
Impatiens balsamina L. Balsaminaceae shǒu jiá huā C L D Inflammation A 0.04
Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv. Gramineae máo gēn W R D Enuresis, renal disease, heat cleaning A A 0.33
Inula cappa (Buch.-Ham.) DC. Compositae yáng ěr cǎo W AP D Sore B 0.04
Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae W L D Moniliasis B B 0.04
Justicia gendarussa L. f. Acanthaceae W L D, M Fracture A A 0.11
Kalanchoe laciniata (L.) DC. Crassulaceae C W M Snakebite, abscess A 0.04
Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. Cyperaceae W W D Cold, cough, diuresis A 0.15
Lantana camara L. Verbenaceae qī jiě mèi W L,R D, M, Itching, fever, bleeding, dandruff, cold, bleeding B A 0.22
B
Leonurus japonicus Houttuyn Labiatae C L D Dysmenorrhea A B 0.15
Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link Labiatae fēng wō cǎo W W D, M Bleeding, cough, asthma B A 0.22
Licuala fordiana Becc. Palmae shuō yi guai W R D Abscess, diuresis 0.11
Limnophila aromatica (Lam.) Merr. Plantaginaceae W W D Cold 0.04
Lindernia crustacea (L.) F. Muell Linderniaceae sì fāng quán W W D Diuresis B A 0.04
cǎo
Liriope spicata (Thunb.) Lour. Asparagaceae shān góu W R D, M Hepatitis b, centipede-bite B B 0.07
cōng
Litchi chinensis Sonn. Sapindaceae W L D Traumatic injury B 0.04
Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers. Lauraceae W L M Abscess, pain B A 0.04
Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Rob. Lauraceae qing jīn W B M, Al Skin erosion, itching, hair loss B B 0.11
Litsea rotundifolia Hemsl. Lauraceae fān bái gǎo W R D Traumatic injury A 0.04
var. oblongifolia (Nees) Allen
Lobelia chinensis Lour. Campanulaceae C W D Snakebite, zoster B 0.11
Lonicera japonica Thunb. Caprifoliaceae W L D Renal disease, heat cleaning A A 0.15
Lophatherum gracile Brongn. Gramineae W W D Heat cleaning B A 0.11
Maclura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Moraceae W R D Rheumatism B A 0.04
Corner
Malaisia scandens (Lour.) Planch. Moraceae gǒu due W L D Diarrhea 0.04
Mallotus apelta (Lour.) Muell. Arg. Euphorbiaceae - W R D Hepatitis B A 0.07
Mallotus paniculatus (Lam.) Muell. Euphorbiaceae bái bái shù W L,R D Ascites, cirrhosis, sore B 0.07
Arg.
Malpighia glabra L. Malpighiaceae C Fr E Vitamin C deficiency 0.04
Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae C L B Cough B 0.04
Marsilea quadrifolia L. Marsileaceae W L D Neurasthenia, edema A 0.04
Mazus miquelii Makino Mazaceae W W D Osteitis B 0.04
Melastoma candidum D. Don Melastomataceae nuò mì shù W L D Haemorrhoids B 0.04
Melastoma sanguineum Sims Melastomataceae niǎn niáng W L M Gastroenteritis, hemorrhoids B B 0.11
shù
Melia azedarach L. Meliaceae kǔ lái W L,R D, B Ascarid, pruritus A B 0.19
Microcos paniculata L. Malvaceae dǎ lěi zi W L D Heat cleaning A A 0.33
Micromelum falcatum (Lour.) Tanaka Rutaceae dà gǎn W L M Heat cleaning, abscess B A 0.07
Mimosa pudica L. Leguminosae xiū cǎo W R D, S Nephritis, rectal prolapse, insomnia, toothache B 0.30
Mirabilis jalapa L. Nyctaginaceae zhǐ jiá huā C L D Heat cleaning, abscess A 0.04
Morinda parvifolia Bartl. ex DC. Rubiaceae bái yǎn téng W R D Pain 0.07
Morus alba L. Moraceae W L D Cold, rheumatism, pneumonia, conjunctivitis A A 0.26
Murraya exotica L. Rutaceae W L D Traumatic injury B A 0.04
Mussaenda pubescens Ait. f. Rubiaceae bái miàn téng W W D Bleeding, hemorrhoids, cold B B 0.15
Oplismenus compositus (L.) Beauv. Gramineae W W D Heat cleaning, urethritis 0.04
Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Haw. Cactaceae C L D Osteoarthritis B A 0.04
var. dillenii (Ker-Gawl.) Benson
Oxalis corniculata L. Oxalidaceae sān yè suān W L M, E Neurasthenia, cholecystolithiasis, abscess B A 0.11
Paederia scandens (Lour.) Merr. Rubiaceae W W D, S Heat cleaning, liver disease B B 0.33
Pandanus tectorius Sol. Pandanaceae ye jiè W L, R, D Traumatic injury, diabetes, abscess, diarrhea B B 0.30
Fr
Panicum brevifolium L. Gramineae W L M Infection 0.04
8
Passiflora caerulea L. Passifloraceae C Fr D Vitamin C deficiency A 0.04
Pavetta hongkongensis Bremek. Rubiaceae mǎn tiān xīng W L D, M Osteitis, cold, osteoarthritis, backpain B B 0.30
Pedilanthus tithymaloides (L.) Poit. Euphorbiaceae dāo bǔ cǎo C L M Sore A 0.04
Pereskia aculeata Mill. Cactaceae qī xīng zhēn C L E Stomachache 0.04
Peristrophe bivalvis (L.) Merr. Acanthaceae hán hūa cǎo W L,W D Inflammation A 0.15
Philydrum lanuginosum Banks et Sol. Philydraceae W R D Nephritis B 0.04
ex Gaertn.
Phyllanthus tsiangii P. T. Li Phyllanthaceae huǒ tàn cǎo W W,L D, M Centipede-bite, phthisis 0.07
Phyllanthus urinaria L. Phyllanthaceae zhēn zhū cǎo W W D Inflammation, hepatitis, oculopathy, infertility B B 0.22
Phyllodium pulchellum (L.) Desv. Leguminosae W L D Liver diseases, cold B A 0.04
Physalis angulata L. Solanaceae dēng lóng W W D Heat cleaning, cholecystitis B 0.11
cǎo
Pilea microphylla (L.) Liebm. Urticaceae W W D Osteoarthritis B 0.04
Pinus massoniana Lamb. Pinaceae W L M Itching 0.04
Piper betle L. Piperaceae C L D, M Burn, ulcer B 0.07
Piper hancei Maxim. shān hú jiāo W R D Gastritis, osteitis A A 0.11
Piper sarmentosum Roxb. Piperaceae zhū wa cài W L,R D, M Rheumatism, gout, renal disease, indigestion, toothache, A B 0.37
oculopathy
Plantago depressa Willd. Plantaginaceae lài ha ma cǎo W W D Diuresis, urethritis, diabetes A A 0.07
Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) xianmLamiaceae pèng pèng C L D Pain, abscess 0.04
Spreng. xiāng
Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae qǐshān niáng W L M Sore, malaria, lymphadenopathy B B 0.15
Polyalthia suberosa (Roxb.) Thw. Annonaceae gǒu zǎi duo W L D, B, Sore, vertigo, hypertension, nephritis,gout 0.15
Enum. M
Polygonum chinense L. Polygonaceae huǒ shāo W L D, B Diarrhea, dysentery, herpesviral, impetigo, bleeding A A 0.19
Polyscias fruticosa (L.) Harms Araliaceae jī zhuǎ yù C L D Acne 0.04
Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae yú líng cǎo W W S Heat cleaning, uremia, diarrhea B 0.11
Pothos repens (Lour.) Druce Araceae wú gōng téng W W M Fracture, sore B A 0.07
Praxelis clematidea (Griseb.) R. M. Compositae chòu cǎo W L M Bleeding 0.15
King et H. Rob.
Pseudosasa hindsii (Munro) C.D.Chu Gramineae W L D Heat clearning 0.04
& C.S.Chao
Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae shí liu W L D Darrhea A A 0.19
Psychotria rubra (Lour.) Poir. Rubiaceae góu dài liáng W L, B, D, M Hepatitis b, purulent, fracture, rheumatism, burn A A 0.33
Rh,
Fr
Pteris ensiformis Burm. Pteridaceae lóng wěi cǎo W W D Dysentery, dysmenorrhea, inflammation A A 0.19
Pueraria montana var. lobata (Willd.) Leguminosae W L B Cold 0.04
Maesen et S. M. Almeida ex Sanjappa
et Predeep
Reynoutria japonica Houtt. Polygonaceae C W, R D, S Hepatitis, hypertension, pneumonia, scald B 0.11
Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz Acanthaceae C L D Tinea A 0.07
Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Ait.) Hassk. Myrtaceae gāng rěn, nuo W L,R D Bleeding, eructation, dysentery, abortion B B 0.22
ni
Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae W Fr M Ulcer, sore, pain A 0.11
Rohdea japonica (Thunb.) Roth Asparagaceae C L D Snake bite B 0.07
Rubus cochinchinensis Tratt. Rosaceae xià shān hǔ W R D Gastric ulcer B 0.04
Saccharum officinarum L. Gramineae C S D Heat cleaning, urethritis B A 0.04
Sapium discolor (Champ. ex Benth.) Euphorbiaceae qī gong W R D Pain B 0.04
Muell. Arg.
Schefflera heptaphylla (L.) Frodin Araliaceae jiāng bǔ W L, B, D, B Fracture, allergy, itching, sore B A 0.19
R
Scleria levis Retz Cyperaceae W W D Dysentery A 0.04
Scoparia dulcis L. Plantaginaceae bīng tāng cǎo W W D, E Heat-cleaning, nephritis, cold, cough, bronchitis, nephritis A B 0.44
Scutellaria barbata D. Don Lamiaceae C L D Pneumonia, heatstroke B 0.04
Selaginella uncinata (Desv.) Spring Selaginellaceae māo ěr cǎo W W S Heat cleaning, oculopathy A 0.07
Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Leguminosae cǎo júe míng W L, Fr D Liver diseases B A 0.07
Sida acuta Burm. f. Malvaceae W L M Sore B A 0.04
Siegesbeckia orientalis L. Compositae W AP D Cold, headache B 0.04
Smilax china L. Smilacaceae shān fú líng W L, Rh D,M Scald, burn, renal disease B A 0.07
Solanum americanum Mill. Solanaceae dēng lóng W AP D, M Abscess, tumor 0.22
gōng
Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae W W D Oedema A 0.04
Solanum procumbens Lour. Solanaceae jī zhuǎ cì W W D Heat cleaning A 0.04
Solanum torvum Swartz Solanaceae tiān xīng shù W L B Itching B 0.04
Spilanthes paniculata Wall. ex DC. Compositae W W B Itching A B 0.04
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl. Verbenaceae mǎ biān cǎo W W M Malaria, leukorrhea, diabetes, cold, heat cleaning, hyperglycaemia, B B 0.37
9
 itching
Stemona japonica (Bl.) Miq. Stemonaceae W L, R D Tuberculosis, cough A 0.07
Stephania epigaea Lo Menispermaceae jīn bù huàn C R M Stomachache A 0.04
Stephania longa Lour. Menispermaceae lí bì téng W L D, M Sore, itching A A 0.07
Streblus asper Lour. Moraceae jiè yā W L D Fever B 0.11
Strophanthus divaricatus (Lour.) Hook. Apocynaceae niú jiǎo ka W L B Athlete foot B 0.04
et Arn.
Strychnos angustiflora Benth. Loganiaceae niú yǎn zhōu W L M Snakebite B 0.04
Syzygium bullockii (Hance) Merr. et Myrtaceae hēi zǔi duo W L, R D, M Burn, fever 0.11
Perry
Syzygium hancei Merr. et Perry Myrtaceae chì nán W L D Diarrhea 0.04
Tabernaemontana bufalina Lour. Apocynaceae dān gēn mù W R D, B Itching, cancer, lymphadenopathy, laryngitis B A 0.15
Tadehagi triquetrum (L.) Ohashi Leguminosae W W D Heat cleaning A A 0.04
Taxillus sutchuenensis (Lecomte) Loranthaceae W W D Rheumatism A 0.04
Danser
Tetracera sarmentosa (L.) Vahl. Dilleniaceae W L, S D Gastroenteritis, azoospermia, diarrhea A A 0.07
Thunbergia fragrans Roxb. Acanthaceae shé tóu téng W L D Nephritis B 0.04
subsp. hainanensis (C. Y. Wu et H. S.
Lo) H. P. Tsui
Tinospora hainanensis Lo et Z. X. Li Menispermaceae sōng gēn těng W S D Dorsalgia, fracture B A 0.19
Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Menispermaceae kuān jīn téng W S D Traumatic injury B A 0.04
Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. Rutaceae dā ba W R D, M Tonsillitis, fracture B 0.07
Triumfetta rhomboidea Jack. Malvaceae méng gē hóu W L, R M Pruritus, bleeding, tinea 0.07
Tylophora ovata (Lindl.) Hook. ex Apocynaceae sān shí liù W S D Rheumatism, snake bite, traumatic injury B A 0.07
Steud. gēn
Urena lobata L. Malvaceae W R D Rheumatism B A 0.04
Urena procumbens L. Malvaceae gǒu jiǎo jì W L D Heat cleaning B A 0.04
Uvaria macrophylla Roxb. Annonaceae niú tóu duō W L, R, D Traumatic injury, rheumatism, anemia A 0.22
Fr
Vernonia amygdalina Delile Compositae nán fēi yè C L D Hypertension 0.04
Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. Compositae W W D Cold, insomnia B 0.22
Vitex quinata (Lour.) Wall. Lamiaceae fēng lǐu W L D Cough B 0.04
Wikstroemia indica (L.) C. A. Mey Thymelaeaceae pō yín W L,R D Rheumatism, tumor, night sweats, pain, abscess, sore, B B 0.30
inflammation, abortion
Wrightia pubescens R. Br. Apocynaceae kǔ cháng W L, B, D, B Pruritus, strain, lymphadenopathy B B 0.11
R
Xanthium sibiricum Patrin ex Widder Compositae W Fr D Cold, rhinitis A A 0.07
Zanthoxylum avicennae (Lam.) DC. Rutaceae yīng bù po W B, R, D, M Hepatitis, cold, tinea, eczema A B 0.26
Fr
Zanthoxylum nitidum (Roxb.) DC. Rutaceae dā ba cì W R D Rheumatism, cold, inflammation, pain, abscess, pins and needles A A 0.37
Zehneria indica (Lour.) Keraudren Cucurbitaceae W W D Diuresis A 0.04
Zornia diphylla (L.) Pers. Leguminosae W W D Cold, conjunctivitis A 0.04
Habitat: W, wild; C, cultivated. PU, parts used: Ap: aerial part; L, leaves; R, roots; Rh, rhizome ; B, barks; Bu, bud; S, stems; Se, seeds; W, whole plants; Fl, flowers; Fr, fruits; In, insect gall. MP, method of
preparation: S, soup; De, decoction; B, bath; Al, alcohol maceration; E, edible; Ma, mash; Sh, shampoo. When compared with TCM and LM, similar use was marked “A” and different use was marked “B”.
UV, use value.

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Graphical abstract
Symptoms and signs (184 mentions), diseases of the
skin and subcutaneous tissue (139 mentions),
diseases of the digestive system (94 mentions) are
with high mentions in our investigated area.

264 species from 92 families and 233 genera were

recorded to treat 120 human ailments. The most
commonly applied method was decoction.

In comparison with Li medicines (LM) and

traditional Chinese medicines (TCM), the results
reflected a closer connection between local
medicine and TCM.

Location of study areas Fieldtrips

12