GSM: Global System for Mobile

Communications Tutorial
- tutorial about the basics of GSM - Global System for Mobile communications
(originally Groupe Special Mobile) the first global digital cellular
telecommunicatiosn system.

The GSM system is the most widely used cellular technology in use in the world today. It has been a
particularly successful cellular phone technology for a variety of reasons including the ability to roam
worldwide with the certainty of being able to be able to operate on GSM networks in exactly the same
way - provided billing agreements are in place.
The letters GSM originally stood for the words Groupe Speciale Mobile, but as it became clear this cellular
technology was being used world wide the meaning of GSM was changed to Global System for Mobile
Communications. Since this cellular technology was first deployed in 1991, the use of GSM has grown
steadily, and it is now the most widely cell phone system in the world. GSM reached the 1 billion
subscriber point in February 2004, and is now well over the 3 billion subscriber mark and still steadily
increasing.

What is GSM - system overview

The GSM system was designed as a second generation (2G) cellular phone technology. One of the basic
aims was to provide a system that would enable greater capacity to be achieved than the previous first
generation analogue systems. GSM achieved this by using a digital TDMA (time division multiple access
approach). By adopting this technique more users could be accommodated within the available
bandwidth. In addition to this, ciphering of the digitally encoded speech was adopted to retain privacy.
Using the earlier analogue cellular technologies it was possible for anyone with a scanner receiver to
listen to calls and a number of famous personalities had been "eavesdropped" with embarrassing
consequences.

GSM services
Speech or voice calls are obviously the primary function for the GSM cellular system. To achieve this the
speech is digitally encoded and later decoded using a vocoder. A variety of vocoders are available for
use, being aimed at different scenarios.
In addition to the voice services, GSM cellular technology supports a variety of other data services.
Although their performance is nowhere near the level of those provided by 3G, they are nevertheless still

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important and useful. A variety of data services are supported with user data rates up to 9.6 kbps.
Services including Group 3 facsimile, videotext and teletex can be supported.
One service that has grown enormously is the short message service. Developed as part of the GSM
specification, it has also been incorporated into other cellular technologies. It can be thought of as being
similar to the paging service but is far more comprehensive allowing bi-directional messaging, store and
forward delivery, and it also allows alphanumeric messages of a reasonable length. This service has
become particularly popular, initially with the young as it provided a simple, low fixed cost.

GSM basics
The GSM cellular technology had a number of design aims when the development started:

 It should offer good subjective speech quality

 It should have a low phone or terminal cost
 Terminals should be able to be handheld
 The system should support international roaming
 It should offer good spectral efficiency
 The system should offer ISDN compatibility
The resulting GSM cellular technology that was developed provided for all of these. The overall system
definition for GSM describes not only the air interface but also the network or infrastructure technology.
By adopting this approach it is possible to define the operation of the whole network to enable
international roaming as well as enabling network elements from different manufacturers to operate
alongside each other, although this last feature is not completely true, especially with older items.
GSM cellular technology uses 200 kHz RF channels. These are time division multiplexed to enable up to
eight users to access each carrier. In this way it is a TDMA / FDMA system.
The base transceiver stations (BTS) are organised into small groups, controlled by a base station
controller (BSC) which is typically co-located with one of the BTSs. The BSC with its associated BTSs is
termed the base station subsystem (BSS).
Further into the core network is the main switching area. This is known as the mobile switching centre
(MSC). Associated with it is the location registers, namely the home location register (HLR) and the visitor
location register (VLR) which track the location of mobiles and enable calls to be routed to them.
Additionally there is the Authentication Centre (AuC), and the Equipment Identify Register (EIR) that are
used in authenticating the mobile before it is allowed onto the network and for billing. The operation of
these are explained in the following pages.
Last but not least is the mobile itself. Often termed the ME or mobile equipment, this is the item that the
end user sees. One important feature that was first implemented on GSM was the use of a Subscriber
Identity Module. This card carried with it the users identity and other information to allow the user to
upgrade a phone very easily, while retaining the same identity on the network. It was also used to store
other information such as "phone book" and other items. This item alone has allowed people to change
phones very easily, and this has fuelled the phone manufacturing industry and enabled new phones with
additional features to be launched. This has allowed mobile operators to increase their average revenue
per user (ARPU) by ensuring that users are able to access any new features that may be launched on
the network requiring more sophisticated phones.

GSM system overview

The table below summarises the main points of the GSM system specification, showing some of the
highlight features of technical interest.

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 SPECIFICATION SUMMARY FOR GSM CELLULAR SYSTEM
Multiple access technology FDMA / TDMA
Duplex technique FDD
Uplink frequency band 890 - 915 MHz
(basic 900 MHz band only)
Downlink frequency band 933 -960 MHz
(basic 900 MHz band only)
Channel spacing 200 kHz
Modulation GMSK
Speech coding Various - original was RPE-LTP/13
Speech channels per RF channel 8
Channel data rate 270.833 kbps
Frame duration 4.615 ms

Further developments of GSM

GSM was a particularly successful mobile telecommunications system. Initially it had been intended for
use within Europe, but within a relatively short while the system was being used well beyond the borders
of Europe, becoming an internationally accepted system.
In addition to its success as a voice communications system, it was developed beyond the basic voice
capability to be able to carry data. With the Internet becoming more widely used, GSM was developed to
provide a packet data capability. The first major development was in the form of GPRS.

Note on GPRS:

GPRS, the General Packet Radio Service was an evolution of the GSM 2G cellular telecommunications system. Using

packet data rather than circuit switched data circuits, it enabled speeds similar to those experienced using dial up

networking services to be achieved under ideal conditions.

Click for a GPRS tutorial

As data and Internet usage started to increase, speed soon became an issue and further developments
were introduced in the form of GSM EDGE which increased the performance beyond that of GPRS.

Note on EDGE:

GSM EDGE, Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution, was the evolution of GSM, & GPRS which used 8PSK modulation

to achieve data transfer rates up to 384 kbps..

Click for a EDGE tutorial

In this way, GSM started to see the introduction of proper data services and the foundations of a mobile
broadband service were started. These foundations formed the basis of the next 3G services that started
to be launched as the appetite for data increased.
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GSM Network Architecture
- the GSM network architecture consists of different elements that all interact
together to form the overall GSM system. These include elements like the base-
station, controller, MSC, AuC, HLR, VLR, etc.
The GSM technical specifications define the different elements within the GSM network architecture. It
defines the different elements and the ways in which they interact to enable the overall system operation
to be maintained.
The GSM network architecture is now well established and with the other later cellular systems now
established and other new ones being deployed, the basic GSM network architecture has been updated
to interface to the network elements required by these systems.
Despite the developments of the newer systems, the basic GSM system architecture has been
maintained, and the network elements described below perform the same functions as they did when the
original GSM system was launched in the early 1990s.GSM network architecture elements
The GSM network architecture as defined in the GSM specifications can be grouped into four main areas:

 Mobile station (MS)

 Base-Station Subsystem (BSS)
 Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
 Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)
The different elements of the GSM network operate together and the user is not aware of the different
entities within the system.
A basic diagram of the overall GSM system architecture with these four major elements is shown below:

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 Simplified GSM Network Architecture Diagram

Mobile station
Mobile stations (MS), mobile equipment (ME) or as they are most widely known, cell or mobile phones
are the section of a GSM cellular network that the user sees and operates. In recent years their size has
fallen dramatically while the level of functionality has greatly increased. A further advantage is that the
time between charges has significantly increased.
There are a number of elements to the cell phone, although the two main elements are the main hardware
and the SIM.
The hardware itself contains the main elements of the mobile phone including the display, case, battery,
and the electronics used to generate the signal, and process the data receiver and to be transmitted. It
also contains a number known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI). This is installed in
the phone at manufacture and "cannot" be changed. It is accessed by the network during registration to
check whether the equipment has been reported as stolen.
The SIM or Subscriber Identity Module contains the information that provides the identity of the user to
the network. It contains are variety of information including a number known as the International Mobile
Subscriber Identity (IMSI).

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) section of the GSM network architecture that is fundamentally
associated with communicating with the mobiles on the network. It consists of two elements:

 Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS used in a GSM network comprises the radio
transmitter receivers, and their associated antennas that transmit and receive to directly
communicate with the mobiles. The BTS is the defining element for each cell. The BTS

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 communicates with the mobiles and the interface between the two is known as the Um interface
with its associated protocols.
 Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC forms the next stage back into the GSM network. It
controls a group of BTSs, and is often co-located with one of the BTSs in its group. It manages
the radio resources and controls items such as handover within the group of BTSs, allocates
channels and the like. It communicates with the BTSs over what is termed the Abis interface.

Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

The GSM system architecture contains a variety of different elements, and is often termed the core
network. It provides the main control and interfacing for the whole mobile network. The major elements
within the core network include:

 Mobile Services Switching Centre (MSC): The main element within the core network area of
the overall GSM network architecture is the Mobile switching Services Centre (MSC). The MSC
acts like a normal switching node within a PSTN or ISDN, but also provides additional functionality
to enable the requirements of a mobile user to be supported. These include registration,
authentication, call location, inter-MSC handovers and call routing to a mobile subscriber. It also
provides an interface to the PSTN so that calls can be routed from the mobile network to a phone
connected to a landline. Interfaces to other MSCs are provided to enable calls to be made to
mobiles on different networks.
 Home Location Register (HLR): This database contains all the administrative information
about each subscriber along with their last known location. In this way, the GSM network is able
to route calls to the relevant base station for the MS. When a user switches on their phone, the
phone registers with the network and from this it is possible to determine which BTS it
communicates with so that incoming calls can be routed appropriately. Even when the phone is
not active (but switched on) it re-registers periodically to ensure that the network (HLR) is aware
of its latest position. There is one HLR per network, although it may be distributed across various
sub-centres to for operational reasons.
 Visitor Location Register (VLR): This contains selected information from the HLR that enables
the selected services for the individual subscriber to be provided. The VLR can be implemented
as a separate entity, but it is commonly realised as an integral part of the MSC, rather than a
separate entity. In this way access is made faster and more convenient.
 Equipment Identity Register (EIR): The EIR is the entity that decides whether a given mobile
equipment may be allowed onto the network. Each mobile equipment has a number known as
the International Mobile Equipment Identity. This number, as mentioned above, is installed in the
equipment and is checked by the network during registration. Dependent upon the information
held in the EIR, the mobile may be allocated one of three states - allowed onto the network, barred
access, or monitored in case its problems.
 Authentication Centre (AuC): The AuC is a protected database that contains the secret key
also contained in the user's SIM card. It is used for authentication and for ciphering on the radio
channel.
 Gateway Mobile Switching Centre (GMSC): The GMSC is the point to which a ME terminating
call is initially routed, without any knowledge of the MS's location. The GMSC is thus in charge of
obtaining the MSRN (Mobile Station Roaming Number) from the HLR based on the MSISDN
(Mobile Station ISDN number, the "directory number" of a MS) and routing the call to the correct
visited MSC. The "MSC" part of the term GMSC is misleading, since the gateway operation does
not require any linking to an MSC.
 SMS Gateway (SMS-G): The SMS-G or SMS gateway is the term that is used to collectively
describe the two Short Message Services Gateways defined in the GSM standards. The two
gateways handle messages directed in different directions. The SMS-GMSC (Short Message
Service Gateway Mobile Switching Centre) is for short messages being sent to an ME. The SMS-
IWMSC (Short Message Service Inter-Working Mobile Switching Centre) is used for short
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 messages originated with a mobile on that network. The SMS-GMSC role is similar to that of the
GMSC, whereas the SMS-IWMSC provides a fixed access point to the Short Message Service
Centre.

Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

The OSS or operation support subsystem is an element within the overall GSM network architecture that
is connected to components of the NSS and the BSC. It is used to control and monitor the overall GSM
network and it is also used to control the traffic load of the BSS. It must be noted that as the number of
BS increases with the scaling of the subscriber population some of the maintenance tasks are transferred
to the BTS, allowing savings in the cost of ownership of the system.

GSM Network Interfaces

- a summary or tutorial of the different interfaces used to provide communication
between various elements in a GSM cell phone network
The network structure is defined within the GSM standards. Additionally each interface between the
different elements of the GSM network is also defined. This facilitates the information interchanges can
take place. It also enables to a large degree that network elements from different manufacturers can be
used. However as many of these interfaces were not fully defined until after many networks had been
deployed, the level of standardisation may not be quite as high as many people might like.

1. Um interface The "air" or radio interface standard that is used for exchanges between a mobile
(ME) and a base station (BTS / BSC). For signalling, a modified version of the ISDN LAPD, known
as LAPDm is used.
2. Abis interface This is a BSS internal interface linking the BSC and a BTS, and it has not been
totally standardised. The Abis interface allows control of the radio equipment and radio frequency
allocation in the BTS.
3. A interface The A interface is used to provide communication between the BSS and the MSC.
The interface carries information to enable the channels, timeslots and the like to be allocated to
the mobile equipments being serviced by the BSSs. The messaging required within the network
to enable handover etc to be undertaken is carried over the interface.
4. B interface The B interface exists between the MSC and the VLR . It uses a protocol known as
the MAP/B protocol. As most VLRs are collocated with an MSC, this makes the interface purely
an "internal" interface. The interface is used whenever the MSC needs access to data regarding
a MS located in its area.
5. C interface The C interface is located between the HLR and a GMSC or a SMS-G. When a call
originates from outside the network, i.e. from the PSTN or another mobile network it ahs to pass
through the gateway so that routing information required to complete the call may be gained. The
protocol used for communication is MAP/C, the letter "C" indicating that the protocol is used for
the "C" interface. In addition to this, the MSC may optionally forward billing information to the HLR
after the call is completed and cleared down.
6. D interface The D interface is situated between the VLR and HLR. It uses the MAP/D protocol
to exchange the data related to the location of the ME and to the management of the subscriber.
7. E interface The E interface provides communication between two MSCs. The E interface
exchanges data related to handover between the anchor and relay MSCs using the MAP/E
protocol.
8. F interface The F interface is used between an MSC and EIR. It uses the MAP/F protocol. The
communications along this interface are used to confirm the status of the IMEI of the ME gaining
access to the network.
9. G interface The G interface interconnects two VLRs of different MSCs and uses the MAP/G
protocol to transfer subscriber information, during e.g. a location update procedure.
10. H interface The H interface exists between the MSC the SMS-G. It transfers short messages
and uses the MAP/H protocol.

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 11. I interface The I interface can be found between the MSC and the ME. Messages exchanged
over the I interface are relayed transparently through the BSS.

Although the interfaces for the GSM cellular system may not be as rigorouly defined as many might like,
they do at least provide a large element of the definition required, enabling the functionality of GSM
network entities to be defined sufficiently.

GSM Radio Air Interface, GSM Slot & Burst

- tutorial, overview of the GSM air interface or GSM signal with details of carrier,
slot structure and transmission burst and duplex scheme and power class.
One of the key elements of the development of the GSM, Global System for Mobile Communications was
the development of the GSM air interface. There were many requirements that were placed on the
system, and many of these had a direct impact on the air interface. Elements including the modulation,
GSM slot structure, burst structure and the like were all devised to provide the optimum performance.
During the development of the GSM standard very careful attention was paid to aspects including the
modulation format, the way in which the system is time division multiplexed, all had a considerable impact
on the performance of the system as a whole. For example, the modulation format for the GSM air
interface had a direct impact on battery life and the time division format adopted enabled the cellphone
handset costs to be considerably reduced as detailed later.

GSM signal and GMSK modulation characteristics

The core of any radio based system is the format of the radio signal itself. The carrier is modulated using
a form of phase sift keying known as Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK). GMSK was used for the
GSM system for a variety of reasons:

 It is resilient to noise when compared to many other forms of modulation.

 Radiation outside the accepted bandwidth is lower than other forms of phase shift keying.
 It has a constant power level which allows higher efficiency RF power amplifiers to be used in the
handset, thereby reducing current consumption and conserving battery life.

Note on GMSK:

GMSK, Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying is a form of phase modulation that is used in a number of portable radio and

wireless applications. It has advantages in terms of spectral efficiency as well as having an almost constant amplitude

which allows for the use of more efficient transmitter power amplifiers, thereby saving on current consumption, a critical

issue for battery power equipment.

Click on the link for a GMSK tutorial

The nominal bandwidth for the GSM signal using GMSK is 200 kHz, i.e. the channel bandwidth and
spacing is 200 kHz. As GMSK modulation has been used, the unwanted or spurious emissions outside
the nominal bandwidth are sufficiently low to enable adjacent channels to be used from the same base
station. Typically each base station will be allocated a number of carriers to enable it to achieve the
required capacity.
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The data transported by the carrier serves up to eight different users under the basic system by splitting
the carrier into eight time slots. The basic carrier is able to support a data throughput of approximately
270 kbps, but as some of this supports the management overhead, the data rate allotted to each time
slot is only 24.8 kbps. In addition to this error correction is required to overcome the problems of
interference, fading and general data errors that may occur. This means that the available data rate for
transporting the digitally encoded speech is 13 kbps for the basic vocoders.

GSM slot structure and multiple access scheme

GSM uses a combination of both TDMA and FDMA techniques. The FDMA element involves the division
by frequency of the (maximum) 25 MHz bandwidth into 124 carrier frequencies spaced 200 kHz apart as
already described.
The carriers are then divided in time, using a TDMA scheme. This enables the different users of the single
radio frequency channel to be allocated different times slots. They are then able to use the same RF
channel without mutual interference. The slot is then the time that is allocated to the particular user, and
the GSM burst is the transmission that is made in this time.
Each GSM slot, and hence each GSM burst lasts for 0.577 mS (15/26 mS). Eight of these burst periods
are grouped into what is known as a TDMA frame. This lasts for approximately 4.615 ms (i.e.120/26 ms)
and it forms the basic unit for the definition of logical channels. One physical channel is one burst period
allocated in each TDMA frame.
There are different types of frame that are transmitted to carry different data, and also the frames are
organised into what are termed multiframes and superframes to provide overall synchronisation.

GSM slot structure

These GSM slot is the smallest individual time period that is available to each mobile. It has a defined
format because a variety of different types of data are required to be transmitted.
Although there are shortened transmission bursts, the slots is normally used for transmitting 148 bits of
information. This data can be used for carrying voice data, control and synchronisation data.

GSM slots showing offset between transmit and receive

It can be seen from the GSM slot structure that the timing of the slots in the uplink and the downlink are
not simultaneous, and there is a time offset between the transmit and receive. This offset in the GSM slot
timing is deliberate and it means that a mobile that which is allocated the same slot in both directions
does not transmit and receive at the same time. This considerably reduces the need for expensive filters
to isolate the transmitter from the receiver. It also provides a space saving.

GSM burst
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The GSM burst, or transmission can fulfil a variety of functions. Some GSM bursts are used for carrying
data while others are used for control information. As a result of this a number of different types of GSM
burst are defined.

 Normal burst uplink and downlink

 Synchronisation burst downlink
 Frequency correction burst downlink
 Random Access (Shortened Burst) uplink

GSM normal burst

This GSM burst is used for the standard communications between the basestation and the mobile, and
typically transfers the digitised voice data.
The structure of the normal GSM burst is exactly defined and follows a common format. It contains data
that provides a number of different functions:

1. 3 tail bits: These tail bits at the start of the GSM burst give time for the transmitter to ramp up
its power
2. 57 data bits: This block of data is used to carry information, and most often contains the digitised
voice data although on occasions it may be replaced with signalling information in the form of the
Fast Associated Control CHannel (FACCH). The type of data is indicated by the flag that follows
the data field
3. 1 bit flag: This bit within the GSM burst indicates the type of data in the previous field.
4. 26 bits training sequence: This training sequence is used as a timing reference and for
equalisation. There is a total of eight different bit sequences that may be used, each 26 bits long.
The same sequence is used in each GSM slot, but nearby base stations using the same radio
frequency channels will use different ones, and this enables the mobile to differentiate between
the various cells using the same frequency.
5. 1 bit flag Again this flag indicates the type of data in the data field.
6. 57 data bits Again, this block of data within the GSM burst is used for carrying data.
7. 3 tail bits These final bits within the GSM burst are used to enable the transmitter power to
ramp down. They are often called final tail bits, or just tail bits.
8. 8.25 bits guard time At the end of the GSM burst there is a guard period. This is introduced to
prevent transmitted bursts from different mobiles overlapping. As a result of their differing
distances from the base station.

GSM Normal Burst

GSM synchronisation burst

The purpose of this form of GSM burst is to provide synchronisation for the mobiles on the network.

1. 3 tail bits: Again, these tail bits at the start of the GSM burst give time for the transmitter to
ramp up its power
2. 39 bits of information:
3. 64 bits of a Long Training Sequence:
4. 39 bits Information:
5. 3 tail bits Again these are to enable the transmitter power to ramp down.
6. 8.25 bits guard time: to act as a guard interval.
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 GSM Synchronisation Burst

GSM frequency correction burst

With the information in the burst all set to zeros, the burst essentially consists of a constant frequency
carrier with no phase alteration.

1. 3 tail bits: Again, these tail bits at the start of the GSM burst give time for the transmitter to
ramp up its power.
2. 142 bits all set to zero:
3. 3 tail bits Again these are to enable the transmitter power to ramp down.
4. 8.25 bits guard time: to act as a guard interval.

GSM Frequency Correction Burst

GSM random access burst

This form of GSM burst used when accessing the network and it is shortened in terms of the data carried,
having a much longer guard period. This GSM burst structure is used to ensure that it fits in the time slot
regardless of any severe timing problems that may exist. Once the mobile has accessed the network and
timing has been aligned, then there is no requirement for the long guard period.

1. 7 tail bits: The increased number of tail bits is included to provide additional margin when
accessing the network.
2. 41 training bits:
3. 36 data bits:
4. 3 tail bits Again these are to enable the transmitter power to ramp down.
5. 69.25 bits guard time: The additional guard time, filling the remaining time of the GSM burst
provides for large timing differences.

GSM Random Access Burst

GSM discontinuous transmission (DTx)

A further power saving and interference reducing facility is the discontinuous transmission (DTx)
capability that is incorporated within the specification. It is particularly useful because there are long
pauses in speech, for example when the person using the mobile is listening, and during these periods
there is no need to transmit a signal. In fact it is found that a person speaks for less than 40% of the time
during normal telephone conversations. The most important element of DTx is the Voice Activity Detector.
It must correctly distinguish between voice and noise inputs, a task that is not trivial. If a voice signal is
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misinterpreted as noise, the transmitter is turned off an effect known as clipping results and this is
particularly annoying to the person listening to the speech. However if noise is misinterpreted as a voice
signal too often, the efficiency of DTX is dramatically decreased.
It is also necessary for the system to add background or comfort noise when the transmitter is turned off
because complete silence can be very disconcerting for the listener. Accordingly this is added as
appropriate. The noise is controlled by the SID (silence indication descriptor).

GSM Frame Structure

- GSM frame structure uses slots, frames, multiframes, superframes and
hyperframes to give the required structure and timing to the data transmitted.
The GSM system has a defined GSM frame structure to enable the orderly passage of information. The
GSM frame structure establishes schedules for the predetermined use of timeslots.
By establishing these schedules by the use of a frame structure, both the mobile and the base station are
able to communicate not only the voice data, but also signalling information without the various types of
data becoming intermixed and both ends of the transmission knowing exactly what types of information
are being transmitted.
The GSM frame structure provides the basis for the various physical channels used within GSM, and
accordingly it is at the heart of the overall system.

Basic GSM frame structure

The basic element in the GSM frame structure is the frame itself. This comprises the eight slots, each
used for different users within the TDMA system. As mentioned in another page of the tutorial, the slots
for transmission and reception for a given mobile are offset in time so that the mobile does not transmit
and receive at the same time.

Eight slot GSM frame structure

The basic GSM frame defines the structure upon which all the timing and structure of the GSM messaging
and signalling is based. The fundamental unit of time is called a burst period and it lasts for approximately
0.577 ms (15/26 ms). Eight of these burst periods are grouped into what is known as a TDMA frame. This
lasts for approximately 4.615 ms (i.e.120/26 ms) and it forms the basic unit for the definition of logical
channels. One physical channel is one burst period allocated in each TDMA frame.
In simplified terms the base station transmits two types of channel, namely traffic and control. Accordingly
the channel structure is organised into two different types of frame, one for the traffic on the main traffic
carrier frequency, and the other for the control on the beacon frequency.

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GSM multiframe
The GSM frames are grouped together to form multiframes and in this way it is possible to establish a
time schedule for their operation and the network can be synchronised.
There are several GSM multiframe structures:

 Traffic multiframe: The Traffic Channel frames are organised into multiframes consisting of 26
bursts and taking 120 ms. In a traffic multiframe, 24 bursts are used for traffic. These are
numbered 0 to 11 and 13 to 24. One of the remaining bursts is then used to accommodate the
SACCH, the remaining frame remaining free. The actual position used alternates between
position 12 and 25.
 Control multiframe: the Control Channel multiframe that comprises 51 bursts and occupies
235.4 ms. This always occurs on the beacon frequency in time slot zero and it may also occur
within slots 2, 4 and 6 of the beacon frequency as well. This multiframe is subdivided into logical
channels which are time-scheduled. These logical channels and functions include the following:
o Frequency correction burst
o Synchronisation burst
o Broadcast channel (BCH)
o Paging and Access Grant Channel (PACCH)
o Stand Alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH)

GSM Superframe
Multiframes are then constructed into superframes taking 6.12 seconds. These consist of 51 traffic
multiframes or 26 control multiframes. As the traffic multiframes are 26 bursts long and the control
multiframes are 51 bursts long, the different number of traffic and control multiframes within the
superframe, brings them back into line again taking exactly the same interval.

GSM Hyperframe
Above this 2048 superframes (i.e. 2 to the power 11) are grouped to form one hyperframe which repeats
every 3 hours 28 minutes 53.76 seconds. It is the largest time interval within the GSM frame structure.
Within the GSM hyperframe there is a counter and every time slot has a unique sequential number
comprising the frame number and time slot number. This is used to maintain synchronisation of the
different scheduled operations with the GSM frame structure. These include functions such as:

 Frequency hopping: Frequency hopping is a feature that is optional within the GSM system. It
can help reduce interference and fading issues, but for it to work, the transmitter and receiver
must be synchronised so they hop to the same frequencies at the same time.
 Encryption: The encryption process is synchronised over the GSM hyperframe period where a
counter is used and the encryption process will repeat with each hyperframe. However, it is
unlikely that the cellphone conversation will be over 3 hours and accordingly it is unlikely that
security will be compromised as a result.

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 GSM Frame Structure

GSM Frequencies and Frequency Bands [7]

- a tabular summary of the frequencies and frequency bands allocations and
spectrum used by the GSM cellular telecommunications system.
Although it is possible for the GSM cellular system to work on a variety of frequencies, the GSM standard
defines GSM frequency bands and frequencies for the different spectrum allocations that are in use
around the globe. For most applications the GSM frequency allocations fall into three or four bands, and
therefore it is possible for phones to be used for global roaming.
While the majority of GSM activity falls into just a few bands, for some specialist applications, or in
countries where spectrum allocation requirements mean that the standard bands cannot be used,
different allocations may be required. Accordingly for most global roaming dual band, tri-band or quad-
band phones will operate in most countries, although in some instances phones using other frequencies
may be required.

GSM band allocations

There is a total of fourteen different recognised GSM frequency bands. These are defined in 3GPP TS
45.005.
BAND UPLINK DOWNLINK COMMENTS
(MHZ) (MHZ)

380 380.2 - 389.8 390.2 - 399.8

410 410.2 - 419.8 420.2 - 429.8

450 450.4 - 457.6 460.4 - 467.6

480 478.8 - 486.0 488.8 - 496.0

710 698.0 - 716.0 728.0 - 746.0

750 747.0 - 762.0 777.0 - 792.0

810 806.0 - 821.0 851.0 - 866.0

14
 BAND UPLINK DOWNLINK COMMENTS
(MHZ) (MHZ)

850 824.0 - 849.0 869.0 - 894.0

900 890.0 - 915.0 935.0 - 960.0 P-GSM, i.e. Primary or standard GSM
allocation

900 880.0 - 915.0 925.0 - 960.0 E-GSM, i.e. Extended GSM allocation

900 876.0 - 915 921.0 - 960.0 R-GSM, i.e. Railway GSM allocation

900 870.4 - 876.0 915.4 - 921.0 T-GSM

1800 1710.0 - 1805.0 -

1785.0 1880.0

1900 1850.0 - 1930.0 -

1910.0 1990.0

GSM frequency band usage

The usage of the different frequency bands varies around the globe although there is a large degree of
standardisation. The GSM frequencies available depend upon the regulatory requirements for the
particular country and the ITU (International Telecommunications Union) region in which the country is
located.
As a rough guide Europe tends to use the GSM 900 and 1800 bands as standard. These bands are also
generally used in the Middle East, Africa, Asia and Oceania.
For North America the USA uses both 850 and 1900 MHz bands, the actual band used is determined by
the regulatory authorities and is dependent upon the area. For Canada the 1900 MHz band is the primary
one used, particularly for urban areas with 850 MHz used as a backup in rural areas.
For Central and South America, the GSM 850 and 1900 MHz frequency bands are the most widely used
although there are some areas where other frequencies are used.

GSM multiband phones

In order that cell phone users are able to take advantage of the roaming facilities offered by GSM, it is
necessary that the cellphones are able to cover the bands of the countries which are visited.
Today most phones support operation on multiple bands and are known as multi-band phones. Typically
most standard phones are dual-band phones. For Europe, Middle east, Asia and Oceania these would
operate on GSM 900 and 1800 bands and for North America, etc dual band phones would operate on
GSM 850 and 1900 frequency bands.
To provide better roaming coverage, tri-band and quad-band phones are also available. European triband
phones typically cover the GSM 900, 1800 and 1900 bands giving good coverage in Europe as well as
moderate coverage in North America. Similarly North America tri-band phones use the 900, 1800 and
1900 GSM frequencies. Quad band phones are also available covering the 850, 900, 1800 and 1900
MHz GSM frequency bands, i.e. the four major bands and thereby allowing global use.

15
GSM Power Control and Power Class
- tutorial, overview of the GSM power control, GSM power levels, power class
and power amplifier design.
The power levels and power control of GSM mobiles is of great importance because of the effect of power
on the battery life. Also to group mobiles into groups, GSM power class designations have been allocated
to indicate the power capability of various mobiles.
In addition to this the power of the GSM mobiles is closely controlled so that the battery of the mobile is
conserved, and also the levels of interference are reduced and performance of the basestation is not
compromised by high power local mobiles.

GSM power levels

The base station controls the power output of the mobile, keeping the GSM power level sufficient to
maintain a good signal to noise ratio, while not too high to reduce interference, overloading, and also to
preserve the battery life.
A table of GSM power levels is defined, and the base station controls the power of the mobile by sending
a GSM "power level" number. The mobile then adjusts its power accordingly. In virtually all cases the
increment between the different power level numbers is 2dB.
The accuracies required for GSM power control are relatively stringent. At the maximum power levels
they are typically required to be controlled to within +/- 2 dB, whereas this relaxes to +/- 5 dB at the lower
levels.
The power level numbers vary according to the GSM band in use. Figures for the three main bands in
use are given below:
POWER LEVEL POWER OUTPUT
NUMBER LEVEL DBM

2 39

3 37

4 35

5 33

6 31

7 29

8 27

9 25

10 23

11 21

12 19

13 17

16
 POWER LEVEL POWER OUTPUT
NUMBER LEVEL DBM

14 15

15 13

16 11

17 9

18 7

19 5

GSM power level table for GSM 900

POWER LEVEL NUMBER POWER OUTPUT LEVEL DBM

29 36

30 34

31 32

0 30

1 28

2 26

3 24

4 22

5 20

6 18

7 16

8 14

9 12

10 10

11 8

12 6

13 4

14 2

17
 POWER LEVEL NUMBER POWER OUTPUT LEVEL DBM

15 0

GSM power level table for GSM 1800

POWER LEVEL POWER OUTPUT

NUMBER LEVEL DBM

30 33

31 32

0 30

1 28

2 26

3 24

4 22

5 20

6 18

7 16

8 14

9 12

10 10

11 8

12 6

13 4

14 2

15 0

GSM power level table for GSM 1900

GSM Power class

Not all mobiles have the same maximum power output level. In order that the base station knows the
maximum power level number that it can send to the mobile, it is necessary for the base station to know
the maximum power it can transmit. This is achieved by allocating a GSM power class number to a
mobile. This GSM power class number indicates to the base station the maximum power it can transmit
and hence the maximum power level number the base station can instruct it to use.

18
Again the GSM power classes vary according to the band in use.
GSM GSM 900 GSM 1800 GSM 1900
POWER
CLASS
NUMBER

Power Maximum Power Maximum Power Maximum

level power level power level power
number output number output number output

1 PL0 30 dBm / PL0 30 dBm /

1W 1W

2 PL2 39dBm / PL3 24 dBm/ PL3 24 dBm /

8W 250 mW 250 mW

3 PL3 37dBm / PL29 36 dBm / PL30 33 dBm /

5W 4W 2W

4 PL4 33dBm /
2W

5 PL5 29 dBm /
800 mW

GSM power amplifier design considerations

One of the main considerations for the RF power amplifier design in any mobile phone is its efficiency.
The RF power amplifier is one of the major current consumption areas. Accordingly, to ensure long battery
life it should be as efficient as possible.
It is also worth remembering that as mobiles may only transmit for one eighth of the time, i.e. for their
allocated slot which is one of eight, the average power is an eighth of the maximum.

GSM Logical & Physical Channels

- a tutorial, description, overview of GSM channels including transport and
logical channels, SACCH, SDCCH, FACCH, etc.
GSM uses a variety of channels in which the data is carried. In GSM, these channels are separated
into physical channels and logical channels. The Physical channels are determined by the timeslot,
whereas the logical channels are determined by the information carried within the physical channel. It
can be further summarised by saying that several recurring timeslots on a carrier constitute a physical
channel. These are then used by different logical channels to transfer information. These channels may
either be used for user data (payload) or signalling to enable the system to operate correctly.

Common and dedicated channels

The channels may also be divided into common and dedicated channels. The forward common channels
are used for paging to inform a mobile of an incoming call, responding to channel requests, and
broadcasting bulletin board information. The return common channel is a random access channel used
by the mobile to request channel resources before timing information is conveyed by the BSS.
The dedicated channels are of two main types: those used for signalling, and those used for traffic. The
signalling channels are used for maintenance of the call and for enabling call set up, providing facilities

19
such as handover when the call is in progress, and finally terminating the call. The traffic channels handle
the actual payload.
The following logical channels are defined in GSM:
TCHf - Full rate traffic channel.
TCH h - Half rate traffic channel.
BCCH - Broadcast Network information, e.g. for describing the current control channel structure. The
BCCH is a point-to-multipoint channel (BSS-to-MS).
SCH - Synchronisation of the MSs.
FCHMS - frequency correction.
AGCH - Acknowledge channel requests from MS and allocate a SDCCH.
PCHMS - terminating call announcement.
RACHMS - access requests, response to call announcement, location update, etc.
FACCHt - For time critical signalling over the TCH (e.g. for handover signalling). Traffic burst is stolen for
a full signalling burst.
SACCHt - TCH in-band signalling, e.g. for link monitoring.
SDCCH - For signalling exchanges, e.g. during call setup, registration / location updates.
FACCHs - FACCH for the SDCCH. The SDCCH burst is stolen for a full signalling burst. Function not
clear in the present version of GSM (could be used for e.g. handover of an eight-rate channel, i.e. using
a "SDCCH-like" channel for other purposes than signalling).
SACCHs - SDCCH in-band signalling, e.g. for link monitoring.

GSM Audio Codec / Vocoder

- Audio / voice codecs and vocoders convert the voice signals required to be
transmitted over a GSM link into a compact digital format. Voice codec
technologies used with GSM include LPC-RPE, EFR, Full Rate, Half Rate, AMR
codec and AMR-WB codec & CELP, ACELP, VSELP, speech codec
technologies.
Audio codecs or vocoders are universally used within the GSM system. They reduce the bit rate of speech
that has been converted from its analogue for into a digital format to enable it to be carried within the
available bandwidth for the channel. Without the use of a speech codec, the digitised speech would
occupy a much wider bandwidth then would be available. Accordingly GSM codecs are a particularly
important element in the overall system.
A variety of different forms of audio codec or vocoder are available for general use, and the GSM system
supports a number of specific audio codecs. These include the RPE-LPC, half rate, and AMR codecs.
The performance of each voice codec is different and they may be used under different conditions,
although the AMR codec is now the most widely used. Also the newer AMR wideband (AMR-WB) codec
is being introduced into many areas, including GSM
Voice codec technology has advanced by considerable degrees in recent years as a result of the
increasing processing power available. This has meant that the voice codecs used in the GSM system
have large improvements since the first GSM phones were introduced.

Vocoder / codec basics

20
Vocoders or speech codecs are used within many areas of voice communications. Obviously the focus
here is on GSM audio codecs or vocoders, but the same principles apply to any form of codec.
If speech were digitised in a linear fashion it would require a high data rate that would occupy a very wide
bandwidth. As bandwidth is normally limited in any communications system, it is necessary to compress
the data to send it through the available channel. Once through the channel it can then be expanded to
regenerate the audio in a fashion that is as close to the original as possible.
To meet the requirements of the codec system, the speech must be captured at a high enough sample
rate and resolution to allow clear reproduction of the original sound. It must then be compressed in such
a way as to maintain the fidelity of the audio over a limited bit rate, error-prone wireless transmission
channel.
Audio codecs or vocoders can use a variety of techniques, but many modern audio codecs use a
technique known as linear prediction. In many ways this can be likened to a mathematical modelling of
the human vocal tract. To achieve this the spectral envelope of the signal is estimated using a filter
technique. Even where signals with many non-harmonically related signals are used it is possible for
voice codecs to give very large levels of compression.
A variety of different codec methodologies are used for GSM codecs:

 CELP: The CELP or Code Excited Linear Prediction codec is a vocoder algorithm that was
originally proposed in 1985 and gave a significant improvement over other voice codecs of the
day. The basic principle of the CELP codec has been developed and used as the basis of other
voice codecs including ACELP, RCELP, VSELP, etc. As such the CELP codec methodology is
now the most widely used speech coding algorithm. Accordingly CELP is now used as a generic
term for a particular class of vocoders or speech codecs and not a particular codec.

The main principle behind the CELP codec is that is uses a principle known as "Analysis by
Synthesis". In this process, the encoding is performed by perceptually optimising the decoded
signal in a closed loop system. One way in which this could be achieved is to compare a variety
of generated bit streams and choose the one that produces the best sounding signal.
 ACELP codec: The ACELP or Algebraic Code Excited Linear Prediction codec. The ACELP
codec or vocoder algorithm is a development of the CELP model. However the ACELP codec
codebooks have a specific algebraic structure as indicated by the name.
 VSELP codec: The VSELP or Vector Sum Excitation Linear Prediction codec. One of the major
drawbacks of the VSELP codec is its limited ability to code non-speech sounds. This means that
it performs poorly in the presence of noise. As a result this voice codec is not now as widely used,
other newer speech codecs being preferred and offering far superior performance.

GSM audio codecs / vocoders

A variety of GSM audio codecs / vocoders are supported. These have been introduced at different times,
and have different levels of performance.. Although some of the early audio codecs are not as widely
used these days, they are still described here as they form part of the GSM system.

CODEC NAME BIT RATE COMPRESSION TECHNOLOGY

(KBPS)

Full rate 13 RTE-LPC

EFR 12.2 ACELP

Half rate 5.6 VSELP

21
 CODEC NAME BIT RATE COMPRESSION TECHNOLOGY
(KBPS)

AMR 12.2 - 4.75 ACELP

AMR-WB 23.85 - 6.60 ACELP

GSM Full Rate / RPE-LPC codec

The RPE-LPC or Regular Pulse Excited - Linear Predictive Coder. This form of voice codec was the first
speech codec used with GSM and it chosen after tests were undertaken to compare it with other codec
schemes of the day. The speech codec is based upon the regular pulse excitation LPC with long term
prediction. The basic scheme is related to two previous speech codecs, namely: RELP, Residual Excited
Linear Prediction and to the MPE-LPC, Multi Pulse Excited LPC. The advantages of RELP are the
relatively low complexity resulting from the use of baseband coding, but its performance is limited by the
tonal noise produced by the system. The MPE-LPC is more complex but provides a better level of
performance. The RPE-LPC codec provided a compromise between the two, balancing performance and
complexity for the technology of the time.
Despite the work that was undertaken to provide the optimum performance, as technology developed
further, the RPE-LPC codec was viewed as offering a poor level of voice quality. As other full rate audio
codecs became available, these were incorporated into the system.

GSM EFR - Enhanced Full Rate codec

Later another vocoder called the Enhanced Full Rate (EFR) vocoder was added in response to the poor
quality perceived by the users of the original RPE-LPC codec. This new codec gave much better sound
quality and was adopted by GSM. Using the ACELP compression technology it gave a significant
improvement in quality over the original LPC-RPE encoder. It became possible as the processing power
that was available increased in mobile phones as a result of higher levels of processing power combined
with their lower current consumption.

GSM Half Rate codec

The GSM standard allows the splitting of a single full rate voice channel into two sub-channels that can
maintain separate calls. By doing this, network operators can double the number of voice calls that can
be handled by the network with very little additional investment.
To enable this facility to be used a half rate codec must be used. The half rate codec was introduced in
the early years of GSM but gave a much inferior voice quality when compared to other speech codecs.
However it gave advantages when demand was high and network capacity was at a premium.
The GSM Half Rate codec uses a VSELP codec algorithm. It codes the data around 20 ms frames each
carrying 112 bits to give a data rate of 5.6 kbps. This includes a 100 bps data rate for a mode indicator
which details whether the system believes the frames contain voice data or not. This allows the speech
codec to operate in a manner that provides the optimum quality.
The Half Rate codec system was introduced in the 1990s, but in view of the perceived poor quality, it was
not widely used.

GSM AMR Codec

The AMR, Adaptive Multi-rate codec is now the most widely used GSM codec. The AMR codec was
adopted by 3GPP in October 1988 and it is used for both GSM and circuit switched UMTS / WCDMA
voice calls.

22
The AMR codec provides a variety of options for one of eight different bit rates as described in the table
below. The bit rates are based on frames that are 20 millisceonds long and contain 160 samples. The
AMR codec uses a variety of different techniques to provide the data compression. The ACELP codec is
used as the basis of the overall speech codec, but other techniques are used in addition to this.
Discontinuous transmission is employed so that when there is no speech activity the transmission is cut.
Additionally Voice Activity Detection (VAD) is used to indicate when there is only background noise and
no speech. Additionally to provide the feedback for the user that the connection is still present, a Comfort
Noise Generator (CNG) is used to provide some background noise, even when no speech data is being
transmitted. This is added locally at the receiver.
The use of the AMR codec also requires that optimized link adaptation is used so that the optimum data
rate is selected to meet the requirements of the current radio channel conditions including its signal to
noise ratio and capacity. This is achieved by reducing the source coding and increasing the channel
coding. Although there is a reduction in voice clarity, the network connection is more robust and the link
is maintained without dropout. Improvement levels of between 4 and 6 dB may be experienced. However
network operators are able to prioritise each station for either quality or capacity.
The AMR codec has a total of eight rates: eight are available at full rate (FR), while six are available at
half rate (HR). This gives a total of fourteen different modes.

MODE BIT RATE FULL RATE (FR) /

(KBPS) HALF RATE (HR)

AMR 12.2 12.2 FR

AMR 10.2 10.2 FR

AMR 7.95 7.95 FR / HR

AMR 7.40 7.40 FR / HR

AMR 6.70 6.70 FR / HR

AMR 5.90 5.90 FR / HR

AMR 5.15 5.15 FR / HR

AMR 4.75 4.75 FR / HR

AMR codec data rates

AMR-WB codec
Adaptive Multi-Rate Wideband, AMR-WB codec, also known under its ITU designation of G.722.2, is
based on the earlier popular Adaptive Multi-Rate, AMR codec. AMR-WB also uses an ACELP basis for
its operation, but it has been further developed and AMR-WB provides improved speech quality as a
result of the wider speech bandwidth that it encodes. AMR-WB has a bandwidth extending from 50 - 7000
Hz which is significantly wider than the 300 - 3400 Hz bandwidths used by standard telephones. However
this comes at the cost of additional processing, but with advances in IC technology in recent years, this
is perfectly acceptable.
The AMR-WB codec contains a number of functional areas: it primarily includes a set of fixed rate speech
and channel codec modes. It also includes other codec functions including: a Voice Activity Detector
(VAD); Discontinuous Transmission (DTX) functionality for GSM; and Source Controlled Rate (SCR)
functionality for UMTS applications. Further functionality includes in-band signaling for codec mode
transmission, and link adaptation for control of the mode selection.

23
The AMR-WB codec has a 16 kHz sampling rate and the coding is performed in blocks of 20 ms. There
are two frequency bands that are used: 50-6400 Hz and 6400-7000 Hz. These are coded separately to
reduce the codec complexity. This split also serves to focus the bit allocation into the subjectively most
important frequency range.
The lower frequency band uses an ACELP codec algorithm, although a number of additional features
have been included to improve the subjective quality of the audio. Linear prediction analysis is performed
once per 20 ms frame. Also, fixed and adaptive excitation codebooks are searched every 5 ms for optimal
codec parameter values.
The higher frequency band adds some of the naturalness and personality features to the voice. The audio
is reconstructed using the parameters from the lower band as well as using random excitation. As the
level of power in this band is less than that of the lower band, the gain is adjusted relative to the lower
band, but based on voicing information. The signal content of the higher band is reconstructed by using
an linear predictive filter which generates information from the lower band filter.

BIT NOTES
RATE
(KBPS)

6.60 This is the lowest rate for AMR-WB. It is used for circuit switched connections for GSM and
UMTS and is intended to be used only temporarily during severe radio channel conditions or
during network congestion.

8.85 This gives improved quality over the 6.6 kbps rate, but again, its use is only recommended for
use in periods of congestion or when during severe radio channel conditions.

12.65 This is the main bit rate used for circuit switched GSM and UMTS, offering superior
performance to the original AMR codec.

14.25 Higher bit rate used to give cleaner speech and is particularly useful when ambient audio
noise levels are high.

15.85 Higher bit rate used to give cleaner speech and is particularly useful when ambient audio
noise levels are high.

18.25 Higher bit rate used to give cleaner speech and is particularly useful when ambient audio
noise levels are high.

19.85 Higher bit rate used to give cleaner speech and is particularly useful when ambient audio
noise levels are high.

23.05 Not suggested for full rate GSM channels.

23.85 Not suggested for full rate GSM channels, and provides speech quality similar to that of
G.722 at 64 kbps.

Not all phones equipped with AMR-WB will be able to access all the data rates - the different functions
on the phone may not require all to be active for example. As a result, it is necessary to inform the network
about which rates are available and thereby simplify the negotiation between the handset and the
network. To achieve this there are three difference AMR-WB configurations that are available:

 Configuration A: 6.6, 8.85, and 12.65 kbit/s

 Configuration B: 6.6, 8.85, 12.65, and 15.85 kbit/s
 Configuration C: 6.6, 8.85, 12.65, and 23.85 kbit/s
It can be seen that only the 23.85, 15.85, 12.65, 8.85 and 6.60 kbit/s modes are used. Based on listening
tests, it was considered that these five modes were sufficient for a high quality speech telephony service.
24
The other data rates were retained and can be used for other purposes including multimedia messaging,
streaming audio, etc.

GSM Handover or Handoff

- tutorial or overview of the essentials of GSM handover or handoff from one cell
to another and detailing types of handover and methodologies used.
One of the key elements of a mobile phone or cellular telecommunications system, is that the system is
split into many small cells to provide good frequency re-use and coverage. However as the mobile moves
out of one cell to another it must be possible to retain the connection. The process by which this occurs
is known as handover or handoff. The term handover is more widely used within Europe, whereas handoff
tends to be use more in North America. Either way, handover and handoff are the same process.

Requirements for GSM handover

The process of handover or handoff within any cellular system is of great importance. It is a critical
process and if performed incorrectly handover can result in the loss of the call. Dropped calls are
particularly annoying to users and if the number of dropped calls rises, customer dissatisfaction increases
and they are likely to change to another network. Accordingly GSM handover was an area to which
particular attention was paid when developing the standard.

Types of GSM handover

Within the GSM system there are four types of handover that can be performed for GSM only systems:

 Intra-BTS handover: This form of GSM handover occurs if it is required to change the frequency
or slot being used by a mobile because of interference, or other reasons. In this form of GSM
handover, the mobile remains attached to the same base station transceiver, but changes the
channel or slot.
 Inter-BTS Intra BSC handover: This for of GSM handover or GSM handoff occurs when the
mobile moves out of the coverage area of one BTS but into another controlled by the same BSC.
In this instance the BSC is able to perform the handover and it assigns a new channel and slot to
the mobile, before releasing the old BTS from communicating with the mobile.
 Inter-BSC handover: When the mobile moves out of the range of cells controlled by one BSC,
a more involved form of handover has to be performed, handing over not only from one BTS to
another but one BSC to another. For this the handover is controlled by the MSC.
 Inter-MSC handover: This form of handover occurs when changing between networks. The two
MSCs involved negotiate to control the handover.

GSM handover process

Although there are several forms of GSM handover as detailed above, as far as the mobile is concerned,
they are effectively seen as very similar. There are a number of stages involved in undertaking a GSM
handover from one cell or base station to another.
In GSM which uses TDMA techniques the transmitter only transmits for one slot in eight, and similarly the
receiver only receives for one slot in eight. As a result the RF section of the mobile could be idle for 6
slots out of the total eight. This is not the case because during the slots in which it is not communicating
with the BTS, it scans the other radio channels looking for beacon frequencies that may be stronger or
more suitable. In addition to this, when the mobile communicates with a particular BTS, one of the
responses it makes is to send out a list of the radio channels of the beacon frequencies of neighbouring
BTSs via the Broadcast Channel (BCCH).

25
The mobile scans these and reports back the quality of the link to the BTS. In this way the mobile assists
in the handover decision and as a result this form of GSM handover is known as Mobile Assisted Hand
Over (MAHO).
The network knows the quality of the link between the mobile and the BTS as well as the strength of local
BTSs as reported back by the mobile. It also knows the availability of channels in the nearby cells. As a
result it has all the information it needs to be able to make a decision about whether it needs to hand the
mobile over from one BTS to another.
If the network decides that it is necessary for the mobile to hand over, it assigns a new channel and time
slot to the mobile. It informs the BTS and the mobile of the change. The mobile then retunes during the
period it is not transmitting or receiving, i.e. in an idle period.
A key element of the GSM handover is timing and synchronisation. There are a number of possible
scenarios that may occur dependent upon the level of synchronisation.

 Old and new BTSs synchronised: In this case the mobile is given details of the new physical
channel in the neighbouring cell and handed directly over. The mobile may optionally transmit
four access bursts. These are shorter than the standard bursts and thereby any effects of poor
synchronisation do not cause overlap with other bursts. However in this instance where
synchronisation is already good, these bursts are only used to provide a fine adjustment.
 Time offset between synchronised old and new BTS: In some instances there may be a time
offset between the old and new BTS. In this case, the time offset is provided so that the mobile
can make the adjustment. The GSM handover then takes place as a standard synchronised
handover.
 Non-synchronised handover: When a non-synchronised cell handover takes place, the mobile
transmits 64 access bursts on the new channel. This enables the base station to determine and
adjust the timing for the mobile so that it can suitably access the new BTS. This enables the
mobile to re-establish the connection through the new BTS with the correct timing.

Inter-system handover
With the evolution of standards and the migration of GSM to other 2G technologies including to 3G UMTS
/ WCDMA as well as HSPA and then LTE, there is the need to handover from one technology to another.
Often the 2G GSM coverage will be better then the others and GSM is often used as the fallback. When
handovers of this nature are required, it is considerably more complicated than a straightforward only
GSM handover because they require two technically very different systems to handle the handover.
These handovers may be called intersystem handovers or inter-RAT handovers as the handover occurs
between different radio access technologies.
The most common form of intersystem handover is between GSM and UMTS / WCDMA. Here there are
two different types:

 UMTS / WCDMA to GSM handover: There are two further divisions of this category of
handover:
o Blind handover: This form of handover occurs when the base station hands off the
mobile by passing it the details of the new cell to the mobile without linking to it and setting
the timing, etc of the mobile for the new cell. In this mode, the network selects what it
believes to be the optimum GSM based station. The mobile first locates the broadcast
channel of the new cell, gains timing synchronisation and then carries out non-
synchronised intercell handover.
o Compressed mode handover: using this form of handover the mobile uses the gaps I
transmission that occur to analyse the reception of local GSM base stations using the
neighbour list to select suitable candidate base stations. Having selected a suitable base
station the handover takes place, again without any time synchronisation having occurred.

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 Handover from GSM to UMTS / WCDMA: This form of handover is supported within GSM and
a "neighbour list" was established to enable this occur easily. As the GSM / 2G network is normally
more extensive than the 3G network, this type of handover does not normally occur when the
mobile leaves a coverage area and must quickly find a new base station to maintain contact. The
handover from GSM to UMTS occurs to provide an improvement in performance and can normally
take place only when the conditions are right. The neighbour list will inform the mobile when this
may happen.

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