MonTI 2014 Special Issue 03
MonTI 2014 Special Issue 03
MonTI 2014 Special Issue 03
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
ON TRANSLATION COMPETENCE ACQUISITION:
THE ACQUISITION OF DECLARATIVE
KNOWLEDGE OF TRANSLATION
Abstract
This paper presents the first results of empirical-experimental research into the Acqui-
sition of Translation Competence (ATC): the acquisition of declarative knowledge
about translation. This study is based on our previous research about Translation
Competence (TC). Some of the data collection instruments have, however, been adap-
ted for current use. Details of our research design include type of study, universe and
sample population, study variables, data collection instruments, and data analysis
processes. The dependent variables were knowledge of translation; translation pro-
ject; identification and solution of translation problems; decision-making; efficacy of
the translation process; and use of instrumental resources.
The results of the first variable analysed (“Knowledge of Translation”) will be
presented. A questionnaire with 27 items was used to obtain data on translator train-
ees’ knowledge of translation: their concept of translation and TC; translation units;
types of translation problems; the different phases involved in the translation process;
methods required; procedures used (strategies and techniques); and the role of the
translation brief and the target reader. Indicators of this variable were ‘dynamic index’
and ‘coefficient of coherence’. We understand a ‘dynamic’ concept of translation to
Resumen
Este trabajo presenta los primeros resultados de una investigación empírico-experi-
mental sobre la Adquisición de la Competencia Traductora (ACT): la adquisición de
conocimientos declarativos sobre la traducción. Este estudio se basa en nuestra inves-
tigación anterior sobre Competencia Traductora (CT), si bien, algunos instrumentos
de recogida de datos sobre CT se adaptaron para investigar la ACT. La información
sobre el diseño de la investigación incluye tipo de estudio, universo y muestra, varia-
bles de estudio, instrumentos para la recogida de datos y proceso de análisis de da-
tos. Las variables dependientes son conocimientos de traducción, proyecto traductor,
identificación y resolución de problemas de traducción, toma de decisiones, eficacia
del proceso de traducción, y uso de recursos instrumentales.
Aquí se presentan los resultados de la primera variable analizada (“Conocimien-
tos de traducción”). Se usó un cuestionario de 27 ítems para obtener datos sobre los
conocimientos de los estudiantes en torno a: concepción de traducción y de la CT,
unidad de traducción, tipo de problemas de traducción, etapas que intervienen al tra-
ducir, métodos requeridos, procedimientos utilizados (estrategias y técnicas), función
del encargo de traducción y del destinatario. Los indicadores de esta variable son: “Ín-
dice de dinamismo” y “Coeficiente de coherencia”. Diferenciamos entre una concep-
ción “dinámica” de la traducción (textual, interpretativa, comunicativa y funcional) y
una concepción “estática” (lingüística y literal). El Índice de dinamismo nos permite
determinar si los conocimientos implícitos de los sujetos sobre el funcionamiento
de la traducción son más dinámicos o más estáticos, mientras que el Coeficiente de
coherencia nos permite saber si la visión de los sujetos sobre diferentes aspectos de la
traducción es coherente.
2. See <http://grupsderecerca.uab.cat/pacte/en/content/publications>
3. Krings (1986) reports that, when analysing translation processes, problems may be
detected through the subjects’ behaviour: pauses, use of strategies, omissions, correc-
tions, etc.
4. For background information about the conceptual framework used for the research
design, see Neunzig (2011).
The experimental source texts (a Spanish source text for translation into Eng-
lish, French, or German; and English, French and German source texts for
translation into Spanish or Catalan), together with five rich points in each of
them, were trialled in a 2004 pilot study (reported in PACTE 2005a, 2005b).
the importance of this indicator in measuring the subjects’ TC. It is the only
indicator used in conjunction with specific indicators of each variable.
Results from the TC experiment (PACTE 2008, 2009) showed that the
group of translators obtained more acceptable results in their translations
than the group of foreign-language teachers, both in direct and inverse trans-
lation. However, the difference in the acceptability of the results between both
groups is much greater in direct translation (see table 1).
Table 3 displays results of the group of translators for the ST in inverse trans-
lation. All subjects were evaluating the same ST and they all perceived it to
be “relatively difficult to translate.” This result seems not only to validate
the experimental texts but also the sample, for there was no important lan-
guage-dependent difference in the perceived ST difficulty in both directions;
the questionnaire used to select subjects for the experimental group of trans-
lators was therefore appropriate. This method could be used in other contexts
where comparable or parallel texts are needed, for example, evaluating or
predicting the difficulty of texts for teaching or testing.
3.2.2. Variables
Table 4 (adapted from PACTE 2005a, 2005b) summarises definitions, indica-
tors, data-collection instruments and data sources on the dependent variables
selected for the TC and ATC experiments.
KNOWLEDGE OF TRANSLATION
Related to the knowledge-of-translation sub-competence
definition The subject’s implicit knowledge about the principles of translation
Dynamic index of knowledge of translation; Coherence coefficient of
indicators knowledge of translation
instruments Knowledge-of-translation questionnaire
TRANSLATION PROJECT
Related to the strategic sub-competence
The subject’s approach to the translation of a specific text and of the
definition units it comprises in a specific context
Dynamic index of the overall translation project; Dynamic index of the
translation project for translation problems; Coherence coefficient of
indicators the translation project; Acceptability
Translations; Translation problems questionnaire; and Retrospective
instruments interview
KNOWLEDGE OF TRANSLATION
Related to the knowledge-of-translation sub-competence
objective Collect data about declarative knowledge of translation
definition The subject’s implicit knowledge about the principles of translation
empirical
There is a relationship between the degree of translation competence and
knowledge of translation
operational
hypotheses
1. Differences can be observed between translators and foreign language
teachers in relation to their concept of translation
2. Differences can be observed between translators and foreign language
teachers in relation to the coherence of their concept of translation
1. Dynamic index of Knowledge of Translation.
Numeric indicator; values: -1 to +1; data per subject: 1.
indicators
2. Coherence coefficient of Knowledge of Translation.
Numeric indicator; values: 0 to 1; data per subject: 1.
instruments Knowledge-of-translation questionnaire
data Subjects’ answers to the knowledge-of-translation questionnaire
The questionnaire was later validated in the following stages. After trialling
the questionnaire amongst lecturers and students in the UAB Schol of Trans-
lation and Interpreting (Stage 1), a pilot study (Stage 2) was carried out with
three translators and three foreign language teachers who took part in the
2004 TC pilot study (PACTE 2005a, 2005b). The analysis of the data from
this study suggested that neither the instrument nor the type of analysis were
very effective at differentiating the two experimental groups.
Item 14 Item 5
4th When translating a specialised Most translation problems can
methods text, terminology is not the biggest be solved with the help of a good
problem. dictionary.
Item 27 Item 16
5th If you find a word in a text you don’t As soon as you find a word you don’t
methods understand, you should try to work know the meaning of, you should
out its meaning from the context. look it up in a bilingual dictionary.
6. This approach has additional advantages: on the one hand, only 10 items are analysed
(thereby saving time and effort). On the other, it is a more effective means of controlling
‘missing’ items since, when an item remains unanswered, its pair is automatically elimi-
nated, thus ensuring the reliability of the data.
4.2. Results
The subjects’ answers were analysed for evidence of general tendencies among
translators and teachers. Statistical analysis pointed to more dynamic tenden-
cies among the translators and more static tendencies among the teachers
(PACTE 2008, 2011a). These tendencies can be illustrated with the pair of
items related to the ‘methods required’ provided as an example in section 4.1
above (item 10, dynamic; item 4, static). The translators had a much more
dynamic concept of translation methods than the teachers. For the dynamic
item, A text should be translated in different ways depending on who the target
reader is, 13 translators and only 2 teachers chose ‘I strongly agree’, whereas the
category ‘I strongly disagree’ was chosen by 7 teachers and only 1 translator.
For the static item in the same pair, The aim of every translation is to produce a
text as close in form to the original as possible, 8 teachers chose ‘I strongly agree’
and 11 more chose ‘I agree’, while 14 translators selected ‘I disagree’.
The mean dynamic index for translators is 0.273 and for teachers, 0.088.
The dynamic index of the translators’ group is significantly higher than that
of the teachers (p-value < 0.012), at the significance level of 5%, therefore it
would seem that the translators as a group have a more dynamic concept of
translation. Furthermore, if we look at the dynamic index of the first quartile
of the sample in acceptability, the 9 ‘best’ translators, the index rises from
0.27 to 0.36. All the translators in this quartile have a high Acceptability
Index between 1 and 0.9. They only have ‘acceptable’ or ‘semi-acceptable’
solutions and no ‘non-acceptable solutions’. We could therefore conclude
that a dynamic concept of translation is a characteristic of TC and affects
translation quality.
Dynamic Index
All translators 0.27
Best translators 0.36
Language teachers 0.09
Translation users - 0.20
compare these results with those of the translation users (science teachers).
Their mean coherence coefficient was only 0.05, suggesting that they had no
clear ideas about language or translation.
These results validate the criteria used in the TC experiment to select
subjects and the sample. The two groups of language specialists held similarly
coherent if different views on translation, the translation subjects tending to
a dynamic concept and the language teachers to a static concept. These two
groups were much more coherent than the translation users.
TC ATC
subjects N Mean students N Mean
Translators 35 0.27 1 Year
st
24 0.10
Best translators 9 0.36 2 Year
nd
26 0.33
Teachers 24 0.09 3rd Year 26 0.37
Users 10 - 0.20 4th Year 30 0.36
Graduates 22 0.41
The difference between the beginning of the 1st year and the beginning of
the 2nd year is noteworthy, with the index jumping from 0.10 to 0.33. This
dramatic change between the 1st and the 2nd year can also be seen in the coher-
ence coefficient.
TC ATC
subjects N Mean students N Mean
Translators 35 0.37 1 Year
st
24 0.16
Best translators 9 0.50 2 Year
nd
26 0.42
Teachers 24 0.27 3rd Year 26 0.42
Users 10 0.05 4 Year
th
30 0.39
Graduates 22 0.41
Table 10. Results for the coherence coefficient in TC and ATC experiments.
them there was a similarly abrupt change between the 1st-year ‘novices’ and
more advanced students. We have also looked at the other statements in the
Questionnaire to see what types of items showed a significant difference over
the five years, so as to get a clearer picture about where the students’ concept
of translation changes. As the students are in the process of consolidating
their ideas about translation, it was decided to convert the Likert scaling used
to measure the subjects’ opinion into a binary option. Thus, the answers “I
strongly disagree,” or “I disagree,” are both interpreted as “Disagreement”
and given 0 points and the answers “I agree” or “I strongly agree” are both
interpreted as “Agreement” and count as 1 point. We are still analyzing this
data and combining TC and ATC results. The following examples of items
show a variety of trends and here offered to hint at possible future lines of
inquiry.
When you translate, you must bear in mind the text conventions of the target
language.
If the characteristics of the source text are very different from those of the target
culture (e.g., business letters, instruction manuals, etc.) you should adapt the
target text accordingly.
A text should be translated in different ways depending on who the target reader is.
Since you can’t be expected to know all the words, a good bilingual dictionary is
the best way to ensure a good translation.
As soon as you find a word you don’t know the meaning of, you should look it up
in a bilingual dictionary.
6. Conclusions
This article has presented the results related to the knowledge-of-translation
variable in PACTE’s ATC experiment. These results have been compared with
those in the TC experiment. The TC results showed that TC implies a dynamic
concept of translation. They also revealed a relationship between the knowl-
edge-of-translation variable (declarative knowledge) and another variable,
that of the translation project (procedural knowledge). These results showed
a close relationship between a dynamic concept of translation (dynamic index
of knowledge of translation), a dynamic translation project for a specific text
(dynamic index of the overall translation project), and a dynamic project for the
translation problems posed in the text (dynamic index of the translation project
for translation problems). We labelled the relationship between the three indi-
cators the dynamic translation index. We also established a correlation between
this index and the acceptability of the solutions to these problems (PACTE
2011a, in progress). The more dynamic the index is, the more acceptable the
translations are.
We have come to the conclusion that these findings corroborate the theo-
retical models proposed by those pioneers who, in the second half of the 20th
century challenged the linguistic models that were dominant in Translation
Studies and introduced communicative and functionalist paradigms. These
models include Nida’s (1964) dynamic equivalence; Seleskovitch’s (1968) and
Seleskovitch & Lederer’s (1984) equivalence of meaning; Reiss & Vermeer’s
(1984) and Nord’s (1991) functional equivalence; Hatim & Mason’s (1990)
communicative translation, etc. This communicative, functionalist paradigm
continues to provide a useful framework for translation practice and research
in the 21st century.
The ATC results analysed thus far seem to confirm the importance of a
dynamic concept of translation in TC. They show that the progression from
a static to a dynamic declarative knowledge of translation is a characteristic
of the ATC. The students’ dynamic index of knowledge of translation develops
consistently throughout the translation program, from 0.10 in 1st-year stu-
dents to 0.41 in recent graduates. After initial training, all students, including
the 2nd-year students, have more dynamic results than the group of profes-
sional translators in the TC experiment. The recent graduates are even more
dynamic than the 9 “best” translators (the experts).
Of particular interest is the important leap between the 1st and 2nd-year
students’ (from 0.10 to 0.33). At UAB, 2nd-year students have only had one
semester of practical translation courses but none in translation theory, so it
would seem that they develop implicit theories about the dynamic nature of
translation from their own experience in translation. These implicit theories
are reinforced throughout their training and seem to become ingrained.
To learn more about this progression from static to dynamic notion in the
ATC, we plan to take the following steps:
1. Analyze the data from the translation project variable. This includes
the approach to the translation of a specific text (dynamic index of
the overall translation project) and the approach to units of the text
(dynamic index of the translation project for translation problems).
2. Cross this data with the dynamic index of knowledge of translation to
obtain the dynamic translation index in the ATC.
3. Analyze the data of the transversal acceptability indicator, the quality
of the translations.
4. Cross the data of the acceptability indicator with the dynamic trans-
lation index.
Once we have analysed this data, we will have a better idea of when students
are able to convert this dynamic declarative knowledge of translation into an
overall dynamic approach to the translation of a specific text and to finding
acceptable solutions to translation problems in a text within a given context.
How and when translator trainees acquire a dynamic concept and approach
to translation (declarative and procedural knowledge) is an important aspect
of the ATC study. We believe it is a key element in the move from ‘novice’
knowledge (pre-translation competence) to translation competence.
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Appendix
Knowledge-of-translation questionnaire7
1. As you read the source text, you are already thinking about how you are
going to translate it.
I strongly disagree I disagree I agree I strongly agree
2. You always lose something in translation since words do not normally mean
exactly the same in the source language as in the target language.
I strongly disagree I disagree I agree I strongly agree
5. Most translation problems can be solved with the help of a good dictionary.
I strongly disagree I disagree I agree I strongly agree
6. When you translate a text you must satisfy target reader expectations.
I strongly disagree I disagree I agree I strongly agree
8. If the characteristics of the source text are very different from those of
the target culture (e.g. business letters, instruction manuals, etc.) you should
adapt the target text accordingly.
I strongly disagree I disagree I agree I strongly agree
9. Since you can’t be expected to know all the words, a good bilingual diction-
ary is the best way to ensure a good translation.
I strongly disagree I disagree I agree I strongly agree
7. The original questionnaire is in Spanish. ‘Dynamic’ questions are # 1, 3, 6, 8, 10, 14, 17,
19, 20, 21, 23 and 27; ‘Static’ questions are # 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 22, 24,
25 and 26.
10. A text should be translated in different ways depending on who the target
reader is.
I strongly disagree I disagree I agree I strongly agree
11. All translated texts should keep the same paragraphs and order of sen-
tences in the target text as in the original text.
I strongly disagree I disagree I agree I strongly agree
13. The best way to translate is to concentrate on the words and syntax of the
original and then reproduce them in the target language.
I strongly disagree I disagree I agree I strongly agree
15. With the exception of proverbs, idioms, and metaphors, the best way to
translate is always word for word.
I strongly disagree I disagree I agree I strongly agree
16. As soon as you find a word you don’t know the meaning of, you should
look it up in a bilingual dictionary.
I strongly disagree I disagree I agree I strongly agree
17. One of the biggest problems when translating a novel is cultural references
(e.g. institutions; typical dishes, etc.).
I strongly disagree I disagree I agree I strongly agree
18. When you translate, you concentrate on one sentence and translate it,
then the next, and so on until you have translated the whole text.
I strongly disagree I disagree I agree I strongly agree
19. When you translate, you must bear in mind the text conventions of the
target language.
I strongly disagree I disagree I agree I strongly agree
20. It is not enough to know two languages well to be able to translate well.
I strongly disagree I disagree I agree I strongly agree
21. When you translate an essay you must ensure that target readers react to
the text in the same way as the source text readers.
I strongly disagree I disagree I agree I strongly agree
22. When you find a cultural reference in a text (e.g. a typical dish) you
should try to find a similar reference in the target culture.
I strongly disagree I disagree I agree I strongly agree
23. If you begin translating a text with certain criteria (e.g. respecting the
format of the original text, adapting the text to the target reader, etc.) these
should be kept to throughout the translation.
I strongly disagree I disagree I agree I strongly agree
24. When you translate a text, you should not be influenced by the target
reader.
I strongly disagree I disagree I agree I strongly agree
27. If you find a word in a text you don’t understand, you should try to work
out its meaning from the context.
I strongly disagree I disagree I agree I strongly agree