Center of Mass
Center of Mass
Center of Mass
Center of mass
In physics, the center of mass of a distribution of mass in space is the unique
point where the weighted relative position of the distributed mass sums to zero, or
the point where if a force is applied it moves in the direction of the force without
rotating. The distribution of mass is balanced around the center of mass and the
average of the weighted position coordinates of the distributed mass defines its
coordinates. Calculations in mechanics are often simplified when formulated with
respect to the center of mass. It is a hypothetical point where entire mass of an
object may be assumed to be concentrated to visualise its motion. In other words,
the center of mass is the particle equivalent of a given object for application of
Newton's laws of motion.
In the case of a single rigid body, the center of mass is fixed in relation to the body,
This toy uses the principles of center
and if the body has uniform density, it will be located at the centroid. The center
of mass to keep balance on a finger
of mass may be located outside the physical body, as is sometimes the case for
hollow or openshaped objects, such as a horseshoe. In the case of a distribution
of separate bodies, such as the planets of the Solar System, the center of mass may not correspond to the position of any
individual member of the system.
The center of mass is a useful reference point for calculations in mechanics that involve masses distributed in space, such as
the linear and angular momentum of planetary bodies and rigid body dynamics. In orbital mechanics, the equations of
motion of planets are formulated as point masses located at the centers of mass. The center of mass frame is an inertial frame
in which the center of mass of a system is at rest with respect to the origin of the coordinate system.
Contents
History
Definition
A system of particles
A continuous volume
Barycentric coordinates
Systems with periodic boundary conditions
Center of gravity
Linear and angular momentum
Locating the center of mass
In two dimensions
In three dimensions
Applications
Engineering designs
Automotive applications
Aeronautics
Astronomy
Body motion
See also
Notes
References
External links
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History
The concept of "center of mass" in the form of the center of gravity was first introduced by the ancient Greek physicist,
mathematician, and engineer Archimedes of Syracuse. He worked with simplified assumptions about gravity that amount to
a uniform field, thus arriving at the mathematical properties of what we now call the center of mass. Archimedes showed that
the torque exerted on a lever by weights resting at various points along the lever is the same as what it would be if all of the
weights were moved to a single point—their center of mass. In work on floating bodies he demonstrated that the orientation
of a floating object is the one that makes its center of mass as low as possible. He developed mathematical techniques for
finding the centers of mass of objects of uniform density of various welldefined shapes. [1]
Later mathematicians who developed the theory of the center of mass include Pappus of Alexandria, Guido Ubaldi, Francesco
Maurolico, [2] Federico Commandino, [3] Simon Stevin, [4] Luca Valerio, [5] JeanCharles de la Faille, Paul Guldin, [6] John
Wallis, Louis Carré, Pierre Varignon, and Alexis Clairaut. [7]
Newton's second law is reformulated with respect to the center of mass in Euler's first law. [8]
Definition
The center of mass is the unique point at the center of a distribution of mass in
space that has the property that the weighted position vectors relative to this
point sum to zero. In analogy to statistics, the center of mass is the mean location
of a distribution of mass in space.
A system of particles
In the case of a system of particles Pi, i = 1, …, n , each with mass mi that are
located in space with coordinates ri, i = 1, …, n , the coordinates R of the center
of mass satisfy the condition Diagram of an educational toy that
balances on a point: the center of
mass (C) settles below its support
(P)
Solving this equation for R yields the formula
where M is the sum of the masses of all of the particles.
A continuous volume
If the mass distribution is continuous with the density ρ(r) within a solid Q, then the integral of the weighted position
coordinates of the points in this volume relative to the center of mass R over the volume V is zero, that is
Solve this equation for the coordinates R to obtain
where M is the total mass in the volume.
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If a continuous mass distribution has uniform density, which means ρ is constant, then the center of mass is the same as the
centroid of the volume. [9]
Barycentric coordinates
The coordinates R of the center of mass of a twoparticle system, P1 and P2, with masses m1 and m2 is given by
Systems with periodic boundary conditions
For particles in a system with periodic boundary conditions two particles can be neighbours even though they are on opposite
sides of the system. This occurs often in molecular dynamics simulations, for example, in which clusters form at random
locations and sometimes neighbouring atoms cross the periodic boundary. When a cluster straddles the periodic boundary, a
naive calculation of the center of mass will be incorrect. A generalized method for calculating the center of mass for periodic
systems is to treat each coordinate, x and y and/or z, as if it were on a circle instead of a line. [10] The calculation takes every
particle's x coordinate and maps it to an angle,
The process can be repeated for all dimensions of the system to determine the complete center of mass. The utility of the
algorithm is that it allows the mathematics to determine where the "best" center of mass is, instead of guessing or using
cluster analysis to "unfold" a cluster straddling the periodic boundaries. It must be noted that if both average values are zero,
, then is undefined. This is a correct result, because it only occurs when all particles are exactly evenly
spaced. In that condition, their x coordinates are mathematically identical in a periodic system.
Center of gravity
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A body's center of gravity is the point around which the resultant torque due to gravity forces vanishes. Where a gravity field
can be considered to be uniform, the masscenter and the centerofgravity will be the same. However, for satellites in orbit
around a planet, in the absence of other torques being applied to a satellite, the slight variation (gradient) in gravitational
field between closerto (stronger) and furtherfrom (weaker) the planet can lead to a torque that will tend to align the satellite
such that its long axis is vertical. In such a case, it is important to make the distinction between the centerofgravity and the
masscenter. Any horizontal offset between the two will result in an applied torque.
It is useful to note that the masscenter is a fixed property for a given rigid body (e.g. with no slosh or articulation), whereas
the centerofgravity may, in addition, depend upon its orientation in a nonuniform gravitational field. In the latter case,
the centerofgravity will always be located somewhat closer to the main attractive body as compared to the masscenter, and
thus will change its position in the body of interest as its orientation is changed.
In the study of the dynamics of aircraft, vehicles and vessels, forces and moments need to be resolved relative to the mass
center. That is true independent of whether gravity itself is a consideration. Referring to the masscenter as the centerof
gravity is something of a colloquialism, but it is in common usage and when gravity gradient effects are negligible, centerof
gravity and masscenter are the same and are used interchangeably.
In physics the benefits of using the center of mass to model a mass distribution can be seen by considering the resultant of the
gravity forces on a continuous body. Consider a body Q of volume V with density ρ(r) at each point r in the volume. In a
parallel gravity field the force f at each point r is given by,
where dm is the mass at the point r, g is the acceleration of gravity, and k is a unit vector defining the vertical direction.
Choose a reference point R in the volume and compute the resultant force and torque at this point,
and
If the reference point R is chosen so that it is the center of mass, then
which means the resultant torque T=0. Because the resultant torque is zero the body will move as though it is a particle with
its mass concentrated at the center of mass.
By selecting the center of gravity as the reference point for a rigid body, the gravity forces will not cause the body to rotate,
which means the weight of the body can be considered to be concentrated at the center of mass.
Linear and angular momentum
The linear and angular momentum of a collection of particles can be simplified by measuring the position and velocity of the
particles relative to the center of mass. Let the system of particles Pi, i=1,...,n of masses mi be located at the coordinates ri
with velocities v i. Select a reference point R and compute the relative position and velocity vectors,
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The total linear and angular momentum vectors relative to the reference point R are
and
If R is chosen as the center of mass these equations simplify to
where m is the total mass of all the particles, p is the linear momentum, and L is the angular momentum
The Law of Conservation of Momentum predicts that for any system not subjected to external forces the momentum of the
system will remain constant, which means the center of mass will move with constant velocity. This applies for all systems
with classical internal forces, including magnetic fields, electric fields, chemical reactions, and so on. More formally, this is
true for any internal forces that cancel in accordance with Newton's Third Law. [11]
Locating the center of mass
The experimental determination of the center of mass of a body uses gravity forces
on the body and relies on the fact that in the parallel gravity field near the surface
of the earth the center of mass is the same as the center of gravity.
The center of mass of a body with an axis of symmetry and constant density must
lie on this axis. Thus, the center of mass of a circular cylinder of constant density
has its center of mass on the axis of the cylinder. In the same way, the center of
mass of a spherically symmetric body of constant density is at the center of the
sphere. In general, for any symmetry of a body, its center of mass will be a fixed
point of that symmetry. [12]
In two dimensions
An experimental method for locating the center of mass is to suspend the object
Plumb line method
from two locations and to drop plumb lines from the suspension points. The
intersection of the two lines is the center of mass. [13]
The shape of an object might already be mathematically determined, but it may be too complex to use a known formula. In
this case, one can subdivide the complex shape into simpler, more elementary shapes, whose centers of mass are easy to find.
If the total mass and center of mass can be determined for each area, then the center of mass of the whole is the weighted
average of the centers. [14] This method can even work for objects with holes, which can be accounted for as negative
masses. [15]
A direct development of the planimeter known as an integraph, or integerometer, can be used to establish the position of the
centroid or center of mass of an irregular twodimensional shape. This method can be applied to a shape with an irregular,
smooth or complex boundary where other methods are too difficult. It was regularly used by ship builders to compare with
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the required displacement and center of buoyancy of a ship, and ensure it would not capsize. [16][17]
In three dimensions
An experimental method to locate the threedimensional coordinates of the center of mass begins by supporting the object at
three points and measuring the forces, F1 , F2, and F3 that resist the weight of the object, ( is the unit vector in
the vertical direction). Let r1 , r2, and r3 be the position coordinates of the support points, then the coordinates R of the
center of mass satisfy the condition that the resultant torque is zero,
or
This equation yields the coordinates of the center of mass R* in the horizontal plane as,
The center of mass lies on the vertical line L, given by
The threedimensional coordinates of the center of mass are determined by performing this experiment twice with the object
positioned so that these forces are measured for two different horizontal planes through the object. The center of mass will be
the intersection of the two lines L1 and L2 obtained from the two experiments.
Applications
Engineering designs
Automotive applications
Engineers try to design a sports car so that its center of mass is lowered to make the car handle better, that is maintaining
traction while executing relatively sharp turns.
The characteristic low profile of the U. S. military Humvee was designed in part to allow it tilt farther than taller vehicles,
without a rollover, because its low center of mass would stay over the space bounded the four wheels even at angles far from
the horizontal.
Aeronautics
The center of mass is an important point on an aircraft, which significantly affects the stability of the aircraft. To ensure the
aircraft is stable enough to be safe to fly, the center of mass must fall within specified limits. If the center of mass is ahead of
the forward limit, the aircraft will be less maneuverable, possibly to the point of being unable to rotate for takeoff or flare for
landing. [18] If the center of mass is behind the aft limit, the aircraft will be more maneuverable, but also less stable, and
possibly so unstable that it is impossible to fly. The moment arm of the elevator will also be reduced, which makes it more
difficult to recover from a stalled condition. [19]
For helicopters in hover, the center of mass is always directly below the rotorhead. In forward flight, the center of mass will
move forward to balance the negative pitch torque produced by applying cyclic control to propel the helicopter forward;
consequently a cruising helicopter flies "nosedown" in level flight. [20]
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Astronomy
The center of mass plays an important role in astronomy and astrophysics, where it is
commonly referred to as the barycenter. The barycenter is the point between two objects
where they balance each other; it is the center of mass where two or more celestial bodies
orbit each other. When a moon orbits a planet, or a planet orbits a star, both bodies are
actually orbiting around a point that lies away from the center of the primary (larger)
body. [21] For example, the Moon does not orbit the exact center of the Earth, but a point
on a line between the center of the Earth and the Moon, approximately 1,710 km
(1,062 miles) below the surface of the Earth, where their respective masses balance. This
is the point about which the Earth and Moon orbit as they travel around the Sun. If the
masses are more similar, e.g., Pluto and Charon, the barycenter will fall outside both Two bodies orbiting their
bodies. barycenter (red cross)
Body motion
When high jumpers perform a "Fosbury Flop", they bend their respective bodies in
such a way that they clear the bar while their respective centers of mass do not
necessarily do so. [22] Because it is the height of the center of gravity (rather than of
the highest part of the body) that constrains the minimum energy investment for
"clearing" the bar, "snaking over" the bar can reduce the energy expended in
propelling the body upward.
In kinesiology and biomechanics, the center of mass is an important parameter
that assists people in understanding their human locomotion. Typically, a
human’s center of mass is detected with one of two methods: The reaction board
method is a static analysis that involves the person lying down on that Estimated center of mass/gravity of
a high jumper doing a Fosbury Flop.
instrument, and use of their static equilibrium equation to find their center of
Note that it is below the bar in this
mass; the segmentation method relies on a mathematical solution based on the position.
physical principle that the summation of the torques of individual body sections,
relative to a specified axis, must equal the torque of the whole system that
constitutes the body, measured relative to the same axis. [23]
See also
Barycenter Center of pressure (fluid Expected value
Buoyancy mechanics) Mass point geometry
Center of mass (relativistic) Center of pressure (terrestrial Metacentric height
locomotion)
Center of percussion Roll center
Centroid
Weight distribution
Circumcenter of mass
Notes
1. Shore 2008, pp. 9–11.
2. Baron 2004, pp. 91–94.
3. Baron 2004, pp. 94–96.
4. Baron 2004, pp. 96–101.
5. Baron 2004, pp. 101–106.
6. Mancosu 1999, pp. 56–61.
7. Walton 1855, p. 2.
8. Beatty 2006, p. 29.
9. Levi 2009, p. 85.
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10. Bai, Linge; Breen, David (2008). "Calculating Center of Mass in an Unbounded 2D Environment" (http://www.tandfonline.c
om/doi/abs/10.1080/2151237X.2008.10129266). Journal of Graphics, GPU, and Game Tools. 13 (4): 53–60.
doi:10.1080/2151237X.2008.10129266 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F2151237X.2008.10129266).
11. Kleppner & Kolenkow 1973, p. 117.
12. Feynman, Leighton & Sands 1963, p. 19.3.
13. Kleppner & Kolenkow 1973, pp. 119–120.
14. Feynman, Leighton & Sands 1963, pp. 19.1–19.2.
15. Hamill 2009, pp. 20–21.
16. "The theory and design of British shipbuilding" (http://www.ebooksread.com/authorseng/amoslowreyayre/thetheoryand
designofbritishshipbuildinghci/page3thetheoryanddesignofbritishshipbuildinghci.shtml). Amos Lowrey Ayre. p. 3 of
14. Retrieved 20 August 2012.
17. Sangwin 2006, p. 7.
18. Federal Aviation Administration 2007, p. 1.4.
19. Federal Aviation Administration 2007, p. 1.3.
20. "Helicopter Aerodynamics" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120324063720/http://www.ultraligero.net/Cursos/helicoptero/Intr
oduccion_a_la_aerodinamica_del%20_helicoptero.pdf) (PDF). p. 82. Archived from the original (http://www.ultraligero.net/C
ursos/helicoptero/Introduccion_a_la_aerodinamica_del%20_helicoptero.pdf) (PDF) on 24 March 2012. Retrieved
23 November 2013.
21. Murray & Dermott 1999, pp. 45–47.
22. Van Pelt 2005, p. 185.
23. Vint 2003, pp. 1–11.
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External links
Motion of the Center of Mass (https://web.archive.org/web/20050212113330/http://www.kettering.edu/~drussell/Demos/C
OM/coma.html) shows that the motion of the center of mass of an object in free fall is the same as the motion of a point
object.
The Solar System's barycenter (http://orbitsimulator.com/gravity/articles/ssbarycenter.html), simulations showing the
effect each planet contributes to the Solar System's barycenter.
Center of Gravity at Work (http://www.physicsdemos.juliantrubin.com/physics_videos/center_of_gravity.html), video
showing bjects climbing up an incline by themselves.
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