Cherokee Herbal Remedies

DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 396 878 RC 020 612
AUTHOR Schafer, Patricia D.

TITLE A Manual of Cherokee Herbal Remedies: History,
Information, Identification, Medicinal Healing.
PUB DATE Mar 93
NOTE 292p.; Master's Thesis, Indiana State University.
PUB TYPE Dissertations/Theses Masters Theses (042) Guides
General (050)
EDRS MF01/PC12 Plus Postage.

DESCRIPTORS *American Indian Culture; American Indian History;
Botany; *Cherokee (Tribe); Curriculum Guides;
Environmental Education; Higher Education;
Instructional Materials; Lesson Plans; *Pharmacy;
*Plant Identification; *Plants (Botany); Science
Curriculum; Secondary Education
IDENTIFIERS *Herbal Medicine; Herbs; Indiana (Southwest);
Medicine Men; *Wildflowers
ABSTRACT
This thesis reports on the research of 25 plants,
used as herbal remedies since the 1800s by the author's Native
American ancestors (the Day family) and the Cherokee tribe. The
plants were identified in four state parks in southwestern Indiana
Information sources included the research literature, articles on
Cherokee herbal remedies, and interviews with Cherokee elders and
medicine men. The purpose of the project was to develop a Cherokee
herbal manual and curriculum guide related to plant identification
and the herbal remedies made from these plants. Following an
introduction to the purpose and methodology of the study, a
literature review covers such topics as traditions, plant healing
properties, the use of plants by early settlers and Native Americans,
written records, plant medicinal myths, plant selection methods, the
role of the medicine man, and Cherokee history and traditions. The
third chapter includes information on plant identification, history,
Cherokee uses, Day family uses, medical research, and sources
consulted. Plants researched include black cohosh, bloodroot,
boneset, common or great burdock, catnip, comfrey, dandelion, garlic,
goldenseal, mayapple, milkweed, mistletoe, partidgeberry, pennyroyal,
senna, skullcap, snakeroot, spikenard, St. Johns wort, common
bearberry, white willow, wild black cherry, witch hazel, yarrow, and
yellow root. The fourth chapter presents a curriculum guide for a
2-day workshop on plant identification, conservation, history,
Cherokee uses, and current developments in herbal medicinal uses. The
curriculum includes information on course evaluation; six lesson
plans including objectives, equipment, materials, and procedures; and
instructional materials needed for program implementation. The manual
also includes charts related to plant identification, harvesting, and
uses; preparation and storage of remedies; and terminology. Contains
105 references. (LP)
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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.
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A MANUAL OF
CHEROKEE HERBAL REMEDIES:
HISTORY, INFORMATION, IDENTIFICATION, MEDICINAL HEALING
A Master's Thesis
Presented to
U.S. DEPARTMENT Of EDUCATION
Offrce of Educahonat Research and improvement
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CENTER (ERIC)
The School of Graduate Studies
O Th document has been reproduced as
received from the person or organuabon
OtOnitifQ 4 Department of Health Studies
0 Minor changes have been made to dhorove
reproducbon qualIty
Points of vraw ocomons stated in INS doc u.

Indiana State University
ment do not necessaray represent ofbcI
OE RI posibon or pohcy
Terre Haute, Indiana
PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND

DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL
HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
Yc&rici 1)
In Partial Fulfillment
,S.c)ifScy
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES of the Requirements for the Class
INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)
Health 629
by
Patricia D. Schafer
March 1993
Running Head: CHEROKEE HERBAL REMEDIES
BEST COPY AVAILABLE
2
Herbal
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT0
The author would like to gratefully acknowledge
and give thanks to Dr. Frank Bell, who advised,
supported, and gave suggestions for this manual. Also,
thanks to Dr. Portia Plummer, Chairperson, for her
support and enthusiasm, and for being on my committee.
A special thanks to Dr. and Mrs. Bernard Marley for

their help, support, and friendship during the writing
of this project. A special note of thanks to Mrs.
Paula Pendergrass and Dr. Margaret Earl Harper for
their expertise in proofreading for errors in all
phases of the paper. I am Also grateful to Mrs. Etta
Lou Sellars for her encouragement and behind-the-scenes

contributions. Thanks also to Dr. Barbara Crowder for
her help with developing the plant drawing overheads,

Pat Swails for computer technology, and Lori Douglas
for typing manual. Not least, my heart-felt thanks
goes to Dr. Mike Atkinson, who also served on my

committee, and to Dr. Alma Shufflebarger and Mr. Gary
Harper, for their help in collecting, reviewing, and

studying the different plants found in Southwestern
Indiana. Finally, to my friends, Nancy and Mike
Kieffer, Cindy and Randy Beard and Karen and Bob
3
Y=
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McCloud I am grateful for their kindness, backing and

friendship.
4
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DEDICATED TO MY DAUGHTERS
Jennifer Jo Meyer and Amy Kay Meyer
It was their grandparents, great grandparents, and

great great grandparents who inspired the writing of
this manual. Without their love, help, understanding,
and backing, I could not have completed it.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
Acknowledgements
Dedication iii
Abstract iv
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION 2
Statement of the Problem 3
Purpose of Study 3
Importance of Study 4
Delimitations 5
Assumptions 6
Hypothesis 6
Definition of Terms 7
Methodology 8
Available Research 9
Chapter
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 11
Major Traditions 11
Plant Healing Properties 11
Early Settlers; Native Americans 12
Written Records . . 13
Reference Sources 13
Plant Medicinal Myth 13
"Doctrine of Signatures" 13
Plant Selection Methods 14
Spiritual Harvesting 14
Gathering, Storing, Preparing 15
Medicinal Treatment 15
Spiritual Guidance 18
Native American Medicine Man 19
Medicinal Plant Ceremonies 20
Cherokee History and Traditions 21
Trail of Tears 22
Chapter
3. PLANT IDENTIFICATION, HISTORY, CHEROKEE USES,
DAY FAMILY REMEDIES, MEDICAL RESEARCH, PLANT
PICTURES, AND SOURCES CONSULTED 25
Plant Discussion 26
Black Cohosh or Squawroot 29
Bloodroot 34
Boneset or Thoroughwort 39
Common or Great Burdock 44
Catnip 49
Comfrey 54
Dandelion 59
Garlic 65
Goldenseal 71
Mayapple 76
Milkweed, Common 82
Mistletoe 87
7
Partridgeberry or Squaw Vine 92
Pennyroyal 96
Senna, American Wild 102
Skullcap 106
Snakeroot 111
Spikenard 116
St. Johns Wort 121
Uva Ursi or Common Bearberry 127
White Willow 132
Wild Black Cherry 137
Witch Hazel 143
Yarrow 148
Yellow Root 154
Conclusion 158
Chapter
4. CHEROKEE HERBAL REMEDIES CURRICULUM GUIDE
Curriculum Guide 163
Course Text 165
Evaluation 166
Lesson Plan Session One 169
Lesson Plan Session Two 175
Lesson Plan Session Three 182
Lesson Plan Session Four 186
Lesson Plan Session Five 190
Lesson Plan Session Six 194

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Student Check Sheet 197
Mixers and Energizers 199
Herbal Word Search 201
Herbal Password 202
Blackboard Herbal Baseball 204
First Aid Review Sheet 214
Field Experience Materials 222
Common Poisonous Plants 224
Snakes 225
BIBLIOGRAPHY 226
APPENDIXES 238
Research Plant Source 239
Cherokee Nation Plant Source 240
CHARTS 242
Plant Identification 243
Environment and Area Where Located 247
Herbal History 250
When Gathered or Harvested 255
Cherokee Uses 257
Day Family Remedies 260
Preparation and Storage of Remedies 263
Medical Terms and Healing Plants 266
Botanical Names Alphabetized 270

Common Name Alphabetized 272
Terminology 274
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ABSTRACT
Research of twenty-five plants, used as herbal
remedies by the author's ancestors, especially her

great grandfather, grandfather, and the Cherokees in
the 1800's to the present, and found in the four state
parks in southwestern Indiana, were identified,

studied, and reviewed. Interviews were conducted with
elders and medicine men of the Cherokee Nations. A

checklist of twenty-five herbs was used to identify
whether or not the Cherokees had currently been
implementing any of these treatments. Chronicles of
current medical research have been studied to ascertain
if any of these uses have been being medically
researched today. A manual has been developed which
covered herbal background history, Cherokee uses,

treatment values, plant identifications, current
research experiments, and medicinal healing. A
curriculum guide, plant identification chart, and

overhead projector sheets of the plants have also been
made using the information from the manual. These
materials have had possibilities for use in a college
health course, a workshop on medicinal uses of plants
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and herbs, or a class for studying the culture and

plant usage of the Cherokee Nations.
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INTRODUCTION
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INTRODUCTION
Medical treatment using herbs has been recognized
as being older than man's intelligence. Such herbal
treatment has been seen in animals' instinctive use of
plants to help cure certain ailments. For example, a
dog hunted a special grass to eat when it has become

ill, a mother bear has dressed a wound on her cub with
leaves, and a horse lacking vitamins and minerals has
eaten certain plants and bark from trees (Weiner,
1972).
Today people have continued to use herbs with

medicinal chemicals daily, usually without realizing
the values of such plants. Herbal tea, a popular
drink, has contained fluoride, a chemical used in

preventing tooth decay. Coca-Cola was originally based
on an herbal remedy used for headaches. Aspirin was
created from two plants: white willow and meadowsweet.
Often, however, even with these examples, lack of
knowledge has prevented health professionals and health
educators from teaching or supporting herbal healing.
Nevertheless, the World Health Organization has
estimated that two-thirds of the world's population has
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depended on healing herbs for primary medicines
(Castleman, 1991).
Tyler (1986) stated, "Folk medicine is worthy of
scientific research: after all, scientists discovered

morphine from opium poppy, digoxin from the foxglove,
and ergotamine from the ergot fungus by observing the
efficacy of ancient folk remedies."
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Research has been conducted to identify, study,
and review the twenty-five plants found in four state

parks in southwestern Indiana and the herbal remedies
made from these plants that were used by the Cherokees
during the period dating from the early 19th century

and continuing to the present. A study has been made
of the latest developments and usage of the identified

plants and herbal remedies for Cherokee purposes,
herbal background history, treatment values, medicinal
healing, plant identification, and current medical
research.
PURPOSE OF STUDY
The purpose of this study has been to develop a

Cherokee herbal manual, including a curriculum guide
and identification charts of twenty-five plants found
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in the four state parks in southwestern Indiana and the
herbal remedies made from these plants. These remedies
have been used by the Cherokees and by the Day family

during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
IMPORTANCE OF STUDY
Often, the educational and training backgrounds of
health professionals, educators, and scientists have

not included the history and importance of herb
healing. Many professionals have been unfamiliar with

the effectiveness of Cherokee herbal remedies and their
significance. Yet, research has shown that a plant
called St. Johns Wort inhibited the growth of the
leukemia virus, the yew bark had potential to cure
breast and ovarian cancer, and garlic has been
effective in reducing cholesterol for heart disease
(Castleman, 1991). Some of the common plants and herbs
used by the Cherokee Nations, and found in the four

state parks in southwestern Indiana, have been tested
for medicinal chemicals to combat some modern day
diseases. A manual has been needed that has identified
and discussed Cherokee herbal remedies. Therefore,
this manual will be beneficial, not only to the

educational profession, but also to those in sociology,
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in the sciences, and in health. Historical interest in
Cherokee remedies has peen worth recording, and this
data has had the potential to develop into a college

health course, a workshop on the medicinal uses and the
importance of plants and herbal remedies, a specialized
botany class, or a social science class studying the

cultural heritage and plant usage of the Cherokee
Nations.
DELIMITATIONS
1. This study has been limited to twenty-five
plants and herbs found in the four state

parks in southwestern Indiana. Specifically,
these parks have included Harmonie State
Park, Lincoln State Park, Pike County State
Forest, and Harrison-Crawford State Forest.
2. Only Cherokee herbal remedies that were used

by the Day family, ancestors of the author,
have been studied. Since other American
native groups also used plants and herbs, it
was essential to limit this study to one
Native American group.
3. The research has been limited to oral

traditions provided by elders and medicine
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men of the two Cherokee Nations that has been
recorded. The two Nations have included

Cherokee Village, North Carolina, and
Tahlequah, Oklahoma.
4. This manual has utilized only research
materials found in the institutions of higher

learning and public libraries in Indiana.
ASSUMPTICNS
The researcher has assumed that the written
research surveyed was valid and the interviews of the

elders and medicine men have been honest and accurate.
A manual has been developed that would enable a

researcher to identify and discuss the twenty-five
Cherokee herbal remedies and plants found growing in
southwestern Indiana State Parks.
HYPOTHESIS
Information has been gathered on the identified
twenty-five plants and herbs found in the southwestern
Indiana state parks. These plants were used by the

Cherokees as herbal remedies and have been discussed in
an informative manual. This manual has been able to
increase knowledge of the use of these identified

plants and herbal remedies for the educational
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professions, as well as for scientists and
sociologists.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Cherokee Nations has been used to refer to

two distinct groups of Cherokees, located in
two geographically different areas in the
United States.
2. Medicine man has been the term given by the

Cherokee people to a male who was specially
trained in the use of herbs and spiritual
guidance.
3. Elder has been used to refer to a Cherokee
who had earned the respect of the village.

This person was no longer responsible for the
welfare of the village, but the nation sought
this person's wisdom during future planning.
4. Herbs has referred to plants that have
healing qualities or medicinal value
(Castleman, 1991).
5. Herbal remedy has been used to refer to any
use of an herb in the preparation of a
medicine for the cure or prevention of an

illness or disease.
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METHODOLOGY
The materials that have been researched for the
manual has included two components. First, a review of
available research books and articles on Cherokee

Nation herbal remedies used from 1850 to the present
has been completed. Plants and herbs to be studied
have been identified as those found in the state parks
in southwestern Indiana. Those herbs have been used by
the Day Family and the Cherokees for medicinal
purposes. Since the Cherokee have tired many different
plants and herbs in their medical remedies, it was
expedient to limit the study to only those plants and
herbs found in the state parks of southwestern Indiana.
Second, oral traditions provided by Cherokee
elders and medicine men of Cherokee Village, North

Carolina, and Tahlequah, Oklahoma, have been obtained
and analyzed. This study has included interviews with
several Cherokees at each site. To obtain the oral
traditions, a checksheet has been used. Data gathered
has been analyzed, reviewed, and studied. Conclusions,
information, and data have been developed into a
resource manual that could be used for educational
classes and presentations. This manual has included

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current medical research information, history of
medicinal cures, plant identification, and a history of

Cherokee herbal remedies.
21
CHAPTER I
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
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Chapter I
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Herbal healing has included four major traditions:
Chinese, Ayurvedic (in India), Duropian (including

Egyptian), and American Indians (Native Americans)
(Castleman, 1991). This paper has studied the use of
selected healing herbs of the Native American,
particularly the Cherokee Indian Nations.

Healing properties of plants have not changed;
plants have had healing powers, and people have

benefitted from the accumulated wisdom gained from the
use of herbs through the ages. Of the 265 thousand
species of plants throughout the world, only eleven
hundred have be n thoroughly studied by Western
scientists. More than forty thousand additional plants

might have had medical value for humans. Research,
therefore, has had to focus on plants with useful
properties (Linden, 1991).
Today forty-seven percent of all prescriptions
have contained a drug from a natural plant source.
According to Weiner (1972), the U.S. Pharmacopoeia has

listed 170 drugs made from plants that were used by the
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Native Americans. Today, on the average, physicians

have written eight prescriptions per day for drugs of
plant origin (Castleman, 1991).

Early settlers came to America with herbal
remedies used in Europe. However, they soon realized
the native inhabitants of America, the Indians, knew
how to find, select, and preserve plants used to combdt
specific problems. The settlsirs were quick to accept
these Indian herbal medical remedies. Because the
relationship and communication between settlers and

Native Americans were friendly during those times, it
was common to find Indian medicine men treating both

settlers and natives with different plants and herbs.
Valuable information on Indian herbal remedies
have come from written records of travelers,
missionaries, botanists, and physicians. Of these the
most complete and helpful has been the classic,
American Medicinal Plants, written by Millspaugh (1892)
who illustrated, painted, and reproduced 180 original

plates from living plants.
According to Weiner (1972), herbs and early plant
remedies used by the Indians were evaluated,

classified, tested, and approved for the medical
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profession. Three reference sources have recorded
those early herbal plant medicines and remedies: U.S.

Pharmacopoeia, National Formulary, and The Dispensatory
of the United States.

The Native Americans had a unique way of
explaining how plants acquired medicinal properties. A
plaque at the Museum of the Cherokee Indian had
inscribed on it the following myth: "Diseases were

created long ago by animals in revenge for the abuses
they suffered from man. When the plants, who have

always been the friends of man, learned of the
afflictions caused by the animals, they decided that
they should counteract the evil designs. Each tree,
shrub, and herb, down even to the grasses and mosses
agreed to furnish a remedy for one of the diseases with
the promise 'I shall appear to help man when he calls
upon me in his need.' Thus did medicine originate, and

every plant has a use if only we knew it."
The Indians used a process called "Doctrine of
Signatures" to decide which plants were valuable,

useful, and worthwhile. This method identified those
plants that were potent and best suited for collection.

The doctrine theorized that medicinal herbs exhibited
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certain colors, smells, and shapes which resembled

either parts of the human body or the organism causing
the problem. To eliminate worms, a plant that
resembled a worm was used. For treatment of inflamed
eyes, an herb that characterized the eyes was selected.
This selection idea was used not only by the Native

Americans but by early settlers and ancient
practitioners as well (Weiner, 1972). According to
Mooney (1982), when harvesting an appropriate plant
species, the traditional Cherokee doctor passed the

first three plants and then took the fourth but not
before he offered a preliminary prayer, in which he
addressed the "Great Adawehi" humbly asking permission
to take a small piece of its flesh. After the plant
had been dug from the ground, he dropped a bead into
the hole and covered it over. This was a token
repayment to the plant spirit.
Other methods of selection included trial and

error, tasting, sniffing, and relying on the
supernatural even though instead of a cure, a plant
selection sometimes caused death. By the process of
elimination, the Indians discovered certain plants,

flowers, bark, stems, roots, seeds, fruits, and nuts
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alleviated pain, speeded birth, cured ills, altered the
mind, and induced abortion. The Native Americans were

also experts at gathering, storing, preparing, and
utilizing the different plant species. Annual plants

were dug before flowering, biennial herbs were gathered
in late fall when growth had ceased, and other plants
were collected when they were in the process of storing

their nutrients before winter. Gathering during
certain seasons preserved the plants' parts when they

were richest in medicinal properties. Some plants were
dried for later use, and others were utilized in the
fresh state. Roots and stems, if dried, were sliced
and exposed to the air but were not placed in direct

sunlight. This process took three to six weeks,
depending on the weather and nature of the plant parts.

Bark was gathered when it slipped easily from the trunk
or branches; the inner layer was most often used.
Leaves were collected before blooming and dried in the

shade. Flowers were used, but infrequently, in herbal
medicines; flowers, however, were preserved for use in

certain sacred ceremonial rites. Fruits were picked at
maturity and either used in the fresh state or dried.

Generally, seeds were harvested before seed pods
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opened; nuts were collected and stored when mature. The
dried herbs were preserved by storing in dry, cool
places, or by making them into different preparations.

Herbal medicinal plants were prepared by boiling
or steeping in water and were drunk as medicinal tea.
Often, tea treatment was given one time during the

course of an illness and then was not repeated;
however, poultices and salves were often applied

several times to promote healing. Native Americans
usually prepared herbal remedies by using only one

ingredient or plant for each medicine; however, two
herbs were sometimes combined to create a single herbal
remedy. Rarely did the Indians combine several herbs
for one medicine.
Infusion was the most common way of preparing
herbs. A small number of leaves or seeds were added to

a minute amount of water and steeped for a few minutes.
If the prepared herbal remedy was too bitter, other
plants or foods, such as honey, were added to improve
flavor and taste.
Harder and coarser herbs such as stems, bark, and
roots were gently simmered for several minutes until

about one-third of the water had evaporated. The
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process was called decoction; the mixture was drunk as
herbal tea.
Another way of preparing herbs was fermentation.
An external application of herbs, made by soaking

leaves, cloth, or skins in a preparation of the desired
tea, was applied to an affected area. This
preparation, used to treat swelling, pains, colds, and

the flu, was applied as hot as could be tolerated
without burning. It was allowed to cool and then
repeated as necessary.
To reduce swelling, a poultice of powdered herbs
was made into a paste and then applied directly to the
skin. Often, hot materials such as leaves or cloths
were then placed over the paste at the affected area
where they were left to cool. This procedure was
repeated many times to reduce swelling, to relieve
pain, and to quiet muscle spasms.

A plaster was sometimes used to prevent irritation
to the skin. It differed from a poultice when powdered
or wet herbs were placed between two leaves or pieces
of cloth which was then applied to an affected area.
This prevented the herbal remedy from coming into
direct contact with the skin.

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Finally, a salve was made by mixing and blending
powdered herbs with types of animal fat or beeswax and
cooking this mixture for a couple of hours. It was
then applied to wounds. Because of the base materials,
this mixture had the tendency to remain on the wound

for a longer period of time.
These treatments used by the Native Americans in

salecting, collecting, and preparing medicinal cures
were marveled at by the settlers, as well as by other

medical professionals, botanists, and missionaries
(Weiner, 1972).
Along with the medicinal use of plants, the Native
Americans used spiritual guidance. The Native
American's use of the term medicine was different from
that of white society. To them it meant an array of
ideas and concepts rather than just remedies and
treatment. Often when ordinary medicines, made from

plants, did not bring relief, the medicine man was
called upon to help along the healing process. He
resorted to charms, prayers, dances, singing, shaking
of rattles, and the beating of drums. In an oral
interview, Mr. Choogie Kingfisher, a full-blooded

Cherokee and son of a medicine man, from Tahlequah, OK,
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told of an unique tribal custom used by the Cherokee

medicine men. If a patient recovered through the
spiritual guidance and medicinal preparations, a lock
or strand of the patient's hair was given to the

medicine man to be placed on a pole (spirit stick). Of
course, the more hair locks, the greater the healing

powers of the medicine man.
The Native American Medicine Man, also called the

Shaman, was many things: a healer, a sorcerer, and a
seer, an educator, as well as a priest. It was his
duty to know the properties of a variety of plants,
what demons were present in the body, and to whom the

disease was attributed. He was equipped with
paraphernalia and equipment appropriate to his calling..

This included a special costume (usually animal skins),
a medicine bundle that contained charms, a medicine

stick, and a bag of herbs. Other equipment included
drums, rattles, snake fangs, a hollow bone for sucking,
a mortar and pestle for mixing medicines, and aany
times a syringe for injecting medicine into wounds or

administering an enema (Vogel, 1970). This syringe was
made from the hollow leg bone of a small bird, by
affixing a bladder of a small animal to the top of the
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bone, and then sharpening the other end of the bone.

Other important items of the medicine bundle were deer
tails and other animal parts. These medicinal bags
were handed down from father to a son or to a person
appointed by the medicine man. They were very
important and contained not only herbs, equipment, and
paraphernalia, but also charms that warded off evils

(Vogel, 1970).
Mr. Kingfisher also related that the full or true-
blooded Cherokee medicine men live in a wide area in

the Northeastern part of Oklahoma. The full-bloods
(about 30 thousand) have maintained authentic ways of
old in treating illnesses and disease. The medicine

men have continued to treat people by driving away evil
spirits and by treating with medicinal plants and

herbs.
Medicinal plants were believed to derive their

strength from ceremonies performed to make them
powerful. The Doctrine of Signatures provided "like-
cures" and other pkants which were believed to be
beneficial to the system because they were distasteful.
The distasteful plants were used to rid the body of

poison. Consequently, foul-tasting medicine, emetics,
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and purges were often used. Of course, the faith of

the patient had much to do with recovery. The prayers
and ceremonies were calculated to inspire confidence of
recovery in the mind of the sick person and undoubtedly

reacted favorably upon the person's physical condition
(Vogel, 1970).
The Cherokees, during the 19th century, farmed,

raised cattle, owned slaves, and raised cotton. They
quickly adapted to white man's ways, learned his skills
and arts, and also became Christians. Their villages
included churches, schools, grist-mills, and blacksmith
shops. One elder, Sequoyah, invented an alphabet and a
written language for his tribe in 1820. This was
unique, as the Cherokee Nations were the only Indian
culture to develop an alphabet. This invention
resulted in a published bilingual newspaper in 1828.
However, the whites coveted the rich Cherokee

lands in Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, North
Carolina, and South Carolina. Therefore, the whites

sought the United States government to remove the five
civilized tribes--Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek,

and Seminole--to lands west of the Mississippi River
(Gilcrease, 1979). This group had the backing of
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President Andrew Jackson, who felt Native Americans
were deficient in intelligence, possessed no moral
habits, and lacked the desire to improve their lives

(Capps, 1973).
In 1838, President Jackson issued an order to have

the five Civilized Tribes moved to a Western territory
that is now Oklahoma. Sixty thousand Native Americans
were rounded up at gunpoint, herded into camps, and
moved west under military guard. The greatest number
of people to be transplanted to Oklahoma were the
Cherokees. Some of the Cherokees escaped, but at the
end of the forced march, only fourteen thousand of them
survived. This forced march has been known as the
"Trail of Tears" (Capps, 1973).
Those who escaped established residency in

Cherokee Village, North Carolina. After the forced
march, the Cherokees rallied, rebuilt their society,
and restored a three-part government: executive
branch, legislative branch, and a judicial branch
consisting of a five man supreme court. In 1839, they
drafted a new constitution and by 1840 had implemented
it at Tahlequah, Oklahoma. In addition, they
established a public school system (Eighteen schools
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were operating in 1843), published and printed a
newspaper The Cherokee Advocate, and established two

seminaries for higher learning (Capps, 1973).
The Cherokees were suppressed, discriminated
against, and punished, yet they considered all men to

be brothers. After many hardships, they mastered
reservation life and in 1906 accepted United States
citizenship. The following year, the Cherokees helped
organize the state of Oklahoma (Capps, 1973).
35
CHAPTER II
PLANT IDENTIFICATION, HISTORY, CHEROKEE USES,
DAY FAMILY USES AND MEDICAL RESEARCH
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Chapter II
PLANT IDENTIFICATION, HISTORY, CHEROKEE USES,

DAY FAMILY USES AND MEDICAL RESEARCH
Twenty-five plants, found in Southwestern Indiana

have been chosen to be discussed in this chapter.
Under identification of plants, the common name,

botanical, scientific, and sometimes family names have
been given; descriptions of plants and where they were
located or found have also been included.
The history of the plant has been given to

identify the way plants were used in the past, and how
the herbs were recorded in earlier times. Included
were several folk remedies that were_used by the
American Indians (Cherokee), the early settlers, and

the people of Indiana (Hoosiers) as well as the usage
of herbs by early medical practitioners.
Under Cherokee and Day Family uses, herbs and

plants have been discussed and listed according to
their medicinal uses or remedies. The ways plants were
harvested, gathered, conserved, prepared, stored, and

what parts of plants were used for treatment of the
37
Herbal
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different ailments and diseases have been included in

this paper. The purpose of this paper has been to
record Cherokee herbal remedies that were used by the

Day Family so the reader might appreciate, identify,
and be knowledgeable about the traditional uses of
Cherokee herbal cures. Day Family remedies differed

somewhat from the original Cherokee uses. Some
remedies that were handed down by word of mouth were
not recorded, were altered, and some parts ignored with
the passage of time.
Medical research has been included with regard to

specific chemical components, experiments and studies
of mainly laboratory animals, and what new studies have
been conducted during the present time. Warnings,

cautions, and safety information concerning use of
herbs have also been included. Certain uses of
drinking, eating, or applying these herbs were found in
some cases to be harmful and to cause severe medical
problems.
Sources consulted have been added for the reader's

benefit to indicate what usage of plants during the
present time were practiced throughout the Cherokee
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Herbal
27
Nations. Additional information or continued in-depth

study of plant identification, history, the Cherokee
uses, and medical research of the different plants and

herbal remedies were noted.
A word of caution: This manual has been written

to record the Day family Cherokee herbal remedies, not
to be used as a medical guide. As previously stated,
many plants have been found to be very poisonous and
people have needed to be knowledgeable about
identification and selection of each plant before

attempting to use it in any way. The author found it
wise to follow Grandfather Days old adage when looking
and observing the different plants; "Leaves of three,
leave them be."
39
,
Herbal
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Black Cohosh or Squawroot

(Cimicifuqa racemosa)
Plant Identification:
Included with buttercup, larkspur, and peony

families, Black Cohosh, Bugwort or Squawroot has been
found in rich, fertile woods. It was a leafy perennial
that reached nine feet (Castleman, 1991). The roots
were knotty and black, the stems smooth, and the leaves
were large, three-divided, and sharply toothed. The

slender, candle-like flowers were white, long-spiked,
and emitted an unpleasant odor. The cluster of
flowers, up to three feet in length, were found
blooming during the summer from May through September.

Black Cohosh grew in rich, open woods and along edges
of fields (Millspaugh, 1892). They have grown profusely

in the Ohio River Valley near and within Harmonie State
Park.
History:
Black Cohosh, often called Squawroot because of

its use for "female ailments", has also been known by
the common name Bugwort, since it emitted an unpleasant

odor that repelled insects. It was listed as an
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Herbal
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official drug in US Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to 1936 as
a sedative, a medication for rheumatism, and as a
promoter of menstruation (Vogel, 1970). During the

1800's and early 1900's, settlers used a Black Cohosh
concoction for fever, rashes, yellow-fever, and
menstrual complaints (Foster and Duke, 1990). In
Germany, Black Cohosh has been used in several drugs

that were prescribed for the discomforts of menopause.
Another herb called Blue Cohosh was not related to

Black Cohosh; it was of a different botanical family.
The Cherokees used both for menstrual problems
(Castleman, 1991).
Cherokee Uses:
The Cherokees boiled the Black Cohosh roots in

water, prepared a tea, and drank the tea for
bronchitis, rheumatism, snakebite, colic, sore throat,

fevers, nervous disorders, and menstrual irregularities
(Vogel, 1970). It was also drunk for consumption,
constipation, fatigue, and backache (Hamel and

Chiltoskey, 1975). Sincb it was used to treat "women's
problems" (delayed menstruation, profuse bleeding,

cramps, and pain), it was also called Squawroot
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Herbal
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(Weiner, 1972). They collected the roots in September

or early fall after the fruits had ripened. The roots
were cut lengthwise and allowed to dry then stored for
future use.
Day Family Remedies:
Grandmother Day prepared a root tea that was drunk

to ward off "cricks" in the back and to relieve the
pain of rheumatism. Since Comfrey tea and Sassafras
tea had been drunk as spring tonics, the Black Cohosh
tea was drunk as a tonic to prepare the body for harsh

winters. Often Grandmother served the roots as a
vegetable. They were eaten raw or boiled. They had a
sweet nutty flavor when they were eaten raw, but when
cooked, they tasted similar to carrots.
Medical Research:
Medical research has indicated Black Cohosh was
anti-inflammatory, that it reduced high blood pressure

by opening blood vessels in animal limbs, reduced
animal blood sugar levels, and strengthened female
reproductive organs in rats (Foster and Duke, 1990).
The chemical, causlosaponia (similar to pitocin) was

found to start strong uterine contractions because of
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Herbal
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properties that acted as estrogen-like components. Its

side effects included dizziness, nausea, vomiting,
headaches, joint pains, and depressed heart rates

(Costello, 1950).
Sources Consulted:
Black Cohosh, according to Bell (1993), has been

used by the Eastern Cherokees as a decoction for high
blood pressure, headache, painful menstruation, labor

pain, and as a tonic. It was common on upland woods at
low elevations and was often found near old homesites.
The author purchased an ounce for medicinal purposes.
45
BLOODROOT
BEST COPY AVAILABLE
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Herbal
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Bloodroot or Puccoon
(Sanquinaria canadensis)
Bloodroot, a perennial, grew in height to twelve
inches and was found in large colonies, on wooded

slopes, and in rich open woodlands or on bottom lands
along shaded streams (Wampler, 1988). The stems and
roots had blood red juice but when dried, turned yellow
like Goldenseal, and it tasted just as bitter. A single
waxy, creamy white flower on a long, smooth stem, with

eight to ten petals each had begun to bloom before the
leaves appeared. The heart-shaped green leaves were
seven to nine-lobed with network of veins. The under
surface of the leaves were whitish in color
(Millspaugh, 1892). This was in early spring from March
to June. Its genus name, Sanguinaria, meant bloody,
and it belonged to the poppy family (Foster and Duke,
1990). Colonies were found in Pike County State Forest
and the Jim O'Leary Woods; however, it was common

throughout Southwestern Indiana.
Herbal
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History:
Bloodroot was listed in the US Pharmacopoeia from
1820 to 1926 as a laxative and pain killer and the

National Formulary from 1926 to 1965 (Vogel, 1970).
However, it was considered poisonous for animals and
people. Tyler (1985) stated that people in Indiana
boiled Bloodroot in water to make a strong tea solution

for stomach ailments or colic, but he warned it was too
toxic for human consumption and was not to be taken
internally. Commercial toothpastes, rinses, and
mouthwashes have used minute amounts in the
preparations to fight plaque.
Cherokee Uses:
The Cherokees used Bloodroot tea for rheumatism
remedies, to induce vomiting, and to cure sore throats.
They also used it for asthma, bronchitis, and even as a
love charm. Root juice was squeezed on maple sugar and
held in the mouth. A poultice made from the roots was
used on warts, ringworm, fungus infections, eczema,
skin cancers and burns (Hamel and Chiltoskey, 1975). A
dye made from the root's red juice sap and mixed with
tannin (helped set color and made dye more permanent)

Herbal
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from oak bark was used to dye their faces, skin,
clothing, baskets, and equipment. Besides being used
as a dye, the Bloodroot juice repelled insects and was
used as an insecticide. The Native Americans collected
the roots in the fall when the seeds were ripe and
after the leaves had withered, dried them, and stored
them in a dry place (Weiner, 1972). Some tribes
believed when a warrior desired a certain woman to
marry, he placed Bloodroot in his hands, shook hands

with her, and they were married within five to six days
(Foster and Duke, 1990).
pay_Eamily Remedies:
The Day family crushed the Bloodroot, prepared a
poultice, or mixed pulverized Bloodroots with lard and
placed this mixture on "summer" or "touch" sores
(Infatigo). Bloodroot pulled the poison from the
sores.
Medical Research:
Medically, Bloodroot had a laxative action. A
chemical, alkaloid sanguinarine, contained alkaloids

similar to morphine and was found to be an antiseptic,
anesthetic, and anticancerous drug in laboratory animal

Herbal
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experiments. When roots were eaten, they were
poisonous and very alkaloid. Side effects included
dizziness, vomiting, and gastrointestinal problems
(Castleman, 1991). Commercial toothpastes, rinses, and
mouthwashes used minute amounts in toothpaste

preparations to fight plaque (Tyler, 1985).
Sources Consulted:
Bell (1993) related that Bloodroot was frequently
found at low elevations. It still had uses during
special ceremonies as skin coloring and as a dye for
basket decorations. Walkingstick (1993) indicated
Bloodroot was mixed with ground hog fat instead of bear
fat as a base for salve or poultice. Injections of
strong tea has been used for hemorrhoids and the

Cherokees have prepared a Bloodroot poultice from
powdered roots, resin, leaves, and seeds that were used
on fungus, ringworm and warts.
5P
BONESET
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Boneset or Common Thoroughwort

(Eupatorium perfoliatum)
Boneset, also known as Common Thoroughwort, was a
long-lived, hardy perennial and hairy plant; it was
ircluded in the daisy, dandelion, and marigold family
(Castleman, 1991). It was grown in clumps three to
four feet tall. The leaves were opposite one another,
and united at the base. The dull, white, dense, and
flat-topped flowers have appeared from July to

September or October and have been found in wet, marshy
places near streams but sunlight areas (Millspaugh,

1892). Pike County State Forest was the area in which
Boneset was located.
History:
Since the stem of Boneset looked as if it were
broken by leaves, the Doctrine of Signatures was the

idea applied when Boneset was used as a remedy for
broken bones. Millspaugh (1887) wrote that no plant
was used more extensively or frequently than Boneset.

It was listed in fifty-nine indigenous remedies. The
settlers used the herb for dengue (Deng-ee) or
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"breakbone fever." This mosquito-borne virus caused
muscle pains so severe the victims thought their bones
were breaking. Hence, another reason for the name
Boneset. The settlers sometimes referred to Boneset as
Indian sage. They hung bunches of the dried herb, tops
down, in attics and woodsheds so it could be used
immediately when needed (Vogel, 1970). Tyler (1985)
listed Hoosiers as using Boneset remedies for cold,
flu, headaches, and malaria fever. It was also placed
on sprains to speed healing. From 1820 through 1916,
Boneset was listed in US Pharmacopoeia and in the

National Formulary from 1926 through 1950 for fevers,
colds, and the flu (Vogel, 1970).
Cherokee Uses:
The Cherokees wrapped Boneset leaves around broken
bones to aid in healing, poulticed it onto tumors, and

drank it in a tea to relieve pain, fever, colds, flu,
and constipation. When used in large doses, it became
a laxative (Weiner, 1972). They also used Boneset for
swellings, for sore eyes, to induce vomiting, as a
purgative, and as an antiseptic (Hamel and Chiltoskey,

1975). For treatment of epilepsy, other tribes boiled
Herbal
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the Boneset roots to form steam and then immersed the
epileptic victim in the rising steam (Millspaugh,
1892). The leaves were collected in late summer

(usually August) or early fall when the plant was in
full bloom. The leaves were stripped from the stem,
dried without exposure to the sun, and then stored in a
dry, cool place (Olds, 1975).

Boiled Boneset root tea was drunk by the Day
family as a laxative. Sometimes fresh leaves were
chewed for relief of constipation. Often, however, it
caused vomiting and stomach problems. Grandmother used
Boneset only for extreme cases of bowel problems.
Medical Research:
Medical research indicated Boneset contained
immune-system stimulating properties, and it was found
to depress the motor nerves of the spinal cord
(Vollmar, 1986). One of the chemicals derived from
Boneset, called tremeral, caused nausea, vomiting, and
diarrhea when taken in large doses (Castleman, 1991).
Millspaugh (1892) noted another chemical, Eupatorin,

first caused irritation of motor system but then
Herbal
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relaxed the capillaries and increased the heart action.
However, drying the herb eliminated the toxicity.
Liources Consulted:
According to Stone (1991), the Cherokees have
continued to use Boneset tea for pneumonia, colds, and
flu-like symptoms. During the wintertime, steeped tea
had been prepared from previously dried leaves and

stems; however, during the summer months, fresh leaves
and stems have been used for the Boneset tea. Boneset
or Thoroughwort was found occasionally at low to middle

elevations in the Smoky Mountains according to Defoe,
Langdon, and Rock (1989). Mr. Walkingstick (1993)
proclaimed Boneset tea as an excellent medicine for
bringing down fevers due to colds or flu.

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Common or Great Burdock

Common (Arctium minus); Great (Arctium laroa 1.)
A biennial, common, seedy weed, Burdock, was used
throughout the world as food. It grew to a height of
three to five feet. Two species were noted: Great
(lappa) Burdock and Common (minus) Burdock. The minus
was most often found during July through October in

moist abandoned fields and waste areas that were
readily exposed to the sun (Weiner, 1972). The roots
had white, spongy, fibrous interiors that became hard
as they dried. At the end of the long stems were
large, hairy, egg-shaped leaves. These leaves were
green and smooth above, whitish beneath, with tiny
crimson veins (Millspaugh, 1892). Each stem was topped
with many bristled, purplish flowers that produced

burrs. Burdock has been found in many areas throughout
Southwestern Indiana.
Historv:
Burdock was an European treatment for rheumatism.
The leaves, during the fourteenth century, were made

into wine and used to treat leprosy. Physicians during
Herbal
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the 1800's treated urinary tract infections, kidney

problems, painful urination, skin infections, and
arthritis with Burdock (Castleman, 1991). The settlers
used dried roots in soups, the leaves as greens, and
the peeled roots like radishes. Tyler (1985) stated
Hoosiers used Burdock and onion soup for rheumatism and
Bloodroot tea to thin the blood. They made a poultice
from crushed Burdock leaves to draw poison from boils
and carbuncles; they pulverized Burdock seeds in water
to cause sweating. Burdock root tea was apPlied to the
skin to cure acne. The tea contained the carbohydrate,
inulin, that formed a protective absorbent layer on the
skin. He also believed the fresh root may have had
some bacteriostatic effect. It was listed in the US
Pharmacopoeia from 1831 to 1842 and in the National
Formulary from 1916 to 1947 as a diuretic (Vogel,
1970). As an edible plant, Forey and Fitzsimons (1989)
stated that the Burdock stalks have been peeled, eaten
raw, or boiled like celery. The roots have been used
to make beer, and the leaves have been used in salads.

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Cherokee:
The Cherokees used Common Burdock extensively.
Crushed leaves were applied on boils to draw the
poison. They poulticed the crushed seeds for bruises,
hives, eczema, and other skin problems (Foster and

Duke, 1990). It was also used for rheumatism,
hemorrhoids, swellings, and skin disorders. Root or
seed tea was drunk to cleanse blood, to prevent scurvy
and give weakly females strength (Hamel and Chiltoskey,
1975). The leaves and seeds were collected from July

through October, usually before a frost, dried, then
crushed, and finally stored in a dry place (Millspaugh,
1892). The roots were harvested during fall of first
year growth or spring of second year. They were dried
by exposing to sunlight or in partial shade (Olds,
1975).
Dav Family Remedies:

The Day family has used fresh, crushed leaves on
sores, cuts, or bruises. The family has also mixed the
fresh leaves with salad greens. Only young and tender
leaves were picked. Aged and mature leaves tasted
bitter, toxic, and sour.

Herbal
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Medical Research:
When tested, the chemical arctigenin inhibited
tumor growth and stimulated uterine activity on
laboratory animals (Castleman, 1991). Side effects
included hallucinations, stomach upsets, and diarrhea.
Leaf hairs irritated the skin in some test situations
(Bryson, 1978).
Sources Consulted:
According to Hutchens (1992), the Cherokees have
been known to use the parsniplike Burdock roots as a
boiled vegetable. They also have used the young,
tender, and fresh leaves as salad greens. Many skin
conditions such as blemishes, pimples, and whiteheads

have been treated with a Burdock facial steam bath. It
has also been poulticed on boils. Burdock was commonly
found at low elevations in the Smokey Mountains.

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Catnip
(Nepeta cataria)
Included in the mint family, Catnip has also been
known as Catmints or Catswort because of its
intoxicating effect on cats (Castleman, 1990). A gray-
green, aromatic, perennial, it grew to a height of two
or three feet and has been found in well-drained, humus
soil under full sun or partial shade at Lincoln State
Park. The two-lipped, white (sometimes purple-dotted),
clustered flowers bloomed from June to September. The
stems were square and the leaves were heart-shaped,

scalloped, strongly toothed, and fuzzy (Foster and
Duke, 1990).
History:
Throughout history, Catnip has been used as a

tranquilizer, a sedative, a digestive aid, a pain
killer, and as a mean of relieving menstrual cramps.

The colonists introduced Catnip, which grew wild, and
quickly spread throughout the country (Millspaugh,
1892). The settlers prepared a tea from the leaves to
be drunk for pneumonia, colds, fevers, headaches,
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irregular menstruation, insomnia, chicken pox, and as a
tonic. Catnip was listed in US Pharmacopoeia from 1916
to 1950 as being able to induce sweating, to promote

suppressed menstruation, and to cure colds. It was
officially listed in the National Formulary from 1916
to 1950 as a stimulant and tonic (Vogel, 1970). Tyler
(1985) indicated Catnip tea had been used more often by
Hoosiers than any other remedy or herbal preparation;
they used it as a poultice for headaches and minor
burns, as tea for colds and fussy babies, and as a

sedative for adults.
Cherokee Uses:
The Cherokees prepared a tea from dried leaves to
promote digestion, to sooth infants with colic, to

relieve menstrual cramps, and to calm the nerves
(Weiner, 1972). The loaves were chewed to relieve

toothaches, and dried leaves were placed in a small
bag, hung around a child's neck, so that the child
inhaled the healing, soothing vapors. In 1975, Hamel
and Hiltoskey noted catnip was poulticed on swellings,
hives, and boils, and leaf tea was used as a stimulant
or tonic. The Native Americans harvested the leaves in
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late summer, when the plants were in full bloom, dried
them in the shade to preserve the green color, and then
stored them in a dry place. Finally, they bruised or
pinched the leaves to release the aromatic oils

(Castleman, 1991).

From dried leaves, an infusion of Catnip leaf tea
was prepared by Great-grandmother and Grandmother Day.

It was drunk before retiring and was used to calm the
nerves and to promote sleep.
Medical Research:
Medical research has found that Catnip has
possessed a chemical, nepetalactone, which was a mild
sedative, and was similar to the natural sedative,
valepotriate (Jackson, 1969). It had antibiotic,
herbicidal, and insect-repellant properties. Side
effects included upset stomachs for some people
(Poundstone, 1969).
Sources Consulted:
Stone (1991) related many present day Cherokee
uses for Catnip. It has been used as a remedy for
toothaches, for intestinal cramping, baby's colic, and

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gas pains. Also, the juice from the leaves was used to
stimlate menstrual flow. Catnip had been used as a
steam inhalant to relieve congestion. Crushed dried
leaves were placed in boiling water; a person breathed

in the vapors from the steam for several minutes. This
was repeated a few times a day. In the Smoky Mountains
Catnip was scarce; however, it was found in several
locales or scattered in small populations according to
Defoe, Langdon, and Rock (1989).

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Comfrey
(Symphytum officinale)
A rough, hardy perennial, often called all-heal,

Knitbone, or Bruisewort, Comfrey has been included in
the forget-me-not family. The large, hairy, lance-
shaped leaves were found clasping hollow, woody, and
bristly stems. The roots were thick, deep, and
spreading. The flowers which bloomed from May through
June were white, blue, or purple and bell-shaped

(Castleman, 1991). The plants were found growing in
clay or sandy humus soil and in open woods in Harrison
Crawford State Forest. They often looked like the
first year rosettes of foxglove but should not be
confused with this plant.
History:
The Greeks used an extract from Comfrey roots to
heal wounds; the Romans boiled it in water and
prepared a sticky paste that hardened like plaster.
The paste was wrapped around broken bones of the Roman

soldiers following battles. The settlers drank a leaf
tea for respiratory and gastrointestinal ailments
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(Castleman, 1991). Tyler (1985) related Comfrey was
mixed with other herbs to produce a herbal mixture for
colds, flu, and for use as a tonic. Herbal tea, made
from the leaves, provided great relief for stomach
problems, but he recommended Comfrey be used externally

for research had shown it caused cancer of the liver in
small animals. Leaves, too, were chopped, blended, and

applied as a poultice directly to wounds, or wrapped in
a bandage around the wound. The juice was saved to
moisten the bandages when they dried out. The same
treatment was used for boils.
Cherokee Uses:
The Cherokees drank Comfrey root tea for "bad
memory," cancer, genital infections, milky urine, and
internal bleeding. Fresh leaves were poulticed for
spraimi, tendinitis, bruises, and pulled muscles
(Foster and Duke, 1990). The dried leaves were used
like tobacco and smoked. They harvested the leaves
during May through June when flowers had begun to bud.
Leaves were highest in toxic alkaloids during this
time. The roots were gathered in autumn, cut into
slices, and dried (Olds, 1975). The dried roots were

Herbal
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crushed, powdered, and placed on cuts, burns, and
wounds to promote healing.
Comfrey tea and another common root, Sassafras

tea, were drunk by the Day family as spring tonics.
The Grandparents also mixed a small amount of baking
soda in a cup of hot comfrey tea for "settling an upset
stomach".
Medical Research:
Comfrey contained the chemical, allantoin, that

promoted new cell growth; the roots had more allantoin
than the leaves. Research data showed liver damage in
laboratory animals and other articles indicated
Comfrey, taken internally, may have caused cancer
(Hiron, 1979). It was recommended for external use.
Comfrey, when eaten .fresh, contained vitamin C and E;
however, it was not to be used in large amounts
(Castleman, 1991).
Sources Consulted:
Mr. Walkingstick (1993) stated a syrup made by
boiling Comfrey roots has been long accepted as a
medicine of great value for coughs and problems of the
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lungs. It has also been used for the purpose of
cleansing the body of impurities and for use as a
tonic. A poultice of fresh or powdered Comfrey dried
leaves has helped heal fresh wounds, swellings, burns,

and bruises. Defoe, Langdon, Rock (1989) indicated
Comfrey was found occasionally and was well
distributed, but nowhere abundant in the Smoky

Mountains.
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Dandelion
(Taraxacum officinal)
Dandelion, a perennial plant, was included in the
daisy and marigold families. Yellow, several petaled
flowers, which opened each morning and closed by early
evening, were found blooming, usually in early spring
but sometimes as late as August or September (Wampler,
1988). Flowering, elongated, hollow stems had milky
juice, grew rapidly, and produced fluffy seeds that
blew away with the wind. The leaves were jagged-cut,
green, and long. Fields, lawns, and waste areas were
places where the plants were found (Foster and D',1ke,
1990). The Dandelion has been common throughout all
Southwestern Indiana.
History:
The Dandelion did not originate in the United
States; it was introduced from Europe. The Native
Americans soon used all parts for food and medicine.

Throughout history, all parts have served as food in
salads, soups, and stews (Millspaugh, 1892).
Medicinally, it dated back thousands of years. The
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Chinese used Dandelion tea as a cold remedy, and the
Arabs noted it increased urine production (Castleman,
1991). The settlers prepared the leaves by boiling,
and chilling, then they ate them as greens. They also
dried the roots, roasted them, then boiled them in
water. This concoction was drunk as a beverage or
substituted for coffee and tea. Dandelion tea was
traditionally used as a diuretic for liver, gall
bladder, and liver problems. It was included in the US
Pharmacopoeia from 1831 to 1926 as a diuretic and in

the National Formulary in 1888 as a tonic (Vogel,
1970). Tyler (1985) listed the following uses for the
Dandelion: as greens for blood thinner, purifier, and
tonic. It was also used to aid digestion, to relieve
stomachs, and drunk as a wine to promote the

development of measles rash and to lessen the severity
of the disease. Forey and Fitzsimons (1989) wrote:
roots have been used as a vegetable when peeled,
boiled, and served with butter.
Cherokee Uses:
The Dandelion was linked to the Doctrine of
Signatures because the yellow flowers resembled yellow
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bile; therefore, it was consi-°__red a liver remedy by
the Native Americans (Castleman, 1991). For medicinal
properties, the Cherokees prepared a root tea that was

drunk for heartburn, indigestion and used as a body
tonic. The tea was also drunk as a beverage (Weiner,
1972). Roots were dug in the fall, washed, and dried
whole or cut into small pieces, three to six inches

long, and then stored in a cool dry place (Olds, 1975).
Sometimes the roots were roasted slowly for several
hours and ground when they became crisp and brown
inside. All fresh Dandelion parts were used as a food,
a beverage, or as a tonic.

Grandfather's Dandelion wine, made from the
blossoms, was known far and wide. The leaves were used
for salad and salad "greens". Grandmother also

prepared the stems and blossoms by dipping them into a
batter of milk, eggs, and flour, and then frying them
in hot grease. The taste was similar to that of many
fried vegetables, such as breaded mushrooms. The
Dandelion wine was supposed to have cured many

Herbal
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ailments. Even if it did not cure, participants were

not aware of any feeling after drinking this beverage.
Medical Research:
Research found the Dandelion chemical,
Taxaxacerin, had antibiotic action and animal studies

indicated diuretic properties that alleviated
menstruation bloating, and reduced high blood pressure

(Steiner, 1986). Dandelion roots and leaves were a
valuable sources of vitamins; they contained more
vitamin A than a carrot. They were also high in fiber
content which acted as a cancer preventive in the
intestine and colon. For some people, however, it
caused skin rashes. Milispaugh (1892) noted it
sometimes caused mental excitement, frequent urination,
and sweating.
Sources Consulted:
Stone (1991) related that present-day Cherokees
have used Dandelion as greens in salads, blossoms have
been made into wine, and dried roots have been ground
into a "coffee-like" beverage. In the spriag a tonic
had been brewed from the roots, this was also used as a
diuretic, as a laxative, and for many types of
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Herbal
64
digestive problems. This Dandelion leaf tonic used

fresh or dried leaves in one cup of boiling water. The
Cherokees drank this tea to aid digestion and calm
digestive disorders. They also had used it to relieve
cramps, gas pains, control di(rrhea, an relieve
constipation. Even a herbal hair rinse has been made
from: dried dandelion flowers, two cups of water, and
the juice of a lemon. Certainly, the common "weedy"
dandelion has had many varied uses. Dandelions were
common and very dominant in the Smoky Mountains. They

were found growing in a wide range of elevations. The
Eastern Cherokees have continued to use the plant as
did the Western Cherokee Nation.
76
Herbal
66
Garlic
(Allium sativum)
The perennial Garlic grew to three feet. The
long, pointed, dark green leaves extended to the middle
of the stem. Six-pointed, lavender flowers were mixed
with bulblets that had long, stringed tails (Wampler,
1988). They grew well in all types of soil but have
been found more in direct sunlight areas such as open
fields. Garlics have a very strong, pungent odor and

have been found in all areas of Southwestern Indiana.
It is hardy and a common plant.
History:
Garlic has been considered the world's second
oldest medicine, after ephedra. It belonged to the
onion family, the name, allium, was derived from the

Celtic word which meant pungent. Because it was so
pungent or strong, it was considered to have great
powers. History recorded its use by the ancients
Greeks: Aristotle, Hippocrates, and Theophrastus. They
prescribed Garlic for heart problems, headaches, bites,
worms, and tumors. The Romans used :1.t as a stimulant;
7
Herbal
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their slaves were fed Garlic for strength, endurance,
and stamina. Garlic was used by the Egyptians to
repeat solemn oaths upon, as the Americans have used
the Bible. Even King Tut's tomb contained Garlic bulbs

(Castleman, 1991). During the 1800's, settlers
prepared Garlic in a tea for treatment of colds,

bronchitis, coughs, and high blood pressure, in a
poultice for croup and pneumonia, and roasted for
children's croup (Vogel, 1970). A salve made from
Garlic was used to treat infected wounds of soldiers in

World War I. Tyler (1985) stated that Hoosiers have
used Garlic as an universal home remedy for coughs,
high blood pressure, and as a tonic. It has also been
used for intestinal ailments and as a sleep promoter.
It was officially listed in the US Pharmacopoeia from
1820 to 1905 and the National Formulary from 1916 to

1936 and as a tonic and diuretic (Vogel, 1970).
Cherokee Uftsi
The Cherokees used Garlic daily or frequently.
Insect sting pain was relieved by placing crushed bulbs
on the swollen area. Garlic onions and Wild Leeks tea
(which had similar properties to Garlic) were used by
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Herbal
68
the Cherokees to lower blood pressure, decrease wound
swellings, and inhibit cancer cells. The fresh bulbs
and young green shoots were eaten raw to help control
colds, diabetes, or stomach problems. Dried bulbs were
cooked in other foods for flavor: all parts of Garlic
were used either as food, flavor, or for medical
properties (Weiner, 1972). Hamel and Chiltoskey (1975)
indicated several additional uses, as a stimulant, a
diuretic, and a mild cathartic. It was used to prevent
scurvy and dropsy, to remove deafness, and to prevent

worms in children, as well as (placed on the chest) to
treat croup. They harvested the bulbs in June or July,
when the tops had begun to turn yellow. The plants
were cleaned, the outer loose areas were removed, and
the roots were trimmed close to the base. The bulbs
were stored loosely or dried in bunches which were hung

in a cool, dark area (Olds, 1975).
Grandfather gathered several bulbs and stored them
in the "curing" shed. He used them to help flavor and
cure meats. Grandmother used fresh and dried garlic
when she prepared many vegetable dishes. She also

Herbal
69
placed the crushed, dried bulbs that were wrapped in an
old woolen sock along with Vick's salve on a person's
chest to relieve chest colds or lung congestion.
Mgedig.41_1321gArShL
There have been many studies, experiments, and
much research done on Garlic. One laboratory study
revealed that it lowered blood pressure, reduced serum
cholesterol, acted as a natural diuretic, and showed

antibacterial activity (Steiner, 1986). Garlic has to,
be chewed, chopped, bruised, or crushed for the

chemicals, ajoene and allun, to be transformed
medicinally into the antibiotic allicin. This process
activated the chemicals into a powerful antibiotic. In
diabetes experiments, blood sugar has been reduced in
laboratory animals. AIDS research has indicated daily
doses have increased immune functions of the body, and
decreased diarrhea (Castleman, 1991). When used as a
salve, it has lessened the outbreak of sores, although
it was not a cure. Other studies have found Garlic has
helped gastrointestinal disorders, soothed
hypertension, and decreased cancer cell growth in
laboratory mice (You, 1989). However, breath odor from
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81
S
-
.0
PRI9f15,
. 4
Herbal
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Garlic has prevented many people from using the herb.
Additional research has been needed for other possible
uses. Garlic has also been found to be high in Vitamin
C content.
Sources Consulted;
Today, Stone (1991) related that Garlic had many
uses. It has been used by the Cherokees as a remedy
for colds, flus, sore throats, and coughs. A cough
syrup was made from boiling garlic bulbs and water for
half a day. Garlic has also been used for intestinal

disorders, as a diuretic, for heart problems,
snakebites, intestinal wnrms, and as an antiseptic.
Even charms of Garlic have been worn by many Cherokees
to ward off evil spirits, to give strength, and to
stimulate courage and a fighting spirit to the wearer
of the charm.
In the Smoky Mountains, according to Defoe,
Langdon, Rock (1989) Garlic was not as common in this
area as in other geographic areas. It was well
distributed but nowhere as abundant and was noted
growing in low to middle elevations.

GOLDENSEAL
Herbal
72
Goldenseal
)
Goldenseal, also known as Golden root or Indian
Paint, was a low growing (six to twelve inches) hairy
perennial. The Goldenseal family has included the
Buttercup, the Larkspur, and the Peony (Foster and
Duke, 1990). The veined, lobed-leaves were found on
forked branches; one leaf larger than the other. They
grew after the flowers had bloomed and became six to
eight inches across. The flowers, single, greenish, and

white, bloomed in the spring from April to May and
produced a single, orange-red berry chat nestled on the
top of the stem leaf (Wampler, 1988). They lacked
petals but had numerous stamens. The plant grew in
clusters and was found in good, natural, drainage areas
that had an abundance of leaf mold or decaying
vegetable matter (Foster and Duke, 1990). Goldenseal
has been difficult to find; in connection with this
study, it was found in Pike County State Forest.
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Herbal
73
History:
Settlers used Goldenseal as an eyewash, a wound
treatment and as a sore throat aid, as well as to

soothe digeative problems and to help women recover
from childbirth. It was included in the US
Pharmacopoeia from 1831 to 1842 as a stimulant and for
diaphoretic purposes (Vogel, 1970). Tyler (1985)
stated Hoosiers used Goldenseal powdered roots for

cancer, types of skin conditions, and for sore mouths.
The juice of fresh leaves was prepared as a remedy to
be drunk after an epileptic seizure.
Cherokee Uses:
The Cherokees favored Goldenseal as an insect
repellant or insecticide. When the large rootstock was
pounded into bear fat and smeared on their bodies, it
acted as an insect repellent. For skin diseases, the
roots were boiled in water and the concoction then

applied to treat skin disorders; it was used in a bath
for local inflammations (Hamel and Chiltoskey, 1975).
Because Goldenseal had a bitter taste, honey was added
to the herbal tea to improve the flavor (Weiner, 1972).

This tea was drunk for sore mouths and throats as a
86
Herbal
74
diuretic, or used as a sedative, as well as a digestive
aid. A powder was used as a blister for skin problems
(Vogel, 1970). The roots were dug and harvested in
autumn or late fall after the plant had withered and
frost had killed top growth. The roots were cleaned,
dried until brittle in an airy, shady p3ace, pounded
into a powder, and stored in a dry cool place
(Castleman, 1991).

Grandfather Day prepared a "treatment or blister"
salve made with Goldenseal, Wintergreen, and turpentine

for his horses when they "stifled" or "bowed" a tendon.
The poultice was applied daily for an entire week.
This treatment "heated" the leg, which promoted
healing.
M2A1Q41_EMAKSAL
In research experiments, Goldenseal contained two
active chemicals, berberine and hydrastine, that
boosted the body's immune system, slowed the growth of
tumors, ar.d lowered high blood pressure (Castleman,
1991). Berberine killed bacteria that caused diarrhea
(such as amoebic dysentery) and was effective against
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Herbal
75
cholera bacteria (Cushman, 1979). More medical
research has been needed for it to be used in cancer
chemotherapy. Commercially grown and harvested

Goldenseal has been used by modern medicine in a
variety of prescription as well as over-the-counter
preparations.
Sources ConsultegI
Stone (1991) related that her grandmother used
Goldenzeal for treatment of an infant's thrush mouth.
Within 48 holms, the thrush was gone. Even today, few
wildflowers were as important to the Cherokees as was
the multi-purpose Goldenseal. Remedies were offered
for inflamed eyes, mouth sores, for stopping bleeding,
and for hemorrhaging. Its use as an antiseptic was
also well known. A tea was prepared for etomach aches,
morning sickness, and as a douche for vaginal
inflammations.
Mr. Bell (1993) noted there were two types of

Goldenseal which grew on the ridges at low elevations
in the Smoky Mountains. The type used on sores was
rare in that area; however, the author was able to
purchase an ounce for medicinal purposes.
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Mayapple
(Podophyllum peltatum)
Plarj,Lisigntij_iggliou
Mayapple, also known as Indian Apple, or Devil's
Apple, was a common perennial that grew twelve to
eighteen inches in height. The unpleasant odor flowers
bloomed from April through June. A single, waxy, white
flower drooped from the crotch or under the smooth,

umbrella-like seven-to-nine lobed leaves (Millspaugh,
1892). The plants produced yellow, two-inch, edible
fruits and had creeping roots. They were found in
clusters growing in rich, humus, moist, hilly areas,
woods or fields (Wampler, 1988). The Mayapple has been
a common plant found in all areas of Southwestern
Indiana.
HilIQKY1
Throughout history, the Mayapple was also known as
an Indian apple. Settlers used the roots for medicinal
remedies and ate the yellow berries for nutritional
values (Castleman, 1991). Hoosier remedies indicated
root tea induced abortion, powdered roots relieved

constipation, and Mayapple fruits, when eaten, helped
Herbal
78
overcome heat exhaustion. Tyler (1985) indicated that
the roots were powerful purgatives, not only on the

smooth muscles of the intestinal tract but also on the
uterus. The fruits were edible and when the body lost
salts (electrolytes) during profuse sweating or heat
exhaustion, the digested fruits restored body salts and
sugar. Because of the sugar, the fruits also served as
a source of energy and were eaten raw, cooked, or made
into preserves. It was on the primary list of the

first US Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to present and the
Nationa.l Formulary in 1888 as a purgative and cathartic
(Vogel, 1970).
Cherokee Uses:
Like Goldenseal, the Cherokees used Mayapples as
insect repellents and insecticides to ward off pesky
insects. Th flowers had an unpleasant odor.

Pulverized and crushed, the dried roots made into tea
were used as a cathartic, a laxative, or a purgative
substance. The Mayapples were also used for
gallstones, worms, and dropsy. Another use included a
poultice made from crushed leaves for skin disorders.

Homel and Chiltoskey (1975) stated that the joints of
Herbal
79
the roots were poison; the Cherokee used only those
portions between the joints for boiled tea. Some women
used large doses to commit suicide. The roots were
considered poisonous when ingested in large amounts.
When mixed with other herbs and animal fats, the salve
or ointment was used to treat different types of warts
(Weiner, 1972). They ate the ripe fresh fruit, raw or
cooked; however, the fruit had to be ripe, or it was
considered poisonous. The fruit was gathered when the
leaves withered and turned yellow. The Mayapple
leaves, joints, and roots were harvested, collected,
and dug from April to June, then dried, made into
poultices, salves, or were dried in bunches and stored
(Weiner, 1972).

Grandfather Day prepared Mayapple insecticide by
boiling the entire plant, which was then sprayed on his
garden vegetables. This prevented beetles, grub worms,
and other insects from destroying his crop.

Grandmother prepared Mayapple jelly from the pulp of
fresh, ripe fruit. It tasted similar to "crab apple"
jelly; a bit tart, but sweet and at the same time sour.
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Herbal
80
Medical Uses:
Research has found Mayapple chemical compounds
treated testicular cancer, venereal warts, and small-
cell lung cancer (Foster and Duke, 1990). Etoposide, a
semisynthetic derivative of Mayapple, was used to treat
several types of cancer. Side effects have included
diarrhea and vomiting. It was a very powerful
glandular stimulant and overdoses easily occurred. It
was recommended that only very small dosages be used
(Tyler, 1986). Some natural gardeners crushed the
leaves, boiled them in water, and the sprayed the
mixture on garden plants. This acted as a natural
insecticide (Olds, 1975).
A chart at the museum of the Cherokee Indian in
Cherokee, NC indicated the following, "Drugs derived

from Mayapple were used to treat many forms of cancer.
Some scientists have believed the chemicals extracted
from Mayapple were our best hope of curing many forms
of lung cancer."
Sources Consulted:
Today as stated by Stone (1991) Mayapples have
been used as a powerful laxative, as a purge for
I3EST COPY
AVAILABLE
9
Herbal
81
intestinal worms, as a cure for warts, and for the
treatment of liver problems and cancer. The fruit has
been eaten for nutritional purposes. The Cherokees
also continued to use the Mayapple as an insecticide on
their crops.
In the Smoky Mountains and Cherokee, North

Carolina, Mayapples were common and dominant throughout
a wide range of elevations. It has been used not only
as a food but has continued to be used by the Eastern
Nation as a laxative and to induce vomiting.

MILKWEED
Herbal
83
Common Milkweed
(Asclenias svriaca)
Milkweed, sometimes called Cottonweed or Wild
Cotton, was of two types: common and four-leaved. The
milky-juiced, latex, and downy perennial has grown from
one to four feet in height. The common type has had
four to ten-inch, paired, broad, long leaves, which are

four to eight inches in length while the four-leaved-
has had a middle set of larger ones (Millspaugh, 1982).
A single dusty, pink-purple globe or ball-shaped
cluster flower has had five downward pointing petals
and was borne in the upper leaves. The flowers bloomed
from June to August. Seedpods were rough-surfaced and
split when ripe; the seeds had tufts of silky hairs
(Wampler, 1988). The Milkweed has been founc in moist,
rich or sandy ground near woodlands in all southwestern
state parks and forests.
History:
Early physicians used Milkweed for asthma,
rheumatism and cancer. As an edible weed, the settlers
cooked its young shoots or sprouts like asparagus, ate
Tt)
Herbal
84
the roots raw or cooked, and used the leaves in salads
(Millspaugh, 1892). The milky sap found in the leaves
and stems was bitter and contained glycosides. They
eliminated the bitter taste and glycosides by boiling
the plants in water several times (Wampler, 1988).

Tyler (1985) stated that Hoosiers allowed juice or
milky sap to drip into a cut or wound to stop bleeding,
treated burns or sunburns with sap diluted with water,
and also applied the mixture to infected poison ivy
areas, warts, ringworm, and skin blemishes. Milkweed

was the most common and popular remedy for warts and
skin problems. The milky latex formed a protective
coating when it dried on the skin. Milkweed was
officially listed in the US Pharmacopoeia under the
name Asclepias from 1820-1905 and in the National

Formulary from 1916-1936 as emetic and purgative
(Vogel, 1970).
Cherokee Uses:
The Cherokees prepared a root tea that was used as
a laxative to relieve constipation, as a diuretic for

kidney stones, to promote Sterility, and to induce
sweating (Foster and Duke, 1990). It was applied also
96
Herbal
85
to skin disorders: warts, moles, ringworm. Hamel and
Chiltoskey (1975) indicated the fiber of the plant was
also used for bowstrings. The plants were collected
during the pre-blooming stage when they were tender and
young. Roots were dug, at that time, dried in partial
sunlight, pounded into a powd3red mixture, and stored
in a dry place. Sometimes tea was prepared from a
whole, fresh plant (Weiner, 1972).

Grandmother prepared fresh Milkweed sap or juice
mixed with lard or butter. She used this preparation
on burns, other skin irritations, and blemishes. She
also used it as an edible vegetable. The leaves,
stems, and flowers were picked when young, boiled in
several changes of water, and then simmered until
tender. The treated pods were sometimes used in soup.
Medical Research:
The sap was toxic and contained cardioactive
compounds. Very few scientific studies regarding

effectiveness of milkweed have been made (Tyler, 1985).
Herbal
86
Sovrces Conttplted:
At the present time, Milkweed has had a variety of
uses according to Stone (1991). A multitude of skin
ailments, warts, ringworms, and poison ivy have been
treated with the milky white substance or latex that

oozed from the plant when it was cut or sliced. A
concoction made from the boiled roots has been used to
treat bowel problems, kidney disorders, rheumatism, and
asthma. A tea made from the powdered dry roots has
been used as a sedative. Even the silky down found in
the giant seedpods has been used to stuff beds,
pillows, and to make clothing warmer. Sometimes, the
young shoots were used as a vegetable but had to be

boiled in three or four different batches of water to
remove the toxic substances. The Cherokees considered
the Milkweed roots poisonous and did not eat them.
Mr. Walkingstick (1993) indicated Milkweed salve
was used on skin sores. Milkweed was not abundant in
certain areas of the Smoky Mountains; however, it was

found occasionally and was well-distributed over the
area.
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MISTLETOE
99
Herbal
88
Mistletoe
(Phoradendron serotinum)
Mistletoe, a perennial parasite, has been best
known as the plant under which people kissed at
christmas. There were many different species, but the
most common, least damaging type has been found on oak
trees. The tiny roots bored into the host tree,
established new plants, and began to grow (Castleman,
1991). Leaves appeared first; afterwards, growth was
rapid. Mistletoe was a thick-branched, woody evergreen
with leathery, three-inch oblong leaves. The
translucent white berries or fruit contained a single
seed (Foster and Duke, 1990). Because it grew high in
trees, Mistletoe has been difficult to collect. It was
found high in an oak tree in Harmonie State Park. It
has not been as common as in the past years.

Pollutants in the air have taken a toll on this
parasite; also, logging of oak trees has destroyed many
of the host trees.
BEST COPY AVAILABLE

IC
Herbal
89
History:
During the Middle Ages, the herb was used for
disorders of the spleen, "falling sickness" or

epilepsy, and for apoplexy or stroke. The settlers
used it to treat high blood pressure and cancer. The
herb's association with kissing was due to Norse
mythology. The god of peace, Balder, was slain with a
mistletoe arrow. When the goddess, Queen Frigga,
restored him to life, she gave the plant to the goddess

of love, thus anyone who passed under it received a
kiss (Castleman, 1991).
Cherokee Uses:
The Cherokees found Mistletoe, when taken in large
quantities, induced abortion and stimulated
contractions during childbirth (Weiner, 1972). Because
of the action on the uterus, and its ability to stop
bleeding following parturition (bleeding after
childbirth), it was used to promote healing after
birth. Some women used Mistletoe to prevent
conception. A tea prepared from the leaves was used
for epilepsy, headaches, and lung ailments (Foster and
Duke, 1990). Hamel and Chiltosky (1975) noted that the

Herbal
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Cherokees pulverized the entire plant, made a tea, and
bathed the head with tea for headaches and high blood
pressure. Mistletoe was collected during the late
autumn or early winter (November or December). The
leaves and young twigs were dried and stored and the
fresh berries mashed to make a paste.

The Day Family pulverized the entire plant and
made an infusion that was used externally to bathe the
body and for reducing high fevers. During the
Christmas season, Grandmother threaded sprigs of

Mistletoe berries, red holly berries, and popcorn on a
string. They were used as decorations on the Christmas
tree.
Medical Research:
The chemical, tyramine, stimulated uterine
contractions in laboratory test; however, to induce
abortion, the dosage had to be high or close to fatal.
Scientists studied the chemicals in Mistletoe and found
that they both raised and lowered blood pressure. The
chemicals that reduced blood pressure appeared to
predominate (Franz, 1981). Other studies found

Herbal
91
Mistletoe stimulated the body's immune system, impaired
the growth of test-tube tumor cells, and benefitted
treatment of lung and ovarian cancer (Mack, 1984).
Some reports indicated Mistletoe contained toxic
chemicals that caused vomiting, muscle spasms, coma,
convulsions, and death. Further investigation
concluded that small amounts of the leaves produced no
serious poisoning even though several toxic chemicals
were reported (Castleman, 1991). Toxicity included
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headaches, muscle spasms,
or convulsions. Research has been limited because of
the fear of toxic chemicals; yet, many approved cancer
drugs have been found more toxic than Mistletoe.
Sources Consulted;
Mr. Walkingstick (1993) indicated Mistletoe was
poisonous and when used the small white berries were
mashed, pulverized, and only used externally.

Mistletoe was scarce in several locales and was found
scattered in small populations; when found, it was at
low or middle elevations.
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103
PART R I DGEBERRY
cia
a
Herbal
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Partridgeberry or Squaw Vine
(Mitchylla repens)
A creeping, trailing, vining, evergreen perennial,
Partridgeberry or Squaw Vine has grown from six to
fourteen inches; it has been found near decayed stumps,
near oak trees in the Harrison Crawford State Forest,

in soil rich in humus and moisture, and in moist woods,
especially those abounding in evergreens. Thick,
shiny, dark green leaves were rounded or oval, one-half
inch long, with whitish veins. The creamy white or
light pink, funnel-shaped, paired flowers had inner
lobes that were hairy (Wampler, 1988). Single, dry,
red or scarlet, edible berries developed after the

flowers blossomed from April, May, or June. Birds have
been fond of the berries (Olds, 1975).
BiataKYI
Partridgeberry was listed in the National
Formulary from 1926 to 1947 as a tonic, as an
astringent, and a diuretic (Weiner, 1972). Settlers
used it not only for tonics and astringents but for
swellings, hives, sore nipples, and menstrual

Herbal
94
difficulties (Vogel, 1970). It was found in a valuable
diuretic and was used for various forms of uterine
difficulties (Millspaugh, 1892).
Cherokee Uses:
The Cherokees named Partridgeberry, Squaw Vine,
because it treated the following "female troubles":
slow childbirth, slow placenta delivery, stopped post

hemorrhage, and the pain of childbirth (Foster and
Duke, 1990). An herbal tea was prepared by boiling the
leaves. This concoction was drunk by the pregnant
woman preceding the expected date of delivery. The red
or scarlet fruits or berries were eaten when ripe and
fresh. Sometimes fresh leaves were made into a tea and
drunk for painful menstruation, for dysentery and
piles, and for sore nipples (Hamel and Chiltoskey,
1975). Leaves were collected when plants were blooming
in May or June and then dried under partial sunlight
while others were used while fresh. Often the entire
fresh plant was chopped and pounded. The berries were
collected when ripe and eaten while fresh.
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Herbal
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Great-Grandmother Day prepared Partridgeberry tea,
which was drunk for painful menstruation or "cramps".

Tea was also given to family members with infected,
inflamed, or painful bladder problems.
Medical Research:
No recent scientific studies have been found
concerning laboratory tests on Partridgeberry. Since
it was listed in the National Formulary in years past,
a more in-depth study has been needed to determine its

medicinal properties.
Sources Consulted:
Mr. Bell (1993) indicated Partridgeberry or Squaw
Vine was still used for "female problems" and that the
berries were eaten as a food when ripe. The author was
able to purchase one ounce for medicinal purposes. In
the Smoky Mountains, Partridgeberry was common and

quite dominant in all locales according to Defoe,
Langdon, Rock (1989). It was found growing at low and
middle elevations.
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PENNYROYAL
lOo
Herbal
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Pennyroyal
(Hedeoma pulecrioides)
An annual, Pennyroyal was included in the mint
family and was otherwise known as Tickweed, Fleabane,
or Squawmint. It grew to one and one-half feet in
height and had a mint-like, strong odor or fragrance.
Small, opposite leaves were found on short, square
stems that grew from fifteen to eighteen inches. On
the end of the stems grew pale, blue flowers (Foster
and Duke, 1990). Pennyroyal was found growing from
July to September in areas with dry, sandy soil, or on
gravelly, loose slopes (Wampler, 1988). It has been
common along the banks of the Wabash River that runs
through Harmonie State Park.
History:
The Greeks hung Pennyroyal in sickrooms, where the
fragrance, when released, was thought to promote
healing (Castleman, 1991). Physicians during the
1800's combined Pennyroyal with brewer's yeast. This
has induced abortion, sweating, the early stages of
colds, and promoted delayed menstruation (Weiner,
1 W)
Herbal
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1972). The settlers used Pennyroyal to dress wounds,
to repel insects, to treat cold, flu, coughs,

congestions, and to stimulate menstruation or abortions
(Vogel, 1970). It was listed in the US Pharmacopoeia
in 1862-1881 as an ointment and was used to keep off
gnats, ticks, fleas, and mosquitoes (Millspaugh, 1892).
Tyler (1985) mentioned Pennyroyal several times.

Hoosiers prepared a tea, that when drunk, caused a
pregnant woman to "come around"; it was also used for
colds, flu, colic, and headaches. When hung in dried
bunches, Pennyroyal drove away mosquitoes. Pennyroyal
was officially a decongestant, a cough remedy, a
digestive aid, and an abortion inducer. It got its
name, Fleabane, because of its use to repel insects and
fleas.
Cherokee Uses:
The Cherokees crushed the leaves and inhaled the
mint-like odor to relieve headaches. They also
prepared a tea to be drunk for relief of menstruation
cramps and pain. Other uses included treatment of
diarrhea, painful urination, and hemorrhaging. Hamel
and Chiltoskey (1975) wrote that beaten leaves were
IL
Herbal
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held in the mouth for toothaches, and that crushed

leaves were rubbed on the skin as an insect repellent.
They collected the leaves in early summer when the
plant was in full bloom. The leaves were dried in the
shade and then stored in a dry cool place. The fresh
crushed leaves were inhaled. Tyler (1985) stated that
many Native Americans used Pennyroyal tea to treat

bites from rabid animals that were no higher than the
shoulder. The wounds were packed with bruised, fresh
leaves or with soaked dry leaves, and if patients could
swallow, tea was given to them. However, if victims
could not drink the tea, they were washed with the
liquid.
Dav Family Remedies;

Grandmother Day boiled or simmered the leaves in a
small iron pot that was left sitting on the back of an
old iron kitchen stove. The steam would go throughout
the home to freshen the air and to relieve headaches
during the wintertime. She sometimes took Pennyroyal,
mixed it with other plants (crushed rose leaves, mints,
pine needles), placed the herbs between clothes, and
sewed them into small squares. Then she placed these

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fragrances in dresser drawers to keep clothes smelling
fresh.
Medical Research:
Pennyroyal oil was very toxic. Symptoms included
severe headaches, nausea, weakness, and paralysis of
limbs (Millspaugh, 1892). As little as a teaspoon of
concentrate caused death. However, when dried, the
herb lost its toxicity and was used without danger.

Scientists have found chemicals similar to peppermint
menthol but they were not as strong (Sullivan, 1979).
Some skin creams mixed Pennyroyal with other
ingredients to promote healing. It has been called a
powerful but dangerous intestinal irritant which caused
abortion and sometimes death when eaten by animals
(Vogel, 1970).
Sources Consulted:
According to Bell (1993), Pennyroyal was nowhere
abundant but was well distributed over a wide area in
the Smokey Mountains. It was found occasionally at low
and middle elevations. The Eastern Cherokees inhaled
Pennyroyal steam for headaches and often crushed the

fresh leaves which were then placed on a tooth for
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treatment of a toothache. He also mentioned that
Prickly Ash Bark (known as toothache tree) was an
excellent remedy for toothaches. The author was able
to purchase one ounce of Pennyroyal for medicinal
purposes.
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American Wild Senna

(Cassia marilandica)
Wild Senna, also known as Cassia and included in
the pea family, was a hardy perennial with five petal
yellow flowers that was found in loose clusters
blooming during the summer. The yellow flowers were
borne on slender, fuzzy stems; the leaves were pointed,
and the seeds were in leathery pods (Wampler, 1988). A
small wood shrub, it grew to three feet in height. It
has been necessary to avoid confusing it with cinnamon;
both came from peelable bark. It was found growing in
rich humus soil near woodlands, thickets, and
bottomlands in Pike County State Forest.
History:
History has revealed Senna was widely used in

other countries from the Middle East to India to treat
fevers (Castleman, 1991). It was listed in Ma
Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to 1882 as a mild laxative
(Vogel, 1970). Tyler (1985) stated Senna was a folk
remedy; Hoosiers made tea from the leaves that were
used as an excellent purge for the body system.
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Cherokee Uses:
The Cherokees pounded the roots of Wild Senna with
water to make a salve or poultice and then applied the
mixtures to sores or wounds. A tea was good for
childhood illness, for heart troubles, for fainting
spells, and for cramps (Hamel and Chiltoskey, 1975).
After a decoction was made from the leaves, it was
drunk to reduce fevers and to ease sore throats. The
dried, powdered leaves were also used for cathartic
purposes or as a strong laxative (Weiner, 1972). The
Cherokees gathered, prepared, and stored the roots,
leaves, and seeds at the time of flowering.

Grandmother Day prepared a Wild Senna herbal tea
and laced it with brown sugar to improve the taste. It
was drunk and used as a mild laxative.
Medical Research:
The plant, Senna, contained the chemical,
anthraquinone, that stimulated the colon. It sometimes
caused damage when people had chronic gastrointestinal
conditions such as ulcers, colitis, or hemorrhoids
(Castleman, 1991). Also, large amounts caused
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diarrhea, nausea, cramps, severe griping, and
dehydration (Millspaugh, 1892).
Sources Consulted:
According to Hutchens (1992), present day
Cherokees have made a decoction from dried leaves and
have drunk it to reduce fevers and ease sore throats.
They also used Senna tea ae a mouth gargle. Large
doses have been used as an emetic and cathartic. A
remedy for pimples was a paste made of dried leaves and
vinegar. Senna was found occasionally at low
elevations in the Smoky Mountains. It was not
abundant; however, the author was able to purchase one
ounce for medicinal purposes.

SKULLCAP
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Skullcap
(Scutellaria lateriflora)
A member of the mint family, Skullcap has also
been called Mad-dog Skullcap, Quaker Bonnet, or Mad-dog
Weed. A slender, branching, two-foot shrubby
perennial, it had a tiny skull-cap growth that gave it
its common name (Wampler, 1988). The upper part also
had short, whitish hairs. Long-stalked, serrated,
toothed leaves were opposite one another, pointed at

the tips, and oval or lanced-shaped. The flowers had
two lips, were violet or blue, and bloomed in the shade
(Foster and Duke, 1990). It grew in rich, moist soil,
in wooded thickets and was found in Harmonie State Park
from July throvgh August.
History:
For years the Chinese used Skullcap as a
tranquilizer or sedative for treatment of convulsions
and as a digestive aid. During the 1800's Skullcap was
used as a sedative, for treatment of malaria fever, and
as a nerve tonic (Castleman, 1991). It was listed in

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the US Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to 1882 where it was
described as a mild laxative (Vogel, 1970).
Cherokee Uses:
The Cherokees drank Skullcap tea to promote
suppressed menstruation and also to stop diarrhea
(Weiner, 1975). Because of its bitter taste, it was
mixed with honey to improve flavor. It was also
reported to be effective against rabies, hence the name
Mad-Dog Skullcap. The Cherokees also mixed bruised
roots moistened with water and bear grease to be used
as a dressing for sores, swellings, inflammations, and

other types of wounds (Hamel and Chiltosky, 1975). The
plant was cut in the spring when stems and leaves were
young and tender; however, sometimes the leaves were
harvested in midsummer when the plant was in full
bloom. The leaves and stems were dried in full shade
and then stored.

Great-Grandfather Day used a Skullcap salve and
mixed it with "hog fat" to use on horses where the
harness rubbed the body sore. The Skullcap healed and
the lard prevented large scabs from forming. It also
Ic
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prevented white hairs from growing back where the sore
had occurred.
Medical Research:
Skullcap contained the chemical compound
scutellarine, that was a sedative and was found to have
antispasmodic qualities (Kimura, 1981). Certainly,
with all of its past uses, more research has been
needed. Millspaugh (1892) stated that Skullcap proved
itself useful as a tonic in chlorea, tremors, chronic
disorders, and many other diseases. However, he found
mental confusion, stupor, headache, dilated pupils, and
variable pulse with reduction of heart action followed

by wakefulness and restlessness as many of the side
effects of this plant.
Sources Consulted:
The National Park Service indicated Skullcap was
quite abundant throughout the Smoky Mountains. It was
found growing at low to middle elevations.
Walkingstick (1993) stated that a strong Skullcap tea
was used for insomnia, alcoholism, headaches, and pains
in the heart. Sometimes it was administrated for the
treatment of cramps and female problems. It was also
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used as a dressing on sores, swellings, and
inflammations.
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Snakeroot
(Polyoala senega)
111..Mt.
There have been two species of the perennial
Snakeroot: Senega and Black Sanicle. The Senega was
the most common and the most often used. Small, pt,.a-
like, oblong, white-spiked leaves were alternated with
lance-shaped leaves on smooth stems. The thistle-like,
greenish-white flowers were mingled with stiff, pointed
bracts (Foster and Duke, 1990). Snakeroot grew to six
to eighteen inches during May through July in rocky,
partially shaded, open hardwood forests where there was
leaf mold or similar humus. It has been found in many
areas in Southwestern Indiana.
History:
In Indiana, Tyler (1985) noted that Hoosiers used
Snakeroot remedies for snakebites, kidney problems, and
violent bleeding. He recommended that white snakeroot
(Euvatorium rucrosum) never be used internally; it was
extremely poisonous for humans and animals. People who
drank milk from cattle that had eaten the root acquired
the condition "milk sickness," which was sometimes
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fatal. In 1818, Abraham Lincoln's mother, Nancy Hanks,
was reported to have died of this disease. (The

Lincolns, at that time, resided in Spencer County,
Indiana). One type, Button Snakeroot (Ervnaium yucca

folium) was similar to yucca; hence, its botanical
name. Another species, Black Sanicle (Sanicula

marilandica) was used by the settlers and Indians for
pain, kidney ailments, rheumatism, and fevers. It was
officially listed in the US Fharmacormeia from 1820-
1936 as a cough remedy, stimulant, and diuretic, and in

the National Formulary from 1936-1960 (Vogel, 1970).
Cherokee Uses;
The Cherokees boiled the Snakeroot, made a

preferred tea, and treated high fevers with this
infusion. They used a poultice made from the roots
that was applied on snakebites, reduced swellings of

wounds, and minimized pain (Weiner, 1972). It was used
for other ailments as well; as a sweat inducer for
colds, coughs, croup, bronchitis, asthma, and
pneumonia. They also rubbed the poultice on joints to
relieve piin and for rheumatism. They blew a decoction
of the root upon a patient for fever and feverish
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headaches (Vogel, 1970). The roots were dug in the
spring and again in late fall when the leaves were dead
but before the first frost. They were cut, dried in
the sunshine, and stored in a dry place. Sometimes
they were pounded into a coarsely-powdered substance
(Millspaugh, 1892).
The Day family made a poultice from snakeroot and
lard, or "hog fat." This mixture was placed on swollen
joints of the farm animals. The family was always
cautious with the cattle and horses. Snakeroot eaten
by cattle and horses killed them or made them severely
Medical Research:
Snakeroot contained poisonous substances; when
taken in large doses, it was fatal to laboratory
animals. However, the chemical, methyl salicylate, has
relieved pain in laboratory experiments (Foster and
Duke, 1990). There had been limited scientific
research due to the toxic chemicals found in different
species of the plants. Millspaugh (1892) noted
Snakeroot in some cases caused paralysis of muscles of
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the respiratory tract and of the motor system,
constriction, aching, soreness, restless sleep, and
general debility.
Sources Consulted:
Snakeroot, according to Walkingstick (1993),
wasn't as popular as a medicinal remedy at the present
time; however, the Eastern Cherokees sometimes have

used Snakeroot salve or poultice to reduce swellings of
joints. The plant was scarce and was scattered in

small populations at low elevations in the Smoky
Mountains.
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SP1KENA RD
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Spikenard
(Aralia racemosa)
Spikenard was a perennial, aromatic herb that grew
three to five feet in height, that has been found
blooming in rich woods in the area of Southwestern
Indiana. Its family members have included the Ginseng
family (Foster and Duke, 1990). Long, smooth, dark
green or reddish stems had small whitish flowers that
formed small clusters on tiny branches that extended
from the stems. The flowers bloomed from June to
August. The leaves were dark, deep green, saw toothed,
and heart-shaped (Millspaugh, 1892).
History:
Settlers used Spikenard as a blood purifier and as
a remedy for lung ailments, asthma, rheumatism, and
backaches. The powdered roots were officially listed

in the National Formulary from 1916 to 1965 as a
stimulant and for diaphoretic purposes (Vogel, 1970).
Hoosiers, as reported by Tyler (1985), combined

Spikenard with wild mint and used this as a prepared
massage lotion for sore backs. Another herbal mixture
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that included Spikenard was taken for tuberculosis.
The boiled root was made into a poultice which was
applied on wounds to treat blood poisoning.
Cherokee Uses:
The Cherokees prepared a Spikenard root tea for
backaches, menstrual difficulties, coughs, asthma, and

diseases of the lungs; they made the roots into a salve
to be used on boils, infections, swellings, wounds, and

cuts (Hamel and Chiltoskey, 1975). The beaten and
pulverized roots were also used on burns and the root
juice was used for earaches (Weiner, 1972). Spikenard
was gathered during June through August. The fresh
roots were pulverized for the juice and made into a
salve or poultice. Other harvested, chopped, and
pounded roots were dried in an open sunny place, then

powdered, and finally stored in a dry cool place. When
needed, the powdered roots were used in preparing a
root tea.

Grandfather Day used a poultice hoof preparation
made from Spikenard and turpentine. This was placed on
a horse's hoof when "thrush" (hoof rot) developed.
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Herbal
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Thrush was common during the winter months or when a

horse was stalled for a long period of time.
Medical Research:
Modern research has found Spikenard contained the

chemical aralin (Weiner, 1972). This chemical was used
in some over-the-counter drugs and has been found in
types of massage lotions. Some people have allergic
reactions that have caused skin rashes, sores, and skin
eruptions. Millspaugh (1892) reported some side
effects that included impeding suffocation, profuse

night sweat, nausea, and diarrhea.
Sources Consulted:
Occasionally, the Cherokees, according to Hutchens
(1992), have used the dark ripe, purple berries for
Spikenard jelly. They also have used the whole root as
food. Spikenard, as a medicinal remedy, has been

combined with other herbs and brewed into a tea. This
tea was drunk to purify the blood. Walkingstick (1993)
also indicated Spikenard drops were used extensively
for earaches. The National Park Service has found

Spikeuard growing frequently at a wide range of
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elevations and has found it well distributed in the
Smoky Mountains.
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ST. jOHN'SaiWORT
MI
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Herbal
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St. Johns Wort

(Hypericum perforatum)
St. Johns Wort, a woody, rapidly spreading
perennial belonged to the same family as Rose-of-
Sharon. The yellow flowers, five-petaled with black
dots on their margins, were found in bushy clusters and

measured about one inch across (Foster and Duke, 1990).
These were found on numerous slender branches. Oblong
and dotted with translucent glands, the leaves when

pinched produced a red oil and emitted an aroma
reminiscent of turpentine (Wampler, 1988). From June
to September, it grew one to three feet (sometimes up
to five feet) and was found in fields with dry, light
soils in Pike County State Forest.
History:
Europeans introduced St. Johns Wort to the United
States, where it grew wild and spread rapidly. Named
in honor of John the Baptist, St. Johns Wort was
believed to release its blood-red oil on August 29, the
time of the Saint's beheading. Wort was an old English
word for plant. Another legend was that the plant,
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Herbal
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during the days of strong belief in witchcraft, was

collected on St. Johns Night, June 24. It collected on
time, it afforded protection against witches and evil
spirits. The Greeks used the herb for burns, as a

diuretic, as a menstruation promoter, and for fever.
They also burned the leaves to purify the air, drive

away evil spirits, and to ensure healthy crops
(Castleman, 1991). It was used as a Doctrine of
Signatures plant because the red-oil was believed good
for wounds. The settlers used it for colds and

bronchitis during the 1800's and the physicians used
the herb c.or the treatment of wounds. Millspaugh
(1892) recorded its use for the nervous system.
Cherokee Uses:
The Cherokees used St. Johns Wort salve or fresh
milky substance for treatment of external ulcers,

snakebites, wounds, sores, cuts, bruises, and other
skin problems. They prepared an herbal tea for bladder
ailments, dysentery, diarrhea, respiratory diseases,
bronchitis, and lung infections. The crushed plant was
sniffed for nosebleeds and infants were bathed in a
root decoction for strength (Hamel and Chiltoskey,
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1975). Other Native American tribes combined St. Johns
Wort with Black Raspberry root in hot water; this
concoction was used for the treatment of tuberculosis.
The leaves were harvested when the plants bloomed, June

through August. They were air dried and stored in a
cool, dry place (Olds, 1975). The fresh blossoming
plant was chopped and pounded to a pulp for making a

salve (Millspaugh, 1892).
Great-Grandmother Day always had St. Johns Wort

salve ready for large cuts and wounds. She ironed old
linen until nearly brown (scorched) to sterilize it.
Then this material was placed over the salve or wound
so that it did not become contaminated. Healing was
rapid, and this preparation rarely left any scar
tissue.
Medical Research:
The active chemicals that were found in St. Johns
Wort were choline, pectin, rutin, sitosterol,
hypericin, and pseudohypericin. Since 1988, hypericin
has been researched for AIDS treatment as a sedative,
anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial drug. Also, it
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has reduced fever, decreased swelling of lymph nodes,
improved appetites, and increased the energy of AIDS
patients (Foster and Duke, 1990). However, it was not
a cure. Recent research has indicated immune-
stimulating chemicals and anti-bacterial, anti-fungal,
and anti-inflammatory activity. In laboratory
experiments when mice infected with the leukemia virus

were injected with an extract of St. Johns Wort, they
did not develop the disease. When given orally, it was
equally effective. HIV infected mice had similar
results. Side effects included skin burns, rashes, and
blistering because of the chemical hypericin (James,
1989). Further research was needed for HIV and
leukemia treatments of St. Johns Wort. Other studies
supported the herb's use for wound healing and

reduction of wound infections (Meuelo, 1988).
Millspaugh (1892) reported the ingested plant sometimes
caused mental depression, exhaustion, confusion, pupil
dilation, increased heart beats, numbness, and
shivering.
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Herbal
126
Sources Consulted:
Following an old custom, the Eastern Cherokee
Nation have dried the St. Johns Wort and have used it
as they have used the acorn. Prepared tea made from
fresh leaves was used for soothing effect. Another use
for the tea has included treatment for bronchitis. A
salve made from the whole fresh St. Johns Wort plant
has been used for its healing effects on bruises,
compound fractures, gunshot wounds, bites, cuts,
infections, and other types of open wounds according to
Hutchens (1992). The plant was found occasionally at
low elevations but was nowhere abundant in the Smoky
Mountains as noted by the National Park Service.
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Uva Ursi or Common Bearberry

(Arctostaphvlos uva-ursi)
Uva Ursi, commonly referred to as Bearberry (bears

were fond of the fruit), was a hardy evergreen shrub
that grew in dry, rocky, sandy soil and reached only a
few inches in height. Its leaves, which turned bronze
in winter, were leathery and paddle-shaped. The tiny,
urn-shaped, waxy white flowers sometimes tinged with

red flowers, were found with red berries among them
(Foster and Duke, 1990). The fruits, which matured
from August to late winter, were smooth, red, and
edible. Uva Ursi belonged to the rhododendron family.
Bearberry has been found growing in Pike County State
Forest in southwestern Indiana.
History:
Uva Ursi leaves were used by the Romans to treat
wounds; the Chinese used the plant as a diuretic for
kidney and urinary problems. Because it grew in rocky
places and kidney stones were called gravel, and

because it had been used by the settlers and Native
Americans as a treatment of kidney stones, Bearberry
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77743,1,.-71r1:',77,7771irT777,7r7 2.1,97n7t..?-
Herbal
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was listed with the Doctrine of Signatures (Castleman,
1991). Uva Ursi or Bearberry was officially listed in

the US Pharmacovoeia from 1820 to 1936 as an astringent
(Vogel, 1991). During the 1800's, physicians treated

patients for diarrhea, dysentery, and kidney infections
with this herb. Bearberry was listed in Hoosier Home
Remedies (1985) as a useful diuretic and as a promoter
that formed and excreted urine.
Cherokee Uses:
The Cherokees made a tea which was used as an
astringent, diuretic, and urinary tract antiseptic.
They also used Bearberry for bronchitis, for diarrhea,
for skin sores, and for stopping bleeding. Sometimes
they mixed dried leaves with tobacco and smoked this
mixture called kinnikinnik (Weiner, 1972). Hamel and
Chiltoskey (1975) indicated the Cherokees had used the
berries for food and for beverages. The leaves were
harvested in autumn before the first frost, then air
dried by spreading them over a large area. Because of
the thick, leathery texture, the leaves were difficult
to dry. Sometimes they were chopped and pounded into a
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pulp to be used later as poultice which was stored in a
dry cool place.

Grandfather used a Bearberry poultice for sores,
scrapes, or insect bites on his animals, horses,
cattle, and hogs. He sometimes placed fresh, crushed
leaves over wounds to stop bleeding.
Medical Research:
Uva Ursi leaves had diuretic properties (Frohne,
1970). They contained the chemical arbutin, which has
been found in many over-the-counter creams to treat
wounds and sores (Castleman, 1991). Sometimes, when
drunk, the tea caused the urine to turn dark green and
induced vomiting, convulsions, and stomach upset in
some cases; however, Millspaugh (1892) recommended it
highly for diseases of the kidneys, the bladder, and
the urethra passage.
Sources Consulted:
Hutchens (1992) noted at the present time
Bearberry leaves have been mixed with tobacco leaves
and was called kinnikinnick. This mixture was smoked
and was used in certain ceremonial events. For those
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with diabetes, Bearberry tea has been used to reduce
sugar levels. The tea has also been used as a
medicinal remedy to treat inflammations of the urinary

tract, chronic affections of the kidneys, and pus
discharge from the bladder. It was occasionally found
at low elevations in the Smoky Mountains. The author
was able to purchase some dried leaves for medicinal
purposes.
143
WHITE WILLOW

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White Willow
(Salix alba)
The White Willow tree had rough, grayish bark and
branches that were pliable; it grew up to sixty feet.
Its leaves were lance-shaped, finely-toothed, and lined
with silky hairs. Long catkins appeared with leaves in
the spring (Foster and Duke, 1990). They were found in
moist woods, along stream edges in Pike County State
Forest and along the banks of the Wabash River in
Harmonie State Park.
HiqtorY:
White Willow was a pain remedy used by the Chinese
since 500 B.C. The settlers used White Willow tea for
relieving pain, reducing fevers, and decreasing
inflammation. It was officially listed in the ga

Pharmacopoeia from 1882 through 1926 and in the
National Formulary from 1936 to 1955 as an
antispasmodic (Vogel, 1970). Tyler (1985) noted that
White Willow bark tea was an old Hoosier remedy used to
cure rheumatism. He also added that the use of

salicylate and anti-inflammatory agents were well known
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Herbal
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in the treatment of arthritic conditions. This
explained the use of Willow bark tea with its content
of salicin.
Cherokee Uses:
The Cherokees chewed White Willow twigs or bark
for tonics and for hoarseness, as well as prepared a

poultice from the bark- They concocted a bark tea for
treatment of pain, chills, and fever. They also used
the twigs, bark, and catkins (pussy willows) for herbal
remedies. Even the bark was often ground into flour
and baked into a bread. Other uses included using the
bark and twigs in making baskets and boiling or soaking
the bark in water for washing the hair and encouraging
it to grow (Hamel and Chiltoskey, 1975). They
collected the bark in the spring as sap began to flow
when it was more easily removed.

Grandmother Day shaved the inner bark, simmered
the shavings, and prepared White Willow tea, which was
drunk to reduce fevers. The Catkins from the White
Willow tree, she mixed with other wild, dried flowers
for winter decorations.
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Medical Research:
In 1828, French and German chemists found fresh
White Willow bark contained a chemical, salicin, which

decomposed into salicylic acid in the human body. From
salicin, aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) was created.
Another herb, Meadowsweet, contained the same chemical
(Castleman, 1991). Research found aspirin reduced risk
of heart disease in males and delayed cataract
formation in laboratory animals. It reduced fever,
pain, and inflammation in other studies (Anon, 1988).
For women, White Willow contained enough salicylate to
suppress the action of prostoglandins, which was

involved in menstrual cramps. Recent diabetes studies
have suggested more research has been needed to find
how White Willow has reduced blood sugar (glucose)
level in diabetic humans (Sallie, 1989). Side effects
have included gastrointestinal conditions and stomach
ulcers.
Sources Consulted:
According to Stone (1991) the present day use of
White Willow to relieve certain ailments included
everything from insomnia to rheumatism. Teas have been
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made from the inner bark for the relief of fever,
chills, rheumatic pains, colds, and dysentery. The
leaves have been applied externally on cuts and sores
as an astringent. The Cherokees have also used the
young pliable shoots to weave baskets and as charcoal
pens for drawing.
Defoe, Langdon, Rock (1989) indicated White Willow

trees were rare in the Smoky Mountains but when found
were usually near an old homestead. They were more
common at lower elevations or near the foothills of the
Smoky Mountains.
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WILD CHERRY

Herbal
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Wild Black Cherry

(Prunus serotina)
The Wild Black Cherry tree that has been able to

reach heights of ninety feet has been a beautiful
wooded tree that has flowered from April to June. The
bark was black and rough but reddish beneath, producing

a pleasant aroma. The leaves were oval to lance-
shaped, with brown hairs on the midrib. The branches
supported small clustered, elongated, white flowers

that blossomed in late spring or summer (Foster and
Duke, 1990). In late summer, blackish fruits, the size
of large peas, developed. The tree grew in fertile
soil under full sunlight and has been found in many
areas throughout southwestern Indiana.
History:
The settlers used Wild Black Cherry to treat poor
circulation, lack of appetite, and ailments needing
sedation. They also treated coughs, fevers, colds, and

sore throats with inner bark tea. It has been listed
in US Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to present. The bark was
officially listed for its properties as a sedative and
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use of the cherries as flavoring as well as its
medicinal values in cough medicines (Castleman, 1991).
With the exception of sassafras, there were no more

popular home remedies than those using Wild Black
Cherry (Vogel, 1970). Hoosiers, according to Tyler
(1985), mixed Wild Black Cherry with other herbs and
drank the tea to thin the blood plus used it as a
spring tonic. The cherries were eaten daily to cure
gout: a syrup of Rhubarb and Black Cherry was given

for diarrhea and dysentery, and it was also taken for
jaundice and hepatitis. Even bark tea was drunk to
relieve the discomforts associated with measles.
Cherokee Uses:
To relieve pain in the early stages of labor and
childbirth, Cherokee women were given an herbal tea
prepared from the inner bark of the Wild Black Cherry
tree. The Native Americans seldom experienced
frostbite; they insulated themselves with animal
skins, fat, and oils; however, when frostbite occurred,

boiled leaves and pounded Wild Black Cherry bark were
applied or a decoction was poured over the frostbitten
area (Weiner, 1972). The fresh leaves were steeped in
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water; the tea was drunk for coughs, diarrhea, sore
throats, fever, and indigestion. Wild Black Cherry was
also used to treated hemorrhoids, sores, and burns.
The bark was collected and then peeled in the fall when
it contained the greatest concentration of chemicals
and was highest in medicinal value (Weiner, 1972). The
fresh, black berries were picked in late August or
early September and eaten fresh or dried for future
use. They were also pulverized and combined with dried

meat to be used in soups, for carvings, as lumber, and
for furniture (Hamel and Chiltoskey, 1975).
12A,LisniiI-111MS1111.1
A Day family Wild Cherry cough syrup was made by
using the water from boiled bark, honey, and lemon. If
that did not cure the problem, drinking Grandfather's
Wild Cherry Wine did. Dried Wild Cherry smoked chips
were used to cure meats in the autumn. Since the
cnerries were slightly bitter, they were eaten with
sugar, honey, or molasses and milk. The berries were
also used to make jam or jellies.
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Medical Research:
All parts of the plant, when steeped in water,
duplicated Prunasin, (a Cyanide-like chemical), which

converted to hydrocyanic acid. If boiled, its
medicinal use was destroyed. The fruit pits also
contain hydrocyanic acid, which has the tendency to
cause loss of balance, difficult breathing, and
convulsions. Hydrocyanic acid was also a cyanide-like
poison. Large amounts of Wild Cherry leaves were
sometimes eaten by grazing animals (cattle and horses)
that were especially susceptible to poisoning. The
wilted leaves were very toxic if eaten by man or beast.
Horses developed colic from doing so and often died.
Laboratory animals experienced birth defects; however,
small amounts were considered safe. Bark had to be
peeled for medicinal use (Castleman, 1991).
Sources Consulted:
Stone (1991) stated that the Cherokees have drunk
the Wild Black Cherry bark as a tea to treat diarrhea
and lung ailments. The raw, sour fruit had been eaten
to cause sweating and to reduce fevers. The bark tonic
had been used to expel worms and also had been applied
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externally as a poultice to heal ulcers and abscesses.
Other remedies included Wild Cherry tea flavored with
honey to relieve coughing. The berries have been used

as the main ingredient in Wild Cherry Wine also. For
herbal hair care, a portion of dried cherry bark and

peanut oil had been mixed to make a conditioning oil
for the hair. After having been treated for several
minutes, the hair was shampooed with a Wild Cherry
shampoo, which used dried cherry bark, boiling water,
and a mild soap. Finally, a Wild Cherry herbal rinse

of cherry, bark, water, and lemon had been poured over
the hair several times.
The National Park Service (1992) indicated the
Wild black Cherry was common and dominant throughout
the Smoky Mountains.
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Witch Hazel
(Hamamelis virgihiana)
A perennial, Witch Hazel was a deciduous shrub

that grew eight to fifteen feet in height, dropped its
leaves each autumn, and had twisting stems that forked
into flexible, hairy branches. Bright yellow flowers
appeared in late fall during November and December

after the leaves had dropped and as the fruits of the
previous year had ripened (Weiner, 1972). They had
long, slender petals with a spider-like appearance.
Seeds in the middle of the flower were edible and
compared to hazelnuts. Leaves were wavy-toothed with
scalloped margins and uneven wedge-shaped bases (Foster
and Duke, 1990). Witch Hazel has been found in low
damp woods and moist rich areas with partial shade in

Pike County State Forest and the Harrison-Crawford
State Forest.
History:
The settlers used Witch Hazel for inflammation,
swelling, bruises, and cuts. The forked branches
served as divining rods in searching for water. The
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Latin name referred to Virginia, but the plant has

grown over the entire Eastern part of United States,
including Indiana. The leaves were listed in the ma
Pharmacopoeia from 1862 to 1916 and the National

Formulary as an astringent (Castleman, 1992). Tyler
(1985) listed several Witch Hazel home remedies for
arthritis, rheumatism, and nosebleeds. For the
nosebleeds, Hoosiers crumbled dry Witch Hazel leaves
and stuffed them into the nose. They relieved skin
redness by boiling leaves and bark together and then

applying the mixture to the inflamed areas.
Cherokee Uses:
The Cherokees prepared a leaf and tea concoction

which was rubbed on the legs to keep the muscles limber
and to relieve lameness (Weiner, 1972). Powdered
leaves were made into tea and then drunk to stop

internal bleeding, to prevent miscarriage, to treat
colds, fevers, and sore throats, and to ease menstrual
cramps. Boiled leaves and bark were made into a salve
for cuts, bruises, bites, scalds, burns, inflammations,
and painful tumors. The steam from twigs that were
boiled in water was a treatment used for muscular
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aches, strained backs, painful joints, and eye
inflammations (Vogel, 1970). Leaves, twigs, and bark
were collected and stored throughout the summer months.
The edible seeds were harvested when mature.
The Day family mixed boiled Witch Hazel leaves

with alcohol or whiskey (moonshine) and used this
concoction on sore muscles or strained backs. Great-
Grandfather had a favorite Witch Hazel stick, which he
called upon to find water. He often had much success
finding underground water tables.
Medicat Research:
The chemical, tannin, was an astringent that
constricted blood vessels. Side effects have included
skin rashes and irritation. Several commercial
preparations have used Witch Hazel in extracts,
ointments, and eye washes. It was used as an
astringent for piles, skin toner, and eye problems.
Hemorrhoid salves included Witch Hazel for minor pain
and itching (Millspaugh, 1892).
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Sources Consulted:
According to Stone (1991), Witch Hazel had been a

popular herbal beautify aid when added to vodka and
chamomile. The ingredients were mixed together in a

jar and allowed to stand for several days. It was then
used as an astringent, and applied cold; however, it
was always used externally.

At the Museum of the Cherokee Indian in Cherokee,
North Carolina, a chart of several types of plant usage
indicated that Witch Hazel extract has been widely used

during the present as a skin freshener lotion, and as a
treatment for insect bites, bruises, sore muscles,
scratches, cuts, and rashes. Also, Cherokees have cut
the stems into small petals that resemble flowers.
This has been done by peeling back the bark in small
strips. These attraczive stems have been placed around

their homes as decorations. Witch Hazel was common in
the Smoky Mountains and was found growing in the low to
middle elevations.
15;)
YARROW
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Yarrow
(Achillea millefolium)
Plant Identification;
Yarrow was a hardy perennial, covered with tiny
hairs and soft leathery leaves. Family members have
included the Daisy, Dandelion, and Marigold; other
names used have been Woundwort, Thousand Weed, and Nose
Bleed (Weiner, 1972). Numerous tiny, white, pink or
purple flowers developed into dense clusters that
bloomed from May to October. Each flowerhead had five

petal-like rays (usually wider than long) with three
teeth at top (Wampler, 1988). Stalkless, green leaves
were divided into thousands of tiny leaflets; hence,
its name, Thousand Weed. The fern-like foliage leaves
were long near the base of the plant and shortened
higher on the stem (Foster and Duke, 1990). It grew to
three feet and was found in abandoned fields, along
roadsides, and in waste areas throughout Southwestern
Indiana. Full sunlight was needed for growth.
History:
In Greek times, Achilles crushed Yarrow leaves and
placed them on warriors' wounds; hence, its genetic
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name, Achillea. Also, Millefolium meant thousand-
leaved, Yarrow's other genetic name. Soon after the
colonists introduced Yarrow into America, it spread

quickly, and all Native Americans began to use the herb
(Castleman, 1991). During the Civil War, Yarrow was
known as soldiers' woundwort; it was placed on battle
wounds. Settlers also used Yarrow for bladder
disorders, ulcers, and kidney problems. Dried leaves
and tops were listed in the US Pharmacopoeia from 1863
to 1882 as a stimulant, as a menstruation promoter, and
as a tonic (Vogel, 1970). Tyler (1985) stated that
Hoosiers had used Yarrow for rheumatism, to staunch the
flow of blood from a cut, to relieve colds, and to
treat cuts, abrasions, and bruises. Yarrow was
prepared as a salve, as herbal tea, and as a substance
to be chewed. When chewed, the leaves were also packed
around a tooth to relieve toothaches and gum problems.
Cherokee Uses:
The Cherokees crushed dried leaves, prepared a
salve and applied the salve on wounds to stop bleeding
(Weiner, 1972). Sometimes crushed fresh leaves were
used as a poultice for skin sores, skin rashes,
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hemorrhoids, and nosebleeds. An herbal tea was used
for sweat-inducing qualities, for reducing fevers, and
for the relief of colds and flu. Hamel and Chiltoskey
(1975) wrote that the leaves were an astringent and

Cherokees used it for hemorrhages, spitting blood,
bloody piles, bloody urine, and bowel complaints. The
Native Americans used the Common Yarrow for many
ailments. The leaves were harvested when plants were
in bloom, usually May to October. They were then used
fresh or dried in partial shade and stored for later
use (Olds, 1975).

Grandmother Day prepared a salve by crushing the
leaves and mixing them with rendering lard or "hog
fat". This salve was placed on small wounds,
scratches, and sores. She sometimes used the fresh,
crushed leaves to stop bleeding.
Medical Research:
Research has found that Yarrow contained a dark
blue oil, cineol, which had stimulating properties
(Weiner, 1972). Over 100 chemical compounds were
identified from this plant. Some of theses have
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included achilletin and achilleine that were blood
coagulators and hemorrhage controllers. Camphor,
menthol, rutin, and salicylic were anti-inflammatory
and pain-relieving. Tannins, terpineol, and cineol
were antiseptic. Over one hundred biologically active
compounds have been identified with this plant
(Castleman, 1991). One limited study indicated Yarrow
protected the liver from toxic chemical damage. In
some cases, Yarrow caused dermatitis, in others it
caused the urine to turn dark brown. In some cases,
physiological side effects have caused burning,
considerable pain in the abdomen, and diarrhea
(Millspaugh, 1892).
Soprces Consulted:
According to Stone (1991) Yarrow mixed with
alcohol or vodka and a few drops of tincture of

benzolin made an excellent astringent that was
externally placed on the skin when it was cold.
Another Yarrow use had been an herbal steam facial.
Yarrow and chamomile flowers were mixed with boiling
water in a large bowl. The face was placed near the
steam and the moisture absorbed for a facial uplift.
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Finally, dried yarrow flowers, rosemary leaves, and

peanut oil were mixed together for a skin conditioning
oil.
The National Park Service (1992) indicated Yarrow

was found frequently and in a wide range of elevations
throughout the Smoky Mountains. It was very common
around Cherokee, North Carolina.
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Yellow Root
(Xanthorhiza simplicissima)
Elant_l_den
A low growing hardy shrub, Yellow Root was in some
areas called Goldenseal but it was a different plant
from Goldenseal (Foster and Duke, 1990). Yellow Root
belonged to the Buttercup family and acquired its name
from the thick deep-yellow roots with yellowish bark.

The five cleft, toothed leaflets were on long stalks,
and the light brown-purple flowers were beautiful
(Wampler, 1988). Yellow Root has grown up to two feet
in height and has usually been found in colonies on
shady stream banks and moist woods or thickets.
Lincoln State Park was the area in which it was found
for this study.
History:
Yellow Root was used as a stomach remedy by the
settlers. It was entered in the US Pharmacopoeia from
1820 to 1882 as a tonic (Vogel, 1970). Tyler (1985)
stated that Hoosiers combined Yellow Root with other
herbs and used this mixture as a blood thinner. Root
tea was drunk to improve the appetite and the digestion
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and to relieve stomach ailments. The Hoosiers also
chewed Yellow Root to relieve sore mouths and canker
sores.
Cherokee Uses:
The Cherokees boiled the roots and made a root tea
that was used as a blood tonic, as a remedy for stomach

ailments, colds, jaundice, cramps, sore throats,
menstrual disorders, and the relief of constipation as
well as a rinse for mouth sores (Vogel, 1970). The
Cherokees used the root's yellow pigment as a dye. The
roots were sometimes chewed to relieve many ailments
instead of drinking the prepared tea. Yellow Root was
also used as an astringent for piles (hemorrhoids). A
decoction, made from the root, was given for pain in
childbirth (Weiner, 1972). Hamel and Chiltoskey (1975)
noted that the Cherokees used Yellow Root as a tonic,
as a poultice for sore eyes, as a tea for nerves, and
as crushed leaves for cancer. Roots were collected
during the late summer months, sliced and dried in the

shade, then stored in a dry, cool place (Olds, 1975).
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The Day family used Yellow Root extract for yellow

dye, Bloodroot for red dye, and onions for brown dye.
Eggs were dyed with these natural colors for children
during the Easter holidays. Grandmother also prepared
a "gargle" or "mouthwash" from Yellow Root tea for sore
throats and mouth sores.
Medical R9search:
Yellow Root contained the chemical, berberine, an

anti-inflammatory chemical. Yellow Root, when given to
experimental animals, produced a drop in blood
pressure. Other studies showed berberine stimulated
secretion of bile and was useful in treating patients

with liver cirrhosis (Foster and Duke, 1990).
Sources Consulted:
From early times to the present day, Yellow Root
tea has been used extensively by the Cherokees for sore
mouths, sore throats, or stomach problems. Mr.
Kingfisher (Talhlequah, OK) indicated that the tea was

prepared from beaten, pulverized, and dry roots.
Several Oklahoma Cherokee Clans have continued to make
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a root dye that has been used for coloring baskets and
for making home decorations.

According to Walkingstick (1993), the Cherokees
have continued to prepare a Yellow Root tea as a
medicinal remedy for stomach ailments, colds, sore
throats, and mouth sores. The yellow dye for baskets
and decorations was obtained by boiling the basket

splints with th:,s dye source as indicated on the plant
chart at the Museum of the Cherokee Indian, Cherokee,
North Carolina. Yellow Root was found frequently in low

to middle elevations in the Smoky Mountains.
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CONCLUSION
The people of the Cherokee Indian Nation suffered

from many illnesses and diseases. They used mostly
plants and spiritual guidance to treat their health
problems. The early settlers used many of the remedies
that they had learned from the Cherokees, but several
of the remedies were not recorded and had been lost,
ignored, forgotten, or altered with the passage of
time. The Cherokee herbal methods of treatment were

based on experiments, trial and error, and reasoning.
Some remedies were useless but usually rational and
often effective. An astonishing number of Native

American drugs and treatments have proved to be of
enormous value. The Day family used plants and herbs

for medicinal purposes up to the time of the discovery
of penicillin and other antibiotics. The nearest
doctor and hospital was several miles from their home;
therefore, the family depended on the natural
environment for medicinal cures. As a child, the
author remembers seeing dried herbs hanging in various

places, crushed or pulverized herbs stored in jars, and
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other herbs being used daily either as teas, salves, or
poultices. The author has used her grandparents

"cures" and has found them most effective on animals
and humans.
Certain herbs and plants have been adopted by the
pharmacopeias and have currently been tested; an

example would be the use of St. Johns Wort for
treatment of AIDS, and Mayapple for small-cell lung
cancer. Herbs have become a very important and

integral part of modern medicine. Many over-the-
counter drugs of "modern medicine" have contained as
active ingredients herbs that have been chemically
synthesized and mass-produced. Perhaps more use,
research, and knowledge of Cherokee natural herbal
remedies would replace more of the synthetic compounds
that have occurred in many prescription drugs. Often
use of natural remedies has proved to be safer than use
of synthetic ones. Unfortunately, most American plants
have yet to be investigated in terms of pharmacology,
chemistry, and medicinal cures. Often studies that
have been several Years old have represented the latest
available information on herbs. Little has been done
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in such research in the United States. Most of the

research has been conducted in Germany, Eastern Europe,
and Asia. Updated and more current research has been
needed by American scientists.
As of January 6, 1993, the National Institute of

Health has recognized the importance and the use of
herbal medicine as a form of treatment for certain
types of illnesses. The institute also encouraged
further study and research on various plants for

medical value.
Because of dwindling natural resources, educators
have had to teach a deeper appreciation of plant usage,
encourage a commitment to conservation of these plants,

and help people gain a deeper sense of their
relationship to their environment and to the natural
world. Hopefully, mankind, including educators, will
promote an interest in the conservation, collection,

identification, preservation, and healing properties of
herbs.
Old herbal cures and remedies, better treatments,
greater appreciation of Cherokee cultural heritage, and

knowledge of Cherokee Herbal Remedies will add a new
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dimension and appreciation to people's lives.
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CHAPTERIII
CHEROKEE HERBAL REMEDIES
FACULTY CURRICULUM HANDBOOK
AND
LESSON PLANS
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CHEROXEE HERBAL REMEDIES
CURRICULUM GUIDE
This guide is an accelerated course outline

designed for students who are interested in plant
identification, conservation, history, Cherokee uses,
and current developments and research of herbal
medicinal uses. It is designed to foster the
cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. The
curriculum is structured for a two day workshop--6
hours per day. Learning occurs as students actively

participate in field experiences, by the process of
inquiry, by critical thinking techniques, by playing
games, and through small group discussions.
170
COURSE TEXT,REFERENCES
AND EVALUATION
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Cherokee Herbal Remedies
COURSE TEXT
Several references will be reviewed and studied.
There is no single textlaok. In addition, students may
use literature from the sciences, anthropology,
history, and other sources, such as medical journals,
pamphlets, and oral experience. There is much material

that contains excellent advice and knowledge on plants,
herbs, and herbal remedies.
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EVALUATION
Evaluation of this course will be by student and
instructor evaluation of the cognitive, affective, and

psychomotor domains. The evaluations will include in-
class and field experiences participation, knowledge
exercises, and plant identification skills, techniques,

and effectiveness.
Student self-evaluation 25%
Instructor evaluation 25%
Participation and exercises 25%

in skills and techniques
Improvement in identification skills, 25%

knowledge, and techniques
Broken down into percentages:
90 - 100 = A range
80 - 89 = B range
70 - 19 = C range
60 - 69 = D range
Below 60 = F
A = Superior B- = Good D+ Below average

A- = Excellent C+ = High average D = Poor
8+ = Outstanding C = Average D- = Near failure
B = Very good C- = Low average F = Failure
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LESSON PLANS
FACULTY
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LESSON PLAN
SESSION ONE
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LESSON PLANS
FACULTY
SESSION ONE: (approximately two hours)

Objectives:
A. The instructor and students will participate in

the activities that introduce them to one another.
B. The instructor and students will understand the
goals objectives, and evaluation procedures of-
the class.
C. The instructor and students will discuss safety
procedures, poisonous and nonpoisonous plants, and

first aid techniques to follow during field
experiences.
D. The instructor and students will discuss the use

of plants throughout history and current uses of
plants.
E. The student will have knowledge concerning how
plants were selected, and the parts used.
F. The student will participate in laboratory

experiences with preparation of plants into teas,
poultices, and salves.
Equipment and Materials:
A. Curriculum Handbook, name tags, plant pictures for
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game scavenger hunt, and examples of plants.
(Dried and fresh)
Procedures:
A. Introductions, energizers, and distribution of

name tags.
1. Introduction of students and instructor

2. Students discuss what they want to accomplish
during the course.
3. Play energizer games.
B. Students and instructor will discuss course

philosophy, references, and learning outcomes.
C. Students will be prepared to read curriculum guide

and discuss, articulate, comment, and ask
questions concerning:
1. How animals and man have used plants as
medicine throughout the ages.

2. How people have used herbs with medicinal
chemicals daily without realizing the values

of such plants.
3. What four major traditions are included in

herbal healing.
4. How many plants have medical value for humans

and how many prescriptions have contained a
drug from a natural plant source.
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5. How early settlers came to America and the
remedies they used that were gotten from the
Native Americans.
6. Where valuable information on Indian Herbal

Remedies was recorded and used.
D. The instructor and students will review how the

Native Americans decided which plants were
valuable, useful, and worthwhile.
1. "Doctrine of Signatures"
2. Trial and Error, tasting, sniffing.
3. Relying on the supernatural
E. Class discussion on what parts of the plants were
used for medicinal purposes.
1. Bark
2. Stems
3. Roots
4. Seeds
5. Fruits
6. Nuts
7. Flowers
8. Leaves
F. Discussion on Native American expertise on

gathering, storing, preparing, and utilizing the
different plant species.
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1. Annual plants
2. Biennial herbs
3. Different seasons
4. Dried plants
5. Fresh state
6. Exposure to light, dry, cool places

7. Time of process
8. When bark was gathered

9. Why flowers were used infrequently
10. Time fruits were picked
11. When seeds were harvested
12. Time nuts were collected and stored
13. How roots and stems were gathered
14. How herbs were preserved
G. Instructor and students will examine and have
knowledge about several dried herbs. They will
also participate in a laboratory experiment
involving preparation of plants by:
1. Infusion
2. Decoction
3. Fermentation
4. Poultice
5. Plaster
6. Salves
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H. End of First Two Hour Session: 15 minute break.
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LESSON PLAN
SESSION TWO
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Cherokee Herbal Pemedies
LESSON PLAN
FACULTY
SESSION TWO: (approximately two hours)
Objectives:
A. The instructor and students will review and answer

any questions concerning information taught in
first sessions.
B. The _instructor and students will review history of
the Cherokee Nation.
C. The instructor and students will discuss plant

identification, history, Cherokee Uses, Day Family
Remedies, and medical uses of herbs and plants.

D. The instructor and students will discuss recent
experiments and studies that have been done.
E. The instructor will caution the student that this
course is for the purpose of studying different
herbs and identifying certain plants but is not a
class for medical purposes.
F. The students will participate in games and

activities that will enhance their knowledge of
plants and herbs.
A. Herbal Word Search Game and Herbal Password
Sheets, Curriculum Guide, pencils, and plants.
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Hog and bear fat. Containers for preparing herbal
teas, salves, and poultices.
Procedures:
A. Are there any questions concerning the previous

session's information and laboratory experiment?
B. The class will begin discussions on Native

American spiritual guidance, Medicine Man,
paraphernalia, and charms.
1. Ideas, concepts, and uses of plants
2. Medicine Man (Shaman)

3. Paraphernalia, equipment
a. Special costumes
b. Medicine Bundle
c. Charms
d. Medicine Stick
e. Mortar and pestle for mixing

f. Syringe
g. Medicinal Herb Bag
h. Plant Strength Ceremonies
i. Patient Faith
j. Prayers and Ceremcnies
C. The class will cover knowledge of the Cherokees

during the 19th century to present time.
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1. Farmed, raised cattle, owned slaves, and
raised cotton
2. Became Christians
3, Villages
4. Sequoyah
a. Invented alphabet
b. Written language
5. Bilingual newspaper 1828
6. Lands coveted by Whites
a. Georgia
b. Alabama
c. Mississippi
d. Florida
e. North Carolina
f. South Carolina
7. Five civilized tribes included:
a. Cherokee
b. Chickasaw
c. Choctaw
d. Creek
e. Seminole
8. Removal to Western territory; Oklahoma

a. President Jackson--1838
b. 60 thousand Native Americans
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c. Trail of Tears
9. Cherokee Village, North Carolina
a. Escapes
10. Establishment of three-part government

a. Executive Branch
b. Legislative Branch
c. Judicial Branch
11. Mastering Reservation Life

a. Drafted new Constitution--1839
b. 1840 Implemented at Tahlequah, OK.
c. Public schools
d. Cherokee Advocate
D. General discussion of Plant Identification,
History, Cherokee Uses, Day Family Remedies, and
Medical Research,
1. Twenty-five plants to be disc,Issed
a. Common and Botanical names
b. Descriptions
c. Location
2. History of Plant
a. Past use
b. Records
c. Remedies
d. Usage
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3. Cherokee Uses and Day Family Remedies
a. Medicinal uses
b. Harvesting, gathering, conserving,
preparing, storing.
c. Parts of plants used
d. Different ailments/diseases
4. Medical Research
a. Chemical components
b. Experiments and Studies
c. Warnings; Safety
5. Consulted Sources
a. Present time
b. New uses
E. Pass out game called, "Herbal Word Search". This
will familiarize the students with the name of
plants.
F. Have students note the different charts in
curriculum guide that can be used as a reference
guide during active participation of games and
activities.
G. Use the Overhead to Identify the different plants
and what to look for during the field experiences
sessions 5 and 6. Also show colored pictures
found in different textbooks.
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H. End of Second Two Hour Session: 15 minute break.
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LESSON PLAN
SESSION THREE
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LESSON PLAN
FACULTY
THIRD SESSION: (approximately 1 1/2 hours)
Objectives:
A. The instructor and students will review and answer

any questions concerning information given to the
class during the 1st and 2nd sessions.
B. The instructor and students will continue to
participate in discussion, clarification, and
identification of the twenty-five plants that will

be hunted during field experiences.
C. The instructor and students will review the
overhead charts of the different plants and will

continue to stress the environmental areas where
the plants can be found.
D. The instructor and students will review and
discuss proper attire, first aid, and snacks for

field experiences.
E. The students will play games to enhance'and
reinforce their knowledge of the plants studied.

F. The students will further their knowledge and
experiences by studying the curriculum guide prior
to the next session.
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G. The instructor and students will share experiences
of family remedies that had been handed down

through their families.

A. Curriculum Handbook, overhead projector, overhead
charts, photographs of plants, wild plant
identification charts, examples of books, and

games and activities.
Procedures:
A. Allow time if there are any class questions or

discussions concerning the twenty-five plants that
were shown on the overhead.
B. Have students play the game Herbal Password to
reinforce and be able to identify the plants they
will be studying and hunting during field
experience.
C. The instructor and students will continue to

discuss plant identification. The instructor and
the students will also refer to the Curriculum
Guide on History, Cherokee Uses, Day Family
Remedies, Medical Research, and Sources consulted.
The twenty-five plants will be covered.

1. The charts in the back of the Curriculum
Guide will be used as references.
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D. Encourage the students to give examples of herbal
home remedies that have been handed down through

their families.
E. The instructor will cover proper procedures in

case of an accident.
F. The instructor will also cover the proper attire
needed for field experiences.
G. Have students play the game Blackboard Herbal
Baseball.
H. End of Third Session. Tell students the time to

meet, where, and to bring a notebook, snacks,
water, pen, pencil, Curriculum Guide, camera, and

enthusiasm.
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LESSON PLAN
SESSION FOUR
1
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LESSON PLAN
FACULTY
FOURTH SESSION: (approximately 30 - 45 minutes)
Objectives:
A. The instructor c.nd students will discuss, clarify,
and review benefits, values, shoes, clothing, risk

factors, safety, and emergencies.
B. The students will participate, practice, and apply
skills and techniques in hunting certain plants.
C. The instructor and students will review what
characteristics to look for in poisonous plants.
D. The student will understand the value of plants
and proper harvesting of plants; how the Native

American valued the environment.
E. The students and instructor will cooperate,
enhance, and enjoy working with one another in

finding and studying the different species of
plants.
A. First Aid kit
B. Curriculum Guide, charts, notebook, recording

sheets, camera.
C. Food, drink, and containers.
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Procedures:
A. Continue review, classroom discussions, analysis,
participation, safety factors, terminology, and

answer any questions concerning previous session
presentations.
B. Review with students how to find plants--the

techniques and skills to follow.
1. Remember "leaves of three" leave them be.

C. Continue to discuss the knowledge and attitudes
about the purpose and values of herbal remedies.
Discuss leaving plants as they are. The Native
Americans believed in protecting the environment.

D. Explain where students are meeting for field
experiences. Divide the group into partners.
Explain approximately how long it will take to get

there.
E. Have students keep a complete and careful record

of any problems, changes, and recommendations they
might wish to discuss during the evaluation
session.
F. Store snacks, water and food properly in

containers.
G. Good luck on finding the plants discussed.
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LESSON PLAN
SESSION FIVE
a?0/
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190
LESSON PLAN
FACULTY
FIFTH SESSION: (approximately 4 1/2 to 5 hours)
Objectives:
A. The students will have reviewed the skills and

techniques necessary for finding the different
plants.
B. The students will continue to review, discuss,
implement, and have fun, enjoyment, recreation,

and friendships while participating in hunting
plants.
C. The instructor and students will continue to up-
date, compensate, and review the different

problems in finding certain plants.
D. The students will travel as a group to the
designated field experience area.
E. The studeats will have acquired skills and
techniques that will be used in the field

experiences.
A. Same as Session Three

Procedures:

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191
A. Have students continue to apply the knowledge,
skills, techniques, and courtesies learned in
previous sessions.
B. Have students continue to review and apply

techniques used to overcome any problems that
developed during participation.
C. Continue to encourage students to have fun,

enjoyment, recreation, and friendships while
hunting for the many variety of plants.
D. Have students in a group type participation

experiences developed by the instructor that
combines all of the knowledge previously discussed
and/or studied.
E. Continue to have students practice finding the

different plants, and as a group, or individually
with the instructor, evaluate the programs of the

students as well as their efforts, skills, and
techniques.
F. Have students take a 15-20 minute break, have a
snack, and have a "show and tell" time.
G. After the break, continue to look for the various
plants.
H. At the end of the session, have everyone bring
their experiences, laboratory projects, and
20:5
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assessments for evaluation during the following
session.
I. Everyone meets at a specific time and travels as a
group back to the classroom.
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LESSON PLAN
SESSION SIX
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194
LESSON PLAN
FACULTY
SIXTH SESSION: (approximately 1/2 hour)
Objectives:
A. The instructor and students will comment, exchange
ideas, and have classroom discussion concerning
previous field experiences.
B. The students will discuss the evaluation
procedures.
C. The instructor and students will prepare a

constructive evaluation and critical analysis of
course activities.
A. Curriculum Guide, skill sheets, written comments,
and grade sheets.
B. The plant check sheets and some plants that were
observed or found.
Procedures:
A. The instructor and students discuss grading as

determined by evaluation procedures.
B. The instructor and students will write down and

verbally include comments, ideas, suggestions, and
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criteria that might improve the quality of the
course.
C. Have discussion of all problems students
encountered while searching for the different
plants. Try to extend help for the students with

any particular problems that they found. Include
fellow class members comments or suggestions on

the way they solved the problem. Encourage peer
tutoring as this often accounts for 90% of the
learning.
D. Closure of th, session. Anything students wish to
discuss concerning any aspect of the course.
Continue to encourage them to practice and
participate, studying, and finding the different
plants, and to practice good conservation.
Remember the Native Americans practiced good

environmental techniques.
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APPENDICES
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197
PLANT/HERB
FIELD EXPERIENCE
STUDENT CHECK SHEET
This is the checklist on twenty-five identified plants
and herbs. A ( ) will identify that the plant was
found.
Location Where Found
1. Black Cohosh or Squawroot
2. Bloodroot or Pucoon
3. Boneset or Thoroughwort
4. Burdock or Common Great
5. Catnip
6. Comfrey
7. Dandelion
8. Garlic
9. Goldenseal
10. Mayapple
11. Milkweed or Common
12. Mistletoe
13. Patridgeberry or Squaw Vine
14. Pennyroyal
15. Senna or American Wild
16. Skullcap
17. Snakeroot
18. Spikenard
19. St. Johns Wort
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20. Uva Ursi or Bearberry
21. White Willow

22. Wild Black Berry
23. Witch Hazel
24. Yarrow
25. Yellow Root
Comments:
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SCAVENGER HUNT
MIXER/ENERGIZER
Find a person who has the following and have that
person sign your sheet. Use a person's name only once.
The one getting the most names within 5 minutes
receives a prize.
1. Red Lipstick
2. Blue Eyes
3. Brown Belt
4. Drummer 1y Quarter
5. Paper Clip
6. Ford Car Key

7. Yellow Paper
8. Papermate Pen
9. Timex Watch
10. Picture of Husband (Wife)
11. Brown Eyes
12. First Name with Initial A

13. Black Shoes
14. From County
15. Gold Wedding Ring
16. Clipboard
17. Hairpin
18. Lucky Piece
19. Calendar
20. Comb
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21. Blue Shirt
22. Shoe Lace (white)
23. Coin Purse
24. Red Purse/Billfold
25. Pinkie Ring
26. Person with 4 or more children
27. Envelope
28. Key Chain
29. Rain Cap
30. Silver Glasses
31. Class Ring
32. Rebok Tennis Shoes
33. Pink Fingernail Polish
34. Emery Board
35. Stick of Chewing Gum
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HERBAL WORD SEARCH
DESCRIPTION:
Everyone competes to see who can find the most
words in the shortest time. After finding the

word, that person also needs to identify the herb.
The winner is the person who can find and identify
the most plants/herbs.
DIRECTIONS:
1. Set a time limit; 10 to 15 minutes.
2. Find words horizontally, diagonally, and
vertically. The words can also be found forward
and backward.
3. Have participants draw a line or circle the word
when they find it.

CHEROKEE
HERBAL WORD SEARCH
B CILRAGOLDENSEALPL
E AXVIPTOORDOOLBAEB
AFSPIKENARDEDULZNC
RGSYARROWJLNRPAQNX
B NNYHIKMWORDSHCTYC
E OAAEZYBHUOVHSKWRV
RIKEBLDLICHCIKCHOB
RLEFGKLOTJTLMUHSYA
YERFMOCOEIOUQLEOAW
TDOSWPCDWNEFGLRHLE
ANOVJAARIRDRHCROUO
B ATXTONOLPOESAYCXT
CDLNKNNOLDROEPTKIE
MZITESENOBCATWYCBL
B PYAI OSFWUTVMZKACT
YRREBEGDIRTRAPDLFS
ZELPPAYAMKCODRUBII
W INTERGREENXMEGOOM
BEARBERRY CATNIP MILKWEED SNAKEROOT
BLACK CHERRY COMFREY MISTLETOE SPIKENARD
BLACK COHOSH DANDELION PARTRIDGEBERRY WHITE WILLOW
BLOODROOT GARLIC PENNYROYAL WINTERGREEN
BONESET GOLDENSEAL SENNA WITCHHAZEL
BURDOCK MAYAPPLE SKULLCAP YARROW YELLOWROOT
CHEROKEE
HERBAL WORD SEARCH

c
AXVIPTOO-RDOOLBA
FSPIKENARDEDU L V C
G Y---A----Fk--RO--WJLNR P Q IV X
H I K M A 1 O R D S C T Y C
YBiU0 V KWRV
E B DLICH C 0 B
F G K. 0 1r J LM B Y A
7. . : O U Q E. A W
T S W P D NEF G F L
A S V J R R H F S U
B X 0 0 L X
Cv L KNNOLDR T I
M C A Y S B
B Y A I OS F WU T VM Z C
YRREJJEGDIRTRA-PD F
ZELPPAYAH K-
W INTERG-REENXMEGO 0
BEARBERRY CATNIP MILKWEED SNAKEROOT
MACK CHERRY COMFREY MISTLETOE SPIKENARD
BLACK COHOSH DANDELION PARTRIDGEBERRY WHITE WILLOW
BLOODROOT GARLIC PENNYROYAL WINTERGREEN
BONESET GOLDENSEAL SENNA WITCHHAZEL
BURDOCK MAYAPPLE SKULLCAP YARROW YELLOWROOT
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HERBAL PASSWORD
DESCRIPTION:
Two teams compete to see who can score the most

points. Teammates give one member of their team clues
to assist the member in coming up with the correct
answer. The first team to guess the password by

putting together the various clues gets the point.
DIRECTIONS:
1. Place two chairs in front of the class with
the backs facing chalkboard or flip chart.

2. Divide the class into two equal teams, and
have one person from each team sit in a chair,
facing his/her team.
3. Alternate the team that starts each round

since this makes an important difference in
the game.
4. Be sure the two participants in the chairs

face the group before the Instructor writes
the first word on the board.
5. Start with 10 points and Team A. Have Team A
give one-word clues. If Team A participant
guesses correctly, Tuam A is awarded 10
points. If incorrect, round goes to Team B
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for 9 points and so-forth until the word is
guessed or until there are no more points.
6. After a word is guessed, have two new people

sit in the chairs. Write a new word on the
board and start again.
7. NOTE: Only one-word clues may be given, and

no part of the word may be uscld in the clue.
HERBAL UNIT PASSWORDS:

1. Catnip 14. Bearberry
2. Skullcap 15. Goldenseal
3. Partridgeberry 16. Senna
4. Bloodroot 17. Snakeroot
5. Mistletoe 18. St. Johns Wort
6. Spikenard 19. Yarrow
7. Boneset 20. White Willow
8. Black Cherry 21. Comfrey
9. Mayapple 22. Witch Hazel
10. Dandelion 23. Milkweed
11. Pennyroyal 24. Yellowroot
12. Black Cohosh 25. Burdock
13. Garlic
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BLACKBOARD HERBAL BASEBALL
DESCRIPTION:
Participants knowledge of herbal topics can be
measured by their success in scoring runs in a game

with a baseball format. They are given questions that
differ in difficulty to determine a single, double,
triple, or home run. The object of the game is to
score the most runs by correctly answering herbal
questions of different degrees of difficulty.
DIRECTIONS:
1. Divide the class into two equal teams; such as
plants and herbs.
2. Draw a baseball diamond on the chalkboard or
fe.tboard.
3. Questions are categorized as single, double,
triple, and home run, ranging from simple to
very difficult questions.
4. Start with the plant group. Ask them to
choose a single, double, triple, or home run
question. They confer for 10 seconds, and
then they give their answer.
5. If correct and "x" is placed b first base for
a single question, by second base for a double
question, and by third base for a triple
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question. If a home run question is answered
correctly, the team gets a run.
6. There is only one out per side. This happens
when a team misses a question or gives an

incorrect answer. Erase any runners left on
base.
7. To keep the game simple, move all players the

same number of bases when a question is
answered correctly.
8. If a category of questions runs out, then play
with the remaining categories.
9. Place all incorrectly answered questions back

in the pile for future use, and place the
correctly answered questions aside.
$ INGLES
1. The Indians used a process called what to

decide which plants were valuable, useful, and
worthwhile? ("Doctrine of Signature")
2. When was the bark usually gathered? (When it
slipped easily away from the trunk)
3. What part of the bark was most often used?
(Inner layer)
4. Leaves were often collected before what
occurred? (Blooming)
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5. Generally, seeds were harvested when? (Before
seed pods opened)
6. What was the most common way of preparing
herbs? (Infusion)
7. What was a common food added to improve taste
if herbal remedy was too bitter? (Honey)
8. To reduce swelling, a paste was applied
directly to the skin. This preparation was
called what? (Poultice)
9. What was made by mixing and blending powdered

herbs with types of animal fat or beeswax, and
cooking this mixture for a couple of hours?
(Salve)
10. Another name for the Native American Medicine
Man was what? (Shaman)
11. What was the forced march of the Five

Civilized Tribes called? .(Trail of Tears)
12. What year did the Cherokees accept United
States citizenship? (1906)
13. What was another name for Black Cohosh?
(Squawroot)
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14. Another common name for Black Cohosh besides

Squawroot, since it emitted an unpleasant
order that repelled insects, was what?
(Bugwort)
15. Another name for Bloodroot was what?
(Puccoon)
16. What did Bloodroot's genus name (Sanguinari)
mean? (Bloody)
17. Medically, Bloodroot had what kind of action?
(Laxative)
18. Another name for Boneset was what? (Common
Thoroughwort)
19. Boneset was used as a herb for dengue,
commonly called what? (Breakbone fever)
20. On each Burdock stem, what color of flowers

were found that produced burrs? (Purplish)
21. This herb was included in the (and was also
known as Catmint or Catswort, what was it?
(Catnip)
22. Catnip, medically possesses a chemical,
nepetalactone, which was a mild what?
(Sedative)
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23. Other names for this herb were All-heal,
Knitbone, or Bruisewort. What was it?
(Comfrey)
24. When the Fomans boiled then pounded comfrey

roots in water, the mixture was a sticky paste
that hardened like what? (Plaster)
25. The roots of the dandelion were dried,
roasted, then boiled in water. This tea was
used as a substitute for what? (Coffee)
26. Name the world's second oldest medicine, after

ephedra. (Garlic)
27. Goldenseal was also known as Golden root or
what? (Indian Paint)
28. The Cherokees favored Goldenseal as what?
(Insect repellant or insecticide)
29. This plant was also known as Indian Apple, or
Devil's Apple. What was it? (Mayapple)
30. During the present time, gardeners used this

plant as a natural insecticide. What was it?
(Mayapple)
31. Mayapple plants were used in large doses by
some people to do what? (Commit suicide)
32. Other common names for the milkweed are what?

(Cottonweed or Wild Cotton)
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33. This parasite plant was best known as the

plant under which people kissed at Christmas.
What was it? (Mistletoe)
34. Another name for Partridgeberry was what?
(Squaw Vine)
35. This herb was hung in dried bunches to drive
away mosquitoes. What was it? (Pennyroyal)
36. American Wild Senna was also called what? It
was also used as a strong laxative or

cathartic. (Cassia)
37. This plant was reported to be effective
against rabies. What was it? (Skullcap)
38. People who drank milk from cattle that had
eaten the root of this plant acquired the
condition "milk sickness". Abraham Lincoln's
mother, Nancy Hanks, was reported to have died

from this disease. What was the root?
(Snakeroot)
39. What plant was studied for its anti-
inflammatory and antibacterial properties
against AIDS? (St. Johns Wort)
40. The common name for Uva Ursi was what?

(Bearberry)
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DOUBLES
1. To make a syringe for injecting medicine into
wounds or administering an enema, what was
used? (Hollow bone of a small bird and a
bladder of a small animal)

2. How many Native Americans were rounded up and
moved west under military guard, and how many
Cherokees survived this force march? (60,000
and 14,000)
3. What have been the two major places of

residence of the present day Cherokees?
(Cherokee Village, NC, Tahlequah, OK)
4. Soon after the forced march, the Cherokees
rallied and established, and had operating how
many public schools by what year? (18 by
1843)
5. What year did the Cherokees draft a new
constitution and what year was it implemented?
(1839 and 1840)
6. When were Black Cohosh roots (Squawroot,
Bugwort) collected? (September or early fall
after fruits had ripened)
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7. There were several uses for the Bloodroot;
however, the two most common were as a what
and what? (Dye and insecticide)
8. What were the two types of Burdock? (Common--
arctium minus and Great--arctium lappa)
9. What were two species of the perennial
Snakeroot? (Senega and Black Sanicle)
10. From salicin, acetylsalicylic acid was
created. What was this common product?
(Aspirin)
TRIPLES
1. Name the president who ordered the Five
Civilized Tribes to move to a Western
territory, the state it is today, and the year
the order was issued? (President Jackson,
Oklahoma, 1838)
2. The Cherokees rebuilt their society and
restored a three-part government. What were
the three-parts? (Executive, Legislative, and
Judicial Branch)
3. Pennyroyal was included in the mint family and
was otherwise known as what? (Tickweed,
Fleabone, and Squawmint)
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4. Bearberry Tea was used by the Cherokees as
what? (Astringent, diuretic, urinary tract
antiseptic)
5. What was the chemical found in White Willow

when twigs were chewed or prepared tea was
drunk? It relieved pain, reduced.fever, and
decreased inflammation. (Salicin, which
decomposed into salicylic acid in the human
body)
HOME RUN
1. Name and describe the different ways of
preparing herbs for medical uses? (Infusion,
decoction, fermentation, poultice, plaster,
salve)
2. The Native American Medicine Man, also called
the Shamam, was many things. Describe these.
(Healer, sorcerer, seer, educator, priest)
3. Who were the five civilized tribes?
(Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek,
Seminole)
4. Skullcap has been called several different
names. What were these terms? (Mad-dog,
Skullcap, Quaker Bonnet, Mad-dog Weed)
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5. Spikenard was used as a remedy for several
conditions. Describe four purposes. (Blood
purifier, lung ailment, asthma, rheumatism,
backaches, stimulant)
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FIRST AID REVIEW SHEET
HEAT STROKE, CRAMPS, HEAT EXHAUSTION

A. Heat Stroke is characterized by extremely high
body temperature and no sweating.

1. A life-threatening emergency.
2. Skin is hot, red, and dry.
3. Pulse is rapid and strong.
4. Victim may lose consciousness.

5. First Aid.
a. Sponge bare skin with cool water or

alcohol.
b. Fan the victim to promote cooling.
c. Do not give stimulants.
d. Get medical help.
B. Heat cramps.
1. Heat cramps involve muscular pains and

spasms.
a. Muscles of the legs and abdomen are

usually affected first.
2. First Aid
a. Massage the area affected by
"milking" the muscle towards the
heart.
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C. Heat exhaustion is characterized by fatigue,
weakness, or collapse due to inadequate intake of

water or loss of body minerals.
1. Usually normal body temperature.
2. Pale and clammy skin.
3. Profuse perspiration.
4. Sometimes nausea, dizziness, or vomiting.

5. First Aid
a. Have victim lie down.
b. Loosen clothing.
c. Apply cool, wet clothes.
d. Get medical help.
INSECT BITES
A. Ants, bees, wasps, hornets, and yellow jackets'
stings may cause an acute allergic reaction.
1. May be excruciating pain, nausea,

vomiting, abdominal pain, shock,
convulsions or coma, and swelling around

the face, hands, and limbs; may
be difficulty in breathing; a rash may

develop.
2. First Aid
a. Check vital sign, airway open,
breathing, circulation.

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b. Keep affected part down below level
of victims heart.
c. Apply ice or cold clothes to affected
area.
B. Bites or stings from mosquitoes, gnats, and
chiggers often produce local pain and irritation,
but are not likely to cause severe reactions.
1. First Aid
a. Cold application.
b. Soothing lotions.
c. Prevention includes several sprays.
C. Ticks can transmit diseases, namely Rocky Mountain

Spotted Fever and Lymes disease. They adhere to
the skin or scalp.
1. First Aid
a. Cover tick with heavy oil.
b. Carefully remove with tweezers.
c. Tape tick to tongue depressor for
further examination.
d. Gently wash area.
e. Apply cold pack.
f. Check the body frequently for
additional ticks.
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D. Spiders usually are harmless; however, there are

two exceptions: the Black Widow spider and the
Brown Recluse (violin spider).
1. Symptoms include:
a. Local reaction.
b. Severe pain with profuse sweating.
c. Painful abdominal cramps.
d. Difficult breathing.
e. May have chills, fever, nausea, or

vomiting.
f. Possible rash.
2. First Aid
a. Keep victim calm.
b. Keep bitten area below level of
heart.
c. Care for shock.
d. Monitor breathing and circulation.
e. Get medical help.
SNAKEBITES
A. Include many nonpoisonous and only four poisonous
varieties in the United States.
1. Nonpoisonous snakes have round pupils, and

no fangs.
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a. Reactions from snakebites are
aggravated by acute fear and anxiety.

b. If bite is on arm or leg, keep bitten
area below the level of the heart,

care for shock, and medical
attention.
2. Poisonous snakes include:
Rattlesnakes, Copperheads, Water

Moccasins, and Corals. They have fangs
and a poison sac.
a. Rattlesnakes, Copperheads, and Water

Moccasins belong to the pit vipers
while the Coral is a member of the
Cobra species.
b. Symptoms include extremely painful,
rapid swelling, puncture wounds,
general weakness, rapid pulse,
nausea, shortness of breath, slurred
speech, and shock.
3. First Aid
a. Don't apply ice or cold applications;
can harm surrounding tissue.
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b. Don't give aspirin. It dilates the
blood vessels, which will circulate

venom in the body faster.
c. Keep victim calm.
d. If bite is on arm or leg, keep bitten
area below the level of the heart.
e. Care for shock.
f. Monitor ABC's.
g. Get medical help immediately.
POISONOUS PLANTS
A. The skin reaction from contact with poisonous
plants are allergic in nature and are
characterized by headaches and fever, itching,
redness, and a rash.
1. Three plants are:
a. Poison Ivy
b. Poison Oak
c. Poison Sumac
2. Old Saying, "Leaves of Three, leave them
be."
a. Poison Ivy and Poison Oak have three
leaves.
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3. First Aid
a. Remove from source of poison and

contaminated clothing.
b. Wash skin.
c. If severe reaction, seek medical
attention.
d. Monitor ABC's.
SHOCK
A. Shock is the failure of the cardiovascular system
to keep adequate blood circulating to the vital
organs of the body.
1. Symptons include erratic pulse rate,
trembling, weakness in arms and legs, cool
and moist skin, and pale or bluish lips,
skin, and fingernails.
2. First Aid
a. Victim in lying-down position.
b. If no injury, elevate feet 8 to 12

inches.
c. Maintain body temperature.
d. Get medical help as soon as possible.
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OTHER POINTS
A. Walking in Hot Weather:
1. Heat and humidity can present most serious

problems.
2. Dehydration can be avoided by drinking
fluids before, during, and after exercise.

3. Intensity and duration of field experience
should be adjusted during hot, humid

weather.
4. Wear light-colored, cotton clothing.
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MATERIALS FOR
FIELD EXPERIENCES
SHOES
A. A proper fit, quality, and construction of shoes

for walking and hiking are important.
1. A cushioning sole between the outer and

inner soles, an arch support, and a heel
cup.
2. Should be flexible, durable, and bend at

the ball of the foot.
3. Proper caution involving the walking area,
and proper fitting footwear will cut down
on sprains and strains.
CLOTHING
A. Socks are necessary for absorbing moisture,
providing extra cushioning, and preventing
blisters. Wearing two pairs sometimes prevents
foot problems.
B. Hot weather clothing is light-colored, loose
fitting, lightweight, and made of natural fabrics
(cotton). Pants should be worn and tapered at the
ankles to prevent ticks and insect bites. They

should not have large or bulky inseams. This
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could cause friction and irritation to the inside

of the legs.
C. A hat that protects the eyes from sunlight, keeps

out harmful rays of sun, and allows air to
circulate between the top of the hat and the head
is a must. The hat can help prevent heat
emergencies.
EQUIPMENT
A. Sunglasses to prevent vision problems.
B. Walking stick to prevent falls and moving aside
poisonous plants.
C. Notebook, pencil, and paper.

D. Water--freeze a quart milk-carton of water. As it
thaws a person has cool, clean water to drink.
E. A plastic bag and string--many uses.
1. Rain guard
2. Collecting plants
3. Sit on it
FIRST AID MATERIALS

A. Soap, bandages, gauze pads, and tape.
SNACKS
A. Non-perishable foods, such as:

1. Fruit (apples, orange, banana)
2. Cracker
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PIT VIPER
Poison sac
. i
* 5
a.
NONPOISONOUS
SNAKE
238
COMMON POISON IVY
(RHUS RADICANS)
Grows as a small plant, a vine, and
a shrub.
Grows everywhere in the United States except
California and parts of adjacent states. Eastern
oak leaf poison ivy is one of its varieties.
Leaves always consist of three glossy leaflets.
Also known as three-leaf ivy, poison creeper,

climbing sumac, poison oak, markweed,
picry, and mercury.
WESTERN POISON OAK

(RHUS DIVERSILOBA)
Grows in shrub and sometimes
vine form.
Grows in California and parts
of adjacent states.
Sometimes called poison ivy,
or yeara.
Leaves always consist ,of three
leaflets.
POISON SUMAC
(RHUS VERN1X)
Grows as a woody shrub or small

tree from 5 to 25 feet tall.
Grows in most of eastern third
of United States.
Also known as swamp sumac,
poison elder, poison ash,
poison dogwood, and thunderwood.
239
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226
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and
ARTICLES
240
Herbal
227
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Cherokee. Chicago, IL: Childrens Press, Inc.

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Vogel, V. J. (1970). American Indian medicine. Norman
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237
Sullivan, B. (1979). slournal of the American Medical

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Vollmar, A. (1986). Phvtochemistrv: 25; 377.
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APPENDICE
AandB
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Herbal
239
APPENDIX A
Research Source
Name of Author
Title of Article/Book
Date of Publication
This is checklist of twenty-five identified plants and herbs found

in the four state parks in southwestern Indiana and used by the
Cherokee Nation. ( ) will identify the use of the identified
plant.
1. Black Cohosh or Squawroot

4. Burdock or Common Great

5. Catnip
6. Comfrev or All Heal

7. Dandelion
8. Garlic
9. Goldenseal
10. Mayapple
13, Partridgeberry or Squaw Vine

14. Pennyroyal
15. Senna or American Wild
16. Skullcap
17, Snakeroot
18. Spikenard
19. St. Johns Wort
20. Uva Ursi or Bearberry
21. White Willow
22. Wild Black Berry
23. Witch Hazel
24. Yarrow
25. Yellow Rogt
Comments:
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APPENDIX B
=RORER NATION SOURCE
Name of Interviewee
Tribal Position
Date of Interview
This is checklist of twenty-five identified plants and herbs
found in the four state parks in southwestern Indiana and used by
the Cherokee Nation. ( ) will identify the use of the identified
plant.
1. Black Cohosh or Scruawroot

3. Boneset or Thoroughwort
4. Burdock or Common/Great
5. Catnip
6. Comfrey or All Heal
7. Dandelion
8. Garlic
9. Goldenseal
10. Mayapple
12. Mistletoe
13. P r rid.e. rr aw Vin
14. Pennyroyal
15. Senna American Wild
16. Skullcap
17. Snakeroot
18. Spikenar4
19. St. Johns Wort
20. Uva Ursi or Bearberrv
21. White Willow
22. Wild Black Cherry
23. Witch Hazel
24, Yarrow
25. Yellow Root
Comments:
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CHARTS
,?5
7
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CHART I
PLANT IDENTIFICATION
run IDENTIFICATION
Black Cohosh or Squawroot Leafy perennial, large, three-
divided toothed leaves. Flowers
white, long-spiked with an
unpleasant odor. Clustered
flowers, three feet in length.
Bloodroot or Puccoon Twelve-inch perennial; waxy, white
flowers, long stems and roots with
blood red juice.
Boneset or Thoroughwort Hardy perennial, clumps three feet,
leaves opposite one another and
united at base. Dull, white flat-
topped flowers.
Common or Great Burdock White, spongy roots, large, hairy,
egg-shaped leaves. Stem had
bristled, purplish flowers that
produced burrs.
Catnip Aromatic perennial, two or three
feet tall, two-lipped white
clustered flowers. Leaves heart-
shaped, scalloped, toothed and
fuzzy.
Comfrey Hardy perennial; large, hairy,

lance-shaped leaves, flowers white,
blue, purple; were bell-shaped.
Hollow woody stems.
Dandelion Hardy perennial; yellow, several
petaled flowers. Elongated hollow
stems with milky juice, produced
fluffy seeds. Long jagged-cut,
green leaves.
Garlic Common perennial, long pointed

leaves and six-pointed lavender
flowers with stringed tails.
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Goldenseal Hairy perennial, six to twelve

inches. Leaves veined, lobed on
forked branches. Flowers single,
greenish, white, orange-red berry
on top of stem.
Mayapple Common perennial, twelve to
eighteen inches tall. Unpleasant
odor. Single white flower under
umbrella-like leaves. Two-inch,
edible, yellow fruit, creeping
roots.
Common Milkweed Downy perennial one to four feet,

four to ten inch, paired, long
leaves. Single clustered flower
with pointing petals. Seedpods
were rough-surfaced.
Mistletoe Parasite perennial found on oak
trees. Thick-branched, woody
evergreen, leathery, three-inch
oblong leaves. Had white berries
with single seed. Difficult to
collect.
Partridgeberry or Squaw Vine Evergreen perennial from six to

fourteen inches. Creeping,
trailing, vining with shiny, dark
green, rounded or oval one-half
inch long leaves with whitish
veins. White or pink, funnel-
shaped, paired flowers with hairy
lobes. Red, edible berries.
Pennyroyal An annual with strong mint-like

odor. Small, opposite green
leaves; short square stems with
pale blue flowers.
Senna, American Wild Hardy perennial with five petal

loose clustered, yellow flowers.
Stems slender and fuzzy. Leaves
pointed and seeds in leathery pods.
Small three-foot shrub.

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Skullcap Two-foot scrubby perennial. Leaves
long-stalked, serrated, toothed,
opposite one another, pointed tips
and oval or lanced shaped. Two-
lipped flowers were violet or blue.
Snakeroot Smooth stems with small, pea-like,
white lance-shaped leaves,
alternated with lance-shaped
leaves. Greenish-white flowers
were mingled with stiff, pointed
bracts. Grew six to eighteen
inches.
Spikenard A perennial, three to five feet

tall that had long, smooth, dark
green stems. Small, whitish
flowers formed small clusters on
tiny branches that extended from
the stem.
St. Johns Wort Woody, spreading perennial.

Yellow, five-petaled flowers with
black dots on margins. Leaves
oblong with translucent glands.
Leaves, when pinched, produced red
oil and emitted aroma. Grew one to
three feet.
Uva Ursi or Common Bearberry Hardy evergreen that reached few

inches in height. Leaves turned
bronze in winter, were leathery and
paddle-shaped. Seeds, waxy white
tinged with red. White flowers.
Smooth, red, edible fruit.
White Willow Rough, grayish bark tree that
reached sixty feet. Leaves lance-
shaped, finely toothed with silky
hairs. Long catkins appeared with
leaves.
Wild Black Cherry Wooded, ninety-foot tree that had

black bark but reddish beneath with
pleasant aroma. Leaves oval or
lance-shaped, with brown hairs.
Small clustered, elongated, white
flowers during early spring. In
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fall had small black fruit the size

of peas.
Witch Hazel Deciduous shrub that grew eight to

fifteen feet tall. Lost leaves in
fall. Stems twisted and forked
into flexible hairy branches.
Bright yellow, slender petals,
spider-like appearance flowers late
fall. After leaves dropped, ripe
fruit from previous year followed.
Edible seeds in middle of flower.
Leaves toothed, scalloped margins
and uneven wedge-shaped bases.
Yarrow Hardy perennial that grew to three

'feet with fern-like, leathery
leaves. Found along near base of
plant and shortened higher on stem.
Flowers found in dense clusters
were tiny white, pink, or purple.
The leaves divided into thousands
of tiny leaflets, hence nickname,
Thousand Weed.
Yellow Root Low growing hardy shrub. Thick,

deep-yellow roots. Long stalks
with five cleft toothed leaflets.
Flowers light brown-purple with
puffs of stamens. Red raspberry-
like fruits.
Herbal
247
CHART II
ENVIRONMENT AND AREA WHERE LOCATED
ELAM LOCATION
Black Cohosh or Squawroot Rich, fertile woods near Ohio River
Valley and Harmonie State Park.
Bloodroot or Puccoon Large colonies, wooded slopes, and
open woodlands, Pike County State
Forest and O'Leary Woods.
Boneset or Thoroughwort Clumps in wet but sunlit areas.
Pike County State Forest.
Burdock, Common or Great Moist abandoned fields and waste
areas exposed to sun. Found
throughout southwestern Indiana.
Catnip Well-drained, humus soil in partial
shade or sunlight at Lincoln State
Park.
Comfrey Clay or sandy, humus soil and in

open woods in Harrison-Crawford
State Forest.
Dandelion Found throughout all southwestern
Indiana in fields, lawns, and waste
areas.
Garlic Grew in all types of soil, open

fields in sunlight, throughout
Southwestern Indiana. Very common
plant.
Goldenseal Grew in clusters in natural

drainage areas where an abundance
of leaf mold or decaying vegetable
matter was found. Goldenseal grew
in all State Parks and Forests.
Mayapple Found growing in clusters in rich,
humus, moist, hilly areas, woods,
and fields. A common plant found
in all areas of southwestern
Indiana.
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Herbal
248
Milkweed, Common Found in moist woodlands in all

southwestern State Parks and
Forest.
Mistletoe A parasite, it was found in oak

trees in Harmonie State Park.
Partridgeberry Squaw Vine Found near decayed stumps, soil
rich in humus and moisture in
Harrison-Crawford State Forest.
Pennyroyal Grew in dry, sandy soil on
gravelly, loose slopes. Found
along the Wabash River in Harmonie
State Park.
Senna, American Wild Found in rich, moist soil, and
wooded thickets and was noted in
Harmonie State Park.
Skullcap Grew in rich moist soil and in
wooded thickets. Found in Harmonie
State Park.
Snakeroot It grew in rocky, partially shaded,
open hardwood forests where there
was leaf mold. It was found in
many areas of southwestern Indiana.
Spikenard Found growing in rich woods around
southwestern Indiana.
St. Johns Wort Grew in fields with dry, light
soils and was found in Pike County
State Forest.
Uva Ursi, Common Bearberry Found in Pike County State Forest
growing in dry, rocky, sandy soil.
White Willow Commonly found along stream edges
in Pike County State Forest and
along the Wabash River in Harmonie
State Park.
Wild Black Cherry The tree grew in fertile soil under
full sunlight in many areas
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throughout southwestern Indiana.
Witch Hazel It grew in low, damp woods and

moist rich areas with partial
shade. It was found in Pike County
State Forest and Harrison-Crawford
State Forest.
Yarrow Found throughout southwestern

Indiana in abandoned fields, along
roadsides, and in waste areas.
Yellow Root Found crowing in colonies on shady

stream banks and moist woods or
thickets in Lincoln State Park.
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CHART III
HERBAL HISTORY
Pan HISTORY
Black Cohosh or Squawroot Common name Bugwort. Settlers used
it for fever, rashes, yellow-fever
and menstrual complaints. In US
Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to 1936.
Bloodroot or Puccoon Genus name, Sanquinaria, meant

"bloody". Listed in US
Hoosiers used it for stomach
ailments or colic. Very toxic.
Boneset or Thorouqhwort Doctrine of Signatures, used often

for colds, flu, headaches, fever.
Listed in US Pharmacopoeia from
1829 to 1916.
Burdock, Common or Great European treatment for rheumatism

and leprosy. Settlers used it for
urinary infections, kidney
problems, skin infections, and
arthritis. Also eaten as food.
Catnip Used as tranquilizer, sedative,

digestive aid, and pain killer
throughout history. Settlers used
it for colds, fevers, headaches,
menstruation, insomnia, and chicken
pox. Listed in US Pharmacopoeia
from 1916 to 1950. Hoosiers:
poultice for burns, tea for colds
and fussy babies, sedative for
adults.
Comfrey Greeks used it to heal wounds,

Romans made sticky paste, when
hardened like plaster placed around
broken bones. Settlers: tea for
respiratory and gastrointestinal
ailments. Hoosiers: colds, flu,
tonic, placed on wounds.
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Dandelion Introduced from Europe. Native

American used it for food and
medicine. Settlers roasted roots
for a beverage substitute for
coffee. Used it for liver, gall
bladder, and liver problems. In
spring, used as blood thinner,
purifier, and tonic. Listed in 0
Garlic World's second oldest medicine

after ephedra. Greeks used for
heart problems, headaches, bites,
worms, and tumors. Romans as a
stimulant for strength, endurance,
and stamina. Egyptians used it for
solemn oaths. Settlers: colds,
bronchitis, coughs, blood pressure.
In World War I, salve used to treat
infected wounds. Hoosiers used it
for coughs, high blood pressure,
and as tonic.
Goldeneeal Settlers used it as an eyewash, for

wounds, sore throats, digestive
problems and recovery from
childbirth. Included in mg
Hoosiers used it for cancer, skin
problems, sore mouths, and
epileptic seizures.
Mayapple Common name, Indian Apple.

Settlers used it for many ailments.
Hoosiers used it for abortion,
constipation, and heat exhaustion.
The fruit was eaten for energy and
food.
Milkweed, Common Settlers used it for asthma,

rheumatism, cancer, and as food.
Hoosiers used it for bleeding,
treatment of burns and scalds, for
poison ivy, warts, ringworm, and
skin blemishes.
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Mistletoe Used in Middle Ages for disorders

of spleen, epilepsy, and apoplexy.
Settlers: high blood pressure and
cancer.
Partridge-berry or Squaw Vine Settler uses: tonic, astringent,

diuretic, swellings, hives, sore
nipples, and menstrual problems.
Pennyroyal Greeks hung it in sickrooms for

fragrance. Settler uses:
abortion, sweating, colds, dress
wounds, repel insects, flu, cough,
and congestion. Hoosiers also used
it for colic and headaches. Dried
bunches drove away mosquitoes.
Senna, American Wild Used widely from Middle East to

India. Hoosiers used it as a
laxative and body purge. Listed in
US Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to 1882.
Skullcap Chinese used it as a tranquilizer

or sedative, for convulsions and a
digestive aid. Settlers used it
for malaria fever and nerve tonic.
Snakeroot Settlers used it for pain, kidney

ailments, rheumatism, fever.
Hoosiers used it for snakebites and
kidney problems. May be extremely
poisonous for humans and animals.
Spikenard Settler uses: blood purifier, lung

ailments, asthma, rheumatism,
backaches. Hoosiers used it for
sore backs, tuberculosis, as a
poultice on wounds, and to treat
blood poisoning.
St. Johns Wort Came from Europe. According to

legend it releases blood-red oil on
the date of John the Baptist's
beheading. Greeks used it for
burns, diuretic, menstrual
promotor, for fever, to drive away
evil spirits, and to ensure healthy
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crops. Settlers used it on wounds.

Hoosiers used it for colds and
bronchitis.
Uva Urei, Common Bearberry Romans used it to treat wounds.

Chinese for kidney and urinary
problems. Was listed with Doctrine
of Signatures and gajtaxmAgpmeig
from 1820 to 1936. Settlers:
diarrhea, dipentery, kidney
infections. Hoosiers used as
diuretic.
White Willow Chinese used it as pain remedy;

Settlers for pain, fevers,
inflammation. Hoosiers used it to
treat rheumatism. It was listed in
US Pharmacopoqia from 1882 to 1926.
Wild Black Cherry Settler uses: poor circulation,

lack of appetite, sedative,
treatment of coughs, fevers, colds,
sore throats. Hoosiers used it to
thin blood, as tonic, cure gout,
for diarrhea, dipentery, jaundice,
hepatitis, and to relieve
discomforts of measles. Listed in
US Pharmacopoeizt from 1920 to
present.
Witch Hazel Settler uses: inflammations,

swellings, bruises, cuts and as
divining rod in search of water.
Hoosiers used it for arthritis,
rheumatism, nosebleeds, skin
problems. It was listed in US
Yarrow Greeks used it on wounds. Used

also during Civil War to promote
healing. Settlers used it for
bladder disorders, ulcers, kidney
problems. Hoosiers treated cuts,
abrasions, bruises, toothaches, gum
problems and colds with it. It was
listed in US Pharmacopoeia from
1863 to 1882.
BEST COPY AVAILABLE
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Yellow Root Settlers used it for stomach
problems. Hoosiers used it to thin
blood, to improve appetite and
digestion, to treat sore mouths and
canker sores. Listed in ma
2Wi
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CHART VI
MONTHS WHEN GATHERED OR HARVESTED
ELM MN=
Black Cohosh or Squawroot August, September
Blood Root or Pucoon Blooms: April, May

Roots: September, October,
November
Boneset or Thoroughwort August, September
Burdock June, July, August, September,

October
Catnip July, August, September
Comfrey May, June
Dandelion Leaves & stems: May, June, July

Roots: September, October
Garlic June, July
Goldenseal August, September, October,

November
Mayapple April, May, June
Milkweed April, May (pre-blooming stage)
Mistletoe January, November, December
Partridgeberry May, June
Pennyroyal June, July
Senna June, July, August
Skullcap April, May, June, July (sometimes

in full bloom)
Snakeroot March, April, May, September,

October
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Spikenard June, July, August
St. Johns Wort June, July, August

Uva Ursi or Boarberry August, September, October
White Willow March, April, May
Wild Black Cherry August, September, October
Witch Hazel June, July, August

Yarrow May, June, July, August, September,
October
Yellow Root June, July, August
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CHART IV
CHEROKEE USES
PLANT PART USED MEDICAL EFFECT
Black roots Tea used as astringent, diuretic,
Cohosh or and antiseptic. To stop bleeding
Squawroot and diarrhea.
Bloodroot roots Made dye with roots and tannin from

or Puccoon Oak bark. Also used as an
insecticide.
Boneset or roots Leaves wrapped around broken bones.

Throughcoast leaves Poulticed onto tumors. Tea to
relieve pain, fever, colds, flu,
and constipation.
Burdock or leaves Leaves to draw poison from boils.

Common seeds Poulticed seeds for bruises, hives,
Great eczema, and skin problems.
Catnip leaves Tea to aid digestion, to cure

colic, to relieve menstrual cramps,
and to calm nerves. Chewed
leaves for toothaches.
Comfrey or roots Root tea for cancer, genital

All Heal leaves infections, and milky urine. Dried
leaves smoked. Dried root salve
used for burns, cuts, wounds, and
to promote healing.
Dandelion roots Root tea for heartburn, as body

leaves tonic, and as a beverage. Leaves
eaten as food.
Garlic bulbs Crushed bulbs eaten to lower blood

shoots pressure, and wound swelling, to
roots inhibit cainer growth, and to
flavor foods.
Goldonseal roots Used with bear fat as insect

repellent. Tea for sore mouths and
throats. Concoction for skin
disorders.
BEST COPY AVAIIABLE

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Mayapple roots Tea as cathartic, laxative,

purgative. Salve treatment of
warts.
Milkweed roots Tea used as laxative, diuretic, for

sterility, and inducement of
sweating. Salve was applied to
warts, moles, and ringworm.
Mistletoe leaves Tea for abortions, to stop
berries bleeding, as a contraceptive,
twigs epilepsy, headaches, lung ailments.
Partridge- leaves Tea for childbirth, placenta

berry or berries delivery, hemorrhage, and painful
Squaw Vlne menstruation.
Pennyroyal leaves Crushed fresh leaves for headaches

and snakebite. Tea for
menstruation cramps, pain,
diarrhea, and hemorrhaging.
Senna leaves Decoction for sore throats, fever,

roots and cathartic purposes. Roots used
seeds for sores and wounds.
Skullcap or leaves Tea mixed with honey to promote

Mad-dog stems menstruation and for rabies
victims.
Snakeroot roots Tea for high fevers, colds, coughs,

croup, bronchitis, and pneumonia.
As a poultice for snakebite,
swellings, and pain of rheumatism.
St. Johns leaves Salve for wounds, sores, cuts,

Wort bruises, and skin problems. Tea
for bladder infections, dysentery,
diarrhea, bronchitis, lung
infections. Concoction for
tuberculosis.
Spikenard roots Tea for backaches, menstrual

difficulties and for coughs.
Pulverized root salve for boils,
infection, swellings, and wounds.
Root juice for earaches.
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Uva-Ursi or leaves Tea as astringent, diuretic, and

Bearberry antiseptic. Also used to stop
bleeding and diarrhea.
White Willow twigs Chewed and prepared tea for pain,

bark chills, and fever.
Wild Black Inner bark Tea from bark for labor and
Cherry leaves childbirth. Concoction of leaves
and bark for frostbite. Leaf tea
for coughs, diarrhea, and
hemorrhoids.
Witch Basel leaves Tea concoction for muscles and

bark lameness. Tea for colds, fever,
twigs sore throats, and menstrual cramps.
seeds Salve for cuts, bruises, bites,
scalds, burns, and inflammations.
Steamed twigs for muscular aches,
strained backs, and painful joints.
Seeds eaten as food.
Yarrow leaves Salve applied to wounds and to stop
bleeding. Fresh leaves used as
poultice. Tea drunk for sweating,
reducing fevers, and relief of
colds and the flu.
Yellow Root roots Tea used as blood tonic, for colds,

jaundice, cramps, sore throats, and
constipation. Sometimes roots were
chewed instead of drinking tea.
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CHART V
DAY FAMILY REMEDIES
Plant Boman
Black Cohosh or Sguawroot Family uses: Warding off
"cricks" in back, relieving pain
of rheumatism, and as a fall
tonic.
Bloodroot or Pucoon Family prepared: Crushed Bloodroot

with lard and placed this poultice
on "summer" or touch sores.
(Infatigo)
Boneset or Common Day uses included: As a

Thoroughwort laxative by drinking tea or
for constipation by chewing
fresh leaves. It was used
only in extreme cases.
Common or Great Burdock Family used: Fresh, crushed leaves

on sores, cuts, and bruises. The
fresh leaves were mixed with other
salad greens. Only young and
tender leaves were picked; aged and
mature leaves tasted bitter and
sour.
Catnip Days prepared: Catnip

infusion or tea before retiring to
calm nerves and to promote sleep.
Comfrey Family used: Comfrey and Sassafras

tea as spring tonic. Comfrey and
baking soda for "settling an upset
stomach."
Dandelion Days used: For wines, for salad

greens, and for frying stems and
blossoms.
Garlic Family used: To flavor and cure

meats, for flavoring of vegetables,
and medication. The dried bulbs
were placed in an old woolen sock
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and hung around a person's neck to

relieve chest colds or lung
congestion.
Goldenseal Family prepared: Goldenseal,

Wintergreen, and turpentine
poultice for "stifled" or "bowed"
tendons.
Mayapple Days used: As insecticide for

beetles, grub worms, and other
insects; and ripe Mayapples for
jellies.
Milkweed Common Family used: Fresh Milkweed sap

and lard salve was applied to
burns, blemishes, and skin
irritations.
Mistletoe Day Family pulverized the plant,

made an infusion which they bathed
body with to reduce high fevers.
Berries, along with holly decorated
the Christmas tree.
Partridgeberry or Day's drank Partridgeberry tea for

Squaw Vine painful menstruation or cramps.
Pennyroyal Family used: To freshen the air,
and an inhaler to relieve
headaches.
American Wild Senna Days used: For mild cases of

constipation; for extreme cases
they used Boneset. Senna tea was
laced with brown sugar to improve
the taste.
Skullcap Day Family prepared: A salve made

by mixing Skullcap and lard. This
was rubbed on horses harness sores
to promote healing and to prevent
scabs and white hairs.
Snakeroot Day Family used Snakeroot salve on

swollen joints of farm animals.
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Herbal
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Spikenard Day's prepared a hoof preparation

that was placed on horse's hooves
for "thrush" or horq rot.
St. Johns Wort The Day family used St. Johns Wort
salve for cuts, wounds, and for
preventing scar tissue.
Uva Ursi or Bearberry Grandfather Day used a Bearberry

poultice on animals that had sores,
scrapes, and insect bites. Fresh
leaves were used to stop bleeding.
White Willow Day Family uses: A tea to reduce
fevers, and catkins mixed with
other wild flowers as winter
decorations.
Wild Black Cherry Family used Wild Cherries as:

cough syrup (honey, lemon), Wild
Cherry Wine, smoked chips for
smoking meats, and the berries were
eaten as fresh fruit, or made into
jams or jellies.
Witch Basel The Day Family mixed boiled Witch

Hazel leaves with alcohol for sore
muscles or strained backs. The
stick was also used to find water.
Yarraw The Day Family used yarrow salve
for small wounds, scratches, and
sores. Sometimes fresh leaves were
used to stop bleeding.
Yellow Root The Day Family dyed Easter eggs

made from yellow root dye; also, a
gargle or mouthwash was prepared
with yellow root for sore throats
or mouth sores.
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CHART VII
PREPARATION AND STORAGE OF CHEROKEE HERBAL REMEDIES
Float Preparation and Storage

Black Cohosh or Squawroot Roots collected after fruits
ripened. They were cut lengthwise,
dried, and stored in dry place.
Bloodroot or Puccoon After leaves withered, roots were
dug and dried, then stored in dry
place.
Boneeet or Thoroughwort Leaves were collected and stripped

from stems when plant was in full
bloom. Dried in shade and stored.
Burdock or Common Great Leaves and seeds dried in sunlight

or partial shade, then stored in
dry place.
Catnip Leaves gathered when plant in full

bloom, dried then in the shade to
preserve the green color. Stored
in dry, cr,01 place.
Comfrey or All Heal Leaves harvested when flowers had

begun to bud. Roots cut into
slices and dried then crushed and
powdered.
Dandelion Roots dried whole or cut into small

pieces, three to six inches long.
Sometimes roots were roasted then
ground or powdered.
Garlic Bulbs harvested when tops yellowed.

Stored loosely dried bunches hung
in cool, dark area. Bulbs crushed
to release medicinal properties.
Goldenseal Roots dug pre-blooming stage, dried

in partial shade until brittle,
then pounded into a powder.
Mcyapple Pulverized and crushed the dried
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roots. Made root tea and mixed

crushed roots with animal fats for
a salve. Ate ripe fruit.
Milkweed Roots dug pre-blooming stage, dried

in partial sunlight, pounded into
powder, and stored in dry place.
Tea made from fresh plant.
Mistletoe Fresh berries mashed to make a
paste. Leaves and twigs dried in
sunlight and stored.
Partridgeberry or Squaw Vine Leaves collected when plant in full

bloom, dried in partial sunlight.
Berries eaten fresh, fresh leaf
tea drunk.
Pennyroyal Leaves dried in shade, stored in
cool dry place. Fresh crushed
leaves inhaled.
Senna American Wild Leaves harvested when flowers
bloomed. After drying, leaves were
powdered and crushed.
Skullcap or Maddog Young stems and leaves were dried
in full shade and then stored in
dry place.
Snakeroot Gathered in spring and fall, roots
were cut, dried in partial
sunshine, and stored in a dry
place.
St. Johns Wort Leaves were air dried and stored in

dry place. A salve, tea, and
concoction made from dried leaves.
Spikenard Fresh roots pulverized for juice,
made into a salve or poultice.
Others dried in sun, powdered, and
stored in a dry place.
Uva Ursi or Bearberry Leaves gathered before frost,
dried, spread over a large area.
Often difficult to dry. A slow
process.
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White Willow Bark gathered in spring when sap

had begun to flow, bark easily
removed then.
Wild Black Cherry Bark collected and peeled in fall;

highest medicinal value then.
Berries eaten fresh or dried and
pulverized for future rse.
Witch Hamel Leaves, twigs, bark collected and

stored throughout the summer
months.
Yarrrow Leaves were harvested when plants

were in bloom, then used fresh or
dried in partial shade
Yellow Root Roots sliced, dried in shade, and
stored in dry cool place.
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Chart VIII
MEDICAL TERMS AND HEALING PLANTS
MEDICAL TERMS PEALING PLANTS

ABORTION: Mistletoe
ANTISEPTIC: Black Cohosh (Sguawroot) Uva Ursi
(Bearberry)
ARTHRITIS: Witch Hazel
ASTRINGENT: Black Cohosh (Sguawroot) Uva

Ursi (Bearberry)
BACKACHE: Spikenard, Witch Hazel
BLEEDING: Black Cohosh, Mistletoe,

Pennyroyal, Uva Ursi
(Bearberry), Yarrow
BOILS: Burdock, Spikenard

BRONCHITIS: Snakeroot, St. Johns Wort
BRUISES: Burdock, St. Johns Wort, Witch
Hazel
BURNS: Comfrey, Witch Hazel
CANCER: Comfrey, Garlic
CATHARTIC: American Wild Senna, Mayapple
CHILLS: White Willow
CHILDBIRTH: Partridgeberry, Wild Black

Cherry
COLDS: Boneset, Snakeroot, Witch Hazel,

Yarrow, Yellowroot
COLIC: Catnip
CONGESTION: Mistletoe
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CONSTIPATION: Boneset, Mayapple, Milkweed,

Yellowroot
CONTRACEPTIVE: Mistletoe, Mayapple
COUGHS: Snakeroot, Spikenard, Wild Black

Cherry
CROUP: Snakeroot
DIARRHEA: Black Cohosh, Pennyroyal, St.

Johns Wort, Uva Ursi
(Bearberry), Wild Black
Cherry
DIGESTION: Catnip
DIURETIC: Black Cohosh, Milkweed, Uva Ursi

(Bearberry)
EARACHES: Spikenard
ECZEMA: Buraock
EPILEPSY: Mistletoe
FEVER: American Wild Senna, Boneset,

Snakeroot, Witch Hazel,
White willow, Yarrow
FLU: Boneset, Catnip, Yarrow
FROSTBITE: Wild Black Cherry
GENITAL INFECTIONS: Comfrey
HEADACHE: Mistletoe, Pennyroyal
HEALING: Comfrey
HEARTBURN: Dandelion
HEART DISEASE: Garlic
HEMORRHOIDS: Wild Black Cherry
HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE: Garlic
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HIGH CHOLESTEROL: Garlic

HIVES: Burdock
INSECT/CIDE: Bloodroot (Puccoon), Goldenseal
INFECTIONS: Spikenard, Witch Hazel
JAUNDICE: Yellowroot
LUNG AILMENTS: Mistletoe, St. Johns Wort

MENSTRUAL PROBLEMS: Catnip, Partridgeberry,
Pennyroyal, Skullcap,
Spikenard, Witch Hazel,
Yellowroot
MUSCLE SORENESS/LAMENESS: Witch Hazel
MINOR CUTS: Comfrey, St. Johns Wort, Witch
Hazel
MOLES: Milkweed
PAIN: Boneset, Pennyroyal, White
Willow
PNEUMONIA: Snakeroot
PURGATIVE: Mayapple
RABIES: Skullcap
RINGWORM: Milkweed
SNAKEBITE: Pennyroyal, Snakeroot
SKIN PROBLEMS: Burdock, Goldenseal, St. Johns

Wort
SORES: Goldenseal, St. Johns Wort
SORE THROATS: American Wild Senna, Witch

Hazel, Yellowroot
STRESS: Catnip
SWEAT INDUCER: Milkweed, Yarrow
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TONIC: Dandelion, Yellowroot

TOOTHACHE: Catnip
TUBERCULOSIS: St. Johns Wort

TUMORS: Boneset
URINARY TRACT: Comfrey, St. Johns Wort
WARTS: Mayapple, Milkweed
WOUNDS: American Wild Senna, Comfrey,
St. Johns Wort, Spikenard,
Witch Hazel
WOUND SWELLING: Garlic, Snakeroot, Spikenard'
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Chart IX
BOTANICAL NAMES ALPHABETIZED

BOTANICAL NAME COMMON NAME
ACHILLEA MILLEFOLIUM: Yarrow
ALLIUM SATIVUM: Garlic
ARALIA RACEMOSA: Spikenard
ARCTOSTAPHYLOS UVA-URSI: Uva Ursi or Common Bearberry

ASCLEPIAS SYRIACA: Milkweed
CASSIA HERBECARPA: American Wild Senna

CIMICIFUGA RACEMOSA: Black Cohosh or Squawroot
COMMON-ARCTIUM MINUS: Common Burdock
EUPATORIUM PERFOLIATUM: Boneset or Common Thoroughwort

GREAT-ARCTIUM LAPPA: Great Burdock
HAMAMELIS VIRGINIANA: Witch Hazel
HEDEOMA PULEGIOIDES: Pennyroyal
HYDRASTIC CANADENSIS: Goldenseal
HYPERICUM PERFORATUM: St. Johns Wort
MITCHELLA REPENS: Partridgeberry or Squaw Vine
NEPETA CATARIA: Catnip
PHORADENDRON SEROTINUM: Mistletoe
PODOPHYLLUM PELTATUM: Mayapple

POLYGALA SENEGA: Snakeroot
PRUNUS SEROTINA: Wild Black Cherry

SALIX ALBA: White Willow
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SANGUINARIA CANADENSIS: Bloodroot or Puccoon

SCUTELLARIA LATRRIFLORA: Skullcap
SYMPHYTUM OFFICINALR: Comfrey
TARAXACUN OFFICINALR: Dandelion
ZANTHORRIZA: Yellow Root
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Chart X
COMMON NAMES ALPHABETIZED
CAMICKAME BOTANICAL NAME

BLACK COW3SH OR SQUAWROOT: Cimicifuaa racemosa
BLOODROOT OR PUCCOON: Sanauinaria canadensis
BONESET OR COMMON THOROUGHWORT: Euvatorium nerfoliatum
COMFREY: Svmnhvtum officinale
COMMON BURDOCK: Common-arctium minus
GREAT BURDOCK: Great-arctium lama
CATNIP: Svmphytum officinale
DANDELION: Taraxacum officinale
GARLIC: Allium sativum
GOLDENSEAL: Hvdrastic canadensis
MAYAPPLE: Podophvllum neltatum
MILKWEED: Asplenias svriaca
MISTLETOE: Phoradendron serotinum
PARTRIDGEBERRY OR SQUAW VINE: Mitchella revens
PENNYROYAL: Hedeoma nuleaioides
SENNA AMERICAN WILD: g_Aagi.4.11231VgAER4
SKULLCAP: Scutellaria lateriflora

SNAKEROOT: Polvaala seneaa
SPIKENARD: Aralia racemosa
ST. JOHNS WORT: Hvnericum nerforatum
UVA-URSI OR COMMON BEARBERRY: Arctostanhvlos uva-ursi
2 86 BEST COPY AVAIIABLE

WHITE WILLOW: Salix alba
WILD BLACK CHERRY: Prunus serotina
WITCH HAZEL: Hamamelis virginlana
YARROW: Achillea millefolium
YELLOW ROOT: Zanthorhiza
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CHART XI
TERMINOLOGY
AIR-DRIED: Herbs were placed in bunches and hung to dry. Or
they were placed over a large area and dried in the sun,
impartial shade, or in total shade.
ANESTHETIC: Partial or entire loss of sensation and feelings.
ANTIBIOTIC: Inhibited or killed bacteria and other
microorganisms.
ANTIFUNGAL: Inhibited or prevented the growth of fungi.

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY: Reduced or neutralized infections and
diseases that were accompanied by pain, redness, heat, and
swelling.
ANTISPASMODIC: Relieved spasms, cramps, or painful tightening of

muscles.
ANTISEPTIC: Destructive to germs of disease; prevented decay.

ASTRINGENT: Caused tissue to contract or bind.
BACTERIOSTATIC: Prevented the growth or multiplication of
bacteria.
BIENNIAL: Happened once in two years; required two years to

complete its life cycle.
BLISTER: To place a poultice on the leg of a hoI e in order to

correct lameness.
BLOOD THINNER: Caused blood to be less consistent, dense or

compact and more like thin liquid.
BOILS: Infected skin glands caused by pus producing organisms.

BOWED TENDON: A serious over-stretching of the back of a horse's
leg. It allowed the fetlock to hit the ground while walking
and the toe of the hoof to leave the ground.
CARBUNCLE: Similar to boils but with multiple openings for

discharge of pus and infected tissue beneath the skin.
CAHDIOACTIVE: A substance or something that affects the heart.
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CATHARTIC: Stimulated evacuation of the bowels; laxative.
CATKIN: Tassel-like, closely clustered, small flowers without

petals; found on willow, birch, or poplar trees.
CLUSTER: A number of similar flowers growing or grouped

together; a bunch.
COLIC: Acute abdominal pain caused by various abnormal

conditions in the bowels.
CONCOCTION: Various ingredients were combined to make a herbal

remedy.
CONSTRICTED BLOOD VESSELS: Blood vessels were made smaller,

narrower by shrinking, contracting, and compressing.
CONVULSIONS: Violent, involuntary contraction or spasm of the

muscles.
CREEPING ROOTS: Roots that grew along and spread over and under
the ground.
CRICKS: A muscle cramp in the neck area.
DECIDUOUS: Plants shed leaves annually or the leaves fell off

during certain stages of growth.
DECOCTION: A remedy made by boiling different plant parts.
DENGUE: A disease transmitted by mosquitoes; severe joint and

back pain with fever and rash. Also called breakbone fever.
DIAPHORETIC: A medicinal plant that produced or increased

perspiration or sweating.
DISPENSATORY OF UNITED STATES: A handbook on the preparation and

use of medicines in the United States.
DIURETIC: Increased the secretion and flow of urine.
DOCTRINE OF SIGNATURES: Based upon beliefs, teachings, theories

that plants representnd or looked like certain parts of the
body; hence, plants were used medicinally for that part.
MIBLE: Anything fit to be eaten; non poisonous.
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EMETIC: Something that induces vomiting.

FLOWERS:
ANTHERS: Tip of stamen that had pollen.
STAMENS: The pollen-bore anthers with attached filaments.
FOLK REMEDY: Traditional beliefs, legends, customs, and
medicines that were made and handed down among the common
people.
FOMENTATION: Bodily pain or injury was treated by the

application of warm, moist liquid substances or compresses.
GASTROINTESTINAL: Inflammation of the stomach lining and

intestines.
GLYCOSIDES: Substances that cause abnormal conditions in

tissues.
HEAT EXHAUSTION: Characterized by low body temperature, hot dry

skin, and no perspiration.
HERBACEOUS: Non-woody plants that die back to the ground each

winter.
HEMORRHAGING: Bleeding, especially heavy flow; broken blood

vessels that allowed escape of blood.
HERB: Any plant part used as a medicine, seasoning, or food.
HERBICIDAL: A substance used to destroy or slow down growth.
'HOG FAT: Another name for lard. During butchering of hogs, the
fat was boiled and strained. It was then used for salves,
cooking, and other uses.
HOOSIERS: A native or inhabitant of Indiana; a nickname.
HUMUS: Organic soil that resulted from partial decay of leaves

and other vegetable matter.
INFUSION: The plant was steeped or soaked in cold or hot water

to make a tea.
IMMUNE-SYSTEM: The body's system that protected it against

something disagreeable or harmful such as certain diseases.
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INSECTICIDE: Any substance used to kill or ward off insects.
INTOXICATING: Great excitement; in medicine a poisoning or
becoming poisoned.
KINNIXINNIX: A mixture of dried leaves and bark that was smoked

by the Native Americans.
LARD: Hog fat that has been "rendered" or boiled down. Was used
many different ways.
LEAVES:
BRACTS: The grouping of leaf-like structures into an
arrangement usually small and found at base of flowers.
LANCE-SHAPED: The leaves are several times longer than
wide.
LOBED: Rounded divisions of leaves.
OVAL: Broad, round leaves; widest part near base.
SERRATED: Saw-like notches along the edge of leaves.
TOOTHED: The edges were notched or wavy.
WAVY: The leaves had curves, ridges, crests and hollows
that gave the appearance of wells on the leaf surface.
MEDICINAL: A substance or remedy that cured, healed or relieved.
NATIONAL FORMULARY: A book listing medicines with their formulas
and directions for compounding them.
ORALLY: Something taken by mouth.
PARASITE: A plant or animal that lives on or within another
organism; it derives sustenance without making
compensation.
PARTURITION: The act of giving birth; bringing forth young.

PASTE: Pounding or grounding plant parts until fine and then
making the substance or remedy creamy.
PERENNIAL: Having a life cycle of more than two years;
perpetual, returned or become active again.
PLANT: A herb, tree, or shrub that makes its food by
photosynthesis.
PLASTER: A medicinal preparation that was spread on
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skins, cloths, or leaves then placed on the body where it

hardened as it dried.
POULTICE: A soft, moist mixture that was applied to a sore or
inflamed part of the body.
POWDERED: Any dry, fine, dust-like, substance that was produced

by crushing, pounding, or grinding.
PULVERIZED: To break down a plant completely by crushing,
grinding, or pounding.
PUNGENT: Something that produced a sharp sensation of taste and

or smell.
PURGE: In medicine to empty the bowels or to cause the bowels to

become clean, clear, or pure.
PURIFIER: To rid the body of undesirable materials, or foreign

matter.
ROOT TEA: A beverage made by steeping, boiling or soaking, plant

roots, leaves, or stems.
SALVE: A healing substance applied to a wound. The Native

Americans prepared salves by mixing and blending powdered
herbs with types of animal fat or beeswax and then cooking
this mixture for a couple of hours.
SEDATIVE: In medicine, to soothe or quiet or lessen excitement,

irritation, or pain.
SHRUB: A bushy, woody plant with several permanent stems instead

of a single trunk.
STEEPED: To soak in a liquid. A small amount of herbs and

placed the herbs were placed in a small amount of water;
this was allowed to soak for a few minutes.
STIFFLED: A serious injury to the back of the horse's leg; a
tendon was over-stretched.
STIMULANT: A drug or substance that increases the activity of

some vital process of some organ of the body.
TANNIN: An acid substance used for curing leathers, in preparing
21
Herbal
279
dyes, and for medicinal purposes.

THRUSH: A hoof condition in horses where the inside of the hoof
begins to rot. Caused by being stalled in the wintertime.
TONIC: A medicine that invigorates or stimulates.

TOXIC: Various poisons secreted by plants and animals
TOXICITY: The'quality or degree a plant is poisonous.
TRANSLUCENT: Light shined through but other side cannot be
distinguished.
TRAWQUILIZER: A substance that caused a state of calmness,

peacefulness, and serenity.
TREATMENT: An act, manner,'or, method of caring for a person.
UPSET STOMACH: A problem within the digestive system which was

caused by germs or something a person had eaten.
US PHARMACOPOEIA: An official book with a list of drugs,
medicines, and a description of their properties,
preparation, and use.
292
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DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 396 878 RC 020 612

AUTHOR Schafer, Patricia D.

EDRS MF01/PC12 Plus Postage.

CHEROKEE HERBAL REMEDIES:

HISTORY, INFORMATION, IDENTIFICATION, MEDICINAL HEALING

Points of vraw ocomons stated in INS doc u.

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND

Running Head: CHEROKEE HERBAL REMEDIES

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

supported, and gave suggestions for this manual. Also,

thanks to Dr. Portia Plummer, Chairperson, for her

support and enthusiasm, and for being on my committee.

A special thanks to Dr. and Mrs. Bernard Marley for

of this project. A special note of thanks to Mrs.

Paula Pendergrass and Dr. Margaret Earl Harper for

their expertise in proofreading for errors in all

phases of the paper. I am Also grateful to Mrs. Etta

Lou Sellars for her encouragement and behind-the-scenes

her help with developing the plant drawing overheads,

for typing manual. Not least, my heart-felt thanks

goes to Dr. Mike Atkinson, who also served on my

Harper, for their help in collecting, reviewing, and

Kieffer, Cindy and Randy Beard and Karen and Bob

McCloud I am grateful for their kindness, backing and

It was their grandparents, great grandparents, and

this manual. Without their love, help, understanding,

and backing, I could not have completed it.

Statement of the Problem 3

Plant Healing Properties 11

Early Settlers; Native Americans 12

Plant Medicinal Myth 13

Gathering, Storing, Preparing 15

Native American Medicine Man 19

Medicinal Plant Ceremonies 20

Cherokee History and Traditions 21

Black Cohosh or Squawroot 29

Common or Great Burdock 44

Senna, American Wild 102

St. Johns Wort 121

Uva Ursi or Common Bearberry 127

White Willow 132

Wild Black Cherry 137

Witch Hazel 143

Yellow Root 154

Curriculum Guide 163

Course Text 165

Lesson Plan Session One 169

Lesson Plan Session Two 175

Lesson Plan Session Three 182

Lesson Plan Session Four 186

Lesson Plan Session Five 190

Lesson Plan Session Six 194

Student Check Sheet 197

Mixers and Energizers 199

Herbal Word Search 201

Herbal Password 202

Blackboard Herbal Baseball 204

First Aid Review Sheet 214