Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables

PRESERVATION OF FRUITS
AND VEGETABLES
BY
GIRDHARI LAL, Ph.D. (Lond.), D.le. (Lond.)
ASSISTANT DIR£CI'OR. DIVISION OF FRurr 'fEClfNOLOGY
CENTRAL Fool) TEcHNOLOGICAL RESEARCII lNsTrrtJ'l'E. My ORE
G. S. SIDDAPPA. M.A. (Hons.). Madras,

Ph.D. (Bristol). A.R.I.C. (Lond.)
SENIOR ScIENTIFIC OFFICER. DIVISION 01' Fl\urr 'TECHNOLOGY
CENTRAL FOOD TECHNOLOGICAL RESEARCH lNSTITtJ'l'E, MVSOIlIl
AND
G. L. T ANDON. M.Sc. (Hons.), Punjab

SENIOR ScIENTIFIC OFFICER. DIVISION OF FRurr 'J):CHNOLOGV
CJ!:NTRAL FOOD T.e:CHNOLOGICAL RESEAIlCH INSTrrV'l'E, MvsoRE
l' BLlSHED BY
INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

NEW DELHI
FIRST PRINTED JANUARY, 1960
"-
.. , ., 'tl'
Edited By
PREM NATH
CmEv EDl1'OR ANO PRODUCTION SPECIALIST
All Rights Reserved,

Copyright 1959 by Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi
Printed by
S. N. Guha Ray at Sree Saruwaty Press: Ltd., 32, Acharya Pra{uU~ Challdra Road, Calcutta"
PRESERVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
lh1'TERY Of' VJ;:Rll \1 . R 'tORTS IN A FRlIIT AND VECETABLE PRESERVATlO FACTORY
FOREWORD
Fruits and vegetables are among the most important foods of mankind
as they are not only nutritive but are also indispensable for the maintenance
of health. From the point of view of the agriculturist also. they are of great
importance as he is assured of high returns from their cultivation even
on a small area. The total estimated production of fruits in India is about
129 million maunds. but as a substantial quantity is wasted. only about one
ounce per individual per day is the net availability. This contrasts markedly
with the consumption in other advanced countries which ranges between
4 to 16 ounces per day. Development of horticulture will be uneconomical
in a country with poor communications and marketing facilities. unless the
fruit and vegetable preservation industry keeps pace with the developmental
work. Its progress in India has been rather slow. mainly because of lack
of adequatt: scientific knowledge about the various processes of food pre-
servation. It is. therefore. very necessary that this knowledge should be
disseminated on a country-wide scale.
It is only a hundred years sillce Pasteur's discovery of the microbes which
cause spoilage of food revolutionised the canning industry in the West.
But during this short period the industry has been developed to such a
degree of perfection that fruits. vegetables and other foods produced by
any country in any season are available all over the world at all times.
Over 350 different kinds of canned foods are found in the market. and the
total annual pack of the major producing countries of the world is estimated
at more than 15.000 million pounds. The production of canned fruits and
vegetable products in the U.S.A. alone is over 7 million tons.
The canning industry in India has yet to exploit its full potentialities.
A number of entrepreneurs have no doubt established modern plants for
the manufacture of various food products. but considering the great scope
which exists for the development of the industry. the pace of progress is
not as fast as it should be. The Central Food Technological Research
Institute•. Mysore. is striving hard to find solution for the problems which
stand in the way of development of the industry.
The book Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables is the outcome of long
experimenta~ion and study in which three of the senior officers of the Central
Technological Research Institute have been engaged. I congratulate them
and the Indian Council of Agricultural Research for bringing out this
valuable book. It embodies the results of the research conducted on various
aspects of the -preservation of fruits and vegetables. and aims at providing
practical guidance both to the cottage worker and the large-scale producer.
The book will also be of great use to the Extension Workers and
s
6 FOREWORD
teachers as well as students in Home Science Colleges in popularising

scientific methods of preparing fruit juices, squashes, cordials. jams. jellies,
marmalades, pickles, etc., and of preserving seasonal vegetables. I am sure it
will scrvc a long-felt need for a comprehensive treatment of the subject
and will promote the interests of the horticulturists in the country.
S. K. PAUL
New Delhi MINISTER FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE
October 20. 1959 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
PREFACE
Preservation of food in one form or tbe other bas been practi ed in all
parts of the world since time immemorial, though scientific methods for it
came to be developed only about a hundred years back. However, as in the
case of many other iudusu'ies, technological progress in food preservation
gained momentum maully after the outbreak of the first World 'War when
supply of large quantities of vegetables, fruits. meat, etc. had to be arranged
for the armed forces, World War IT provided another strong impetus to the
growth of the industry. The wide assortment of the canned products avail-
able in the market and their easy portability ha"e created a fast increasing
demand for preserved foods. In many advanced countries today even the
poorer sections of the population have become used to consuming canned or
bottled fruits and vegetables as these are available all the yea.r round, and
arc often cheaper than even the fresh commodities. Th\18, an industry which
had its beginning in the scarcity conditions of war, is now considered to be
of perennial importance. It also assures a stable market to farmers and
horticulturists, and enables them to expand their production without fear
of a fall in demand.
Fruit and vegetable preservation industry is still in its infancy in this
COWl try. The total annual production of all kinds of preserved fruits and
"egetables does not amount to more than Rs. 2 crores in value, and most of
the products are too expensive for a majority of the people. Again, the
preserved products consist mainly of jams and pickles which continue to be
produced by traditional methods. Till only about 20 years ago, other well-
known methods of preservation, snch as making of juice~. squashes, cordials.
jellies, marmalades, etc., were confined only to a few larger industries. In the
early thirties, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research financed a number
of schemes under which a band of workers started pioneering work for the
popularisation of these metllods. It is a matter of great satisfaction that rapid
progress has been made since then, and the production of fruit pres rves
of all types is now carried on even on cottage scale.
One of the main diffi ulries in the way of the growth of the fruit and
vegetable presen'ation industry has been the inadequacy of knowledge of
the modern methods and techniques of preservation. To overcome this
difficulty, the Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, has
been undertaking intensive studies and research on variolls aspects of pre-
servation methods. Research workers in other parts of the country have also
been devoting _attention to these problems. But most of the a,'ailable know-
ledge is scattered in scientific papers, departmental reports and other highly
technical puhlications. This information has to be diRSeminated on a country-
7
8 PREFACE
wide scale so that full advantage of it can be taken by all those interested in
the industry. To meet this need, the Indian Council ot Agricultural Research
has brought out Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables which is a compre-
hensive book on the subject. The authors, Dr. Girdhari Lal, Dr. G. S.
Siddappa and Shri G. L. Tandon, who are senior officers of the Central Food
Technological Research Institute, and are known for their experience and
knowledge, have made the book highly useful by treating the subject in all
its essential aspects in a simple and interesting style. I congratulate them
for this, and hope that the book would meet the needs of Extension Workers,
Home Science Colleges, manufacturers of preserved fruits and vegetables, and
others interested in this subject.
M. S. RANDHAWA, D.Se., F.N.I., I.C.S.

New Delhi VICE-PRESIDENT
December 30, 1959 I NDIAN COUNCIL OF ACRICULTURAL RESEARCH
ACKNO~~EDGEMENTS
The authors are indebted to Dr. V. Subrahmanyan, Director, Central Food

Technological Research Institute, Mysore, for the help and guidance given
by him in the preparation of this book, and for his permitting them to make
use of unpublished research data. Through his courtesy a number of photo-
graphs of the machinery and equipment in the Institute have also been
reproduced in the book.
They are grateful to Messrs Pure Products and Madhu Canning, Ltd.,
Bombay. Central Hindustan Orange and Cold Storage Company Ltd., The
Metal Box Company of India, Ltd., Mather and Platt Ltd., India, and Teg
Products, Patiala, for permission to use photographs of their equipment.
GIRDHARl l..AI.
G. S. SIDDAPPA
G.L.TANDON
CONTENTS
PACEl
FOREWORD 5
PREFACE 7
CHAPTER I. CANNING AND BOTTLING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 15

PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PROCESSING. CONTAINERS FOR PACKING.
CHAPTER II. COMMERCIAL CANNING 19

FACTORY Sm. FACTORY BUILDING. WATER SUPPLY AND DRAINACE.
SORTING AND GRADING. PEELING, CORING AND PnTINC. CAN FlLLlNc.
HEAT PENETRATION IN CANS. COOLING. TESTING FOR DEFECTS. LABEL-
LING, SORTINO AND PACIaNG.
CHAPTER III. CONTAINERS 38

TIN CONTAINERS. UCQUERlNG. MANUFAcnJRE OF CANS. TESTINC CANS.
SIZES OF CANS. GLASS CONTAINERS.
CHAPTER IV. SYRUPS AND BRINES FOR CANNING 51

SUGAR SYRUPs. TESTING SYRUP STRENGTH. SYRUP CALCULATIONS.
CHAPTER V. CANNING FRUITS 60

ApPLES. APRICOTS; BANANAS. BLACK BERRIES. CHERRIES. FIGS. GRAPES .
GRAPEFRUIT. GREENGAGE. GUAVAS. JACK-FRUIT. LITcms. LoQUATS.
MANGOES. ORANGES. PAPAYA. PEACHES. PEARS. PINEAPPLES. PLUMS.
BERRY FRUITS.
CHAPTER VI. CANNING VEGF.TABLES 71

ASPARAGUS. BEANS. BEAT. CABIlAGE. CARROT. CAUUFLOWER. GRAM.
MUSHROOM. OKRA (LADY'S FlNGER). PEAS. POTATO. TOMATO. TURNIP.
CURruED VEGETABLES.
CHAPTER VII. SPOn..AGE IN CANNED FOODS 76

DrSCOLOURATION OF FRUIT PRODUCTS. COLOURINC MATTER IN FRUITS
AND VEGETABLES. DrSCOLOURATION IN VARIOUS CANNED FOOD PRODUCTS
CORROSION AND PERFORATION OF TrNPLATES. SPOILAGE BY MI(,.RO-
ORGANISMS. STORAGE LIFE OF CANNED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES.
CHAPTER VItI. FRUIT JUICES, SQUASHES AND CORDIALS 84

EQt:lPMENT FOR FRUIT JUICES. DoUBLE OPERATON. PULPING EQUIPMENT.
DEAERATOR AND FLASH PASTEURIZER. FRUIT BEVERACES. CLARlFlCATION
9
10 CONTENTS
P ACE
BY FREEZING. CLARIFICATION BY liF:ATL~G. PRESERVATION OF FRurr
JUICES. PASTEURIZATION. PRESERVATION \'VITII CIIEMICALS. PRESERVA-
nON BY ADDmoN OF SUGAR. PRESERVATION BY FREEZING. PRESERVATION
Ill' DRYING. PRESERVATION BY CARBONATION. PRESERVATION BY FILTRA-
TION. OrRER MJ,."IODS m' PRESERVATION .
CHAPTER lX. FRUIT BEVERAGES 115

SQUASHES AND CORDIALS. JmCI's. S\lWPS. CARBONATED BEVERAGES.
JUICE CoNCENTRATF.s. FRUIT JUICE POWDER.
CHAPTER X. FERMENTED JlEVERAGES 136

GRAPE WINE. FERMENTATION. CIIi\1\1PAGNE. PORT. MUSCAT. TOKAY .
SHERRY. CIDER. PERRY. ORANCE WDI"E. BERRY WINES .
CHAPTER XI. JAMS, JELT.IF.S AND MARMALADES 140

JAMS. FRUIT PRESERVIill BY HEAT TREATIl1F.NT. PREPARING THE FRUIT
FOR JAM-Jl.IAKLl'IG. JELUES. EXl1tACTION OF PECrIN. STRAININC AND
CLARIFICATION. 1'm:ORY OF JELLY FORMATION. STRENGTH OF P.ECTlN
JELUES. CooKING OF JELLY. PACKING. SEALING AND STERILIZATION. SOME
TYPICAL JAMS AND JEl.LlF.S. JAM-J.IKE PRODUcrS. MARMAJ.ADf.S. JAM
MARMAl.ADE.
CHAPTER XU. PRESERVES, CANDlES AND CRYSTALLIZED FHUITS 174

PRELIMINARY PROCESSING. COOI.lNG AND PACKING. CANDIED, GI.ACF.O
AND CRYSTALUZED FRUITS. S01\O: COl\l1\10N PREPARATION .
.HAPTER xnr. TOMATO PRODUCTS 1117

TOh-tno JUICE. TOMATO PUREE. TOMATO PASTE. TOl\>JATO COC.KTAIL.
TOMATO KETCHUP. Cnn.1 SAUCF.. TOMATO SAUCE. TO!\1ATO SOuP.
MICROBIOLOGY.
CHAPTER XIV. CHUTNEYS, SAUCES A lD PICKLES 203

CHuTNEYS. nrm SAUCES. TmcK SAUCES. PICKl.ES. PICKUNG PROCESS.
CAUSES OF SPOILAGE. VARIOUS PICKLES.
CHAPTER XV. VINEGAR 230

VINEGAR VARn.TIES. MEniODS OF PREPARATION. POST-PRODtlcrION PRO-
cr.C;SES. CIrECKJNG SPOJl.AGE.
CHAPTER XVI. DRYING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 2"1

SUN-DRYING. MECHANICAL DEID'DRATION. PROCESS VARIATIONS. PRo-
CF.5SES ll'OR VECETABLES. PAC10NC AND STORAGE.
CONTENTS II
PAGE
CHAPTER XVII. BY·PRODUCTS 257
UTILIZING WASTE 1ATrER. GUAVA CIlEE Eo OnlER VtCETAIILES. CITRUS
BY-PRODUCTS.
CHAPTER xvm. MANUFACTUIU:: OF PECTIN 265

PEcrlN FRO) I APPLES. PECTIN FROM CrrRUS FRUl'l'S. PEC11~ F'RO~I
OrnER l'vfAn:RIALS. P ECTIN PREPARATION. USES Of' PEC11N.
CHAPTER XIX. WATER FOR A CANNERY :!i3

Q UA I.ITlES OF 'V.\TER. PROCESSINC OF WATER . ANAI.\·s rs OF WATER.
1AJOR MINER."I. CONSTITl ENTS. BACTERJOLOCI CAI. EXAMINATION.
CHA PTER XX. FOOl.> COLOU RS 18 1

CERTlFrED COl.OURS. B ANNF.D COLOURS,
CHAl>TER XXI. VITAMiNS .. . 28B

PROCESSINC AND VITAlItJ:.<S.
CHAPTER XXII. LTMITS FOR '5E OF PRE ERVATIVES

HARDNESS OF \VATER. SOllIE USEFttl. DATA . SO~U; CONSTANTS .
DOJlmSTIC M Et\ Sl1RE..<;.
APPENDIX I. REFERENCE TABLF. 2\15
.\PI'ENDIX II. FRUIT PRODUCTS OHDER 1955 .~09
nIDUOGRAPHY 343
INDEX 355
LIST OF ILWSTRATIONS
PAGE
A battery of vertical retorts in a fruit and vegetable
preservation factory Frontispiece
1. Plan of a fruit preservation factory 20
2. Layout plan of a canning line ... 21
3. Layout plan of a juice plant 22
4. Preparation and grading of fruits in a canning factory 23
5. Peeling. pitting and coring knives 23
6. Filling ' cans with syrup in a canning factory 24
7. Peeling. slicing and coring machines 29
8. Steam exhaust line in a canning factory 29
9. A double seamer in a canning factory 30
10. Open batch-type exhaust. cooking and cooling tanks 39
11. Continuous moving belt. exhaust. cooking and cooling tanks 39
12. Can reforming unit: Can body reformer 40
13. Vacuum can tester for double seam 40
14. Roller action of a double seamer 42
15. Double seam measurements 44
16. Can seaming technology: Graphic explanation of seams 45
17. Can reforming unit: Banger 49
18. Can reforming unit: M. B. IA double seamer 49
19. A Brix hydrometer for measuring syrup strength 50
20. A pocket refractometer for measuring syrup strength 50
21. Preparation of papaya fruit for canning 67
22. A small power-driven pineapple slicing machine 68
23. Power-driven potato peeler 68
24. Halving and burring machines 85
25. Burring machine for extraction of juice from oranges ... 85
26. Juice extraction room in Central Food Technological Research
Institute. Mysore 86
27. Laboratory screw type juice extractor 86
28. Screw type juice extractor 89
29. Grape crusher 89
30. A small hydraulic press " ., 90
31. A basket press 90
32. Diagram of a laboratory flasb pasteurizer 93
33. A.P.V. pulping machine 95
34. A hand operated juice filter press 96
35. Laboratory juice deaeration unit 99
12
UST OF n.LUSTRATlONS 13
36. Laboratory flash pasteurizer 99

37. Deaerating and pasteurizing plant 100
38. Bottle washing machine 100
39. Vacuum operated bottle filling machine 117
40. Syrup mixing tank 117
41. Bottle filling machine (Syphon pipe filler) .. 118
42. An automatic filler (Asco filler) ... 118
43. Crown corking machine 119
44. Botde corking machine 119
45. A.P.V. laboratory two-stage fruit juice concentration unit 120
46. Capsuling machine 133
47. Steam jacketed jam boiling pans 133
48. Sharples super centrifuge 134
49. Testing fruit extract for pectin contents 157
50. Sketch of a jelmeter ." .. 158
51. Jelmeter test for pectin content 159
52. Jelly thermometer 164
53. Flake Test: Condition of jam or jelly Bakes ready for pourin~ 164
54. Vinegar generator for quick process 237
55. Tomato crusher. pre-heating pans. pulper and cool<ing pans 243
56. Analytical and research laboratory Central Food Technological
Research Institute. Mysore 243
57. Home-made drier 244
58. A dehydration trolley being loaded 244
59. An experimental 3-trolley unit tunnel dehydrater (recirctllating.
air-blast type) for dehydration of fruits and vegetables 248
60. Circulating-air-blast type tunnel dehydrater 250
61. An electrically operated cabinet drier 261
62. Extraction of oil from oranges by using a plate with spike!. 261
63. Two-roller mill for extraction of oil from citrus peels 262
64. Extraction of oil from oranges in a fruit juice far tory 262
CHAPTER 1
CANNING AND BOTTLING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
It is a common experience that fruits. vegetables. mears. aud many other

articles of food spoil rapidly unless specially cared for. Various methods
for preserving these. such as pickling in salt or vinegar, drying, smoking,
preserving in sugar or honey. etc., have been developed since time
immemorial. But canning is comparatively a modern techniquc. It developed
under the stress of war conditions towards the close of the 18th century.
During the Napoleonic wars, the French Goyernment announced a prize
of 12,000 francs for the discovery of a satisfactory method of preservation so
that food could be transported to the fighting forces oyer long distances
without spoiling. In 1810. Nicholas Appen, a Paris confectioner and distiller,
invented a process for presenoing foods in glass containers. took out a patent
for his process. and won the prize. He also published a book entitled The
Art of Preserving Animal and JIegetablc Substances for Many Y cars which
is the first known work on modern canning. In honour of its discO\'erer.
canning is still known as 'Appertizing'.
Appert packed his food in glass colltainer~. added sufficient water to
cover the food. placed the corks loosely on top and heated the
containers in a ,rater-bath to obtain a temperature of 190° - 212·F. at the
centre of the containers. The containers were finally scaled air-tight
by driving in the corks. By this method. he succeeded i.n preserdng several
kinds of foods. He ascribed thi.s preserving action to the exclusion o{
outside air. Gay-Lussac. who studied Appert's process at the instance of
the French Government, concluded that spoilage in foods was essentially
a process of oxidation which could be prevented by the exclusion of air
from the container. This hypothesis was unirersally accepted till the time
of Louis Pasteur who pro\O ided correct explanation of the change through
his discovery of microbes round about 1860. By his experiments on heat
treatment, he proved that micro-organisms are the real cause of spoilage,
and that by destroying these, foods call be presen'cd in suitable containers.
He introduced the word 'Pasteurization', which means heat-treatment of
a food at a sufficiently high temperature to kiJI the majority, though not
all, of the mkro-organisms thereby prolonging the normal keeping quality
of that food. What Appert did was to destroy. by heating. micro-organisms
BUch a~ bacteria, moulds and yeasts present in food, water and air. which
were responsible for fermentation and decay, by preventing their access to the
food inside' the container by sealing it hermetically.
In England, Thomas Saddington, who had picked up the general
principles of the method of Appert while travelling in France. was the
t$
16 PRESERVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
first to describe the method of canning of foods in 1807. According to

Bitting, Peter Durand. another Englishman, obtained in 1810 the first British
patent on canning of foods in tin containers.
Canning of fruits on a commercial scale was intrOduced in the United
States of America in 1817 by William Underwood, the founder of the
present William Underwood Company of Boston. Mass. who had learnt
the technique in London. The Civil War in America, and later the Boer
War and the Great European War of 1914. with their enormous require·
ments of preserved foods gave a great impetus to the canning industry.
The Second World War provided a further fillip. and the canning industry
witnessed unprecedented developments in both technique and scope. At
present the variety and range of canned foods are enormous. Over 350
different kinds of canned foods are to be found nowadays; and the total
pack of the major producing countries of the world even as far back as
1935 has been estimated at 14,442 million pounds. According to the
Canning Trade Almanac 1954, in 1952 in the U.S.A. alone. the total produc-
tion of canned fruit and vegetable products of all categories was of the
order of 7 million tons.
PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PROCESSING

The fundamental principle of preserving foods by heat is known as
·Processing'. It consists basically in the application of heat in varying
degrees to the food in closed containers, for a sufficiently long time to
sterilize the contents before these are hermetically sealed. The method
of processing varies from food to food.
In the early days of canning. the 'open-bath' processing in boiling water
was the one commonly used. This was also the method adopted by Appert.
By this method. fruits which were naturally acidic and the more acid
vegetables like rhubarb and tomato could be satisfactorily preserved as
most of the spoilage organisms present in them were easily destroyed at the
temperature of boiling water. Non-acid vegetables, however, required
processing at higher temperature to be rid of the more resistant organisms
present in them. In earlier times, prolonged processing in boiling water
for 5-6 hours or heating the canned food for short periods of 3-4 succes.·
sive days to sterilize the product completely. was adopted in the case of
Hon-acid vegetables. This was. however, cumbersome. In 1861. Isaac
Winslow used calcium chloride in the open-bath to raise the temperature
as high as 250°F. Calcium chloride, however. discoloured the tin can and
made it look unattractive. In 1874. a pressure cooker or retort. in which
steam is let into a closed vessel under ·pressure. was invented by A. L. Shriver,
a canner of'Baltimore. This was a big step forward in the technique. Severa)
improvements have 'since been introduced in this bighly useful equipment.
Pressure cookers are now available in various designs and capacities to suit
ditIerent requirements.
CANNING AND BOTIUNG FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 17
The original simple 'open-bath' method also has been improved greatly.
The continuous-type open cooker is a notable addition. In earlic::r days,
the cooker consisted of a long iron or wooden tank, sometimes as long as
100 feet, containing boiling water through which sealed cans were moved
in crates suspended from a moving overhead conveyor. These being bulky
and inconvenient, continuous agitating sterilizers were introduced. In these,
the sealed cans were conveyed on a continuous belt passing through a
closed steam chamber with a device to constantly roll and agitate the
cans. Bitting estimates that in these sterilizers the processing time is
reduced by as much as 75 per cent. Thes sterilizers are in COmmon use in
many of the modern canneries.
CONTAINERS FOR PACKING

Tin and glass containers have been successfully employed for packing
foods. As stated already, Appen made usc of glass jars 01' bottles, while
Peter Durand employed metal containers. A great deal of development
has since taken place in the manufacture of both types of the containers.
Jars and bottles of clear white flint glass that can withstand heating and
can give perfectly air-tight seal, are !lOW available in a wide variety of
designs and capacities.
The open top or sanitary tin can is made of sheet metal with a thin
coating of tin. In early days, cans were made entirely by hand, the body
being cut out by shears and the lids with a die, and the components
soldered together afterwards. Later on came the 'hole and cap' cans in which
a circular hole about half the size of the top was cut and provided with a
circular disc that would fit the opening. This disc was soldered after filling
the can with tlle food. In the centre of the lid was a small hole which was
closed after preliminary heating of the can to drive out the air. This type
of can was in use for a long time for canning fruits, vegetables, meats, ctc.
It gave way to the modern 'Sanitary Cari' in which tllcre is practically
no solder except for the slight solder on the side seam, and ill which the
top and the bottom lids or ends are lined round the rim with paper or
rubber gaskets to give an air-tight seal. These cans are closed by means
of a special type of sealing machine called a 'Double Seamer'. One great
advantage of these sanitary or open-top cans is that they have a large
opening which facilitates the packing of all kinds of foods without crushing
them. These cans are turned out by the million on automatic assembly-
line basis.
Recently, cans made from black steel plate have been successfully
employed for packing several processed foods. This dcvelopment, like
several others, had its origin in the Second World War when there was
shortage of tin. The black-plate cans are coated all both sides with a
special type of lacquer. Much work has been done in England in develop-
ing this type. Investigations carried out by the authors of this monograph
18 PRESERVA TlON OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
on similar <:ans which were made availabJe by the Metal Box Company
of India Ltd. (Calcutta), have given very promising results as regards their
suitability for canning products like jams, jellies, marmalades and
preserves.
In addition to the tin and glass contai~lers, other new types of containers
have also been introduced. One of these is the plywood container which
has been rec~nt1y used successfully for packing dairy products like butter,
sweetened milk, milk powder and a variety of other products like lemon
cheese, minced meat, confectionery, etc. These containers might also be
useful for packing jams, jellics and marmalades. Quite recently an Indian
patent has been granted to tlle Director of Scientific and Industrial
Hesearch, for containers made from modified shellac-laminated plastic.
Although these containers have been found suitable for packing fruit and
vegetable products in dried or semi-dried condition, it is too early to
predict whether they can replace tile tin containers entirely for packing
all kinds of products. Aluminium and silver-lined containers have also
been used for packing certain kinds of foods. The tin container. however,
still continues to be the most important in tlle field.
In recent years, the Metal Box Company of India Ltd. have developed II
new string-opening composite container which is easily opened by sharply
pulling a rip-cord fixed to The body of the container. This type of con·
tainer is said to be ideal for packing only such products as baby and invalid
foods, custard powders, confectionery, biscuits, etc.
A novel development in camling is the self-heating can. Several millions
of this type were used by tile British and American forces especially during
Commando raids by invading forces. Although the idea of a self-heating
can is not new, its practical application became a reality wiili tbe discovery
of a suitable non-bulky gasless composition which ignited readjly and
heated tile contents of the can to about 50·C in 4-5 minutes. In a sel£-
heating can, a mixture like calcium silicide plus Fe 203 or Fe 30" which is
placed in a central tube fixed to the inside of the cao, is ignited through
a primer and a fuse by means of a lighted cigarette end or match stick.
The heat of reaction warms the contents of the can quickly. At present
these cans are highly useful for packing liquid products like thin soups,
cocoa, milk shakes, etc., required for use in the field, in air travel and in
picnics and other outdoor activities.
CHAPTER II
COMMERCIAL CANNING
Before dealing with the various processes involved in the canning of

fruirs and vegetables on a commercial scale, it is necessary to consider
certain important factors such as investment, site, building, water supply,
staff, labour, etc., which are essential for the successful running of a large-
scale cannery.
Investment
The capital outlay includes investment on land, factory buildings. and
machinery. The running or operational expenses include the cost of raw
material, labour, processing, storage. transport, and distribution. As a first
step, the entrepreneur should plan carefully the type and size of produc-
tion which would be most advantageous. He should tben decide about the
plant and other requirements.
Factory Site
In selecting site for the factory, the following points should be comidered
carefully:
I. Adequate quantities of the right type of fruits and vegetables should
be readily available in the locality. for fruits and vegetables are highly
perishable and deteriorate in long distance transport.
2. There should exist proper transport facilities for the movement of
raw materials and finished products.
3. The environments should be clean and free from debris. dust, etc.,
as far as possible. The site should be at a considerable distance from
other industrial factories spreading soot, smoke and disagreeable
odours which would affect adversely the quality of the canned product.
There should also be facilities to dispose of the cannery wastes.
4. There should be scope for future orderly expansion of the facLOry.
Factory Building
The £actor~ building may be single-storeyed or multi-storeyed. Where tbe
factory is a comparatively small one and works for short periods during
the year. a single-storeyed building of light construction will do. In the
case of larger plants, that have to run almost throughout the year, multi-
storeyed construction is desirable as it would facilitate and cheapen the
movement of raw and finished products. Flooring should be firm and of
good cement to withstand the constant use of water and the movement
of heavy-wheeled trucks. A slope of about one quarter of an inch per
19
2
20 PltESERVAnON OF FRUITS AND VEGETADLES
,,~, J....~ _.. ~
~~ ..
foot isnecessary for proper drainage. All doors, windows and ventilators
should be provided with fine wire-gauze to prevent entrance of flies, wasps
and other insects. The roof of the building should be high and well
ventilated to provide outlet for vapours and steam. The windows should
have large glass panes, and part of the roof should be of ground glass to
permit a gentle light inside. There should be provision for efficient artificial
lighting also, as the cannery will have to work at night also quite
often.
A sufficient number of dressing and toilet rooms should be provided
separately for men and women workers in the factory premises. The workers
should be taught the importance of personal hygiene. These are important
considerations for handling food stuffs for human consumption.
Water Supply and Drainage

There should be abundant supply of potable water. Large quantities of
water are required for cleaning fruits and vegetables, making syrup and
brine, washing floors and machinery, etc. The water system should work
at sufficiently high pressure so that supplies can be had at different points iu
the cannery without a break. The water should not be alkaline or very
hard, and should be free from organic matter. Presence of iron and sulphur
compounds in it renders it unsuitable for making syrups or brines. Salosh
water shou ld be avoided as it would affect the taste of the product. If supplies
of the desired quality are not available, it would be necessary to instal a
water-softening plant.
- r-- ~ !"- -~--
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. . . . O.OI,M)
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- J
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I
_., ........ ..,.
----------
,
Fie. I. PLAN or A FRUIT PuRRvAnON F ACTORY
COMMERClAL CANNtNC 21
.....
_"
II CANNING LINE
._j_._._._
Ftc. 2. LAYOtlT PLII.N OF 1\ CII.NNINC LINE
Labour
All the workers in the factory, whether employed on regular basis or
recruited during rush periods, should have clean clothes and aprons to
ensure hygicnic conditions. They should be medically examined at regular
intervals as precaution against infectious diseases. An efficient system of
chemical and microbiological control at various stages of the manufactur-
ing process should be maintained to guard against the risk of contamination
and food-poisoning. A trained chemist with assistants should be there to
supervise the work and to ensure the desired standard of production.
Equipment
Great care is needed in the selection of machinery and other equipment.
Different types of units are in use, but every manufacturer will have to
determine his own requirements. However, as a rough guide, layout plans
of a small fruit preservation factory with a canning line with an output of
about 2000 A2 size cans per day and a juice plant with a capacity of about
lOOO bottles arc given in Figures 1, 2 and 3.
The whole equipment should be arranged in a proper order so that
minimum time and effort are needed in handling the product at all stages
of manufactutc. In short, the raw product should move practically in a
straight line till it emerges as finished product ready for labelling and
packing. During the off-season, the entire machinery should be overhauled,
greased, and painted.
CANNING PROCESS
For canning, fruits and vegetables should be absolutely fresh. "An hour
from the field to the can" is the accepted ideal.
r---------------,,
,
I ,
1 I
I ~:'J;U. I
"",.
_..-
"""" ,
!
I
Il.... _______ _ _ _ __ _JI
JUICE: PLANT
Fl c . 3. LAYOUT PLA1'I r.1' 1\ JUICE

Pl.ANT
Thc fruit should be ripe, but firm, and e\'enly maturcd. It should be free
from all unsightly blemishes. insect damage. and malformation. Over-ripe
fruit is generally infected with micro-organisms. and would yield a pack
of poor quality. Under-ripe fruit will genernlly shrivel and toughen on
canning. The vegetables should be tender, except that tomatoes should
be finn. fully ripe, and of deep red colour. They should be reasonably free
from soil, dirt. etc.
The fruits and vegetables selected for canning pass through several
processes before they are turned out as finished products. The main processes
are described below.
Sorting and Grading

After preliminary sorting, the fruits and vegetables are graded. This is
necessary to obtain a pack of uniform quallty as regards size, colour, etc.,
and is done by haud or with the help of grading machines. There are
~e\'eral mechanical graders. like the screen graders. roller graders, rope or
COMMERCTAL CANNING 23
FIG. 4. PREPAIUTIO N A1"D GRADING ov FRUITS IN A ANNING FACTORY
Flc . 5. PEELINC, I'ITI1NC AND CORINC KNIVES

FIG. 6. Fn.t.INC CANS WITH Srnup IN A CANNINC FACTORY

COMMERCIAL CANNING 25
cable graders, etc. Screen graders which are fitted with vibrating screens
of copper with circular openings are most commonly U8ed. A set of about
six screens is generally provided to deal with different sizes. Soft and berry
fruits are generally graded by hand picking.
Fruits like berries, plums, cherries, and olives are graded whole, while
peaches, apricots, pears, mangoes, erc., are generally graded after cutting
them into halves or slices (Fig. 4).
Washing
The graded fruits and vegetables are washed with water in different ways,
stich as soaking or agitating in water, washing with cold or hot water
sprays, etc. A thorough wash is most essential for good results. Vegetables
may preferably be soaked in a dilute solution of potassium permanganate
to disinfect them. Agitation of the washing water is effected generally by
means of compressed air or a force pump or a propeller-type equipmenr.
Spray washing is, ho.wever, the most efficient method.
Peeling, Coring and Pitting

The washed fruits and vegetables are prepared for canning by peeling,
coring, blanching, etc. Fruits and vegetables are peeled in a variety of ways:
(i) by hand or with knife; (ii) by machine; (iii) by heat treatment; and
(iv) by lye solution. Cores and pits in fruits are removed by hand or by
means of a machine.
Hand Peeling. Many of the fruits and vegetables are peeled and cut by
hand with the help of special knives (Fig. 5). The peeling knife with a
curved blade and a special guard to regulate the depth of peeling is of special
interest as it can be employed uniycrsally for many of the fruits and
vegetables. Coring and pitting knives of typical peeling are illustrated in
Fig. 5.
Peeling, Coring and Pitting by Machine. Recently, mechanical peeling,
coring, and cubing machines for pears, apples and other fruits and
vegetables have been introduced (Fig. 7). There are also automatic machines
for peaches and cherries. Mechanical peelers are also used for root vegetables
like carrots, turnips, potatoes, etc.
Peeling by Heat. Some fruits and vegetables, particularly certain varieties
of peaches and potatoes, are scalded in steam or boiling water to soften
and loosen the skin which is subsequently removed easily by hand. The
latest development of this method consists in exposing the fruit or vegetable
to a high temperature of 10SOoC for 10-60 seconds, whereby the skin
bursts and retracts facilitating its easy removal by means of pressure sprays.
For work on a large-scale, a furnace fitted with a variable speed conveyor
and temperature control device is employed. To get good results, the fruit
Or vegetable should be of uniform size and maturity. It is claimed that in
this method there is little loss of flavour, and the product is of uniform
26 PRESERVAnON OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
colour free from any blemish. The heat-peeled fruit absorbs sugar more
readily than fruit peeled by other methods.
Lye Peeling. Fruits and vegetables like peaches, apricots, quinces, sweet
orange and tangerine sections, carrots, and sweet potatoes are generally
peeled by dipping them in boiling caustic soda or lye solution of 1-2 per
cent. strength for short periods, ranging from 30 seconds to 2 minutes
(depending on the nature and maturity of the fruit or vegetable). The
strength of the boiling lye is adjusted from time to time. The hot lye
loosens the skin from the flesh underneath. The peel is then removed
easily by hand. Any traces of alkali would be removed by washing the
fruit or vegetable thoroughly in running cold water, or preferably by
dipping it for a few seconds in a very weak solution of hydrochloric or
citric acid. This method is quick and reduces the cost of peeling and
wastage.
The lye-dipping equipment varies from a simple open iron pan for the
lye solution with iron baskets or cages for holding the fruits and vegetables
to fully automatic machines. Use of aluminium in the lye-dipping equipment
should be avoided as it reacts with sodium hydroxide.
Blanching. Treatment of fruits and vegetables with boiling water or steam
for short periods, followed by cooling prior to canning, is called 'blanching'.
This loosens the skin-which process is of particular importance in the case
of beets and tomatoes- facilitates close filling in the can, and drives out the
air from the tissues. Further, it helps to clean the fruit or vegetable and
to eliminate micro-organisms. It also inacdvates the enzymes, thus prevent-
ing possibility of discolouration. By removing undesirable acrid elements
and astringent taste of the peel, it also improves the flavour.
Tn II. small cannery, the fruit or vegetable to be blanched is placed in a
wire basket, which is first dipped in hot water for a short period, ranging
from 2 to 5 minutes, and then dipped in cold water. Hard water should
not be used for blanching, as it toughens the tissues and destroys the natural
texture. In large canneries, blanching is done on belt conveyors passing
through boiling water or stearn.
Can Filling
The cans are washed with water or subjected to a steam jet to remove
any adhering dust or foreign matter. In large canneries, the cans are washed
with jets of compressed air or water. In India, where the canning industry
has not developed so much as to warrant the use of costly machines, washing
the empty can in open tanks containing hot water is the usual practice.
In some factories, however, devices have been made to sterilize the cans in
steam before use. Plain cans are used generally, although in the case of
coloured fruits like red plums, black grapes, straw-berries, etc., it is desirable
to employ fruit-lacquered cans. Automatic can filling machines are in use in
large canneries in many countries, but choice grades of fruits are generally
filled by hand to prevent bruising as also to ensure a properly graded

pack. In India, band filling is the common practice.
Syruping or Brining. The cans are filled with hot sugar syrup for fruits,
and with hot brine for vegetables. The object of adding syrup or brine is
to improve the taste of the canned product, to fill up the inter-space between
the fruits or vegetables in the can, and to facilitate further processing. The
syrup or brine should be filled at a temperature of 17so-1BO°F. and suitable
head space should be left in the can so that when the closing end is fitted,
the space left inside ranges from 1/8" to 3/16".
In some of the large canneries in other countries, syruping or brining is
done on automatic machines. These machines are available in various
designs and capacities. A simple syruper consists of a 50-gallon capacity
tank of stainless steel or aluminium metal fined with a closed steam coil
inside, and provided with a delivery valve for filling the cans (Fig. 6). In
another type, the syrup is drawn into the cans through a horizontal pipe
having a row of small holes. The cans travel on a continuous belt in an
inclined position below the syrup pipe and get filled , the overflowing excess
syrup being pumped back into the syrup tank by a centrifugal pump.
Lidding or Qinching. Formerly the cans after being filled, were used
to be taken to the exhaust, with the top lids loosely placed. In large-scale
practice this had certain disadvantages, such as spilling of the contents,
toppling of the lids, etc. Lidding has now been modernised by the
'Clinching' process in which the lid is partially seamed to the can by a
single first roller action of a double seamer. The lid remains sufficiently
loose to permit the escape of dissolved and free air from the contents as well
as of the vapour formed during the exhaust process. Counting and coding
devices are also generally incorporated in the clinching machine.
Exhaustin.g. Before sealing the cans finally, it is necessary to remove
all air from the contents. The process by which this is achieved is known
as 'exhausting' (Fig. 8). By removing air from the container, risks of corrosion
of the tin plate and pinholing during storage as also of discolouration of
the product are reduced, for oxidation is prevented. To be effective, the
temperature of the syrup or brine in the can should be at least 175°-180°F.
Removal of air also helps in better retention of vitamins, especially of
vitamin C. Since some fruits and vegetables have a tendency to expand
or shrivel during heating, the exhaust process will be of assistance in avoiding
over-filling or under-filling of the can. For instance, corn and peas expand
when boiled in brine, and strawberries shrivel when heated in sugar syrup.
The other advantages of the exhaust process are: prevention of bulging
of the cans when stored at high altitudes or in hot climates; reduction of
chemical reaction between the container and the contents; and prevention
of excessive pressure and strain during sterilization. Fruits and vegetahles
sometimes react slowly with the metal of the can producing hydrogen gas
which builds up pressure. If there is no vacuum inside the can to start with,
28 PRESERV AnON OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
bulging will take place before long. and the marketability of the canned
stuff would suffer.
The vacuum in the can after exhaust depends on several factors, such
as the time and temperature of exhaust, the head space in the can, altitude,
etc. The higher the temperature of exhaust, the more the volume of the
water vapour formed, and consequently the greater the vacuum left inside
the can. It is, however, preferable to exhaust the cans at a low temperature
for a longer time to secure uniform heating of the contents without soften-
ing them into a pulp. The head space left after sealing the can affects the
vacuum: the smaller the head space the greater the vacuwn. Further,
the vacuum in a can, which is governed by the difference in pressure outside
and inside. is affected by the altitude of the place. A can sealed at a lower
altitude will show a lower vacuum inside at a higher altitude, and vice versa.
Cans with a low vacuum generally become 'springers' at high altitudes
though the contents remain fit for consumption.
Cans are exhausted in twO ways: (i) By heat treatment; and (ii) by
mechanical methods. The heat cxhaust method is generally used in the
case of cans. The can is passed through a tank of hot water at about
180° -190°F. or through a covered steam box on a moving belt. In the water
exhaust box, the cans are placed with the level of the water kept 1/2"-1"
below their tops. The time of exhaust varies from 5 to 25 minutes, depending
on the nature of the product. At the end of the exhaust, the temperature
at the centre of the can should be about J75°F. In the case of glass jars,
vacuum closing machines are generally used. The jar is placed in a closed
chamber in which a high vacuum is maintained.
Sealing. Mter 'exhausting' the cans are sealed by special closing
machines known as double seamers (Fig. 9). These are of various designs
and capacities. There are hand-operated as well as semi-automatic and fully
automatic seamers. The principle of working of these machines is explained
in the chapter on tin containers.
PROCESSING
The term 'processing', as used in canning tedmology, means heating or
cooking of canned foods to inactivate bacteria. Absolute sterilization is
difficult to attain as many bacteria can form very minute and highly heat-
resistant bodies called 'spores', which can be killed only by either very
high or very low temperature treatment or prolonged cooking. Such a
drastic treatment, hgwever, injures the quality of the canned product.
Processing consists in determining just the temperature and the extent of
cooking that would suffice to eliminate all possibilities of bacterial growth.
Over-cooking should be avoided as it spoils the flavour as well as the
appearance of the product. Since fruits and vegetables vary considerably
in their composition and texture, it is difJicult to lay down any hard and
fast rule about the temperature and time required for processing. Generally
FIG . i. PEELINC, SLICINC AND CORINC MACHINES
Fic. 8. STEAM EXHA ST LINE IN A CANNI 'C FACTORY

.10 PRESERVATIO OF FR TT AND VEGETABLE
FIG. 9. A DOUBLE SEAMF.R 1 1\ CANNING FACTORV

speaking, however. almost all fruits can be processed satisfactorily at a

temperature of 212°F., i.e., in boiling water, as the presence of acid retards
the growth of bacteria and their spores. Further, they do not thrive in heavy
sugar syrups which are normally used in canning fruits. However, vegetables
(except the more acidic ones like tomato and rhubarb) which are non-acidic in
0
nature, require to be processed at higher temperatures of about 240 to 250°F.
The ceutre of the cans should reach these high temperatures. The processing
time in their case is, therefore, of great importance. The temperature
at the centre of the can should be maintained for a sufficiently long period
to destroy the spores of the more resistant bacteria. The temperature and
time of processing, therefore, vary with the size of the can-the larger the
can, the greater the processing time and vice versa.
Heat Penetration in Cans

Before a process for any particular product can be adopted, it is necessary
to study the rate of beat penetration in the can. This is done by means of
a thermocouple fixed to the centre of the can. In the U.S.A., extensive
studies have been carried out with special reference to the size and kind
of the containers, the nature of the filler, i. e. sugar or brine, the consistency
of the product. etc. Based on these studies. processing times for many kinds of
non-acid vegetables have been worked our by the National Canners' Associa-
tion. Ball, Olsen and Stevens also have done useful work in determining
the time for which a given size of can of a particular food shou ld be
processed at a temperature at which all the heat-resistant spores are
destroyed. Similar type of work has been done in England also at the Fruit
and Vegetable Preservation Research Station at Call1pden. Cruess. Fong
and Liu, who investigated the role of acidity in vegetable canning, have
shown dlat brines acidified with a small amount of acetic or citric acid
greatly reduce the resistance of the heat-resisting spores of bacteria, and
that in acidified brines the time and temperature required to sterilize
vegetables could. therefore. be reduced considerably. This process. however,
is not to be recommended for home-canning of vegetables as there is always
an element of uncertainty in the strict application of the conditions
prescribed. Pressure processing is the safest course.
Processing Mtthods
Fruits and Acid Vegetables. There are generally three types of cookers used
for canning of fruits. They are the open type cookers, continuous non·
agitating cookers and continuous agitating cookers.
J. Open Coofters. These cf ken· are very simple in consn:uction. and
consist essentially of wooden tubs at g'iilvanlZea· iron' tanks of any desired
capacity (Fig. 10). The seale cji'n-s are p'laced in qates of galvanized iron
and immersed in the tank c ntaining boiling water. Water is kept boiling
by letting in jets of steam th ough steam pipt: . plac~d untlerne th the false
bottom of the tank. An improved type of this cooker is a galvanized iron

tank with a cover. false bottom of perforated galvanized plate, and steam
pipe with perforation for jets of steam.
2. Continuous Non-agitating Cookers. In these cookers. the cans travel
in boiling water in crates carried by overhead conveyors in single file on a
continuOlls moving belt (Fig. 11). The cookers are fitted with temperature
controlling and recording devices also.
3. Continuous Agitating Cookers. These cookers are of various designs
and are generally used in big production units. The sealed cans move as
in the non-agitating cookers. but are at the same time rotated by special
mechanical devices to agitate the contents of the cans. By this technique.
tbe processing time is reduced considerably. These cookers may either be
filled three-fourths with water which is kept hot by steam. or processing
may be carried out in steam itself. They are fitted with automatic tempera-
ture control devices so that they can be easily adapted for pasteurization
at temperatures well below 212°F.• the boiling point of water. These cooxers
have an advantage over other types in that they accelerate the output of
the factory to a considerable extent. They are in common use in large
canneries in the United Kingdom and the U.S.A.
Non·acid Vegetables. Due to lack of acid, hard texture, and proximity
to soil which may infect them with spore-bearing organisms, vegetables
require much severer sterilization than fruits do. They require to be
processed at temperatures much above 21rF.• under steam pressure in closed
iron retorts.
These retorts vary in shape and size. with capacities ranging from about
50 cans to nearly 2,000-3.000 cans. They are generally of the batch type. The
more modern ones, which are known as automatic pressure cookers, operate
continuously. The retorts are either vertical or horizontal. In the U.K.
vertical retorts are generally used. but in the U.S.A. horizontal retorts
predominate. some of them being as long as 60 feet. and in these. trucks
are wheeled out at one end as the new batch enters through the other end.
To these large commercial retorts, automatic steam and temperature con-
trolling and timing devices with recording equipment are fitted to avoid
any human slip. Bitting has described various types of open cookers and
pressure retorts generally used in the U.S.A.
In India. small vertical stationary retorts are generally used (Frontispiece).
They arc made of cast iron cylinders of varying sizes, and are fitted with
a lid which can be bolted steam-tight. Necessary steam and water·feeds, air
vent. drain cock, safety valve, pressure gauge, and thermometer are fitted
The sequence of operating these retorts is as follows: The sealed cans are
put in crates which are placed inside the retort. The lid is placed in position
and bolted. The vent and drain cock are opened and stearn let in until it
blows freely through the vent-hole removing all entrapped air. The vent and
the drain are then partially closed till the temperature reaches 212"F. These
exits are tben closed, leaving a small opening for a fine jet of steam to escape,
and the steam pressure and temperature allowed to rise to the desired extent.
During the cooking period, the thermometer and pressure gauge records
should show close agreement. For instance, if the cooking temperature is
240°F., the steam pressure should be a little above 10 lb. (fable 1). If at this
tem perature, the pressure is higher than 10 lb., presence of entrapped air
is indicated. On the completion of the cooking period, steam is cut off.
and the release valve at the tOP opened gradually to let off steam, avoiding
any sudden release as it is likely to burst the cans inside. When the
pressure becomes normal, tbe retort is opened and the cans are removed
for subsequent cooling to prevent any over-cooking.
T"nLE I. RELATION OF STEAM PRF.SSIJRE TO TEMPEMTlJnE OJ' CANNINC R ETORTS
(CrIlCSS, 1948)
Pounds press ure Temperature

per square inch Deg.F.
215.2
2 218.3
3 221.3
4 224.2
5 226.9
6 229.5
7 231.9
8 233.3
9 236.6
10 238.8
II 241.0
12 243.0
13 245.3
14 247.3
15 249.1
Effect of Altitude on Processing Time

The boiling point of water decreases with increase in altitude. The process-
ing time for different kinds of canned fruits and vegetables, as standardised
at places about 500 feet above sea level, have to be relatively increased with
furdler increases in the altitude. As a rule. for every increase of 500 feet
in altitude, the boiling point of water decreases by about 1°F., and the
normal processing time has to be increased by about two minutes. Table 2
gives the additional time required at different altitudes over and above the
normal period of processing for canned fruits and vegetables at sea level.
TABLE 2. EFFECT OF AL'nTUDE ON BOILINC POINT O~' WATER AND STERILIZATION

1):MPERATURE OF CANNED FRUITS AND VECETABLES
- -- - - -
Elevation: Boiling point of Extra time in Extra Ilx
Feet above water (OF.) minutes for pressure
sea leve! boiling water added to
pre.ssure
given
500 211 2
1,000 210 of
2,000 208 8
3.000 206 12 2
4,000 204 16 '2
5,000 202 2(J :I
6,000 201 25 3
7,000 199 30 4
--- _-- -- - - - -
Thus, an A2!h size can of pears, which requires processing for 30 minutes
at sea level, will require a total processing time of 30 + 25 = 55 minutes at an
altitude of about 6,000 feet above sea level.
Effect of Altitude on Processing Pressure and Temperature

As the altitude above sea level increases, the pressure required to maintain
the specified processing temperature, say 240°F. or 250°F., will also increase.
Since process time schedules are based on the exposure of the canned food
to specified temperature in steam, it may be necessary to maintain higher
gauge pressure if the processing is done at altitudes substantially greater
than 1,000 feet above the sea level. Table 3 gives details of increased gauge
pressure necessary to attain a specified temperature at various altitudes.
TABLE 3. GAUCE PRESSURE Corul£SPONDlNC TO SPECIFIED PROCESS TEMPERATURES

AT VARIOUS ALTrrUD&S
(AflilT Bulletin Z6-L of National Canners' Association)
----- ----_ -
Gauf pressure (pounds)
remperature eet above sea-level
OF. Sea-level 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,O{JO 5,000 6,000
--- -_ -----
212 0.0 O..'i 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.4 2.9
220 2.5 3.0 3.4 3.9 4.4 4.9 5.3
230 6.1 6.6 7.1 7.6 -S.O 8.5 9.0
240 10.3 10.8 11.3 11.7 12.2 12.7 13.1
250 15.1 15.6 16.1 16.6 17.1 17.5 18.0
COMMERCIAL CANNING 3S
Effect of Acidity on Sterilization

Acids in solution owe their acidic properties to the hydrogen-ion. The
hydrogen-ion concentration is a measure of the intensity or potential of
acidity rather than of its quantum. It is generally expressed in terms of
what is known as the pH value. The pH value of a solution is equal to the
logarithm of the number of titres of solution which contains 1 gram of
hydrogen-ion. The pH valu e of water, which is neutral. is 7 on this scale.
pH values rising above 7.0 represent progressively increasing alkalinity.
and those falling below 7.0 indicate increasing acidity. The more acidic the
sllbstance. the lower is the pH value. The acid property or sources of
fruits is due to the presence of hydrogen-ions.
The pH value has great influence upon the destruction of micro-
organisms. The lower the pH. the greater is the ease with which a product
can be processed or sterilized. According to Cameron and Esty. foods can
be classified as follows:
1. Low acid-pH 5.0 and higher. This class includes peas, beans. corn, as·
paragus, etc. These are subject to spoilage by all the three groups of
thermophilic and mesophilic putrefactive anaerobes, including Clostridium
Botulinum.
2. Medium acid-pH 0.5·4.5. Meat and vegetable mixtures, spaghetti, soups
and sauces. whose inp-edients produce a partially acid product, come
under this category. These also arc subject to spoi lage by the same
organisms as in group 1. T he thermophilic anaerobes (not producing
h ydrogen su lphide) which may cause flat sours are of increasing importance
in this group.
3. Acid-pH 4.5.3.7. In this group are included tomatoes, pears, figs, pine-
apple, nectarines and other fruits subject to spoilagc by non-sporing a iduric
lypes, butyric anaerobes of the Clostridium Po ·tclIriflll1lm and Winogrndskyi
Iypes and thermophilic anaerobes.
4. Highly acid-j)H 3.7 and below. This grollp includes sauer-kraut, pickles.
herries, citrus juices, grapefruit and rhubarb .
To be more precise, bacterial spores are much more easily destroyed in
fruits at pH 3.0 than in vegetables at pH 5.0·6.0. These spores do not
germinate and grow at pH values much below 4.5. They do not, therefore,
do any harm even if they are not destroyed in canned fruits. Thus pH 4.5
is regarded as 'a dividing line between the acid and the non -acid foods. A
canned product, having a pH value of I ss than 4.5, can be processed in
boiling water at 2IZOF., but a product with a pH value above 4.5 requires
processing under pressure of 10-15 lb.
Effect of Processing on Strain in the Can

When a can is closed, the pressure illside it is equal to that of th~
atmosph re, irrespective of the temperature at closing. Any increase in the
temperature after the closing of the can develops pressure inside the can.
PRESERVATION OP FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
This internal pressure depends upon several factors of which the following
are important:
J. Pressure due to water vapour inside the can.
2. Pressure due to expansion of any enclosed air.
3. Pressure due to the expansion of the contents of the can.
4. Pressure due to the liberation and expansion of gases inside the
vegetable.
5. The expansion of the can by the doming of the ends and the com-
pensating effect of the expansible rings on the lid.
Among these, water vapour produces the greatest effect. Water vapour has
a pressure of 2.9 lb. per square inch at HO°F., and 25.0 lb. at 240°F. This
would indicate that very high pressures develop at higher temperatures.
The pressure inside the can during processing can be regulated by taking
into consideration the following points:
I. Internal pressure in the can is equal to vapour pressure at the
processing temperature minus the vapour pressure at the closing
temperature.
2. The nearer the closing temperature to the processing temperature.
the less the internal pressure during processing.
3. Small cans withstand much greater internal pressure than large cans.
4. To avoid buckling. cans larger than No. A2~ should be cooied under
pressure.
S. To get a good vacuum, the closing temperature of the can should
not be less than 160°F.
CallS closed at 160°F. and processed at 240 °F. show a maximum pressure
above tbat of the atmosphere. i.e. 20-21 lb. These pressures are near to the
theoretical value for water vapour alone.
Cooling
After processing, the cans are cooled rapidly to stop the cooking process
and to prevent stack-burning, especially in cans at the centre of large stacks,
where they may remain hot for several hours, if not for several days. Pro-
longed heating results in an inferior and uneven pack. In cxU'eme cases,
peaches and pears become dark in colour, tomatoes turn brownish and
become bitter in taste, while peas become mashy with a cooked taste. In
the case of many of the vegetables. prolonged heating due to improper
cooling may result in the development of 'flat sour' by the heat resistant
spore-forming bacteria whicb survive ordinary commercial processing. In
this case. the cans do not show any bulging but the contents will be sour.
Cooling is done by: (i) immersing or passing the hot cans in tanks con·
taining cold water; (ii) by spraying with jets of cold water; (iii) by turning
cold water into the pressure cooker in the case of canned vegetables; or
(iv) by exposing the cans to air in small lots, when water supply is scarce
TIle cooling equipment varies with the method as well as the output.
Various types of equipment. from simple open galvanized iron tanks to

the complicated automatic coolers. are available. A simple cooling tank
useful ill this country is an ordinary galvanized iron tank fitted with water
connections for constant overflow of cold water. The cans arc placed in
crates for cooling in this tank where the circulating water is fairly cold.
In very hot places, it may even be necessary to cool the water by adding
ice.
Testing for Defects

In a factory, batches of finished cans should be finally tested for leaks
or imperfect seals. A simple way of doing this is to tap the top of u)e Can
with a short steel rod. A clear ringing sound indicates a perfect seal. while
a dull and hollow sound shows a leaky or imperfectly sealed can. This
method is very rapid, and an experienced workman seldom fails to detect
a defective seal.
The other method commonly used for testing the vacuum inside the
can is by means of a simple vacuum gauge fitted with a sharp point which
is protected with a thick rubber gasket. The sharp point is pierced into
the lid of the can, and a short twist given, when the rubber gasket presses
against the puncture made and gives an air-tight seal. The vacuum in the
can is directly read on tl1e dial of the gauge. Faulty cans do not show
any vacuum. The vacuum can also be determined with a vacuum tester
without puncturing the can.
Labelling, Storing and Packing

The outer surface of the cans should be perfectly dryas even small traces
of moisture are likely to induce rusting. When canning is done ncar the
sea or in damp and moist regions, it is advisable to lacquer the cans Oil
the outside to prevent rusting during storage. The cans are then labelled
by hand or by machine, and packed in strong wooden cases. Till they are
despatched, they should be stored in a cool and dry place. In a hot country
like India, where the atmospheric temperatures are quite high during
several months in the year, basement stores are useful, especiaUy during
SLUnmer months as the temperature in these is lower by about 10° -isoF. com-
pared to the outside temperature. Storage of cans at high temperatures
should be avoided as it shortens the shelf-life of the product, and often
leads to the formation of hydrogen swells and perforations.
CHAPTER III
CONTAINERS
Both tin and glass containers are employed in the canning industry.
although the tin ones are more common in use on account of the following
reasons: the e are fabricated readily, and arc strong enough to withstand
processing; they are light in weight, easy to handle, and fairly cheap; they
can be handled on high speed machines. Glass containers are fragile and
require extra care in handling and during processing. They, however, possess
twO advantages over tin cans: the contents being visible can be easily dis-
played; and the containers can be used over and over again.
TIN CONTAINERS
Tin ca ns are made of thin sreelplate of low carbon content, lightly

coated on either side with tin metal to a tllickness of abollt 0.0001 inch.
The composition of the steel used is as follows:
Per Cent.
Carbon 0.04 -0.12
Sulphur 0.015-0.05
Phosphoru s 0.015· 0.06
Copper 0.020·0.20
Manganese 0.20 -0.60
Silicon Trace-O.OS
Since corrosion bebavioUI, strength and durability of the tinplate depend

in some measure on the chemical composition of the steel ba~e, the base
plate is made according to the specific use for which it is intended. In the
U.S.A., we following designations have been adopted:
Type L. Low metalloid steel for critical and highly corrosive packs.
MR. Similar in metalloid contellt to Type L, but less restricted
in residuals_
"
Me. Rephosphorised or Bessemer steel to give higher temper.
(All the above are cold-reduced)
M. Similar to MC, but hot rolled.
Tinplates
Tinplates are of several grades. The usual weight of tin coating is 1.5 lb.
of tin per base box, which gives a thickness of tin coating of 0.00009 inch.
However, variation in weight from 1 to 5 lb. of tin per basis box is common.
One basis box is equivalent to 112 sheets, each 20" x 14", or 31,360 square
inches of tinplate w ighing 108 lb. net. These are called lC. plates. Plates
38
CONTAINERS 39
FIG . 10. OI'EN B /,Tell -n ' pE: EXIIAUST, COOKINC AND COOLINC TANKS
FIG . II . CONTINtTOUS MOVINC BELT, EXHAUST, COOKINC

AND COOLINC TANKS
40 PRE ERVi\TIO OF FH ITS AND VEGETABLE
FJ(;. 13. ACUUM CAN T£5TER I' OR DOlJBu: SEAM

CONTAINERS 41
thinner than I.C. are called 'lights' and those thicker than I.C. 'crosses'.
The following are the equivalent weights:
Type Weight (lb.)
IXL 122
IX 136
!XX 156
IXXX 176
IXXXX 196
There are several types of tinplates, such as 'coke', 'best coke' and 'char-
coal'. 'Cokes' are ordinary coated plates. 'Best cokes' are graded between
'cokes' and 'charcoals.' The 'charcoals' are coated with a heavier layer of
tin than common 'charcoal' plates.
Lacquering
It is difficult to coat steelplate uniformly with tin during the process of
manufacture. Small miscroscopic spaces are always left uncoated, although
the coating may appear perfect to the eye. The contents of the can may
react with these exposed parts and cause discolouration of the product or
corrosion of the tinplate. When corrosion is severe, the sleel is attacked and
black stains of iron sulphide are prod'uced. It is necessary, therefore, to coat
the inside of the can with some product which would prcvcnt discolouration,
but would not impart its own flavour or injure the wholesomeness of the
contents. This is achieved by what is known as lacquering.
There are two types of lacquer-(a) add-resistant and (b) sulphur resistant.
The acid-resistant lacquer is ordinary gold coloured enamel, and the cans
when treated with it, are called R-enamel lined cans. These cans are used
for packing fruits of the acid group with soluble colouring matter. Acid
fruits are of two kinds: (a) those in which the colouring matter is insoluble
in water, and (b) those in which it is water-soluble. In the first group are
included fruits like peach, pineapple, apricot, grapefruit, etc., and in the
second, fruits like raspberry, strawberry, red plum and coloured grapes.
Fruits of group (a) are packed in plain cans, and those of group (b) in
lacquered c a n s . ' .
The sulphur-resistant lacquer also is of a golden cotour, and the cans,
coated with it, are called C-enamel cans. These cans are used for non-acid
products like peas, corn, lima beans, red kidney beans, etc., to prevent dis-
colouration of the contents and the staining of the inside of the container.
They are meant only for non-acid foods and should not be used for any
highly acid product, as acid eats into the lacquer.
Manufacture of Cans
Tinplate is cut to proper size with a trimming and slitting machine. The ,
pieces provide body 'blanks. After notching and slitting, the flat can-body
is passed through an edging machine where hooks are formed. It is then
3
bent into a cylindrical shape. and the side seam soldered. Flanging is done
next. Can ends are stamped out from the plates. and the edges curled. A
rubber gasket is mounted on the curled edge of the end. The lining com-
pound is generally a water emulsion of rubber or rubber composition in
benzene Or toluene. Sometimes paper gaskets and plastic gum are also used.
One end of the can is fixed to the flanged can-body by means of a double
seaming machine. The action of the double seamer is shown in Fig. 14.
Sometimes. to cut down transport costs, can-bodies are flattened and sup-
plied to the cannery along with the end pieces. These can be mal!le into
cans readily at the factory by uiing a set of machines consisting of a can-
SECOND OPE ION ROLL

FlftST OPERATION RoLL
fIc o 14. ROLLl!:R ACTION OF A DOUBLE SEAMER : a. Lid in place before sea ling. b . Lid
~d edge of can aher first operation. c. Appearance after second operation.
body reformer, flanger. and double seamer (Figs. 14. 17 and 18). The finished
cans should be stored upside down in a clean dry place.
TESTING CANS
The finished cans _are tested for leaks with a vacuum or air-pressure tester
(Fig. 13). When working on a small scaLe. hand testing equipment will
suffice.
Several types of mechanical defects may be found in cans. These .are given
brieBy below.
Mechanical Defects
1. Long team with normal countersink. It is due to (i) insufficient first
operation; (ii) short cover hook.
2. Long lecond .elUll. It may be due to (i) insufficient furst operation
allowing second operation roller to Batten the seam too much; (ii) second
CONTAINERS 43
operation roller being too tight and thus flattening the seam too much;
(iii) worn out chuck; (iv) worn out second operation roller; (v) excessive
.base pressure; (vi) grease or dirt on the base plate causing the can to slip
during seaming process; (vii) uneven spread of the lilli~g compound in
the lid; (viii) chuck being off centre due to worn machine bearings.
3. Narrow rounded seam. It may be due to (i) excessive first operation
resulting in a strong curl being formed which resists subsequent pressure
of the second operation roller; (ii) not enough second operation to press
seam down full length; (iii) countersink too deep.
4. Lined seam. It may be due to worn or scoured second operation roller.
s. Cut seam. It may be due to (i) too much bas<i pressure, (ii) rollers too
high in relation to chuck; (iii) toO tight second operation roller; (iv) exces-
sive solder on the side seam; (v) slipping of can or spinning on chuck.
6. Fractured or polished seam. It may be due to: (i) slipping of rollers;
(ii) flat spots on rollers; (iii) too tight rollers; (iv) lack of lubrication.
7. Partial false leam or knockdown. It may be due to (i) damaged cans;
(ii) dented and damaged lids; (iii) bent down flange on the can; (iv) can
not centering on chuck.
8. Loose first learn. It may be due to: (i) loose first opet;ation roller;
(ii) worn first operation roller.
9. Loose second seam. It may be due to: (i) loose second operation roller;
(ii) worn second operation roller.
10. Uneven seam. It may be due to: (i) worn rollers, roller pins, or other
parts of the machinery; (ii) excessive first and second operations.
11. Wrinltled first seam. It may be due to: (i) loose first operation roller;
(ii) worn first operation roller.
12. Wrinkled .econd seam. It may be due to: (i) loose second operation
roller; (ii) worn second operation roller.
13. Short can hook. It may be due to: (i) insufficient base preisure ; (ii) too
tight first operation roller; (iii) too loose second operation roller; (iv) exces-
sive clearance between rollers and chuck.
14. Long can hook. It may be due to excessive base pressure. It always
results in a corresponding de.crease in cover hook. 'spurs' may be formed
IS. Short cover hook. It may be due to: (i) insufficient first operation not
turning sufficient cover stock into the seam; (ii) insufficient second operation
which will not. flatten the cover hook to its full length; (iii) short covers;
(iv) body hook normal. 'Spurs' may occur.
16. Long cover hook. It may be due to: (i) exceSSIve first operation;
(ii) shallow countersink; (iii) insufficient base pres~ure. There ma;' be
'cutoyers' at top inside of seam.
17. Wrinkled cover hook. It may be due to insufficient second operotion.
Seam may be loose and hooks curved.
18. Deep countersink. It may be due to: (i) short cover hooks; (ii) chuck
being too low for the rollers; (iii) excessive base pressure; (iv) excessive
clearance between rollers and chuck; (v)' chuck flange too thick; (vi) verti·
cal play in seaming head allowing rollers to rise up from the chuck; (vii)
base plate setting not parallel with the chuck ; (viii) base plate worn more
on one side tha.n on the other thus causing uneven countersink (deep on
one side).
19. Shallow countersink. It may be due to : (i) chuck being tOO high for
rollers, which would cause the rollers to wear away the face of the chuck,
making it thinner, thus affecting the countersink; (ii) chuck flange being
worn.
20. Lip. or 'PUtS. They frequently occur at overlap. Coverhook is defi·
cient at the side of the spur. It may be due to: (i) insufficient first operation;
(ii) excessive second operation; (iii) too much base pressure ; (iv) worn first
operation roller ; (v) too much solder at the overlap ; (vi) tough plate.
21. Skidding and 'spinners'. Sometimes a portion of the seam becomes
unduly wide and very loose. This may be due to : (i) worn chuck ; (ii) insuffi·
cient base pressure; (iii) greasy base plate or chuck; (iv) excessive first and
second operation ; (v) worn serration on base plate.
SEAM
COVER HOOK
LENGTH
Flc. 15. DOUllLE SEAM MEASUREMENTS
22. Cut-overa. Sharp edges or cuts on the top inside edges of the seam are
known as 'cut-overs'. They are especially found at the overlap. They may
be due to: (i) worn chuck; (ii) worn rollers; (iii) excessive first operation
roller; (iv) excessive base pressure; (v) side seam having too much solder ;
(vi) spinning of the can due to slip between cover and the chuck; (vii) mal-
adjustment of second operation roller, especially due to the chuck being
too low in relation to rollers, when plate is cut through completely with the
result that leak occurs.
23. BeU-mouthed or oval cans. They may be due to excessive table (base)
pressure.
CONTAINERS 4S
NORMAL FIRST NORMAL FIRST NORMAL FIRST LOOSE FIRST LOOSE FIRST
NORMAL SECOND LOOSE S~COND TIGHT SECOND NORMAL SECOND LOOSE SECOND
LOOSE FIRST TIGHT FIRST TIGHT FIRST TIGHT FIRST

TIGHT SECOND NORM ... L SECOND LOOSE SECOND TIGHT SECOND
FIG. 16. CAN SEAMING TECHNOLOGY: GRAPHIC EXPLANATION OF SEAMS
24. Over-rolling. In the case of excessive roller pressure. whether first

operation or second operation. or both, there is an overloading of the
machine causing excessive wear on bushes, chucks. rollers, and all working
parts. The life of the spindle bearing is shortened by as much as 50 per cent.
resulting in bad seaming, and constant replacements. and necessitating com·
plete overhaul of the machine after a much shorter production life than
normal.
Since perfect seaming of the can is of prime importance in any cannery.
it is essential that the rollers in the seamer should be in correct order. If the
setting is not correct. a thorough check-up must be carried out to determine
the correction needed (Figs. 15 and 16) the following hints would be found
useful:
To correct:
1. Short can hook-give more base pressure.
2. Short coverhook-give more first operation.
3. Wrinkles in hook-give more second operation .
4. Countersink too deep-give less base pressure.
5. Seam too wide, or broken down at point where meeting body side
seam-give less second operation or base pressure as the case may be.
Don'ts :
1. D:m't use worn chucks. rolls or pins.
2. Don't roll too tight.
3. Don't use poor grades of grease.
4. Don't proceed with production if seam is doubtful.
5. Don't neglect to keep parts clean.
6. Don't attempt to seam over-filled cans.
Experience has shown that though minor neglect in observing the above
instructions may not make it impossible to secure sufficiently tight seams,

every departure from the basic standards increases risks and makes for
insufficiency.
Sizes of Cans
According to the American system, which is widely followed in trade.
cans are usually referred to by a letter and number, and the size is denoted
by a digital symbol. The firSt number of the symbol denotes the diameter.
and the second the height of the can. The first digit represents integral
inches. and the last ~wo indicate measurement in sixteenths of an inch.
Thus A 1 Tall can which is 3ft inch in diameter and 4H inch high would
be shown as 30 I x 411. The popular sizes of cans in use are given in
Table 5.
TABLE 4. WEIcnT OF TINPL.lTE REQUIRED FOil. FABRICATION OF 1000 CA~S
(According to Metal Box Company of India-1954)
Size of Can Weight of tinplate
A 2. (40Ix411) 0.1572 Ton.

A2 (307 X 408) 0.1172 ..
1 lb. Butter (401 x 300) 0.1249 ..
12 oz. Butter (40 I x 207) 0.1162 ..
16 oz. Milk (301 X 406) 0.0946 ..
1 lb. Jam (301 X 309) 0.0863 .
II oz. Jam (301 x 303.5) 0.0798 ..
8 oz. 1<1at (30 I X 206) 0.0724 ..
509x 703 0.3154 .
700x900 0.5139 ..
GLASS CONTAINERS
Various types of glass jars. such as glass top jars, 'Mason jars' with metal
top. economy jars. Golden-state wide-mouth Mason jars with zinc tops,
'Sutax jars', 'Ball perfect Mason jars'. etc., are in use in the United Kingdom
and America. A good rubber ring is essential for success in bottling. These
rings should be fairly thick, free from odour, and capable of withstanding
processing. With each processing, a new ring should be used as old rings
make defective seals. The rings should be stored in a cool, dry, and dark
place. Before use, they should not be boiled, but dipped momentarily in
boiling solution of 1.0 per cent. sodium bicarbonate.
CONTAINERS 47
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CONTAINERS 49
F lc. 1i . C , ' HIW nl'M I NG UN IT:

F I.ANc:~: n
FIC. 1H C;M" R •.F"U M I N<: N f'I : M .n . 1/\

DOt 'lIu' S I, ' MER
50 PR~SERVATION OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLES
FIC. 19. A BRIX HYDRO-

FIG. 20. A POCKET RE·
METER FOR ME"SURING FRACTOMETER FOR MEA -
SYRUP STRENCTI-I
S URING SYRUP STRENGTH
CHAPTER tv
SYRUPS AND BRINES FOR CANNING
For canning fruits and vegetables different covering liquids are employed.
Syrup of sugar, glucose, or corn is used for fruits, whereas brine is suitable
for vegetables. The processes of preparing these for different requirements.
on commercial as well as domestic scales, are dealt with below.
SUGAR SYRUPS
In canning fruits. sugar in the form of syrup is used to bring out the full
flavour of the fruit, care being taken not to make the contents very sweet.
Strength of the syrup would depend on the kind and variety of fruit. Gene·
rally, the more acidic fruits require denser syrups.
Only pure white crystalline sugar should be used. Chemically, this sugar
is known as sucrose (CuHJ,Oll) and is found to the extent of about 99.5
per cent. in cane and beet sugars. In some canneries in the U.S.A. corn syrup
or glucose syrup is also used for canning the cheaper grades of fruit and in
preparing jams and jellies. Until Hirst and Adam of the Fruit and Vegetable
Preservation Research Station, Campdcn, (U.K.), showed that beet-sugar was
as satisfactory as cane sugar for canning purposes, it was not popular.
In India only cane sugar is employed. However, the possibility of using
glucose and corn syrups should also be explored as these are being manu-
factured in the country nowadays. In the case of Indian cane sugar, several
brands have been found to contain appreciable amounts of sulphur dioxide.
When these are used for canning, fairly profuse black deposits, due to
hydrogen sulphide, are formed inside the can during shortage. These spoil
the appearance of the canned product. Cane sugar made by the Carbonation
process is, therefore. to be preferred.
Preparation
Syrups can be made either by the 'cold process' or by the 'hot process'.
In the cold process, sugar is placed in a tank and cold water poured over
it and stirred. The solution is then filtered through a thick flannel bag,
muslin cloth, or fine brass wire gauze to remove insoluble impurities. Some-
times, warm water may also be added to facilitate the dissolving of sugar.
In the hot process, sugar and water are placed in a steam-jacketed kettle
and boiled and the scum removed. 'The syrup is clarified further by filtration.
Steam helps to sterilize the syrup and to prolong its preservability. The
quantities of sugar and water required to prepare syrups of a given Brix
are given in Table 7.
51
S2 PRESERVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
TABLE 7. RELAnONslUP BETWEEN BRIll: READINC AND CoMl'OSlnON o~· SYRUP
Weight of sugar Volume of syrup Weight of sugar

Degrees Brix to be added to from one gallon contained in
68 °F. each gallon of of water one gallon
water gal. of syrup
lb. lb.
10 1.11 1.067 1.04

II 1.23 1.076 1.J4
12 1.36 1.085 1.25
13 1.49 1.093 1.36
14 1.62 1.101 1.47
IS 1.76 1.1 II 1.58
16 1.90 1.119 1.70
17 2.04 1.127 1.81
18 2.19 1.l37 1.93
19 2.34 1.146 2.04
20 2.50 1.157 2.16
21 2.66 1.167 2.28
22 2.82 1.176 2.40
23 3.00 1.1 87 2.52
24 3.17 1.198 2.64
25 3.34 1.208 2.76
26 3.52 1.220 2.89
27 3.70 1.23 1 3.01
28 3.89 1.243 3. 13
29 4.09 1.256 3.26
30 _ 4.30 1.269 3.38
31 4.50 1.281 3.51
32 4.72 1.294 3.64
33 4.94 1.309 3.77
34 5.17 1.323 3.90
35 5.40 1.338 4.03
36 5.64 1.353 4.17
37 5.89 1.369 4.30
~8 6.14 1.384 4.44
3S1 6.41 1.401 4.58
40 6.69 1.419 4.7 1
41 6.97 1.437 4.85
42 7.26 1.454 4.99
43 7.56 1.474 5.13
44 7.88 1.494 5.27
45 8.20 1.514 5.42
46 8.55 1.536 5.57
47 8.90 1.558 5.71
48 9.26 1.580 5.86
49 9.64 1.604 6.01
,0 10.03 1.628 6.16
51 10.44 1.654 6.31
52 10.86 1.681 6.45
53 11.31 1.710 6.61
54 11.77 1.739 6.77
55 12.26 1.770 6.93
56 12.77 1.803 7.08
57 13.29 1.837 7.23
58 13.85 1.871 7.40
59 14.43 1.907 7.57
60 15.05 1.948 7.73
61 15.69 1.988 7.89
62 16.37 2.032 8.05
63 17.08 2.077 8.21
SYlwP AND .BRtNES FOR CANNiNG 53
TABLE 7. Co"tinued
Weight of sugar Volume of syrup Weight of sugar

Degrees Brix to be added to from one gallon contained in
6soF. each gallon of of water one gallon
water gal. of syrup
lb. lb.
64 17.84 2.124 8.39

65 18.62 2.174 8.57
66 19.47 2.229 8.75
67 20.39 2.287 8.92
68 21.32 2.344 9.10
69 22.23 2.411 9.27
7Q 23.40 2.480 9.44
In commercial practice, syrups of desired Brix are prepared either accord-

ing to a formula by which a known weight of sugar is added to a given
volume of water, or by adding sufficient water to a known weight of sugar
to get the desired volume of syrup. For example, addition of 5 gallons of
water to SO.15 lb. of sugar will produce 8.14 gallons of syrup of 50 degrees
Brix. Similarly, to get 5 galJons of syrup of 50 degrees Brix, using 30.80 lb.
sugar, sufficient water is added to obtain the required quantity. Generally, to
avoid unnecessary weighings, a 2 cwt. (224 lb.) bag is taken as the measure
dud a known volume of water added to the sugar.
Testing Syrup Strength

Uniformity of the canned producl depends on the accuracy of measuring
and mixing the syrups because any mistake in syrup-making cannot be recti-
fied later. Since the COSt of syrup forms an important item in the total cost
of the finished product. it is essential to, control the syrup strength and avoid
wastage. Accurate thermometers and hydrometers are necessary for this.
The different kinds of hydrometers used are Brix. or Balling, Baume,
Specific Gravity, and Twaddell (Fig. 19). A refractometer also can be used
(Fig. 20).
The Brix or Balling hydrometer gives directly the percentage of sugar by
weight in the ·syrup. It is calibrated at o8°F., and corrections arc needed for
other temperatures (Table 9). On tlle Baume hydrometer, the divisions
range from 0 to 70 degrees. The relation between the Brix and Baume scales
is given in Table 8. Specific gravity in the case of Baume reading may be
calculated by the formula: Specific gravity= _ 145~ . Twaddell
145-Baum" reading
hydrometer is usually calibrated at 60°F ., the divisions ranging from 0 to 200
degrees. One degree corresponds to 1.005 sp. gravity. Relationships between
different types of hydrometers are shown in Table 8.
54 PJlESERVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
TABLE 8. COMPARISON OF BRlX, BAUME, TWADDEU_ AND SPECIJ'JC GRAVITY

SCALES AND REQUIREMENTS 01' SUGAR
Degrees Brix Degrees Degrees Specific Ap~roximate

(per cent. sugar Baumt Twaddell Gravity wei~t of sugar
by weight) ZO·C. ZO·C. 20'C. to added to
20'C. (68 ' F.) (68'F.) (68 · F.) each Gallon of
(68·F.) water
---
lb. oz.
10 5.6 8 1.040 1 Z
II 6.1 9 1.044 I 4
IZ 6.7 10 1.048 I 6
13 7.2 11 1.053 1 8
14 7.8 IZ 1.057 1 10
15 8.3 12 1.061 I IZ
16 8.9 13 1.065 1 14
17 9.5 14 1.070 2 1
18 10.0 15 1.074 Z 3
19 10.6 16 1.078 2 5
20 11.1 17 1.083 2 8
ZI 11.7 17 1.087 2 II
Z2 12.2 18 1.092 Z 13
23 12.7 19 1.096 3 0
24 13.3 20 1.101 3 3
25 13.8 21 1.106 3 5
26 14.4 22 1.110 J 8
27 14.9 23 1.115 3 II
28 15.5 24 1.119 3 14
29 16.0 25 1.1 24 4 2
3U 16.6 26 1.129 4 5
31 17.1 27 J.J34 4 8
32 17.7 28 1.139 11
33
34
18.2
18.7
29
30
1.143
1.148
"5
4 15
3
35 19.3 31 1.153 5 6
36 19.8 32 1.l58 5 10
37 2M 33 1.163 5 14
38 20.9 34 1.168 6 2
39 21.4 35 1.173 6 7
40 22.0 36 1.179 6 II
41 22.5 37 1.184 7 0
42 23.0 38 1.189 7 4
43 23.6 39 1.194 7 9
44 24.1 40 1.199 7 14
45 24.6 41 1.205 8 3
~6 25.2 42 1.210 8 9
47 25.7 43 1.215 8 14
48 26.2 44 1.221 9 4
49 26.8 45 1.226 9 Il
50 27.3 46 1.232 10 0
51 27.8 47 1.237 10 7
52 28.3 49 1.243 10 14
53 28.9 50 1.248 II 5
54 29.4 51 1.254 II 12
55 29.9 52 1.260 12 4
56 30.4 53 1.265 12 12
57 30.9 54 1.271 13 5
58 31.5 56 1.277 13 14
59 32.0 57 1.283 14 7
60 32.5 58 1.288 15 I
61 33.0 59 1.295 15 II
62 33.5 60 1.301 16 6
63 34.0 61 1.307 17 1
SYRUPS AND BRINES FOR CANNING 55
TABLE 8. Continued
-- -
Degrees Brix Degrees Degrees Specific Aproximate
(per cent. sugar Baumt! Twaddell Gravity weig t of sugar
by weight) 20·C. WC. 20·C. to be added tn
20·C. (68·F.) (68·F.) (68·F.) each Gallon of
(68 "F.) water
--- - .-._ ._-
64 34.5 63 1.313 17 13
65 35.0 64 1.319 18 10
66 35.6 65 1.325 19 8
67 36.1 66 1.331 20 6
68 36.6 67 1.337 21 5
69 37.1 69 1.343 22 5
70 37.6 70 1.350 23 6
Temperature Corrections
The syrup is placed in a tall glass cylinder. The hydrometer is lowered
in it, and reading on the scale noted carefully at the lower meniscus of the
syrup. The temperature of the syrup is also noted. Corrections for tempera-
ture are made according to data giiven in Table 9. Thus a syrup testing
30 degrees Brix at 20·C., will test only 26.88 degrees Brix at 55·C. For
syrup temperatures above 20·C. corrections have to be added to, while for
those below 20·C. these have to be subtracted from the observed readings.
Syrup Calculations
Sometimes it will be found necessary in practice to dilute a syrup or to
increase its strength. This is facilitated by what is known as the 'square
method' given below.
Draw a square ABCD with the centre marked E. At A note the Brne
reading of the heavy syrup, and the pounds A B
of sugar present per gallon of the syrup. c;-------- --;-
At D write the Brix degree of the light
syrup and the pounds of sugar per gallon
of the syrup: This is marked zero when
water only is to be added for dilution, and
100 when sugar is to be added. At E write
the Brix degree a~d the sugar present per
gallon of the desired syrup. Now work dia- D C
gonally across the square. Subtract the smaller number from the larger and
write the difference at the opposite corners C and B. These numbers 're-
present the ratio in which the twO syrups are to be mixed by volume to
get the desired strength of syrup written ~t E ,
56 PRESERVA nON OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
O\"'''C::>NlI'')r...O\C'I~O\OOO
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TADLE 10. RELATION BETWEEN DENSITY, SALT PER CENT. AND SALOMETER READlNe
Density Per cent. Salometer Salt to I gallon

Salt wt./wt. water
1.017 2t 9.S 4t oz.

1.034 5 18.9 Bt oz.
1.052 7i 28.3 13 oz.
1.071 10 37.7 I lb. 2 oz.
1.090 12l 47.1 1 lb. 7 oz.
1.109 15 56.6 1 lb. 12 oz.
1.128 17l 66.0 2 lb. 2 oz.
1.148 20 75.S 2 lb. 8 oz.
1.169 221 84.9 2 lb. 15 oz.
1.190 25 94.5 3 lb. 5 oz.
1.204 261 100.0 3 lb. 10 oz.
Example: To prepare a syrup of 45°F. Brix from syrups of 62 ° Brix and

10° Brix:
62' Brix
8.05 lb. sugar
per gallon. A
---- 45' E
B
4.3B (5.42-1.04)
gallons.
1
Brix
(5.42 lb. of sugar
per gallon
10 ' Brix D C 2.63 (8.05-5.42)

1.04 lb. sugar gallons.
per gallon.
Thus to prepare a syrup of 45° Bl'ix. mix syrups oE 62 ° Brix and 10° Brix
in the ratio of 4.38: 2.63 by volume.
Syrups can be mixed by weight also as illustrated in the following example.
Thus. to prepare a syrup of 45° Brix starting with syrups of 62° Brix and
10° Brix. mix 45-10= 35 lb. of syrup of 62° Brix with 62-45 = 17 lb. of syrup
of 10° Brix to obtain 52 lb. of syrup of 45° Brix. This is shown in the diagram
below.
62· Brix 35 lb.
10· Brix 17 lb.

By following this procedure. different types of problems in preparing
syrups can be easily solved.
SYRUPS AND BRINES FOR CANNING S9
BRINES
Brines are used in canning vegetables. Brines containing 1-2 per cent. of
common salt are generally used. Only salt of good quality should be used.
It should be free from iron, alkaline impurities. such as sodium sulphate,
calcium chloride. magnesium sulphate, and their bicarbonates. The
maximum solubility of common salt in water is about 26.5 per cent.
Strength of the brine is measured by a Salometer (also called Salinometer)
or a Baume hydrometer. The Salometer is calibrated from 0 to 100 degree~
at 60°F. A brine testing 100 degrees Salometer contains 26.5 per cent. of salt.
In other words. each degree corresponds approximately to 0.25 per cent. of
salt. The Baume scale directly represents the percentage of salt in the brine.
One Baume scale reading is equal to approximately four Salometer scale
divisions. Relationships between the percentage of salt in the brine and
Salometer readings are shown in Table 10. Colours and flavours are some-
times added to the brine used for canning some of the vegetables.
CHAPTER V
CANNING FRUITS
General methods of canning various kinds of fruits are disc1,lssed in the

following pages. Specific requirements regarding the types of cans, syrup
strengths, exhaust and process temperatures, the time factor, etc., are given
separately in Table J J.
Apples
Apples are not canned to any great extent. Canned apples, which are
usually available in large packings, are generally used in pies. The varieties
commonly canned are: Yellow Newton Pippin, Spitzenberg, Winesap,
Baldwin, Russet, Jonathan, Delicious. and Rome Beauty.
The fruits are first washed in warm dilute hydrochloric acid to remove
any lead or arsenic spray residue and then rinsed in cold water. Next, they
are peeled with hand or by machine and cut into slices, 18" to X" thick.
The slices are placed in 2-3 per cent. common salt solution to prevent their
darkening due to enzyme action. They are tllen blanched at J60 o- IS0 °F. for
3-4 minutes in plain boiling water or 3 per cent. boiling brine. Blanching
is essential to remove oxygen from the tissues and mus prevent pinholing
in tile cans during storage. The blanched slices are filled into cans, covered
with hot water or thin syrup, exhausted, scaled and processed.
Apricots
Apricots are canned largely in me U.S.A. In India these grow mostly
in Kashmir, Simla Hills and Uttar Pradesh, where considerable scope exists
for their canning.
Apricots are of two kinds: white and yellow. In other countries, the
Blenheim variety, which is of moderate size, deep yellow in colour, has good
flavour, and can stand processing well, is popular for canning. The Tilton
and Hemskirk varieties also are canned.
Apricots are not peeled for canning. They are merely cut into halves and
the stones removed. Sometimes they are canned whole. According to Cruess,
on an average, a ton of apricots yields about 55 cases of 24 No. 2~ cans.
Siddappa has reported an average yield of 58 cases per ton of apricots.
Bananas
Banana is one of the most important fruit crops of India. More than 200
commercial varieties are grown over an area of about 4,04,550 acres.
Recently, Das, Jain and Girdhari Lal worked out a 1:llethod for canning
6Q
CANNING FRUITS 61
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CANNING FRUtTS 63
the fruit, alone as well as in combination with other fruits in the form of
salads. According to them, only some varieties are suitable for canning. Out
of the 20 South Indian varieties which they tried, Pachabale, Chandra bale,
Nendran, Chenganapurikodan, Poouan, and Vann(l1t yielded satisfactory
results.
Fully ripe fruit is peeled with hand and cut laterally into slices of 0" to
-X" thickness. Sugar syrup of 25-30· Brix, containing 0.2 per cent. citric acid
is used. The pH value of banana has been found to vary from 4.5 to 5.3.
Butter size cans (I lb. squat) are processed for IS minutes ill (i) boiling
water (2I2·F.), if the pH of the fresh fruit is 4.8 or lower, and (ii) in a pressure
cooker at 5 lb. steam pressure (sea level) if the pH is higher than 4.8.
Cooling after processing should be quick and thorough.
Blackberries
Blackberries are canned to some extent in the U.S.A. and in the U.K.
They are not available in any large quantity in India for commercial
canning. Evergreen, Mammoth, and Himalaya are the important canning
varieties.
The berries should be han~led quickly after harvesting since they do not
keep well for long.
Cherries
Cherries are grown mostly in the Kashmir Valley. There are three kinds
of cherries-sweet varieties, sub-acid varieties, and acid varieties. The sweet
varieties are light coloured with pinkish flesh, or deep red, or black. Accord-
ing to Siddappa and Mustafa, the White Heart Cherry, which is fairly big in
size and has a creamy white flesh, and the Red Cherry, which is rather small
and has a creamy white flesh, are good for canning. The Royal Anne, the
Napoleon Bigarreau, and the Kentish Bigarreau are good foreign varieties for
canning. Of the sub-acid varieties, the Mary Duke, the Kentish Red, and
the Flemish Red are important for canning. These are bright red in colour
and taste good. Morello, which is a large cherry of bright reddish purple
colour, is important among the acid varieties. It is canned in heavy syrup.
Maraschino cherries are canned for mixing with other fruits, fruit cocktails,
ice creams, etc. For this, Royal Anne cherries, when slightly under-ripe,
are used.
They are packed in barrels of brine containing calcium hydroxide, sulphur
dioxide, and (occasionally) alum. According to Cruess, in California, brine
for this purpose is made up of about 0.75-1.0 per cent. SO~ and about 0.4-0.6
per cent. of unslaked lime. In Oregon, approximately 1.5 per cent. of SO~
and about 0.90 per cent. of lime are used. The brined cherries are stored
for 4-6 weeks for curing when their colour changes to white or pale yellow.
These are then washed well and dyed with a red dye, like erythrosin. arid
the colour fixed with citric acid. These coloured cherries are used for canning
or candying.
PRESERVATION OF FRUtTS AND VEGETABLES
Figs
Figs are usually canned as a preserve. They should be allowed to ripen
on trees to ensure good results. Kadota, Celeste, Magnolia and Smyrna are
important canning varieties. After grading, the figs are wilted by placing
them in hot water for 2-3 minutes at ISO°F. They are sometimes lye-peeled
and washed with water to remove the waxy coating and the adhering lye.
These are then blanched in boiling water for 10-20 minutes, depending on
their size and degree of ripeness, and packed in syrup of 45-55° Brix. Addi-
tion of about 0.5 per cent. citric acid to the syrup improves the blend and
the keeping quality.
Grapes
Muscat and Thompson Seedless are good canning varleUes. Only large
sized berries are used for canning. Syrups of 20-40° Brix are used. Loss in
canning is nearly 16 per cent. According to Siddappa and Ishaq, the seedless
Kishmish and the seeded Haitha grapes give good canned products. Coloured
grapes should be canned in lacquered cans.
Grapefruit
Grapefruit should preferably be tree·ripened. Marsh Seedless, Duncan
and Foster are good canning varieties. According to Lal Singh and Gil'dhari
Lal, Marsh Seedless and Foster varieties are the best for canning.
To remove the thick outer peel, the fruit is immersed in water at 200-
206°F for 2·5 minutes, so that the peel becomes soft and can easily be
removed with hand. The peeled fruit is then either lye-peeled or band·
peeled further. After peeling, the whole fruit is immersed for 20·30 seconds
in a bath of hot dilute lye containing 1.5-2.0 cent. caustic soda. It is then
thoroughly washed with cold water, and the segments are separated.
A clean stainless steel knife of special design is employed to lift the
segments one by one from the membranes without breaking them.
When all the segments are separated, the membranes will be in tbe form of
leaves of a book. In Florida, sections of peeled fruits are carefully removed
by means of a special blunt knife or a knife made of bamboo or some other
hard wood. The segments are filled carefully into plain cans, and sugar is
added in layers or as syrup of 60° Brix. Syrup gives a better product. If dry
sugar is used, about 2 ounces would suffice for an A2 size can. Unlike
several other fruits, the filled cans of grapefruit are given a long exhaust
of 25-30 minutes at 180°_190°F., and processed for 30-40 minutes at the same
temperature to retain the full aroma and texture 'Of the fruit. The cans arc
cooled immediately after the processing. Canned grapefruit becomes slightly
firmer if kept for some time after canning. The cans should, therefore, be
retained for some weeks before marketing.
According to Loesecke, eighty pounds of grapefruit yield about 33 cans
CANNING FRUITS 65
of A2 size when lye-peeling is adopted, and 24-27 cans when the peeling
is done with hand.
Greengage
Greengages are canned in syrup containing about 0.5 per cent. ciu'ic acid.
TIle canned product, however, has a tendency to turn brown and become
soft with a bitter flavour during storage. True greengage is fairly satisfactory
for canning.
Guavas
Guavas of good quality are found in abundance in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, and some parts of South India. Canned guavas often have a taste
and aroma better than those of even the fresh fruit. Its pulp, although soft in
texture, stands the processing well, and does not darken during storage.
Fully ripe firm fruit, preferably with white flesh and few seeds is selected
for canning. It is peeled with knife or, sometimes, with hot lye, and cut
into halves. The seeds are scooped out by means of spoon-shaped knives.
The peeled and cored fruit is kept immersed in 1-2 per cent. common salt
solution to prevent it from browning. According to Jain. Das and Girdhari
La], peels and cores can be used for making guava jelly or guava cheese.
Jack-fruit
Jack-fruit (Artocarpus integrifolia) is available in plenty in Bombay. Bihar,
Orissa. Mysore, Malabar and some parts of Madras State. It is an important
staple food of certain sections of the people. The tree bears annually 60-75
fruits weighing 20-40 lb. each. In exceptional cases. the fruit weighs even
70-80 lb. The unripe green and immature fruit is prized as a vegetable.
Experiments have shown that green jack-fruit can be canned as a curried
vegetable. The crisp bulbs of the ripe fruit are used for canning in syrup.
Yield of bulbs varies from 25 to 40 per cent. of the fruit's weight.
After cutting the fruit into several large pieces. the bulbs are removed
with hand. As the fruit contains a white, highly sticky latex. a little gingelly
or til oil or hydrogenated fat (commonly known in India as Vanaspatt) is
smeared on the hands to avoid it. The latex is soluble in the oil. The seeds
are removed from the bulbs which are canned whole or as halves or quarters.
Syrup of 50°1}rix with 0.5-0.75 per cent. citric acid should be used as the
pH of the fruit is very high, i.e., about 5.2. The method of canning jack-fruit
has been fully standardised at the Central Food Technological Re~earch
Institute, Mysore.
The canned product has an exotic flavour and is quite likeable. There is
scope for developing canning of the fruit on a commercial scale. The outer
skin is rich in pectin, and can be used for preparing pectin. A good jelly
can also be made Ollt of the peel, and the inner perigones. The seeds can be
used as a vegetable, or ground into flour which can be blended with wheat
flour for making chapaties.
66 P1tEStRVATION Or rRUln AND VEC~TABU~S
Litchi
Litchies are found in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa.
For canning, the fruit should be tree-ripened. The outer shell is first
cracked; then the inside pulp is separated, and finally the stones are re-
moved. Plain cans and syrup of 400Brix with 0.5 per cent. citric acid are
used. Prompt and thorough cooling of the cans after processing is necessary
to prevent development of pink colour in the product. Canned litchies from
China are well known in foreign countries.
Loquat
Loquats can be cut into halves and canned to get an attractive product.
Mangoes
India is the home of mangoes. A large number of varieties are found in
almost all parts of the country. According to statistics collected by the Fruit
Development Adviser, Government of India, out of a total fruit acreage of
3.16 million, mangoes alone covered 2.2 million acres in 1948-49, i.e., nearly
70 per cent. of the total area under fruits. Uttar Pradesh, Madras, Bihar and
West Bengal lead in mango growing.
Among the numerous varieties, Safaida, Sarholi and Dusehri of U.P.,
Alphonso of Ratnagiri; Badami of Mysore ; Bellishan of Circars ; and Ras-
puri, Neelum and Mulgoa of Madras and Mysore, are more important for
canning purposes. The Ballgalora variety also gives a fairly good canned
product. Juicy and fibrous varieties are not suitable for canning. They are
mostly used for making squashes, chutnies and pickles.
Firm ripe mangoes are picked and ripened in straw. These are then peeled
with hand, and the pulp cut into 6-8 longitudinal slices. The slices are placed
in a 2 per cent. common salt solution to prevent browning. Plain cans are
used. Since some of tile varieties have a comparatively high pH value, it is
necessary to add 0.3-0.5 per cent. citric acid to the syrup for safe processing of
the cans. About 1~ lb. of the unprepared fruit would be required for a one lb.
butter size can. The trimmings of the pulp can be made into squash or jam.
Since mango is the most important commercial fruit of India, it is essen-
tial to develop its canning and preservation.
Oranges
Oranges are canned to a limited extent only. Satsuma and Mandarin of
Japan are the important canning varieties. Malta, Sathgudi and the loose
jacket oranges of Nagpur and Coorg also have been found suitable for
canning.
The outer skin is removed straight with hand or after dipping the fruit
in boiling water to loosen it first. The segments are separated and the fibres
removed. These are then dipped into boiling lye solution of 1-2 per cent.
strength for 20-30 seconds, rinsed in warm water, dipped into dilme HC}
CANNING FRUITS 67
FIC. 21. PREPARATION OF PAPAYA FRUIT FOR CANNINC

68 PRESERVATION OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLE '
Flc. 22 . A SM.IL·
P O W E H. - llHl\' EN
P' N '~ I\,.,·, . E
SLICING
M AC IiI NE
FIC. 23. POWER- OIIIVEN

PonTO PEEl.ER
CANNtNC FRUITS 69
of 0.5-1.0 per cent. strength to remO'l·e traces of alkali, and finally rinsed
in cold water. Any adhering membrane and seeds are removed with hand.
Plain cans are used. A small amount of orange flavour may be added to
the syrup. The cans are processed in the same way as grapefruit cans are
processed-these are exhausted for 15-20 minutes, and then processed for
15-20 minutes, both at ISO-190°F. Orange segments can also be used for
canning as salad with other fruits like mango, pineapple. jack-fruit
bananas, etc.
Papaya
Papaya slices or cubes can be used for canning (Fig. 21). About 0.5 per
cent. citric acid should be added to the syrup.
Peaches
There are two types of peaches, the Cling-stone and the Free-stone. Among
the former, the Tuscan, which is an early ripening variety, and the mid-
summer varieties, Palora, Sims and Peaks, are important canning varieties.
Phillips Cling is a good late variety. Elberta, Lovell, and J. H. Hale are free-
stone peaches suitable for canning, while Muir is good for drying only.
Crawford and Salway do not give good results. Canning of peaches is a very
important industry in California and other parts of the U.S.A.
Almost all the canning varieties have a uniform yellow colour. According
to Siddappa, et al, the white-fleshed varieties, which are soft and juicy like
those of Quctta, are not suitable for canning. The Peshawari 6-A peacb,
which is similar to Elberta, is a good canning variety.
The fruit is cut round the suture, and the pit removed by inserting a
spoon-shaped knife from the stem end and turning it until one half of the
fruit separates off. The other half is freed of the stone with the same knife.
In large-scale canneries, the pits are cut by a rapidly revolving buzz saw
and removed by mechanically operated crescent-shaped knives. The cut
halves are peeled by immersing them in boiling lye of 1-2 per cent. strength
for :h to 1 minute. Free-stone peaches are sometimes steam-peeled. They are
then placed in cold water to prevent darkening. According to Cruess, a ton
of Clingstone peaches will yield on an average 45 cases, and a ron of Free-
stone peaches 41.2 cases of No. 2:h cans.
Pears
Pears are grown in abundance in the Kulu and Kashmir valleys, and to
some extent in the hilly areas of South India. The fruit is harvested when
it attains full size, but is still green. According to Lal Singh and Girdhari
Lal, William pears of Kulu should be picked at a pressure of about 13-14 lb.
These are subsequently ripened at 7S-80°F.
The fruit is peeled with a knife from stem end to blossom end, cut into '
halves longitudinally, and the core removed with a coring knife. The peeled
and cored fruit is placed in 1-2 per cent. common salt solution to prevent
5
10 . PRESERVATION or tRtJITS ANb VEGETAnLE
browning. Prompt and thorough cooling of the cans is necessary to prevent

development of pink discolouration.
Pineapples
Pineapples are grown mostly in Assam, Bengal, Godavari district, and the
west coast of South India. Giant Kew and Queen are the two important
varieties.
In Hawaii and West Indies where pineapple canning is a big industry.
peeling, coring and cutting are done mechanically by a Ginaca machine.
In India, however. slicing machines (Fig. 22). punches. corers and eye re-
movers worked with hand are generally employed. Rubber gloves should
be worn as the fruit contains highly proteolytic enzymes which are injurious
to the skin. The fruit is out into rings. cubes or tit-bits and canned. The
trimmings and cores can be used for preparing pineapple juice or squash.
Recently. Pruthi, Tandon and Girdhari Lal conducted extensive canning
trials on three varieties of Indian pineapples. namely. Giant Kew. Kew. and
Mauritius. They found that the percentage recovery of 'A' grade material
fit for canning from tllese varieties ranged from 24 to 32, 13.7 to 20.8 and
9.7 to 11.4. respectively. Pruthi reports that their ascorbic acid contellt
ranges from 14.0 to 16.6. 5.2 to 8.6. and 19.3 to 24.6 mg.jlOO gm .. respec·
tively ; the percentage acidity w(w (as anhydrous citric acid) from 0.6 to 0.8.
0.3 to 0.7, and 0.9 to 1.0; the percentage of refractometer solids. from 12.8 to
15.3. 9.3 to 15.4 and 10.4 to 13.4; and the pH from 3.3 to 3.5, 3.4 to 3.6.
and 3.2 to 3.3. respectively. He also found that the retention of ascorbic acid
in canned pineapples after 12 months' storage at room temperature (24-30°C.)
was 72.3 per cent.
Plums
A few varieties of plums are grown in some parts of North India and in
some hilly tracts in the South. Plums are canned largely in the U.K. The
Red Victoria and the Yellow Pershore plums are important canning varieties.
Purple Pershore, Early Laxton. Magnum Bonum, Evesham Wonder, Czar.
etc., are other varieties that are moderately good for canning. The Alu-
bukhara plum of North India gives a fairly good canned product.
Gummosis is a serious trouble in the case of plums. Plain cans are gene-
rally used in preference to lacquered ones. Plums are canned whole without
removing the stones.
Berry Fruits
Strawberry. loganberry. blackberry. blueberry. raspberry and mulberry
are the important berry fruits which are used for canning in different parts
of the world. John Paxton. Royal Sovereign. and Oberschlesien strawberries
are good for canning. Ponceau 2R colour is added to the yrup used for
canning strawberries. White mulberries give a good canned product.
CHAPTER VI
CANNING VEGETABLES
Vegetables such as peas, beans, carrots, beetroots, tomatoes, asparagus,

etc., are canned in large quantities in different parts of the world. In India,
there is a good market for canned peas. Carrots, cabbages, pl)tatoes, cauli-
flowers, tomatoes, etc. are canned in brine either in their natural form or
in curried style using spices, fat, etc. Attempts are also being made to pack
indigenous vegetables like brinjals, lady's fingers, green jack-fruit, etc. How-
ever, canned vegetables at present cater mostly for the requirements of
armed forces, the demand from the general public being rather limited .
Canning of some important vegetables is dealt with in Table 12.
Asparagus
Canned asparagus is a delicious thing. Green and white asparagus shoots
of tender texture are used {or canning. Immediately after removal from
the field the shoots are washed to prevent subsequent discolouration. These
are graded for size, and cut into lengths according to the height of the
can. Blanching is done carefully for 2-3 minutes in boiling water with the
bundles placed, tips up, inside a wire cage to prevent undue breakage. Sul-
phur resistant cans of the round or square type, and 2.0 per cent. brine are
used for packing. Green asparagus is filled into cans with tips down, while
the white ones are filled with tips up.
Beans
Tender stringless beans are preferred for canning. These are cut into one
inch long slices. They are then blanched, filled into plain cans, covered with
brine, exhausted, and sealed and processed under pressure. Lima and wax
beans also are canned similarly in some parts of the world.
Beetroots
Beetroots are canned in the form of discs or cubes. The top and roots are
cut off with a stainless steel knife, and the vegetable placed in 1-2 per cent.
common salt solution to preserve colour before canning is done. Vegetable
lacquered cans and 2.0 per cent. brine are used for canning.
Cabbage
Early season cabbage with tender yellowish leaves is used. The head is
either cut into 4 to 8 pieces or shredded into pieces, about an inch thick.
These are generally blanched for 5-6 minutes in boiling citric or tartaric
71
'72 Pltl: ERvATtON of }<'RtJtI'S AND VECETABLES
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CANNING VEGETABLES 73
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acid solution of 1.0 per cent. strength, and subsequently cooled in 2.0 per
cent. brine to prevent discolouration. Plain cans and 2.0 per cent. brine are
used for canning.
Carrot
There are two kinds of carrots available in this country, i.e. purple and
yellow. Only the yellow variety is canned. Tender and small carrots are
selected, washed well, and the skin rubbed off with coarse cloth. For large-
scale work, mechanical peelers like the potato peeling machines are used.
After peeling they are either used as such or are cut into discs or cubes.
The pieces are blanched in boiling water for 5-13 minutes, and packed in
plain cans using brine as covering liquid.
Cauli1lower
Compact flower heads cut inro pieces of suitabl e size are used for canning.
The method is th e same as that employed in the case of cabbage.
Gram
The white variety of gram in the fresh state is su itahle for canning.
Shelling is done by hand. The method of canning is the same as that
employed in the case of fresh peas.
Mushroom
Edible mushrooms are canned in the U.K. and the U.S.A. Since many
of the mushrooms are poisonous, great care is necessary in making selec-
tion. Sometimes, they are bleached to a pale colour in a solution of sodium
sulphite and citric acid. They are then washed thoroughly and blanched
for 4-5 minutes in boiling water or in steam, and dipped in cold water after-
wards to avoid discolouration. Plain cans and 2.0 per cent. brine are used for
packing. Sometimes, to enhance the flavour, about an ounce of citric acid
is added for every 5 gallons of brine. To give a 'fried' flavour to the pro·
duct (when working on a small scale) the mushrooms are cooked in an
oven for a few minutes and a little water, butter and salt are added before
canning.
•
Okra (Lady's Finger)
Tender, green okras of fairly uniform size are selected for canning as
whole or as slices. These are blanched for 1-2 minutes in boiling water
and then cooled in common salt solution of 1.5 per cent. strength for about
10 minutes. Plain cans and 2.0 per cent. brine are used.
Peas
In 1945, nearly 39 million cases of peas were canned in the U.S.A. alqne.
Alaska, Surprise, Thomas Laxton and Lincoln are the important canning
varieties in the U.K. and the U.S.A. In India the peas grown are not of any
definite variety.
Peas for canning should be uniformly ripe and should retain their green
colour even after processing. These should have good flavour and texture.
Large sized peas are generally suitable.
The peas are graded by size using sieves ranging from 9/32" to 13/32"
or more. Sometimes they are graded by floating them in brine of 1.040-1.070
specific gravity. They are then blanched in boiling water for 2-5 minutes,
rinsed in cold water, and filled into plain cans. Brine containing 2~ lb. of
sugar and about 1~ lb. of common salt per 10 gallons of water is used as
covering liquid. Sometimes an edible green colour and mint flavour are
also added to the brine. The cans are exhausted, sealed and processed under
pressure of IO lb. for 40-50 minutes.
Canned fresh peas are commonly known as 'garden' or 'green peas'.
Dried peas, which are soaked in water and then canned, are known as
'processed peas'. These are somewhat cheaper than fresh peas, and can be
canned out of season also. For processed peas, the covering liquid should
.contain about 1:4 lb. of common salt, 5 lb. of sugar, and about 4-5 oz. of a
2.0 per cent. solution of a good green colour per 10 gallons of water.
Potato
Potatoes are canned whole or as slices. They should be sufficiently firm.
They are peeled with hand or on a rotary vegetable peeler (Fig. 23),
and placed in 2 per cent. brine to prevent discolouration. Some of the softer
varieties of potatoes have to be placed, after blanching, in about 2.S per
cent. calcium chloride solution for an hour for firming of the texture.
They are to be washed well before being filled into cans. Plain cans and
2.0 per cent. brine are used for canning.
Tomato
Only ripe tomatoes of medium size, regular shape and uniform red
colour, free from blemishes and having plenty of pulp should be used for
canning. Stone and San Jose are the two important canning varieties in
the U.S.A.
Tomatoes are washed and then scalded in boiling water or steam for 2-3
minutes to crack the skin and facilitate its removal. The peeled tomatoes
are placed in shallow pans to prevent crushing. Loss in peeling and trimming
is about 30-35 per cent., according to Siddappa and Mustafa. The peeled
tomatoes are then filled into plain cans, and common salt is added at the
rate of about one per cent., i.e., a teaspoonful of salt for an A2~ size can.
A little sugar is also added sometimes. Tomatoes are canned either as a
solid pack, that is, widloUt the addition of tomato juice, or as a standard
pack with the addition of tomato juice. Cenerally, for safe processing. long
CANNING VEGETABLES 75
cooking for 45-60 minutes in boiling water is necessary. Pressure processing,

however, is not adopted as the tomatoes are fairly acidic.
Turnip
There are three types of turnips- red, white and yellow. White turnips
are generally canned. They should be tender and free from fibre. They arc
cut into pieces of about % inch thickness, blanched for 3-4 minutes in
boiling water, and then packed in plain cans using brine.
CURRIED VEGETABLES
In the West, vegetables are generally canned in brine. Spices are added
to the drained vegetable before serving. In India people prefer to add fats,
spices, etc., to the vegetable while it is being cooked. A suitable method has
been worked out at the Central Food Technological Research Institute for
preparing 'ready-to-save' canned vegetables in curried form. Potatoes and
cauliflowers; cauliflowers and tomatoes; potatoes and peas ; potatoes, peas
and cauliflowers, are some of the suitable combinations. Green jack-fruit has
also been found suitable for mixing. The vegetables are prepared for canning
in the same way as for cooking. A special type of gravy is prepared as
follows:
FOil Om: DOZEN A2i CANS OF ClIHRIEO VEGETARLF.
Mustard (whole) loz.

Coriander powder l- oz.
Red chilli powder ~· i oz.
Caraway seed I oz.
Turmeric powder It-It oz.
Common salt 3i oz.
Vegetable fat (hydrogenated oil) 14 oz.
Water Sufficient to make up
gravy for 12 cans.
The fat is heated in a pan and the mustard fried in it for a few minutes
till the seeds crack. The other spices, etc., are then added and frying is
continued for a few more minutes. The required quantity of water is then
added and the whole mass brought to a boil. Sixteen to twenty ounces of
the vegetable are filled into an AZY; plain can, depending upon the com-
bination of vegetables used. Hot gravy is finally added. The cans are then
sealed and processed at 10 lb. pressure for 60-75 minutes.
CHAPTER vn
SPOILAGE IN CANNED FOODS
In storage. canned foods are liable to spoilage for various reasons. Fruit
products often lose their normal and attractive appearance and become
unsaleable although they may remain quite fit for consumption. The two
important kinds of spoilage are: (i) spoilage by micro-organisms; and (ii)
spoilage due to physical or chemical changes. Of these, the former is more
important. The appearance. taste and smell of a spoilt can of food are
different from those of a good one. Various indications of spoilage are as
follows.
Swell
In a swelled can the ends are tightly bulged. The bulge is due to the
formation of carbon-dioxide or other gases inside the can as a result of
decomposition caused by micro-organisms. If tlle bulged ends are pressed
hard. they may go inward. but when the pressure is released they will
get back to their original position and would remain convex. The decom-
posed food in the can has an offensive and sour odour. and is generally dis·
coloured. It is not fit for consumption. and may even contain toxins produced
by bacilli like Clostridium botulinum.
Hydrogen Swell
Hydrogen. formed by the action of acids present in the fruit on the
tin-plate. causes the can to bulge at the ends. In such cases. the food
remains generally free from harmful micro-organisms and is fit for
consumption.
Springer
A mild swell at one end or both the ends of a can is called a ·springer'. It
may be an initial stage of hydrogen swell. or may be caused by insufficient
exhausting or overfilling of the can. The bulged ends (or ltt least one end)
can be pushed back to the original position by pressing. but will again
become convex after some time. Food in such cans generally remains fit for
consumption.
Flipper
A can with a mild positive pressure is called a 'flipper'. It may be an initial
stage of swell or hydrogen swell. but more frequently it is due to under-
exhausting or over-filling.
76
SPOILAGE IN CANNED FOODS 77
Flat Sour
This type of spoilage is caused mostly in non-acid foods like vegetables,
by micro-organisms without production of gas. It is, therefore, difficult to
detect it from the outward appearance of the can. It may be caused almost
entirely by under-sterilization. In that case, thermophilic bacteria would
be of special significance. The product always shows the presence of greater
acidity than the normal stuff does and becomes unfit for consumption.
Leaker
A very small leak may appear in the can due to (i) faulty seam, (ii) faulty
lock seam, or (iii) pinholes as a res ult of corrosion from the inside of th e can
or from rusting of th e can from the outside.
Breather
There may be a very small leak in the can through which air may pass
in, but not the micro-organisms. Consequently, air passes back and forth
into the can. In this case, the vacuum is always nil and the pressure inside
the can is equal to tllat of the atmosphere. The food remains fit for con-
sumption. The damage to food in such cases is usually due to rusting of
the can caused hy oxygen in the air passing through the small leak.
Bursting of Cans
Cans may sometimes burst. This may be due to excess of pressure caused
by the gases inside, produced by decomposition of the food by micro-
organisms, or by hydrogen gas formed by chemical action of acids on the
tinplate. In such cases, the canned food becomes a total loss.
DISCOLOURATION OF FRUIT PRODUcrS
Discolouration of canned foods may be due to biological causes or metallic

contamination, or due to both.
Biological Causes
Cut and peeled apples and pears, if kept in air, turn brown due to oxida-
tion. This change of colour is induced by oxidase enzymes present in them,
and can be avoided by placing the cut and peeled fruits in 2-3 per cent.
common salt solution until used for canning. Plums, greengages, etc., some-
times turn slightly brown near the surface of the can during exhausting.
This can be prevented by regulating the exhausting process.
Brown discolouration of fruit products may also be caused by reactions
other than enzymatic. Any of these reactions may go on independently
of tbe others. The colour cbanges may be caused by reactions between (i)
nitrogenous matter and sugars; (ii) nitrogenous matter and organic acids;
(iii) sugar and organic acids; and (iv) organil.: acids themselves. These re-
78 PRESERVATION' OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
actions, generally known as 'Maillard reactions', are of great importance in

food preservation.
Metallic Contamination
This type of discolouration is caused by iron and copper salts. The follow-
ing are important among these:
1. Femc tannate. Some fruits and vegetable~ originally contain tannins.
Sometimes tannins may also enter through the spices used for seasoning.
These tannins, on coming into contact with the iron of the tinplate, form
black compounds which spoil the appearance of the canned product.
2. Iron sulphide. Sulphur dioxide may enter the can through sugar or
it may be formed inside the can itself due to the deco_!llposition of the
proteins in the product. The gas may react with the hydrogen formed by
fruit acid acting on tinplatc, and get itself reduced to hydrogen sulphide.
which. in turn, will react with the iron of the can and form iron sulphide
which is black in colour.
3. Copper sulphide. When the plant is shut down for some time (even
for a few days). a thin film of copper oxide is formed on the surface of the
equipment made of copper or brass. Although the equipment may be
dloroughly cleaned before use, small traces of copper oxide or copper salts
may still remain sticking to the surface of the metal. When the plant
is started again, the first lot of the product will react with the copper com-
pounds and dissolve the copper. The product coming into contact with
hydrogen sulphide, formed inside the can due to several causes, will form
a black copper sulphide which will discolour the product.
4. Hydrogen. Fruit acids reacting on the body of the can form hydrogen.
Even in lacquered cans these acids may react through any scratches in the
lacquer coating. The hydrogen thus formed will react with the red or purple
colour of fruits like strawberries, loganberries, red plums. damsons, etc., and
bleach it. The best remedy against this is to use perfectly lacquered cans.
This will be possible if cans are lacquered after they are manufactured.
In the case of cans made from lacquered tinplate, defects like scratches would
generally develop during the fabrication process on high speed machines.
COLOURING MATTER IN FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
The colouring matter in fruits and vegetables considerably influences the

discolouration of the canned products. There are twO kinds of colouring
matter: one which is soluble in the cell sap, and the other which is insoluble.
The soluble colouring agents are called anthocyanins, and include blues,
purples, violets, mauves, magentas and nearly all reds. They are mostly
found in the epidermal tissues of the fruit. but are sometimes present in
the flesh of the fruit also. Flavones are also formed in the plant. Both these:
SPOILAGE IN CANNED FOODS 79
groups of colours generate oxygen which corrodes tin in the presence of

organic acids.
Nascent hydrogen bleaches the colours of anthocyanins, but the colours
reappear on sufficient exposure to air. Sulphur dioxide also bleaches these
colours, but they reappear on the removal of sulphur dioxide or on the
addition of a stronger acid. Anl~ocyanins undergo certain changes in asso-
ciation with metals. These are precipitated by lead acetate. They are in-
soluble in ether and chloroform. Raspberries, cherries, red, purple and blue
plums, damsons, and strawherries contain anthocyanin pigments. In the
case of apples and peaches, however, the anthocyanins are present in the
skin only, and do not, therefore, get into the canned product, since the skin
is peeled off before canning these fruits.
The insoluble colours are bound up in portions of protoplasm, known
as chloroplasts or chromoplasts, and include substances like chlorophyl ls.
The scarlet, orange, red, brown and even black colours may be due to a
mixture of soluble and insoluble colours present in the same tissues. Fruits
like greengages, yellow plums. apricots, tomatoes and green gooseberries
contain insoluble colours. Among these, the yellow colour does not suffer
any change in the presence of metals or when the product is heated. Chloro-
phyll. in the presence of acid and oxygen, however, turns brown on heating.
It reacts with zinc and copper, forming a deep colour which is not affected
by heat.
orS<X>LOURATION IN VARIOUS CANNED FOOD PRODUCTS
Typical examples of discolouration in canned products are given below:

Blade deposit ill canned pumpkin. The amino compounds present in the
pumpkin react on the iron of the can forming black deposits in the canned
product.
Discolouration in canned corn. Canned corn sometimes turns grey in colour.
Tills is due to the formation of sulphides of iron and copper on account
of corrosion of the tinplate and tarnishing of the meta] of the equipment
respectively. To prevent it, only 'C-enamel' or 'Corn-enamel' cans should be
used. Zinc oxide forms one of the constituents of the enamel with which
these cans are coated. Hydrogen sulphide formed during the processing
of corn reacts with zinc oxide, forming white zinc sulphide. Since corn
contains practically no acid, the zinc sulphide formed does not go into
solution.
Black deposit in canned peas. A black flaky deposit is sometimes formed in
canned peas due to the formation of iron sulphide. This is particularly
marked when peas get heated or sweated before being canned. Thorough
washing and blanching of the peas would help to overcome this trouble.
There is also likelihood of a black deposit occurring on account of the
formation of copper sulphide through copper contamination from unclean
equipment. Formation of black deposit can. however. be prevented by using

C-enamel cans.
Black deposit in canned fruits. In the case of fruits canned in syrups pre.
pared from sugar. which sometimes contains sulphur dioxide. there is often
serious blackening of the tinplate due to the formation of iron sulphide.
Pink colouratioo in canned pears and peaches. Pears and peaches turn pink
if the cans · are not cooled properly after sterilization. Pears grown in hot
climate mostly develop this kind of discolouration. There is reason to believe
that over-heating or sweating of fresh pears before canning also results in
pink discolouration in the canned product.
Browning of canned apples. Peeled apples, when exposed to air. turn
brown. As already pointed out this can be avoided hy keeping the peeled
or cut apples in 2-3 per cent. common salt solution. Pinholes also appear
in the can if it is not thoroughly exhausted before sealing. The dissolved
iron may also react on the tannins of the fruit and cause darkening.
CORROSION AND PERFORATION OF TINPLATES
Large quantities of canned fruit products are lost because of corrosion

and perforation of tin containers. Great loss generally occurs in the case of
acid fruits like apples. plums and berries. Corrosion. however. also takes place
even in the case of I<:ss acid foods like pumpkin.
Corrosion due to Oxygen
It is well-known that oxygen rapidly decreases in the cans after they
are sealed and sterilized. This is because it combines with the nascent
hydrogen. formed by the action of acid on d1e tin container. or with
the food. The larger the quantity of oxygen in the can. the greater
is the corrosion. In the absence of air. the rate of corrosion of tinplate slows
down. Oxygen can be excluded from the can by filling it properly and
exhausting it thoroughly.
Effect of fill. When cans are filled properly, the head-space and the
volume of air left inside will be small. Corrosion due to oxygen of the air
in the head-space, will. therefore, be negligible. Slack filling of cans should.
therefore. be avoided. In the case of products likely to produce hydrogen
swell. sufficient head-space should, however. be left in the can to provide
space for any hydrogen gas that may be produced.
Effect of exhaust. Heating of fruits before canning greatly reduces the
amount of air in them. The filled cans. are. therefore. exhausted for a definite
time to get rid of most of the air. A long exhaust at low temperature (5-6
minutes at 180-190°F.) givc!1 better results than an exhaust at higher tem -
peratures for shorter periods does.
Effect of temperature. Corrosion of tinplate is more brisk at higher tem-
peratures than at lower. Fruit products. should. therefore, be stored at low
temperatures to $10w down the rate of corrosion and prolong their shelf-life.
SPOtLAGE tN CANNlm FOODS al
Effect of cooling after processing. If hot cans are stacked together in a pile
they do not cool down for a fairly long time. This results in stack burning.
It is, therefore, necessary to cool the cans to about loo·F. before stacking
them.
SPOILAGE BY MICRO·ORGANISMS
In some cases, due to the action of micro.organisms, gases are generated

inside the can. Where there is no gas production, as in flat sour spoilage.
the cans keep their original shape. Microbial spoilage of canned foods is
generally of two kinds: non-poisonous and poisonous.
Non-poisonous Spoilage
This is usually due to understerilization. It is most commonly caused by
a variety of yeasts present in the product. Bacteria are very seldom present
in canned fruits of fancy, choice and standard grades which are carefully
packed. They, however, appear sometimes in pic grade fruits. Spoilcd cans
are easily detected by the bulged appearance of their ends which is due to
the pressure of carbon dioxide generated inside.
Poisonous Spoilage
This is caused by thermophilic bacteria. In this case, gas formation is
very rare, and the cans retain their shape. However, the taste and flavour
of the product inside suffer. Almost all non-acid foods are liable to flat-
souring. It usually occurs in pasty materials or solid packs which are difficult
to sterilize, e.g., spinach, sweet potato, etc.
Thermophilic bacteria are heat-resistant, and persist even at 2J2 · F. If
the canned food is stacked in a pile without proper cooling, the cans remain
at a favourable incubation temperature for a long time so that these bacteria
multiply and spoil the product. It is, therefore, quite essential that the cans
should be cooled to about JOO·F. before being stacked.
Thermophilic bacteria grow by forming spores. Some species, whkh are
facultative, grow at llO·F., while some other species, which arc obligative,
grow at llO-l70 °F. Obligative bacteria are more difficult to kill than the
facultative oIl;es. Some thermophiles produce hydrogen, and some hydrogen-
sulphide gas. TIle only way to get rid of them is to clean and wash the
material thoroughly before canning.
STORAGE LIFE OF CANNED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
As already pointed out, spoilage of canned products during storage may

be due to two causes, i.e., (i) chemical action on the can producing hydrogen
swells or perforations, and (ii) chemical action on the fruit or vegetahle
producing discolouration, loss of flavour, etc.
PM;SERVATloN or FRUITS AND VEGETABLE
Hydrogen Swells and Perforations
Lal Singh, Girdhari Lal, Sadasivan and Jain have studied the formation
of hydrogen swells in the case on canned plums, peaches, apricots and
tomatoes. The higher the storage temperature, the more rapid will be the
formation of hydrogen or of localised corrosion, producing finally
perforation.
Several factors influence the formation of hydrogen. These, in the order
of their importance are: (i) quality of tinplate; (ii) type of fruit; (iii) type
of can used (i.e., plain or lacquered); (iv) quality of sugar; (v) addition of
acid; (vi) exhaust, clinch, vacuum and headspace; and (vii) cooling.
Quality of tinplate: In the case of hydrogen swell, it is the can rather than
the fruit which is affected. The quality of the can depends on the porosity
of the tin surface of the plate used. The more this porosity, the greater is
the corrosion of the can. TIllS porosity can, however, be minimised by
increasing and putting uniformly the tin coating on the plate. It is on this
account that charcoal plate, which has about 2!h lb. of tin per base box, is
preferred to coke plate which has only I !h-I~ lb. of tin per base box.
Type of fruit. The marketable life of canned fruits varies according to
their type. The storage life of some important canned fruits and vegetables
is as follows:
(i) Canned fruits and vegetables that can be stored for about 2 years. Pineapple,
peaches, peas, beans, celery, spinach, grapefruit.

(ii) Canned fruits and vegetables which can be stored for a brief period only.
So~t and stone fruits, apricots, pears, prunes, fruit salad, tomatoes, vegetable
soups, beetroot, carrot.
Type of can used. Plain cans are less susceptible to hydrogen swell forma-
don than lacquered ones. Further, the green colour of fruits and vegetables
is retained better in plain cans than in the lacquered ones, although more
tin goes into solution in their case. ProbabJy, the natural green colour of
chlorophyll is stabilised by tin. White cherry, gooseberry, golden plum,
greengage, mango, orange, grapefruit, jack-fruit, peach, apricot, etc., give
good results when packed in plain cans.
Quality of sugar. Cane sugar tends to promote formation of hydrogen
swell, while beet sugar retards it. This shows that some sugars contain acce·
lerators, while some others contain inhibitors of corrosion. Beet sugar is a
good inhibitor of corrosion in the case of fruits of low acidity such as green·
gages and cherries, but in the case of fruits of high acidity it does not give
good results. This aspect of the problem has been studied in detail by Hirst
and Adam at the Fruit and Vegetable Preservation Research Station, Camp.
den, England.
Addition of acid. Addition of citric acid up to a strength of about 0.5 per
cent. in the syrup used for canning fruits like sweet cherries, greengages, etc.,
checks the rate of formation of hydrogen swells to a considerable extent.
SPOlLAGE IN CANNED FOODS 3
Other acids like tartaric, adipic, phosphoric etc. are not. however. as effective
as citric acid.
Exhaust, clinch. vacuum and head-space. All these factors. which are inter'
related. arc controllable in the canning factory. Exhausting is done to drive
out most of the air from the cans. It not only helps in proper filling of fruits
and vegetables into cans. but also ensures a good vacuum. which is neces-
sary to accommodate any pressure that might develop inside the can as a
result of production of hydrogen gas due to corrosion.
Sometimes. the cans are clinched before exhausting. In that case, they
can be exhausted at a higher temperature without any risk of damaging the
contents at the top of the can. Chilling of the surface is also avoided during
the transfer of the can from the exhaust box to the seaming machine.
A long exhaust at a lower temperature, that is at about 16S·F., givcs
better results than a short one at about ISO·F. provided the cans are closed
at the same temperature. The advantage of exhausting the cans is. how-
ever, quickly lost if they are allowed to cool down appreciably before
closing. Any undue cooling of the cans after exhaust and before sealing
should, therefore. be avoided.
Head-space_ This should be X"-%" before placing the lid on the can.
Cooling_ 'The processed cans should be cooled to about 100·F. before
stacking to avoid stack-burning.
The following precautions are required to be taken to prevent formation
of hydrogen swells and perforations:
J. Cans made of tinplate of good quality should be used.
2. Citric acid up to O.S per cent. should be added to the syrup used for
canning fruits of low acidity such as cherry. greengage, mango, jack-
fruit etc.
3. The closing temperature should not be below 16S·F.
4. Exhausting should be done for a sufficiently long time, but without
unduly affecting the quality of the product.
5. The lids may be clinched before exhausting to get better results as
regards vacuum and storage life of the product.
6. The headspace in the can should be X"-%" before fixing the lid.
7. The c~ns should be stored under cool and dry conditions.
CHAPTER VIII
FRUIT JUICES, SQUASHES AND CORDIALS
In India cold drinks are in demand for a greater part of the year.
Among these, fruit juices have an eminent place. They are rich in
essential minerals, vitamins and other nutritive factors, and are becoming
popular on that account. Besides. they are delicious and have a universal
appeal.
The dietetic value of real fruit beverages is far greater than that of
synthetic products which are being produced in large quantities by aerated
water bottlers in this country. The annual production of carbonated waters
like lemonade, orangeade, strawberry, lime juice, etc. as well as of various
kinds of sherbets and other artificially flavoured beverages runs into several
million bottles. If real fruit juices could be substituted for these svnthetic
preparations. that would prove a boon to the consumer as welf a; to the
fruit grower. There is. therefore. a great scope in this country for the manu-
facture of fruit juices and other beverages.
With the rapid progress in fruit farming that has taken place during
the last two decades. fresh juices are being increasingly sold by vendors
in some of the large towni in India. The demand for fresh juices is increasing
hut these cannot be had when the fruits are out of season. Fruit juices have,
therefore, to be preserved in a form in which they can be used in off-
season also.
The preparation of fruit beverages on commercial scale was practically
unknown in India till about 1930. However, now products like squashes and
cordials are being manufactured in the country to the extent of over
3 million bottles annually. 1£ aerated water factories begin to use pure
fruit juices instead of synthetic flavours and colours, that alone will create a
demand for several thousand tons of fruit every year.
In the U.S.A., the annual production of juices is about ten crore gallons.
Till about 15 years ago, only grape and apple juices were produced there
in any considerable quantity. In those days, these juices were used almost
exclusively for medicinal purposes and were recommended by physicians
generally for infants and invalids. However, now on account of the common
use of pure fruit juices as breakfast foods, a large variety is produced on
a big scale from fruits such as orange, pineapple, tomato, grapefruit, apple
and grape. Small quantities of juices from sour lime, lemon, tangerine,
loganberry, cherry, blackberry, youngberry, apricot, peach, prune, plum,
pomegranate, papaya, currant, and pear are also manufactured. Most of
these tart juices are largely used for preparing mixed drinks and in bakery
84
FRU IT JUICES, QUA HES AND CORDIALS 85
FIG . 24. II ALVINC AND HI IRIUN G l\!l.I CIII NI;S
Flc . 25. B UR RING MA CIITNE FOR EXTRACTION OF J ICE "ROM ORANGl:S

FIC . 26 . J UICE EXTMCTIUN HOOM IN CENTRAL FOOl) TEClINOLOr: 1 At.

HESEARCH i NSTITUTE, MYSOltE
Flc. 27. LABORATORY SCREW TVl'l, J ICE EXTRACTOR

FRUIT JUICES, SQUASHES AND CORDIALS 87
products. These are now becoming more popular than tbe carbonated fruit
juice beverages from apples and grapes.
In India, the pure fruit juice industry is still in its infancy. Preparation
of these juices is limited mostly to home-scale production. The fruits gene-
rally used are grape, apple, pomegranate, mulberry, jamu1t (Eugenia jambo·
lana), phalsa (Gre wia asiatica) and mango. The scope for commercial
production of fruit juices is, however, limited at present, as these are not
yet included in the normal dietary of people. Tomato juice, however, has
considerable commercial possibilities as it is alrcady in fair demand.
Sherbets, which consist of sugar syrups flavoured with artificial essences
of fruits and heros, have been manufactured in India from times
immemorial.
Of late, manufacture of orange squash, lemon squash, lime juice cordial,
pineapple squash, and mango squash on a commercial scale has also made
good progress in different parts of the country. Mernods for preparing other
beverages like passion-fruit squash, pomegranatc syrup, mulberry syrup,
plum squash, etc., were worked out at Lyallpur and Qlletta in West Pakistan
before partition. There appears to be good scope for these beverages also.
However, proper publicity of the dietetic value of fruit beverages is neces·
sary to stimulate demand for them.
EQUIPMENT FOR FRUIT JUICES
Until recently, the equipment used for extracting fruit juices was similar
to that used in the manufacture of wine, vinegar, etc. In recent times tbere
has been a rapid advance in the fruit juice industry in the U.S.A., the U.K.
etc. Consequently, now one can get equipment ranging from thf' ~imple
household juice extractor or press to the fully automatic juice lines capable
of handling a few lakh bottles daily. Development of the citrus juice industry
particularly, has been the most important factor in revolutionising the
entire fruit juice industry. It is obviously essential that suitable equipment
should be selected for successfully operating this industry.
Washing EquipMent. For washing apples, citrus fruits, tomatoes, berries,
etc., various types of washing equipment are available. Tender fruits, like
berries, tomatoes, etc., are usually washed with overhead fine sprays of water
while the fruits travel on a continuous woven wire belt. On a small scale,
cement or galvanised iron tanks are quite suitable. A battery of these will
be adequate for a factory of a moderate size.
Sorting EquipMent. In large factories, a continuous broad belt made of
woven metal is employed for sorting dle fruits. Batch sorting will, however,
suffice for small factories.
Extraction Equipment. There are two types of extractions. In one case,
fruits are crushed and pressed simultaneously in one operation, while in
6
the other, the fruits are crushed or cut intO small pieces which are then
pressed.
In citrus fruits, the juice is enclosed in small natural sacs. Besides these,
there are other adhering tissues also. The peel consists of an inner white
spongy portion, called tile albedo, and an outer yellow coloured portion,
called the flavedo. The oil glands are embedded in the flavedo and are easily
broken with a slight pressure. Substances which are responsible for the
bitterness of the juice are chiefly located in (i) the fruit tissues in which the
juice sacs are embedded, (ii) the inner portion of the flavedo, (iii) the
albedo, and (iv) the seeds. The presence of these bitter substances offers
much difficulty in the extraction of the juice free from bitterness. An ideal
equipment would be that in which juice is extracted from the juice sacs
only without its coming into contact with the other tissues of the fruit.
No mechanical device has been produced so far for doing this. With the
present equipments, the bitter substances get extracted with the juice in
varying dgrees. In general, the following four different types of equipment
are used.
1. Halving and Burring Machine.. Malta (Citrus sinensis Osbeck), grape-
fruit (Citrus paradisi var. maximan), lemon (Citrus medica vaT. Limonum)
and galgal (Citrus limonia Osbeck) are cut by a special machine in which
the fruit is placed in a cup on a wheel which brings the fruit against a
stationary or revolving knife (Figs. 24 & 25). The fruit is cut into two halves
which drop into a receptacle below. The cut halves are held against a
revolving rose or burr which is conical in shape and is ribbed. The reamed
juice is collected in a vessel placed below. The burrs are generally made of
stainless steel, monel metal, aluminium. nickel. or non-odorous hard wood.
By regulating the speed of the burr and the pressure on the fruit any undue
tearing of the tissues can be avoided. In the U.S.A. several types of auto-
matic rosing machines are in use (Fig. 25).
2. Continuous Screw Bxpeller Press. These presses are similar in principle
to the household meat mincer (Figs. 27 & 28). The segments of the fruit
are fed through a hopper at one end of a feeding screw revolving
inside a conical jacket which has perforations below. The juice flows out
through the perforations, and the pomace comes out at the end of the
conical jacket. Power-driven extractors of this type are, however, not in
general use in India. The juice from the extractors is cloudy and contains
much macerated pulp. These extractors are generally employed in the case
of tomato and pineapple juices.
3. Plunger-type Pres,. The halved citrus fruit is held on an inverted cup
which is pressed along with the fruit by an automatic adjustment against
a metallic cone fitting into the cup. The clearance between the cup and the
cone is slightly more than the usual thickness of the peel of the fruit so
that oil in the peel is not pressed out. This type of press is used only in one
factory in India at present.
FRUIT J ICES, SQ ASHES AND CORDIALS 89
FIG . 2B. SCREW TYPE J I CE EXTRACTOR
FIG. 29. GRAPE CaUSHElt

FI(~ . 30. A SM LI. HVOI\A lJl.IC PR ESS
Ftc . 31. A BASKET PRESS

FRUIT JUICES. SQUASHES AND CORDIALS 91
4. Roller.type Press. Roller presses made of hard granite or wood are

specially designed to extract juice from sour limes (Citrus medica var.
acida) which are popularly known as Kagzi or Kagdi nimboo or limboo.
The whole lime is fed through the press. These presses are in extensive use
in West Indies and Jamaica. They are in use in some of the factories in
India also.
DOUBLE OPERATION
Fruits like apples. grapes. berries. etc., are first crushed in a grater or a
crusher. and the juice tben extracted in a hydraulic press. In large-scale
production. the crushing device forms an integral part of the press itself.
Crushing
Apple Grater. The skin and other tissues in apples do not have any
undesirable constituents which spoil the flavour of the juice as in the caSe
of citrus fruits. The entire fruit is. therefore. crushed and pressed. The
machine is commonly known as an apple grater. A battery of such graters
can be used for large-scale production. The grater consists of a heavy steel
cylinder. on the surface of which are fixed short knives which work against
a corrugated plate attached to the frame of the press by the side of the
steel cylinder with a series of steel springs. These springs give a certain
amount of flexibility to the mechanism so that the grater is not damaged
in case pieces of wood or stone get into the press along with the fruit. Gear
arrangements are provided for running the rollers at high speed. Whole
apples are fed into the hopper. They are grated or crushed between the
cylinder and the corrugated plate. and fall into a container below.
The grater can be set to crush the fruit to any desired degree of fineness.
Pieces of Ys" to ~" thickness are best for extraction of juice. In recent years
a different type of crusher known as 'Hammer type Pu)per' has come into
use in the U.S.A.
Crusher for Grapes, Berries, etc. A grape crusher (Fig. 29) consists of two
fluted or grooved rollers made of wood or metal. These are fixed horizon-
tally, and revolve close together and towards each other. The fruit which
is fed into the' hopper at the top gets crushed between these rollers. Berries
like strawberries. which contain gums. are first heated and then crushed.
These crushers are good for crushing tomatoes also.
Prelsing
Basket Preel. Two types of presses are used in the industry for pressing
juice from crushed fruit. They are (i) the basket press (Fig. 31). and (ii) the '
rack and cloth press. Basket presses which are of various designs and
capacities, are worked by hand or by hydraulic pressure (Fig. 30). The hand-
It rests on a wooden or metallic base. There is a screw at the top of the frame.
The crushed fruit is folded in a piece of strong cloth and plac<;d inside the
basket. By working the screw by hand or by a hydraulic pump. juice is
pressed out and collected in a vessel placed below. The basket press has
been found useful in the case of apple. grape. pomegranate. phalsa (Grewia
asiatica). etc.
Rack and Ooth Press. In this type of press. the crushed fruit is placed on
coarse woven cloth which is arranged in alternate layers between racks
made of wooden slats and subjected to hydraulic pressure. The pressed
juice is collected at the base of the pile. Various types of these presses are
in use in foreign couDtries. and are claimed to give higher yield of clear
juice than the basket type presses. In California. however. basket presses
are preferred for extraction of juice from grapes. Rack and Cloth presses
are not in use in India.
Other Types of Extractors. Special juice extracting devices have been
designed in the U.S.A. for fruits like pomegranate. passion-fruit. etc. Chace.
et aI, have described a press for pomegranate juice in which the entire fruit
is pressed. At the Quetta Fruit Preservation Laboratory. a hand worked
basket press has been successfully used for the extraction of juice from
whole pomegranates. Poore has described a special pulper for passion fruit
in which the juice is extracted by reaming the halved fruit.
Pulping Equipment
Fruit juices extracted or pressed by any of the methods described above
contain suspended matter like coarse fruit tissues. pieces of skin and seeds.
and finely divided fruit pulp. These are removed in various ways. depend-
ing on the nature of the product required. e.g .• cloudy. sparkling. clear. etc.
Three important methods in common use are: (i) straining or screening;
(ii) settling or sedimentation; and (iii) filtration.
Straining or Screening Equipment. Several types of equipment, varying in
design and capacity are in use for straining juices. A pulper (Fig. 33) made
of stainless steel, with a perforated cylindrical sieve enclosed in a jacket and
with power-driven wooden. metallic or brush paddles revolving inside it, has
been found highly useful in the case of citrus, tomato and mango juices.
The fruit. which is fed through a hopper, is crushed and pressed by the
paddles against the sieve. The juice flows out through the sieve into the
jacket. and is collected at the oudet below, while the coarse residue passes
out at the lower end of the sieve.
Equipment for Settling and Sedimentation. For Gedimentation and settl·
ing only a few tall wooden barrels are required.
Filtration Equipment. Finely suspended particles in the juice are re-
moved by special equipment known as 'filter press' (Fig. 34). Filter
presses are of various designs and capacities. The filtering media may
be finely woven cloth, canvas, fibre, asbestos pads, cotton or wood-plup discs,
porous porcelain-ware, etc. The frame and filter press, which is similar to
that used in sugar factories, but is made of wood. has been found highly
effective for the clarification of lime juice for preparing cordial in some
Indian factories. Seitz filters of various designs and sizes arc useful for
filtering wines, spirits, fruit juices, cordials, sugar syrups, etc.
A simple filtering mechanism. however, is a large conical bag of heavy
drill cloth or felt. similar to the ordinary jelly bag. The juice is heated
with filter aids, and placed inside the bag. Filtration is rather slow, but the
output can be increased by having a battery of such filter bags.
PR'~URE JUICE RESERVOIR
WATE~ INt..£T
BOTTLES CROWN CORKED

IMMEOIATElY AFTER ,.UING
Flc. 32. DIAGRAM 01' A LABORATORY FLAS H PAS·rF.1JTlIZER
Deaerator and Flash Pasteurizer

Freshly extracted and screened JUIces contain appreciable quantity of
oxygen which should be removed before packing. The special equipment
used for this purpose is called a deaerator. The deaerated juice is then heated
in a flash pasteurisation equipment (Figs. 32. 36 & 37).
Commercial deaerator and flash pasteurisers vary greatly in design, con-
struction and capacity. Deaeration and flash pasteurisation units have been
developed very much in the U.S.A. Special mention must be made of Stero-
Vac process developed by Ayers in 1937. This process is a combination of
de aeration and Bash pasteurisation, and has been used with success in the
case of citrus, tomato and pineapple juices. Such advanced processes and
machines are not yet in use in India. They are. however, recommended for
improving the quality of the natural juice products.
FRUIT BEVERAGES
Fruit juices are preserved in different forms such as pure juices, squashes,
cordials. fermented juices. etc. These are broadly defined as follows:
1. Unfermented Juice or Pure Fruit Juice. This is a natural juice pressed
out of a fruit. and remains practically unaltered in its composition during
its preparation and preservation.
2. Fruit Juice Beverage. This is a fruit juice which is considerably altered
in composition before consumption. It may be diluted before being served.
3. Fermented Fruit Beve.r age. This is a juice which has undergone alcoholic
fermentation by yeast. The product contains varying quantities of alcohol,
e.g., grape wines and apple ciders.
4. Fruit Juice Squash. This consists essentially of strained juice containing
moderate quantities of fruit pulp to which cane sugar is added for sweeten-
ing, e.g., orange squash, lemon squash and mango squash.
.5. Fruit Juice Cordial. This is a sparkling. clear, sweetened fruit juice from
which all the pulp and other suspended materials have been completely
eliminated. e.g., lime juice cordial.
6. Sherbet or Syrup. This is a clear sugar syrup which has been artificially
flavoured, e.g., sherbets of sandal, sangtra, almond, etc.
7. Fruit Juice Concentrate. This is a fruit juice which has been concen-
trated by the removal of water either by heat or by freezing. Carbonated
beverages and other products are made from this.
Preparation and Preservation

Fruit juices are best in taste, aroma and colour when freshly expressed.
All subsequent efforts to preserve them injure their quality to varying
degrees depending on the method of preservation employed. The most impor-
tant problem, therefore, is to use such methods as would help retain these
properties to the maximum extent.
The most important steps involved in processing juices are: (i) Selection
and preparation of fruit; (ii) extraction of juice ; (iii) deaeration; (iv) strain-
ing. filtration and clarification; and (v) preservation. The quality of the
juice will depend on the manner in which the above processes are carried out.
Selection and Preparation of Fruit. All fruits are not suitable for making
juice, either because of difficulties in cxgacting juice from them or because
they yield juice of poor quality. Even some of the juicy fruits are not
desirable as they do not yield juice of good quality. The variety of fruit.
FIC. 33. A .P.V. PULPINC MACHINE

PHESEHVATION OF FHUITS AND VEGETABLES
FIG. 34. A HilNO OI)r;n A1'ED JUle!> FIL'I't:R PRESS

its maturity, and the locality in which it is grown, have a marked effect on
its flavour, and keeping quality. The best juice is, therefore, extratced from
freshly picked, sound and suitable varieties when these are of optimum
maturity. Fully ripe, mid-season fruits, particularly citrus fruits, generally
yield juice superior to that of early or late picked fruit. Decayed or damaged
fruits do not yield good juice. Some cull fruits, i.e., under-sized. over-sized,
malformed or blemished, which are not readily saleable as fresh friut, also
can be used for the production of juices.
The fruits should be thoroughly washed with war,er, and in some cases
thoroughly scrubbed while washing to remove dust and other extraneous
matter. Residues of sprays of arsenic and lead should be removed with dilute
HCl. Five gallons of HCI in 100 gallons of water is adequate for this purpose.
All mouldy and decayed parts should be removed as in the case of fruits
prepared for canning.
Juice Extraction. The method of juice extraction will differ with the
structure and composition of the fruit. Generally juice from fresh fruits is
extracted by crushing and pressing them. While extracting juice from a fruit
in which it is enclosed in juice sacs or in cells, various other tissues in which
these sacs or cells are embedded arc also broken or crushed, resulting in the
incorporation of some undesirable constituents. The methods of extraction
employed should, therefore, aim at eliminating this contamination as far
as possible. Further, the juice during extraction should not be unduly exposed
to air as it will spoil its colour, taste and aroma and also reduce its vitamin
content. Citrus juices, tomato juice, and even the more stable juices such
as those of apples and grapes, deteriorate in quality rapidly when they are
extracted by methods which expose them to air for unnecessarily long
periods. For products like tomato juice, special extraction equipment has
been designed recently to reduce incorporation of air to the minimum. The
entire process of manufacture of tomato juice should be conducted in an
atmosphere of steam to protect the juice from oxidation by air.
Deaeration. In spite of all impro,vemenrs made so far in the extraction
equipment, fruit juices retain some air. This is due to the difficulty of
extracting juices without some aeration, as also to the presence of air in
intracellular spaces of the fruits. Most of the air is present on the surface
of the fruit particles, and some is found dissolved in the juice. In advanced
countries, the juice (particularly pure orange juice, which is extremely
susceptible to the adverse action of the residual air) is subjected, imme-
diately after extraction, to a high vacuum whereby most of the air as well
as other gases are removed. This process is called 'deaeration'. The equip·
ment employed is very expensive and is not used at present in any factory in
India.
Straining, Filtration and Oarification. Fruit juices after extraction always
contain varying amounts of suspended matter which consists of broken fruit
tissue. seed and skin. and also various gums, peptic substances and proteins
in colloidal suspension. Usually coarse particles of fruit pulp, seeds and

pieces of skin are removed by the use of screens, practically in all kinds of
juices. The presence of these generally causes deterioration in quality. In
the early years of the fruit juice industry in foreign countries, it was a
common practice to remove completely all suspended matter, including
colloidal suspensions, while packing pure fruit juices. This, no doubt,
improved the appearance, bu~ often resulted in lack of fruit character and
flavour. The present trend is to let fruit juices and their beverages be reason-
ably cloudy or pulpy in appearance. Some juices and juice beverages like
grape juice, apple juice and lime juice cordial are, however, still packed
brilliantly clear.
Coarse particles of suspensions in juices are either removed by straining
through non-corrodible metallic screens or by sedimentation. Sedimentation
is a process of storing the juices in barrels or carboys after adding preser-
vatives, to allow the coarse particles to settle down gradually. The super-
natant juice, which contains mostly fine suspended particles and colloidal
suspensions, is syphoned off for subsequent treatment. Straining machines
used in commerce differ wid1 the kind of juice. These machines are fitted
with screens having holes of varying dimensions through which the juice
is passed immediately after extracrion. Coarse particles of tissues, skins and
seeds are thrown out, and ilie juice with the desired amount of fine pulp
and juice sacs is collected.
Where clear juices are required, complete removal of all suspensions is
effected either by filtration or by clarification. This is done by employing
fining agents and enzymes. These methods of clarification which have been
used for a long time by wine makers, brewers and sugar manufacturers, are
also being used in ilie fruit juice industry now.
Filtration is necessary for removing completely all fine and colloidal
suspensions. It is a mechanical process in which the juice is forced through
a filtering medium after it has been strained and separated from coarse
particles. The filtering medium usually consists of woven fibre cloth, asbestos
pads, cotton pulp, porous porcelain, or wood pulp. The colloidal suspension
tends to clog the filters in the press. In order to minimise this, earthy filter-
aids, like diatomaceous or infusorial earth also known as Kieselguhr, Kaolin,
Spanish clay, etc., are added to ilie juice so that the filtering medium is
coated with these and filtration is facilitated. The use of these filter-aids,
however, imparts an unpleasant earthy taste to the juice. These should,
therefore, be used with caution and in small quantities only. Besides, these
should be kept in uniform suspension by constant agitation when the juice
is forced through the press. They can be ignited and re-used several times.
Joslyn and Marsh recommend boiling of filter-aid with 1.0 per cent. of citric
or tartaric acid before use as this minimises their adverse effect on the taste
and aroma of the juice. For the clarification of unfermented apple juice.
Lal Singh and Girdhari Lal recommend the use of ignited Kaolin as filter-
FRUTT JUICES, SQUASHES AND CORDIALS 99
F)( !. .IS. L'"OR ,'TOKY J.ltCE DE,I F.nATlON

UNIT
Flc. 36. L~/lOIIATo'n' FI .A .~" PASTF:URIZER

FIG. 37. Dk~AERATING AND PASTEURIZING PLANT
FIC. 38. Born.E WASHING MACHlNE

aid at the rate of 1 lb. to 100 lb. of juice. for getting a sparkling clear juice.
A variety of equipment like multiple disc filters. frame and plate filters. etc.
is available in which the different types of filter -aids mentioned above can
be used.
Use of Fining Agents. This method aims at producing a voluminous floc-
culent precipitate which gradually settles. carrying down with it finely
divided particles and colloidal suspensions that cause cloudiness or 'haze' in
clarified juices. A number of substances like gelatin. mixture of tannin and
gelatin. milk. white of egg. casein. etc .• have been used by wine maKers and
brewers for clarification. The tannin-gelatin method is most widely used
for clarifying fruit juices. Clarification of apple juice by this method has
been worked out by Carpenter and Walsh. Poore, Marshal, Cruess and
Celmer. Joslyn and Marsh, Charley. and Lal Singh and Girdhari La!.
Finings are of three kinds: (i) enzymes which destroy the colloids pre-
sent in the juice. (ii) finings which are purely mechanical in their action,
e.g., infLlsorial earths, and (iii) chemical finings which act on the gummy and
colloidal substances present in the juice to form insoluble coagulates that
settle down easily. e.g .• gelatin. albumen and casein.
Enzymes. Various kinds of enzymes, such as proteolytic, pectin-decompos-
ing, hydrolytic. starch-liquefying enzymes, etc., are sometimes used to re-
move pectin. proteins. and starch from fruit juices. In the trade, these
enzymes preparations are sold under different names such as Pectinol Fil-
tragol, Ido, Pectasine. etc. Each class of enzyme has a differen t type of action
on the colloids present in the juices. The process of clarification differs
according to the particular enzyme used.
Pectinol. The natural enzymes being not quite satisfactory, iri 1930, Kertesz
prepared an effective enzyme which he called Pectinol 'N. Later on Pectinol
'B' and 'E' were also produced. Pectinol enzymes are prepared from the
mould Penicillium glal.lcum which is found growing on grapes. Pectinol
decomposes the pectin into soluble form. thus freeing the suspended parti-
cles which settle down speedily leaving the solution clear. Pectinol is widely
used for clarification of fruit juices, and is sold in the market in different
forms in foreign countries. There are three grades, namely (i) W. Grade
for grape j!lice and wine, (ii) A. Grade for apple juice, and (iii) M. Grade
for juices of other fruits like cherries, raspberries and prunes. The effec-
tiveness of pectinol in coagulating colloidal material depends on the follow -
ing factors:
I. Quantity of pectinol used. The amount of pectinol required for
giving satisfactory results depends on the quantity of the suspended
matter present in the juice. Usually, 0.1 per cent. of pectinol is s~ffi
dent to clarify apple juice.
2. Composition of the juice. particularly its pH value. Pectinol gives
better results in add juice.
J02 PRESERVATION of fRUITS AND VEGETABLES
3. Temperature at which the juice is treated. Apple juice can be

clarified in about 20 hours at 66°F. At a lower temperature,
however, it requires a much longer time. At 100°-1 JOoF., only a
few hours are required. Charley has compared the relative
efficiency of pectinol, filtragol and malt0Jysin (a proteolytic enzyme
for clarification of unfermented apple juices). .
Filtragol. This is another pectin-decomposing enzyme which has been
developed by Messrs Bayer, Lcverkusen-Germany, for the clarification of
juices of kernel-fruit, stone-fruit and grapes.
In the usual method of clarification by filtration, involving considerable
quantities of precipitate in addition to the coarse matter from the juice, a
large part of the colour and aromatic substances similar to the colloidal
matter also get removed with the result that the juice suffers in quality in
regard to its colour, taste, and aroma. But when Filtragol is used, it trans-
forms into soluble compounds the pectin matter that holds the precipitate
in suspension so that the suspended matter settles down. The juice is thus
freed from slimy matter and is easily filtered. The colour, taste and aroma
are not affected much. It has been reported that in the case of unfer-
mented apple juice, clarification by Filtragol is far better than when other
methods are employed.
The advantages of using Filtragol are as follows:
J. To facilitate filtration, fresh juices have to be pasteurised in order
to coagulate pectin and other gummy substances in suspension.
With FiltragoJ, however, heating becomes unnecessary.
2. As Filtragol reduces the quantity of the sediment, filtration takes
less time.
3. Filtragol makes the colouring matter of the fruit go into solution
without any heating. This avoids dle usual heating process which iR
otherwise necessary to extract colour.
4. Efficiency of Filtragol is not impaired by the ,addition of sulphur
dioxide in concentrations of 30-60 p.p.m. to the juice. Thus, the
juice does not ferment while enzymes are at work.
The l]Uantity of Filtragol to be added would vary with different juices.
For dle juices of kernel and stone fruits, and for grape juice. ~- l 1:
grammes of it per litre are enough; for juices of berries like raspberries,
currants, gooseberries and blackberries, 11:-2 grammes per litre are re-
quired. When the juice is to be filtered soon after tlle addition of the
enzyme, a slightly larger quantity should be added.
It is difficult to determine the stage of complete decomposition of the
pectic substances in tlle juice, because the juice does not always become
crystal clear after the pectic substances have been decomposed. Further,
estimation of pectin as calcium pectate takes a fairly long time. The visco-
sity method, however, is quite rapid. With the progressive decomposition of
pectin in the juice, viscosity goes 011 decreasing till it reaches a minimum
indicating completion of tbe process.
After filtration, the juice should be heated to 170°F. for about 30 minutes
or flash pasteurized at 190°F. to stop further action of the cnzymes ; other-
wise, the juice may become cloudy again.
Finings Having Purely Mechanical Action

Generally, infusorial earths like Spanish clay, Kaolin, Bentonite, etc.
which arc known as Filter-cels in commerce, are also used for the clarifica-
tion of fruit juices. Work at the Central Food Technological Research Insti-
tute, M ysore, has shown that a local China clay also is suitable.
Roasted Filter-eels are called SlIper-cels. Filter eels should be immune to
the action of acids prcsent in fruit juices. They should not impart any un-
desirable flavour to the juice, and should not form any colloidal suspension.
To ensure this, the earths are heated to dull redness to burn off all the
organic matter likely to cause undesirable changes in flavour, and then
treated with 1-1.5 per cent. citric or tartaric acid to remove all those consti-
tuents which are likely to be attacked by juice acids. They arc subsequently
washed thoroughly with water to remove all soluble sallS, dried and ground
to about 80-200 mesh size.
Usually, 0.5-0.6 per cent. of the earth is mixed with the juice, and the
mixture then passed through the filter press. It has been found that in the
case of unfermented apple juice ignited Kaolin added at the rate of I lb. to
100 lb. of the juice gives a sparkling clear juice.
Absorbing Carbons. Absorbing carbons are not suitable for clarification of
fruit juices because they absorb not only the colouring matter of the juices,
but also tannins and flavouring materials, thus rendering the juice insipid.
Further, they also go into colloidal form in the juices and are, consequently,
difficult to filter.
Chemical Fining,
The bulk of suspended matter, particularly in apple juice, consists of pro-
teins and pectin-like substances. The colloidal substances carryon them
electrical charge, generally negative, and are precipitated when the charge
is reduced to zero by the addition of positively charged colloids. Gelatin
and casein act partly in this manner and partly by forming insoluble preci-
pitates with the constituents of the juice. For instance, casein combines with
the acids and gelatin with tannins. On settling: these carry down with them
other suspended particles also.
Gelatin. It is an ~xccllent fining material and is widely used for clarifica-
tion of juices. The chemicall'eaction involved should be adjusted accurately
for each juice and each type of gelatin used. This requires considerable time
and experience. Further, ther is also the danger of the juice becoming
104 PREstRVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGEtABLtS
cloudy on account of excessive quantities of gelatin, because it forms a stable

colloidal suspension.
The quantity of gelatin to be added to the juice is always determined by
carrying out a series of small scale laboratory tests. Sufficient tannin is added
to the juice to minimise the bleaching action of gelatin.
In the case of juice from Baldwin and Yellow Newtown Pippin, it has
been found that addition of 1.25 ounces of tannin and 2.5 ounces of gelatin
per 100 gallons of juice gives maximum clarity. About 0.5-1.5 ounces of
tannin and 1.5-6.0 ounces of gelatin are generally required per every 100
gallons of the juice, depending on the condition of the juice. The juice is
well stirred to make it homogeneous, and then the tannin solution is added.
The treated juice is allowed to stand undisturbed for 18-24 hours to let the
precipitated matter clot together and settle down. The clarified juice is then
syphoned off, care being taken not to disturb the sediment. In the case of
lime juice, it has been found that a dose of 7.5 ounces of tannin and 10
ounces of gelatin per 550 gallons of juice, preserved by the addition of about
350 p.p.m. of sulphur dioxide immediately after extraction, gives a brilliantly
clear juice. The precipitate formed settles down completely in 4-6 days, and
the clear supernatant juice can be syphoned off and used for the preparation
of lime juice cordial.
Albumen. The white of egg contains albumen which can be liberated
by heating it in a small quantity of water. It is sometimes used for clarlfying
fruit juices. Albumen is also available in the market in solid form which
can be dissolved in water by soaking and agitation. Care should, however,
be taken not: to use very warm water as, otherwise, the albumen will coagu -
late. The albumen solution is mixed well with the juice, and the mixture
heated to a temperature o{ about 10°F. higher than the pasteurization tem -
perature to ensure complete coagulation of the albumen. If this care is not
taken, there would be risk of further coagulation of albumen during the
process of pasteurization, which would spoil the appearance of the juice.
Usually, 2.0 per cent. solution of albumen gives good results, but it is advis-
able to find out by preliminary tests the exact quantity of the albumen
solution required for any particular juice.
Casein. It is prepared from skimmed milk by precipitating it with hydro-
chloric acid. The precipitated casein is thoroughly washed with water to
remove all traces of acid, and then dried and powdered. It is dissolved in
liquor ammonia, diluted with 10-20 parts of water, and then boiled to remove
all traces of excessive ammonia. Finally it is diluted with water to get a
2.0 per cent. solution. This dilute solution is mixed well with the juice which
is to be clarifi.ed. In about 24 hours the acids in the juice precipitate the
casein, which settles down along with the other colloidal particles. It is, how-
ever, advisable to find out by small scale trials the exact quantity of the
solution of casein required for any particul¥ lot of juice.
FRUIT JUICES, SQUASHES AND CORDIALS lOS
Clarification by Freezing
Colloidal suspensions, when subjected to freezing, are readily precipitated
on thawing. Apple juice, particularly, responds very well to this treatment.
Freshly extracted grape juice, besides containing the usual suspension of
pulp, skin, etc., also carries varying quantities of cream of tartar or potas-
sium hydrogen tartrate. When the juice is bottled in the usual manner, the
cream of tartar goes on precipitating gradually in the form of fine crystals.
The presence of these crystals in the juice is rather objectionable. In order
to stop this slow precipitation, the bulk of the juice is subjected to refrigera-
tion for several months to complete the precipitation. The clear juice is then
bottled. Grape wines also behave like grape juice and are, therefore, treated
similarly.
Clarification by Heating
It is a well-known fact that colloidal material in fruit juices usually coagu-
lates when heated and settles down readily. To get good results, the juice
is heated ro about lSO·F. for one minute or less, and then cooled down
immediately. The heating is done in flash -heaters to avoid oxidation by
air and ro minimise the loss of volatile flavouring materials. After flash-
heating and cooling, the juice is mixed with the filtering material and
passed through the filter press. One great advantage of this method is that
it also removes those substances from the juice which would otherwise be
precipitated during pasteurization of the juice. Clarification of pomegranate
juice is a typical example of this process.
PRESERVATION OF FRUIT JUICES
FreShly extracted juices are very attractive and have good taste and aroma,
but they deteriorate rapidly if kept for sometime. This is due to several
causes which are given below:
I. Fermentation may be caused by mould, yeast and bacteria.
2. Enzymes presellt in the juice may spoil its colour and flavour. For
exam_ple, apple juice turns brown due to the activity of oxidative
enzymes present in it.
3. Chemicals present in the juice may react with one another and spoil
the taste and aroma.
4. Air on coming in contact with the juice may react with the glucosidal
material in it and render the juice bitter. Thus the juices from Nave1
orange and sweet lime often turn bitter when they are exposed .to
air even for a short time.
5. Metals may enter into the juice from the equipment and spoil its taste
and aroma.
To retain the natural taste and aroma of a juice, it is necessary to preserve

it immediately after extraction. Various methods of preservation are
employed, and each has its own merits. The methods generally used are:
(i) Pasteurization; (ii) addition of chemicals; (iii) addition of sugar; (iv) freez-
ing; (v) drying; and (vi) filtration. Other methods such as preservation by
pressure, by gases, by electric current, etc., are not generally used at present.
Pasteurization
Preservation of fruit juices by heat is the most popular method. The pro-
cess of heating the juice to 21rF. or below for a sufficient time to kill micro-
organisms which cause. spoilage is called pasteurization. The juice is herme-
ticalled sealed in containers before being pasteurized. It would not spoil as
long as the containers remain scaled against outside micro-organisms. Pasteu-
rization temperatures do not kill all micro-organisms presen t in the jllice.
Some spore and spore-bearing bacteria like B. su btilis and B. mesenlericus
can survive the process and multiply later on. These survivals are, how-
ever, generally tOO weak to cause any spoilage. Further, these organisms are
highly sensitive to acids and cannot grow in acid fruit and acid vegetable
juices.
Mould spores are destroyed by heating at 17S0F. for S-IO minutes. Moulds
require oxygen for their growth. Removal of air from Q1e juice by filling
the containers completely or by deaerating the juice under vacuum, or by
replacing the air by carbon dioxide, therefore, facilitates their destruction
even at lower temperatures. Yeast and acid-tolerant bacteria are readily
killed if the juice is heated at about ISO °F. for some minutes, but the spore-
forming bacteria found in tomato juice require processing for several
minutes at a higher temperature, i.e., at 190°F. Enzymes also require air
for their action, and if air is removed from the juice they can be destroyed
at a moderate temperature. Pectic enzymes, which cause changes in flavour
and also bring about the clotting of particles in the juice. can be destroyed
by heating the juice for about 4 minutes at lSsoF. or for I minute at l~O°F.
Fruit juices are pasteurized at such temperature~ and for such periods
as would l"ender them sterile without impairing their flavour. Usually, the
juices are pasteurized at about ISs oF . for 2S-30 minutes according to the
nature of the juice and the size of the container. Acid fruit juices require
lower temperature and less time for pasteurization than the less acid ones.
To get good results, it is essential to keep all equipment perfectly clean and
to carry out the worK under hygienic conditions.
Pasteurization of juices can be done in two ways: (i) heating the juice
at a low temperature for a long period, and (ii) heating the juice at a high
temperature for a short time only.
This method is commonly

In-the-Bottle 'Method or 'Holding' PasteuriiEation.
used for the preservation of fruit juices at home. The juice, after extraction,
is strained. filtered or clarified as the case may be. and filled into bottles
leaving proper head for the expansion of the juice during heating. The
bottles are then sealed air-tight and pasteurized.
Pasteurization by Over-flow Method. In this medIod, the juice is heated to
a temperature about 5 degrees higher than the pasteurization temperature,
and filled into hot sterilized bottles up to the brim. taking care that during
filling and sealing the temperature does not fall below the pasteurization
temperature. Only hot botrles should be used for fillin g to safeguard against
fall of temperature of the juice and breakage of botdes. The sealed bottles
are pasteurized at a temperature about 5 degrees lower than the filling :.1n(1
scaling temperature. After pasteurization. these are cooled. On cooling. the
juice contracts leaving a small headspace which does not contain any air.
This method is highly suited for grape juice because it minimises the adverse
effect of air on the quality of the juice.
Flash Pasteurization. This is a process of heating fruit juices for only a
short time at a temperature higher than the pasteurization temperature of
the juice. In this method, the juice is heated rapidly for about a minute to
a temperature abollt 10 degrees higher than the pasteurization temperature
and filled into containers which arc sealed air-tight under cover of steam
to sterilize the seal and dlen cooled. It has especially been developed for
the canning of natural orange juice willcfl with ordinary pasteurization
methods suffers in quality. It can also be adopted for pasteurization of other
juices. like apple juice. grape juice, etc.
Different fruit juices require different amounts of heating. In order to get
the desired effect. the flow of the juice through the pasteurizer is regulated ~o
that" it will be heated to the desired temperature and for the given time
before passing out of the pasteurizer. The rate of heat transfer in these
pasteurizers depends on the following factors which mu ~r be controlled care-
fully to get a product of good quality:
I . Viscosity and agitation of the juice.
2. Material and thickness of the juice.
3. Circulation of steam and removal of condensate.
4. Specific heat of juice and steam.
5. Temperature differences-initial, final and average.
Flash pasteurization has the following advantages:
I. It minimises losses in flavour.
2. It aids in the retention of vitamins.
3. It effects economy in time and space.
4. It helps to keep the juices uniformly cloudy.
5. It heats the juice uniformly reducing the cooked taste to a minimum.
Preservation with Chemicals

Past urized squashes and cordials have a cooked flavour and spoil within
a short period after they are opened, particularly in tropical climate. To

avoid this, it is desirable to use chemical preservatives. Chemically pre-
served squashes can be kept for a fairly long time even after opening the
seal. It is, however, important that the use of chemicals should be properly
controlled, since their indiscriminate use is likely to lead to harmful results.
The preservative used should not be injurious to health and should be
non-irritant. It should also be easy to detect and estimate.
According to the British Food and Drug Act of 1928 a 'Preservative' is
any substance which is capable of inhibiting, retarding, or arresting the
process of fermentation. acidification or other decomposition of food or of
masking any of the evidences of any such process or of neutralizing the acid
generated by any such process; but does not include common salt (sodium
chloride), saltpeter (sodium or potassium nitrate), sugar. acetic acid, or vine-
gar, alcohol or potable spirits, spices, essential oil or any other substance
added to the food by the process of curing known as smoking.
The two important preservatives permitted in different parts of the world
arc (i) Benzoic acid (including benzoatcs), and (ii) sulphur dioxide (including
sulphites). These are allowed in India also according to the Fruit Products
Order of 1955.
Sodium Benzoate. It is a salt of Benzoic acid and is used in the preser-
vation of fruit juices and squashes. Benzoic acid is the effective agent; but
since it is sparingly soluble in water. its sodium salt, which is water-soluble,
is used. One part of sodium bcnzoate is soluble in 1.8 parts of water at
ordinary temperature. while only 0.34 parts of benzoic acid will dissolve in
100 parts of water. Sodium benzoate is, therefore. 180 times more soluble
than benzoic acid. Chemically pure sodium benzoate is practically taste-
less and odourless.
The quantity of sodium benzoate required would depend on the extent
and type of infection to be overcome and the nature of the juice. particularly
its acidity. It has been found that in the case of juices ha,,;ng pH 3.5-4.0.
which is the range of most fruit juices, 0.06-0.10 per cent. sodium benzoate
is sufficient, but in less acid juices, such as those from ripe grapes, at least
0.3 per cent. is necessary. The acidity of the medium in which sodium ben-
zoate is effective is very important.
The preservative action of benzoic acid increases in the presence of
carbon dioxide. A typical example is that of bacillus subtilis which cannot
survive in benzoic acid solution in the presence of carbon dioxide. Benzoic
acid is more effective against yeasts than against moulds. It does not stop
lactic acid and vinegar fermentations.
Introduction of substituted groups in the ortho, meta and para-positions
of the benzoic acid molecule increases its germicidal properties, that is to
say, as the side chain increases, the effectiveness of the compound also
increases. In Germany, esters of para-hydroxy benzoic acid like methyl, ethyl
and propyl esters. are generally used. They are, however, not used in India.
Sulphur Dioxide. Potassium meta-bisulphite (K20. 2S0 2 or K 2S2 0 S) is

used as a source of sulphur dioxide. The dry chemical is easier to use than
liquid or gaseous sulphur dioxide. Potassium meta-bisulphite is a crystalline
salt and is fairly stable in neutral or alkaline media. It is. however. decom-
posed by weak acids like carbonic. citric. tartaric and malic acids. When
it is added to the fruit juice or squash. the potassium radicle reacts with the
acid of the juice forming the corresponding potassium salt. and the sulphur
dioxide. which is liberated. forms sulphurous acid with the water of the
juice. The reactions are as follows:
CHI·COOH CH •. COOK
:
(i) 3K,O, 2 SO, + 2C(0H).COOH =< 2C(OH).COOK +6S0, +3H,O
: :
CH•. COOH CH,.COOK
Potassium meta· Citric acid Potassium Sulphur Water
bisulphite Citrate dioxide
(ii) SO, + H,o H ,SO,
Sulphur Water Sulphurous
dioxide acid
The preservative effect of sulphurous acid depends not on its total quan·
tity but on the available amount of sulphur dioxide. According to Cruess.
combined sulphurous acid has very little antiseptic value against micro-
organisms. 6,000 p.p.m. of the combined form having less toxic action on
yeast than 50 p.p.m. of free sulphurous acid. It has been shown that it is the
undissociared H 2S03 molecule which prevents the multiplication of yeast.
and th e HSO" ion which inhibits the growth of bacteria E. Coli in concen·
tration of 10 mg. per 100 mI. The growth of yeast is not inhibited by HS0 2
ion. The difference in the efficiency of the undissociated molecule and the
ion of the same acid is explained as being due to the difficulty for the ions
to permeate living cell membranes.
Pure sucrose does not combine with H 2 S0 3 , but many other substances
like glucose, unidentified acetaldehydes or ketones. pectin. perhaps also
break-down products of pectin. like arabinose. etc.• which are found in fruit
juices, have the property of combining with sulphur dioxide with the result
that the effectiveness of sulphur dioxide is reduced. This is especially impor-
tant in the case of syrups and concentrated juices where the sugar content
is high. It has been shown that such a reaction is reversible and reaches
Sugar (or aldehyde) + bisulphite =

equilibrium according to the following equation:
Sugar (or aldehyde) sulphite
Although sulphur dioxide can retard the development of yeast in the
juices, it cannot arrest their multiplication. once their number has reached
a high value. It is, therefore, necessary to carry out a yeast count before
adding sulphur dioxide to the juice.
According to the Indian Fruit Products Order, the maximum amount of

sulphur dioxide allowed in squashes and cordials, is 350 p.p.m. This corres·
ponds to about one ounce of potassium metabisulphite per 100 lb. of the
squash or cordial.
For preserving raw citrus juices which are to be stored for some months
for the manufacture of squashes in the off-season, generally 700 p.p.m. of
sulphur dioxide is used. In the final squash containing abollt 25-30% of
juice, this concentration will be considerably reduced.
It is well·known that juices with a high percentage of acidity do not fer.
ment readily. The preservative action of the acid may be due to the hydro-
gen ion concentration or to the roxicity, of the undissociated molecule or the
anion. The toxic effect of a mineral acid is due to its hydrogen ion concentra·
tion, bllt the toxicity of an organic acid is mainly due to the un dissociated
molecule or the anion. Moulds grow in the pH range of 1.5-8.5; yeasts in
the pH range of 2.5-8.0, and bacteria in the range of pH 4.0-7.5. As fruit
beverages like citrus squashes and cordials have generally a pH value of
2.5-3.5, the growth of moulds and yeast in them cannot be prevented or
checked by acidity alone. Bacteria, however, cannot grow in this pH range.
The pH value is thus of great importance in the preservation of food
products. By regulating the pH of the product, one or more kinds of micro-
organisms in the beverage can be eliminated, and the preserving quality of
the beverage increased. Cruess found thar the preservative action of sulphur
dioxide increases with decrease in the natural pH of the fruit juice. It has
also been noticed that the real antiseptic power of sulphur dioxide in musts
and wines is proportional to their acidity. Ralln and Conn have shown
that the uodissociated sulphurous acid is nearly one hundred times more
efficient as a preservative in strongly acid solutions than in neutral solutions.
The marked influence of the pH of the medium on the effectiveneRR of the
preservative can be seen from the following Table:
TABU: 13. CON CENTR ATION OF SULPIIUR DIOXlDF. (IN PARTS PER ~m.L10N) RF.QtJIRED TO
PREVENT GnoWTH OF OnC,\NISM AT DIFFEIlENT fill LIWEI.S
(After Salton, Annear ami Ohye, 1946)
Saccharomyces Mucor Penicillium Mixed

ellipsoideu8 Mould Mould Bacteria
J!e p.p.m. of p.p.m. p.p.m. of p.p.m.
SO. of SO, SO, of SO,
2.5 200 200 300 100

3.5 800 600 600 300
7.0 above above above above
5,000 5,000 5,000 1,000
The toxicity of sulphur dioxide is mar~edly increased at higher tempera-

tures.
FRUIT JUICES, SQUASHES AND CORDIALS III
One great advantage of preserving fruit juices and squashes with sulphur
dioxide is that irs strong effect in retarding oxidation prevents discolouration
and loss of flavour in the product. It cannot, however, be used in the case
of naturally coloured juices, like phalsa, jamun, and pomegranate juices,
strawberry pulp, etc., on account of its bleaching action. It cannot also be
used in the case of those juices which are to be stored in tin containers,
because not only does it act upon the tin of the can causing pinholes, but
also forms hydrogen sulphide which has a disagreeable smell and form s a
black compound with tinplate. Both are highly objectionable defects.
The following are some of the important considerations to be kept in
view while using chemical preservatives:
J. As natural juices contain only small quantities of substances that
combine with sulphurous acid, they can be preserved with normal
doses of sulphur dioxide, i.e. aboUt 350 p.p.m.
2. In the case of fruit juices of low acidity, extra acid should be :ldded to
lower their pH value and thereby increase th preserv:l tin' action
of sulphill' dioxide.
3. In concentrated juices the sulphurou s acid-fixing substances arc high,
and higher percentages of su lphur dioxide arc. therefore, required
for their preservation. Downer suggests that in the case of concen-
trated juices the total sulphurous acid to be used should be equivalent
to that needed for a normal juice multiplied by the degree of con·
centration of rhe juice. Commercially concentrated juices arc, how·
ever, generall y preserved with about I,SOO p.p.m. of sulphur dioxide.
4. Since sulphur dioxide has got selective action and is more toxic to
moulds, mould spores and vineg:lr bacteria, than to yeast, its li se in
conjunction with sodium benzoate, which is more toxic to yeast than
to vinegar bacteria, is desirable. The lise of these preservatives in
combination has been advocated by Joslyn and Marsh, particularly
because the use of sodium benzoate alone results in the darkening
of the product. For effective preservation, the amount of these pre-
servatives to be used singly or in combination depends on the
character of the juice, particularly its acidity and sugar content.
Fer instance, according to Lal Singh and Girdhari Lal the maximum
permitted concentration of 350 p.p..m. of sulphur dioxide can be
diminished to 100-200 p.p.m. in citrus squashes having an acidity of
2.0-2.5 per cent. as citric acid and sugar content ranging from 45·
to 65° Brix.
5. Sulphur dioxide imparts a slight taste and odour to a freshly pre-
pared beverage, but these are not discernible when the beverage is
diluted for drinking. Further, these adverse effects on taste and odour
disappear during subsequent storage of the product. This is parti-
cularly true of citrus fruit squashes.
In spite of its shortcomings, the use of sulphur dioxide for preservation

of juices and squashes is preferred for the following reasons:
I. It has a better preserving action against bacterial fermentation than
sodium benzoate.
2. It helps to retain the colour of the beverage for a longer time than
Sodium benzoate.
3. Being a gas, it helps in preserving the surface layers of the juice also.
4. Being highly soluble in juices and squashes, it cnsures better mixing
and hence preservation.
5. Any excess of sulphur dioxide present in the juice can be removed
either by heating the juice to about 160°F. on passing air through
it, or by subjecting the juice to vacuum. This causes some loss of the
flavouring materials due to volatilization, but can be compensatcd
for by adding flavours.
The chemical preservatives should never be added in the solid form to
fruit juices and squashes. They should be dissolved in a small amount of
juice or water and the solution then added to the bulk of juice. If this care
is not taken, the solid preservative may settle at the bottom of the container
with the result that fermentaioll may start before the preservative dissolves.
PRESERVATION BY ADDITION OF SUGAR
Fruit juices containing 66.0 per ccnt. or more of sugar do not ordinarily
ferment. Sugar absorbs water with the result that the latter is not available
for tllC growth of micro-organisms. Thus, dry sugar does not ferment, and
it is very difficult to induce fermentation in very highly concentrated sugar
solutions. Sugar syrups containing 66.0 per cent. (Sp. Gr. 1.330) have so little
moisture available for micro-organisms that their propagation is inhibited,
and also those already present die gradually. Thus sugar acts as a preser-
vative by osmosis and not as a true poison for micro-organisms.
PRESERVATION BY FREEZING
According to Joslyn and Marsh, the best way of preserving pure juices
is by 'freezing'. The properly frozen juice retains its freshness, colour and
aroma for a long time. This method is particularly useful in the case of
juices whose flavours are injured by heating. The juice is first de-aerated
and the vacuum released with nitrogen gas. The juice is then transferred
into containers which are hermetically sealed and frozen. This prevents not
only the volatilizati.on of aromatic elements of the juice but also absorption
of any disagreeable odours and flavours. Cruess, Overholser and Bjarndson
were able to store apple and berry juices in sealed containers for two years
at a temperature of IO-lS·F. without any noticeable loss of flavour. aroma
FRuIT JU!CES, SQUA 'HES ANt) CORDIALS 113
and colour. The dehydration and concentration processes, which mechani-

cally separate water as ice at low temperatures, destroy a fair percentage of
micro-organisms in the juice though moulds are not affected sometimes.
In filling cans or bottles, an allowance of 10 per cent. should be made for
the expansion of the juice on freezing. A juice can be kept in good condi-
tion for a long time at I_10°F. in frozen form by avoiding contact with air.
The juice is defrosted before consumption.
PRESERVATION BY DRYING
This is analogous to concentration. It is done in the same way as milk

drying. The juice is sprayed in the form of a very fme mist into an evaporat-
ing chamber. Hot air is next passed through the chamber. The tempera-
ture of the chamber and the blast of the air are so regulated that only dry
juice falls on the floor. The juice powder is then collected and packed in dry
and closely stoppered containers. The juice powder, when dissolved in water,
makes a nice drink almost similar to the original juice. But fruit juice
powders are highly hygroscopic, and require special care in packing. All
juices, however, do not dry readily without special treatment. Siddappa and
Girdhari Lal have recently developed a process for the preparation of fruit
juice powders.
PRESERVATION BY CARBONATION
Carbonation
Moulds and yeasts require oxygen for their growth. As they arc acrobc~.
they become inactive in the presence of carbon dioxide. If the yeast cells
are filtered off, as in Ruef's process, by passing the juice through a porcelain
filter, and then carbonation is done under aseptic conditions, the juice will
not ferment. In the ordinary carbonated drinks, the oxygen of the air, which
is normally present in solution in water and is sufficient to bring about
fermentation, is displaced by carbon dioxide. Although carbonated beverages
contain sligar far below 66.0 per cent., the absence oC air and the presence
of carbon dioxide in them prevent the growth of mould and yeast.
High carbonation should, however, be avoided as it usually destroys the
delicate flavours of the juice. The keeping quality of carbonated bottled fruit
beverages is enhanced by adding about 0.05 per cent. of sodium benzoate.
PRBSERVATION BY FILTRATION
Germ-proof Filtration or Sterilization of Cold Juices. In this method, th JUiCe,

clarified by 'settling' or by using ordinary filters, is passed through special
filters which are capable of retaining yeast and bacteria. Various types of
Seitz E.K. 'germ-proof' filters are used for this purp'0se. Recently, this method
has come into use in the U.S.A., South Africa and Germany for preserving
NU;SERVATloN OF FRUITS AND VECeTABLES
apple and grape juices. It requires elaborate precautions to ensure complete

sterility in the bottled product. Equipment for such an elaborate process is
yet lacking in this country.
01liER METHODS OF PRESERVATION
In recent years, new methods of sterilization, such as 'use of electric

current, ultra-violet rays, Oligodynamic properties of silver, etc., have been
used. Various patents have been taken out for these, e.g., the Schoop,
Kaladyn and Matzka processes. The Schoop process is based on the catalytic
activity of a certain plant substance in the presence of sodium chloride. The
Oligodynamic properties of silver are made usc of in the Katadyn and
Matzka processes. These processes are, however, not in use in this country,
110r arc they used to any large extent in other foreign countries.
Glass-lined equipment or equipment made of metals like stainless stee~
monel metal, nickel, aluminium or bronze should be used, because such
equipment is not readily acted upon by the fruit and vegetable juices. A
unit of machinery made of different metals shoul~ also be avoided because
dissimilar metals in the system or unit will lead to the setting up of small
electrical couples, and corrosion will result. Use of rubber in the equipment
should also be avoided as far as possible.
CHAPTER IX
FRUIT BEVERAGES
Fruits most commonly used for preparing beverages are sweet orange,
mandarin (sangtra), sour lime (Kagzi nimboo or limboo), lemon, grapefruit,
grape, apple, mango, pomegranate, phalsa (Grewia asiatica), famt/It (Eugenia
jambolana). mulberry. passion fruit etc. Tomato juice has also become
quite popular. Among the squashes. sweetened orange juice, popularly
known as orange squash is the most popular.
SQUASHES AND CORDIALS
Fruit juices in this country are most commonly packed as sq uashes or

cordials. Methods of preparing some of the more important of these are
given below.
Orange Squash
Extraction of Juice. Orange squash can be prepared from tiglll-skinned
oranges such as Malta, Sathgudi, and Musambi as well as from loose-skinned
oranges like Nagpur and Coorg varieties. Tight-skinned oranges are
cut into halves either by hand or with a halving machine. The halves
arc pressed by hand against a revolving burr or rose fitted to a rosing
machine. These machines are of various sizes and capacities. The reamed
juice is collected in a vessel. It contains plenty of coarse tissues. seeds,
etc. To remove these, it is filtered through a net cloth or passed
through a sieving machine, known as pulper, in which the jllice gets
brushed through a stationary cylindrical sieve by revolving stainless
steel, wooden, or brush paddles. The sieved juice is utilized for
making squash.
Loose-skinned oranges are peelcd, and the rag sticking to the segments is
removed as it creates some bitterness in the juice if allowed to remain.
According to Siddappa, lye dipping of the segments removes bitterness from
the juice. The segments are passed through a screw-type juice extractor.
Alternatively the segments may be crushed in a tomato crusher and then
passed through a pulper.
Preparation of Squash. Sugar, citric acid, flavouring materials, colour and
preservative are added to the juice. The method of preparation has .been
standardised by LaI Singh, Girdhari Lal, and other workers, who have given
simple recipes for small-scale production.
liS
116 PRESERVATIoN OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
RECIPE
25% juice, 33*% juice, 25% juice, 331% juice,

Ingredients 45· Brlle, 45· Brlle, 65· Brlle, 65 ° Brix,
1.5% acidity t.S % acidity 2.0% acidity 2.0% acidity
-----
Ib. Ol . lb. oz.. lb. oz.. lb. oz.
Orange JUice 10·
Brix, 0.8% aci -
dity 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 0
Sugar 164 9 121 2 242 9 179 10
Citric acid 5 3 3 11 7 3 5 3
Essence of orange 2 8 I 14 3 5 2 9
Water 127 8 73 2 46 II 12 7
Orange colour q.s. q.s. q.s. q .s.

Preservative
(potassium
metabisulphite) 0 4 0 3 0 4 0 3
~---- ----
Sugar, CltrlC acid and water are mixed together, heated (if necessary),
cooled, and filtered through cloth. The clean syrup is mixed with the juice.
To improve flavour, pecl emulsion of 2 to 4 oranges for every 100 oranges
used, or an appropriate quantity of an essential oil or orange essence is
added. Its colour can be improved by adding an edible colour like Sunset
yellow, Edicol orange A.G., etc. This must be resistant to the action of sulphur
dioxide. After mixing all the ingredients, a chemical preservative like potas-
sium metabisulphite dissolved previously in a small quantity of juice or
water is added at the rate of about an ounce for every 100 lb. of
squash. This corresponds to approximately 350 p.p.m. of S02 in the
squash, which is permitted by law. By careful attention to hygienic condi-
tions the concentration of S02 can be reduced to about 250 p.p.m. This
will help in minimising the taste of S02 in the beverage. The squash is
then filled into washed (Fig. 38) and sterilized bottles, leaving about one inch
head space. The bottles are closed with crown or ordinary corks, capsuled,
and labelled (Figs. 39, 41, 42, 43, 44). They are then stored in a cool
and dry place. The squash keeps well for 1 to 1~ years without much change
in colour or taste.
Grapefruit Squash
The method of preparing juice for grapefruit squash is the same as that
employed in the case of orange squash.
FRUIT llEVERAGES 117
FJ . 39. VACl1\ lM Ol'ERATED

1l0TTLE FILLING MACIIINE
Flc. 40. SYRUP MIXINC TANK

11 8 PRESERVATIO OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
FIC , 41 . Ro'ITl;r. FILLING l\IA CIlINE (Syphon pip fiBer)
Flc. 42. AN A TOMAnc FlLLElt (A co FILLER)

FRUIT BEVERAGES 119
FTC. 43. CROWN CORIONG MACHINE
Flc. 44. BOTTLE CORKINC MACHINE

120 PRE ERVATJON OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Flc . 45. A.P.V. LAUORATORY TWO- STAGE FR UIT J I E CONCENTRATION UNIT

FRUIT BEVERAGES 121
RECIPE
25% juice, 33,% juice, 25% juice, 33}% juice,

Ingredients 45° Brix, 45' Brix, 65' Brix, 65° Brix,
1.5 % acidity 1.5% acidity 2.0% acidity 2.0% acidity
lb. oz. lb. oz. lb. oz. lb. oz.

Grapefruit Juice
10 · Brix, 1.25%
acidity 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 0
Sugar 165 0 121 9 243 0 180
Citric acid 4 12 3 4 6 12 4 12
Water 127 8 73 2 46 II 12 7
Essence of grape-
fruit 2 8 14 3 5 2 9
Preservative
(Potassium
metabisulphite) 0 4 0 3 0 4 0 .1
Lemon Squash
European lemon, Eureka lemon, and Galgal (Citrus limonia) are generally
used. True lemons are not, howe\'er, available in large quantities in India.
Lemon squash requires addition of flavour to improve its taste. The me-
thod of preparing juice for the squash is practically the same as that employ-
ed in the manufacture of orange squash.
RECIPE
25% juice, 3:1!% juice, 25 % juice, 33, % juice,

lngredients 45° Brix, 45° Brix, 65° Brix, 65° Brix,
1.5% acidity 1.66 % acidity 2.0% acidity 1.66 % acidity
lb. oz. lb. oz. lb. oz. lb. Oz.

Juice 10° Brix,
5% acidity 100 iJ 100 0 100 0 100 0
Sugar 168 12 124 13 246 12 184 13
Citric acid 0 3 0
Water 127 8 73 2 47 B 13 2
Essence of Lemon 2 8 I 14 2 8 I 14
Preservative
(Potassium
---------
Lime Squash
Kagzi nimboo is widely used for making lime squash. It is available in
plenty in India.
The fruit is cut into halves with a knife, and its juice pressed out in a
8
12~ PRESERVA1'lON oj? rRUI1's ANt) vECE1'ABLES
basket press, or by means of small wooden squeezers or by using stone-

roller type presses. The juice is filtered through cloth to remove seeds.
RECIPE
2S% juice, 331% juice, 2S% juice, 331% juice,

Ingredients 45° Brix, 45· Brix, 6So Brix, 65° Brix,
I.S% acidity 2.0% acidity I.S% acidity 2.0% acidity
Lime JUice 10·
Brix, 6.0% acidity 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 0
Sugar 169 12 124 13 249 12 184 13
Water 130 0 7S 0 50 0 IS 0
Prcserva ti ve
(Potassium
Sugar is made into syrup and added to the juice. The preserved juice is
bottled as usual.
Lime Juice Cordial
Lime juice is stored in large glass carboys or in upright wooden barrels
lined with micro-crystalline wax, after adding 2 ounces of potassium meta-
bisulphite per every 100 lb. of it. The sediment settles down after 2 to 3
months, leaving the juice clear at the top. It is then syphoned 0[. This
method is rather slow. Clarification can also be achieved quickly by adding
gelatin and tannin in proper proportions based on preliminary trials. Sugar,
water, colour (if necessary) and preservative are added to the dear juice, and
the mixture is then filtered using a filter press. Filter aids are added in this
process to facilitate the operation. The clear cordial is bottled as usual.
RECIPE
2S% juice, 33-1/3% juice, 2S% juice, 33-1/3% juice,

Ingredients 3S· Brix, 3S· Bnx, 50· Brix. 50 · Bmc.,
I.S% acidity 2.0% acidity 1.5% acidity 2.0 % acidity
Clarified Lime
juice JO · Brix, 6%
acidity 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 0
Sugar 129 12 94 13 189 12 139 13
Water 170 0 lOS 0 110 0 60 0
Colour q.6. q .s. q .8. q.s.
Preservative,
(Potassium 0 4 0 3 0 4 0 3
metabisulphite)
Sugar is added in syrup form. The quantity of preservative added to the

original juice is taken into account while adding the preservative to the
cordial. Colour should be mixed in very small quantities.
FRUIT BEVERAGES 123
Citrus-Fruit Barley Waters

The juice from citrus fruits is extracted and filtered. A small quantity of
barley flour (according to the recipe) is made into a paste with a little water.
More water is then added to thin the paste. It is then heated to gelatinise
the starch, cooled, filtered and made up to volume.
RECIPES
I-Grapefruit Barley Water
25% juice, 33· 1/3% juice,

Ingredients 45 ' llrix, 45' Brix,
1.5 % acidity 1.5% acidit y
lb. oz. lb. oz.

Grapefruit juice 10 ' Brix, 1.25% acidity 100 0 100 0
Sugar 165 0 121 9
Citric acid 4 12 3 4
Essence of grapefruit 2 8 14
Barley Water 127 8 73 2
of 21 oz. barle y of 16 oz. barley
flour flour
Preservative 0 4 0 3
(Potass ium metabisulphite)
2-Lemon Barley Water
25 % juice, 33-1/3 % juice,

Ingredients 45 ' Erix, 45' Bri x,
1.5% acidity 1.66% acidity
---------- - - - - - -
lb. oz. lb. oz.
Juice 10 ' Brix, 5 % acidity 100 0 100 0
Sugar 168 12 124 13
Citric acid I 0
Barley water 127 8 73 2
of 21 oz. barley of 16 oz. barley
flour flour
Essence of Lemon 2 8 4
Prescrvati ve o 4 o 3
(Potassium metabisuIpbite)
124 PRESERVAT10N Or FRUITS AND VECETABLES
3-Lime Barley Water
25% ~uice, 33-1/3 % juice,

Ingredien ts 45 ' rix, 45 ' Bnx,
1.5% acidity 2.0 % acidity
lb. oz. lb. oz.

Lime juice 10' Brix, 6% acidity 100 0 100 0
Sugar 169 12 124 13
of 21 oz. barley of 16 oz. bar ley
flour flour
(Potassium metabisulphite)
+-Orange Barley Water
------------------------------.-------------------
25 % juice,
------
33· 1/ 3 % juice.
Ingredien ts 45 ' Brix, 45' Bnx,
1.5 % acidity 1.5% acidity
lb. oz. lb. oz.

Orange juice 10' Brix, 0.8% acidity 100 0 100 0
Sugar 164 9 121 2
Citric acid 5 3 3 II
Essence of orange 2 8 1 14
of 21 oz. barley of 16 oz. barley
flour flour
Orange colour q.s. q.s.
Preservative o 4 o 3
Jack Fruit Nectar

The bulbs are removed from ripe jack fruit and passed through a minc·
ing machine. They are then mixed with about 10 per cent. water and passed
through a pulper using a fine sieve of I mm. hole. The pulp is used for
preparing the nectar.
FRUIT BEVERAGES 125
RECIPE
17% pulp, 20 % Kulp,

Ingredients 50% Brix, 50 ' rix,
1.2 % acidity 1.2% acidity
lb. oz. lb. oz.

P~I~ of jack fruit bulbs 20· Brix, 0.3%
aCIdity 102 0 100 0
Sugar 272 .) 224 0
Citric acid 6 14 .) II
Water 21B 6 170 0
----
More than 20 per cent. of the pulp should not be added to the nectar
because with higher concentrations, the nectar becomes very viscous.
Jamun Squash or Syrup

The fruit is crushed and heated for about 5-10 minutes at 140 °F. to extract
the colour. The crushed material is then pressed in a basket press to get
the juice for squash.
RECIPE
Ingredients 50 % juice, 45 ' Brix, 1.5 % acidity
lb . oz.
Juice 14 ' Brix, 0.75% acidity 100 0
Sugar 73 9
Citric acid 2 4
Water 24 0
Preservative o 3
(Sodium benzoate)
Mango Squash
Juicy varieties are preferred for making squash. Fully ripe fruits are
taken, the stem portion cut off and four slits given to each fruit. They
are then passed through a pulping machine to separate the skin and the
stones. The pulp is used for making squash.
126 PRESERVATION OF FRU1TS AND VEGETABLES
RECIPE
25% juice, 33. 1/3 % juice, 25% juice, 33·1/3% juice,

Ingredients 45° BrUt, 40' Brix, 50' Brlx, 50' Brix.
0.8% acidity 0.8% acidity 1.0% acidity 1.0% acidhy

Mango pulp IS '
'Rrix, 0.5% acidity 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 0
Sugar 139 99 15 178 4 129 5
Citric acid 2 II I 14 3 S 2 S
Watcr 158 0 98 0 liS 0 68 0
Preservative
(potassium
mctabisulphite) 0 4 0 3 0 4 0 3
----
Sugar is added in syrup form. The squash rnay be strained through
cloth before bottling.
Passion Fruit Squash

With its exotic flavour, passion fruit squash is becoming quite popular.
It is prepared mostly in Australia. The fruit is grown in the Nilgiris and
Coorg.
Ripe purple coloured fruits are picked. These are cut into halves and the
yellow mucilaginous pulp along with the seeds is scooped out. The pulp is
then passed through the pulper to rernove seeas. On a srnall scale, the pulp
can be passed through ordinary sieves of 20·30 meshes per inch.
RECIPE
25% juice 33·1/3% jUice, 25% juice, 33·1/3% juice,

Ingredients 45' Brix. 45' BrlX. 65' Brix. 65' Bnx,
1.5% acidity 1.5% acidity 2.0% acidity 2.0% acidity

Passion fruit juice,
IS' Brix, 3% aci·
dity 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 0
Sugar 158 12 115 5 236 12 173 13
Citric acid 3 0 8 5 0 3 0
Water 138 0 S3 0 58 0 23 0
Preservative
(potassium
mctabisulphite) 0 4 0 3 0 4 0 3
FRUIT BEVERAGES 127
Peach Squash
Juicy white peaches are good for making squash. The pulp is heated with
half its weight of water for about 15 minutes at 180°F. and the juice pressed
in a basket ?ress. The pulpy juice is then converted into a good squash.
Potassium metabisulphite is added as a preservative.
P'nalsa Squash
The method of preparing phnlsa squash is similar to that described for
making jamun squash. Citric acid is, however, not needed since the juice
itself is sufficiently acidic.
Pineapple Squash
The fruits are peeled and cut into slices which are then passed through
a screw-type juice extractor. The pulp left over in canning may also be
utilized for extracting juice. The juice thus obtained is converted into
squash.
RECIPE
25% juice, 33-1/3 % Juice, 25% juice, 33-1/3% juice,

Ingredients 45 ° Brix, 45' Bnx, 65 ° Brix, 65 ' Brix,
1.5 % acidity 1.5% acidity 2.0 % acidity 2.0 % acidity
lb. oz.. lb. oz. lb. oz. lb. 07..

Pineapple Juice,
8' Brix, 0.5 %
aCidity 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 0
Sugar 166 4 122 13 24<1 4 181 5
Citric acid 5 8 4 0 7 8 5 8
Pineapple flavour 2 8 I 14 3 5 2 9
Water 125 8 71 2 44 II 10 7
Yellow colour q.s. q.s. q.s. q.8.
Preservative 0 4 0 3 0 4 0 3
(Potassium
metabisulphite)
--_.--
Plum Squash
Juicy plums like the alucha are to be preferred. To extract colour, the
plums are heated for about 30 minutes at 180°F. in half their weight of water.
These are then passed through a pulper to extract juice. This juice cim then
be made into a squash of 45 or 55 degrees Brix. Sodium benzoate is added
as a preservative.
Water Melon Squash

Water melon is cut into suitable pieces and the flesh scraped off from
the rind. The juice is extracted by means of a basket press. The pinkish
juice, which is of 6-7 degrees Brix, is converted into squash. Sodium benzoate
is used as preservative.
RECIPE
In gredlen ts 45 · Brix Squash, ).0% aCidity
Juice 6' Brix, 0.1 % acidity 75 lb.

Sugar 52 lb. 8 oz.
Citric acid I Jb. 4 oz.
Sodium benzoate 2.04 oz.
Squashes and syrups can also be made from several other fruits like mul-
berry, raspberry, strawberry. pear, apricot. pumelo. guava, musk melon,
etc. The methods of preparation are broadly the same as those explained
above.
JUICES
Apple Juice
Unfermented apple juice is highly popular in Europe. In India tOO. it i~
gaining in popularity. A method has now been standardised for preparing it
from Kulu apples like the Yellow Newton and Baldwin. The apples are
washed with a weak hydrochloric acid solution (5 gallons of acid in lOO
gallons of water) to remove arsenic and lead spray relOidues and are then
crushed in an apple grater to pieces of Ye'l to ~". The juice is pressed out
in a basket press and collected in a non-corrodible vessel. Aluminium vessels
can be used for small scale work. The juice is then strained through coarse
cloth to remove fruit tissues. etc., heated to 180· -ISS·F. temperature, filled
into clean bottles, and pasteurized by the 'overflow method' (see Chapter
VIII) for 30 minutes at 17soF.
Cashew Apple Juice

Cashew apples are available in plenty on the West Coast. Experiments
have shown that by suitable preliminary treatment of the fruit to remove
astringency in the fruit, a juice of fairly good quality can be prepared.
Siddappa has described a simple method for its preparation and preserva-
tion by blending it with a small quantity of lime juice. Jain. Bhatia, Anand
and Girdhari Lal have recommended steaming of the fruit for 5 minutes
FRUIT BEVERAGES 129
at 5 lb. pressure prior to extraction of the juice by pressing. The juice is

mixed with 0.045 per cent. gelatin by stirring. is set aside for 15 minutes and
then strained through cloth. and 5-6 per cent. sugar added to it. The result-
ing product has a delicious taste and the characteristic aroma and flavour of
Cashew apple.
Citrus Juices
Tight-skinned oranges like malta and sathgftdi give a fairly good bottled
or canned juice free from bitterness. The juice from loose-jacket oranges
like the Coorg and Nagpur varieties. however. often develops a character-
istic bitter taste in the bottle or can. The bitterness can be considerably
reduced by lye dipping the segments or by adding 5-6 per cent. sugar to the
juice (Siddappa). To improve its quality. the juice is generally deaerated
and flash-pasteurized. However. preservation of orange juice with its natural
flavour is still a problem. It develops a characteristic stale or off-flavour
during storage.
Pruthi conducted extensive studies on the effect of different factors such
as head-space in the container, sweetening, deaeration. type of container
used and the method of preservation employed (i.e. sulphitation, benzoation,
holding pasteurization. over-flow pasteurization. flash-pasteurization. etc.) on
the ascorbic acid content. colour, flavour and keeping quality of the seven
types of citrus fruit juices. viz., lime, mosambi, orange, Nagpuri mandarin,
grape-fruit. sweet lime, hhatta (C. aurantium) and galgal (C. limollia).
Deaeration combined with flash-pasteurization gave the best overall results.
Losses in ascorbic acid during processing have been reported to be about
7 per cent. in comparatively less acidic juices (i.e. tnosambi, NagtJt<ri sangtra,
and sweet lime) and about 3 per cent. in more acidic juices (i.e. lime. hhatta,
and galga0. During 7 months' storage at room temperature under different
treatments, the losses in ascorbic acid varied from 27.2 to 36.2% in galgal
juice. 24.5 to J2.3% in Nagpuri sangtra juice. 16.8 to 23.4 % in khatta juice,
24.3 to 28.8% in lime juice, 17.0 to 25.9% in grapefruit juice. and from 19.8
to 21.5% in mosambi orange juice. The flavour and keeping quality of
citrus juices, and the role of pectic enzymes in sedimentation and ascorbic
acid in discolouration of citrus juices have been discussed by him in detail.
Colour deterioration in processed Nagpuri orange juice. grapefruit juice,
and other citrus juices, as affected by different factors, has been reported.
Addition of cane sugar to the extent of 5 per cent. is reported to have acce-
lerated the rate of discolouration of juices. Statistical analysis also revealed
that addition of sugar did not help in the retention of ascorbic acid. In most
citrus juices, discolouration was visible within I ~ to 3 months' storage at
room temperature (24-30·C.) and at 37·C. Low temperature of O-ZOC. during
storage helped in better retention of ascorbic acid. It also retarded darkening.
Better retention of ascorbic acid and colour was secured by packing the
product in plain tin cans instead of in bottles. Methods were standardised
for estimating ascorbic acid in unsulphited and sulphited citrus juices, as

well as for photo-electric colorimeter analysis.
By a suitable modification of the methods of extraction and preliminary
treatment of the juice, it has been found possible to minimise the develop-
ment of bitter taste.
During the fruit seaSOD, orange juice can be extracted, acidified and pre-
served with potassium metabisulphite in barrels for conversion later into
orange squash. This enables the manufacturer to do packing according to
the market demand.
Grape Juice
Coloured as well as white grapes can be used for making grape juice.
In the case of coloured varieties, preliminary heating of the crushed mass
for 10-15 minutes at 140-14soF. is necessary for extracting the colouring
matter. White grapes are not heated. The juice is exu'acted from the crushed
grapes by means of a basket press. It is filtered through cloth and bottled
by the 'overflow method'. In the bottled juice, cream of tanar (or argul)
gradually settles down during storage. This can be avoided by preliminary
storage of the juice for 3-4 months, preferably at low temperature to secure
complete settling of the cream of tartar. .The clear juice can then be bottled
and preserved by pasteurization or by adding sodium benzoate. Addition
of sulphur dioxide is not recommended as it imparts a bitter taste to the
juice.
Pineapple Juice
Pineapples are cultivated on a fairly extensive scale in Assam, West
Bengal, Kerala and Madras. The yield in these four States amounts to
about 95 per cent. of the total production in India. Several varieties of pine-
apples are grown, namely, Kew, Giant Kew, Mauritius, Jaldhoop, Singapore,
etc. Kew and Giant Kew are usually employed for canning, while the rest
are used for preparing juice, etc. In India, pineapple juice is generally manu-
factured as a by-product from the cannery wastes, such as cores, trimmings,
and cull or under-sized or slightly over-ripe or soft fruit.
The whole fruit is peeled, sliced and minced or grated. The cores, trim-
mings, etc., are also minced. The minced material is passed through a screw-
type juice extractor or pulper or hydraulic press, the juice screened through
mull cloth, heated to about ISO-ISSoF., packed hot in plain cans, double
seamed and processed at 17S-ISO°F. for 25-30 minutes (I lb. milk-size cans),
and cooled in running cold water. In foreign countries, the juice is processed
by the H .T.S.T. Process-the juice is quickly heated to 190°F., held at this
temperature for 2-3 minutes, and then immediately packed and sealed.
Pruthi has conducted storage studies on ascorbic acid retention, and colour
and general keeping quality of pasteurized (canned as well as bottled) and
FRUIT BEVERAGES 131
sulphited juice and squash stored at room temperature (24-30·C.) and at

37°C. He reports about 80-85 per cent. retention of ascorbic acid in samples
stored at room temperature, and only 38-47 per cent. at 37 · C. He further
found that colour deterioration, as determined by photo-electric colorimeter
analysis and expressed in terms of optical density at 6 different wave lengths
ranging from 420,u to 640I! in juices stored at 37·C. was about 3 tim es
of that observed in similar samples storcd at room temperatUl'e. He also
reports that canned pineapple juice could be stored over a period of 12-15
months without any serious loss in quality or nutritive value.
Pomegranate Juice
Pomegranates, like the Kandhari variety, which contain richly coloured
grains, give a delicious juice. The fruit is cut into quarters, and the grains
are removed and pressed in a basket press. The juice can also be extracted
from the quarters as such by gentle pressing in a basket press. It is filtered
through a thick cloth and bottled. It can be preserved either by pasteuriza-
tion or by addition of sodium ben.zoate. The flavour is rath er delicate and
gets weakened during prolonged storage. It can also be converted into syrup
of 55-60 degrees Brix.
SYRUPS
Syrups of rose, sandal, almond, Sarasaparilla, K ewra, strawberry, pineapple,

raspberry, orange, mulberry, etc., are very popular as summer drinks in
different parts of India. They are generally prepared from extracts of natural
material or by using artificial flavours and colours. These are added to heavy
sugar syrups of 70-75° Brix. The syrup is prepared by heating sugar in water
to which a little acid is added to invert the sugar.
RRCIPE
Ingredients Orange Lemon Pineapple Raspberry Strawberry
Syrup 70' Brix I gallon 1 gallon I gallon 1 gallon I gallon

Citric acid 2.9 oz. 4.35 oz. 2.9 oz. 1.45 oz. 0.8 oz.
Colour Orange Yellow Yellow Red Strawberry
yellow colour colour colour colour
q.8. q.8. q.s. q.s. g.s.
Essence Soluble Lemon Soluble Essence of Essence of
Essence Essence Essence Raspberry Strawberry
Sweet cloudy Pipeapple 2.9 oz. 2.9 oz.
Orange 3.6 oz. . 1.5 oz.
2.9 oz.
A large proportion of the synthetic syrups can, however, be replaced by

real fruit syrups which are more nutritious.
CARBONATED BEVERAGES
Use of fruit juices in the preparation of carbonated beverages is practically

unknown in India, although large quantities of aerated waters, iced sherbets,
and synthetic drinks containing saccharin are consumed all over the country.
These commercial products have practically no nutritive value. If real fruit
juices are used, the nutritive value of these beverages would be increased
considerably.
The juices can be carbonated directly, or they can be stored as such or
in the form of concentrates for carbonation, whenever necessary. Carbonated
beverages keep well for about a week without any preservative. But
it is necessary to add 0.05 per cent. of sodium benzoate to the finished product
if these are to be kept longer.
To prepare orange syrup for carbonation, a heavy syrup is made by
mixing 10 lb. of orange juice, lS~ lb. of sugar and 7 oz. of citric acid. Of
this, about l~ to 2 oz. are filled into 10-12 oz. bottles for carbonation.
Other syrups like those of pineapple, lemon, lime, etc., also can be prepared
in a similar manner.
JUICE CONCENTRATES
At present, in India several fruit juices are made into squashes or syrups
by merely adding sugar to them. In other countries, however, concentrates
of pure juices are highly popular. These are sometimes frozen also. Citrus
juice concentrates are in great demand in the U.K., Europe, and the U.S.A.,
for feeding children (as sources of vitamin C), for carbonation, and for use
in ice-creams, etc. Apple and grape juice concentrates of 68_72° Brix are
also prepared and used for making beverages.
Juices are concentrated either by freezing or by evaporation under reduced
pressure at low temperature so that their original flavours are not lost com-
pletely (Fig. 45). Very elaborate equipment is necessary in the case of citrus
juices. Concentration is carried out at temperatures as low as 35-40°F., using
multiple effect systems and refrigeration for the condenser. The flavours
lost during evaporation are recovered and put back into the concentrates.
In the freezing process, known as Gore's process, the juice is frozen either
into a mushy mixture of ice crystals and juice or into a solid cake which
is broken up later. On centrifuging the broken mass in a basket-type
centrifuge, ice crystals remain in the basket, while the concentrated juice
passes through. Centrifuged and partially concentrated juice is again frozen
and re-centrifuged to raise the Brix to about SO degrees. The concentrate
should either be held in cold storage or pasteurized to prevent spoilage.
The juice concentrated by this process possesses the flavour of fresh fruit
which is richer than that of the concentrate prepared by other processea
This process is not, however, in general use in any part of the world.
FRUIT BEVERACES 133
FIt: . -Hi. C.\I' S III.ING M" IIINI;
Flc. 47. TEAM JACKETEU JAM BOlLI C PAN

134 PRESEHVATION OF FHUIT ' A D VEGETABLES
F l c , 48, SHARPLES SUPER C£NTRlFUCE

FRutT BEVERAGES 135
Linde·Kraus Procel.. In this process, the juice is frozen on the outside of

a refrigerated drum which revolves slowly. The lower part of the drum dips
into the juice in a trough placed below. Ice is removed from the drum
by a scraper. Due to constant removal of water as ice, the juice in the
trough gets concentrated.
According to Cruess, a method has recently been developed for ' recovering
apple flavour during concenU'ation. The juice is heated under pressure in
a continuous stream to 320°F., allowing tl1e hot juice to flash-vaporise into
another part of the apparatus. About 10 per Cent. of the juice, (by volume)
is vaporised. The vapours are condensed at 70°F. Practically all the apple
esters are found in this distillate which can be used for giving natural fresh
apple flavour to the concentrate. It may be possible to extend this technique
to other fruit concentrates also.
Recently, in connection with a systematic investigation on the concentra-
tion of fruit juices, Siddappa and Bhatia studied the factors responsible
for bitterness and gelation in orange juice concentrates. By modifying the
method of extraction of juices, especially from loose-jacket oranges like the
Coorg and Nagpur varieties, and by centrifuging the juice (Fig. 48) after
flash-pasteurization, they were able to prepare orange concentrate free from
bitterness and gelation during storage. They also studied tlle changes in
the ascorbic acid content, natural as well as added, during preparation and
storage of the concentrate under different conditions. While there is a
considerable loss of ascorbic acid during storage at ordinary temperatures,
it is very little at 2-SoC.
FRUIT JUICE POWDER
Spray-dried fruit juice powders are highly hygroscopic and 10 e much of

their original fresh flavour in drying. Sweetened citrus juice powder is being
developed in the U.S.A. A method for preparing fruit juice powders from
Coorg and Sathgudi oranges, mango, jack fruit, guava, tomato, etc. has
been evolved at the Central Food Technological Rescarch Institute, Mysore
as a result of three years of work. This method has been patented. The
powders can be packed, transported and dispensed cheaply in a highly
hygienic manner. There is much scope for developing these products.
Further research is in progress.
CHAPTER X
FERMENTED BEVERAGES
Fermented beverages have been known to mankind from times im-

memorial. Grape wine is the most important of these. Wines made from
fruits are often named after the fruits. Thus we have apple cider from
apples, perry from pears, and orange wine from oranges. Starch and sugar
are also fermented to get special types of liquors. In India such liquors are
known as Nira Guice from palm tree), Sake from rice, 'country' liquors, from
molasses, etc.
Grape Wine
Raw Material. Grapes for wine-making are sorted to remove mouldy
bunches and tben crushed between fluted rolls. In the case of white grapes,
the crushed mass is pressed directly in basket type presses, but in the case
of coloured grapes, it is fermented slightly before pressing the juice. The
yield of juice is about 60-70 per cent.
Grape wines are of two kinds, i.e., dry and sweet. In the dry wine, there
is very little or no sugar. In the sweet wine, either fermentation is arrested
to retain some of the original sugar, or extra sugar or fresh grape juice is
added. The alcohol content of both the wines ranges from 7 to 20 per cent.
Wines with 7-9 per cent. alcohol are termed 'light wines', those with 9-16
per cent. 'medium wines', and those with 16-20 per cent. 'strong wines'.
Generally, wines with more than 12 per cent. alcohol are fortified with fruit
brandy prepared by distilling the grape wine.
Fermentation
To ferment tlle juice (known as 'must' in the trade) a culture of pure
wine yeast like Saccharomyces ellipsoidetls is added as a starter. Sulphur
dioxide is added to the 'must' at the rate of abollt 50-70 p.p.m. (about 8
ounces of potassium metabisulphite per tOil of grapes) to check the action
of wild yeasts and bacteria which are undesirable in alcoholic fermentation.
The temperature should be controlled between 80·F. and 8S·F. Fermentation
cea es usually at about lOO·F. It is very slow below 50·F. The stages through
which the sugar in the 'must' passes before being converted finally into
alcohol have been investigated by Neuberg, Harden and Young, and others.
The intermediate products are methyl glyoxal (CHaC: OCH: 0), acetaldehyde
(CHa.CHO) and pyruvic acid CHaC: O.COOH). The simple reaction would be
C,H 1,0. =2CO, + 2C,Hs OH
(Fermentable Sugar) (Ethyl alcohol)
136
FERMENTEO BEVERAGES 137
A hundred grams of hexose sugar would give 51.1 grams of alcohol and
48.9 grams of carbon dioxide. Besides alcohol, a number of other compounds
are also formcd. The alcohol content of wine is usually expressed as volume
per cent., that is, C.c. of alcohol per 100 c.c. of wine. According to Cruess,
the percentage of alcohol will approximately be equal to the Brix of the
'must' multiplied by 0.57. Thus a 'must' of 22" Brix should give a dry wine
of about 22 x 0.57 (or 12.5) volume per cent. of alcohol.
Generally the Brix of mOst grape varieties grown in India ranges
from 12 tq 16 degrees, except in the case of seedless kishmish grapes
which have a Brix as high as 23-26 degrees. In the case of grapes
of low Brix value, cane sugar is sometimes added to raise the Brix to about
23 degrees.
A pure culture of yeast is multiplied prior to putting it in the 'must' in
barrels or vats, as follows: To the culture in the bottle, 4 to 5 ounceS of
pasteurized juice are added, and the stcrilised cotton plug is replaced. In
about 24 hours, tlle yeast multiplies rapidly. This is inoculated into ~imilarly
pasteurized juice in a larger container, by adding the starter in the propor-
tion of 1 to 10. Further multiplication is carried out in the same way. On
inoculation of the 'must' with the staner, fermentation in the barrels would
procced apace during the fIrst 4 or 5 days. After this stage, a water seal is
attached to the barrel in order to permit release of any accumulated pressurc
during the subsequent slow fermentation. The rate of fermentation will
depend on the Brix of the fermenting 'must'. When fermentation is COI11-
plete, me Brix will be zero or, in some cases, even Less. In the case of dry
white wine, me sugar content should be less than 0.15 grams per 100 C.c.
If fermentation ceases prior to tllis, it may be necessary to aerate the ferment-
ing liquid by pumping clean air through or over it.
Maturing. When fermentation is complete, the clear wine is syphon cd
from the yeast sediment and filled into barrels. The barrels should be filled
completely and scaled air-tight to exclude aU air. In course of time, tbe
wine matures. During this aging process, which takes from 6 to 12 months,
the wine loses its raw and harsh flavour and mellows down considerably,
acquiring' a smooth flavour and characteristic bouquet and aroma. Oak
wood barrels are generally preferred as they give a finer bouquet to the
wine.
Clarification in the natural way takes place during maturation. It can
also be achieved by using filter aids, white of egg, etc.
Packing. The volatile acidity of the wine, which is due mainly to acetic
acid, should be low. High volatile acidity of about 0.09-0.20 grams per
100 c.c., expressed in terms of acetic acid indicates the activity of acetic or
lactic acid bacteria during fermentation. It is often desirable to pasteurize
the wine to destroy spoilage organisms and to coagulate colloids that cause
138 PRESERVATION of FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
cloudiness. Wines are pasteurized for I to 2 minutes at IBO-190·F. and then

bottled. The bottles are closed with good bark corks.
The following are some of the well-known wines:
Champagne
It is a sparkling wine, produced chiefly in France from certain varieQes
of grapes. Champagne-type wines are made in several other. countries also.
The fermentation is allowed to proceed to completion in bottles specially
made to withstand the gaseous pressure produced in the process.
Port
It is a fortified sweet red wine made in Portugal and some other countries.
Muscat
It is made from muscat grapes, especially in Spain~ Italy, California and
Australia.
Tokay
It is the famous fortified wine of Hungary.
Sherry
It is a Spanish wine, matured at high temperature by placing the barrels
for 3 to 4 months in the sun where the temperature is 130-140·F.
Cider
There are two types of apple cider, Le. dry and sweet.
In the U.K., special varieties of apples known as cider apples are em-
ployed. Apples with high tannin content (0.1 to 0.3 %) are generally used.
These are crushed, and the juice is pressed out. Sugar is added to the juice
to raise the Brix to about 22 degrees. Next, 100 p.p.m. of S02 and a pure
culture of wine yeast are added. About 0.02-0.05 per cent. of ammonium
hydrogen phosphate is also included to supplement the food for the yeast.
The method of fermentation is almost similar to that for grape wine. After
fermentation, the cider is racked, filtered, and allowed to age in oak wood
barrels. The matured cider is heated to I50·F., filtered, and bottled. The
bottles are then pasteurized for 30 minutes at I40·F.
It has been reported that although proper cider apples are not available
in India, some dessert varieties can be utilized for making cider of fairly
good quality.
Perry
It is made from pears. Wastes and trimmings left over from the canning
of pears can be used profitably for its preparation.
FERMENTED BEVERAGES 139
Orange Wine
Orange juice sweetened with cane sugar can be fermented LO give fairly
palatable wine. The method of preparation is the same as that employed for
making grape-wine. Much oil should not, however, be incorporated in the
juice as it slows down and, at times, stops the fermentation process.
Berry Wines
Wines arc also made from several types of berries, like elderberry, logan -
berry, strawberry, etc. Such berries arc not, however, common in India.
CHAPTER XI
JAMS, JELLIES AND MARMALADES
Among preserved fruits, jams, jellies and marmalades form an important

class of products. During World War II, fairly large quantities of these
were imported into India from the U.S.A., the U.K. and Australia. Consi-
derable quantities arc being imported even now, although the products are
being manufactured extensively in several factories in the country. These
are also being made in many homes all over the country. Their production
and demand can be increased further by making better use of cull fruit
that is being wasted at present.
Jam is prepared by boiling the fruit pulp with sufficient quantity of
sugar to a reasonably thick consistency, firm enough to hold the fruit
tissues in position. In its preparation, about 45 lb. of fruit should be used
for every 55 lb. of sugar. It should contain not less than 68.5 per cent.
soluble solids as determined by refractometer, when cold, and uncorrected
for insoluble solids.
Jelly is prepared by boiling the fruit with or without water, straining.
mixing the strained and clear juice extract with sugar, and boiling the
mixture to a stage at which it will set to a clear gel. A perfect jelly should
be transparent, well set, but not too stiff, and should have the original
flavour of the fruit. It should be of attractive colour and should keep its
shape when removed from the mould. When cut, it should retain its shape
and show a clean-cut surface. It should be tender enough to quiver, but
not flow.
Marmalade is a fruit jelly in which the slices of the fruit or the peel are
suspended. The term 'marmalade' is generally associated widl the product
made from citrus fruits like oranges and lemons in which shredded peel
is included as the suspended material.
The te{m fruit jellies covers, in a general sense, jams and marmalades
also which possess the consistency of jelly (whether made from clear juice
or from , pulp).
JAMS
The method of preparing jams is similar to that used for jelly-making

except that pulp and pieces of fruit are used. Jams may be made from a
single fruit or from a combination of different fruits.
A jam differs from a preserve in that it need not contain pieces of the
whole fruit as is the case of a preserve. In preparing it, the fruit is crushed,
or otherwise finely cut, so that when cooked, the mass is fairly uniform
140
JAMS. JELLffiS AND MARMALADES 141
throughout. A jam is more or less a concentrated fruit possessing a fairly

heavy body form. It is also rich in flavour because ripe fruits are used in
its preparation. Pectin in the fruit gives it a good set. High concentration
of sugar facilitates preservation. A great advantage in its preparation is
dlat it can be made completely in a single operation. unlike preserves which
have to pass through several stages.
An analysis of some of the jams oil foreign as well as Indian manufacture
is given in the following Table:
TABJ.E 14. ANAU"SIS OF VARIOUS TnEs OF JAMS
(Aller Lat Singh and Girdhari Lol)

-- -- --
Description Total soluble Percentage Degree of
o[ jam solids by reo acidity as inversion Ren13rks
fractometer citric acid
------
71.5 0048 50.0
Gooseberry
(Indian) } 78.0
72.0
0.70
0.74
55.2
80.0
Apricot (Indian) 72.0 0.74 80.0
Peach (Indian) 75.5 0.50 54.0
Mixed fruit 67.5 0.52 64.0
(Indian) } 69.5 0.68 72.7
Gooseberry 73.4 0.53 81.0
(Foreign) } 71.5 0.67 85.1
Raspberry 73.8 0.57 59.0
(Foreign) } 72.5 0.81 71.6
Strawberry 72.7 0.52 48.6
(Foreign)
Greengage 74.0 0.50 76.75 Stones included
(Foreign) } 73.0 0.62 79.8 Stones excluded
Plum Jam (stoneless Calculated on
Foreign) 79.6 0.71 78.6 stone·free basis.
PlulD Jam (Foreign) 78.3 0.99 75.3 Stone· less.
A jam manufacturer can choose fruits from among the following five
classes:
1. Fresh fruit.
2. Frozen, chilled or cold-stored fruit.
3. Fruit or fruit pulp preserved by heat.
4. Sulphited fruit or fruit pulp. i.e., fruit preserved with sulphur dioxide.
5. Dried fruit.
142 PRESE1WATlON OF FRurtS AND VECETA13LES
Fresh Fruita
Fresh fruits generally give the best jams. There are, however, certain
difficulties in using fresh fruits. Firstly, the supply of the fruit has to be
regular so that it can be used in fresh sound condition. Otherwise, it is likely
to spoil, especially in hot weather. This is possible only when the factory is
surrounded by its own orchards or is located in an area growing the parti-
cular fruit. If the fruit has to be transported over long distances, there will
be the problem of spoilage during transit. Secondly, due to the short duration
of the fruit season in many cases large stocks of fruits will have to be stored
they produce a pasty product. In some cases, where the fruit is deficient
will have to be cold-stored, frozen or chilled, or preserved with chemicals
or by heat treatment.
Since pectin is the main ingredient which gives a set to a jam, it is
preferable to use some green fruits which are rich in pectin along with
ripe fruits to obtain the jellying effect. Over-ripe fruits should not be used as
they produce a pasty product. In some cases, where the fruit is deficient
in pectin, pectin from other fruits or commercial pectin may be added.
Frozen Fruits
In a modern fruit preserving factory, a cold store is considered a,necessary
adjunct. Storage is done during the fruit season to ensure regular supplies
in the off-season. It has been found that the flavour and aroma of the cold
stored fruits are practically unimpaired, and the jams prepared from them
are as good as those prepared from fresh fruit. Fruits which cannot be kept
in cold-storage for long periods are kept in frozen condition. Some fruits,
such as cherries and plums, discolour badly on freezing and become brown.
Such fruits are frozen with sugar or sugar syrup to prevent browning. In
India, however, fresh fruits are generally used for jams. During World War
II dried fruits also were used to some extent.
Fruit Preserved by Heat Treatment

The fruit is prepared in the same way as for canning, and heated to a
sterilizing temperature in hermetically sealed containers. Sometimes a small
quantity of sugar is also added to preserve the aroma, colour and texture
of the fruit. Plums. apples, apricots, pineapples and peaches are stored
without addition of sugar, but strawberries and raspberries are stored
with sugar. The added sugar is taken into account at the time of making
jams. This method is not, however, used largely for the following reasons:
1. Difficulty of storing the fruit in barrels.
2. Loss of colour in fruits such as strawberries and raspberries during
the treatment and subsequent storage.
3. A certain amount of loss of pectin while the fruit remains hot for
long periods in bulk packings.
JAMS, JELLIES AND MARMALADES 143
Sulphitation for Storing

For preserving fruits in bulk, sulphur dioxide is universally employed
in the form of sodium or potassium metabisulphite, sulphurous acid or
calcium sulphite. Calcium sulphite provides an additional advantage in that
it hardens the tissues of soft fruits and prevents their disintegration.
The preservative fluid in the fruit should be an aqueous solution contain-
ing from 0.08 to 0.1 per cent. sulphur dioxide. In general practice, the total
quantity of sulphur dioxide in fruit and liquor is kept at 1500 to 2000 p.p.m.
to safeguard against any possible ,leakage of sulphur dioxide.
Sulphur dioxide temporarily destroys the red colour of fruits like red
plums, strawberries, and raspberries. The colour is, however, restored when
sulphur dioxide is driven off at the cooking stage.
According to Baker and Grove, although sulphur dioxide causes complete
stoppage of enzymic activities of the fruits, its presence in soft fruits causes
the pectic enzymes to convert pectin into pectic acid, and practically destroys
all the jellying power of the pectin in the fruit.
Sulphur dioxide toughens the skins of some fruits such as gooseberries
and red currants. These fruits should, therefore, be heated to boiling
temperature and cooled before adding S02. This preliminary heating will
also destroy the enzymes present in the fruit and preserve the jellying power
of the pectin present in the fruit.
Preparing the Fruit for Jam-making

The fruit is washed thoroughly to remove any adhering dust and dirt.
Leaves, stalks and other undesirable portions are removed. After this the
fruit is subjected to preliminary treatment which varies from fruit to fruit.
For example, strawberries are crushed between rollers. Raspberries are
steamed, crushed and passed through sieves to remove the cores. Plums are
heated with a small quantity of water until they become soft, and are then
passed through a sieve to remove the stones, unless jam with stones is to be
made. Cherries are treated in the same way. Gooseberries are whirled in a
machine lined with carborundum to rub off dle topS and tails. They are
then passed through sieves to remove the stalks. Pears are peeled, cored,
and cut Into small pieces. Peaches are lye peeled, and tbeir stones removed.
They are then cut into small pieces. Apricots are cut and the stones removed
unless jam with stones is to be made.
Addition of Sugar
Generally pure cane sugar (sucrose) is used for making jams. The propor-
tion in which it is added depends on the kind, degree of ripeness and acidity
of the fruit. Sweet fruits require less sugar tban tart fruits do. Proper
quantity should be added to give maximum strength to the pectin-sugar-
acid gel. To get a minimum of 68.5 per cent of sugar in the jam, generally
55 lb. of sugar is added to every 45 lb. of fruit. The finished jam should
contain 30 to SO per cent. invert sugar or glucose to avoid crystallization of
cane sugar in the jam during storage. If the percentage of invert sugar is
less than 30, cane sugar may crystallize out; if it is higher than SO per cent.,
the jam will develop into a honey-like mass due to the formation of small
crystals of glucose. Alternately, corn syrup or commercial glucose may be
used along with cane sugar to avoid crystallization. Sugar in excess of the
requisite quantity should not be added, because if the percentage of total
soluble solids becomes very high, the jam becomes gummy and sticky. In
case excess sugar has been added, the remedy lies in adding pectin and
acid or both to counteract the excess. If on the other hand, the percentage
of soluble solids is low and there is pre-coagulation of the jam showing
thereby that the material contains excess of pectin, it is advisable to add
more sugar. Under exceptional circumstances, where more sugar is not
added, it would be desirable to add a small quantity of sodium bicarbonate
to reduce the acidity and thus prevent pre-coagulation.
Addition of Acid, Colour and Flavour

Acid. Generally citric, tartaric' or malic acids are used to supplement the
acidity of fruits for jam-making. Addition of acid to fruits deficient in it,
is a necessity because appropriate combination of pectin, sugar and acid is
essential to give a 'set' to the jam. Tarr is of the view that the pH of the
fruit juice and pectin should be 3.1 before sugar is added. According to
Hinton, however, purified pectin gives the best 'set' at pH 2.0. Since fruits
contain natural buffering salts and other associated materials, the best results
are obtained when the pH of the mixture is about 3.0.
Colour. Only permitted edible food colours should be used, if necessary,
and these should be added towards the end of the boiling process.
Flavour. Ordinarily, jams do not require addition of flavours, but they
may be added, if desired, when jam-boiling is nearing completion.
Boiling
Jams are prepared in steam-jacketed pans (Fig. 47) made of nickel, monel
metal, aluminium, stainless steel or copper heavily lined with tin or silver.
They are boiled at 60-80 lb. pressure, in small lots of 100-120 lb. Sugar and
fruit are first weighed in separate pans. The fruit is placed in the boiling
pan and, if necessary, a small quantity of water is added to facilitate pulping.
It is then cooked sufficiently to liberate pectin. Sugar is added next. The
fruit and sugar mixture is then boiled to concentrate the soluble solids to
about 68.5 per cent. and also to bring about the necessary degree of inversion
of sugar. To avoid excessive frothing during boiling, a little butter or some
other tasteless edible oil may be added to the jam. If the fruit does not
JAMS, JEILIES AND MARMALADES 14S
contain sufficient pectin, commercial pectin may be added to make good

the deficiency
Boiling under Vacuum

In the vacuum pan. cooking is done under reduced pressure at low tem-
peratures of. ISO-170°F. The advantage of vacuum cooking is that it mini-
mises the undesirable changes in colour and prevents loss of vitamin C.
The disadvantage. however. is that the product has to be boiled for a long
time to soften the fruit pieces and there is some loss of flavour. This draw-
back can be overcome by recovering the esters and putting them back into
the jam.
Proper centrol of boiling is necessary to avoid over-concentration of
soluble solids, over-inversion of sugar. and hydrolysis of pectin.
End Point
In order to make a product of uniform quality, a definite quantity of
fruit and sugar should always give a definite quantity of the finished jam.
This can be determined by making a jelmeter test. Generally the weight
of the finished jam in the case of fruits fairly rich in pectin, is one-and-a-
half times the weight of sugar used. The following table would serve as a
ready reckoner:
Jelmeter test SUf::r to be added Weight of cooked

figure on or each lb. of jam
nearest Hne cooked fruit
lb. oz. lb. oz.

II 8 2 6
4 2 0
i 0 1 10
1 o 12 1 4
Jam ontaining 68.5 per cent. of soluble solids boils at 222.soF. at sea level.
Correction will, however, be necessary for higher locations as the boiling
point decreases with the rise in altitude. Generally, the end point for boiling
jams should be about 9°F. higher than the boiling point of water at any
particular place.
Packing
Soon after the end point is reached, the jam should be cooled in a cooling
pan to about 200°F. and filled into jars at this temperature either mecha-
nically or by hand. The surface of the jam in the jars should be covered
with a thin disc of waxed tissue paper, and the jars should then be allowed
to cool.
For packing in cans, the jam should be filled hot, and the cans sealed and
pasteurized at 180-18soF. for about 30 minutes.
Storage
Storage of jam in glass jars which cannot be hermetically sealed is rather
difficult, as the surface of the jam is susceptible to mould growth. It should
also be remembered that unless the jars are kept in a fairly cool place, mois-
ture will evaporate resulting in surface graining and also shrinkage of the
jam. According to Tomkins, if storage conditions are such as to allow the
mou ld to draw moisture easily from the substratum, the atmospheric
humidity will have very little effect on their growth. It will, however, have
a considerable effect when movement of water from below is slow, and
especially when the surface of the jam is covered with a closely adhering
waxed tissue paper. This is true in cases where available water is very low
due to the presence of a high concentration of sugar. He further states
that most fungi are completely destroyed if they are exposed to a humidity
less than 90 per cent. Therefore, as a safeguard, jams should be stored prefer-
ably at a place having a relative humidity not exceeding about 80 per cent.
Hirst and also Morris state that jams are rarely spoiled by yeast because they
are of jelly consistency in which yeast cannot grow or dU'ive. To prevent the
spoilage of jams by moulds, jars should be left unsealed after placing a waxed
paper on the surface since moulds do not grow under open conditions as
rapidly as in a closed space. The jars should be inspected from time to time
and, if there is any sign of mould growth, the waxed tissue paper should
be changed. If desired, the paper may be dipped in alcohol before placing
it on the jam. These jars should be finally sealed only at the time of
despatch for sale. If the jam is to be packed in jars which can be hermeti-
cally sealed, or in cans, it should be filled hot and the containers sealed
.
and pasteurized at 180°F. for 25-30, minutes, depending on their sizes .
Controlled Manufacture
Analytical control in the manufacture of jams as well as of jellies is
important to ensure standards of quality. The methods of control are as
follows :
Soluble Solids
Determination of soluble solids is of great importance: in the chemical
control of jam manufacture. Soluble solids can b!,! determined easily with
a refractometer or a specific gravity hydrometer or even a thermometer, as
the boiling point of the product depends on the soluble solids in the
product.
Refractometer Method. The percentage of soluble solids can be determined

easily with an Abbe or Zeiss type refractometer or with a hand refracto-
meter, while boiling is in progress. Since jams and jellies contain other
materials like acid, invert sugar, fruit salts, etc., besides sucrose, the readings
are not quite accurate. For all practical purposes, however, minor corrections
for other materials may be ignored and the refractometer readings fixed
for each type of product. If desired, the refractometer reading may be
standardised with other methods based either on trial boiling to the required
output weight or on a more exact determination of the soluble solids by
the specific gravity method.
A sufficient quantity of a representative lot of the sample should be taken
and cooled immediately so that the percentage composition of soluble solids
may not alter due to evaporation of water. The sample should be thoroughly
homogenized before testing. A very convenient way to do this is to squeeze
a portion of the jam through a muslin cloth directly on to the prism of the
refractometer. The percentage of total soluble solids is read directly on
tbe scale. With dark coloured jams or jellies, a projection-type refractometer
may be used.
Specific Gravity Method. Fifty grams of the product are stirred with a
little warm water to dissolve the jelly ponion. The solution thus made is
poured off from the sediment of fibre and seeds, and collected in a 250 c.c.
volumetric flask. The residue is then boiled two or three times with a small
quantity of water and the solution mixed with the first extract. The com-
bined extract is then cooled to room temperature and made up to 250 c.c.
It is then filtered through a coarse filter paper. The specific gravity is deter-
mined at 20'C., using a specific gravity hydrometer.
Both the refractometer and specific gravity methods are useful for the
determination of soluble solids content of fruit pulps when working out
recipes.
Invert Sugar
Invert sugar is determined by the method evolved by Lane and Eynon.
The solution prepared for determining the specific gravity is further diluted
so that it should contain about 0.2 per cent. of soluble solids. It is then
titrated with Fehling's solution using methylene blue as internal indicator.
The amount of sugar can be calculated from the corresponding titration
using a table [10 C.c. of standard Fehling's solution=0.05 gram of invert
sugar of 0.0475 gram of cane sugar (sucrose)].
Sulphur dioxide
Estimation of sulphur dio:tide is very important when dle jam has been
made from pulp preserved with sulphur dioxide. According to the Fruit
Products Order .(1955) the residual sulphur dioxide should not be more than
40 p.p.m. The sulphur dioxide is generally estimated by distillation according

to A.O.A.C. method.
Acidity
Ten grams of the sample are dissolved in water. The solution is brought
to a boil and titrated with N/IO sodium hydroxide, using phenolphthalein
as indicator. When the end point is not sharp, the solution should be diluted
further and phenolphthalein paper used as external indicator.
Regulating pH of the Material

The pH of the materiaL has great influence on the inversion of sugar and
the setting of jam or marmalade. The pH required to produce a good firm
set in pectin jelJy is 3.30, but in jams it varies with the kind of fruit used.
The relative pH ranges and optimum pH values of a number of jams have
been worked out by Cameron who states that the setting of the jams takes
place only within certain ranges of pH. His data regarding pH ranges and
the optimum pH for the setting of jams of different kinds are given in
the Tahle 15.
TAllLE IS. pn RANGE AND OPTlUM PH FOR DIFFERENT KINDS OF JAMS
(After Cameron, /948)
Type of jam pH range Optimum pH
Apricot. Greengage, Damson, Plum 3.2-3.5 3.35

Apple and Damson. Apple and Plum 3.2-3.5 3.35
Apple and Raspberry 3.4-3.5 3.40
Orange Marmalade 3.4-3.5 3.40
Gooseberry 3.4-3.5 3.40
Black Currant 3.4-3.6 3.50
Seedless Bramble 3.4-3.6 3.50
Raspberry 3.5-3.7 3.60
Raspberry and Red Currants 3.5-3.7 3.60
Strawberry 3.7 3.70
Use of Buffer Salts. Since the pH is the controlling factor in the setting
of jams, it is sometimes necessary to adjust it to the optimum. This is done,
generally, by adding acid salts of citric or tartaric acids, or alkalies like
sodium bicarbonate or calcium carbonate. The addition of about one ounce
of the buffer salt to 100 lb. of jam will generally change the pH by about
0.1 of a unit. The pH can be determined with a pH meter.
JAMS, JEllIES AND MARMALADE::. 149
Insoluble Solids
The fruit content in a jam can be determineQ from the amount of in-
soluble matter present in it. To determine the insoluble matter, 20 grams
of a sample are taken, minced thoroughly, and boiled with 100 C.c. of dis-
tilled water for 30-40 minutes. The boiled mixture is filtered through a
dried and weighed filter paper. After filtration, the fibre is washed back into
the water and again boiled with 100 C.c. of water for 15-20 minutes. It is
filtered again on the same filter paper. This is repeated several times. Ulti-
mately, the fibre is washed on the filter paper itself with plenty of water
and then dried on it at lOO·C. to a constant weight. Knowing the insoluble
matter of the original fruit, one can roughly work out the quantity of fruit
present in the jam.
Estimating Pectin
Pectin does not have a definite composition, because pectins from different
sources behave differently. Even if pectin is determined quantitatively by
elaborate methods, that will not be sufficient to guarantee a jam of firm
set. But the alcohol test for pectin is highly useful. From the general appear-
ance of the pectin precipitate, one can judge fairly accurately its sugar
carrying capacity.
JELLIES
In jelly making, pectin is the most essential constitutent. Although there
is difference of opinion about the exact nature of pectin, it is generally
accepted that pectins form jellies when mixed with proper amounts of
sugar, acid and water. All these constituents must be present in a particular
ratio for making a good jelly.
Fruits for Jelly

Pectin is present in the cell walls of fruits. Its quantity, however, varies
from fruit to fruit and even from variety to variety of the same fruit. Many
fruits are rich in pectin as well as acid, and are thus well suited for jelly
making. There are other fruits, however, which are either rich in pectin
or in acid, or are deficient in both. In order to get a jelly from fruits rich
in pectin but deficient in acid, it is necessary to add either fruits rich in
acid or an acid like citric, tartaric or malic acid. In the case of fruits deficient
in pectin, but rich in acid, either fruits rich in pectin or commercial pectin
should be added. Both these methods have their own merits. Combining of
fruits rich in acid with those rich in pectin is less expensive than using
acid or commercial pectin to supplement the deficiency. But the drawback
is that the flavour of the jelly is affected. Special care is, therefore, necessary
to ensure that the fruits are mixed in proper proportion. On the other hand,
commercial pectin has no deleterious effect on the final flavour of jelly
made from any particular fruit.
A classification of some fruits according to their suitability for jelly

making (based on pectin and acid contents) as worked out by Elewell and
Dehll is given in the Table below.
TABLE 16. CLASSlF1CAllON OF FRUlTS FOR JELLEY -MAKING
(After Elwell and Delm-J939)

Fruits rich Fruits con- Fruits rich Fruits con- Fruits low
in pectin and mining less in pectin, but raining acid, in pectin
acid pectin and low in acid but low in and acid
acid pectin
Apples, sour Apples, ripe Apples, kinds Apricots, sour Apricots, ripe
:lnd crab low in acid
Blackberries, Blackberries Elderberries
sour
Cranberries Cherries, Bananas, unripe Cherries, Peaches, ripe
Sour varieties Sweet varieties Pomegranates
Currants Fejoias Cherries sour Peaches, sour Prunes
Gooseberries Grapes, Figs, unripe Pineapples Raspberries
California
Grapes, eastern Plums Pears Strawberries Over-ripe fruits
Guavas, sour Loquats Rhubarb Strawberries
Kumquats Grapefruit,
peel
Loganberries Guavas, ripe
Lemons Orange, peel
Oranges, sour Quince, ripe
Plums, sour
Selection of Fruits
The fruits should be sufficiently ripe (but not over-ripe), and should have
good flavour. Slightly underripe fruit yields more pectin than over-ripe fruit
doe, because as the fruit ripens the pectin present in it decomposes into
pectic acid which does not form a jelly with acid and sugar. The amount of
pectin extracted from a fruit depends on the degree of disintegration of
proto-pectin during the heating process. In practice, a mixture of under-
ripe and ripe fruits is used. Under-ripe fruits are used for their pectin content
and fully ripe fruits for theiF flavour.
After picking, the fruits should be quickly used for jelly making because,
if kept for a long time. degradation of pectin proceeds rapidly. In some
cases, artificial ripening of fruits is also useful.
Preparation of Fruits
Fruits are washed thoroughly with water to remove any adhering dirt.
li the fruit has been sprayed with lead or arsenical sprays, it should be
washed with a warm solution of one per cent. hydrochloric acid and then
rinsed in water.
JAMS. ]ELt...1Es ANn MARMALADES lSI
Since jellies are made from aqueous fruit extracts, ordinarily it is not
necessary to peel the fruit. For example, fruits like guavas and apples do
not require peeling. Plugs from berries need not be removed. In the case of
oranges and lemons. it is necessary to remove the outer yellow portion of
the peel to get jellies free from excessive bitterness. Fruits are cut into
thin slices so that the acid and pectin may be extracted easily.
Extraction of Pectin
Only a minimum quantity of water should be added to the fruit for a
simple extraction of pectin. If necessary, a second or even a third extraction
may also be taken and these extracts mixed with the first extract. Large
quantities of water should be avoided because excessive dilution of pectin
would necessitate long boiling. which in turn would reduce the jellying
strength. But, if water is added in too small a quantity, the pectin extract
will be viscous and cloudy and difficult to clarify. Further, there is also the
danger of scalding the fruit during boiling. The amount of water to be
added would depend on the kind of fruit used. Usually it is added at the
rate of 1X lb. to a pound of apples, and 2~ lb. to a pound of oranges or
guavas. In the case of grapes no water is added, the fruit being boiled in
its own juice. Highly juicy fruits, such as berries, are merely crushed and
boiled.
Table 17 gives the proportions of water, sugar and fruit which would yield
good jelly.
TABLE 17. PROPORTIONS OF WATER. FRUIT AND SUCAR FOR JELLEY-MAKING
(After Yeatman & Steinbarger)
Quantity of water Time of boiling Quantity of sugar

Kiud of fruit to eaeh pound of fruit to extract to each cup of
pre~ared fruit juice fruit jUice
Cup Minutes Cup
Apple 20 -25 t
Crabapples I 20-25 I
Blackberries. firm i 5-10 i -I
Blackberr~es, soft Nil 5-10 I -I
Black raspberries Nil 5-10 J
Cranberries 3 5-10 1
Currants i or more 5-10
Gooseberries i 5-10
Grapes such as concord i or more 5-10 J
Grapes, wild I 5-10 f-I.
Plums, wild goose type i J5-20 t
Quinces 2 20-25 t
Red raspberries Nil 5·)0
Successful preparation of a jelly depends largely on the extent to which

pectin is separated from the cells of the fruit. Fruit juices, when extracted
in cold, do not contain the required amount of pectin and, hence, do not
form a jelly. To get the desired pectin requirements, the fruit should be
cooked because protopectin, the precursor of pectin, is insoluble in the cold
juice and thus remains in the pomace or pulp when the juice is extracted
in the cold. It is, however, readily converted into pectin on heating. Further,
heat treatment also destroys enzymes responsible for the destruction of
pectin.
The quantity of pectin extracted from a fruit depends on the degree of
disintegration of protopectin on heating. To get good results, heating should
be done for a limited time only. If heating is prolonged, the fruit becomes
pulpy making it difficult to get a clear pectin extract. The jelly prepared
also becomes cloudy. If the heating is just sufficient to extract pectin, there
will hardly be any loss of flavour. Table 18 gives an idea of the boiling
time required.
TABLE 18. TIME REQUIREMENTS FOR EXTRACTION OF PECTIN
(After Yeatman and Steinbarger)
Time of boiling of fruit to

Name of fruit extract pectin
(Minutes)
Apples 20·25
Crab Apples 20·25
Blackberries, firm 5·l0
Cranberries 5· 10
Gooseberries 5· 10
Currants 5· 10
Grapes, wild 5· 10
Grapes such as concord 5· 10
Plums, wild goose type 15·50
Quinces 20·25
Red Raspberries 5·10
Black Raspberries 5· 10
·Oranges 45·60
• Jaman (EugMlia Jambolana) 20·25
• Guavas (Psidium guava) 30·35
• Grapefruit (Citrus Paradisl) 20·25
• Roselle (Hibiscus SabdariDa) 20·25
• Authors' Data.
JAMS, JELLlES AND MARMALADES 153
Effect of Heat on Pectin. Although it is well-known that high temperatures

decrease the jellying power of pectin, the minimum temperature at which
degradation may occur is not well defined. Bennison and Norris report that
pectin, when extracted under pressure, loses its jelly forming properties.
Hinton observes that if pectin is heated at JOO·C. for 30 minutes, it loses half
of its jellying strength. This loss of jellying power is independent of the pH
in the range of 2.5-3.0. There is, however, no loss of jellying power when
pectin is heated at SO·C.
According to Tarr and Baker, the addition of sugar helps in relardin~
the hydrolysis of pectin. Pectin and acid should not, therefore, be boiled
without the addition of ·sugar.
According to Huelin, in commercial pectin as well as in crude pectin
extract, there is practically no loss of jellying power when they are heated
to JOO·C. for 30 minutes. Even heating for 60 minutes at 100·C. does not
seriously injure the jellying strength of pectin. The degradation of pectin,
however, takes place if it is heated at 105·C. or above.
According to Baker and Goodwin, demethylation of pectin can be con-
trolled at low temperatures of about 50· C. and at a pH of 1.5. By this means
pectin of practically any methoxyl content can be obtained. The methoxyl
eontent of pectin is usually about 11 per cent.
Kaufman and others have been able to prepare jellies from vegetables
which contain little or no pectin by addition of dcmethylated pectin and
calcium phosphate, i.e., tomato jelly.
Effect of Various Metals. For boiling, copper and iron kettles should not be
used as dlCSC are actcd upon by acids and sallS of the fruit resulting in the
discolouration of the extract. Aluminium equipment is satisfactory if the
fruit is not too acidic. The best equipment is lhat made from stainless steel
or monel metal or glass-lined or enamelled material.
Straining and Clarification

The pectin extract can be clarified by passing it through bags made of
linen, flannel, felt or cheese cloth folded several times. Cheese cloth and
linen cloth are more durable than other materials. To get good results, dle
bags should be scalded in boiling water, squeezed and used while still hot
and wet. The bags containing fruit extract should not be squeezed, odler-
wise the pectin extract will not be clear on account of the particles passing
through the pores of the bag. For work on a large scale, a basket or hydraulic
press may be used, and the pectin solution clarified by passing it through a
filter press. For work on a small scale, the pectin extract is allowed to setde
over-night and the supernatant pectin liquor drawn off.
Pectin Requirement
Usually, about 0.5-1.0 per cent. of pectin of suitable quality in the eXU'act
154 PRESERVATION OF FRUlTS AND VEGETABLES
is sufficient to produce a good jelly. If the pectin content is in excess of this,

a firm and tough jelly is formed and if it is less, the jelly may fail to set.
Pectin, sugar. acid and water. which are the four necessary constituents for
jelly making, must be present approximately in the following proportions:
Pectin 1.0 per cent.
Sugar 60-65 per cent.
Fruit acid 1.0 per cent.
Water 33-38 per cent.
TIiEORY OF JELLY FORMATION
Jelly formation is due to the precipitation of pectin rather than its swell ·
ing. Only when d1e pectin, acid, sugar and water are in definite equilibrium
range. the precipitation of pectin takes place. The rate of precipitation is
influenced by the following factors:
I. Concentration of pectin in the solution.
2. Constitution of pectin.
3. Hydrogen-ion concentration (PH) of the pectin solution.
4. Concentration of sugar in solution.
5. Temperature of the mixture.
There are several theories to explain the formation of jellies. The follow-
ing are some of the more important among them:
Fibril Theory
According to Cruess, when sugar is added to the pectin solution, it desta-
bilizes the pectin-water equilibrium, and the pectin conglomerates forming
a net-work of fibrils through the jelly. This net-work of the fibrils, holds the
sugar solution in the inter-fibrillar spaces. The strength of the jelly depends
on the structure of the fibrils, dleir continuity and rigidity. The continuity
of the precipitated pectin net-work, however, depends upon the amount of
pectin present in the system,-the greater the amount of pectin present,
the larger the number of fibrils formed, and the denser the net-work. The
firmness of the net-work depends on two factors, namely, (t) concentration
of sugar and, (it) acidity.
Effect of Sugar. If the concentration of sugar in the jelly is high, then
proportionately less amount of water is present. It means that the more
concentrated the sugar solution, the less is the amount of water to be
supported by the pectin fibrils. Thus, by increasing the amount of sugar, a
firm jelly can be made and, conversely, a soft jelly can be prepared by
decreasing the amount of sugar. To be more precise, the pectin decomposi-
tion fixes the maximum amount of acid which can be added to the pectin
JAMS. ]ELLlES AND MAltMALAJ)ES 155
solurion without any deleterious effect on the jelly. The minimum quantity
of acid required for making a well-set jelly. is. however. determined by the
strength of the pectin fibrils. The crystallisation of sugar in the jelly deter-
mines the maximum quantity of sugar required to form a jelly. The best
results are obtained when the network of pectin fibrils is closely inter-
woven and is continuous. It is for this reason that the jelly should not be
disturbed during setting.
Effect of Add. The fibrils of the pectin becomes tough in th e pre-
sence of acid. and are thus able to hold sugar in solution in the inter-
fibrillar spaces. But. if a large amount of acid is present. the fibrils lose their
elasticity with the result that the jelly becomes syrupy. Further. high acidity
tends to hydrolyse the pectin. If the system is very highly acidic. the entire
structure breaks down. On the other hand. if a smaller amount of acid is
present, it results a weak fibrillar structure which is unable to SUppOTt
the sugar solution adequately. The jelly becomes weak and tender in
consequence.
The four principal ingredients, namely. pectin. acid. sugar and water.
should be in proper proportion to get good results. By varying their pro-
portion. however, jellies of different characters can be made. Deficiency
of one ingredient can be made up by using excess of one or of all the other
ingredients. Thus. deficiency of sugar can be made up by using a Jarger
amount of pectin or acid or both. For example, if sugar is present in amounts
smaller than the normal quantity of 6S.D per cent, then. to get, good jelly.
pectin and acid should be added in larger quantities. If the quantity of
sugar is normal and that of acid is less. the deficiency can be made up by
adding more of pectin to get the same firmness. Within certain limits. the
addition of acid makes the jelly fU'fnel' and thereby allows the use of less
pectin.
Spencer's Theory
Pectin particles are negatively charged. A pectin solution is most stable
in neutral range. Increase in acidity or alkalinity decreases its stability. In
jelly formation. sugar acts as a precipitating agent. and the presence of
acid helps it. The more the quantity of acid present, the less is the sugar
required. Some salts also help in the precipitation of pectin. while others
hinder it. according to their capacity to increase or decrease the stability
of the pectin.
Olsen'. Theory
If pectin is taken to be a negatively charged hydrophylic colloid. then
the following may he assumed;
1. Sugar acts as a dehydrating agent which 'disturbs the equilibrium
existing between water and pectin.
Z. Sugar does not hydrate the pectin micelles instantaneously. but re-
quires time to bring about an equilibrium.
3. IT the negative charge on the pectin is reduced with the help of
hydrogen-ion concentration, pectin precipitates and coalesces in the
form of a fine network of insoluble fibres, provided that the sugar
is present in sufficient concentration.
4. The rate of hydration and precipitation of pectin increases with the
addition of acid up to an optimum of about pH 2.0, in direct ratio
to the hydrogen-ion concentration.
5. As the system reaches equilibrium, the jelly strength becomes the
maximum.
6. Salts and other components, which cause a change in the ultimate
jelly strength of the system, may function either by changing the
rate of gelation or by affecting the ultimate structure of the jelly
or by a combination of both.
Hinton's Theory
Hinton's theory is based OJ) the assumption tbat pectins arc complex mix-
tures of variable compostion. According to it, gelation of pectin is a type of
coagulation in which the coagulated particles form a continuous network.
Pectin, like organic acids, dissociates in solution. It is only dIe non-ionised,
and not the ionised pectin which enters into jelly formation. To form a
jelly, therefore, the concentration of non-ionised pectin must exceed a cer-
tain saturation limit, which varies with the concentration of total solids in
the mixture.
Strength of Pectin Jellies

The strength of pectin jellies depends on several factors, namely:
(i) Quality of Pectin Present. The larger the amount of pectin present.
the higher is the jelly strength.
(ii) Quantity of Acid Present. The larger the amount of acid present the
lower the pH and, hence the higher the jelly strength.
(iii) Quantity of Salts Present. Jelly strength is affected by the presence of
salts as also by tile temperature of gelation and the time elapsing
between the addition of sugar and the pouring of the jelly into the
containers.
(iv) Quantity of Sugar Present. The higher the sugar concentration, the
greater is the jelly strength.
There are three methods of determining pectin in fruit juices.
I. Testing the amount of pectin by precipitating it with alcohol.
2. Finding the viscosity of pectin solution by using a jelrneter.
3. Making actual test jellies from the fruit extract.
JAMS. JELLIES AND I\'JARMALADES 157
Method I. While the fruit is being cooked for extraction of pectin. a

teaspoonful of the juice. free from pulp. seeds and skins is taken out and
poured into a glass tumbler. After cooling it. three teaspoonfuls of methy-
lated spirit are added gently along the side of the tumbler and mixed by
rotating the tumbler carefully. The mixture is then allowed to stand for a
few minutes. If the extract is rich in pectin. it will form a single transparent
lump of jelly-like consistency. but if the pectin is present only in a moderate
Poor Fair Good
Petti" Clots
FIG. 49. TEstING FRVIT EXTRACT FOR PECTI" CONTENTS
quantity. the clot will be less fIrm and fragmented. The presence of in·
sufficient pectin will result in numerous small granular clots (Fig. 49). If the
solution is found poor in pectin, the fruit is boiled for a longer period to
liberate the whole of the pectin present in it.
If the juice is rich in pectin. one pound of sugar per pound of juice is
added. If. on the other hand. it contains only a moderate quantity of pectin.
% or % pound of sugar per pound of juice is added. Should the juice be
poor in pectin. about hal£ a pound of sugar is usually sufficient for each
pound of juice.
Method II , The viscosity of a fruit juice can serve as an index of its
jellying quality provided the pH is at the optimum for jelly formation.
With the help of a small jelmeter (Fig. SO) or viscosimeter the sugar-carrying
158 PRESERVATtON OF FRUITs AND VJ;:GE1'ABLES
capacity of fruit extracts can be determined. For j~Ilies, marmalad:s and

jams, the jelmeter test is the same. The only p~ecau non to be .taken IS that
before testing the solution with the jelrnecer, 1C must be stramed through
FIC, 50. SKETCH Of' A JELME1'£R
muslin cloth to get rid of all solid panicles. If this is not done, the fruit
particles will choke up the bore of the jclmeter tube with the result that
accurate readings of viscosity will not be obtained.
Jelmeter Test. A small quantity of pectin solution to be tested is taken
and its temperature noted. IT the temperature is higher than JOO°F., it is
cooled down, for, otherwise, it would flow too fast through the jelmeter.
If the temperature is below 70°F., the solution is warmed up a little, as it
will otherwise flow too slow through the jelmeter tube. To get accurate
results, the temperature of the pectin solution should range between 70°F.
and 100°F.
mE TEST
Step I. The jelmeter is held in the left hand (Fig. 51) with the thumb
and the first finger. The bottom of the jelmeter is closed with the little finger.
The strained pectin solution is then poured into the jelmeter with a spoon
in the right hand, till it is filled to the brim.
Step II. While still holding the jelmcter, the little finger is removed from
the bottom end of the jelmeter and the juice is allowed to run or drip
exactly for one minute, at the end of which the little finger is replaced.
Step III. The figure nearest (above or below) the level of the juice in the
tube of the jelmeter is noted. This figure shows cups or parts of cups of
sugar to be added to each cup or part of juice extract.
If the pectin solution is too viscous to pass through the jelmcter, it indicates
that it can carry l!h cups of sugar for each cup of pectin solution. If, on
the other hand, it is too thin, it requires to be supplemented with pectin.
In this case, either commercial pectin or fruit extract rich in pectin is
added.
Method III. In this method, several samples of jelly arc made, keeping
the amount of pectin solution constant but varying dle amounts of sugar.
The test jelly which gives the best result is taken as the basis for jelly-making.
1st 2nd 3rd

FIC. 51. JELMF.TF.R TEST FOR PF.CTIN CONTF.NT
Temperature of Gelation
Besides other factors, the strength of a jelly depends also on the tempera-
ture of gelation of the jelly. The jelly strength is more when pectin and
sugar are combined at 70°F. than when they are combined at 100·C. Olsen
has shown that loss of jelly strength is not due to the degradation of pectin
but due to difference in gel structure when the jelly i~ formed at higher
tern peratures.
Gelation T-ime
If the jelly is poured into containers when gelation is premature, the gel
will have weaker strength due to the mechanical disruption of the mass.
Role of Add
According to Spencer, although acid is not essential for pectin-gel forma-
tion, yet the presence of acid in fruit extracts for making jelly is of
importancc, for without it jellies of good taste cannot be made.
Jelly strength increases with the increase in hydrogen-ion concentration
until an optimum is reached. After this, further addition of acid decreases
the jelly strength. The optimum pH in a jelly containing 1 per cent. pectin
is approximately 3.0, 3.2, and. 3.4, for 60, 65 and 70 per cent. of sugar,
respectively. In general, with higher or lower pH, good jellies cannot be
made. .
The jellying point depends on the amount of acid and pectin present in
the original juice. It ha,s been foqnd that as the perccntage of acid increas II
from 0.05 to 1.05, the amount of sugar required to produce 100 grams of
jelly decreases from 75 grams to 53.5 grams. This shows that by increasing
the acid in the pectin solution it can be made to gel with a lower concentra-
tion of sugar, tbus teading to saving of sugar.
Although. citric, tartaric and malic acids, whicb are usually found in
fruits, are all quite suitable for improving the acidity of dle extract, tartaric
acid gives the best results. The final jelly should contain at least 0.5 per cent.
(preferably 0.75%) total acidity. It should not contain more than 1.0 per cent.
acidity, because, with larger quantities of acid, syneresis is likely to take
place. The quantity of the acid required, depends on the amounts of sugar
used, as tbe latter forms the basis of calculations for the quantity of the
jel1y to be obtained.
Test for Acidity. It is necessary to test the acidity of the juice because the
quanlity of sugar to be added would depend on the pectin and acid content.
The acidity can be found by titrating the pectin extract with NJIO NaOH
solution, l:lsing phenolphthalein as indicator. In places where there are no
laboratory facilities, taste is the only guide. With a little experience, one will
be able to judge for oneself whemer the acid present is really sufficient to
give a good jelly. An easy and reliable test is as follows:
One teaspoonful of lime juice is mixed with two teaspoonfuls of sugar
and three teaspoonfuls of water. The mixture is shaken until the sugar dis-
solves. Then the tartness of the pectin extract to be used for jelly making
is compared with that of the mixture. For a good jclly, the two must agree.
If the pectin extract is more acidic, it is diluted with water or with fruit
extract containing a similar amount of pectin but less acid. If the acidity
is less, then some lime juice or tartaric or citric acid is added to the extract.
Controlling the pH of Jellies

The pH of tbe jellies can be controlled in two ways, namely, (i) by adjust-
ing the pH of the pectin extract with an acid or alkali and, (ii) by adding
suitable buffers. Huelin studied tbe effect of pH on jelly strengtb by employ·
ing both these methods, and in most cases he gOt similar results. According
to him, pectin extracts prepared under fairly acidic conditions which are
probably partly dememylated, give an optimum pH of about 2.5 in
unbuffered jellies and of 3.2 in buffered jellies. According to Clayton,
although tbe total amount of acid required for jelly making varies consider-
ably, the required hydrogen-ion concentration corresponds to pH 3.46.
It is well known that me larger the amount of acid present, the stiffer is
the jelly. Tarr states that jelly can be made best when the pH of the pectin
solution is between 3.3 and 3.1, and mat with lower pH, syneresis takes place.
Lowe, however, mentions that in gooseberry jelly, syneresis does not take
place even when the pH is as low as 2.5. He has also been able to prepare from
citrus pectins jellies which did not show any syneresis even when the pH was
2.0 or lower. It is, therefore, to be inferred that weak jellies can be improved
by adding a little acid, but that an acid can, in no way, replace pectin.
Acid should be added near the finishing poim. If elCternal pectin is used,
acid should be added just before the jellies are poured into comainers.
The acid to be added depends uJ10n the acid namrally present in the fruit
employed.
Role of Salts
Fruits contain salts, like sodium citrate, sodium-potassium tartrate, etc .•
which have buffering action and help successfully in controlling the pH of
the pectin solution in making jellies. when added in extra amounts. In the
case of highly acidic fruits, generally about 3 ounces of sodium or potassium
citrate are enough per 100 pounds of sugar to prevent premature setting of
jelly.
Halliday and Bailey state that a jelly can be formed widl a lower concen-
tration of pectin. acid or sugar, if a small quantity of calcium chloride is
added. Hinton reports that although a calcium salt helps in jelly formation,
it has its limitations. Addition of larger quantities of calcium salt would
neutralize the acidity of the pectin solu tion and raise its pH. which would
lower the jelly strength. According to Spencer. when acid is present. sodium
chloride tends to prevent jelly formation and, to get a good jelly. one has
to add larger quantities of sugar and acid.
The acid to be added depends upon the acid naturally present in the fruit
employed.
Role of Sugar
Sugar is an essential constituent in jellies and marmalades. It imparts the
necessary sweetness and body to the jelly.
If the concentration of sugar is high, the jelly supports relatively less
amount of water. The result is a stiff jelly. probably because of increased
dehydration.
Tarr found that if pectin solu tion is concentrated by boiling before sugar
is added, pectin decomposes and loses its jelly-forming strength. The general
practice of adding sugar after concentrating the juice is, therefore, not desir-
able. Besides, sugar added after concentrating the pectin solution does not
dissolv~ in the very short period of boiling. and also does not get sufficient
tune for inversion. The result is that on cooling its crystals appear in the
jelly. Further, if sugar and acid are added to the pectin solution prior to
boiling, the jelly strength of the pectin is not decreased even if the jelly
is boiled for an appreciable time: '
The jelly should not be heated for a long time, otherwise, there may be
excessive inversion of sugar resulting in a syrupy jelly. Long boiling also
darkens me colour. To 'overcome these difficulties, the best course is to make
jellies in small Jots. To limit the time of boiling, the pectin solution should
be brought to a boil first and sugar and acid then added to it.
Quantity of Sugar to be Added

TIle proper amount of sugar to be added to a fruit extract is directly
proportional to the amount of pectin and acid present in the extract. As
the pectin and acid contents of the fruits vary, different quantities of sugar
would be needed for different fruits.
Lal Singh and Gil'dhari Lal have worked out the following Table which
gives the amounts of sugar to be added and th~ final cooking weights of
the jellies.
TA8LE 19. COOKINC WF.ICIITS OF In.l.lES
Jelmeter test fi~ure8 Sugar to add for each lb. Cook to weigh!
on nearest hne of juice extract
lb. oz. lb. 07..
'1 I 4 2 0
I 0 I 10
t o 12 I 4
t o 8 o 14
Kinds of Sugar Used

Cane and Beet Sugar. Both cane and beet sugar can be used for making
jellies.
Dextrose. The texture of jelly made with dextrose sugar is similar to that
of jelly made with sucrose, but the main drawback is that on standing it
crystallizes in the jelJy spoiling its appearance. The crystallization may either
start from the top and go on spreading to the substratum until the wbole
mass is crystallized or the crystals may appear in spots in the jelly. Crystal.
lization starts within 24 hours after making the jelly ; and if the jelly is
removed from the container, the crystals appear in the whole mass within
24 b,ours. Lowe states that if 50 per cent. of dextrose is replaced by sucrose,
the crystallization is slowed down to an appreciable extent, but cannot be
prevented altogether.
Levulose. Levulose forms a syrupy jelly. To get good results with thill
sugar, the jelly should 'be boiled to 107°C., which is nearer to its saturation
point.
Maltose. Maltose is less soluble than dextrose, and considerably less so
than sucrose, at room temperature. Siilce this sugar is less sweet than
sucrose, it forms tart jellies. Its other drawback is that it crystallizes readily
like dextrose and thus spoils 'the appearance of the jelly.
JAMS. JELLIES AND MARMALADES 163
How to Add Sugar

The sugar should be sprinkled on the fruit extract while it is boiling and
should be thoroughly mixed by stirring to ensure complete dissolution.
During boiling. the scum which rises to the (Op is removed from time to
time. Occasional stirring is also necessary to avoid charring of the sugar
sticking to the sides. and also to remove any dissolved air.
Inversion of Sugar
Sufficient inversion of sugar can be obtained by boiling the pectin extract
for IO minutes at pH 3.0. or for 30 minutes at pH 3.5. Although the cooking
period required for jam or jelly making may be short. cooking is done for
a long time deliberately to invert a portion of the sugar. This long boiling
may. however. also cause some of the pectin to decompose with the result
that the product will have a poor set. The best way to overcome this difficulty
is either to use some pre-inverted sugar. which can be made by boiling the
sugar with 0.05 per cent. sulphuric acid for 15 minutes. or to use commercial
glucose or corn syrup.
The maximum solubility of sugar (sucrose) at 80°F . is 68.70 per cent. This
means that only 68.70 per cent. of sugar (sucrose) can be held by a jelly
at 86°F. and if the percentage of sugar is more than 68.70. it will normally
crystallize out. Although pectin acts as a protective colloid to check crystal.
lization. it has its limitations. It is of little avail if the percentage of sugar
(sucrose) is 70 or more. When sugar is boiled with acid. sugar hydrolyses
into dextrose and Icvulose. the degree of inversion depending on the
hydrogen-ion concentration and duration of boiling. Due to partial inversion
of some of the sucrose, three sugars, namely. sucrose. glucose and levulose.
make their appearance in the finished jelly. Since the solubility of a mixture
of these three is more than that of sucrose alone. a jelly can hold more sligar
in solution without crystallization taking place.
Cooking of Jelly
Cooking promotes cohesion of jelly components and also brings them to
a setting state. The mixture should be concentrated as rapidly as possible
to avoid .destruction of pectin. To achieve this. only that quantity of juice
should be handled which can be boiled down to the desired consistency in
about 20 minutes.
The cardinal point to remember in making jelly is that it is the fruit
extract that requires boiling and not the sugar. If jellies are cooked for long
periods. they may become gummy and sticky and may deteriorate in colour
and flavour.
The end point can be found by:
i. Determining the boiling point with a thermometer (Fig. 52).
ii. Sheeting or ladle test.
iii. Weighing.
16<J PRESERVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Flc. 52. JELLY TifERMOM};TER
Determination by Thermometer
A solution containing 65 per cent. solids boils at 220.7°F. at sea level.
H eating of the jellies to trus temperature would automatically bring about
tbe concentration of solids to 65 per cent. Tills is the easiest way to ascertain
dle end point. Correction is, however, necessary for the altitude of the place.
Generally, the end point of jelly should be 8-9°F. higher than the boiling
point of water at that place.
Determination by Sheeting or Ladle Test

This may be the 'cold plate' test, or the 'sheet' or 'flake' test.
Cold Plate Test. A drop of the boiling liquid from the pan is placed on
a plate and allowed to cool. If me jelly is about to set, it will crinkle when
pushed with a finger. The main drawback in this method is that while the
drop on the plate is cooling, the jelly continues to boil with the result mat
there is risk of over-cooking me product Or of missing the setting point.
Sheet or Flake Test. This test is more reliable than the plate test. In
this case, some portion of a jelly is taken in a large spoon or wooden ladle
Almost Done
Finished
FJC. 53. FLAKE T EST: CONDITION OF JAM OR JELLY FLAICES READY FOR POURING
and cooled slighdy. It is then allowed to drop. If the jelly drips like a syrup,
it requires furdler concentration, but, if it falls in the form of flakes or a
sheet (Fig. 53), the end point has been reached.
Determination by Weighing
Where dlere is difficulty in handling me thermometer or in understanding
the sheet or flake test, the weighing method is useful. The boiling pan is
weighed before and again after putting dle fruit extract and sugar in it.
The weight of the fini shed jelly should be about 11> tilllcs the weight of
sugar used.
Foaming
Foaming of jellies during cooking can be controlled by adding a little
cooking oil. Generally, one teaspoonful of the oil is sufficient for a batch
containing 100 lb. of sugar.
PACKING
When jellies are [0 be packed in large containers, it is necessary to use

5-10 per cent. more of pectin and to cook them [0 a temperature -ZOF. .0
higher than what is normally required.
After the jelly is ready, it is skimmed to remove the foam. It is then cooled
slightly and poured into hot and dry containers. If it is to be poured into
glass jars, their sides should be smooth so that the jelly can be turned out
without breaking. Before pouring jellies, glass containers should be warmed
to prevent breakage. After filling the containers, the jelly should be cooled
rapidly to 70°F. Pectin jellies set more quickly at this temperature than at
lower temperatures. If me jelly fails to set or is weak, it is placed in a drier
or in the sun to evaporate the excess of water in it and to promote setting.
It should not be poured back into the boiling pan and heated, because mis
would not only cause loss of flavour, but would also result in some jelly being
lost due to its sticking to the pan and me container.
Sealing and Sterilization

Jellies containing l~ss than 6S per cent. sugar require pasteurization. In
some cases, jellies containing 65 per cent. sugar or even more become mouldy
if mey £Ire not properly packed. Moulding can be prevented by pouring a
min layer or hot molten paraffin wax with high melting point on top of me
hot jelly. To get a good seal, the melted paraffin should be poured a second
time after dle first layer has solidified. A good seal can be made also by
running a pointed knife around the edge of the wax layer while it is still
hot. In this case, one layer of wax will suffice. The surface of the jelly can
also be protected from mould growth by placing a circular disc of paper
of suitable size on the top of the jelly. The paper disc should have been
dipped previously in alcohol.
In commercial practice, hot jelly is packed in containers which are her-
metically sealed and then pasteurized at ISO°F. for 25-30 minutes.
Sometimes in fancy packs, layers of different jellies are allowed to set in

the containers.
Difficulties in Jelly-Making and Their Solution

Several difficulties are experienced in making jellies. The more important
of these are as follows:
I. Failure of Jellies to Set

(i) Lack of Acid or Pectin. A jelly may fail to set due to lack of acid or
pectin, or of both, in the fruit from which it is made. It may also fail to set
due to short cooking of the fruit resulting in inadequate extraction of pectin
and acid.
(ii) Addition of Too Much Sugar. H sugar is added in excess of the right
quantity, a syrupy or very soft jelly results. This can be corrected by adding
some fresh clarified juice, rich in pectin.
(iii) Cooking Below the End Point. If cooking is stopped before the concen-
tration of sugar reaches 6S per cent., the jelly may bil to set and remain
syrupy or very soft.
(iv) Cooking Beyond the Bnd Point. If heating is continued beyond the end-
point, the jelly becomes tough due to over-concentration. This usually
happens when dle juice is rich in both acid and pectin, and enough sugar
has not been added.. If the acid is in excess, the pectin decomposes and a
ropy syrup or a jelly with waxy consistency results.
(v) Slow Cooking for a Long Time. Since tbe coagulating properties of pectin
are destroyed in the presence of acid when heated for a long time, prolonged
heating should be avoided.
II. Ooudy or Foggy Jellies

(i) Ooudy Jelly. It is formed if the juice or exu'act is not clarified.
(ii) Use of Immature Fruits. Green fruits contain starch which is insoluble
in the juice, and the jelly made from them has, therefore, a cloudy
appearance.
{iii) Over-cooking. Over-cooked jellies get gummy and sticky, and after
being pooTed into .contai'ners do not become clear becaulle of excessive
viscosity.
(iv) Over-cooling. On tOO much cooling, the jelly becomes viscous and
sometimes lumpy. Such a jelly is almost cloudy.
(v) Faulty Pouring into Containers. The jelly should not be poured into
containers from a great height because air gets incorporated into the mass
and the bubbles formed do not clear easily, especially when the jelly is well
JAMS. JELLleS ANO MARMALADtS 167
made and sets in a short period. The spout of the pouring vessel should not
be more than about an inch above the top of the container.
(vi) Non·removal of Scum. The jelly becomes duudy alsu if the sCLIm is not
removed before pouring.
(vii) Premature Gelation. If there is excess of pectin in the juice. it may calise
premature gelation with the result that air may get trapped and thus make
the jelly opaque. There are four ways of avoiding premature gelation in
jelly: (a) by heating the solution to the boiling point only and pouring it
quickly into the containers so as to shorten the time of contact between
pectin. acid and sugar in the jelly kettle; (b) by eliminating the acid from
the cooking batch and placing it in the containers prior to pouring in the
jelly batch; (c) by working at low sugar concentrations; and (d) by using
relatively low setting pectin.
III. Fonnation of Crystals

The formation of sugar crystals in jelly is caused by adding excess of
sugar. It is also an indication that the jelly has been over-concentrated.
In making jelly from fruits defIcient in acid. the mixture should be boiled
for a few minutes after adding sugar to hydrolyse it so that sugar crystals
do not form later.
Crystals of cream of tartar sometimes separate out in grape jelly. Although
they are harmless. they spoil the appearance of the jelly. The cream of tartar
should be eliminated from the grape juice by cooling and settling the juice
before making the jelly.
IV. Syneresis or 'Weeping'

The phenomenon of spontaneolls exudatiun of fluid frum a gel is called
syneresis or 'weeping' of jelly. It is caused by several factors:
(i) Bxcess of Acid. Addition of excess of acid results in the breakdown of
jelly structure due to the hydrolysis or decomposition of pectin. Syneresis
is more noticeable in tender jellies. It can be prevented by mixing either
some juice low in acid or more pectin so that more sugar can be added to
increase the volume of the jelly and to decrease its acidity.
(li) Too Low Concentratiion of Sugar <Soluble Solids). This causes the net·
work of pectin to hold more liquid than it can possibly do under normal
conditions.
(iii) Insufficiient Pectin. This results in the formation of a pectin network
which is not sufficiently dense and rigid to hold the sugar syrup.
(iv) Premature Gelation. This causes the network of pectin to break during
the pouring of jelly into containers so that the jelly becomes weak and
remains broken.
168 PRESERVATION OF FRUI1'S ANt> VEGE1'A.J3LES
Syneresis in jellies can be checked by adding a small proportion of buffer

salts like sodium citrate, disodium hydrogen citrate or even a small quantity
of common salt.
V. Fermented Jellies
Although jellies usually contain a high percentage of sugar (65 per cent.)
sufficient to prevent all ordinary forms of fermentation, one often comes
across fermented stuff. Fermentation usually takes place in those jellies in
which syneresis has taken place. The remedy lies in storing the jelly in a
cool and dry place.
Storage in a damp place favours the growth of moulds even in jellies
covered with a seal of paraffin wax. Moulding may be due to various factors,
such as (a) not covering the jelly properly, (b) not pouring paraffin sufficiently
hot so as to kill mould and bacteria present at the surface of the jelly and
(c) breakdown of the paraffin seal.
SOME TYPICAL JAMS AND JELLIES
Jams
Apricot Jam. Both white and yellow apricots can be used. The method is
similar to that employed for peaches except that the quantity of acid added
should be raised to 0.5 per cent. especially in the case of the sweeter white
varieties. The kernels can be decuticled like almonds and added to the jam
to improve its taste and appearance.
Peach Jam. White as well as yellow peaches can be used. The fruit is
peeled by knife or lye, and the pulp softened by heating with about y.;:th
of its weight of water. An equal weight of sugar and 0.20 per cent. citric or
tartaric acid should be added to get a good jam.
Pear Jam. Pears are peeled and cut into small pieces which arc crushed
and boiled with ~th of their weight of sugar. To the pulp 0.25-0.5 per cent.
citric acid may be added towards the end-point.
Plum Jam. It can be made with or without stones. The fruit is crushed
and boiled with about one-third of its weight of water to soften the pulp.
The pulp is screened through a sieve to remove the stones and skin. The
alucha plum gives a golden brown jam with a fruit-sugar ratio of 1: 1. If
desired, citric or tartaric acid, 0.5 per cent. of the weight of fruit, may be
added to improve the taste. Other yellow or purple varieties of plums also
can be utilized. . .
Other Jams. Jams from cherry, mulberry, strawberry, musk melon, tomato,
mango, jack fruit, cashew-apple, pineapple, etc., also can be made in the
usual way. It may, however, be necessary to vary slightly the fruit-sugar
ratio and the percentage of acid add~.
JAMS, JELLlES AND MARMALADES 169
Jellies
Guava Jelly. Ripe guavas, preferably with thick pulp, are washed, aut into
thin slices, and covered with an equal weight of water containing one gram
of citric acid to a pound of guavas. The mass is heated for about 30 minut~s
to extract pectin. A second extract can also be taken adding water equal
to Xth of the weight of pulp. The extract is strained through thick cloth
and left over-night for settling. The clear supernatant liquid is syphoned
off and tested for pectin. The required quantity of sugar (generaliy an equal
quantity) is added, and the jelly boiled down to the desired consistency.
Other Jellies. Jellies can also be made in a similar manner from apple,
grape, roselle, jaman, jack fruit, etc.
Jam-like Products
Guava Cheese. The guavas are cut into slices and boiled with an equal
quantity of water or soften the pulp. The pulp is screened through a net
cloth to separate seeds and skin. To one pound of pulp are added ) X-I ~
pounds of sugar, about I to I ~ grams of citric acid, and about 2 ounces
of butter. The mixture is cooked to a thick paste. Small quantities oE red
colour and salt may be added towards the end to improve the appearance.
The boiled cheese is allowed to set on a greased plate. After cooling. it can
be cut into pieces and packed with moisture-proof paper.
Apple Butter. Apple butter is apple jam made from finely sieved pilIp by
adding small quantities of spices, consisting of sligar, nutmeg, cinnamon.
clove, etc. The pulp-sugar ratio should be I :~. On account of its spicy
fiavour, apple buttC'r is liked by many.
MARMALADBS
In the preparation of marmalades, all the conditions nec~sary for jelly

making are applicable. The pectin and acid contents of the marmalades
shou ld be kept slightly higher than what has been recommended for jellies.
Citrus marmalades are of two types, namely, (a) jelly marmalade and,
(b) jam marmalade. The method of preparing these is similar to that used
for jellies.
Jelly Marmalades
A good jelly marmalade can be made using the following combinations.
1. Malta or sweet orange and khatta (Citrus aurantium), 2: 1 by weight
(shreds of malta orange peel).
2. Sangtra (loose jacket orange) and khatta, 2: 1 by weight (shreds of
malta orange peel).
170 PRESERVATION OF FRUITs AND VECETABLES
3. Khatta alone (shreds of malta orange peel).

4. Malta or sweet orange and galgal (Citrus limolJill), 2: 1 by weight.
Cruess and McNair recommend the usc of two whole orangt:s with one
whole lemon for making marmalade.
Selection of Fruit
Only sun-ripened fruils should he used. Size is immaterial as Jong as the
fruits are free from blemishes.
Preparing the Fruit

The outer yellow portions of the skins of citrus fruits contain colouring
matter and volatile oils, while the white inner portion contains pectin. The
yellow skin (flavedo) is peeled off from the fruits. For work on a small scale,
an ordinary table-knife suffices, but for large-scale work special peeling and
stredding machines are used. Care should be taken to see that very little
of the white portion is removed. Loose skin oranges are peeled by hand.
The peels, after propel' shedding, are kept separate and are incorporated
in the jelly.
The peeled fruits are cut into 1/8"-3/16'1 thick slices or crushed in an
apple grater to facilitate extraction of pectin. For work on a small scale,
a table-knife will do.
Boiling for Extraction of Pectin

The sliced fruit is boiled with 2-3 times its weight of water to extract
pectin. While it is being boiled, a teaspoonful of the clear extract is drawn
out from the pan and tested with alcohol for its pectin content. Boiling
is stopped when sufficient pectin has been extracted. The process usually
takes 45-60 minutes.
The aqueous pectin solution from the boiled fruit is separated by pressing
the frult in a rack and cloth press or by using cheese cloth 01' jelly bags.
If desired, a second or third extraction may be taken in a similar manner,
but using smaller amounts of water. If more than one extract is taken, all
the extracts should be mixed together to get a solution of uniform quality.
Clearing of Pectin Extract

For work 011 a small scale, the pectin extract is placed ill an aluminium
or enamelled or stainless steel vessel and allowed to stand overnight. When
the sediment settles down, the supernatant clear juice is syphoned off or
decanted. 'F or large-scale work, the juice is mixed with wood pulp or with
other filter-aids and passed through jelly bags or a filter press.
JAMS. JELLIES AND MARt"IALADES 171
Preparation of Peels
While the pectin solution is being clarified. the peels arc cut into shreds.
~"-l" long and about 1/32"-1 /20" thick. The peels become tough if they
are boiled as such with the sugar solution. It is. therefore, necessary to
soften them before li se. Generally. the following methods are lIsed for
this:
1. Boiling the shredded peels for 10-15 minutes in se\'eraJ changes of
water. Incidentally. the bitter principles of the peels arc also removed
in the process.
2. Boiling the peels in 0.25 per cent. solution of sodium carbonate or
0.) per cent. ammonia solution.
3. Heating the peels in an autoclave at 240° -250°F. The time required
to soften the peels depends on their size and shape.
The shreds should not be unduly heated at high temperatures for a long
time as there is danger of their discolouration. After softening. they should
be kept covered with water for use later on.
Cooking
In order to determine the quantity of ~ugar to be added. the pectin
solution is tested with alcohol or with a jelmeter as is done in the ca:>e of
jelly. The solution is brought to a boil and the requisite sugar added to it.
The boiling is continued and the impurities rising to the surface are skimmed
off. Shreds arc added at the rate of about one ounce per pound of the
original extract. when the temperature of the mixture reaches 2lsoF. (at
sea level). The boiling is continued till the jellying point is reached. The
end-poim can be determined as in the case of jelly, i.e. by, (a) sheeting test.
(b) drop test, (c) weight test and (d) finding out the temperature of the
mixture. Marmalade containing 65 PCI cent. sugar boils at 221°F. (at sea
level). Boiling should not take more than 20 minutes. Short boiling produces
a bright and sparkling marmalade.
Cooling
When the marmaJade is ready. it is cooled in shallow or water-cooled pans
in which it is stirred slowly all the while. This operation is very essential
to keep the shreds evenly distributed. When the temperature reaches
180° -190°F., a thin skin begins to form on the surface of the marmalade.
and it becomes sufficiently thick to prevent floating of the shreds.
Flavouring
It is d~sirable to add flavour because the natural flavour evaporates during
boiling and cooking. Generally, a small quantity of orange oil may be added
to the marmalade at the time of packing.
112 PRESEIWATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Canning and Sterilization

After cooling, the marmalade may be filled into jelly glasses or jars, which
can be sealed air-tight, or packed in cans. When it is filled in jelly glasses,
it is allowed to set overnight and sealed on the following morning with very
hot paraffin wax as is done in the case of jellies. If jars or cans arc used,
these should be scaled hermetically and sterilized at 180°F.- I90 °F. for
25-30 minutes.
DJlrkening
Marmalades tend to darken during storage. To prevent this, Lal Singh
and Girdhari Lal recommended adding 4 grams of potassium metabisulphite
per 100 pounds of marmalade, provided that the product is not packed in
tin containers. Potassium metabisulphite is dissolved in a small quantity
of water and added during the cooling of the marmalade. Incidentally, this
small quantity of potassium metabisulphite also removes any chance of
spoilage by moulds.
JAM MARMALADE
The method of preparing jam marmalade is precisely the same as dlat

for making jelly marmalade. No attempt is, however, made to clear the
pectin extract of the fruit. The whole of the pulp mass is used.
Fruits are taken in the same proportion as recommended for jelly
marmalade. The orange peel is removed along with the inner white skin
(albedo) and the fruit is sliced into 1/8"-3/16" pieces. The peels are shredded
and boiled as in the case of jelly marmalade and kept separately for use
later on. In dle case of '~hatta (Citrus auralltia) or lemon, the outer yellow
skin is peeled off and discarded.
The sliced oranges and lemons or ldlattas arc mixed and boiled thoroughly
till the slices become tender and sufficient pectin is extracted. The boiled
fruit mixture is passed through a coarse sieve or through a pulper to remove
~eeds and coarser material. To the pulp thus obtained, the boiled shreds
are added, and the mixture is boiled with sugar to get a jam marmalade.
In dle preparation of jam marmalade, the-pectin test is not es ential since
it will not give any indication of the amount of sugar needed, because the
pulp will make the marmalade thicker in consistency. Sugar is, therefore,
added on the basis of the weight of the fruit taken, generally in the ratio
of J: I .
'nle pulp and sugar are cooked till the marmalade contains 65 per cent.
sugar.
After cooking, a small quantity of orange oil is added to enhance the
flavour of the marmalade as is done in the case of jelly marmalade.
JAMS, JELLiES AND MARMALAm;S 173
When the marmalade is ready, it is filled into cans, scalding hot. The cans
are then sealed airtight.
After sealing. the cans are immediately inverted to $terilize their lids, and
no further heat treatment is given. For large scale production, however, it is
necessary to pasteurize the product at 180 o -190°F. for about 30 minutes in
the case of A2Yz size cans. Pasteurization time will vary slightly for containers
of uther sizes.
CHAPTER XII
PRESERVES, CANDIES AND CRYSTALLIZED FRUITS
A preserve is made from properly matured fruit, by cooking it whole or

in large pieces in a heavy syrup till it becomes tender and transparent. In its
preparation not less than 45 pounds of the fruit are used for every 55 pounds
of sugar, and cooking is continued till it concentration of at least 68 per
cent. of soluble solids is achieved.
Freshly made preserves are wholesome and attractive. However, when kept
in storage for long periods, their natural colour and flavour deteriorate on
account of oxidative changes. They should. therefore, be made only during
the season unless there are adequate facilities for keeping the fruits so that
they can be had in the off-season also. Preserves made from frozen fruits
are generally superior in colour and fla"our to those made from fresh fruits
stored at room temperature.
Preliminary Processing
The fruit should be washed thoroughly. If it has been sprayed
with Bordeaux mixture or lead arsenate to check blight, it should
be washed with dilute hydrochloric acid, especially if peels also are to be
consumed.
The preliminary processing varies with the kind of fruit used. For example,
apples and pears are just peeled and punctured if they are to be kept whole;
otherwise they are peeled, halved or quartered, cored and punctured.
Mangoes are peeled, sliced and punctured. Peaches are destoned and lye
peeled. Apricots, cherries and greengages are only destoned. Oranges, lemons,
grapefruits and citrons are halved and depulped. Pumpkins (petha) are sliced.
peeled, pricked and placed in dilute lime water for some time. Strawberrie~
and raspberries are not given any treatment.
The fruit is first cooked slightly in water to make it just soft for absorption
of sugar. Cooking of fruit in syrup is a very difficult process, because the
syrup has to be maintained at a proper degree of consistency so that it can
permeate the entire body of the fruit without causing it to shrink or
become tough. If the fruit is cooked in a heavy syrup straightaway, its
juice will be drawn out rapidly due to osmosis, with the result that it would
shrink and very little sugar would be absorbed. The fruit should, therefore.
be boiled initially in water before putting it into syrup, or cooked in a
syrup of low concentration. Very juicy fruits may, however, be put into
even a thick syrup from the beginning because the excess of juice present
ill them will serve to dilute the syrup.
J74
PRESERVES, CANDIES AND CRYSTALLIZED FRUITS 175
Cooking in Syrup
There are three ways of cooking a fruit in a syrup, namely, (i) Clpen-kettle
one-period process, (ii) open-kettle-slow process, and (iii) vacuum cooking
process. In all these processes care has to be taken to ensure that the fruit
is kept covered with the syrup during cooking as well as afterwards ;
otherwise it will dry up and the quality of the product will be impaired.
Open-kettle One.period Process. To start with, the syrup in which the fruit
is cooked should be of low sugar content. Boiling should be continued with
gentle heating until the syrup thickens sufficiently. Rapid boiling will make
the fruit tough, especially when heating is done in large shallow pans with
only a small quantity of syrup. Soft fruits such as strawberries and rasp-
berries which, unlike hard fruits (e.g., apples, pears, peaches, etc.) require
little boiling, can, however, be safely cooked in heavy syrup. The final con-
centration of sugar should not be less than 68° Brix, which corresponds (0
a boiling point of 222.2 °F. (at sea level). The main drawback of this simple
and cheap process is that the flavour and colour of the product suffer
considerably during boiling.
Open-kettle Slow Process. The fruit is cooked in water until it becomes
tender. Sugar, equal to half the weight of fruit, is then put on the boiled
pieces in alternate layers, and the mass allowed to stand for 24 hours in a
vessel. The fruit gives out excess of water, and the sugar goes into solution.
giving a syrup of about 37 -38° Brix. More sugar is added to raise the strength
of the syrup to about 60° Brix. A small quantity of citric or tartaric acid
(1 -2 ounce per 100 lb. of sugar used at the start) is also added to invert
a portion of the cane sugar. The whole mass is then boiled for 4-5 minutes
and left for 24 hours. On the third day, the strength of the syrup is raised
to about 68° Brix, and the mass boiled again for 4-5 minutes. The fruit is
then left in the syrup for 3-4 days. Finally, the strength of the syrup is raised
to 70° Brix and the product packed in containers.
Vacuum Cooking. Preserves made by cooking under vacuum keep their
fiavoUl' and colour better than those made in the open kettles. In this process,
the fruit is boiled to soften it before being placed in the syrup. To begin
with, the syrup should be of 30-35° Brix. It is subsequently concentrated
under vacuum (along with the fruit) to 70° Brix. Hard fruits like apples and
pears require slow boiling to facilitate the penetration of sugar, while soft
fruits can be boiled briskly.
Cooling and Packing

If th~ preserve is to be stored in bulk, it should be cooled immediately
after final boiling to avoid discolouration of the product.
The fruit is drained from the syrup and put into dry containers. Freshly
prepared boiling syrup of 68° Brix is then poured into the containers (A2:A
176 PRESERV~TION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
size cans) which are exhausted for 8-]0 minutes at 21l"F. and thereafter
sealed airtight.
If the preserve is packed scalding-hot in dry containers, subsequent steri-
lization may be omitted. In large-scale production, however, it is, desirable
to sterilize the sealed containers to preclude any chance of spoilage. The
cans (A2!.4 size) may be sterilized for 25 minutes at 2IZOF. and cooled
immediately afterwards.
CANDIED, GLA~D, AND CRYSTALLIZED FRUITS
A fruit impregnated with cane sugar and glucose, and subsequently

drained and dried, is called candied fruit. Candied fruit covered with a thin,
transparent coating of sugar which imparts to it a glossy appearance is
called glaced fruit. When candied fruit is coated with crystals of sugar,
either by rolling it in finely powdered sugar or by allowing the sugar crystals
to deposit on it, it becomes what is called crystallized fruit.
CANDY MAKING
The process for making candy is the same as that employed for preparing
preserves, with only this difference that the fruit is impregnated with a
higher percentage of sugar or glucose. A certain amount of invert sugar
or glucose is substituted in place of cane sugar. The rotal sugar content of
the impregnated fruit is kept at 7S per cent. to prevent fermentation. The
process of impregnation with sugar must not be hurried through because
otherwise, the fruit would shrivel and sweat and become unfit for glacing
and crystallizing.
Fruits and sugar are the main raw materials used for candy making. The
most suitable fruits are those which possesg pronounced flavour, such as
pineapple, peach; peels of orange, lemon, grapefruit. citron, cherry and
ginger. Slightly unripe fruits should be used because fully ripe and over-ripe
fruits develop jam-like consistency in the syruping process. Canned fruits
of good quality can also be used.
Cane sugar is employed in conjunction with glucose or invert sugar. These
latter sugars are briefly described below:
Confectioner's Glucose. It is also known as corn syrup, crystal syrup, or
commercial glucose. It is a heavy, slightly sweet, colourless and semi-fluid
substance. In Germany and France, it is made from potato starch, and in
U.K. and U.S.A., from maize starch.
Dextrose. It is used in candy manufacture in the U.K. and the U.S.A. It is
slightly less sweet than cane sugar and is quite stable. It gives very fine
crystals, and when mixed in small proportions with cane sugar induces
crystal formation in that as well. Thus it helps in imparting smootllness
and softness to the candies.
PRESERVES, CANDIES AND CRYSTALJ_IZED FRUITS 177
Invert Sugar. When cane sugar is boiled with a small quantity of an

organic acid like acetic, citric or tartaric acid, or with cream of tartar, it
is hydrolysed into invert sugar. Usually half an ounce of acid is added for
every cwt. of sugar used. On hydrolysis, dextrose and levulose are formed
in equal proportion. and the mixture is much sweeter than the cane sugar
alone. Moreover, invert sugar does not crystallize. It also prevents crystal.
lization of cane sugar in heavy syrups.
Ordinarily, it is not easy to know the extent to which inversion of cane
sugar takes place under the above process. The speed with which inversion
is effected depends directly on the temperature at which heating is done.
But above 200°F., the colour of the syrup begins to darken. To overcome this
difficulty. a small quantity of the invert sugar Or glucose syrup is employed
in conjunction with cane sugar.
Fruits like amla and myrobalan, and citrus peels are kept in a strong
solution of common salt to remove their astringency. They are usually stored
tightly packed in barrels to which brine containing 15 per cent. common
salt, and sulphurous acid equal to 2,000 p.p.m. of sulphur dioxide, are added
to avoid fermentation and softening of the fruit. At the time of usc, the
stored fruit or peel is taken OUt from the barrel and washed thoroughly
in running cold water to leach out as much of the brine as possible. The
fruit or pee) is then placed in a cooki.ng vessel and boiled for about 15
minutes to remove traces of salt and to soften its texture. It is then soaked
in fresh cold water for about 12 hours. the water being changed 4-5 times.
This completes the leaching process and makes the fruit firm in texture.
Syrup Treatment
TIle prepared fruit or peel is boiled in a syrup of 30° Brix contammg
3 parts of cane sugar and 1 part of corn syrup or confectioner's glucose or
invert sugar, and thereafter left in the syrup for about 24 hours. Next, the
Brix of the syrup, which would have fallen below 30 degrees, is raised to
40 degrees by adding a mixture of cane sugar and corn syrup or confec-
tioner's glucose or invert sugar in equal parts. The process is repeated and
the strength of the syrup raised by 10° Brix upto 65° Brix and then by 5°
Brix, on alternate days until the final concentration of the sugar reaches
about 75° Brix.
In India. corn syrup and confectioner's glucose are not manufactured.
Candy manufacturers, therefore, use only cane sugar, a portion of which
is inverted. The method adopted is as follows:
The fruit or peel (after brining. where necessary) is boiled in cane sugar
syrup of 30° Brix containing 0.1 per cent. citric or tartaric acid (about
1!h oz. acid per 100 pounds of syrup) for 10-15 minutes and, thereafter,
left in the syrup for 24 hours. Next, the Brix of the syrup is raised to
40 degrees by adding more cane sugar. The whole mass is boiled for abollt
5 minutes and left for 24 hours. This is repeated until the Brix of the syrup
reaches 60 degrees. After that, the strength of the syrup is progressively

increased (by 5 degrees at a time) by adding more sugar and boiling the mass
011 every alternate day until the final concentration reaches about 75 per cent.
It is desirable that the cane sugar and the invert sugar should be in
equal proportion. To achieve this, the syrup should be analysed daily.
If sufficient inversion of cane sugar is not noticed, the syrup should be boiled
for longer periods. But if even on prolonged boiling inver:iion does not occur
to the desired degree, a little more acid should be added. The acidity. if
maintained at 0.1 per cent. by adding small doses of acid daily along with
sugar until the syrup reaches 60° Brix, would ensure proper inversion.
The total amount of sugar required in candy making is much more than
what is actually absorbed by the fruit. It, varies of course, with the kind of
fruit used. The quantity required for preparing one pound of candied orange
or lemon peels, petha or ash gourd (Benincasa cerifera), and carrot is given
ill the following Table:
TABJ.E 20. SUCAl\ REQUIREMENTS FOR C.~NOYINC
(AIll'r GirdlJari Lal & Jain, N. L.-1948)
Fruit Total sugar required Sugar actually absorb·

per pound of candy ed by the fruit
- ---- -_. - --
lb. oz. oz.
Orange peels 2 31 14.3
Lemon peels 2 4 13.4
Pc/laa (Ash gourd) 12 12.5
Carrots 6 13.3
-- - -- -
The syrup left Over from the candying process can be used in various
ways, i.e., for sweetening chutneys, sauces and pickles. in vinegar making.
for candying another batch of the same kind of fruit after suitable
dilution, etc.
Draining and Drying

After the above treatment has been completed satisfactorily, the fruit
may be removed from the syrup. It is drained for half an hour and placed
on the sorting tables to separate the unwanted pieces. The fruits or peels
are next wiped with a wet sponge. Sometimes they are dipped for a moment
in boiling · water to remove the adhering syrup. This is followed by slow
drying in shade, or for 8-10 hours in a drier at about lSO·F. Citrus peels
need drying for 10-12 hours.
PRESERVES, CANDIES AND CRYSTALLIZED FRUITS 179
GLActlING
According to Cruess, syrup just sufficient for the glaceing process is made
by boiling a mixture of cane sugar and water in the proportion of 2: 1 in
a pan at a temperature of 236° -23soF. and skimming the impurities as these
come up. Heating is then discontinued and the syrup cooled to 200·F.
Granulation of the sugar is achieved by rubbing the syrup with a wooden
ladle on the side of the pan. Dried candied fruits are passed through this
granulated portion of the syrup, one by one with a fork, and placed on
waxed tin sheets in a warm dry room. To hasten the process, the fruit may
be dried in a drier at 120°F. for 2-3 houri. When it becomes crisp, it iR
packed in airtight containers.
CRYSTALLIZED FRUIT
The process of 'crystallizing' candied fruit is quite different from that

employed for glaceing, but is similar to the crystallizing of confectionery.
Syrup of 70· Brix is used. It is placed in a large deep vessel and allowed
to cool to room temperature. To avoid premature granulation of sugar, a
wax paper is placed on the surface of the syrup. The candied fruit is put
in a wire tray which, in turn, is' placed in a deep vessel. The cooled syrup is
then gently poured covering the entire fruit. To prevent the fruit from
floating. another wire tray is put on it, and a waxed paper is placed on
the surface of the syrup. The whole mass is left undisturbed for 12-18 hours
at the end of which a thin crust of crystallized sugar will be formed. The
tray containing the fruit is then removed carefully from the pan, and the
surplus syrup drained off. The drained fruits are placed separately on wire
trays and dried at room temperature or at 120·F. in driers.
Spoilage
There is a likelihood of spoilage occurring due to fermentation in the
initial stages of preparation of preserves and candies when the percentage
of sugar in the syrup is low. This can, however, be controlled by boiling
the product at proper intervals. If candied and glaced fruits are kept under
humid conditions they throw off some of their sugar due to absorption of
moisture from the air. Again, moulding takes place if they are packed in wet
containers. There is also danger of their being attacked by mould if not
sufficiently dried.
SOME COMMON PREPARATIONS
Amla (Phyllanthus emblica)

Select large-sized fruits for making a. preserve. Wash them in water. Prick
them with stainless steel, silver or wooden needles and place them in 2 per
cent. common salt solution. Raise the strength of the solution progressively
by 2.0 per cent. on subsequent days until it reaches 8.0 per cent. Wash the
fruits and place them in freshly prepared 8.0 per cent. brine for a week.
This treatment would remove most of the astringency. Wash the fruits
again. Ordinary iron equipment should not be used, as on accollnt of
the reaction of tannins the fruits would go black. Blanch the amlas in
2.0 per cent. alum solution until they become soft. Care should be taken
to prevent breaking or cracking of the segments in the process. The syrup
treatment is similar to that employed for apples. For packing use only
lacquered cans.
Apple
Although several varieties of apples are grown in India, only two kinds,
the sweet and the sour, are important from the point of view of making
preserves and candies.
Peel the apples thinly, but do not remove the stems and cores. Prick the
apples with stainless needles or forks. Place the sweet variety in 2-3 per cent.
common salt solution and the sour variety in plain water to prevent browning
and also disintegration during blanching. Transfer them, next, to diluted
lime water (2 parts of lime water and 1 part of water) and leave them for
24 bours. Prepare 2-3 per cent. alum solution and boil it in a pan. Now place
the apples ill the boiling solution. Add a small quantity of sodium bisulphite
to whiten the colour. Boil until they become soft. Next, place them in cold
water discarding the blanching solution. Prepare fresh alum solution for
every lot. They arc now ready for sugar treatment.
Take sugar equal to half the weight of the prepared apples. Usually
37-38 pounds of sugar will be required for every 50 pounds of the unprocessed
fruit. Place the sugar and apples in alternate layers in a vessel and leave
the mass undisturbed for 24 hours. During this period, the fruit would give
out sufficient water and the sugar would go into solution. Ordinarily, the
syrup formed is of about 36-38° Brix. Next, boil the mass for a few minutes
and raise the strength of the syrup to about 59-60° Brix by adding more
sugar. Also add a small quantity of citric or tartaric acid or 2S per cent.
by weight, of invert sugar or corn syrup. After boiling, let the apples
remain in the syrup for another 24 hours. On the third day, raise the
strength of the syrup to 70° Brix and let the product stand for a week.
Aftel" thill, the preserve is ready for canning.
If it is to be candied, the Brix of the syrup should be raised to 75 degrees,
and again kept for one week before canning.
Bael (Aegle marmelos)

The bael has a very hard rind which is difficult to cut and peel with an
o~dinaryknife. The usual procedure is to make a slit at the blossom end
PRESERVES, CANDmS AND CRYSTAJ.UZED FRUITS 181
of the fruit with a . strong knife, insert the pointed end of the knife under
the skin to crack it, and remove the rind in pieces.
Slice the peeled fruit crosswise into about an ineh thick sliccs, and wash
these in water. Prick them on both sides with stainless steel needles or
forks, and soak them in cold water overnight. Next, blanch them in boiling
water containing a suitable edible red colour until they become soft and
absorb sufficient colour.
Now take sugar, equal to half the weight of the prepared fruit, and
place it and the slices in alternate layers in a vessel. Allow the mass to
stand for 24 hours. Next day, drain the syrup and raise it to 59·-60· Brix
by adding more sugar. Also add a small quantity of citric or tartaric acid.
Alternately, add 2S per cem. by weight, of invert sugar or com syrup to
raise the strength of the syrup to 70· Rrix. Then leave the product for
twO weeks. The preserve would be ready for canning after this period. If
it is to be candied, the Brix of the syrup should be raised to 75 degrees.
and the product kept for another two weeks before canning.
Ber (Zizyphus jujube)

Take large-sized bers, wash and prick them with wooden needles or forks.
Then place them in 2.0 per cent. common salt solution. Raise its strength
by about 2.0 per cem. every day till it reaches 8.0 per cent. Next transfer
them to fresh brine of 8.0 per cent. strength cOlltaining 0.2 per cent. potas·
sium meta-bisulphite and allow the mass to stand for 1-3 months. After
that they should be taken out. washed in water and hoiled till they become
tender. They can then be candied in the usual way.
Carrot
There are two kinds of carrots available in the market, i.e., those with
orange yellow skin and flesh, and those having purple skin but white flesh.
Usually, carrots with orange yellow flesh are preferred for making preserve
and candy.
Take young. tender carrots with a soft pith. Srape off the peel. Prick the
carrots with stainless steel needles or forks, and Cllt them into pieces of
suitable size. Boil them in water Ulltil they become tender. Further process-
ing is to be done in the same way as recommended for apples.
Cherry
Keep cherries in 8.0 per cent. common salt solution containing calcium
bisulphite equal to 600 p.p.m. of sulphur dioxide, until their natural colour
disappears. With this treatment, cherries can be kept in good condition
for a year or even longer. When required for preserve making, they should
be taken OUt of the brine solution and washed thoroughly. .
Pit and blanch the cherries to make them soft. Next cover them in a vat
with cold syrup of 36-37 0 Brix containing 0.02-0.05 per cent. Erythrosine
or Ponce au 3R dye or a mixture of both (to get the shade required). On
the following day. drain off the syrup and raise its strengdl by 5° Brix.
Bring it to a boil. and add the boiling hot syrup to the fruit. Allow the
mass to stand for 24 hours. Repeat this until the Brix of the syrup reaches
60 degrees. At this stage. add either citric acid. 1 oz. for every 50 pounds
of the fruit. or invert sugar or corn syrup to the extent of 25 per . cent. of
the syrup and continue the process of progressively raising the Brix of the
syrup till it reaches 75°. Keep the cherries in this syrup for a week before
packing.
For glaceing. boil the cherries with the syrup for a few minutes and
when still hot. drain off the syrup by spreading the fruit on wire trays.
Further processing is to be on the lines suggested for candied peels.
Candied Citru. Peel.

Thick rinds of citrus fruits like orange. lemon. grapefruit. citron. and
pummelo. are used for candying. Various methods are employed for their
preliminary processing. The more important of these are given below:
Method I. The fruits are cut into halves. and the pulp is reamed out.
The cups. after removing the rags. are placed in 1-2 per cent. hot sodium
bicarbonate solution for 20-30 minutes. They are then rinsed in cold water.
pricked with stainless steel forks and boiled in water to remove bitterness
and to make them tender.
Method II. The de-pulped fruit. from which the rags have been removed.
is cured by placing it in 5-10 per cent. common salt solution. To hasten
the process. a small quantity of glucose is sometimes added to the brine.
When curing is complete-which usually takes 5-7 weeks-the peels become
translucent. The peels are then sorted and placed in a freshly prepared
10-12 per cent. common salt solution containing 500-600 p.p.m. of sulphur
dioxide. When required for candying. they are rid of salt by repeated
washing and soaking in warm water. The cups are then pricked from inside
with forks to facilitate absorption of syrup.
Method III. The peels are preserved in water containing 3500 p.p.m. of
sulphur dioxide for use in the off-season. This gives a firmer product with
a more pleasing colour and flavour. When required, the peels are punctured
and boiled to make them tender.
Method IV. The fruit is de-pulped. and rags are removed from inside
the cups. The peels are then placed in 2.0 per cent. common salt solution.
The strength of dle solution is increased by 2.0 per cent. every 24 hours
until it reaches 8.0 per cent. This takes 4 days. On the fifth day. the peels
are washed and placed in a freshly prepared 8.0 per cent. common salt
solution containing about 0.2 per cent. sodium or potassium metabisulphite
PRESERVES, CANDlES AND CRVST ALLtZEO t'RutTS 183
and 1.0 per cent. calcium chloride, and stored (for 1-3 months). Calcium
ch10ride helps in keeping the peels firm. When required, they are washed
with several changes of water, and then boiled to effect softening.
After the peels have been prepared by any of the above methods, they
are covered with a cold syrup 30· Brix in a vessel. and left for 48 hours.
On the third day, the Brix will be less than 30 degrees. It is raised by 10
degrees, and the peels are boiled with the syrup for about 5 minutes. The
process is repeated until the Brix reaches 60 degrees. At this stage, citric or
tartaric acid is added-I oz. for every 50 pounds of the peels. Alternatively.
glucose or invert sugar may be added up to a maximum of 50 per cent. of
the cane sugar used. The strength of the syrup is then raised to 75· Brix
_5· on every day. The peels are then left in the syrup for 2-3 weeks. Finally.
they are dried on wire trays at room temperature till they are no longer
sticky. They may also be dried at 120·F. for 2-3 hours.
Ginger Candy
The best ginger for candy making is Canton ginger which is extensh'ely
grown near Canton in China. It is rich in flavour, juicy and succulent unlike
the Indian variety which is hard, knotted and fibrous. The difference is
largely due to the better method of cultivation adopted in China. Careful
selection of the embryo stem and cultivation under controlled condition s
in loose sandy soils may, however. improve the quality of Indian ginger also.
The method of candying Indian ginger is as follows:
Select only very tender, fibreless and large-sized rhizomes. Three to fouf
months old ginger grown on sandy loam soil gives the best results. Remove
any adhering soil by thorough washing. Scrape off the skin with a knife.
and cut pieces of the desired shape and size. Next soften the pieces hy
cooking them for an hour with sufficient 0.5 per cent. citric acid solutioll
in an enamelled basin at 10 pound pressure in an autoclave (pressure
cooker). Citric acid improves the colour. If an autoclave is not available.
boil pieces with O.S per cent. citric acid solution for 6 hours in a copper pan
heavily lined with tin. The temperature and time may, however, be altered
to suit the age and tenderness of the ginger. After cooking, wash pieces
throughly with cold water. When sufficiently cooled, prick them with stainless
steel; silver or wooden pricks. Wash them again. Next boil them in 30 per
cent. sugar solution for 15 minutes and leave them in the syrup overnight.
Next day, increase the concentration of the syrup by about 5· Brix by
adding more sugar. Boil them again with the syrup. Repeat this every day
until the syrup is of about 60· Brix. At this stage, add either a small quantity
of citric or tartaric acid, or 25 per cent., by weight, of invert sugar or corn
syrup. Boil again and leave the product for 24 hours. Then raise the strength
of the syrup to 75° Brix and allow the mass to stand for 2-3 weeks so that
sugar may penetrate the ginger pieces thoroughly. The product obtained is
184 PlillSERVATtON OF FRUlTS AND VEGETABLES 0
generally known as 'ginger-in-syrup'. For candying, boil it for about 5

minutes, and, when still hot, drain the syrup and roll the pieces in finely
ground sugar. Place °the pieces on wooden trays and dry them in shade
till they are no longer sticky. They may also be dried at 120°F. in a drier.
The dried product will keep good for a long time if stored in a cool and dry
place. The syrup left over after candying can be used again for candying
more ginger. It can also be used as ginger syrup for flavouring aerated
waters.
Karonda (Carrisa carandas)

Wash the fruit and de-stone it. Next, blanch it in 2 per cent. alum solution
containing a small quantity of sodium bisulphite. The original pink colour
of the fruit would be bleached to white. The method of colouring and
syruping is similar to that employed for cherries.
Mango
Select large-sized slightly underripe mangoes of sweet variety and wash
them. Peel them with a sharp knife, taking care that no green patches of
the skin are left over, for these would turn black during subsequent treat-
ments and spoil thereby the appearance of the product. Now cut the mangoes
lengthwise into large slices. Place the slices in boiling water and heat until
Lhey become tender. Then cool and prick them with stainless steel needles
or forks. Subsequent syruping, processing and packing processes are similar
to those suggested for apple candy and preserve.
Pear
Use only fully ripe pears of good v<uicty. Peel the fruit and cut it into
halves or quarters (or keep it whole), and core. Next, prick it with stainless
steel needles or forks. Then place the fruit immediately in 2-3 per cent.
common salt solution to prevent browning. When required, cook it in
boiling water to remove brine and also to soften it. To make the candy
attractive, boil the pieces for a short time in a solution of some suitable
edible colour (say deep green or red). When sufficient colour has been
absorbed by the fruit, wash it in running cold water. Now place it in syrup
of 30 Beix and leave it for 24 hours. Raise the strength of the syrup
0
by S° Brix every day until it reaches 50 degrees. At this stage, add

either a small quantity of citric or tartaric acid or 25 per cent. by weight,
of invert sugar or corn syrup. Continue raising the strength of the
syrup till it is 70· Brix. Then keep the product for 2-3 weeks. It would be
ready after that for packing as preserve. If it is to be candied, the Brix
of the syrup should be raised to .75°, and the fruit kept again in it for
2-3 weeks.
PH.ES£i{VES, CANDIES AND CRYStALLlZE!) flW1TS 185
Petha (Benincasa cerifera)

Take fuUy ripe petha and cut it longitudinally into large slices. Remove
the inside fluffy portion of the slices and peel each slice separately. Soak
the peeled slices for half an hour in lime water diluted with three times
the quantity of water. Prick them with stainless steclneedles or forks and Cllt
them into pieces of suitable size. Keep the prepar d pieces soaked in diluted
lime warer overnight. Next, prepare 2-3 per ceut. alum solution and bring
it to a boil. Boil the pieces in the solution till they become tender. Then
remove them and cool in running cold water. 1£ it is desired to make the
pieces perfectly white, a small quantity of sodium sulphite may be added
to the alum solution while cooking. Now place the prepared pieces in
alterl1ate layers with sugar Qlalf their weight), in a vessel and keep for
24 hours. The pieces will give out sufficient water and the sugar will go
into solution. Ordinarily, the syrup formed is of 36·-38· Brix. Now add
more sugar to raise its strength ro about 59·-60· Brix. Also add citric or
tartaric acid, 1 oz. for every 100 lb. of sugar used. Alternatively, add 25 per
cent. by weight, of invert sugar or corn syrup to raise the syrup strength.
Boil the pieces and the syrup for about 10 minutes and leave the mass for
24 hours. Subsequently, increase the strength of the syrup by 5· on every
alternate day till it is 70· Hrix. Allow the pieces to remain in the syrup
for 4-6 weeks. The product thus got is known as 'Petha' preserve. For
candying, bring the whole mass to a boil and, when still hot, drain the
syrup. Roll the pieces in finely powdered sugar and dry them on trays at
room temperature.
Pineapple
Prepare the fruit ill the same way as recommellded for canning. Prick
on both sides with stainless steel need les or forks to facilitate absorption
of sugar. Next, place it in 2.0 per cent. common salt solution for 24 hours.
After that raise the strength of the salt solutioll by 2.0 per cent. every
day till it reaches 8.0 per cent. Keep the fruit in the brine until slight
fermentation takes place. This treatment softens the fruit. If the fruit is
to be used immediately, leach out the brine by soaking the pieces for
12 hours in water; which should be changed several times. If it is to be
used ~n the off-seasoll, the fruit may be stored in a freshly prepared 8 per
cent. common salt solu tion containing 350 p.p.ll1. of sulphu r dioxide.
When required, boil the fruit for a short time to remove common salt and
sulphur dioxide. Place the fruit in a syrup of 30· Brix cOlllainiug 0.1 per cent.
citric or tartaric acid and boil for 10 minutes. Raise the strength of the
syrup by 5' Brix every day ulltil it reaches 50 degrees. At this stage, analyse
the syrup for its acid content and, if necessary, add more of acid to bring
it to 0.1 pCI cent. strength. Alternatively, add 25 per cent., by weight, of
invert sugar or corn syrup. Repeat the process of raising the syrup strength
till it is 70· Brix. Let the fruit remain in the syrup for 10 days. It will then
186 PlttSERVAUON OF rRUtts AND VEGETABLES
be ready for packing as preserve. If it is to be candied, the Bl'ix of the syrup

should be raised to 75· and the fruit again kept in it for W days.
Strawberry
Take firm ripe berries of good colour and flavour. Sort them carefully
and remove the stems. Wash the berries to remove dirt. Next, put them
along with an equal quantity of sugar and some water in a boiling pan. Warm
the mixture to dissolve sugar, skimming off impurities in the process. Cook
the syrup to a temperature of about 220·F. Then cool it to 200·F. and put
the berries in it. To prevent floating of the fruit, place a wire tray over it
and thcnleave it for 24 hours. Thcreafter boil the mass again to a tempera-
ture of 220·F. Repeat this once. The preserve is ready.
CHAPTER xm
TOMATO PRODUCTS
Fresh tomatoes are very refreshing and appetizing. They are a good source
of vitamins, particularly of vitamin C. In India, tomatoes are grown both in
summer and winter. But the winter tomatoes arc superior because they
generally contain more solids. Two varieties of tomatoes are more commonly
grown in India- they are the large and round ones and the small and
oval ones. In other countries, well-known varieties like Marglobe, San jose,
etc., are grown because they are better for preserving and processing.
The tomato changes in colour during various stages of ripening, i.e., from
green to pale white, yellow and red. The yellow colour is due to the presence
of carotene. The red colour appears when lycopene is formed in the fibres.
Since tomatoes are av~ilable in India throughout the year, a good tomato
products industry can be developed. Tomato products are judged by their
colour which in turn depends on the degree of rednes~ of the tomatoes
used.
'The following rules should be kept in mind to get a product of good
quality:
I. Use only plant-ripened red fruits as far as possible. The yellow and
greenish portions not only mask the red colour of the fully ripe
tomatoes, but also turn brown due to oxidation.
2. Never usc iron equipment. Lycopene (a self-oxidizing isomer of
carotene) to which tomatoes Owe their red colour, turns brown when
it comes in contact with iron. Iron also forms black compounds
with the tannin of the tomatoes or of the spices used. Equipment
should be glass-lined or made of monel metal or stainless steel.
Copper equipment also spoils the colour of the product.
3. Avoid prolonged heating and cool the product quickly after
preparation.
Tomato 'juice cocktail, ketchup, sauce and soup, and chilli sauce are some
of the important products made from tomatoes. The methods of preparing
these are described below:
TOMATO JUICB
For this product, only plant-ripened tomatoes should be used. All green,
blemished and over-ripe fruits should be rejected as they adversely affect
the quality of the pack. Juice made from over-ripe tomatoes is usually thin
and unpleasant in taste and aroma.
187
The yield. colour and flavour of the juice depend 011 the ripeness of
tomatoes. the variety used and the place where grown. The following points
should be kept in view to ensure good quality of the juice:
J. The juice should be of deep red colour. As the red colour in tomatoes
is contained in the fibres. as much of the fibrous portion as possible
should be incorporated in the juice.
2. The juice should have the characteristic flavour of tomatoes.
3. The acidity of the juice should be about 0.4 per Cent.
4. The vitamins present in fresh tomatoes should go into the JUKe.
Their retention depends on the method of extraction employed. It
has been found that while carotene is fairly resistant to heat and
oxidation in the variouR processes o( preparation. Vitamin C is lost
appreciably. particularly during the screening of the juice. due to
oxidation.
5. For uniformity in quality. either the tomatoes lIsed should be from
one stock and place. or the juice should be suitably blended.
Washing and Trimming

Mere rinsing of tomatoes ill water is 1)0t enough, because mould filaments
and other micro-organisms, found in their crack~. wrinkles. folds and stem
cavities, are not easily dislodged. For thorough cleaning. they should be
washed in running water. For work on a large scale, rotary-washers are
used.
Great care should be takcn in trimming. The loss on account' of trimming
etc .• as worked OUt in India. varies from 4.0 to 17.0 per ccnt. with an average
of about 8.0 per cent. This heavy wastage is largely due to the absence of
standard varieties and defects in picking, transport and marketing of the
produce.
Crushing
After trimming. tomatoes arc cut into small pieces before boiling. Alter-
nately, they may be crushed by means of wooden roller-crushers.
Pulping
Tomatoes can be pulped by the hot or cold process described below:
Hot Pulping. The crushed tomatoes are boiled in their own juice in steam·
jacketed kettles or aluminium pans (Fig. 54) for 3-5 minutes to facilitate
pulping. The process has the following advantages:
1. The tendency of the juice to separate into liquid and pulp can be
overcome if the natural pectin present in the seeds and the skin
can be incorporated. During boiling, the pectin is released, and this
thickens the pulp. The pectase enzymes. which would otherwise
hydrolyse the natural pectins present in tomatoes and make the juice
thin, are also destroyed during boiling.
TOMATO PRODUCTS 189
2. Heating sterilizes the juice partly thereby checking to some extent

the growth of living organisms which cause fermentation, etc. It also
inactivates the oxidative enzymes which destroy Vitamin C.
3. A light cooking releases the colour present in the skin.
4. The yield of juice is higher than in cold pulping.
Cold Pulping. The tomatoes are crushed and passed as such through a
pulper. This process has the following defects:
J. As compared to the hot process, the extraction of juice is somewhat
difficult. The yield also is smaller.
2. Air gets incorporated in the juice in the process of extraction and
oxidizes Vitamin C. There are, however, machines available nowadays
which considerably eliminate the mixing-up of air.
3. The juice extracted by this process is somewhat light in colour.
4. The process has to be finished quickly to avoid spoilage, especially
during the initial stages of preparation.
Recently, Penfold has pointed out that cold pulping gives a juice whose
flavour and consistency are different from those of tlle hot-break juice. The
manufacturers have, therefore, to decide ahout the type most likely to
satisfy the market demand. The flavour of the cold-pulped juice is much
sharper and more acidic. This is due to the pressure applied in this process
whereby the juice surrounding the seeds which is richer in acid and poorer
in sugar than the other portions of the tomato, is extracted first. On account
of this, the cold-break juice is also of lighter consistency than that obtained
from hot pulping. It has, however, a good fresh flavour.
Extraction of Juice
There are two types of extractors in use, the continuous spiral press and
the cyclone.
Continuous Spiral Press. This consists of a long spiral screw which
presses the tomatoes against a tapered screen of fine mesh having 25 holes
per linear inch, each hole with a diameter of 20/1000 of an inch. The juice
passes through the screen while the skin and seeds arc expelled at the other
end of the machine. When these machines are operated at a speed of about
250 revolutions per minute, there is little or no incorporation of air in the
juice. The tomatoes passing tluough the hopper should have a jet of steam
playing' on them to prevent oxidation and destruction of the vitamins.
Cyclone or Pulper. Tomato juice can also be extracted by passing the
tomatoes through a cyclone or pulper. The main defect in this type of
machine is that a considerable amount of air is incorporated into the juice.
Special attachments for the cyclone can, however, be obtained nowadays
to avoid this. In these machines the insoluble solids of the juice are very
finely divided and stay in suspension for longer periods.
For work on a small scale, tomatoes can be strained through sieves of
nickel or monel metal baving a one millimeter holes. Not more than 60 per
190 PREsERVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
cent. of the fruit should be recovered as juice because, with higher yields,
the juice becomes thick and harsh in flavour.
Total Solid.
On an average, tomato juice should have a total solid content uf 5.66 per
cent. (Sp. Gr. 1.0240) at 68· F. The amount of total solids present can be
determined in a number of ways, such as by weighing the dried sample,
by the refractive index and by the specific gravity hydrometer. For routine
work, the specific gravity method gives fairly satisfactory results. The juice
is strained through a thick cloth and the specific gravity of the strained
juice determined with a hydrometer at 68°F . If the specific gravity is obtained
at temperatures other than 68°F., then a temperature correction is applied.
The percentage of total solids is then determined from standard tables
showing the relationship between specific gravity and the percentage of
solids (see Appendix I).
Common Salt and Sugar

On an average, 4-6 lb. of common salt is added per Joo gallons of juice
LO counteract the astringent taste of the juice.
Sometimes sugar is added to improve the taste. According to Lal Singh
and Girdhari Lal, addition of about 1.0 per cent. cane sugar improves the
flavour.
Packing
The juice can be packed in botrles or cans. Canned juice has d better
taste, aroma, colour and preservability than tbe bottled product.
Sterilization time Sterilization

Size of can (wben the can is filled temperature
at IBoo-190°F.)
Min. OF.
No. 1 IS 212
No. 2 2S
No. 21 30
"
No. 10 40
The juice is generally homogenized to retard separation of liquid from

the pulp and to give it a thick and uniform appearance. It is heated to about
ISO·F. and forced through a small orifice under a pressure of about 1,000 lb.
per square inch. This shears the particles and tends to reduce them all
to about the same size. The juice is afterwards heated to about 180°-190°F.
and poured into hot sterilized bottles (of 12-16 oz.). The bottles are then
hermetically sealed and sterilized for about half an hour in boiling water.
TOMATO PRODUCTS 191
Plain cans are the best. although enamelled ones can also be used. In
this case also. the juice is canned at lBoo-I90°F.• leaving practically no
beadspace. otherwise marked loss in colour. flavour and Vitamin C occurs.
The cans are then sealed and processed according to their sizes. as follows:
After processing. the cans are cooled in running cold water.
Since No. 10 can is processed for a longer period. juice in it usn ally has
a cooked flavour.
According to Tressler. Joslyn and Marsh. tomato juice may be pre-
sterilized by bearing in continuous heat exchangers to temperatures milch
above the boiling point. The following time-temperature relationships are
considered to be approximately equivalent in sterilizing value.
Temperature of juice Holding time
of. Min.
240 3.3
245 1.5
250 0.7 standard process
255 0.32
260 0.15
265 0.07
This procedure is effective for destroying the flat-souring organism.

B. thermoacidurans. Before filling. the jllice must be cooled slightly below
the boiling point. but should still be sufficiently hot to sterilize the
containers.
Analysis of Juice
Lal Singh and Girdhari Lal have made a comparative analysis of four
foreign and two Indian brands of tomato juice and the data is given in
the Table below:
TABL£ 21. ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS BRANDS OF TOMATO JUICE OBTAINABI"E

IN INOL-\N MARKET
No. Brand of Sp. gr. of Sr,. gr. of Per cent. Salt as sodium Total acid as
jllice juice at fi trate at solids in chloride in malic acid in
68 °F. 6S ' F. juice 100 c.c. juice 100 c.c. juice
I. Foreign 1.0240 1.022 5.66 0.89 0.38

2. n 1.0240 1.022 5.66 0.79 0.36
"
3. m 1.0334 1.031 7.99 0.84 0.49
4. IV 1.0250 1.023 5.91 0.82 0.38
5. Jndia~ 1.0387 1.036 9.27 ).74 0.59
6. n 1.0292 1.027 6.95 1.11 0.56
TOMATO PUREE
Concentrated tomato pulp without skin or seeds, with or without added
salt and containing not less than 8.37 per cent. of salt-free tomato solids,
is called 'Medium tomato puree'. If it is further concentrated so that it
contains not less than 12 per cent. solids, it is called 'Heavy tomato puree'.
Preparation
The first step is the preparation of tomato pulp. This is made from plant-
ripened tomatoes in the same manner as tomato juice.
Pulp Concentration
Concentration of the pulp is done in two types of vessels, namely, (i) open
cookers and (ii) vacuum P!Uls.
Open Cookers. For work on a small scale, aluminium patilas will do. For
large-scale production, glass-lined tanks 01' tanks made of stainless steel,
monel metal or nickel and fitted with flash coils are used. The open pan
method although employed generally, has obvious disadvantages. During
boiling, the juice comes into contact with the oxygen of the air which not
only destroys the Vitamin C in it, but also makes the juice brown. Lal Singh
and Girdhari Lal have pointed out that unless special equipment is used
to prevent the incorporation of air during the entire manufacturing process,
a considerable loss of Vitamin C takes place. Butter or an edible oil is
added to the juice during boiling to prevent it from foaming, boiling-over.
sticking or burning. Incidentally it also helps in lessening oxidation. This
method has now, however. been superseded by the vacuum pan method
which gives a product of superior quality.
Vacuum Pan. The installation of a vacuum pan is rather expensive. Its
main advantage is that the juice can be boiled at a much lower temperature,
i.e., at about 160°F.• thus helping in the retention of the original colour
and flavour of the tomatoes to a marked degree. As air also is removed
during boiling, there is very little likelihood of oxidation or Vitamin C
losses. In order to sterilize the product, the vacuum is broken towards the
end and the temperature raised to 212°F. for about 10 minutes.
Pulp Consistency
The processes used for concentration of tomato pulp are as follows:
M~thod I. The pulp is poured into the boiling pan till the heating coils
are covered. Hearing is then commenced. More juice is added and the
heating continued till the pan is full of pulp. Heating is then stopped
and the total solid content of the pulp is determined. If the solid content
is higher than tbe required percentage, more juice is added to lower it;
if it is lower, concentration is continued till the desired consistency is reached.
Manufacturers find this method easy to follow.
TOMATO PRODUCTS 193
Method II. In this case, a known volume of the JUlce is concentrated

to a known volume of the finished pulp. The juice is let into the boiling
tank and, when the coils have been covered, heating is started and the tank
is filled to capacity. Heating is continued till the pulp begins to boil
vigorously. Steam is then shut off momentarily and the volume of hot pulp
is measured with a measuring rod. Then a small sample is drawn for
determining the tomato solids by the specific gravity method. While the
determination of the solids is being done, boiling of the pulp in the pan is
continued. By making use of standard Tables (see Appendix 1) the pulp
is boiled to the desired $pecific gravity. Since both the original and final
measurements of volume are taken at the boiling point, temperature
correction is not necessary for the readings.
The End Point

The total solids in the juice, at the start, during cooking and at the
finishing point can be determined either with a specific gravity hydrometer
or with an Abbe or pocket refractometer, or by drying the juice in vacuum
at 70°C. In practice, the first two methods are used as they are simple.
Packing
Puree can be packed in plain as well as in enamelled cans. The cans are
usually filled with scalding-hot puree at IBO°F.-IB5"F. and scaled without
exhausting. Sixteen-ounce cans are processed at 212"F. for 20 minutes. Larger
cans are not generally processed, the temperature of the hot puree itself
being sufficient for sterilization.
TOMATO PASTS
A concentrated top1ato juice or pulp, without seeds and skins and can·
taining not less than 25 per cent. of solids, is known as tomato paste. If the
pulp is further concentrated so as to contain 33 per cent. or more of tomato
solids, it is called concentrated tomato paste. Common salt, basil leaf or
sweet oil of basil leaf also may be added . Parr of its acidity may be
neutralized with sodium bicarbonate or carbonate. Ordinarily tomato juice
can be concentrated to about 14-15 per cent. tomato solids in open pans,
but for higher concentration, vacuum pans are necessary. The initial con·
centration is generally carried out in open pans and the product is finished
in vacuum pans.
Since the product is very thick, the total solids are determined by an
Abbe refractometer.
TOMATO COCKTAIL
Tomato cocktail is gaining popularity in many high class hotels and

restaurants. It is prepared just before serving and is also served from stock.
In the latter case, the cocktail is preserved by pasteurizing It ill bottles.

Recipes may differ, but the main constituent is tomato juice to which
common salt, vinegar, Worcestershirc sauce, lemon or lime juice, tabasco
sauce, etc., are added in different proportions to suit the palate. Two typical
formulae are given below:
FORMULA I
Tomato juice (Sp. Gr. 1.020) 10 lb.

Cloves (headless), whole 1.5 gill.
Cumin, black pepper and cardamom in 4.5
equal quantities
Cinnamon, broken 1.5
Coriander seeds 1.5
Red chillies, Kashmiri (finely ground) 0.25 ..
Vinegar (10 per cent. acetic acid) 10 oz.
Common salt 45 gm.
------------- -----
Simmer the tomato juice with the spices loosely tied in a cloth bag for
about 20 minutes in a covered vessel and then add lime juice, vinegar and
common salt.
FORMULA II
-------. -----
Tomato juice (Sp. Gr. 1.020) 10 lb.
Cloves (headless), whole 1.5 gm.
Cumin I
Black pepper 1
Cardamom 1
Red chillies, Kashmiri (finely ground) 0.25 "
Ginger 1.5 "
Lime juice 1.5 oz.
Vinegar (10 per cent. acetic acid) 7.5 It
Common salt 45 gm.
Quality of Ingredients
Tomato Juice. If possible, use fresh juice; otherwise, use canned product.
Vinegar. Use only malt or cider vinegar of good quality and not acetic
acid.
Lime Juice. Only crystal ~lear lime juice should be used because any
sediment in it will impart an undesirable flavour. Moreover, it gives a
'foreign' taste to the product when it is pateurized for stocking. Citric
acid is not a good substitute as it does not produce as good a taste as natural
lime juice does.
Sugar. It should be of good quality.
Common Salt. Refined table salt should be used.
Pasteurization
When all the ingredients have been mixed and the cocktail is ready for
bottling, heat it to 180-190°F. and fill it into 12 oz. hot sterilized bottles.
TOMATO PRODUCTS 195
Seal the bottles and immerse them in boiling water (212°F.) for 30 minutes
and then cool.
TOMATO KBTOIUP
Tomato ketchup is made by concentrating tomato juice or pulp without

seeds and pieces of skin. Spices, salt, sligar, vinegar, onions, garlic, etc., arc
added to the extent that it contains not less than 12 per cent. tomato ~olids
and 28 per cent. total solids.
Raw Material
Select orily sound ripe tomatoes of deep red colollr. Cut off all green ::Ind
yellowish portions. Green fruit should not be used as it will make rhe ketchup
inferior in colour and flavour.
Juice Extraction
The juice is exrracted in the same manner as in tomato jllice or puree.
Juice Standardisation
The raw juice is a thin watery fluid and its specific gravity varies with
the kind of fruit and the duration of boiling. It follows, therefore, that spices
have to be added each time in varying proportiop..s. This would, therefore,
not yield a standard product. Standardisation can be achieved by using a
recipe for juice of 1.0220 specific gravity (filtrate of pulp of 5.66° Brix).
Keeping the other ingredients constant, an equivalent amount of juice of
any other specific gravity can be conveniently added.
Recipes
There are several recipes which give good ketchup. Recipe I given hy
Lal Singh and Girdhari Lal, with slight variation has become popular
with the manufacturers in this country. The remaining three recipes are
popular in other countries.
RECIPE I
Tomato JUice (Sp. Gr. 1.022-1.027) 6 gal.

Onions, chopped 375 gm.
Garlic, chopped 25 "
Cloves, whole, headless 10 "
Cardamom 4 "
Black pepper 4 "
Zira 4
Mace (Jalvaln), not ground 2.5 "
Cinnamon (broken) 17.5 ..
Vinegar, 6% acetic acid 25 lb.
Sugar 2.0 "
Salt gm: 312
Red chillies 12.5 "
------------------------------------------------ ---------
RECIPE II
Tomato pulp (Sp. Gr. 1.020) 330 gal.
Sugar 120 lb.
Salt 27 ..
Vinegar, 100 grain, white, distilled 7 gal.
Cloves, headless 15 oz.
Cinnamon, broken and siCted 15 ..
Mace I ..
Cayenne pepper 5 ..
Garlic, freshly ground (or onion a 2S oz. 25 ..
and garlic S oz.)
Cook to a finish of 125 gallons. This makes a mildly spiced product.
RECIPE IJl
Tomato pulp (Sp. Gr. 1.022) 600 gal.
Sugar 300 lb.
Salt 50 ..
Pal?rika 8 ..
Omons, chopped or ground 10 ..
Garlic 2 ..
Mace 12 oz.
Cinnamon, broken and sifred 10 ..
Cloves, headless 12 ..
Cayenne fepper 13 ..
Vinegar, 00 grain 16 gal.
------
Cook to a finish of 200 gallons. This makes a spiced ketchup with a good
colour which is partly due to the paprika.
RECIPE IV
------------------
Heavy puree (Sp. Gr. 1.06)
_._
100 gal.
Salt 28 lb.
Sugar 125 ..
Chopped onions 2S II
Cinnamon (broken bark) 2S oz.
Mace 31 II
Cloves. whole. headless IS ..
Allspice IS II
Cayenne pepper 3! ..
Chopped garlic (optional) 4 II
Vinegar (distilled. of 10 % acetic acid) 12 gal.
Paprika. ground (optional) 2 lb.
Place all the spices except paprika. onions and garlic. in vinegar in a
covered kettle and simmer the mass for about 2 hours. Add sugar and
salt to the vinegar and stir. Add the extract thus obtained, after removing
the spice residues. to the ketchup towards the end of the boiling process. If
desired. add the paprika powder directly to thc ketchup. The above formula
yields slightly more than 100 gallons of ketchup.
ADDITION OF INGREDIENTS
Spices
The spices should be of good quality and should be added in proper pro-
portions to give an agreeable flavour. The mixture made should be such
that no one spice dominates the Datural flavour of tomatoes. The spices
can be used in the following ways:
TOMATO PRODUCTS 197
Bag Method. The spices are tied loosely in a muslin bag and it is
placed in the juice during boiling. It is removed before bottling the product.
This method has the following drawbacks:
(i) The bag may give way and spoil the whole product. In that case,
even if the pulp is again forced through a very fine sieve, particles
of the spices will still pass and darken the product.
(ii) The taste and flavour may vary every ume according to the duration
of boiling and variation in the composition of spices used on different
occasions.
(iii) All the flavours are not extracted in the firSt boiling. Moreover. some
of the volatile flavouring substances may be lost during boiling. To
counteract these. a quantity of spices. larger than what is actually
required. will have to be used. This will add to the cost. although
the used spices can be utilized for the preparation of pickles.
In spite of these drawbacks, the bag method givC's a ketchup of high
quality.
Use of Bssential Oils. These oils do not contain tannins and. therefore.
do not spoil the colour of the product in the way the whole spices do.
Essential oils of spices may be blended suitably. The essential oil of a spice
docs not. however. give the true aroma of the spice.
According to Campbell. comparative strength of a whole spice vis-a-vis
its essential oil is as follows:
Spice (100 lb.) Equivalent weigh! of oil
lb.
Cinnamon 0.5
Clove 15.0
Mace 3.5
Pepper 1.0
Cardamom 3.0
Use of Oleo Resins. These are true aromas of spices and can be used
with advantage in large-scale production. Oleo resins are added to the
ketchup a few minutes before the boiling is complete.
Use of Extracts. Spice extracts can be prepared on a large sca le by
proJonged soaking or boiling of spices in vinegar. The use of these extracts
helps to standardise the proportion of different spices. and have the taste
and aroma of the product. This process is employed by some ketchup manu -
facturers in India.
Sugar
Only about a third of the total amount of sugar required is added before
cooking. This helps to intensify and fix tomato colour. The rest of the
sugar is added a little before the ketchup is ready. If the whole of the sugar is
added in the beginning, the pulp will have to be boiled for a longer time and
at a higher temperature, which may spoil the colour of the ketchup. In

commercial tomato ketchups, the percentage of sugar varies from 10 to 26.
Common Salt
Salt bleaches the tomato colour and to some extent dissolves the copper
of the kettle or the coil. It is, therefore, desirable to add it towards the
end. Finely powdered salt is evenly sprinkled on the surface of the ketchup
and stirred. In commercial ketchups the percentage of salt varies from
1.3 to 3.5.
Vinegar
Well-matured malt vinegar is essential for the manufacture of a good
ketchup. Good flavour cannot be obtained by using spirit vinegar. Cider
vinegar, although very pleasant, has a rather mild flavour. Good vinegar
should have 5.0-5.5 per cent. acidity in the form of acetic acid. It is necessary
to usc vinegar of the same acid strength and quality to obtain a ketchup
of standard quality. Vinegar should be added only towards the end when
the ketchup has thickened considerably, so that it does not volatilize, render·
ing the product deficient in acid and flavour.
A tomato ketchup generally contains 1.25-1.5 per cent. acid in the form
of acetic acid. Glacial acetic acid is sometimes used, as it has the following
advantages:
I. It is cheaper than vinegar.
2. Being colourless like water. it does not impart any colour of it!! own
to the product.
3. It is 100 per cent. acetic acid and can be added towards the end without
causing any loss of flavour and acid.
When spiced vinegar or acetic acid is used. the acidity of dle vinegar
already present in it should be taken into account at the time of adding
the vinegar. according to the recipe.
Thickening Agents
TIle tendency of tomato ketchup to separate into pulp and clear juice
largely depends upon the amount of pectin present in it. In order to increase
its viscosity and prevent the separation of pulp. pectin is usually added up to
about 0.1-0.2 per cent., by weight of the finished product.
Cooking and Concentration

To get a product of uniform taste and flavour and also of fine texture
and thickness, the total solids in the finished product should be kept constant.
In commercial ketchups, the percentage of the total solids varies from
20 to 37. A ketchup with 28-30 per cent. total solids has a better flavour
than a ketchup with more than 30 per cent. solids. A higher proportion
TOMATO PRODUCTS 199
dilutes the tomato solids because it contains more sugar and vinegar. As
a ketchup with 28-30 per cent. solids does not keep for long after opening
the bottles once. the general tendency is to increase the total solids to 32-37
per cent. This increases its keeping quality on account of it higher sugar.
salt and vinegar contents.
Some well-known brands of tomato ketchup contain 31.5-32.6 per cent.
of total solids.
Total solids in the ketchup can be determined by means of a specific
gravity hydrometer. But thi~ method is tedious. The refractometer method
is more convenient although it does not give very accurate results owing
to the presence of salt. acetic acid. etc. There is also a slight devia tion in
the relationship between total solids and refractometer solids. According
to Cruess. in commercial practice. the juice (Sp. Gr. 1.0220) is concen trated
to one-third of its original volume as determined with a gauge-stick.
Bottling
When the ketchup has been cooked. it is passed through a finishing
machine with a very fine sieve to removo any tomatO fibre and small pieces
of paper or wood that might have got in through sugar or spices.
The ketchup should be bottled at about J90 °F. to prevent darkening of
its colour and loss of vitamin contents during the storage. On cooling, the
ketchup shrinks in volume producing thereby a high degree of vacuum in
the bottle. Sometimes. a black ring is formed on the surface of the ketchup
i.e .• in the neck of the bottle. This is known as 'black-neck'. It is stated
to be due to the oxidation of iron compounds which enter into the ketchup
from the boiling equipment. and from the metal of the cap through the
action of acetic acid. When iron comes in contact with the spice mnllins.
it forms ferrous tannate which on oxidation, forms the black ferric tannate.
To overcome this defect. the ketchup should be deaerated and a tin foil-
faced liner should be inserted under the caps. Recently. Siddappa. et al,
have studied the beneficial effect of addition of ascorbic acid in pre,'enting
black-neck formation.
Pasteurization
Even under the most favourable conditions, pasteurization of tomato
ketchup is essential. Some manufacturers are of the view that after sealing.
tile bottles should be placed along their sides so that the hot ketchup may
come in contact with the cap and thus sterilize it. This is not always safe
on account of the wide variation in temperatures at different points in
the container. The temperature at the centre approaches the filling
temperature while that at the bottom. sides and the neck. is considerably
lower. Thus. it is not possible to know definitely whether the caps will
actually get sterilized by simple contact with the ketchup. It is. therefore.
necessary to pasteurize the product in bottles. The bottles are filled at

about 190°F., sealed and pasteurized for 30-35 minutes in hot water.
With a modern type filling machine, the bottles are filled at 190°F., sealed
and then washed with warm water to remove any adhering ketchup.
Further sterilization of the filled bottles is not done, the filling temperature
being considered adequate for sterilization. During filling, the temperature
is not, however, allowed to fall below 190°F. at any stage.
A ketchup made from tomatoes of good quality using vinegar, sugar,
salt and spices in right proportions, does not generally get spoiled for a
fairly long time even after the bottle has been opened, and stored in a
cool place. It is, however, better to add 0.025 per cent. of sodium benzoate
to the product before bottling and pasteurize it as a safeguard against
spoilage during use for 3-4 weeks. The sodium benzoate in the ketchup
can be determined by the methods given in AO.A.C.
CHILI SAUCE
This is a highly spiced product and is prepared from plant-ripened and

peeled tomatoes. It is mostly used as a flavouring material in cooking and
to some extent, as a table relish also.
Preparation
The tomatoes are washed thoroughly rejecting any blemished or rotten
portions. These are blanched in hot water or steam till the skin becomes
loose. Next they are dipped in cold water to stop further cooking and
softening. The tomatoes are peeled and chopped without removing the
seeds. The spice bag is placed in the tomatoes during cooking.
The following method has been recommended by Lal Singh, Girdhari
Lal and their colleagues for the preparation of the chilli sauce:
To 100 lb. of peeled tomatoes, add 2X lb. of sugar, 10 gm. of red
(Kashmiri) chillies, 2 lb. (washed, peeled and (inely chopped) of onions, and
the following spices ticd loosely in a cloth bag:
Mace (not ground) 7 gm.
Cinnamon, broken 18
Cumin, cardamom and black 22.5 "
pepper in equal quantities
Ground white pepper 10
Ground ginger 10
"
Cook the whole mass in a steam-jacketed kettle down to about 56 Ib
crushing tomatoes with a ladle, if necessary, during the process. Add 4~ lb
of sugar, 1~ lb. of common salt and finally 3~ lb. (10 per cent.) vinegar.
Continue the cooking of the mass further for about 5-10 minutes after
which, pack immediately in plain A2~ cans, seal and sterilize for half
an hour in boiling water.
TOMATO PRODUCTS 201
According to 'randon, the following recipe gives a sauce of good quality:

Tomatoes, peeled 50 lb.
Sugar 5 lb. lOot.
Common salt 9 oz.
Chillies, ground It oz.
Garlic, chopped 9 oz.
Onions, chopped 3l oz.
Vinegar (5 % acetic acid) 19 lb.
To the tomatOes add all the ingredients except vinegar and cook to a
thick consistency. Add the vinegar and boil for a few minute~. Then pack
hot into wide-mouthed bottles and sterilize for 30 minutes in boiling
water.
TOMATO SAUCB
Siddappa, Bhatia and Girdhari La! have standardised a method for the
preparation of tomato sauce. It has been found satisfactory also for canning
baked beans in tomato sauce.
RECIPE
Tomato pulp (6% soluble solids) 65 lb.
Cardamom, pepper and cumin (Zira) in
equal quantities 8.5 gm .
Cinnamon, broken 10 gm .
Cloves, headless 8.S gm.
Mace (not ground) 5.7 gm.
Common salt Ii lb.
Onions, chopped 5& oz.
Garlk, ground 18 gm.
~ugar 41 lb.
While vinegar, 100 grain 580 c.c.
(58 c.c. of 100 % acetic a itt)
Red chilli powder 15 gm.
Cook to about half its volume, i.e., to 26-28 per cent. refractometer solids,
taking necessary precautions as in the case of tomato ketchup. Fill into
plain A2~ cans and process f01 45 minutes in boiling water.
TOMATO SOUP
In preparing tomato soup, the first step is to make tomato pulp, in the
same way as for tomato juice. The main constituents of this soup are:
tOmato juice, butter or cream, spices, arrowroot (a thickening agent), etc.
These are added in various proportions to suit the taste.
The following typical formula yields a good soup:
Tonlato juice (Sp. Gr. 1.0220) 7 gal.
Onions, finely chopped 13 oz.
Cinnamon, broken 5 gm.
Cloves whole, headl~s 5 "
Ground white pepper 7 "
Red chillies, ground (Kashmiri) 0.7 "
Cumin (Zira). cardamom and black 5.3 ..

pepper in equal quantities
Ginger dry. ground 4.2 ..
Cream (30 per cent.) or butter I t lb. or bu tter
61 oz.
Arrowroot 6tarch 4* oz.
Sugar 17 ..
Common ~alt IIi •.
Preparation
Neutralize about 1/6 acidity of the juice by adding a thin paste of sodium
bicarbonate made with water. Place 6 gallons of the juice in a boiling pan
and heat it. While it is being concentrated. add spices tied loosely ill a
muslin bag as is done in the case of tomato ketchup. In the meantime. mix
arrowroot and butter (or cream) with dle remaining one gallon of juice to
form a smooth paste. When the juice in the pan gets concentrated. add
this mixture. Again boil to the desired consistency, stirring it continuously
to prevent clotting of the starch, etc. At the end, add sugar and salt, and
boil the mixture for about two minutes to dissolve them. Fill the soup
into cans.
Sterilization
Sterilize at 240°F. for 45 minutes in the case of A2 cans and for 40
minutes in the case of I lb. milk or jam-size cans. Cool quickly after
processing.
MICROBIOLOGY
When tomatoes of poor quality are used in the preparation of tomato

products. excessive alUounts of moulds. yeasts. bacteria and fragments of
insects lower the quaHty of the product. The U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture has prescribed limits up to which moulds. yeasts and bacteria may be
permitted in tomato products. The mould count is the most important of
these.
The Government of India have regulated the manufacture of tomato
juice. puree and ketchup by laying down proper specifications (Appendix 11).
Figs. 55 and 56.
Bigelow, Smidl and Greenleaf of the National Canners Association
Research Laboratory. U.S.A., have prepared tables showing relationships
between total solids, specific gra.vity, refractometer reading and me specific
gravity of filtrate in the case of tomato pulp, tomato puree and tomato
paste; and between percentage of total solids, specific gravity and Abbe
Refractometer reading in tomato ketchup. They have also given correction
tables for sped6c gravity, Brix readings and refractive index. These Tables
are given in Appendix I.
CHAPTER XI\'
CHUTNEYS, SAUCES AND PICKLES
Chutneys, sauces and pickles of various kinds are prcpared in Indian

homes and also on a commercial scale. In the first case, standard recipes
have been modified by local taste. Fruits such as apples, peaches, plums,
apricots and mangoes, and vegetables like turnips, cauliflowers, carrots, etc.,
are the basic raw materials for these products. Onion, garlic, spices, herbs,
etc., are added for flavour. Vinegar, common salt and sugar also are used
to make them more palatable. Vinegar serves as a preservative to some
extent.
OiUTNEYS
A good chutney should be palatable and appetisIng. Raw materials are

generally cut into pieces or slices of the desircd size and cooked till they
are soft. Slow cooking at temperatures below the boiling point, yields
better results than brisk treatment at comparatively higher temperatures.
Onion and garlic are added at the start to mellow their strong flavours.
Spices are coarsely powdered before they are added. Sometimes a vinegar
extract of spices is used instead. The boiling of spices in a cloth bag along
with the fruit is also practised by some manufacturers. If spices are added
as such or vinegar extracts are used, these shouJd be added just a little
before the final stage of boiling is reached because during prolonged
boiling, some of the essential oils of the spices, as also the vinegar, will
volatilize.
Cooking Procell
Sweet chutneys are usuaUy cooked to the consistency of jam to avoid
fermentation during storage. Where vinegar is used in large quantities,
the amount of sugar may be kept low as vinegar itself partly serves as a
prese{vative.
Bottling
Only clean, dry bottles, sterilized in boiling water should be used when
they are still warm. If containers are not properly cleaned, fermentation
caused by some fermentative organisms adhering to their walls will spoil
the chumey. It is safer to pasteurize the filled bottles (l lb. size) for about
30 minutes at ISO·F. '
203
l3
Equipment
Iron and copper vessels should not be used as they are acted upon by
vinegar. Further. it has also been found that small amounts of these metals
dissolved in oil act as catalytic agents for rancidity. These metals also form
black compounds with the tannins of fruits and spices. and thus spoil the
colour and flavour of the product. The vessels should be glass-lined or made
of stainless steel or nickel. Freshly tinned copper utensils also can be used
without risk.
Recipes
There are a large number of chutney recipes. Apricot and mango
chutneys. however. are of particular interest to India and considerable
research has been done to standardise the methods of their preparation.
Recipes for peach. plum. date. tornato and various mixed chutneys are given
in several books and bulletins on pickling and preserving (see Appendix).
The recipes recommended in these publications should, however, be tried
on a small scale first and, if necessary. modified, for larger production.
Some chutney recipes. which have been tried with success, are given in
the following paragraphs.
Apple Chutney
Poultney gives the following recipes for apple chutney :
RECIPE I
Apples 40 lb.
Sultanas 20 "
Onion powder 8 07 .
Sugar 30 lb.
Salt 3 ,.
Cassia, ground I oz.
Mace, ground 1 "
Pimento, grouno I "
Nutmeg. ground i ..
Caramel 10 "
Acetic acid 2 lb.
Malt vinegar 3 gal.
Peel, core and slice the apples. Cook the slices along with other ingredients
till they are tender. Bottle the product hot. The final acidity should not be
less than 2.4 per cent.
RECIPE II
Another recipe is as follows:
Apples 6 lb.
Omons to taste
Brown sugar 4 pints
Preserving ginger 2 heads
Cayenne (Red chilli powder) t teaspoonful
Garlic l "
Salt
Vinegar
~ "
2 "
CHtJTNEYS, SAUCES AND PlCKLES 205
Peel, core and cut apples into small pieces. Cut the onions very finely.
Mix all the ingredients with the vinegar and boil gently till the chutney
becomes thick. Pack while hot and seal the bottles airtight.
Apricot Chutney
Siddappa and Mustafa have recommended the following process for
apricot chutney:
Take firm, but fully ripe apricots of the white or yellow variety. Cut
them into slices of about J/8 inch thickness. Cover them with sugar and
allow them to stand for 1-2 hours so that the mixture becomes thin du e
to diffusion. Tie the spices loosely in a muslin bag and place the latter in
the mixture. Boil the mixtw'e to about 220°F. (at sea level). Add salt and
vinegar and continue boiling for another 5 minutes. Fill the chutney into
hot sterilized bottles and seal them.
RECIPE
Apricot sli ces :3 lb.
Sugar 3 "
Salt 2 oz.
Cardamom, nOl fin ely powdered 2 gm.
Black pepper, broken grains 2 "
Cumin (Zira), whole 2 "
Cinnamon, whole 2 "
Red chilli powder (iI('clJrding to taste) 7 "
Cloves (headless) I "
Mace, broken 0.5 "
Onions, sliced and gently crushed I oz.
Vinegar, 4·5% strength 8 "
This recipe will yield about 5 lb. of the chutney.
Bamboo Chutney
Tender bamboo shoots make a sweet chutney. Select tender bamboo
shoots and remove the outer leaves. Cut the tender portion into small
pieces. Boil them in water twice or thrice each time for half an hour to
remove the poisonous bitter principle. Mince the boiled pieces finely.
RECIPE
Minced pieces 4 lb.
Sugar 4 "
Salt 3 oz.
Cardamom, cinnamon and cumin mil,ed 2 "
in equal proportion
Red chilli powder 1 ..
Onions, chopped I ,.
Garlic, chopped l "
Vinegar 3 "
Add the sugar, salt and a little water to the minced bamboo pieces and
warm the mass to dissolve the sugar and salt. Place the spices in a loose
muslin bag and place the latter in the vessel. Cook slowly till the mass
attains the consistency of jam. Remove the spice bag and add vinegar.
Boil the mass for a short while to obtain the desired consistency. After
cooling. pack the product in wide-mouthed glass bottles and seal them.
Mango Chutney
For mango chutney. slightly immature fruits of seedling vanetles are
preferable. This chutney can be prepared from fresh as well as brined and
peeled mango slices. The industry follows both methods. The latter is used
to extend the manufacture beyond the season. In this method. slices are
preserved in a brine of IS per cent. strengw, the percentage of salt being
maintained by adding more salt from time to time. Some manufacturers
prefer to add dry salt to the slices but the main drawback in this method
is that the slices shrivel and do not regain their original size and shape
in the final product. It also hardens the slices. Usually one lb. of finely
powdered salt is added for every 4 lb. of slices. The amounts of sugar,
spices, vinegar, etc., required depend largely on the local taste.
Sweet Mango Chutney

The following recipe has been recommended by La! Singh and
Girdhari La!:
RECIPE
Peeled mango slices 2 lb.

Sugar Z lb.
Salt Z oz.
Mixed spices (Cardamom, cinnamon, 1 "
cumin, etc., in equal proportion.)
Carlic, chopped 1/ 5 ..
Red chillies, finely ground i "
Vinegar <4 "
Onions, chopped I "
Ginger, green <4 ..
Peel slightly under-ripe mangoes and cut the flesh into thin slices. Warm
the slices in a small amount of water to make them soft. Add sugar and
salt. Put the other ingredients tied in a loose cloth bag and cook the mass
to the consistency of jam. Thell add vinegar and boil dle mass for about
5 minutes. Remove dle spice bag. Fill the product into hot, sterilized, dry
bottles and seal them airtight. The product keeps well and is of very high
quality.
Sliced Mango Chutney

The folJowing are some tcntative recipes for sliced mango chutney, in
CHUTNEYS, SAUCES AND PICKLES 207
which some of the spices, garlic and other ingredients have been varied
or omitted:
RECIPES
11 m
Sliced mangoes 8 lb. 5 lb. 5 lb.
Sugar 6 .. 5 3t ..
Almonds (blanched and peeled)
Raisins (stemmed)
I
I
. "
Salt, finely ground "
6 oz. 5 oz. 4 oz.
Ginger, finely ground 8
Vinegar It "lb. II lb. Ii lb.
Red chillies, finel y ground 2 oz. 2 oz. I oz.
Cinnamon, broken
Cumin, black
t
I
..
,. j oz.
Mustard (finely ground) 2 oz.
Garlic, choeeed 2 oz.
The method of preparation IS preci sely the same as that for sweet
mango chu tncy.
Peach Chutney
Sarson gives I he following recipe for peach chutney:
RECIPE
Dried peaches 2 lb. (equal to 10 lb. of fresh
peeled peaches)
Onions I "
Raisins J ..
Sultanas ! "
Cinnamon, powdered i oz.
Ginger, ground ! "
Vinegar I quart
Cut the peachcs into quarters. Place them in a shallow pan and cover ""ith
vinegar. Let them stand for 24 hours or till the frnit has swollen. Chop
the onions finely and cut the raisins into hakes. Then add them along with
the spices to the rest of the vinegar. Bring the mass to a hoil and let it
simmer fo)' 15 minutes. Put in the peaches and the vinegar and continue
to cook till it thickens. Bottle hot.
In the case of fresh peaches, the peeled slices can be cooked directly
with vinegar rill they become soft. The ~est of the process is the same as
for dried peaches.
Plum Chutney
The following recipe for a good plum chutncy has been recommcnded
by Tandon:
RECIPE
Plums, fully ripe 4 lb.
Sugar 4 "
Vinegar 1 "
Mace Galvatri), not ground I blade
Cloves (headless) 6 in number
Pepper, black (ground) 10 in number
ChiUle&, Kashmirl, finely ground t oz.
Salt. finely ground 1 "
Wash the plums and place them in a large cooking vessel along with
otber ingredients except sugar and vinegar. Heat tbe mixture with a small
quantity of water till the plums become soft. Pass the whole mass through
a coarse sieve of aluminium or monel metal to remove the stones and skins.
Add sugar and boil tbe pulp till it thickens and then add vinegar. Stir
well all the time and continue boiling till the chutney is ready. Pack in
sterilized bottles and seal them airtight.
Tomato Chutney
According to Binstead, tile following recipe gives a good tomato chutney;
RECIPE
Tomatoes 30 lb.
Onions, chopped 21 II
Sugar 40 II
Salt 2 II
Ginger 2 oz.
Chillies i II
Vinegar 4~ gal.
Garlic vinegar 2 II
Peel the tomatoes by blanching. Place all the ingredients except vinegar
in a pan and cook to a thick consistency. Add the vinegar, cook for another
5 minutes and pack the chutney in wide-mouthed, sterilized dry bottles
and seal them airtight.
Ohutneys can also be made from other fruits like pear, greengage, date,
banana and papaya by using the above mentioned recipes with slight
modifica dons.
Siddappa and Mustafa have reported that by using a recipe similar to
that for apricot chutney, a good chutney can be prepared from the rind
of watermelon.
nnN SAUCES
Sauces are generally of two kinds, i.e., thin and thick. Thin sauces
mainly consist of a vinegar extract of various flavouring materials like
spices and herbs. Their quality depends mostly on the piquancy of the
material used.
Some sauces are matured by storing them in wooden barrels. This develops
their flavour and aroma. Freshly prepared products of this kind often taste
raw and harsh. For sauces of high quality, the spices, herbs, fruits and
vegetables are macerated in cold vinegar. Sometimes, extracts are prepared
by boiling them in vinegar. The sauce is filtered through a fine or coarse
mesh sieve of non-corrodible metal according to the quality required. The
skins, seeds and stalks of spices should not be allowed to pass through the
sieve as they spoil the appearance of the sauce. The usual commercial
practice is to prepare vinegar cxu'acts of each kind of spice and fruit sepa-
rately either by maceration 01' by boiling and then to blend them suitably
before putting them into barrels for subsequent maturing.
A few typical recipes for thin sauces are given below:
Mushroom Ketchup
Sarson recommends the following recipe:
Select dry, full -grown and unbruised mushrooms. Break them into pieces
and place the mass in layers in a deep bowl. Sprinkle salt at the rate of 4 oz.
for every 2 lb. of mushrooms. Allow them to stand in the brine for 4 days,
stirring twice a day. Cook gently for 45 minutes and strain the liquor. To
every quart of liquor, add the following:
"Allspice I teaspoonful
Pepper 1
Ginger k
Mace t "
ClO\'es A pinch
Cinnamon A
"A mixture of equal quantities of ('umill, cimanon, and cardamom ma y be used
instead of allspice.
Simmer the ketchup in a pan till it is reduced to about i'3 of its original
volume. Bottle hot.
Soya Sallce
Soya sauce is made from soyabeans. The sauce has usually a predomi.
nant saltish taste and has a dark brown colour. It is made by cooking
soyabeans and wheat, and then allowing the mass to undergo mould
fermentation for 3-4 days. The mass is then mixed with strong brine (15-20
per cent.) to form a mash which is placed in wooden barrels to bring about
bacteriological and chemical changes. In due course, a thick brown liquid
is formed. It is then boiled and filtered. To the filtered liquor molasses are
added to taste, before bottling.
Walnut Ketchup
Sarson recommends the following recipe:
.
RECIPE
----- ------ -----
Tender green walnuts 100
Vinegar 2 quarts
Chopped onions JIb.
Salt "
Pepper corns 1 oz.
·Allspice !• teaspoonful
"
Cloves
Nutmeg t
• Instead of allspice, cumin, cinnamon and cardamom mixed in equal quantities may
be added.
Cut the walnuts into halves. Crush and place them in a deep jar. Place
the rest of the ingredients in the vinegar, bring the mass to a boil and
pour it over the crushed walnuts. Allow the mixture to stand for 2 weeks
stirring it daily. Draw off the liquid, simmer it for about ha1f an hour and
fill into bottles.
W orceaterahire Sauce
Tandon has reported the following recipe for the above sauce:
RECIPE
Malt vinegar 10 lb.

Tamarind B oz.
Garlic 2 ..
Onions 2 ..
Essence of lemon 1 ..
Essence of vanilla I ..
Dried ginger 2 ..
Common salt I ..
Cumin 1/ 3 ..
Cardamom 1/3 ..
Cloves. headless 1/3 ..
Sugar 4 ..
Lemon juice. refined 1 lb.
Ethyl acetate 1/ 64 oz.
Macerate tamarind in a small quantity of vinegar and filter the mixture

through a muslin cloth. Take vinegar extract of garlic. onion, dried ginger,
cumin, cardamom. cinnamon and clove and mix it with the first filtrate.
Then add essences of lemon and vanilla. sugar. salt. lemon juice and ethyl
acetate. Place the mixture thus obtained in wooden barrels for maturing
for about two months. After tllis. filter the mixture again through a coarse
sieve and bottle properly. If desired, a small amount of caramel may be
added to give it an attractive colour. The recipe gives a good sauce.
The following recipe for Worcestershire sauce has been evolved by
Eaton:
RECIPE
Per cent.
Malt vinegar (6 % acetic acid) 70.0
Sugar •.0
Molasses 9.5
Caramel 0.5
Salt 2.5
Mixed spices 3.5
Ooions (brioed) 7.0
Tamarind 2.5
Protex (or meat extract) 0.5
CHUTNEYS. SAUCES AND PICKLES 211
The mixed spices are prepared by mixing the following ground spices:
Per cent.
Capsicum 20
Hungarian paprika 15
Black pepper 25
Cloves 10
AUspice 15
Ginger 10
Mustard 5
Take tamarind extract by simmering in a portion of the vinegar. Prepare

an infusion of the spices and crushed onions. preferably in the cold. Mix
all extracts, place the mixture in a clean barrel and allow to stand for
about 6 months for maturing. At the time of bottling. strain the sallce.
Meat extract may be avoided. if not desired.
TIJICK SAUCES
A sauce which does not flow freely and which has a high viscosity is
called a thick sauce. It should contain at least 3 per cent. acetic acid 80
that it has good keeping quality. The acidity should not, however. exceed
3.4 per cent., otherwise, the sauce would taste sharp. The sugar content
may vary from 15 to 30 per cent., according to the kind of sauce made.
Usually, malt vinegar is used which in addition to producing acidity.
improves the flavour. The sweetness is derived partly from fruits like date,
raisin. sultanas, apple, and tomatoe and partly from the sugar. The colour
of the sauce varies with the raw material used . Sometimes. a little caramel
is added.
The manufacturing process is the same as for chutneys. Thickening
agents also are added to prevent or retard sedimentation of the solid parti.
c1es in suspension. In India, apple pulp is often used for this purpose. Some·
times, the fruit, which is used for making sauce, is boiled. pulped and used
as a filler. The starches of maize, potato, arrowroot (Cassava starch), sago
and rye also are used as thickening agents. The use of Indian gum, locllst
kernel gum, tragacanth, karaya gum, gelatin. Irish moss, pectin and other
similar substances is also advised. These are not. however. as good as the
starches.
PICKLES
The preservation of food in common salt or vinegar is called pickling.

Spices and oil also may be added. .
Pick1es are good appetizers and add to the palatability of a meal. They
aid digestion by stimulating the flow of gastric juices. Very little is known
ll2 PRESERVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
of their food value. Different kinds of pickles contain varying amounts of

nutrients depending upon the kind of the raw material used. The food
value of cucumber pickles exceeds that of eggs. rice. fresh onions and
fresh tomatoes.
Various kinds of pickles are made in Indian homes in large quantities.
Pickling is also done on a commercial scale. In Indian pickles. mustard
oil. rapeseed oil and sesame oil are generally used. Some pickles are made
in lime juice ~hereas imported pickles are preserved in vinegar.
Pickling Problems
The character of fruits and vegetables used largely determines the type of
change that occurs when a particular organism attacks them. Yeast and
mould can grow in the presence of acid. Thus fruits and acid vegetables
spoil either by yeast fermentation or by moulding. As acidity is not
favourable for the growth of puu'efactive bacteria, fruits or acid vegetables
are not spoiled by them. On the other hand. the decay of vegetables with
little or no acid is always mainly due to the action of bacteria. In the
preparation of pickles, however, the desired fermentation is caused by
lactic acid-forming bacteria which are capable of growing in an acid
medium. In this respect they differ from the putrefactive bacteria which
cause decay of canned fruits and vegetables.
There are mainly two methods of preserving fruits and vegetables.
namely. (i) by killing all micro-organisms responsible for spoilage. by heat
or other means, and then checking the entry of fresh organisms into the
preserved product. and (ii) by making the conditions most unfavourable
for the growth and multiplication of micro-organisms. The first method
is used in the preservation of fruits and vegetables and the second in the
preparation of pickles.
Action of Preservatives
Salt, vinegar and lactic acid are the three important ingredients used
in pickling. These substances, when used in sufficient quantities, act as
preservatives either singly or collectively.
Salt. Vegetables do not ferment when covered with a strong brine or
packed with a fairly large amount of salt. Spoilage is prevented by adding
sufficient common salt. bringing its final percentage in the material to
ahout 15 to 20. At this high salt concentration, mould and even lactic
acid-forming bacteria do not grow. This method of preservation is appli-
cable only to vegetables which contain very little sugar because in that
case sufficient lactic acid cannot be formed to act as preservative.
Vinegar. Vinegar acts as a preservative in pickles. In order to ensure
good results, the final percentage of acid (as acetic acid in the finished
pickle) should not be below 2. To avoid the dilution of the vinegar by

water from their tissues. the vegetables are generally put in strong vinegar
of about 10 per cent. acidity for several days before final packing. This
treatment. besides other advantages also helps to expel the gases present
in the inter-cellular spaces of vegetable tissues.
Lactic Acid. Bacteria prefer material with little or no acid for their
growth. The lactic acid bacteria. however. can grow in acid media and can
themselves produce acid. These can grow even in the presen e of 8-10 per
cent. common salt. In pickling. advantage is taken of these two factors.
The growtll of undesirable micro-organisms is inhibited by adding salt.
while lactic acid fermentation is allowed to proceed.
When vegetables are placed in brine. the soluble material present in
them diffuses into the salt water due to osmosis and the liquid penetrates
into their tissues. The soluble material. besides containing mineral matter.
contains fermentable sugars also. The sugars serve as food for lactic
acid bacteria which convert them into lactic and certain other volatile
acids. In practice. usually 2-3 lb. of salt is mixed with every 100 lb. of the
materials and the mixture is allowed to stand for about 12-24 hours. when
sufficient juice comes out from the material to form brine. If the vege-
table does not contain sufficient juice. it is covered with brine containing
5 per cent. salt. The soluble material extracted is fermented by lactic acid-
forming bacteria which are naturally present in large numbers on the
surface of fresh vegetables.
When lactic acid is formed in a sufficient quantity. the lactic acid
bacteria cease to function. and any further change in the composition of
the material is prevented. Although. at this stage. the pickle is ready for
consumption. precautions should be taken to save it from spoilage by
aerobic micro-organisms. The presence of salt and the lactic acid formed
preserves the pickle by preventing the growth of putrefactive bacteria,
provided air is excluded. In the presence of air. however. 'pickle scum' is
formed and it destroys the lactic acid and brings about putrefaction. The
acid brine formed during pickling cuts upon the vegetable tissues and pro-
duces the characteristic pickle taste and aroma.
-:r:emperature is the most important factor for successful lactic acid
fermentation. Lactic acid bacteria are most active at a temperature of about
86°F. It is. therefore. essential that the temperature of the product under-
going lactic acid fermentation should be kept as close to 86°F. as possible.
especially at the start.
Raw Materials
Salt. For pickling. any variety of common salt is suitable. provided it
is pure. At any rate. it should not contain more than 1 per cent. impurities.
Nor should it contain chemicals like tri-calcium or magnesium phosphate
which are generally added to reduce its tendency to cake. Salt should be
free from lime (CaD), as it reduces the acidity of the vinegar in which
brined vegetables are pickled and sometimes, also causes lime deposits at
the bottom of the container. Salt should also be free from iron since the
latter blackens the material by coming into contact with the tannin of the
fruits, vegetables and spices. It should also not contain magnesium salts
which make the pickles taste bitter. Carbonates which are alkaline in
nature, make the pickle soft in texture, and lower its acidity.
Vinegar. Good vinegar should contain at least 4 per cent. acetic acid.
Vinegars of a low acid content or imitation or synthetic vinegars sold in
the market are not suitable for pickling. For pickles of high quality,
vinegar of good quality, (of 40-60 grain strength, that is, 4-6 per cent.
acetic acid) should be used. Usually malt or cider vinegar is used.
Some manufacturers prefer to use acetic acid because it is highly con·
centrated and is free from colour and sediment. If fruit vinegars are used,
they should first be filtered to remove any sediment. Vinegar should not
come in contact with iron as it leads to the blackening of the pickle. In order
to ensure good keeping quality, the final percentage of acetic acid in the
finished product should not be less than 2.0, in addition to other organic
acids naturally present in the raw material.
Sugar. Only sugar of good quality should be used in making sweet
pickles.
Spice.. Spices arc added to almost all pickles, their amount depending
upon the kind of fruit or vegetable used and on the kind of flavour
desired. The spices generally used are bay leaves, cardamom, chillies,
cinnamon, clove, coriander, dill herb, ginger, mace, mustard, black pepper,
cumin, turmeric, garlic, mint, sage, parsley, thyme, fennel, aniseed, etc.
These should be of good quality and should be stored in friction-top tins
in a cool and dry place.
Water. Only potable water should be lIsed for the preparation of brine.
Hard water contains salts of calcium, sodium, magnesium, etc., which
interfere with the normal salt-curing of the vegetable. If hard water is to
be used, then a small quantity of the vinegar should also be added to the
brine to neutralize its alkalinity. Iron should not be present in water in
any appreciable quantity since it causes the blackening of the pickles.
Colouring and Hardening Agent.
Once it was the practice to heat the vinegar pickle in copper vessels so
that the pickle might acquire a green colour. It has now been proved that
this colour is due to poisonous copper acetate. The use of copper vessels
for making pickles has, therefore, been prohibited in many countries.
Colours are not generally used in pickles although they are used to some
CHUTNEYS, SAUCES AND PICKLES 21S
extent in sauces. Some manufacturers use alum for firmness in pickles.

but it is a doubtful expedient since the same results can be obtained with
proper pickling method~. The usc of alum in pickle-making is not, there-
fore. recommended as a normal practice.
Equipment
Wide-mouthed stone-jars with straight sides are IDost suitable for making
small quantities of pickle. The advantages of such containers are that they
can be easily cleaned and that they absorb undesirable odours and flavours
to a lesser extent than wooden containers. For large-scale production. 50
gallon water-tight kegs or barrels arc suitable. Before use, the barrels must
be washed thoroughly with a strong lye solution to remove all undesirable
odours and flavours. To remove all traces of lye. these should be thoroughly
cleaned with hot water.
The covers of the kegs should be thick and should be made of such a
material that would not impart any colour, taste and flavour of its own.
They should be 1-2 inches less in diameter than the inside of the container
so that they can be easily placed inside on the top of the vegetable and
removed, when desired. The covers should be coated with paraffin wax to
fill any pores and thus to facilitate cleaning.
Weighing Scales
For small-scale production. an ordinary country balance would do. A
platform balance is. however, e~~ential for work on a large scale.
Measures for Liquids

Water, brine and other liquids can be measured easily and. therefore.
need not be weighed. One pound. quarter gallon. half gallon and one
gallon measures are most suitable.
Cooking Utensils
Metallic vessels should be 110n-corrodible. Vessels made of iron and copper
are not suitable. Glass-lined vessels and those made of stainless steel (monel
metal. inconel (a new alloy) and aluminium should be used. The ladles.
spoons and measuring vessels also ghould be made of non-corrodible
materials.
PICKLING PROCESS
Pickling is done in two stages. namely. (i) curing or fermentation with

dry salting. or fermentation in brine, or s~lting without fermentation and
(ii) finishing and packing.
tJ6 Pru;SERvAl1oN OF FRUtTS AND VEGETABLES
Dry SaltilJ&
In this method. the vegetable is treated with dry salt. The salt extracts
the juice from the vegetable and forms the brine. which is fermented by
lactic acid-forming bacteria. The method of dry salting. in general. is as
follows:
The vegetable is prepared. washed thoroughly in running cold water.
drained and weighed. For every 100 lb. of the prepared vegetable. 3 lb. of
salt is used. The vegetable is placed about an inch deep in a keg or barrel
and is sprinkled with a small quantity of salt from the weighed amount.
Another layer of the vegetable is added and again sprinkled with salt.
The salt is added. layer after layer. in the above manner till the container
is three-quarters full. Then one or two folds of cheese cloth are spread
over the salted vegetable. tucking the cloth at the sides and then placing
a piece of wooden board on the top. A clean stone which is not acted
upon by salt or organic acids. is placed on the board to press the vegetable
so as to form a brine. Generally. a weight of 10 lb. is sufficient for a keg
of 5 gallons. If necessary. more weight may be placed. in case brine does
not form after the ma terial has stood for a while. Generally brine is formed
in about 24 hours.
After packing the vegetable. the container is placed in a warm. dry place
and fermentation is allowed to proceed. In a short time. juice from the
vegetable forms the brine covering the whole mass. The weight and the
board help to keep the vegetable submerged.
As soon as the brine is formed. fermentation starts and bubbles of carbon
dioxide begin to rise from the liquid. Fermentation is usually complete in
about 8-10 days under favourable conditions which are attained in the
temperature range of 80°-90°F. In cold weather. however. it may take
about 2-4 weeks to complete the fermentation . When the fermentation is
complete. gas bubbles cease. This may be confirmed by tapping the con-
tainers gently.
Then the product may be preserved by excluding air. If this is not done.
'pickle scum'. a kind of wild yeast. appears on the surface. It soon destroys
the lactic acid formed by fermentation with the result d1at the material
is ultimately spoilt.
According to Round and Lang, air can be exhausted in the following
manner :
Method I . An air-seal on the surface of the brine can be made by pouring
some edible oil like rapeseed or cotton seed oil. The oil being lighter than
the brine. floats on the surface and thus prevents the entry of air. A layer
of oil about one-quarter inch thick is generally sufficient to keep the pickle
indefinitely. The only drawback \n trus method is that the vegetable cannot
be taken out from the container without getting covered with the oil To
CHUTNEYS. SAUCES AND ptCKLF: 211
avoid this, the oil may be removed from the surface by decanting. syphon-
ing, skimming or by making it overflow by adding more brine.
Met hod II. After dry-salting and fermentation, the barrel or keg is filled
with the vegetable to its maximum capacity and the cover replaced. A hali
inch hole is bored in the head. Then the barrel is filled with brine to the
brim so that no air is left inside. The barrel is allowed to stand for about
48 hours or till such time that bubbles of gas cease to rise. If necessary.
more brine is added at inten'als to keep the barrel full. When the bubbling
has stopped, the vent-hole is closed tightly and tlle barrel is kept in a cool
and dry place. The product packed in this manner will keep indefinitely.
Method III. Hot melted paraffin is used to cover the brine. The con-
tainers are kept at a place where they will not be disturbed till the material~
are ready for usc. Sufficient paraffin is melted and poured over the brine.
If it is hot enough to warm up the surface of the brine. a smooth and even
layer will be formed before it hardens, and mis will give an airtight seal.
The advantages of using hard paraffin wax are: (i) it can be easily
separated from the fermented brine before removing the vegetables from
the container, and (ii) it can also be remelted. refined and used again. The
only disadvantage, however, is that in case any gas is produced in the lower
surface, it will break the seal and resealing will be needed. The wax seal.
therefore, should not he applied before fermentation is complete and ~as
formation has ceased.
Fennentatton in Brine
Soaking of the vegetable in a salt solution of predetermined concentration
for a certain length of time is called brining. This treatment is given only
to vegetables like cucumbers, which do not contain sufficient juice to form
brine with dry salt.
Brine Preparation
Brine can be made by dissolving common salt in water and filtering it
through jelly bags to remove insoluble impurities. The strength of tbe
solution is determined by means of a salometer or salinometer. The amount
of btine necessary to cover the vegetable is usually equal to about half the
volume of me material to be fermented. To be more precise. if a keg of
10 gallons is to be packed, tbe amount of brine needed would be S gallons.
It is preferable to make all me brine needed for the day in one lot.
Brining is me most important step in pickling. Although no set of condi·
tions, ordinarily practicable in pickle-making will destroy or retard the
growth of every kind of bacteria, yet the growth of a majority of them is
checked in a brine containing 15 per cent. salt. Lactic acid bacteria, which
are salt-tolerant, can flourish in a brine of 8-10 per cent. strength only.
Fermentation takes place fairly well in a brine containing approximately
5 per cent. salt (20 0 salometer). In a brine containing approximately 10 per

cent. salt. fermentation proceeds somewhat slowly. To some extent fermenta-
tion takes place up to 15 per cent. also. but at 20 per cent. strength all
fermentation stops. It is. therefore. customary to place the vegetables initially
in 10 per cent. salt solution to allow lactic acid fermentation and then to
increase the proportion of salt gradually. so that by the time the pickle
is ready. it will have reached the 15 per cent. level. It has to be borne in
mind that vegetables contain a certain amount of moisture which exudes
from them in the presence of salt and decreases the strength of the brine.
The brine strength can. however. be maintained by adding dry salt. The
time required for proper fermentation is determined by experience.
Keeping Qualities
Properly brined vegetables will keep in vinegar for a long time. The
duration of brining is of great importance. If the vegetables are soaked for
a very long time. soft pickles will result. If they are soaked for a short time,
say for a night only. the curing of vegetable tissues is incomplete with
the result that the pickle will not have proper texture and taste. Brining
has, therefore. to be controlled properly. On curing, the vegetables become
semi-translucent and their colour changes from green to dark olive green
or yellowish green. This is an indication of correct curing. This usually takes
about 4-5 wel!ks. By this method, vegetables can be kept more or less for
an indefinite period, provided the right storage conditions are maintained.
If the vegetable is to be kept in brine of 10 per cent. salt or less. all air
should be excluded from the containers. During curing, the vegetables Jose
their 'raw' flavour and become firm and crisp.
With Salt
In this method. vegetables are packed widl a large quantity of salt to
inhibit fermentation. In practice, generally 25 lb. of salt is mixed with every
100 lb. of the prepared vegetable.
The cured vegetables are drained and excess of salt is removed by soaking
them in cold or warm water as may be necessary. After removing the salt,
the vegetables are stored for several weeks in plain vinegar of 10 per cent.
(100 grain) strcllgdl. This treatment reduces the tendency of the vegetables
to shrivel when packed ill sweetened and spiced vinegar and also helps
absorption of vinegar by the vegetable tissues.
Spiced Vinegar
Spiced vinegar should always be kept ready so that it is available at the
time of pickling. It is made as follows:
Method I. The unground spices are soaked in vinegar and kept for 2-3
months, stirring occasionally. The spices are then squeezed out and the
vinegar is allowed to stand. When clear, it is decanted or syphoned.
CHUTNEY ', SAUCES AND l'lCKLES 21\1
Method II. The spic<:!s arc boiled with vinegar till all fiayours get extracted.
The extract is then filtered.
Another method is to usc essential oils, bllt the~c do not always impart
the original aroma of the spices.
The kind and quantity of spices required depend 011 the piquancy required
in the pickle. There are numerous recipes. A few of these are given below:
Sweet spiced vinegar, according to Poultney, is made as follows:
RECIPE
Sugar 4iO lb.
Clo\'es, whole II "
Coriander seed 13 "
Mustard seed 16 ..
Cardamom seed Ii"
Celery seed 1i "
Ginger, whole 31 ..
Caraway seed t "
Vinegar _ _ _ _ ~g!!.:.._
The sugar is dissolved in vinegar by heating. The spices, placed in linen
bags, are suspended in the vinegar. The batch is simmered gently for 6
homs and is then allowed to cool. The bags arc removed after that and
the vinegar is filled into casks for storage.
Spiced vinegar with cs~ential oils according tu Puultney, is made as
follows.
REC[PE
Oil of ginger 12 dram R ---- -
Oil of cloves II "
Oil uf mace 21 "
Oil of coriander :\ oz.
Oil of mustard 14 dral11 ~
Oil of cardamom H Ol .
Oil of bav I "
Vinegar . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 200 gal. ___ _
The essential oi ls are stirred with the vinegar. For proper emulsification ,
a little gum may be used. The oils may al so be mixed with sligar and then
dissolved in the vinegar.
According to Campbdl, tile following [ortmtla gives a good spiced
"inegar;
HECIPE
White vi'negiir(100 grain~) - - -20 gal. ---- ,-
Water 17 gal,
Garlic 11 07..
Cayenne, flllcly groum\ 24 "
Cloves, headless, finely ground 48 .,
Mace, finely ground 8 ..
Coriander, finely ground 4~
Mustard, finely ground 48 "
Cardamom, finely ground 8 "
Bay leavcs, fincly ground 24 "
Caraway, finely ground 31 "
Ginger, finely grou nd . 32 ..
The spices should be leached in the vinegar for about a week.
!It
Packing Methods
Pickled onions and mixed pickles should be packed finally into bottles
or jars loosely so as not to damage the shape and appearance of the
pieces. Fresh vinegar is then added to fill up the spaces between the pieces.
The bottles or jars are then allowed to stand for a while with the lid~
loosely on, covered again with more vinegar, if necessary, and scaled air-
tight. They are stored for a few days, the period of storage depending on
the vegetables used for pickling, size of the pieces, condition of the cured
vegetable etc., so as to ensure thorough absorption of the vinegar before the
pickles are sent to the market.
CAUSES OF SPOILAGE
Different kinds of spoilage occur in pickles. They arc described briefly
in the following paragraphs.
Shrivelling
Shrivelling occurs when vegetables like cucumber are placed directly in
a vcry strong salt or sugar solution or even in very strong vinegar. To avoid
this, weak solutions should be used to stan with, increasing their strengths
gradually.
Bitter Taste
This results from the usc of strong vinegar. It can also be caused by
cooking with spices for a long time or over-spicing.
Blackening
This is caused by iron which enters through brine or from th e equipment.
Sometime!', specific organisms also cause blackening.
Dull and Faded Products

Pickles become dull and faded due to either insufficient curing or use of
material of inferior quality.
Softness and Slipperiness

This is due to the action of bacteria and is the most common form of
spoilage. It is invariably due to inadequate covering with brine or due to
the use of weak brines. By using a brine of proper strength and by keeping
the pickle well below the surface of the brine, this kind of spoilage can
be eliminated.
Scum Fonnation
When vegetables are placed in the brine for curing, a white scum is
invariably formed on the urface due to the growth of wild yeast. This
scum may be thin or thick in appearance, varying from almost an imper-

ceptible film to a thick wrinkled layer. It retards the formation of lactic
acid. Since this action may help the growth of putrefactive bacteria which
may cause the vegetable to become soft and slippery, it is essel\tial to
remove the scum as soon as it is formed. Addition of abollt 1 per cent.
acetic acid helps to prevent the formation of wild yeast on the brine, with-
out hindering in any way with the formation of lactic acid. For this reason
some manufacturers add a small amount of vinegar to the brine in the
in itial stage.
Coudiness
When \'egetables are placed in vinegar, it is generally presumed that the
product will not spoil. In the case of onions and some other vegetables,
however, sometimes the vinegar becomes cloudy and turbid thereby spoiling
the appearance of the pack. These materials being of a very solid texture,
the acetic acid in the vinegar may not penetrate deep enough to prevent
the activity of bacteria or other micro-organisms that may be present in
them with the result that fermentation starts from inside rendering the
vinegar cloudy. This activity of organisms can only be checked by proper
brining. Cloudiness may also be caused by the use of vinegar of an inferior
quality or imitation vinegar or, possibly by chemical action between the
vinegar and the impurities such as calcium, I'I!agnesium and iron com-
pounds that might be present in the salt used, or by action between the
vinegar and minerals naturally present in the vegetable itself.
Blemishes on Pickled Onions

Blemishes may sometimes occur in pickles and , especially, in onion
pickles made in vinegar. In the case of onions, a whitish blotch is some-
times seen under the first layer of the skin. This appears to be due either
to some kind of fermentation or non-removal of all the brine prior to the
final pickling.
VARIOUS PICKLES
There are several kinds of pickles sold in the Indian market. Mango
pickle ranks first. Then come cauliflower and turnip pickles, followed by
those of lime, chilli, bamboo, etc. Pickles are classified according to the
method of their preparation.
Vinegar pickles are the most important in foreign countries. There are
sour, sweet, spiced and mustard pickles. Picked onions occupy a prominent
place among imported products. Then come mixed pickles, followed by
piccalilli, dill pickle and walnut, beetroot, cabbage and all other kinds of
pickles made from different fruits and vegetables.
222 1'1lliSERVATlON OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Fruit pickles are generally preserved in sweetened .and spiced vinegar

while vegetable pickles arc preserved in salt.
Some recipes for typical pickles arc giYen Lclow:
Apple Pickle
Sarson recommends the following recipe for the pickle:
RECIPE
----------------------------------------------
Sour apples lb. -- ~
Spirit or cidcr vinegar I i pints
Sugar 2 lb.
Cinnamon Mi ck 3 inches
Allspice I teaspoonful
Clovcs, whole 20 (number)
Pecl, core and cut the apples and keep them in water to prevent browning.
Boil the vinegar, sugar and spices for 5 minutes. Then add d1e apples anu
simmer the mass till the pieces are tender. Take all t the fruie and pack
into jars. Reboil the vinegar and sugar to a syrupy consistency, pour it on
the apples while hot and seal the jars. The spices also may be added to
the jars, if desired.
Cabbage Pickle
Binstead has given the following recipe:
Take fully mature solid heads. Remove the coarSe outer leaves and
quarter the heads and shred across the grain. Place the shreds in a
non-corrodible vessel and sprinkle them with a thin layer of salt ([ lb. of
salt for every 40 lb. of shreds would be sufficient). Place a heavy wooden
board over the mass and let it stand for 24 110urs, Next day, drain well for
about an hour, cover the shreds with the spiced vinegar according to taste,
and let it stand for another 24 hours, mixing occasionally so that the absorp-
tion of vinegar may be uniform. Theil pack, not too tightly, iuto jars. Cover
dIe shreds with fresh vinegar aod seal the jars.
Sauerkraut. This form of cabbage pickle is highly popular in certain parts
of Europe and the U.S.A. According w Joslyn and Crucss, the following
process is generally adopted for malting this product.
Take fully mature solid heads of cabbage. Remove the outer green leaves.
Quarter the heads and remove the core. Shred the cabbage into thin strips.
Take I lb. of salt for every 40 lb. of cabbage and mix them well. Pack the
cabbage loosely in a jar or cask and place a false wooden head or plate on
top. Then place a heavy stone on it to press out dIe juice from the cabbage.
Allow the jar or eask to remain ill a warm place (7S0-80°F.) for 8-12 days.
Remove any scum that is formed. When fermentation is complete, boil the
sauerkraut and pack it hot in sterilized jars. Alternately, the brine may be
separated from the cabbage. boiled and poured hoiling hot over the cabbage
which has been packed in jars. In this case a better flavour will be deve-
loped. According to Cruess, sauerkraut can be packed in cans also. The cans
are filled widl the hot juice, exhausted and pro essed till the centre of the
can reaches lSO·F.
Beetroot Pickle
Poultney gives the following recipe for beetroot pickle:
Blanch young beetroots in steam or boiling water, taking care to see tlHlt
the lOpS or roots arc not Cllt too close. After blanching. remove the skin by
hand and slice or dice the beetroots. Fill the pieces into jars, add vinegar
of 10 per cent. strengdl to the hrim and seal the jars. Th e vinegar may he
flavoured suitably with salt and spices.
Cucumber Pickle
According to Cruess, Cllcumber pickles are made as follow s:
With Salt. Select firm cucllmhers of small size and fill th em into a cask
half full of brine of 40· salometer. Add more brine to cover the cllcumbers.
Place a circular wooden head over the cucumbcrs anrl keep it in place so
that the CIIcumhers remain subm erged in the hrin e during fermentation . To
prevent the growth of putrefactive organisms. maintain the strength of the
l)fine in the cask at 40· salometer i.e., 10 per cent. sah. The cucumhers will
now be of bright green to olive green or yellowish green colour and
the flesh will be transillcent without any chalky white ;\11(1 opaque
appearance. They can be stored in brine for a long time.
With Vinegar. For preparing the vinegar pickle, take out the cllcllmber~
from the brine and soak them in several changes of warer at abollt
100· -130·F. to remove the salt. In case the pickles become soft, add harden -
ing agents like soda alum or calcillm chloride at the rate of 1~ Ollnce per
gallon of water. Store the processed cucumhers for a few days in distillecl
or white vinegar of 4-5 pcr cent. acidity as acetic acid . Then remove
them and pack in fresh 5-6 per cent. vinegar in hottles.
Sweet Variety. For making sweet Cllcllmber pickle, remove the cllcnmbers
from the vinegar and add spiced vinegar, which is prepared according to the
folJo\~ing recipe:
RECIPE
Distilled vinegar (R % acidity) 8 gal.
Brown sugar 10 lb.
White sugar 10 "
Cloves 1 oz.
Coriander I "
Mustard seed I "
Broken ginger root I "
Mace I .,
Heat the spices in a bag with vinegar at 175· -200·F. for about an hour in
a covered vessel. Remove the spice bag and dissolve the sugar in the
vinegar. This vinegar will be of about 40· Brix and will contain about 5
per ccnt. acidity as acetic acid. Store the cucumbers in this spiced vinegar
for several weeks. Replace the old with the fresh spiced vinegar raised to
55° Brix by adding sugar.
Other sweet pickles like those of onions, green tomatoes and cauliflowers
may also be mixed with sweet cucumber pickles, if desired. Pack in glass
jars and seal the latter.
Dill pickles, which are highly popular in some parts of the world, are
prepared by fermentation of cucumbers in dilute brine flavoured with the
dill herb spices and are marketed in brine rather than in vinegar. These
pickles do not keep so well as vinegar cucumber pickles.
According to Cruess, all kinds of cucumber pickles and mixed pickles arc
now successfully canned in heavily lacquered cans.
Jack Pickle
Tender green jack fruit has been found useful for pickling. The process
is as follows:
With Spices. Select tender jack fruits, peel the outer spiny rind with a
knife and cut the peeled fruit into ~-% inch thick slices. Fill the slices into
a glazed jar and cover with 8 per cent. common salt solution. Keep the
pieces well immersed in the brine by placing a wooden weight on the top.
Raise the strength of the brine by 2 per cent. daily till the final strength
reaches 15 per cent. Allow the slices to remain in the brine for 8-10 days
to soften them.
Take the following quantities of other ingredients for preparing sweet
spiced vinegar pickle;
Sugar 3 lb.
Vinegar (8 per cent.) 4 lb.
Water It lb.
Cloves, headless
}
Cinnamon, whole
Coriander seed J gm. each
Ginger root, ground
Mace, broken
Mustard seed, broken
Plain Product. For this, 8 per cent. vinegar only is used without sugar or
spices. As the vinegar first added gets diluted, it should be replaced with
fresh vinegar of the same stre~th after 2-3 days. Pack the pickle in bottles
or jars.
Onion Pickle .
Pickled onions are highly popular in the U.K. According to Eaton, the
following rnethod gives good results:
Without Fermentation. Select fully ripe. dry onions which are free from
adhering soil and size-grade them . Remo\'e the outer layer of the brown
skin, the tops and the tails with a stainless steel knife. For brining without
fermentation. pack the onions fairly tight in a cask and fill the cask with
a brine of 85° salometcr. After 48 hours, run off the brin e and replace it
with a saturated brine. Two ounces of potassium metabisulphite for a 45
to 50 gallon cask may be added to bleach the onions. The pickle will be
ready in about two weeks.
With Fermentation. For adopting the fermentation process Campbell
favours the following process:
Soak the onions in water for 2-3 days and then place them for a further
period of 4-5 days in 5 per cent. brine. This will leach out the strong taste
and give a whiter product. Drain the mass and replace with frt:!>h brine of
600salometer. Increase this to 80· for longer storage.
Drain the brine from the onions and leach out th e salt by soaking in
hot water for about 12 hours. Run the water off and pour 4 per cent. acetic
acid solution over the onions. Allow the mass to stand for 24 homs.
Then remove the onions from the cask. Fill them into wide-mouthed
bottles, cover with 5 per cent. acetic acid or white vinegar and seal tl1e
bottles airtight.
A few fresh red chillies and a small quantity of white mustard seeds may
be added for better appearance. Suitable spiced vinegar also may be used.
The following are quicker methods:
I. Take small onions of about the same size, peel and blanch them
in boiling water tiII they become tender. Then add dry salt at the
rate of one lb. for every 8 lb. of the onions and let them stand for
24 hours. Stir the mass occasionally. Drain and pack in cold, spiced
vinegar, according to taste.
2. Peel and simmer the onions for abollt 15 minutes with spiced vinegar
containing ~ oz. salt per pillt. Drain and pack them in a jar and
cover with fresh. hot, spiced vinegar.
Walnut Pickle
T(!nder walnuts, with their shells still soft, arc used for pickling. As they
are intensely astringent. they require prolonged curing. say, for 3-4 months.
To facilitate this process, they should be pricked with stainless steel needles
Or bamboo spikes.
Recipe I. To 3 pints of vinegar add I oz. salt and ~ oz. each of all·
spice, whole pepper, clove and ginger. Puncture the tender walnuts with
a fork and store them in this vinegar for 4 months. Cook the walnuts in
the vinegar replacing water lost by evaporation. Drain and fill them into
bottles covering with hot fresh spiced vinegar. Seal the bottles. The pickle
will be ready for use in about three weeks.
Recipe II. According to Campbell, walnuts can be pickled as follows:

Take green tender walnuts, prick them and cover them in a vessel with a
brine containing 4 lb. of salt pel' gallon of water. Allow the nuts to remain
in this brine for 3 days, drain and covel' with fresh brine of the same
strength. Repeat this process twice. Drain the nuts and dry them in the
sun till they turn black. Prepare spiced vinegar by boiling 8 oz. of black
pepper, 4 oz. of allspice and 4 oz. of bruised ginger in one gallon of 5 per
cent. vinegar. Pack the walnuts in bottles and cover with this vinegar.
For preparing sweet spiced vinegar, sugar may be added at the rate of
3-5 lb. per gallon of vinegar.
OIL PICKLBS
In India, oil pickles. that is pickles which contain some· edible oil,
are highly popular. Cauliflower, lime, mango and turnip pickles prepared
in this way are the most important. The preparation of these is descrihed
briefly in the following pages.
Bamboo Pickle
Tender bamboo shoots can be Ilsed for preparing different types of
pickles.
Select tender bamboo shoots and remove tlleir ollter leaves. Cut the
shoots into small pieces and boil them for half an hour twice with 2-3
changes of water to remo\,e the bitter principle. Drain and rinse. Dry th
pieces in the sun for 2-3 hours. Mix them with the usual spices and a small
quantity of rapeseed oil or gingelly oil. Fill them into a stone jar. Place
the jar in the sun for about a week. To improve its keeping quality. add
more oil to cover the pickle.
Cauliflower Pickle
Cauliflower pickle is highly popular in North India. According to Tandon,
the following process gives a good pickle.
Take fully developed and compact heads of cauliflower.
Remove the outer leaves and central stalks. Cut the flowers into pieces.
Wash, drain and place them in the sun for 2·3 hours to remove surface
moisture. Take the following quantities of ingredients:
Take all the spices except mustard and grind them into a fine powder.
Fry them in tbe oil. When the spices turn brown, add the cauliflower pieces
:lnd mix the whole mass thoroughly. When the cauliflower pieces turn
slightly soft, allow them to cool. When the mass has cooled down to room
temperature, add mustard and mix it thoroughly. Place the mixture in the
sun for 5-7 days. Then add S lb. of vinegar and again place it in the sun
for 3 more days.
RECIPE
Prepared cauliflower 40 lb.

Salt 21 lb.
Chilli powder Ii lb.
Cumin 2 oz.
Cloves 2 oz.
Cardamom I oz.
Cinnamon 2 oz.
Ginger, green Il: Ih.
Onions, chopped It Ih.
Mustard seeds Ii Ih.
Rapeseed oil S ib.
For a sweet pickle add 10 lb. of sugar or jaggery along with th e vincgllr.
The pickle will be ready in about a week's time.
The following recipe which reqnires more mu stard , also gives a good
pickle:
RECIPE
Prep:lrccl cauliflower 82 lb.

Salt S ib.
Mustard, finely ground 6lh.
Red chillies, finely gt'ound 2 lb.
Turmeric, finely grcrund t lb .
Dry ginger, finely ground ! Ih.
Onions, finely ground i Ih.
Garlic, finely gronnrl l lh.
Gur 20 lb.
Rapeseed oil Sufficienr 10 mix Ih e
~pices .
Blanch the cauliflower pieces for 5-6 minutes in boiling water. Mix all
the ingredients in a jar and place the latter in the sun. In 4-5 days the pickle
will be ready. Then IIdd 18 oz. of glacial acid and mix thoroughly.
Jack Fruit Pickle
Th e pre-pickling treatment of the slices of tender. green jac:k fruit IS
the same as for the pickle in vinegar.

Take the following ingredIents:
RECIPE
Brined slices 20 Ih.

Salt I} Ih.
Chilli powder 6 01..
Cumin (ziro) I oz.
Cloves I oz.
Cardamom i oz.
Cinnamon I oz.
Dry gi!!ger 1 oz.
Ol1lons, chopped 10 oz.
Mustard seed I oz.
GingeJly oil 2! lb.
Garlic I oz.
Vinegar 211b.
Sugar 2! lb.
Fry chopped ginger, onion, garlic and mustard seeds in a little oil till
they tUIn brown. Add these and the rest of the spices to the jack fruit
slices and fill the mass into glazed jars. Mix well and place the jar in the
sun for 3-4 days, stirring the mass occasionally. Add sugar and vinegar,
again mix well and keep the jar in the sun. The pickle will be ready in
another 3-4 days. Fill the pickle into glass or glazed eartllen jars and pour
sufficient oil to cover the pickle well.
Lime Pickle
Wash fully-ripe limes thoroughly. Give two or four slits to each fruit.
Tal<e common salt of good quality at the rate of 4 oz. for every pound of
the fruit. Fill into the jar about two-third the quantity of the limes and
add the salt. Squeeze the remaining portion of the limes partially and put
them also inlO the jar. The juice should now cover the contents of the
jar. If necessary, a few more limes may be squeezed and their juice poured
into the jar. Place the jar in the sun for about a week. The limes get
softened and their skin rums light brown.
For preparing lime and green chilli pickle, these may be taken in propor-
tions ranging from 8: 1 to 4: 1, in weight. The rest of the process is similar
to that for lime pickle. Bamboo shoots also can he used along with limes
and chillies.
Mango Pickle
Mango is pickled differently in different parrs of India. These are
generally oil pickles. The 'Avakai' pickle in the Circars (Andbra State) is
a well known oil pickle. These oil pickles are generally highly spiced. In
North India, rapeseed oil is commonly used while in the South, gingelly
oil is preferred. If handled carefully, the pickles will keep for one to two
years. There is a considerable demand in other countries for mango pickles.
Since the mango is almost a monopoly of India, it is desirable to standardise
its pickling to build up an export trade.
The following recipe gives a good mango pickle.
Take under-ripe, but fully developed, tart variety of mango. Wash them
in water. Slice them longitudinally with a stainless steel knife. Discard thc
stones. Keep the slices in brine of 2-3 per cent. strength to prevent blacken-
ing of the cut surfaces. Take the following quantities of spices:
RECIPE
Mango slices 2 lb.

Common salt powdered 8 oz.
Fenugreek (methe) coarsely ground 4 oz.
Nigella (kalaun;.) coarsely ground I oz.
Turmeric powder ) oz.
Red chilli powder 1 oz.
Black pepper I oz.
Fennel or aniseed (sQunf) 1 oz.
Mix the mango slices with the common salt powder. Place the mixture
in a glazed jar. Keep it in the sun for 4-5 days, till the slices turn pale
yellow. Then mix the other ingredienrs with the slices and smear them
with a little sarson (rapeseed) oil. Then pack the pickle in glass or glazed
jars and cover with a thin layer of sarsotl oil. The pickle will be ready in
2-3 weeks.
Turnip Pickle
Sweet turnip pickles in oil are highly popular in several parts of North
India. The following process gives a good pickle:
Select sound turnips, preferably with a pink skin. Wash them thorou!?;hly.
Peel and slice them into pieces of a convenient size, preferably of ~{-~ inch
thickness. Take the following ingredients:
RECIPE
Prepared turni p 20 lb .
Red chillies B 07..
Black pepper 4 07..
Mllstard I lb.
Spices (caraway and cinnamon) 2 oz.
Dried dates (chlloara) 8 07..
Tamarind (lntt.) 8 oz.
Ginger fresh, chopped 8 07..
Onions fresh, chopped 2 lb.

Garlic, chopped 4 oz.
Salt 2 lb.
Vinegar r bottle (26 oz.)
GIIY or jaggery Ii lb.
Rapeseed oil (sar son Oil) 2 lb.
Blanch the turnip pieces for 5-6 minutes in boiling water. Chop the
ginger, onions and garlic and fry them in a little oil. Soak tamarind and
dates in water overnight. Prepare a thick extract of the tamarind by macera-
tion and pass it through thin muslin cloth to remove seeds. Remove the
stones from the dates and slice them into small pieces. Grind black pepper,
red chillies and all the other spices. Mix all these ingredients except gur
and rapeseed oil with the prepared turnip pieces. Fill the mass into jars
and keep the latter ill the sun for 5-6 days. Then add the gur in the form
of a thick syrup and again place the jar in the sun for 3-4 days. Add the
rapeseed oil and pack the pickle in stone jars.
CHAPTER XV
VINEGAR
Vinegar is perhaps the oldest known fermentation product. It contains

about 5 per cent. acetic acid in water, varying amounts of fixed fruit acids,
colouring matter, salts and a few other fermentation products which impart
a characteristic flavour and aroma t') it. In the trade, vinegar is labelled
according to the material used in its manufacture. For instance, vinegar
made from malt .is called malt vinegar and that f!"Om apple juice, cider
vinegar, and so on.
QUALITY STANDARDS
Vinegar is a liqllid derived from various suhstances containing sugar and
starch hy alcoholic and subsequent acetic fcrrnentarion. It should comain
at least 4 grams of acetic acid per 100 c.c. and a corresponding quantity of
the mineral 8alt~ of the matcrials from which it is made. It should not
contain arsenic in amounts exceeding 0.0143 milligram per. 100 c.c., nor any
mineral acid, lead, copper, or colouring matrer except caramel.
Grain Strength
Vinegar manufacturers and dealers repres nt the percentage of acetic
acid in terms of 'grain strength'. The 'grain strength' of any vinegar is ten
times the percentage of the acid present in it. For example. a vinegar con-
taining 5 per ent. acetic acid is spoken of as vine~ar of 50 g-rain strel1~lh .
VlNBGAR VARIBTIES
Vinegar is made from various fruits and also from sl1g-ars. SOl11e impol'tanr
rypes of vinegars are descrihed in the following pages.
Cider Vinegar
Vinegar made from apple juice by fermentation is called 'Apple Cider
Vinegar' or 'Cider Vinegar'. It should contain at least (i) 1.6 grams of apple
soljds per 100 C.c., of which more than 50 per cent. are reducing sugars, and
(ii) at least 4 grams of acetic aciel per 100 c.c. at 20·C.
Wine or Grape Vinegar

The vinegar made from grapes by acetic fermentation is called 'wine or
grape vinegar'. It should contain at least 1 gram of grape solids, 0.13 gram
of grape ash and 4 grams of acetic acid per 100 c.c. at 20·e.
230
VlNEGAR. 231
Spirit Vinegar
This is made by acetic fermelltation uf dilute ethyl alcohol. It should
c~l1tain at least 4 ?ra~11s of a.ceric acid per 100 c.c. at 20°C. It may be coloured
Wl~ c~ramel: TIns v~egar IS also called 'grain vinegar' or 'distilled vinegar'.
Dlsulled nne gal' IS often called white yinqplr. The term 'distilled' is
misleading, because the vinegar itself is not distilled, but is made from
distilled alcohol.
Malt Vinegar
It is derived wholly frolll malted barley or other cereals, the starch of
which has been saccharified by the diastase of malt followed by akoholic
and acetic fermentation without distillntion. It contains not less than 4
grams of acetic acid pel' 100 c.c. at 20°C.
Other Vinegars
Vinegar can be made from oranges, pineapples, ripe bananas, pears,
peaches, apricots, etc., and, in fact, from any substance which cOnTains at
least 10 per cent. of fermentable sugars and which will give more than the
legal minimullI of 4 grams of acetic acid per )00 Le. of vinegar.
METHODS OF PREPARATION
Two distinct processes arc illvolved in the preparatioll of villegar. i.e ..

(i) transformation of the sugary substances of fruits, elC., into alcohol by
yeast, and (ii) change of the alcohol into vinegar by acetic acid bacteria.
The chemical reactions involved in the~c two processes arc as follow s:
Yeast
i) C.H 120.----+ 2 C.H.Ol-I-I- 2 CO,
Fermentahle ~ugar Ethyl Alcohol Carbon
(11:10) (2 x 46 = 92) Dioxide
Vitlcgar bacteria.
ii) 2 C.H ,OI-l+ 2 0 . -- - - - - - + 2 CH,COIJI-I -I- H,o
Ethvl Alcohol Acetic add WaleI'
(2 X '46= 92) Oxygell (2x60 = 120)
I. HAW MATERIAL I'HOCE~SlNG ANO }·.EHMENTATlON
Grapes
Grapes are crushed and pressed jllst as in the case of making while grape
juice and are then fermented widl a pure starter of yeast. The fermented
juice usually concains a much higher percentage of alcohol lhan that
required for vinegar preparation. The liquor is adjusted to 7-8 per cent.
alcohol content before acetic fermentation is started. The ferment~d juice
should be diluted only at the time of starting acetic fermentation, other-
wise it may spoil due to the fQr~ation of 'wine flowers'.
23Z PRESERVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Oranges
In extracting orange juice for fermenting. care should be taken to keep
out peel oil.
Apples
Juice is extracted by grating and pressing whole apples in a basket or
rack and cloth press. Even after this. the pomace contains a large percentage
of juice which is difficult to extract. In order to extract this juice, the pomace
is finely ground. For every ton of it about 15 gallons of actively fermenting
cider is added in order to promote yeast fermentation. The pomace is
allowed to ferment for 2-3 days and then pressed. By this method, a larger
yield of juice is obtained than by simple grinding and pressing. The juice
extracted by this method being inferior in quality, shou ld be fermented
separately.
Dried Fruits
Dried fruits normally contain a much higher percentage of sugar tban
fresh ones, the percentage varying from SO to 70. For preparing the solution
for making vinegar, 50-60 gallons of water is added to every 100 lb. of the
dried fruir, so as to get a juice colltaining 10-15 per cent. of fermentable
sugars. Then a starter of pure wine yeast is added and the mixture allowed
to ferment for 2-3 weeks or till the fruit becomes sufficiently soft. During
this, the mass is stirred twice a day to prevent the growth of moulds and
acetic acid bacteria on the surface. The fermenting material is then pressed
in a rack and cloth press and the juice allowed to ferment further till all
the sugar present in it changes into alcohol. Alcohol is subsequently
fermented into vinegar.
Potatoes
The starch is first extracted and hydrolysed with diastase before furthc:.(
fermentation takes place.
Molasses
The material is diluted to about 16· Brix, neutralised with citric acid and
then fermented.
Honey
Low grade honeys are used for fermentation.
Malt Vinegar
For high grade malt vinegar barley is commonly used. The malting of
barley is carried out as foUow~, according to the methods given by
Mackenzie, Hopkins and Kraus:
1. Soaking in Water. The grain is soaked in water for about 48 hours,
during which time it absorbs about 45-47 per cent. of water.
V1NtGAR 233
2. Germination. By the older method, the germination of barley is

carried out by spreading the grain on the floor of a well -ventilated room
till the plumuJes are about three-fourth the length of the grain. During
germination, the grain becomes soft and mealy and diastase is produced.
The temperature of the grain rises. To prevent this, the grain is turned over
periodically. The temperature of the grain should not he allowed to rise
above 77 °F. The ideal temperature is 53°-56°F. It usually takes about a
week for the grain to germinate.
By a more recent method, the germination is carried Ollt in large
revolving perforated drums.
3. Kilning. The sprouted grain is heated in a kiln to stop funher
growth. The drying should be done slowly so that a temperature of 120·-
130°F. is reached in 40-48 hours. On no account the drying temperature
should exeeed this range, as at higher temperatures the diastatic activity
of the malt may be adversely affected or even totally destroyed.
4. Cleaning and Crushing. After drying, the grain is rubbed, sifted to
remove broken piumllles and crushed between rolls illto fin e particles or
grists.
5. Mashing. The malt alone or mixed with ground barley i8 suitably
0
thinned with water and heated gradually from 130 to 170 ·F . Th e tempera-
ture is then raised to about 200°F . and kept at that point for about half
an hour to gelatinize the starch. The mixture is then cooled to ISO·F., and
a fresh portion of malt added to complete the hydrol ysis. The progress of
the conversion of starch is tested with iodine, which gives a blue colour
with starch, but no colour with sugar. The liquid is then rUIl off, cooled
and adjusted to abollt 15° Brix for subsequent alcoholic fermentation.
If cereals other than harley are to be used, the method followed is slightly
different. The starch in the cereals is first gelatinised by pressure-processing
and a certain amount (10-1S per cent.) of barley malt is added to convert
the starch into maltose. The mash is dlen fermented with a pure yeast like:
Saccharomyces cerevisiae to alcohol and, finally to acetic acid.
Yeasts for Vinegar

The most desirable yeasts for alcoholic fermentation of juices and other
sugary materials used in the manufacture of vinegar are, Saccharomyces
Ellipsoideus, Saccharomyces Malei, and Saccharomyces Cerevisiae. These
yeasts are very efficient in converting sugar into alcohol. They settle quickly
after alcoholic fermentation is complete and produce a clear liquid qf good
flavour and normal appearance. In practice, only Saccharomyces Ellip-
soideus, commonly found in grape juice fermentations, is used for fermenta-
tion of juices because of its rapid growth and high alcohol-formiQ,g power.
For the fermentation of mashes made from starchy materials, the yeasts
of the Saccharomyces Cerevisiae group are the best.
23-4 PRESERVATION OF FRUlTS AND VEGETABLES
Alcoholic Fermentation
Fruit juices and sugar solutions of low concentration ferment of their
own accord due to wild yeast normally present in fruits anci in the atmos-
phere. but this is not desirable because different yeasts produCt: different
kinds of decomposition products. Tn order. therefore. to get a good vinegar it
is essential to destroy all these llaturaJly occurring yeasts and other mkro-
organisms by pasteurization and to inoculate the sterile juice thus obtained
with pure yeast. Pure wine yeast is sold in the market in a compressed
form. A 'starter' is prepared from this for adding to the fruit or sugary
solution to be fermented.
Yeast Starter
A 'starter' can be prepared as follows: Take one gallon of fruit juice
or sugar solution (generally gur or molasses is used for the purpose) of
about 16° Brix, heat it to about lBO°F. for a minute or so and then cool
it to 80-8S o F. To this, add one cake of yeast after crushing it. Mix the
crushed cake thoroughly and place the jujce ill a clean jug. or a stone or
glass jar. Close the mouth of the container with a plug made of cotton
' 01' a piece of muslin. Keep it in a dark, warm place at about 80°F.
Yeast retluire certain nutrients, such as phosphates, amll10niulll and
potassium salts and sugar. These are normally present in fruit juices and
sugar solutions made from gilt' and molasses. When fermentation becomes
active in 3-4 days and the juice still shows a Brix of about 8 degrees, it is
mixed with fresh juice or sugar solution in the ratio of one to ten. The
mixture is stored in a warm place for further fermentation. The fermenters
arc usually open wooden vats. Sometimes, do cd fermenters are used so that
the carbon dioxide evolved may be recovered. An addition of about 3-4
oUUceS of sulphur dioxide (6-8 ounces of potassium metabisulphite) per ton
of the crushed fruit or per 200 gallons of: juice, helps in getting higher yicld~
0'£ clear alcohol.
Culture Yeast
The growth of 'culwre yeast' is faroured uy aeratioll and agitation of the
fermenting liquid in the initial stages. Undue aeration should, however, be
avoided at the later stages to prevellt any oxidation. The best course is tu
till a barrel to the brim, leaving only a little space for frothing. The mouth
of the container should be plugged loosely with cotton or covered with a
piec~ of cloth to allow the carbon dioxide formed during fermentation to
escape.
The most favourable temperature range for tbe growth of yeast is
77°_80 ?F. Fermentatioll becomes abnormal at 100°F. and ceases altogether
at 105°F. It al 0 ceases if the temperature of the fermenting liquid falls
below 45°F. In order to get good results, the be t course is to use a room
whose temperature remains within the above mentioned range.
VINEGAR 235
Alcoholic fermentation occurs in twO stages. The first is preliminary or

vigorous fermentation and the second is slow fermentation. During the
first 3-6 days, most of the sugar is converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
This fermentation is so rapid that foreign micro-organisms have very little
chance to develop in the medium.
The secondary fermentation is much slower and usually takes 2-3 weeks.
During this fermentation, contamination with vinegar or lactic acid
bacteria may take plan:. 'Stuck tanks' in which alcoholic fermentation has
ceased before ferm entation is complete, are not uncommon during this
stage. This may be due to either unfavourable temperarures or the high
sugar content in the solution sufficient to give 14 per cent. or more of
alcohol, which is deleterious to the growth of yeasr. Under favourable con-
ditions, fermentation is complete in 72-96 hours. Completely fermented
juice usually gives a reading of about zero degree Bru or less. On no
account more than 0.3 per cent. sugar should remain uncon verted. During
fermentation, gas bubbles are constantly produced. When fermentation is
complete, their evolution ceaSeS.
aarification and Storage

When the fermentation is complete, the yeast and the fruit pulp settle
to form a corn pact mass at the bottom of the tank. After settling, the
fermented liquid is separated from this sediment by syphoning: A filter
press also may be used to clarify the liquid. The clear liquid is stored in
airtight vessels for later usc. In order to prevent loss of alcohol and injury
to the quality of the product due to the growth of mycoderma 'wine
flowers', the barrel should be filled to the brim and sealed. If, however,
the fermented liquid is to be kept exposed, it should either be acidified
with strong unpasteurized vinegar so as to increase its acidity to at least
1 per cent. acetic acid or it should be covered with neutral oil (i.e., liquid
paraffin) to prevent the growth of 'wine flowers' and evaporation of vinegar.
Acetic acid Fennentation

Acetic acid fermentation is brought about by acetic acid bacteria
(acetobacter). These are strongly aerobic and, like other organisms, their
activity is greatly reduced or inhibited by direct sun rays. Even diffused
day light checks their growth. Acetic fermentation should, therefore, be
carried in dark rooms fitted with orange or red glass panes.
Acetic acid bacteria require for their growth, nutrients which are
generally present in the alcoholic liquor made from fruit juices or sugary
substances. If, however, distilled alcohol is used, addition of a food for
the bacteria is essential. Usually malt sprouts, phosphoric acid, potassium
carbonate, tri-soditull phosphate and ammonium hydroxide are used. For
acetic fermentation, the alcohol content of the fermented liquid is adjusted
to 7-8 per cent. alcohol, because aeetic acid bacteria do not function pro-
15
PRESERVATION OF FRUlTS AND VEGETABLES
perly at higher strengths. Mother vinegar containing acetic acid bacteria

is then added to it in order to check the growth of undesirable micro-
organisms and to hasten the process. It is added at the rate of one gallon
to three gallons of fermented juice.
2. PREPARATION OF VINEGAR
Stow Process
This method is generally practised in India. The juice or sugary solution
is filled into barrels and allowed to undergo alcoholic and acetic fennenta-
tions slowly. To screen off dust and flies, the bung-hole is covered with
cloth and the barrels placed in a damp and warm place. In about 5-6
months, the sugary solution turns into vinegar. 'The main drawbacks of
this method are:
(i) Alcoholic fermentation is often ill complete ;
(ii) Acetic fermentation is very slow;
(iii) Quality of the vinegar is inferior; and
(iv) Yield is low.
Orleans Slow Process
In this process, about three-quart'I's of the barrels are filled with the
juice, inoculated with mother \'inegar and placed ll!ngthwise. Two holes,
each about an inch in diameter, arc made 011 either side of the barrel just
above the level of the juice, in addition to the bung-hole. These three holes
are screened with wire-gauze' or cheese cloth to exclude insects, vinegar
flies, etc. The barrels are kept in a warm place at 70° -SO°F. and fermenta-
tion is allowed to proceed till the acid reaches its maximum strength.
Under favourable conditions it usually takes ahout 3 months for the com-
plete conversion of the liquid into vinegar. About three-fourth of the
vinegar is then withdrawn and an equal amount of fermented alcoholic
juice is added for further vinegar fermentation. The process can be repeated
once every 3-4 months. Care should, however, be taken to see that the film
of vinegar bacteria on the surface of the fermenting juice is not disturbed ;
otherwise, the broken film will sink to the bottom, and in the absence of
air, exhaust the nutrients witho~t producing any vinegar. In order to avoid
the breaking and sinking of the film , a perforated support may be placed
in the barrel about an inch below dle surface of the fermenting juice to
support the film when the vinegar is withdrawn. Vinegar produced by the
'Orleans Slow Process' ages during the process of fermentation, and is clear
and of superior quality.
Quick Procet.
This process is also call d the 'Generator' or 'German' process. In this
process, additional supply of oxygen is made available for the b!icteria by
increasing the surface of the bacterial culture. This increases the rate of
VINEGAR 237
fermentation. The equipment Ilsed ill this process is known as 'Upright

Generator'. It has a false bottom and head, vent-holes and sparge for
discharging the liquor. It consists essentially of three compartments,
Flc. 54. VINEGAR GENERATOR FOR 'QUIa PROCESS'
namely, central, distribution and recelVlng compartments (Fig. 57). The

generator is in the form of a cylinder 12-14 feet high and 4-5 feet in
diameter. The details of the three compartments are as follows :
1. Central Compartment. This is filled with beech-wood shavings, corn
cobs, pumice stone, rattan shavings or straw to increase the surface area.
This chamber is fitted with an adjustable opening near the bottom for air.
2. Distributing Co~partment. This is about one foot above the central
compartment and is separated from it by a partition which is -perforated
with small holes. In chis compartment, a revohring sprinkler or a ,tilting
trough is fitted to allow the liquid to trickle slowly over the shavings or
other material in the central compartment.
3. Receiving Compartment. This is the bottom chamber of the generator

in which vinegar is collected. It is separated from the central comparttnent
by a perforated partition about 5 feet from the bottom of the generator.
The beech-wood shaving or the filling material is wetted with un-
pasteurized vinegar. A mixture of two parts of the alcoholic juice and one
part of the vinegar is fed slowly through the generator to stimulate the
growth of vinegar bacteria. Within a few days the growth of the bacteria
proceeds sufficiently to permit the normal operation of the generator.
When the generator is ready, the alcoholic liquid is mixed with mother
vinegar in the ratio of 1: 2 to increase its acidity from 3 to 3 ~ per cent.
It is then passed through the generator. A single passage of this mixture
through the generator will COllvert the remaining alcohol into acetic acid.
The process can be made a continuous one. The progress of oxidation is
determined by finding the increase in acidity of the percolating solution.
The generator and the air passage should be cleaned from time to time
to eliminate undesirable micro-organisms. The optimum temperature at
which vinegar bacteria are active is 80 · -85·F. In the generator, this is
controlled by the adjustment of the air intake and by tbe rate of the
flow of liquid. If the temperature increases, the rate of flow of the acidified
alcohol is increased and the intake of air is reduced. If on the other hand,
the temperature falls, the rate of flow of alcohol is decreased and the
passage of the air is increased. For speedy work in all seasons, generators
may be fitted with coils in which cold water or steam may be passed to
maintain the optimum temperature.
Alcohol, Acetic Acid Yields

Theoretically, 100 parts of sugar (sucrose or maltose) should yield 53.8
parts of alcohol or 70.1 parts of acetic acid. But in actual practice, even
under the most favourable conditions, about 45-47 parts of alcohol or about
50-55 parts of acetic acid only are produced. The loss represents the con-
sumption of sugar in solution by tlle yeast, the loss of alcohol and acetic
acid due to evaporation or oxidation and also the loss due to utilization
by vinegar bacteria for their growth. Small quantities of alcohol may also
remain unconverted. In order to prepare vinegar of about 5 per cent. acetic
acid strength, it is, therefore, necessary, to use a juice with at least 10
per cent. sugar (maltose or sucrose) content. After conversion of the whole
of alcohol into acetic acid, the vinegar ~acteria attack the acid itself. This
can be prevented by filling the barrels to the brim and sealing them
airtight.
3. POST-PRODUCTION PROCESSES
Ageing
To improve its flavour, vinegar is kept in plain oak. barrels for about
six months. During this period; its harsh flavour changes to a more pleas-
VINEGAR 239
ing aroma and bouquet. This may be due to the oxidation of vinegar
brought about by air entering through the pores in the wood. Acetic acid
may also react on alcohol and form ethyl acetate which has a fruity
flavour.
Clarification
Before bottling, vinegar must be made sparkling clear. During ageing,
most of the suspended material settles down leaving most of the liquid
clear. The clear liquid can be syphoned out for further clarification. This
can be accomplished either by using finings, such as Spanish clay, bentonite.
isinglass, casein. gelatin, or by filtering through pulp filters or aluminium
plate and frame presses. If finings are used, the vinegar has to be stored
for about a month or so to render it clear.
Pasteurization
The vinegar. after ageing and clarification, is pasteurized to check any
spoilage. It is heated in an open vcssel to about ISO°F. and then cooled to
room temperature. It can also be fla sh-pasteurized by passing it through
aluminium pipes surrounded by warm water or steam at ISO°F. Bottled
vinegar is pasteurized by immersing the bottles in hot water till the vinegar
in the bottles attains a temperat\1re of 140°F.
The use of E.K. Seitz filters would ensure the rer.10val of all the micro-
organisms present in the vinegar, thus rendering it sterile. Incidentally it
also clarifies the vinegar to a sparkling clearness.
Pasteurizing with Silver. In this process the vinegar is either filtered
through silver-bearing sand or is electrolyzed with silver electrodes at a
very low current. The vinegar picks up a su fficient concentration of silver
ions, e.g., about 2 p.p.m., to render it sterile.
Colouring
Caramel colour is used as a colouring material in vinegars.
CHECKING SPOILAGE
Lactic Acid Bacteria

Lactic acid bacteria are generally found in fermented juices. They eause
cloudiness and produce disagreeable mousy flavours in the fermented juices,
besides producing lactic and other acids. The bacteria interfere in acetic
acid fermentation and lower the quality of the vinegar. In alcoholic
fermentation, they can be avoided by using a 'starter' of pure yeast and,
during acetic fermentation, by adding 20-25 per cent. of unpa~teurized
vinegar to the fermented alcoholic juice. The acetic acid present in the
vinegar checks their growth.
Wine Flower.
This is a kind of film yeast. If the fermented juice is unnecessarily exposed
to air, 'wine flowers' grow on the surface of the liquid. They destroy the
alcohol and the flavour and also cause cloudiness. Their growth can, how-
ever, be checked by (i) spreading a neutral oil like liquid paraifin over the
surface of the fermented liquid, (ii) adding 20-25 per cent. of unpasteu.
rized vinegar and, (iii) fillipg the barrels to the brim.
Vinegar Flies
Known as Drosophila Cellaris, vinegar flies are small flies which propa-
gate in piles of fermenting pomace or rotten fruits. Although they do not
by themselves in any way affect the quality of the vinegar, they hinder
work. They can, however, be kept away by screening the premises and also
by ensuring sanitary conditions.
Vinegar Eels
Vinegar eels (AnguillllItJ,) are thread-like worms which are sometimes
found in vinegar. These are about 1/25-1/16 inch long, and in shape they
resemble the letter'S'. They can be seen in strong light with the naked
eye in vinegar in a glass vessel. They destroy the acid of vinegar. They can,
however, be destroyed by heating the vinegar to 140°F. or by filtration,
using a beavy adclition of Filter-Cel. Being strongly aerobic, they do not
grow if the container is filled to the brim. If by any chance, the factory
using a heavy addition of Filter-eel. Being strongly aerobic, they do not
equipment and to pasteurize the vinegar.
Vinegar Louse
These rarely becomes a seriolls pest. The 10llse is a small form of aphid
and develops only arollnd generators under certain conditions.
Vinegar Mites
These are the enemies of acetic acid bacteria. They multiply rapidly
and interfere with the oxidation of alcohol. When dead, their bodies settle
to the bottom of the liquid and begin to putrefy. The putrefactive bacteria
so produced sooner or later overpower the acetic bacteria.
CHAJ>TEH XVI
DRYING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Preservation of foods by drying them is perhaps the oldest method known .

Large quantities of fruits are dried in the sun in different parts of the world
such as Asia Minor. Greece, Spain and other Mediterranean counrri('~.
Arabia and Afghanistan. The modern method of dehydration. i.c .. drying
fruits and vegetables under controlled temperawre and .humidity ('ondition~
is, however, assuming increasing importance. The dehydration industry
got an impetus during World War n. Their concentrated form, low cost.
and convenient and easy transportability made dried products very popular
among the armed forces.
SUN·DR YING
Sun-drying is practised in tropical and sub-tropical regions where there

is plenty of sunshine and almost no rain during tbe drying seasoll . The
equipmellt consists essentially of drying trays and it fe\\' other items like
kniyes, lye-bath, etc. Most of the work is done in (l drying yard which
is kept free from dust, fiies. bees, etc.
Fruits arc washed, peeled, prepared and placed on flat-bottomed wooden
trays inside a shed. They are then created with sulphur fumes to maintain
their colour and also to avoid spoilage by micro-organisms. This is done
in a small room by burning a known quantity of sulphur in a r ceplacle
placed on the floor. The trays filled with the fruit are stacked in this room.
Wooden trays, 3' x 2', with sides about 2 inches high and with flat bottoms
arc convenient for handling the fruits. Fruits like thick-skinned grapes,
peaches, etc. are lye-treated to 'check' the skin or to remove the peel to
facilitate drying. After sulphuring (4-8 lb. of sulphur per ton of fruit) the
trays are kept in the sun with occasional turning of the fruit till it i~
dried. The dried fruit is thell stacked in boxes or bins to equalise moisture.
This process is known a 'sweating'. After that the lot is boxed and stored in
a room which is free fxom insects and rodents, having been predously
fumigated with carbon disulphide.
The methods of ~t1n-drying of some important fruits are given below:
Apricots
The small white apricot, especially the 'Shakarpard variety is dried whole
in Afghanistan. It is imported into India in fairly large quantities. Apricots
are allowed to ripen fu lly on the tree. These are then picked, cut into
halves, the pits removed, aJld the halves placed on trays with the cups
2·4\
2'12 PRESERVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
upwards. They are then sulphured for about 3 hours and subsequently
dried. The dried fruits are filled into bags for despatch. Apricots are also
dried to a Jarge extent in France, Asia Minor and Australia. Royal,
Blenheim, Tilton and Moore Park are the principal varieties used for
drying.
Banana.
Dried ripe banana is known as 'banana fig'. The fruit is peeled, sliced
lengthwi e, sulphured and dried in the sun or in dehydrater. Unripe
bananas arc peeled after blanching in boiling water, and cut into disc&
which are then dried. The dried slices are either cooked or fried. They
can also be convertcd into banana flour which can be used as such or in
combination widl odlcr cereal flours. Jain, Das and Siddappa have gor a
process patented for the preparation of a new fruit product like toffee from
banana and other fruits.
Date.
Tunisia, Egypt, Algeria and Arabia are the main date producing
countries. Degler-Nur, Khadrawi and HaIawi are the important varieties.
In the hard-dried dates (Chhoara) sucrose sugar predominates, while in the
soft-dried dates invert sugars predominate. In India, dates are picked in
the 'dung' stage, that is, when the tip of the fruit has turned a translucent
brown. They are spread on mats for 5-8 days for caring. This is expensive
as several pickings have to be made. Lal Singh and Bal Singh have found
thac dates could bc picked 3-4 days before the 'dung' stage and then dipped
for 30 seconds to 2 minutes in a 0.5-2.5 per cent. caustic soda solution
before drying in order to get a good product. Losses due to rain and dust-
storms are minimised Ly this method.
Figs
Smyrna is an important centre for figs. The Smyrna fig which is a
large white variety, is used for drying. The Adriatic fig which has pink
flesh, is also used. The figs are allowed to ripen on the tree and gathered
when they drop. They are then spread thinly on the drying yard for 3-4
days for drying. They are then sorted and packed. According to Cruess,
in California, Calimyrna figs are treated with lime and salt (10 lb. of each
per 100 gallons) to remove the hair from the skin and also to soften them.
They are then dried without sulphuring till there is no exudation of juice
on pressing the dried fig between the fingers.
Grapes
Large quantitIes of seedless grapes known as Kishmish grapes are
imported into India from Afghanistan. Ripe bunches are hung inside dark
rooms known as Kishmish Khanas till they acquire a greenish or light
amber tint. They are considered far superior to the ordinary sun-dried or
DRYING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 243
FIC: . .'is. TOMATO CltllSBF.R, PRF.-JlF.ATINC: PANS, Pm~PER AND COOKING PA NS
Flc. 56. ANAIXn AT. AND RE EARCH LABORATORY, CENTRAL FOOD TECHNOLOGICAL
RESEARCH INSTITUTE, MYSORE
Flc. 57. A HOME -MADE DlUF.1l
Flc. "S. A DEHYDRATlON TROLL£Y BEING LOADED

dehydrated products. The other important dried grape called 'Monucca' or

'Raisin' is prepared from the large seeded Haitha grapes which arc lye-
dipped prior to sun-drying. Siddappa has given cOl1lplete details of the
process for drying grapes in Baluchistan.
For drying, grapes should have a high sug;u' content of 20-24 degrees
Brix. From this point of view some varieties are not suitable. They are then
dried without sulphuring till there is no exudation of juice. The yield
and quality of the final dried product depend on the Brix of fresh grapes.
They are then dried without sulphuring till there is no exudation of juice
and quality of the final dried product depends on the Brix of fresh grapes.
In California, dle Sultanina or Thompson seedless varieties are sun-dried.
The grapes are sometimes dipped for 3-6 seconds in ca ustic soda or a
mixed solution of caustic soda and sodium bicarbonate which has a thin
layer of olive oil on the surface. This process removes only the wax and
clle bloom on the grapes widlOut cracking the skin. The dried product has
a glossy appearance. Lye-dipped grapes are sometimes treated with su lphur
fumes for 3-5 hours for bleaching becausc certain markets have demand
for such variety.
In Australia, potassium carbonate solution widl olive oil , sometimes grape
seed oil, is used as a dipping solution. The drying is carried out on wire-net
racks arranged inside a shed. In this way the grapes arc dried without direct
exposure to the sun. The drying takes 10-20 days, according to the variety
to be dried .
Jack Fruit
The jack bulbs arc sliced, the seeds removed and the slices dried with or
without sulphuring. The hulbs can be made into a fine pulp which can be
dried as sheets or slabs. The dried product prepared by a new method
developed in the Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, has
excellent texture, taste and aroma. This method has been patented.
Mangoes
In India, unripe, green mangoes arc peeled . sliced and dried in the sun.
The product is u~ed for making mango powder which is added to dishes
I
as a relish. In the Northern Circars, juicy varieties of mangoes, known as
Rasam varieties, are processed in the following way: The pulp is squeezed
out and spread on bamboo mats and sprinkled with a little sugar. When
the first layer has dried, another layer of pulp is spread on it for drying.
This process is repeated ulltil a slab ~-l inch thick is obtained. It has a
light yellow amber colour and is very delicious. The product, however,
spoils in a few months due to insect attack and discolouration. These defects
can be removed by the application of scientific methods. There is great scope
for developing trus important product. Recently Siddappa and his colleagues
at the Central Food Technological Research Institute have developed an
improved method which has been patented.
'"
2<46 PRESERV ATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLE
Peaches
Australia, South Africa and California are important peach.drying
countries. Freestone peaches like Muir, Lovell, Salway and Elberta are the
varieties used for drying. Fruits are picked when they are fully ripe and
treated like apricots.
Peatl
Bartlett or Williams pear is the important variety used for drying. These
fruits are ripened for 8-10 days after picking. They are cut lengthwise into
halves without peeling, cored and then sulphured and dried. In California,
they are dried in the sun for 1-2 days. The process is completed in the shade
to get an attractive product.
Other Fruits
Pomegranate seeds are dried to tAnardalld, which is used as a savoury
like tamarind. Apple rings are threaded and dried by hanging them out in
the sun. Prunes, persimmons, cherries, berries, papaya, guava, tomato, etc.,
are also dried to some extent in different parts of the world.
MECHANICAL DEHYDRATION
Dehydration by means of mechanical equipment is a process quite distinct

from sun.drying. The prepared fruit or vegetable is placed inside a chamber
called a 'dehydrater' where the temperature, humidity and rate of air-flow
are controlled. Dehydraters have a wide range-from the simple home set to
the large commercial machines. Details of their construction and working
are given by Morris and also by Von Loesecke.
Home-made Drier
A small cabinet drier bas been found useful for small scale dehydration
of fruits and vegetables for experimental purposes (Fig. 58 & 59). It consists
essentially of a box of galvanized iron sheet, 3' x 2' x 3', with a perforated
iron sheet below. The sides and the top of the box are fixed in a wooden
frame and the whole thing supported on an iron stand about 1!4 ft. high.
In order to let off the moisture, there are two slits, 2' x 1Yz', along the top
end of the twe long sides, and about 4" below the top. These slits can be
closed or opened as desired by means of metallic shutters. Inside the box
seven, 2~' x 2', trays can be stacked on supports in staggering positions. The
perforated plate is heated with ~ charcoal oven or a stove.
Commercial Dehydratets
These large dehydraters are of several types. They are based either on
natural or forced draught circulation. The kiln and stack driers and the
Oregon tunnel drier work on natural draught. The modern dehydrater is
generally based on forced draught. For drying at low temperatures. vacuum

driers are necessary but they are not in general use on account of their
high cost. In the forced draught drier. the temperature and humidity can
be carefully conn-oiled to get a good dehydrated product.
Kiln Drier. The kiln drier is of the old type and is used for drying apples.
hops. etc. It consists of twO floors. the top one for spreading the fruit and
the bottom one for housing the furnace. The heat for drying is conveyed
through pipes. The spent air escapes through a ventilator at the top.
Tower or Stack Type. This consists of a furnace room containing the
furnace and the heating pipes. and of a cabinet in which trays of fruit are
kept for drying. The heated air from the furnace rises through the trays
which are interchanged after some time from top to bottom. The cabinet
drier is similar to the stack drier. The heating is done by steam coils placed
between the trays.
Oregon Tunnel Unit. According to Cruess. an Oregon tunnel drier consists
essentially of several parallel, sloping and narrow chambers above a
furnace room. The trays are placed 011 these sloping floors. Each tunnel is
about 20' long. 5' high and 3' wide with a slope of about 2" per foot. The
trays of fruit enter at the cooler upper end on runways and move towards
the warmer lower end. The dried fruit is removed from the lower end.
Forced.draught Tunnel. This type normally consists of a long chamber
through which the trays of fruit move on trolleys. The heated air is let
in at one end and drawn at the other end. The trolleys are pushed into the
tunnel through an air-lock door. When one trolley of the dried fruits is
taken out at tbe other end. another trolley of fresh fruit is pushed in at
the entrance. The air for drying is recirculated by a fan. Humidity is con-
trolled by letting in air from outside by damper devices.
Heating System
Heating is done direct or by radiation. In the first case, the products of
combustion are mixed with hot air and passed over the material. Though
this is very efficient, there is the danger of over-heating and deposition of
soot and other harmful substances on the material.
In the second method. the air is heated over pipes carrying hot gases from
the furnaces. Alternatively, the air is drawn through pipes heated from
outside. This system also is as efficient as the first one. In another system,
the air is heated by means of steam pipes. Although in this case. heating
can be controlled accurately, it is costly and less efficient than the other
two methods.
Circulation of Air
Several types of fans are used to force the air through the tunnel by
suction or by blowing. According to Cruess. the axial-flow fan is preferable
FIC, 59, AN EXPERIMENTAL 3 -TROLU:Y UNl1' TUNNEL DElIYDRATER (RE-CtRCULA11NC-

AIR-BLAS,T TYPE) FOR DEHYDRATION OF' FRUITS AND VECETABLES
to other types of fans, i.e. propeller type fan, multivane fan, etc. To prevent
case-hardening of the material and to increase the thermal efficiency, a
portion of the air is recirculated after heating. In general, the temperature of
the ingoing air should not exceed 160 °- 170°F. and the humidity at the exit
end should be about 65 per cent. The rate of drying increases with the
velocity of the air passing through the tunnel. According to Nichols and
his colleagues, an air velocity of 600-800 linear feet per minute gives satis-
factory results in tunnel driers. Lower air velocities will be adequate in
compartment driers.
Counter-Current and Parallel (Concurrent) Systems

When the air-flow is in the direction opposite to that of the drying
material, the system is called counter current system. In the parallel system
both flows are in the same direction. In the first case, the material is drawn
out from the hottest end. There is, therefore, a likelihood of some scorching
of the material. There is also much loss of heat. In the second case, the
process starts with dry and hot air and is completed with a moderate
temperature in moist air. Moreover, there is less loss of heat. According to
Cruess, the parallel system is better for small fruits like grapes, apple slices,
etc., to prevent scorching or case-hardening. Sometimes both systems are
combined in twin tunnel dehydraters.
General Considerations
On an average, about three lb. of fresh fruit can be spread on each square
foot of a tray. On this basis, the capacity of the tunnel can be calculated.
The trays are arranged, leaving about 2 inch space between them. The rate
of evaporation is deduced from the initial and the final moisture contents,
the initial weight of the material and the dry'ing time. In designing
dehydraters, allowance has to be made for the losses of heat due to radia-
tion and leakage, and during the removal of the trolleys.
A small tunnel dehydrater of recirclIlating-air-blast type is described hy
Lal Singh and Girdhari Lal who used it for experimental work in connec-
tion with dehydration of vegetables (Figs. 60 & 62). It is a three-trolley unit
with the following parts:
1. (i) Drying Chamber. Tunnel measures 13' long,S' wide and 6X' high.
(ii) Heating Chamber. lOX' long,S' wide and 3' high.
(iii) Fan Chamber.2!h', long 5' wide and 3' high.
Hot air draft inlet slit in the drying chamber at the hot end
5' x I' (Hot air from the heating chamber passes through this slit
into the drying chamber).
2. Fresh Air Arrangement. Fresh air damper at the cold end measures
3}{' x I !h'. This has an adjustable cover for controlling the flow of air.
3. Side Damper•• It measures 18" x 9". There are two dampers on both
sides of the tunnel near the cold end. These have metallic flaps to
regulate the flow of the outgoing air in accordance with the humidity
in the drying chamber.
4. Heating System. This is done by means of steam pipes. Two sets of
coil, one 160' long and of one inch diameter and the other 110' long
and of !.4" diameter are placed in the heating chamber just in front
of the blower fan. This can be replaced by a coal furnace with flue
pipes inside the heating chamber to reduce the cOSt without any loss
in efficiency.
HOT ENO
£l CVATfOH
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FIC. -60. CmcuLATINc-Am-DLAST TYPE FUNNEL DEUYDRATER
5. Air·flow System. One multivane fan, 20" in diameter, and with 12

blades is placed in the fan chamber. For a 13' tunnel, the speed of
air-flow in the chamber works out to be only about 200 linear feet
per minute. The space around the first trolley near the hot end is
totally dosed to stop the escape of air through the empty spaces
. without passing over the trolleys.
6. Trays, and Trolley•• (i) Trays: 2~' x 2' with wire guaze of a 1/8" mesh
fixed on wooden frame. (ii) Trolleys: 2!.4' long, 4%' wide and 5%'
high. There are four trolleys, each accommodating 40 trays in two
rows, the distance between the trays in a stack being .2". The tunnel
is worked as a three-trolley unit, one trolley being extra for loading.
7. Trolley Track and Turn Tables. To facilitate pushing in and taking out
of the trolleys, a tract 2'4" wide and 100' long is built and provided
with three turn-tables.
Working Instructions
The prepared material (potato slices in this case) is placed on trays
(1-1 !4 lb. per square foot) and the trays are loaded (Fig. 58) on one trolley. The
trolley is pushed into the tunnel from the cold end and the doors are closed.
The temperature is maintained at 140· -14S·F. at the cold end and at
17S· -180·F. at the hot end. After about 2!h hours, a second loaded trolley
is placed in and the tunnel is closed airtight. The process is repeated for
the third trolley. The first trolley with the dried potato slices is taken out
2!h hours after the third trolley is pushed in. The process is made continuous
in this manner. The temperature and humidity are controlled as follows:
Temperature Humidity
Cold end (damper end) 140' 14S ' F. 40-4S per cent.
Hot end 160' 16S ' F. 20-2S per cent.
The humidity is determined at intervals of 30 minutes with the help of a

dry and wet bulb thermometer. The drying time varies from 7 to 8 hours
per trolley. The capacity of the dehydrater is about 320 lb. of dried potatoes
per 24 hours, working continuously. For commercial working, the tunnel
length of 13' is rather small and it should, therefore, at least be double.
PROCESS VARIATIONS
Particulars regarding the preparation, preliminary treatment such as sul-

phuring, etc., temperaturc and humidity for the dehydration of variou s fruits
are given briefly in the following paragraphs:
Apples
Apples are peelcd, cored and cut into cubes or slices. These are sulphured
for IS-30 minutes and dried at 140·-160°F. for 6-10 hours. The yield varies
from 10 to IS per cent.
Apricots
. Both white and yellow apricots can be dried whole or in halves. They
are sulphured for IS-2S minutes and dried at 13S· -ISS·F. for 10-20 hours.
The yield varies from IS to 19 per cent.
Bananas
Green as well as ripe bananas can be dehydrated. They are peeled, cut
into slices, sulphured for IS-30 minutes and dried at 130· -160·F. for 18-20
hours. Several of the well known varieties of South India have 'been found
quite suitable for drying as figs or for preparing banana flour. The yield
varies from 14 to 20 per cent.
Grapes
The grapes are lye-dipped, sulphured for about 30 minutes and dried at
ISoo- 180°F. for 20-30 hours. The yield varies from 21 to 27 per cent.
Mango, Guava and Jack Fruit

Methods for drying dlcse are being worked out at the Central Food
Technological Research Institute, Mysore. A method for the preparation of
sheets or slabs of fruit pulps has been recently patented.
Peaches
The halves are sulphured for IS-20 minutes and dried at 14SO -ISS·F. in
15-24 hours. The yield varies from 14 to 19 per cent.
Pears
Thc pears which should be ripe, are peeled, cut into halves and cored.
They are then sulphured for 15-20 minutes and dried at 140 o-14soF. for
IS-24 hours. The yield varies from 14 to 19 per cent.
Other Fruits
Berry fruits, prunes, cherries, etc., also can be dehydrated.
Sulphur Dioxide Content

According to Morris, the following are the permitted limits of S02 in
different countries.
COUNTRY OR STATE P.P.M. of SO.

Great Britain 2,000 (750 for raisins)
Canada 2,500
Switzerland 2,000
Germany, Austria 1,250
Czechoslovakia 1,250 (Raisins only)
France 1,000
Japan 1,000 (Apricots only)
None allowed in other fruits.
U.S.A. (New York State) 2,000
U.S.A. (New Hampshire) none
PROCESSES FOR VEGETABLES
Although in India, considerable quantities of different vegetables like

cauliflower, cabbage, bitter gourd, carrot, turnip, okra, banana, etc., are
dried in the sun, the quality of the dried products is rather poor. The
vegetables are not generally given any preliminary treatment such as
blanching which is necessary to destroy enzymes that cause discolouration.
According to Lal Singh and Girdhari La), even after blanching, the sun-dried
vegetables after one year's storage were found unsatisfactory. They were
poor in colour and remained tough even after long cooking. Earthen Jars.
although suitable for sweating of the dried vegetables. are not suitable for
storage. as they are highly porous and absorb moisture which spoils the
product.
For large scale production of dried vegetables, dehydration is the proper
method. To meet the demand of the Armed Forces during World War II,
a series of investigations were made by La! Singh and Girdhari Lal and
Girdhari Lal and Jain. to standardize methods for the dehydration of pota-
toes, onions, garlic, cauliflower. etc. The experimental dehydrater already
described was used. Details regarding the dehydration of some of rhe
important vegetables are as follows.
Beans
Tender string beans are used. They are cut into small pieces, blanched
in steam for 3-6 minutes and dried until both the pods and the beans inside
them are brittle. The drying ratio is 7: I.
Bitter Gourd (Karela)

The gourds are scraped and Cllt into X inch-thick slices. The slices are
blanched in boiling water for 7-8 minutes and dried at ISO° -160°F. for 7-9
hours. The drying ratio is 26: J.
Brinjal
The brinjals arc cut lengthwise into about X inch thick slices and
immersed in a O.S per cent. solution of S02 for I ~ hours. Th e sikes are then
blanched in boiling water for 4-S minutes and dried at 120°- 130°F. for 9-1)
hours. The drying ratio is 33: I. Contact with iron must be avoided.
Cabbage
Outer leaves and the cores are removed and shreds of 3/16 inch thickness
are made. The shreds are either blanched in steam for 5-10 minutes or in
a boiling 1.0 per cent. sodium bicarbonate solution for 2-3 minutes. Accor-
ding to Cruess, a ~ per cem. solution of sulphite and bisulphite in the
blanching water gives a product with better colour. The shreds are dried at
140 o -ISO°F. for 12-14 hours. The drying ratio is 18:1.
Carrot
Yellow carrots are better for drying. They are scraped and the stalks and
tips removed. They are then cut into 3/16 inch thick slices and blanched
in a boiling common salt solution of 2-4 per cent. strength for 2-4 minutes
and dried. The temperature for drying is 15s o -I6S°F. Drying time is 14-16
hours and the drying ratio 18: 1.
Cau1i6ower
The flowers are removed and cut into pieces. blanched for 4-5 minutes
in boiling water. steeped in a O.S per cent. S02 solution for about an hour
and then washed. They are then dried at 140° -14S0F. for 10-12 hours. The
drying ratio is about 3S: 1.
Garlic
The individual cloves or buttons are separated by hand and dried at
135° -140'F. as such. without any blanching. etc.
Knol·Khol
These are peeled and cut into 3/16 inch thick slices. The slices can be
dried as such or after immersion in a ~ per cent. S02 solution for 30-4n
minutes. The drying temperature is 130'·140'F. and the time 11-13 hours.
The drying ratio is 19: 1.
Okra (Lady's Finger)

They may be dried either whole or as discs or as halves cut lengthwise.
The discs should be ~ inch thick. They are blanched for 4-8 minutes in
boiling water or for 2-5 minutes in steam and rinsed in cold water to
remove the gelatinous coating. They are then dried at 145' ·lsS·F. for
6-8 hours. The drying ratio is 12: 1.
Onions
The outer leaves are removed and the onions cut into 1/IOth inch thick
slices. The slices are immersed in a 5 per cent. solution of common salt for
about 10 minutes and then drained. They are dried at 140 0-ISO'F. for
11-13 hours. It is. however. better to keep the temperature below 13soF.
The drying ratio is 10: 1. The dried product can be powdered for use in
several ways.
Peas
Only tender peas are dehydrated. They are blanched for }·2 minutes in
boiling water and dried at a temperature not exceeding 14soF.
Potatoes
The potatoes should be large. free from disease and fully matured. They
should have the minimum number of eyes. They are washed thoroughly in
water and peeled either by hand using knives or by means of a potato peeling
machine. The peelings are washed away with water. They are then trimmed
and placed in water to prevent browning. They are cut into slices 3/16 to
1/4 inch thick. in a slicing machine and the slices again placed in cold
water. Whenever there is considerable delay in the subsequent operations
of blanching. etc., the slices may be placed in water containing 0.05 per cent.
DRYING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 2SS
potassium meta-bisulphite to prevent spoilage. The slices are blanched for

3-S minutes in boiling water and placed on trays at the rate of 1-1~ 111
per square foot of tray surface. The trays are then loaded on the trolleys
which are put in the dehydrater. The temperature range is 140 -ISO·F. 0
(i.e., 140° at the cold end and 150°F. at the hot end.) The drying time is
7-8 hours and the drying ratio is about 7: I in the case of unprepared
potatoes. Dried potatoes reconstitute well in 4-5 times their weight of water
It is preferable to pack them in an inert gas like nitrogen.
Pumpkin
Ripe pumpkins are cut into strips to facilitate peeling and then made
into 1/4 inch thick slices. The slices are placed in a 2 per cem. common
salt solution for 10 minutes. They arc then blanched for 3-4 minutes in
2.0 per cem. boiling common salt solution and dried at 150° -160°F. for
9-11 hours. The drying ratio is 19 : I.
Spinach
The leaves are washed thoroughly and dried as such or after steaming
them for 4-S minutes. The drying temperature is 14So-1SsoF. and the drying
time 7-8 hours. The drying ratio is 22: I
Tomatoes
The tomatoes are peeled after scalding in boiling water for 30-60 seconds
and cut into 1/4-3/8 inch thick slices. The slices are then dried at 140 0 -lS0°F.
for 9-10 hours. The drying ratio is 27: I. Tomatoes need not be peeled for
making tomato powder.
Turnip
The turnips are peeled and cut into 3/16 inch thick slices. The slices are
immersed in a O.S per cent. S02 solution for 1-2 hours and blanched for 2-4
minutes in boiling water. They are then dried at 12S·-13soF. for 11 -13 hours.
The drying ratio is 28: 1.
PACKING AND STORAGE
Dried fruits and vegetables are subject to insect attack even when they
have been properly dried and stored. Insects not only consume the material
but also leave much debris which spoils the appearance of the product. To
avoid insect attack, great care is necessary in the construction of packing
sheds and god owns. Beetles and moths are the most troublesome pests.
The best way to avoid the infestation is to prevent their enrry into the
product instead of adopting curative measures. The two important curative
methods are heat treatment and fumigation.
Heat Treatment
Dried fruits like raisins, figs, peaches, etc., are dipped in boiling water or
a dilute solution of sodium chloride or bicarbonate and then redried at
130· -ISO·F. to destroy all insects. Dried vegetables may be heated as such
without any preliminary dipping. The heat-sterilized materials should be
packed in sterile containers withom delay to avoid chances of any
reinfesta tion.
Fumigation
There are several fumigants available in the market, but all of them are
not useful in the case of dried fruits and vegetables. Fumigation kills insects
including their eggs. Great care is necessary in using fumigation as some of
these substances (like carbon disulphide and hydrocyanic acid gas) are
highly inflammable or highly poisonous. It is also possible that the fruit
may absorb a small amollnt of hydrocyanic acid rendering the product
poisonolls. These two fumigants are not, however, in general use now.
Methyl bromide is becoming popular, as it is very effective. This gas which
is heavier than air, is poured on the stored material from the top. The
normal dosage is prescribed by the suppliers. It is non-explosive, but is
toxic to human beings also. Mixtures of ethylene dichloride and carbon
tetra chloride, ethylene oxide and ethylene dichloride have also been used
for fumigation. Ethylene oxide, though highly explosive and inflammable,
is an ideal fUI?igant for food-stuffs in general. It is supplied in cylinders.
It is vaporized inside airtight stores. According to Cruess, in the case of
materials like walnuts and almonds, rather than dried fruits, fumigation
can be carried out very effectively in a vacuum.
Packing is perhaps the most vital step for the success of the dehydration
uldustry. Dried fruits and vegetables should be quite dry and should be
packed in moisture-proof tins. If care is not taken to guard against excessive
moisture, the contents will become mouldy in the container. Boxes of
wood or cardboard are not generally moisture-proof and insect-proof unless
special methods are adopted to line them widl waxed paper and seal them
properly. Dried vegetables can be packed in large tin containers in an inert
gas like nitrogen to prolong their keeping quality.
CHAPTER XVII
BY -PRODUcrS
During the canning of fruits and vegetables and the preparation of juices.
squashes, jams, jellies, dried products. etc. large quantities of wa~te lnaterials
are left over. A producer has to dispose of th e peel, rags and seeds of
citrus fruits, the peels and stones of mangoes, the rind and seed of jack
fruit, the core and peel of guavas and seed, skin and trimmings from
tomatoes and the like. Then there is 1he problem of utilization of overripe
and blemished fruits aud vegetables. It is ncccs~ary to find Ollt a profitable
outlet for t1lese waste products in order to make the indu stry paying. In
India , a considerable amount of work ha~ already h\:\:11 done on this
important aspect of the industry.
UTILIZING WASTE MATERIAL
Below are gwen suggestion s to lltili ~e waste lIlal e rial ~ frolll variolls
sources;
Apple
The pomace left after the ex traction of juice can be dried and II tilized
for the preparation of pectin. Further details are givel) in the next chapter.
Apricot
According to Siddappa and Musta(a, kernels of white apricots a 1'(: swee t
and can be added, after removing their outer coat, to apricot jam to improve
its appearance and consumer appeal. They can also be used in confec-
tionery. According to Cruess, an oil can be extracted from the kernels by
pressure or with a suitable solvent. Th is oil can be refined and lIscd just
like almond oil. It can also be used ill cosmetics and pharmaceutical
preparations. Apricot kernels are sometimes used for making macaroon
paste which is usually made from almonds. The oil cake is rich in protein
and is used as a cattle feed.
Grape
In the preparation of grape juice and wines, stcms and pomace are the
main waste products. The stems can yield cream of tartar. From the pomace
the seeds can be separated and pressed to extract an oil which is edible in
its refined state. It can also be used to dip grapes prior to drying so that
they acquire a lustrous appearance. The oil cake can be used as 'a cattle feed.
The pomace may be treated with water, and calcium tartrate precipitated
257
by the addition of a mixture of calcium hydroxide and calcium chloride.

The. calcium tartrate precipitate is treated with dilute sulphuric acid to
preci.pitate the calcium as sulphate. From the filtrate, tartaric acid is recover-
ed by crystallization. Tannin extracts can be prepared from the hulls of
the decorticated grape seeds. The pomace can be used for the preparation
of jelly. According to Elwell and Debll, grape marc can be a suitable ~onrcc
of commercial pectin under certain conditions.
Guava
The core with the seed and also the peelings can be utilized for making
guava cheese. Guava cheese is a fruit confection of the type of Indian
Halwa and has a potential home as well as foreign market. Recently Jain,
Das and Girdhari Lal have standardized an improved method for its pre-
paration. According to these authors, the cold process of pulping is more
convenient and better in various other respects than the hot process. The
pulp surrounding the seeds as well as the seed is not as useful for the
preparation of the cheese as the peelings and the fleshy portion of the
fruit. The fruit is minced and passed through a screw type juice extractor
having a sieve of 40-50 mesh.
Guava Cheese
RECIPE
Pulp = X lb.
Sugar = 67% of the amount indicated b y the je1meter,
for jelly; i.e., 0.67 X XY lb. (where Y =lb. of
sugar required for I lb. pulp for jelly)
Citric Acid 4.5 oz. per 100 lb. sugar
Common salt = 14.0 oz. "
Butter = 33.5 oz. "
or
Vegetable fat, i.e., hydrogenated
vegetable oil = 25 oz. ., "
All the ingredients except the citric acid are heated together in a pan.
When the temperature reaches 221°F., the citric acid is added to bring about
36 per cent. inverted sugar in the finished product. The boiling is finished
at 239°F. at sea level. The cooked mass is then spread over the smooth
surface of a tray smeared with butter or hydrogenated oil or glycerine and
allowed to cool and set. The cheese is of good set. It is light brown in colour
and has good flavour.
Using this recipe, it has been observed that the peelings, seed and pulp in
the seed core can be utilized for making cheese. The peelings give a
cheese of good set with a deep brown colour and satisfactory flavour. The
cheese made from seeds is rather soft, sticky and dark brown in colour
but possesses good flavour. The cheese from the pnlp in the seed core has
a soft texture and fairly good flavour.
BY -PRODUCTS 259
Jack Fruit
The waste material, i.e. the thick rind with inner perigones, has been
found by Siddappa and Bhatia to be a good raw material for a high class
jelly. Pectin can also be prepared from it. The starchy seeds can be roasted
or cooked and eaten as a delicacy. They CRn also be ground into flour for
use with other cereals.
Mango
The mango· peeling can be extracted with water and fermented into
vinegar. The kernel in the stone can be dried, powdered and utilized for
edible purposes. The po sibility of utilizing mango stones for food is of
considerable importance due to scarcity of cer als in the country.
Passion Fruit
The rind can be used for recovering pectin and the seed for oil.
Peach
Just as in the case of apricot, the peach kernels can also yield oil.
Pear
The peelings and cores can be fermented into perry or vinegar. They
can also De dried and used as an animal feed.
Pineapple
According to Cruess, the shells, trimmings and other waste materials are
shredded and pressed in a continuous press to recover the juice which is
refined by de-acidifying and decolourizing, and mixed with cane sugar syrup
for use in canning pineapples. At one time, this juice was fermented into
alcohol for use in automobiles. Citric add was also recovered from the juice
by neutralizing it with CaC0 3 and treating the calcium citrate formed to
get citric acid as from lemon juice. The cores can either be candied or con-
verted into juice. The press cake from the Juice call be dried and used as
an animal feed. The pomace left after extracting the juice from the peeled
fruits or cores or trimmings, is not quite suitable for making jam.
Peas
The vines and pods can be used as stock feed either as such or after
drying.
Tomatoes
An edible oil can be extracted from the seeds after separating them from
the skins. The trimmings can be used for the preparation of juic~ or ketchup.
When tomato juice is prepared by the cold method, the seeds are still good
for sowing. .
Other Vegetables
The wastes left over in the drying of vegetables like potatoes, cabbage,
caullilower, sweet potatoes, beans, etc., can be used for making cattle feed .
It may also be possible to utilize the leafy wastes of vegetables for the
preparation of some useful food products.
Citrus By.products
The most important waste materials arc peelings from oranges, the rags
and seeds and the sludge which is deposited when lime juice is stored for
making cordial. The peelings can be used for candying or for the extraction
or distillation of essential oil which finds a ready market in confectionery
and perfumery trades. The rags can be utilized for making pectin, marmalade
or toffee. They can also be dried and used as a cattle feed. According to
Jain, Das and Girdhari Lal, lime oil can be recovered from the lime juice
sludge by distillation. Citric acid can also be prepared from it". Orange
residues can also be fermented into vinegar.
Citric Acid
According to Lal Singh and Girdhari Lal, citric acid can be made from
cull limes, galgal, khatti, etc. The juice is first fermented naturally to remove
gums, pectins and sugars which hinder its filtration. The fermented juice
is then treated with a filter-aid like Kieselguhr at about 140° -150°F. and
then filtered. Hydrated lime and calcium carhonate are added to precipitate
the calcium citrate. This is separated and dried quickly to avoid discolour.a-
lion. For conversion into citric acid directly, the wet calcium citrate
precipitate itself is used in the form of a thin paste. It is treated with the
calculated amount of concentrated sulphuric acid to decompose the citrate
into citric acid. The calcium sulphate precipitate is removed and the liquor
COllcontrated to crystallize the citric acid. From the unfermented juice.
calcium citrate may be prepared and decomposed with a strong solution
of sodium carbonate to form sodium citrate. The precipitate of calcium
carbonate may be filtered off and the solution concentrated to crystallize
sodium citrate.
The manufacture of citric acid on a large scale is not profitable on account
of the high cost of fruits. Imported citric acid which sells at about Rs. 2/-
to Rs. 3/- per lb., is much cheaper. Further, citric acid is being produced
cheaply in ot;her countries from sugars by the fermentation process.
Pectin
Pectin can be prepared from the juice residues of galgal or oranges. The
method is described in chapt~r X~.
Citrus Oils
According to Lal Singh and Girdhari Lal, fresh orange peels yield 0.54
per cent. of oil by dle cold press method. Citrus peel oil extracted by the
nY-PRODUCTS 26 1
FIG . 61. AN ELECTRIC-ALLY OI'L:H I\TI·:n CABINET DHlER
FIG. 62. EXTRACTION OF OIL .' ROM OIlANCF:S BY USING A PLATE WITH SPIKES
262 PRE ERVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Flc. 63. TWO -ROLLER MILL I'OR EXTRACTION 01' OIL FROM CITRUS PEELS
FlO. 64. EX'l'RAcnON OF OlL FROM ORANCES 'IN A FRUlT JUlCE FACl'ORY
BY-PRODUCTS 263
cold process fetches a better price than distilled oil which is of inferior
quality. Peel oil is extracted in several ways. In Italy, the lemon peels arc
pressed by hand over a bowl and the juice and oil caught on a ~ponge. The
oil and juice are stlueezed from the sponge periodically and the oil decanted
from the mixture. After the mixture has stood for a night, it is filtered
through paper and packed in copper cans.
In the ca~e of oranges, they arc scraped by revoJ\'ing abrasive disc, and
the scraped fruit is wiped with a sponge to recover the oil.
In another type of machine, oranges or lemons are made to roll on
numerous pointed spikes (Figs. 6J and 64) which puncture the oil cells and
release the oil. The oil is washed off with sprays of waLeI' and recovered ill
centrifugal separators.
In the case of fresh peels from loose jacket oranges, oil of good quality
can be obtained by bending the peel between the fingers and scraping the
exuded oil and juice across the sharp edge of a funnel placed over a bottle.
The peel juice and the oil collect in the bottle. The oil, which is at the top,
can be decallled or separated by means of a separating funnel. Other
simple methods for the cold extraction of peel oil arc being worked out
at the Central Food Technologi<.:al Research Institule, Mysore (Fig. 65).
The preliminary treatment of the peel with lime or CaCl , facilitales the
extraction of oil.
TABLE 22. So~u; J>UYl:uco ·cm :MICAL CIIARt\CTERISl'lC~ OF N.IGrI 11\ l\h NDt\ RI N
1't::1::1. OIL (COLD PRESSED)
S. No. Particulars Sample 1 S:tl11plc II
1. Sp. gravity 2S '/ 2S ' C 0.8462 0.8412

2. Optical rotation (in I: 25 alcohol
solution at 30 ' C) +100 .7 +100.0
:I. Refractive index 1.4745 1.4758
4. Evaporation residue % 2.99 3.60
5. Acid number t .77 1.59
6. Aldehyde val ue (as decylaldehyde)
% (Hydroxylamine hydrochloride
method) 0.3 7 0.32
7. Ester number 4.64 4.12
B. Flavour Pleasant normal PJca,anl, hut , tight-
ly inferior 10 1
9. Solubility in 95 % alcohol (il) one
volume) Soluble Soluble
10. Solubility in 90 % alcohol (5 -9
volumes Soluble with slight Soluhle wilh slight
haziness haziness
fl . Colour
Optica Idensity
at 650 mJ4 0.097 0.119
at 420 mjJ. 1.30 1.40
Lo"i1>ond units 3.0 R 3.0 H
20.0Y 20.1 Y
17
Fresh peels can be steamed or water-distilled to recover the oil. They

can also be sun-dried and the oil distilled subsequently after a preliminary
soaking. Experiments at the Central Food Technological Research Institute.
Mysore have shown that the mincing of the peel helps in quickening the
liberation of the oil by distillation. Recently, Pruthi and Girdhari Lal have
analysed two samples of cold pressed Nagpur Mandarin peel oil, and have
reported the following data:
The ester content of Nagpur orange oil is somewhat lower than that of
the Italian product. but is higher than that of the Florida oil. The constants
for Nagpur orange oil resemble closely the specifications for tangerine oil
as laid down by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
CHAPTER XVIll
MANUFACTURE OF PECTIN
Pectin, which is used for thickening jams, etc., is present chiefly in fruit
and vegetable pulps. Cheap and important sources are: (i) Apple pomace
from cider presses, apple skins and cores from canning and dehydration
plants and cull apples; and (ii) citrus residues such as inner rind and pulp
from citrus products factories.
Pea hulls, grape marc and beets also can be used as raw materials for
pectin.
Wilson gives the following data regarding the percentagec of pectin iB
some raw materials:
Material Per cent. pectin Per cent. Rectin

in fresh material on dry weig t basis
Apple pomace 1.5·2.5 15 18

Lemon pulp 2.5·4.0 30·35
Orange pulp 3.5·5.5 30-40
Beet pulp 1.0 25·30
Carrot. 0.62 7· 14
PECTIN FROM APPLES
According to Rooker, the different stages in the manufacture of apple

pectin are as follows:
1. Washing, crushing and pressing the apples for extraction of juice.
2. Drying of the pomace.
3. Leaching.
4. Extraction of pectin.
5. Pressing the treated mass to obtain a pectin solution.
6. Removing dIe sediment from the pectin solution by settling or
centrifugal treatment.
7. Treating the pectin solution with proper enzymes to remove starch
and proteins.
8. Treating dle pectin solution with decolourizing carbon to get a pure
product.
9. Filtration of the pectin solution to the required degree ot" brilliancy.
10. Concentration of the pectin solution.
U~
11. Standardisation of the pectin solution for jelly strength.

12. Bottling and canning of the standard solution.
13. Preparation of powdered pectin.
Apples are washed with dilute hydrochloric acid to remove any spray
r7sidues. They are then crushed and pressed. The pomace is dried quickly
0
to avoid fermentation. It is dried in revolving drums at 150 -180°F. to 6-8
per cent. moisture. About 100 lb. of dry pomace are obtained from a ton
of apples. The dried pomace is leached with cold water to rCmo\'c colouring
and flavouring materials and sugar. if any. The leaching can be carried
out conveniently in a tank fitted with a perforated fal~c bottom and an
outlet.
Composition
Pectin has not got any definite composition. Its compounds have different
jelly-making powers. Pectins with a high jellying power are intermediate
bodies and arc easily converted into less useful substances like pectic acid
and methyl alcohol. The time. temperature and the pH of Ihe medium are
important factors in tlle extraction of pectin. The pomace is heated at a pH
of 3.5 for I - l~ hours at about 190°F. or for 30-40 minutes at 2IZOF. Additi.on
of 0.2 per Cent citric. tartaric or lactic acid gives better results. After boiling.
the pomace is pressed and the solution clarified by settling 01' by centrifugal
treatment. The starch and proteins present are removed by adding enzymes.
and the liquid is then lieated to kill the enzymes and decolourized with
activated carbon. After that. it is filtered in a filter press. It contains 0.7 -1
per ccnt. pectin. It is concentrated under reduced pressure to 4.5 per cent.
strengtll. The concentrate is standardized by carrying Olll jclly tests. It is
packed in cans of 1 or 5 gallons capacity and of extra char tinplate or
in dark brown bottles. No 10 cans are processed for 30 minutes at 170°F..
while 5 gallon tins arc filled hot at J68 °- 170 °F., inverted and allowed to
cool in air for 35 minutes. They are then cooled quickly ill water down to
120°- 130°F. Eight-ounce botdes are filled at 1I5°F.-120°F .• pasteurized for 30
minutes at 170°F. and then cooled.
Pectin Powder
. Pectiu powder can be prepared from the extract by spray-drying or by
precipitation with acetone or alcohol. The pectin liquor is concentrated to a
thick paste of 25-30 per cent. solids and treated with 2-3 volumes of 95 per
cent. alcohol to precipitate the pectin. The precipitated pectin is washed
with alcohol, dried and powdered. Aluminium sulphate and ammonia have
also been used for precipitating pectin. These methods are, however. covered
by patents. The principle of these methods is that pectin panicles are
negatively charged and can. therefore, be precipitated by adding a positive
charge carried on colloidal particles. The aluminium in the precipitated
pectin is removed by treating the mass with alcoholic hydrochloric acid.
MANUFACTURE OF PECTIN 267
PECTIN FROM CITRUS FRUITS

Citrus skins and residues contain 2.5-5.5 per cent. of pectin. After the
extraction of essential oils and juice from the fruit, the residue is dried. TIle
peels, however, require slicing and grinding. The residue is washed with
cold water on sieves and then boilcd with 0.015-0.02 normal hydrochloric
or sulphuric acid or with 0.025 molar citric acid for 40-45 minutes. The
liquor is pressed and filtered. The subsequent processes are similar to those
used for apple pectin.
PECTIN FROM OTIiER MATERIALS
Pectin of good quality can also be prepared from green papaya, jaek
fruit rind, wood apple, guava, etc. Useful research on this suhject is being
conducted at the Central Food Technological Research Institure. Mysore.
Recently, Jain and Girdhari Lal have standardized the methods for the pre-
paration of good pectin from green and tender jack fruit rind and wood
apple. Lewis. Dwarkanath and Johar have reporTed that good pectin can he
prepared from tamarind pulp. The yield on dry basis is 2.31 -3.70 per cent .
TESTING JELLY GRADE
Pectin is standardized for jelly grade either by chemical methods or by

actual jelly boiling trial$. The Carre and Haynes method is widely used
for the chemical determination of pectin as calcium pee tate. This alone does
not always give a true value for the jelly strcngth of pectin as purifiecl
pectins may vary greatly in composition. Actually jelly-making tests are,
therefore, more reliable.
Grade evaluation of high ester pectins which arc used for making jellies
containing 65 per cent. soluble solids, is carried out by standard methods.
Besides these pectins, there are the more recently developed low-ester (Iow-
methoxyl) pectins which can form good jellies with much less soluble solids.
Grading Methods
In these methods, attempts have been made to establish a relation between
viscosity of the pectin solution and the strength of the jelly prepared from
it. These tests are generally useful in the case of a series of preparations
of similar history. By means of calibration curves, the jelly grade of the
pectin can be deduced fairly accurately. There are various devices for
measuring the viscosity. Of these mention may be made of the falling hall
viscometer of Ogg and the simple capillary pipette of Baker generally known
as a jelmerer. The latter bas already been described in an earlier chapter.
In this device, viscosity measurements are made with 0.5 and 1.0 per cent.
pectin solutions and a curve showing the relation between tbe grade and
relative viscosity of the pectin is drawn. From these Iltandard curves the
approximate grade of any pectin sample can be derived.
Actual Teat.
The following problems arise in this method:
1. variations in the method of preparation of the jelly;
2. variations in the property measured and in the method of measur-
ing; and
3. desirable characteristic of the jelly.
The method of preparation also has much influence on the properties of
the jelly. In the method evolved by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
standard 100 grade pectin is used to prepare standard jelly. Jellies are made
with the sample to be tested and compared with the standard jelly mad('
under the same conditions.
TABU 23. AMouNrs OF PECfJN USED IN JELLY TESTS TO DETERMINE

P£CTIN GRADE BY C.P.P.F. MEmoD
Grade Weight Grade Weight

(gm.) I (gm.)
10 50.00 120 4.17

20 25.00 130 3.85
30 16.66 140 3.57
40 15.50 150 3.33
50
60
70
. 10.00
8.33
7.14
160
170
180
3.12
2.94
2,78
80 6.25 190 2.63
90 5.55 200 2.50
100 5.00 210 2.38
110 4.55 220 2.27
Kertez gives the following method of testing jelly grades:

General conditions for making compositions are (i) 65 per cent. sugar
in jelly, (ii) pH of jelly 3.00 ±0.05 and (iii) jelly strength to be measured
18 hours after making.
A glass vessel with a glass rod is weighed and 320 mI. of cold distilled
water, SOO gm. of sugar and the requisite quantity of Commercial Pectin
Preparation Food (C.P.P.F.) as shown in Table 23 are put in it. The pectin
is mixed with a portion of the sugar (about five times its weight). About
0.5 mI. of citric acid solution (50 gm. of citric acid in 100 m}. of solution)
and 1 m}. of sodium citrate (25 gm. of sodium citrate in 100 ml. solution)
are added to the water. Three 8-fluid-ounce jelly glasses are taken and to
each are added 2 ml. of the citric acid solution and 0.5 ml. of the sodium
citrate solution. The pectin-sugar mixture is put into the water and stirred.
The mixture is heated rapidly to a boil, stirring it constantly. It is boiled
for 30 seconds, after which the rest of the sugar is added. The solution is
again heated to a boil and brought down to a net weight of 770 grams.
The vessel is removed from the fire occasionally to check the weight. When
the correct weight is reached, boiling is stopped. The jelly is allowed to
cool for about 80 seconds and any scum that may be formed ib removed.
It is then poured into the jelly glasses and stirred with the glass rod. The
jellies are allowed to set for 18 hours at 26°C. The\' arc then taken out
of the glasses on to a flat surface and their firmnes~ compared with that
of a standard jelly made at the same time under similar conditions.
Generally, a piece of the jelly is sliced off and squeezed between the thumb
and the forefinger until the jelly breaks. Differences of 5 per cent. can be
detected in this way after some experience.
Jain and Girdhari La! have standardized methods for the preparation of
pectin from green papaya, wood apple and jack fruit wastes. Siddappa and
Bhatia have reported a pectin content of 2 per cent. in ripe jack fruit wastes.
They have shown that a good jelly can be made from this waste. Das,
Siddappa and Girdhari Lal have shown that in the case of green papaya
there is practically no loss of pectin due to the extraction of papain from it.
They have also pointed out that it might be a workable proposition to
collect the tapped fruits, dehydrate them and store the dried material for
extraction of pectin.
The methods that have been standardized for the preparation of pecrin
from indigenous sources are described briefly as follows;
PECTIN PREPARATION
Processing of Raw Material

After washing, green papayas are grated or minced in a mincing machine.
Wood apple puJp is removed with a sharp spoon-shaped stainless steel knife
and broken into smaller pieces. The rind and core of jack fruit including
the perigones which are left over as waste in the canning of the fruit, are
minced into small pieces or cut into thin slices.
Washing and Leaching

Papaya and wood apple are washed thoroughly in water to remove sugars,
etc. Jack fruit is washed and treated with a solution containing 0.1 per cent.
potassium metabisulphite and 0.05 per cent. HC!. Washing is continued till
the Brix of the wash water is practically zero. In the case of wood apple,
an extract suitable for the preparation of wood apple syrup can be obtained
by carefully controlling the washing process. In the case of jack fruit rind
also, much of the 5-7 per cent. of the sugars present can be recovered by
controlled washing.
Extraction
After washing and leaching, the material is extracted with ~-ro HC)
in the case of papaya and jack fruit and 0.5 per cent. potassium metabi.
sulphite in the case of wood apple pulp. Three extractions are taken at
97° ·JOO°C. by beating the material for half an hour each time and separating
the extract by straining through a sieve of a suitable mesh. The extract
should be cooled at once to minimize depolymerization of the pectin. The
amount of water to be added for extraction in each case is I :h-2 times the
weight of the fresh material for the first extraction and 1-1 X times for
the second and third extractions. For each extraction, the water containing
the added acid or potassium metabisulphite is brought to a boil and then
the material is added. The boiled mass is strained through 8-10 mesh sieves
to separate the extract from the residue. The latter is gently pTe~sed in a
basket press and a second extraction is taken without much delay. The
extract is finally passed through a sieve of 80-90 mesh or a piece of
muslin to separate all the coarse pulp.
Clarification and Decolourization

The sieved extract is passed through a Sharples Super Centrifuge fol'
further clarification. There is no need to use any clarifying agent. In case
a Super Centrifuge is not available, the extract may be allowed to settle
and then filtered through a piece of drill cloth using a filter press for tbe
purpose. Sedimentation and filtering are panicularly important in the case
of jack fruit and wood apple extracts. Decolourization of the extract is not
essential in the case of the jack fruit and papaya extracts. JI) the case of
extract of wood apple pulp, it should, however, be decolourized with 1.0
per cent. activated carbon. Subsequent filtration of the extract, however,
presents difficulties. A Sharples Super Centrifuge is useful for clarification.
Both the treatments, i.e., clarification and decolourization, can he convenient·
ly combined into one process.
Concentration and Precipitation

The clarified and decolourized pectin extract is concentrated to 30°-40.
Brix at about 50·C. and 26-28 inches vacuum. For dle precipitation of pectin
from this concentrated extract, two volumes of 9S per cent. alcohol are used .
.A calculated amount of HC} is added to the alcohol before mixing so that
its concentration in the final mixture is 0.1 N. Addition of 0.5 per cent.
potassium metabisulphite to the concentrated extract, prior to the addition
of alcohol, improves the colour of the precipitated pectin. The pectin is
allowed to remain overnight in contact with HCI and SO~ and is separated
next morning by centrifuging or squeezing the material in a piece of thick
cloth. It is then washed twice with 80 per cent. alcohol and finally with 95
per cent. alcohol.
Drying and Powdering

The pectin precipitate is dried preferably in a vacullm drier ;)t abollt
40°C. It can also be dried at room temperature or in the sun or in an
ordinary oven. The dried product is powdered and passed through a 100-120
mesh sieve to get commercial pectin powder.
Standardization
A series of jellies are prepared using varying amounts such as 20.0, 22.5,
25.0, 27.5, 30.0 c.c. of 1.0 per cent. pectin solution, (50-x) gm. of sugar and
a sufficient amount of a 10 per cent. citric acid solution to obtain a pH of
2.9-3.1 in the mixture. The value of x is equal to the amount of pectin and
citric acid solids collecrively added to each individual sample. The ingredients
are placed in clean dry glass beakers provided with glass r ds. The total
weight of all the ingredients in each beaker is made up to 90 gm . by adding
distilled water. The mixture is heatcd on an clectric hor plate to a weight
of 77.0 gm. and poured into a clean dry 4 oz. jelly glass. Thc final weight
of the jelly for 6S per cent. soluble solids should be 76.9 gm. Cooking is,
however, finished at 77.0 gill. to allow for any evaporation that may OCCllr
after pouring the jelly into the glass. The strength of the different jellies
is compared after 20 hours with a standard jelly prepared under similar
conditions using a standard pectin sample such as the ISO grade citrus
pectin powder of the California Citrus Growers' Exchange.
From the above tests, quantities of the pectin solution giving jellies which
are just weaker or just stronger than thc standard jelly are determined. A
second series of jellies is then prepared with quantities of pectin solution
ranging between these two quantities with increments of 0.5 c.c. only. The
quantity of pectin solution and the amount of pectin required to yield a
jelly comparable with the standard jelly is determined and the grade
calculated.
If a pectin sample has a grade of over 250, a 0.5 per cent. solution may be
used instead of a 1.0 per cent. solution. If the grade is less than 150, it is
preferable to use a 2.0 per cent. solution instead of using larger C]uantities
of the weaker solution.
USES OF PECTIN
Pectin is used as a thickening agent in the preparation of ketchups. sauces,

jams, etc. It is also used as an emulsifying agent in the preparation of
products like cod liver oil, ice-cream, mayonnaise. etc. It can be used to
increase the foaming power of gases in water and also to glace ca.ndied fruit.
Pectin is also used in the manufacture o.f explosives, lacquers. sizes for
textile, I.otions and as an agglutinant in blood therapy.
Powder pectin does not go into solution easily. It has a tendency to form
lumps. In jam-making, it is, therefore, mixed with 5-6 times its weight of
sugar, stirred in water at 60· -70·C. for a short time and then brought to a
boil. It can also be mixed with sugar and sprinkled over the boiling jam
mixture.
Apple pectin in liquid form and citrus pectin in powder form are
important commercial products in the U.K. and the U.S.A. There is ample
scope for manufacturing similar products in India from indigenous
materials.
CHAPTER XIX
WATER FOR A CANNERY
On an average 1,000 gallons of water are required for handling a ton of

fruit. The quantity varies from fruit to fruit and product to product. It
is used for preparing syrups and brines, and in several other processes such
as washing, blanching, sterilizing. and cooling of fruits and vegetables.
A cannery must have plenty of good water. It should be absolutely free
from contamination and be perfectly potable. Its mineral content should be
low, and it should be specially free from sulphates and iron salts.
The water used in a cannery should not be hard as this toughens the
product. In pickling, the carbonates and bicarbonates of lime and magnesia
combine with the lactic acid and thereby lower the acidity and thus affect
the flavour. If the water used is very hard, scales are formed in the boiler
and also a white crust is formed on the cans. Hence such water will have
to be softened suitably before use. Iron in the water combines with the
tannins in fruits and vegetables and leads to their darkening. The water
used should be colourless, odourless, tasteless, and bacteriologically pure.
It should not show the presence of any faecal organism like Bacillus Coli.
It should not ordinarily have more than 20 parts hardness per 100 lilres
i.e., 0.096 grain per ounce. The upper limit is 50 parts hardness. Water
containing 5-10 parts hardness per 100 litres is moderately soft, 10 to IS
parts slightly hard and 15 to 25 parts, moderately hard, and 25 to 30 parr.
and above exceedingly hard. Organic Carbon should not exceed 0.2 parts nor
organic nitrogen 0.02 parts per 100,000. Free ammonia should not exceed 0.05
parts per million. Water consuming 0.05 grain or less of oxygen per gallon is
very pure while that consuming he tween 0.05 and 0.15 grain is of medium
purity. [07 grain/gallon = 10 p.p.m.]
The natural sources of water are river, spring or deep well, and sea. Rain
water, although pure to start with, picks up oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
pitric acid, sulphur dioxide, etc., present in the atmosphere. It can be
collected from clean roof-tops, stored and filtered before use. River water
contains several kinds of impurities of uncertain nature and should, there-
fore, be filtered and purified before use. Surface Or pond water usually
contains much organic matter and should not be used in a cannery. Deep
well water is normally pure on account of its percolation through the earth
for some considerable distance and thus becoming aerated, oxidised, and
filtered. In some cases, however, these waters may be very hard depending
upon the locality. Besides, there may also be external contamination. They
should, therefore, be tested before use.
273
QUALITIES OF WATER
Hard and Soft Waters
Soft water readily produces a lather with soap whereas hard water docs
not form a lather easily with it. The hardness of water is of two kinds,
namely, temporary and permanent hardness. Temporary hardness is due
to the presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. These arc
removed by boiling the water, when carbon dioxide is driven out, leaving
the insoluble carbonates.
Ca(HCO,), ~ CaCO. + H,O + CO,
Calcium Calcium
bicarbonate carbonate
(soluble) (insohible)
Permanent hardness is due to the soluble sulphates or chlorides of lime

and magnesium. This type of hardness cannot be removed by hoiling.
Softening Processes
This is done by boiling the water or by Clark's process. In the latter
process, the amount of bicarbonate present is determined and the tequisite
amount of quick lime is added to remove the excess of carbon dioxide.
The bicarbonates are converted into insoluble carbonates and the carbon
dioxide which holds them in solution, combines with quick lime, which is
added, to form a second portion of the insoluble carbonate. Quick lime
forms Ca(OH)2 when added to water.
(I) Ca(OH).+CO, CaCO,+H,O
Quick lime Calcium Carbonate
(soluble) (insoluble)
(II) Ca(HCO,), + Ca(OH), 2CaCO, +2H,o
Soluble Sol uhle Insoluble
Commercially, hardness is expressed as carbonate of lime. For every 1,000

gallons of water with hardness of one grain per gallon, about one ounce of
quick lime is required. If magnesium bicarbonate is present, then double
the amount of quick lime is added. when the sparingly soluble magnesium
hydroxide is formed.
Mg(HCO,). + 2Ca(OH), Mg(OH), + 2CaCO, + 2H,O
Magnesium Calcium Magnesium Calcium
Bicarbonate hydroxide Hydroxide Carbonate
(soluble) (soluble) (insoluble) (insoluble)
Pennanent Hardness
By adding sodium carbonate, the chlorides and sulphates are converted
into insoluble carbonates.
CaSO, + Na.CO, == CaCO, + Na.SO,
Calcium Sodium Calcium
Sulphate carbonate carbonate
(inllOluble)
WATER FOR A CANNERY 215
MgSO, + N;I,CO, = MgCO, + 1'1:1 ,50,

Magnesium Magnesium
Sulphate carbonate
MgCI , + Na,CO, = MgCO, + !NaCI
Magnesium Magnesium
Chloride carbona II'
if both temporary and permanent hardll{,~~ arc pre~cnt, the), may be

removed by the addition of commercial caustic ~oda and sodil1m Cal'hOlHlIc.
Caustic soda neutralizes the bicarbonates of ca lcium and lllagacsiuJ11.
precipitating the carhonaw and forming sodium carbonate which flll'lhcr
reacts with the sulphates and decomposes them into insoluble carbonates.
(i) Ca(HCO,), + 2NaOH = CaCO, + Na,CO, + 2H,O
Soluble Soluble Insoluble
(ii) CaSO, + Na,CO, CaCO, + Na ,SO,
=
Calcium Sodium Calcium
Sulphate Carbonate Carbonate
insoluble
H ,CO" CaCO, + Na,CO, = CaCO, + :NaHCO,
Caso, + Na,CO, = CaCO, + Na,SO,
Calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate arc soluble ill waleI' to the
extent of 1.3 and 0.93 pans respectively per 100,000 parts. It is, therefore, not
possible to produce water of zero hardness. Since 4-5 parts pel' 100,000 has
no harmful effect upon any material, waleI' of zero hardness is seldom
required in a canning factory. \~rater for canning frllit ~ and vegetables
should not have both temporary and permanent hardness in excess of 10-12
pans per 100,000. Salts of calcium and magne ~iull1 combine with pectins
and thus make the skin s of fruits and vegetabl es LOugh. If the water is of
temporary hardness, calcium and magnesium carbonates settle d()wn during
sterilization thereby making the liquid doudy and spoiling the appearance
of the canned product.
Permutit Process
By this process in IVhich an artificial zcvlitc is used. both types of hard
water can be softened. Permutit is a ~ilkate ()f sodiullI and alumina
(2Si0 2 • AIPa' Na~O, 6HP) which is practically insoluble in water. It is
ground coarsely and packed in a tube. When water is percolated through the
column, double decomposition of salts present ill water and zeolite takes
place.
Caso,+ 2NaP :; CaP, + Na.SO,
The change i reversible. When the permlltit is exhausted, it is reacti\'ated
by percolating a strong solution of sodium chloride for 8-10 hours.
CaP+ 2NaCl= CaCl, + 2NaP
Permutit units arc commercially available.
PURIFICATION OF WATBR
Filtration
When water is stored, insoluble impurities present in it settle down
leaving the clear water above. The:: water is then filtered through beds of
sand and gravel where it is freely exposed to air and can absorb oxygen.
In another method, alum is used to coagulate the suspended matter includ-
ing bacteria. This water is then allowed to settle down before filtration.
Sterilization
Sterilization of water is effected by adding chlorine or bleaching powder.
Normally 1.5-4.0 lb. of liquid chlorine is mixed with ammonia and used
for one million gallons of water. This corresponds to 0.15-0.40 P.P.M.
of chlorine. Watcr treated with chlorine is not harmful in canning processes.
Water can also be sterilized with potassium permanganate, ozone gas, ionic
silver, ultra-violet rays, etc. The silver-ion process, known as the Katadyn
process, can also be applied for sterilizing fruit juices such as lime juice,
apple juice, grape juice, etc.
ANALYSIS OF WATBR
In addition to its chemical analysis, it is also necessary to have an idea

of the bacterial flora in the water. Pure waters, such as purified water or
water from a deep well, do not ordinarily contain B. Coli in a 100 c.c. sample.
This should be the state of purity that one should attain in water used
in a cannery. Samples of water should be carefully collected and got analysed
without much delay. The complete analysis is generally carried out in Public
Health laboratories.
1. Colour
A yellow or brown tint observed when the water is placed in a tall glass
jar indicates the presence of organic matter.
2. Smell
This can be detected by shaking the water in a stoppered bottle and then
smelling.
3. Total Solids
This is determined by evaporating 100 cc. of water in a platinum, nickel
or porcelain dish and weighing the residue.
4. Organic Matter
This is indicated by charring when the evaporated residue is heated over
a flame_
5. Free chlorine
This is estimated colorimetrically.
6. Chlorides
This is determined by titration against N/SO silver nitrate solution using
potassium chromate as indicator.
Temporary Hardness
100 cc. of water i tio'ated with N / 50 sulphuric acid using methyl orange
as indicator to a faint red colour (I c.c. Nj50 sulphuric acid = O.OOl )!:ram of
calcium I.:arbonate in 100 C.c. of water). The amount of calcium carbonate
(or magnesium carbonate) is expressed as parts per 100,000 parts. One part
per 100,000 is equivalent to 0.7 grains per gallon. One grain of calcium carbo-
nate per gallon is known as one degree of hardness, Clark.
Ca(HCO.). + H,SO. = CaSO. + 2CO, +2H,O
Mg(HCO,),+ H,SO. = MgSO. + 2CO,+ 2H,O
Take 100 cc. of water in a conical flask and add one drop of methyl
orange as an indicator. Deliver N j50 H~ S04 solution from a burette until
the solution becomes faint red.
One C.c. of N j 50 H 2 S0 4 represents 0.00 I gram of CaCO 3 in 100 c.c. of
water. Hence, dle number of c.c. of N/SO H 2 SO, multiplied by 0.001 would
give the amount of CaCO s (or equivalent MgC0 3) in grams per 100 c.c.
of water.
Suppose, in a specific instance, 15 C.c. of Nj50 H 2SO. were required to
exactly neutralize the bicarbonate present in 100 c.c. of water. It means that
15 x 0.001 =0.015 grams of CaC0 3 or its equivalent MgC0 3 was present in
100 c.c. of water. Therefore, in JOO,OOO grams (I C.c. of water is equivalent to
1 gram) of water, the amount of calcium carbonate present would be
100,000 x 0.015 divided by 100 i.e .. 15 pans per 100 litres. Since one part
of calcium per 100,000 parts of water is termed as one degree of hardness,
the water in the above case has a temporary hardness of 15 degrees.
Permanent Hardness
Permanent hardness is assumed to be always due to CaSO., although
sulphates and chlorides of calcium and magnesium may be present.
Take 100 c.c. of water and boil thoroughly to expel CO 2 , Then add 10 c.c.
each of N/IO NaOH and Na,COs and evaporate to reduce the volume to
about 40 C.c. Cool the solution and filter. Wash the residue 011 the filter
paper with CO 2 -free distilled water, till it is free from NaOH as tested with
phenolphthalein. Make the filtrate to 100 c.c. and find out the alkalies left
over unreacted, by means of N/IO H l S0 4 , using methyl orange as an

indicator.
CaSO.+Na.CO. := CaCO.+Na.SO.
MgSO. + ZNaOH == Mg(OH),+Na.SO.
The difference between the amount of N / 10 H 2S0 4 used to neutralize
the alkali (10 c.c. each of N / 10 NaOH and Na 2 C03 ) and the amount of
N/IO H 2S04 used to neutralize the excess of alkali in the water, gives the
amount of acid equivalent to alkalies used for throwing out the permanellt
hardness of water. In this case, 20 C.c. of acid is equivalent to 10 C.c. of each
NjlO NaOH and Na 2 C0 3 • Suppose that 16 C.c. of NflO H 2 S0 4 neutralizes
the excess of alkali. Therefore, 20 - 16:;:: 4 C.c. of NjlO H 2S0 4 is equivalent
to the amount of alkali used up in throwing down the salts responsible for
permanent hardness.
I C.c. of N/IO H,SO. = 0.005 gram of CIlCO,
Therefore,4 c.c. of N / IO H ,50. = 0.005 x 4 = 0.020 gram CaCO. in 100 C.c. of watcr
H ence, permanent hardness, per 100,000 parts is equal to
O.O~O x I 00,000 ~ 20
100
T ota I h ard ncss 0 f w ater _- Temporary harducb plus
permanent hardness of water
Detennination of Hardness
Hardness of water is sometimes determined by noting lather formation
with standard soap ~o llltion. The chemical method is, however, more
accurate.
Alkalinity in water is due to the presence of bicarbonates and carbonates.
The presence of carbonates is indicated by a pink colour when phenolphtha.
lein is added. 100 C.c. of water is first titrated with NjSO HCl or H~SO.
using phenolphthalein as indicator. The carbonates will be changed into
bicarbonates.
Na,CO. + HCI Na,HCO. + NaCI
Sodium carbonate Sodium bicarbonate
In anodler flask 100 C.c. of water is titrated with N/50 Hel or H 2S0 4 using
methyl orange till the yellow colour changes to faint red. In this case the
bicarbonates are titrated.
NaHCO. + HCI NaCI+H.O+CO,
Sodium Bicarbonate SodjuDl chloride
I. Volume of the acid USed} Volume of tb e acid used for neutrali-
with phenolphthalein as in· x 2 =- { zation of carbonatl!s
dicator
Volume of acid used for llf'uLrali z., -
2. Volume of acid used With} tion of carbonates
methyl orange as an indio Minu~
cator { =aeid used for the neutraliza tion of
the bicarbonates.
Suppose, in a specific instance, 5 C.C. of N j 50 HCl were required to
discharge the pink colour produced by phenolphthalein in 100 C.c. of water
and 18 cc. of N /50 cc. Hel were required to change the ycllow colour of
meth yI orange to faint red in 100 c.c. of watcr. It means tha t :
1. Volume of acid required to}
neutralize carbonates in 100 =5x2_ 10 C.c. of N (50 Hel
c.C. of wa ter
2. Volume of acid required to}
neutralize bicarbonates in 100 "" 18- 10 _8 Cl'. of N jSO Hel
C.c. water
I c.c. of N(SO HCI =0.00106 gram Na,CO,
1 c.c. of NjSO HCI .. 0.OOl68 gram NaHCO,
Hence, .the amount of Na,CO,} ~ IO x O.00lU6 = O.0 106 .. rams
Present ID 100 C.c. of water <>
100,000 X 0.0106
Therefore, Na,CO, ill 100 litrcs - -- - - _ 10.6 grams
100
:rhe100amount
10
of bicarbonate present) ",8xO.OOI6B = 0.01344 grams
C.c. of water
Tllere f ore, NHCO

a • 'III 1001'Itres 0
fl _
'00 ,ooo x o.OI344
13.4-1 grams
-~ 100
MAJOR MINERAL CONSTITUENTS

SHea
This is e~till1ated in olle litre uf water hy evaporation, ignitiun, etc., and
is expressed as SiO~.
Iron
In the filtrate from silica, iron is determined as Fe 20 a.
Calcium
From the filtrate frolll iron, calcium IS estimated volullletrically or
gravimetrically as CaO.
Magnesium
From the filtrate from calciulll estimation, magncsium IS precipitated as
magnesiulll phosphate and estimated as MgO.
Alkali Metals
Sulphates, iron, magnesium, calcium and barium arc removed by special
treatments, and filially the chlorides of alkali metals arc igniled and weighed.
Free and saline ammonia, albuminoid ammonia, nitrites, nitrates, oxygen
absorption in 15 minutes and 4 hours, ctc., arc determined by standard
methods for water analysis.
BACfERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION
SUO e.e. sample of water shou ld be collecled in sterile 600 c.c. bott1e~ and
transported packed in ice for analysis without undue delay. Quantities of
50, 20, 10 and 5 C.c. of the sample are drawn and placed in tubes of culture
medium. The bottles are incubated at ·37·C for 48 hours and examined for
III
thF production of acid, gas and any turbidity. A positive test here may be
regarded as presumptive for the presence of B. Coli. Bile salt-litmus-lactose
broth is used. Some use glucose instead of lactose to get a better knowledge
of the fermentative flora present ill the water. When the sample of water
has given a positive presumptive test. the next step is to determine whether
the organism present is faecal B. Coli or one of the other members of the
group. Of these. B. Aerogenes sub-group is the one most likely to occur as
it is predominantly present in soil and plants. These are distinguished from
B. Coli which are present in faeces only by plating on special media like
neutral red-lactose-bile salt medium. The two organisms produce different
types of colonies and are thus distinguished.
Clallification of Water
Presumptive Coliform
CounT per 100 c.c.
Hi~hl y satisfactory Less than I
Satisfactory 1-2
Suspicious 3- 10
Unsatisfactory Greater Ihan 10
Chlorinated water is highly satisfactory.
Interpretation of Analysis
Albuminoid Ammonia. In water of high purity. albuminoid ammonia does
not exceed 0.004 parts per 100,000. In waters of average purity, it does not
exceed 0.008 parts.
Free and Saline Ammonia. This varies considerably with the source of water.
from 0.005 to 0.1 part per 100,000. In deep-well water ('yen as high as 0.1
part should not be considered as suspicious.
Nitrites. Even traces are generally suspicious as they indicate recent
pollution.
Nitrates. The presence of niu'ate indicates the past history of the water,
especially contamination with manure or sewage. The amount of nitric
nitrogen varies greatly from zero to 1.5 parts per 100,000 parts in upland,
surface and spring waters. In shallow well water, it may be nil or as high
as 20 parts.
Oxygen Absorption
Water of great purity 0.0-0.05 parts per J 00,000
Water of average quality 0.1 -0.3 parts per 100.000
Impure water above 0.4 parts per ) 00,000
Chlorine. It should not exceed 2.S parts per 100.000.

Hardness. Water for canning purposes should not exn'cd 10-12 degrees of
hardness.
Silica. The amount of silica in 250 C.c. of water should be either nil or
too small to determine, in the case of water used for canning purposes.
CHAPTER XX
FOOD COLOURS
Artificial colours arC' sometimes added to improve the appearance of

preserved products. Of the colours available, some arc soluble in water,
some in oil and some uthers in acids and alkalies. They should be harmless
and stable and should be characteristic of the olour of the product to
which they are added. They should , therefore, he chosen carefully.
The colours employed arc mostly the permitted coal lar dyes. Different
countries have specific laws regarding the use of colours in food stuffs. The
prospective exporter should, therefore, study these regulations before manu-
facturing his product. The important shades of colours used are red, orange,
yellow, green and blue. Among the red colours, Ponceau 3 R, Ponceau XS
and Eryrhrosin are edible colours. Orange I and orange SS are important
orange colours. Tartrazine and 811 nset yellow FCF arc well-known yellow
colours. Light Green SF and Pea Green H are the important green colours.
CERTIFIED COLOURS
According to Loesecke the following Table gives the list of certified colours
for foods up to 1949, of the Federal Food and Drug Administration, U.S.A.
T"BLE 24. LIST OF CERTIFIED FOOD COLOURS
New names Former names
Red Shades.
F D & C Red No. 1 Ponceau 3 R
F D & C Red No. 2 Amaranth
F D & C Red No. 3 Erythrosin
F D & C Red No. 4 Ponceau XS
F D & C Red No. :l2 Oil Red XO
Orange Shades.
F D & C Orange No. I Orang'~ I
F D & C Orange No. 2 Orange SS
Yellow Shades.
F D & C Yellow No. I Naphthol Yellow S
F D & C Yellow No.2 Naphthol Yellow S l)otassium Salt
F D & C Yellow No. :; Yellow A II
F D & C Yellow No.4 Yellow OB
F D & C Yellow No. 5 Tartrazinc
F D & C Yellow No.6 Sunset Yellow FCF
Gree1l Shades.
F D & C Green No. I Guinea Green B
F D & C Green No. 2 Light Green SF Yellowish
F D & C Green No. J Fast Green FCF
Blue Shades.
F D &. C Blue No. I Brilliant Blue FCF
F D & C Blue No. 2 Indigotine
281
In the U.K., the Imperial Chemical Industries supply a large number of

food colours which are termed Edicol Colours. The following list includes
the most important of these. Some of these are generally employed in the
fruit and vegetable preservation industry while others are used in confec-
tionery, meat and fish products, etc.
Nil, NaQle of coluur Uses ill fruit and vegetable

products
J. Naphthol yellow FYS

2. Tartrazine N N S Lemon jcll y, lillie juice cordial
3. Egg yellow N
4. Egg yellow A
5. unset yellow FCF Apricot jam, orange squaSh
6. Orange AG Orange jclly. orange squash
7. Orange INS
8. POllceau RNS Canned strawberries. Ted currants. cherries,
strawberry jam and jelly. Ted plum jam.
9. Raspberry A Canned raspberries, raspberry jam, and jelly
raspberry syrup.
10. C.. rmoi sine WNS Raspberry jelly.
II. Amaranth ANS
12. Amaranth YS
13. G ranine Z GNS fila kcurl'lInt jilOl
14. Rose BS
15. Brown OIINS
16. Caramel W Vinegar. Sauccs
17. Chocolate NS Chocolate Syrup
lB. Chocolarc M Chocolate Syrup
19. Indigo ClIcllllnc XNS
ZO. Blue EGS
21. Green SFS
22. Blackcurrant A Canned blal: kcurrant, bla 'kclJrrant jam and
.iclly.
23. Er ylhrosin AS Canlled cherries, victoria plums
24. Pea Green H Canned fresh aud processed pe<ts.
25. Red BR Canned beetroot
26. Grecng<lgc /\ Greengage jclly
BANNED COLOURS
According to the Public Health (Preservatives, etc., in Food) Regulations.

1925, (amended 1926 and 1927) of the Ministry of Health, U.K., Part II,
the following colouring matters should not be added to articles of food.
1. Metallic
Compounds of any of the following metals:
Antimony. arsenic. cadmium, chromium, coppel', mercury, lead. zinc.
FOOD COLOURS 283
2. Vegetable colouring matter : Gam bop;e
3. Coal tar colours
Name Synonyms
Picric acid Carbazotic acid.

Victoria yellow Saffron substitute, dinitro·crcsol
Manchester yellow Naphthol yellow. Marrills yellow
Aurantia Imperial Yellow
Anrine Rosolic acid. yellow coralline
According to the pro pORed revised specifica tion of the Fruit Products
Order. India (1955). only cerlain food colours arc permitted in fruit and
vcgetable products (Sec Appendix JI).
Detection
According to Cox, the general method to detect the presence of prohihited
colours is as follows: About 100 ml. of liquid or watery mixture of the
food stuff are acidified with I ml. of HCI and boiled for 5 minutes with a
strip of thin wool clOth. The coloured wool is rinsed in cold water and the
colour stripped from the fibre by boiling it for a few minutes in 2 per cent.
ammonia. The wool is removed and a fresh piece put in. The solution is
now acidified and again boiled to transfer the dye to the fresh piece of
wool. In the case of fruit juices or jams, a third tran ference of the colour to
fresh wool is desirable. The dyed wool is then tested for identifying the
dye according to a comprehensive scheme worked out by Nicholls. Recently.
chromatographic methods are being employed for the identification of
colours.
Spot Tests
For the identification of food colours, the dyed wool is tested with
concentrated HCI, H 2SO. 10 per cent. NaOH Solution and strong ammonia
and the resulting colour change noted. The colours can be identified by
making use of the following table.
The detection of single colours is fairly easy, but there will be much
difficulty in identifying these colours when they are used in different com-
binations in foodstuffs. In such cases, in order to confirm the findings, it is
desirable to repeat the tests using known colours.
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Selection
In the selection of colours, it is desirable to choose those which have high
solubility in order to get a concentrated solution of the colour. Acid colours
are generally more stable in solution than alkaline ones. Since colouring
matters are liable to fade and change in shade, special care is necessary to
select proper colours to suit the product. Strong sunlight, oxidation and
reduction by metals like tin and zinc, action of micro-organisms, etc., affect
the colours. Azo dyes like Amaranath, Ponceau, Sunset Yellow, etc., easily
fade in the presence of tin. Triphenyl methane dyes like fast green, light
green, etc., are less susceptible to the action of tin. The yellow azo-dyes
that are generally employed for colouring fruit squashes are not ordinarily
decolourised by sulphur dioxide which is added as a preservative. Ponceall
2 Rand Erythrosin also are stable towards S02' In the case of orange
squash, however, Sunset Yellow and a mixture of tartrazine and Ponceau and
orange fade during prolonged storage in spite of all precautions. Since
almost all colouring matters are affected by prolonged heating. it is advis-
able to add them to the product towards the last stage of boiling. The laws
that govern the use of artificial colours in foods arc different in different
countries. It is, therefore, necessary that the manufacturer should make sure
that the colour he addS' to his products is permitted in the country to which
he intends to export them .
Preparation of Solutions
Generally colours are purchased in powder form but the manufacturer
can obtain them in the form of solution ready to use. The powder colour
should be made into a paste with cold water and then the requisite quantity
should be added to nearly boiling water with constant stirring. and the
mixture allowed to stand until cold and any sediment formed removed by
filtration. When the concentration of colour in solution is high, sometimes a
precipitate is fonned at the bottom of the container, thereby lowering the
concentration of the colour in the supernatant liquid. This often leads to
colour variation in the factory and should, therefore, be guarded against.
To prevent sedimentation, glycerine is usually added to increase dIe density
of the solution. In about 10 per cent glycerine solution the sedimentation of
colour will be negligible. Isopropyl alcohol also helps in increasing the
solubility of the powdered colours.
Liquid colours should be suitably preserved to prevent spoilage. The
addition of about 10 per cent., by volume, of alcohol helps in prolongin_g the
keeping quality of the solution. Glycerine also is a good preservative
when added in sufficiently large quantities. According to Morgan, addition
of 25 per cent. glycerine will be sufficient for preserving the solution for
comparatively short periods. For prolonged storage, however, the concentra·
tion of glycerine will have to be increased to about 50 per cent. Citric and
FOOD COLOURS 287
tartaric acids when llsed at the rate of 2-210 ounces per gallon of liquid
colour, also act as preservatives. TIlesc acids cannot, however, be used in
the case of colours like Erythrosin, Orange I, Light Grecn, Gllinea Green,
etc., as they arc precipitated by these acids. Spoilage in the liquid colours
can also be prevented by the addition of 0.1. per cent. of sodium bellzoate.
The quantity of benzoate introduced into the food product to which the
colour is added should, however, be taken into consideration in connection
with the legal limit for this chemical as a preservative.
The colour solutions should be storcd in a cool and dry place and prefer-
ably in the dark. The required quantity of the solution should be drawn for
use. Only small quantities of colours are required to prodllce the d('sired
effect in the product. The following arc somc typical examples.
Colour Producr QII:JnI;ry
Poncea \) 2R Canned strawberries 2 ~1l1. per g-allun of ~y rlll'

Longanberries I -rlo -
raspberries i -do-
Victoria plums I/S -do-
"
Pea Green colour Sr,.
solmion Canned fresh peas 10 c.c. per gallon of hri ne
green beans 7-8 C.c. -do-
dried pt"as 7-8 C.c. -do-
Sunset Yellow
Supra Rose BS 20 parts

Tartrazin c yellow 80
I Orange squash
Tomato ketchup
2~-3 gill. p(;r 100 lb.
0.85 gram per 100 Ih.

or sq llash
parts Tomato juice 0.') grain p CI' Ion Ih.
Recently, Das, Siddappa and Girdhari Lal have done a considerahle

amount of work an the suitability of different colours, singly or in combina-
tion for u se in orange squash. The stability of these colours und er different
conditions of preparation and storage of the product is being investigated
with a view to evolve a satisfactory combination of colours for li se in orange
squash.
Although colours add to the attractiveness of food products, it is better
to avoid their lise as far as possible. This is because colours can often be
misused to cover defects in the natural product. In course of rime, rhe
consumer will gradually learn to appreciate the value of producrs with
natural colours.
CHAPTER XXl
VITAMINS
Fruits and vegetables are natural sources of important vitamins like

vitamin C, vitamin A, Carotene, the precursor of vitamin A, and vitamin
B~. Mango, tomato, peach and papaya are rich in carotene. Amla
(Phyllantltus Emblica), citrus fruits, guava, mango and tomato are rich in
vitamin C. Tomatoes contain vitamin B2 also. Modern medlods of preserva-
tion are conducted so as to minimise the destruction of vitamins during
processing.
In the U.S.A., the nutritive aspect of canned foods has been studied
extensively by Kohman. The Nutrition Laboratory of the American Can
Company has also published a bibliography of scientific reports and helpful
tables of food data regarding the nutritive aspects of canned foods. Mention
may also be made of some other publications of this type, ~lIch as; (i) The
composition of Foods Used in Far Eastern Countries by WOOt 'fsuen
Wu-Leung, Pecot and Watt of dIe Bureau of Human Nutrition and Home
Economics of the Agricultural Research Administration of the U.S. Depart.
ment of Agriculture and (ii) Chemical Composition of Foods by McCance
and Widdowson. Recently, King, of the Nutrition Foundation of the U.S.A.
and Clifcorn of the Continental Can Company of the U.S.A. have reviewed
the work on the nutritional quality of the canned foods and pointed out
the importance of work in dlis field especially with reference to preserved
fruits and vegetables. A few other publications of similar nature are based
on data which have been collected systematically. In India, however. we
do not at present have complete data of this type for even our major fruits
like canned mangoes, pineapples. oranges, etc. Whatever little data is avail-
able is mostly of a fragmentary nature, and there are several gaps to be
filled up. The research work in India on this aspect has been mostly of a
specific nature as for instance, study of changes in vitamin C in preserved
juices and squashes, stability of carotene and ascorbic acid in some canned
fruits. etc. There is scope, therefore, for systematic investigation on vitamins
in Indian preserved fruits and vegetables.
PROCESSING AND VITAMINS
The method of preparation and preservation of fruits and vegetables has

an important bearing on their vitamin content. For instance, in the case of
citrus squashes, very little heat is applied and sulphur dioxide is used as a
preservative. These two factors help in the maximum retention of ascorbic
acid. Fruit juice concentrates, like orange juice concentrate, black currant
288
VITAMINS 289
syrup, rose-hip syrup, etc., are rich sources of vitamin C for the feeding of
infants. In the case of pure fruit juices, the loss of vitamin C is minimised
by deaerating the juice and bottling it by flash pasteurization or over-flow
pasteurization. In the canning of fruits, the air is exhausted from inside
the can before sealing it. This naturally helps the retention of vitamin C,
unlike in the case of ordinary open cooking with the fruit or vegetable
exposed to the action of heat and air simultaneously. Further, in the canned
product, traces of oxygen left inside the can are acted upon by the tin so
that destruction of vitamin C by oxidation is lessened. Adam, u ~ ing the
chemical method of assay, found very little loss of vitamin C in canned
fruits stored for six monrhs. He also noticed that plain cans afforded some
protection to this vitamin. In the case of canned oranges, Siddappa and
Bhatia have reported that during canniI!g of Coorg (loose-skinned
mandarin) and Sathgudi (tight-skinned) oranges, as such and after lye
peeling, the loss of ascorbic acid ranges between 14.0 and 17.0 per cem.
and that subsequent loss during a storage period of about one year at room
temperature of 24°_30°C is of the order of about 5 per cent. only. Jain
and Das have reported 80 per cent. retention of ascorbic acid in canned
guavas after 12 months' storage at room temperature. Siddappa and Bhatia
have recently studied the ascorbic acid content of important varieties of
mangoes canned alone or in combination with other fruits and ohserved
that the retention of ascorbic acid in tbe can after comparatively long
periods of storage is quite high and of the order of 60-65 per cent. They
have also studied the distribution of true ascorbic acid as well as 'apparent'
ascorbic acid between the fruit and the syrup in the canned products
making use of the formaldehyde condensation and xylem extraction
technique of Robinson and Stotz. Recently, Pruthi, Cirdhari Lal, Dhopesh-
warkar and Magar have studied the effect of processing operations on the
nutritive value of canned Badami and Raspttri mangoes and reported that
the per cent. retention of carotene and ascorbic acid immediately after
processing was very high and of the order of about 98 and 90 per cent.
respectively. Siddappa and Bhatia have reported that the carotene content
of four important commercial varieties of mangoes namely, Badami,
Raspttri, Neelum and Mulgoa is 8212, 4727, 2365 and 1685 mcg/ IOO gm.
respectively, and that the retention of B-Caroteoe in canned mangoes is
of the order of about 65.0 per cent. after 6 months storage at 24°_30°C.
Studies are in progress at the Central Food Technological Research Institute,
Mysore, to evaluate the retention of vitamin C and carotene in several other
canned fruits and other fruit products.
Girdhari Lal has studied the changes in the vitamin C content of citrus
squashes during storage using the direct method of titration with 2: 6
dichlorophenol-indophenol dye, after eliminating the interference .of sulphur
dioxide used as a preservative. He has reported that during one year's
storage, the total loss of ascorbic acid was 38-62 per cent. in the case of
orange squash and 30-45 per cent. in the case of lemon squash preserved
by different methods. In the case of orange squash, irrespective of prelimi-
nary treatment, sugar concentration and the method of preservation, the
product prepared from pre-heated juice showed less deterioration in its
vitamin C content than that prepared from unheated juice. In lemon
squash, however, the reverse effect was observed.
In the case of tomato juice, Lal Singh and Girdhari La) noticed that
carotene is fairly stable to the action of heat and oxidation by air during
the various processes of manufacture. while there is a considerabJe loss of
vitamin C during the screening of the juice through a sieve. They attributed
this loss to the incorporation of much air during screening. They also
observed in the pasteurized juice. a comparatively higher ascorbic acid
content than in the same juice just prior to filling into bottles for subsequent
pasteurization. This has since been explained as due to the formation of
reductone-like bodies which are formed during heating and which have a
reducing action on the indophenol dye. The recent formaldehyde condensa-
tion technique in the mer.hod of estimation of ascorbic acid eliminates
the interference of these substance~ so that it is possible to estimate true
ascorbic acid only in the products. Pruthi has studied the role of ascorbic
acid in the discolouration of citrus juices during storage and has reported
that during a storage period of 1_!h-3 months at room temperature the
losses in ascorbic acid were 10-15 per cent only.
Siddappa has studied the changes in true ascorbic acid content during the
concentration of orange juice from 100Brix to nOBrix under reduced
pressure and reported a loss of 10-15 per cent. He has also observed that
added ascorbic acid in orange juice powders is highly stable during storage,
the loss being only 25-30 per cent. during a storage period of 12 months
at room temperature of 24°-30°C. According to Siddappa and Girdhari Lal.
packing the powder under nitrogen gas did not prove superior to ordinary
packing in air. According to Pruthi. passion fruit juice is a fairly rich source
of ascorbic acid (30-50 mg.flOO gm.) and carotene (0.3-0.5 mg.flOO gm.).
Jain and Girdbari Lal have studied the preparation of amla (Phyllanthus
emblica) syrup and reported a value of 122 mg. of ascorbic acid per 100 gIn.
of squash (42.5 mg. per fluid oz.). The overall losses of ascorbic acid in amla
extract during one year's storage were normal and in the range of 35-45 per /
cent., and the extracts could be used with advantage for the fortification of
other fruit products with vitamin C. Siddappa and Bhatia have observed
that canned Badami mango pulp has a comparatively high value of 60 mg.
of ascorbic acid per 100 gm. of pulp and is thus a good source of vitamin C
for feeding children.
Olliver found very little destruction of vitamin C in the case of jams from
black currant, strawberry. red currant, gooseberry, raspberry, golden plum
and orange marmalade. It is necessary to make a detailed study of the ascor-
bic acid content of some typical Indian jams and jellies, especially those made
vt1'AMINS 291
from fruits like mango, guava, papaya, elC., which are rich in vitamin C
and also to ll1\'estigate the degree of its retention during storage. This type
of investigation is to be extended to other typical Indian products Iik\:
pickles and chuUleys also. Recently, Siddappa and Bhatia have taken up
a detailed investigation of the changcs in added ascorbic acid in talllaro
ketch lip and other similar product~. Das and Jain who have made it deulilnl
study of the changes in ascorbic acid and carotene cOlltents during dryillg
of mango and papaya pulps ha\'e observed that while ascorbic acid is lost
almost completely during drying, there is only 35-40 per cent. lo~~ in
carotene. During storage for about a year at ordinary room temperatlll'e
of 24°-30°C, the subsequent Joss in carotene is about 25·30 per Cent.
Under a comprehensive scheme of investigation on the nutritil'c I'aillc
of canned fruits and vegetables, systematic work has been taken lip
recently at the Central Food Technological Hcseal'ch Institute. Mysol'c, to
study the vitamin contents in important preserved fruits and vegetables and
the changes they undergo during processing and storage. This is an investi-
gation of great importance to the rapidly growillg fruil and vegetable
preservation industry in the country.
CHAPTER xxn
LIMITS FOR USE OF PRESERVATIVES
Not all articles of food can contain preservatives. Even in the case of
those where it is permitted to add preservatives, proportions have been fixed .
According to the British Ministry of 'Health' the articles of food specified
in the first column of the following table may contain the preservative speci-
fied in the second column in proportions not exceeding the number of parts
(estimated by weight) per million specified in the third column;
Food Preserva nvc Parts per

million
I . FRUIT and fruil pulp (not dried) for

conversion into jam or crystallized
slace! or cured fruit.
(a) Cherries Sulphur Dioxide 3,000
(b) Strawberries and ra~pherries -do- 2,000
(c) Other fruitR -do- 1,500
2. Dried fruit:
(a) Apricots, peaches, nectarines, apple~ Sulphur Dioxide 2,000
and pears
(b) Raisins and sultanas -do· 750
3. Unfermented grape juice and non -aleo- Rcn7.oic Acid 2,000
holic wine made from such grape juice
if labelled in accordance with the rules
contained in the Second Schedule to
these regulations.
4. Other non-alcoholic wines, cordials and Either Sulphur Dioxide 350
fruit juices, sweetened or unsweetened. or Benzoic Acid 600
5. Jams (including marmalade and fruit Sulphur Dioxide 40
Jelly prepared in the way ill which jam
IS prepared, but not including marma-
lade made from citrus fruits).
6. Crystallized, glace or cured fnlit, in- -do· 100
cluding candied peel
(a) Fruit and fruit pulp not otherwise -do-
specified in this schedule 350
7. Sugar [mcluding solid glucose and cane -do- 70
syrups).
8. Corn syrup (liquid glucose)' -do· 450
9. Cider -do- 200
10. Alcoholic wines -do- 450
II . Sweetened mineral water~ Either Sulphur Dioxide 70
or Benzoic Acid 120
12. Brewed Ginger beer Renloic Acicl 120
13. Pickles and sauces made from fruits or -do· 250
vegetables
N.B. Similar points have been specified in Fruit Product~ Order 1955, Appendix ]I.
292
LIMITS FOR USE OF PRESE RVATIVES 293
MISCELLANEOUS
I gallon 4.5459 litres:: 10 pounds (I British Gallon:
. 1.2 U.S. Gallon)
I cubic foot water 6.228 gallons =62.3 pounds
I cubi c metre 35.3 cubic fcet :; 220 gallons
I pint 20 fluid ounces
I gallon 8 pints
I hundred weigl'lt (cwt) 11 2 Ibs.
I ton 2240 Ibs.
I cusec 0.539 million gallo ns pCI' day
Jounce 437.5 grains
7000 grains I lb.
60 minims I fluid drachm
8 fluid drachms I fluid ounce
Hardness of Water
Hardness (parts per million as CaCo,) of is equa l to 0.07 grains per gallon
l.()
-do- -do- 100 is equal to 7.0 grains per gallon
This is equal to 7 degrees hanln css. Clark
i.e. one degree of hardness is equal to 14.3 p.p.lll. of CaCo,
Boiling Point
Number of
atmospheres Roiling point of water
Degree C. Degree F.
100 212
J 12.2 234
120.0 249
134 273
._------- _._. - - --
Some Useful Data
Lengt h
inch :: 2.54 centimetres
foot ", 0.305 metre
Area
Square inch 6.451 square ccntimetrt'''
Acre 4840 square yarcls
Volume
l(i.39 cubi c centim etres
Weight
I Ounce 28.35 gram~
I Pound 453.6 grams
I Grain 0.0648 grams
I Gram 15.432 grains
Some ....COnstants
Area of ~urface Volume
Square (side a) a'
Triangle (base 3, altitude h) !ah
Circle (radius r) 11'T'
Rectangular solid (edges a, b, c,) 2(11b+bc+ca) , abc
Cylinder (radius r , height h) 2rrr(h + r) ..r'h
Cone (radius r, height h , slant h eight I) rrr (l +r) 1/311'r'h
Sphere (radius r) 4rrr' 4/3..r·
(11' : 3.14 16 or apprQximatel y 22 / 7)
294 j'RESE1WAnON OF FRUITS AND VEGETAnLES
- -- _. -_ ----
ThcrmometerH
Centigrade
Freezing Point
--------------------------
o Degree
Boiling Point
--------
100 Degree
Fahrenheit 32 " 212
Rcaumer o 80
r4 Heaumer scale divisions 5 centigrade divisions;

9 Fahrcnheit division sl
};-32 C
9 5
Therefore, to convert degrees Celltigrade into degrees Fahrenheit, multiply by 9,
divide by 5 and add 32.
To convert degrees F. into degrees C. subtract 32, multiply by 5 and divide by 9.
Domestic measures
Liquids i fluid ouncc Solids
tca spoonful ICl'cl table spoonful
=i
dessert spoonful
table spoonful
**fluid ounce
fluid ounce
Ounce
tumblcriul 10 fluid ounces

APPENDIX 1
REFERENCE TABLES
TABLE I. TOMATO PuLP
Refractometer
Total solids Specific reading at 20 · C. Specific
in vacuo gravity ravity
at 70·C. at 20·C. Refractive o filtrate
Bri" at 20·C.
index scale
4.0 1.0162 1.3384 3.7 1.0150

4.1 1.0166 1.3386 3.8 1.0154
4.2 1.0171 1.3387 3.9 1.0151\
4.3 1.01 i 5 1.3388 4.0 1.0162
4.4 1.0179 1.3390 4.1 1.0166
4.5 1.0183 1.3391 4.2 1.0 170
4.6 1.0188 1.3393 4.3 1.0174
4.7 1.0192 1.3394 4.4 I.OI 7S
4.8 1.0196 1.3396 4.5 1.0182
4.9 1.0200 J.331J7 4.6 1.0186
5.0 1.0205 1.3398 4.7 1.0190

5.1 I.OZOI) 1.3400 4.8 1.0194
5.2 1.0213 1.3401 4.9 1.0198
5.3 1.0217 1.3402 5.0 1.0202
5.4 1.0222 1.3404 5.1 1.0207
5.5 1.0226 1.3405 5.2 L0211
5.6 1.0230 1.3407 5.2 1.0215
5.7 1.0234 1.3408 5.3 1.0219
5.8 1.0239 1.3409 5.4 1.0223
5.9 1.0243 1.3411 5.5 1.0227
6.0 1.0247 1.3412 5.6 1.0231

6.1 1.0251 1.3414 5.7 1.0235
6.2 1.0256 1.3415 5.8 1.0239
6.3 1.0260 1.3416 5.9 1.0243
6.4 1.0264 1.3418 6.0 1.0247
6.5 1.0268 1.3419 6.1 1.0251
6.6 1.0273 1.3420 6.2 1.0255
6.7 1.0277 1.3422 6.3 1.0259
6.8 1.0281 1.3423 6.4 1.0263
6.9 1.0285 1.3425 6.5 1.0267
7.0 1.0290 1.3426 6.6 1.0271

7.1 1.0294 1.3427 6.6 1.0275
7.2 1.0298 1.3429 6.7 1.0279
7.3 1.0302 1.3430 6.8 1.0283
7.4 1.0307 1.3432 6.9 1.0287
7.5 1.0311 1.3433 7.0 1.0291
7.6 1.0315 1.3434 7.1 1.0295
7.7 1.0319 1.3436 7.2 1.0299
7.8 1.0324 1.3437 7.3 1.0303
7.9 1.0328 1.3439 7.4 J.0307
8.0 ).0332 1.3oHO 7.5 1.0311

8.1 1.0336 1.3441 7.6 1.0315
8.2 1.0341 1.3443 7.7 1.031 9
8.3 1.0345 1.3444 7.8 1.0323
8.4 1.0349 1.3445 79 1.0327
8.5 1.0353 1.3447 7.9 1.0331
8.6 1.0358 1.3448 8.0 1.0335
295
19
VRESE1WATtON OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Thermometers Freezing Point Boiling Point

- - - - - ------
Centigrade
----- --------- ---
o Degree
--_--
100 Degree
l~ahrenbeit 32 212
Heaumer o 80
It
"
r4 RC;lumer scale divisions 5 centigrade divi sions ;
9 Fahrenheit division sl
F - 32 C
9 5
Therefore, to convert degrees Centigrade into degrees Fahrenheit, multiply by 9,
divide b y 5 and add 32.
To convert degrees F. into degrees C. subtract 32, multipl y b y 5 and divide by 9.
Domestic measures
Liquids i fluid ounce Solids
I tea spoonful ieI'd table spoonful
=! Ounce
dessert spoonful ! fluid ounce
table spoonful 1 fluid ounce
tumblerful 10 fluid ounces
APPENDIX I
REFERENCE TABLES
TA8LE I. TOMATO PuLP
Refractometer
Specific
Total solids Spec~fic reading at 20'C.
in vacuo gravity ~avity
at 70'C. at 20'C. Refractive Hrix o filtrate
scale at 20·C.
index
4.0 1.0162 1.3384 3.7 1.01 SO
4.1 1.0166 1.3386 3.8 1.0154
4.2 ].0171 1.3387 3.9 1.01 5H
4.3 1.0175 1.3388 4.0 1.()162
4.4 1.0179 1.3390 4.1 1.0166
4.5 1.0 18.' 1.3391 4.2 1.0170
4.6 ],0188 1.3393 4.3 ],0174
4.7 1.0192 1.3394 4,4 1.0178
4.8 1.0196 1.3396 4.5 1.0182
4.9 1.0200 1.3397 4.6 1.0186
5.0 1.0205 1.3398 4.7 1.0190

5.1 ).()2()9 1.3400 4.8 1.0194
5.2 1.021J 1.3401 4.9 1.0198
5.3 1.0217 1.3402 5.0 1.0202
5.4 1.0222 1.3404 5.1 1.0207
5.5 1.0226 1.3405 5.2 1.0211
5.6 1.0230 1.3407 5.2 1.0215
5.7 1.0234 1.3408 5.3 1.0219
5.8 1.0239 1.3409 5,4 1.0223
5.9 1.0243 1.3411 5.5 1.0227
6.0 1.0247 1.3412 5.6 1.0231

6.1 1.0251 1.3414 5.7 1.0235
6.2 1.0256 1.3415 5.8 1.0239
6.3 1.0260 1.3416 5.9 1.0243
6.4 1.0264 1.3418 6.0 1.0247
6.5 1.0268 1.3419 6.1 1.0251
6.6 1.0273 1.3420 6.2 1.0255
6.7 1.027i 1.3422 6.3 1.0259
6.8 1.028 1 1.3423 6.4 1.0263
6.9 1.0285 1.3425 6.5 1.0267
7.0 1.0290 1.3426 6.6 1.0271

7.1 1.0294 1.3427 6.6 1.0275
7.2 1.0298 1.3429 6.7 1.0279
7.3 1.0302 1.3430 6.8 1.0283
7.4 1.0307 1.3432 6.9 1.0287
7.5 ].0311 1.3433 7.0 1.0291
7.6 1.0315 1.3434 7.1 1.0295
7.7 1.0319 1.3436 7.2 1.0299
7.8 1.0324 1.3437 7.3 1.0303
7.9 1.0328 1.3439 7.4 1.0307
8.0 1.0332 1.3-140 7.5 1.0311

8.1 1.0336 1.3441 7.6 1.0315
8.2 1.0341 1.3443 7.7 1.0319
8.3 1.0345 1.3444 7.8 1.0323
8,4 1.0349 1.3445 7.9 1.0327
8.5 1.035.l 1.3447 7.9 1.0331
8.6 1.0358 1.3448 8.0 1.0335
295
19
296 PRESERVAT10N OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
TABLE 1.-Continued
Refractometer
Total solids Specific reading at 20'C. Specific
in vacuo gravity gravity
at ?O ' C. at 20'C. Refractive Brix of filtrate
index sca le at 20'C.
8.7 1.0362 1.3450 8.1 1.0339

8.8 1.0366 1.3451 8.2 1.0343
8.9 1.0370 1.3452 8.3 1.0347
9.0 1.0375 1.3454 8.4 1.0351
9.1 1.0379 1.3455 8.5 1.0355
9.2 1.0383 1.3456 8.6 1.0359
9.3 1.0387 1.3458 8.7 1.0363
9.4 1.0392 1.3459 8.8 1.0367
9.5 1.0396 1.3461 8.8 1.0371
9.6 1.0400 1.3462 8.9 1.0375
9.7 1.0404 1.3463 y.o 1.0379
9.8 1.0409 1.3465 9. 1 1.0383
9.9 1.0413 1.3466 9.2 1.0387
10.0 1.0417 1.3468 9.3 1.0391
10.1 1.0421 1.3469 Y.4 1.0395
10.2 1.0426 1.3470 9.5 ),0399
10.3 1.0430 1.3472 9.6 1.0403
10.4 1.0434 1.3473 9.7 1.0407
10.5 1.0438 1.3475 9.7 1.0411
10.6 1.0443 1.3476 9.8 1.0415
10.7 1.0447 1.3477 9.9 )'0419
10.8 1.0451 1.3479 10.0 1.0423
10.9 1.0455 1.3480 10. 1 1.0428
11 .0 1.0460 1.3481 10.2 1.0432
11.1 1.0464 1.3483 10.3 1.0436
11.2 1.0468 ).3484 )0.4 1.0440
11.3 1.0472 1.3486 10.5 1.0444
11.4 1.0477 1.3487 10.6 1.0448
11.5 1.0481 1.3488 10.6 1.0452
11.6 1.0485 1.3490 10.7 1.0456
11 .7 1.0489 1,3491 10.8 1.0460
11.8 1.0494 1.3493 10.9 1.0464
11.9 1.0498 1.3494 11.0 1.0468
12.0 1.0502 1.3495 11.1 1.0472
12.1 1.0506 1.3497 11.2
12.2 1.0511 1.3498 11.3
12.3 1.0515 1.3500 11.4
12.4 1.0520 1.3501 11.5
12.5 1.0524 1.3502 11.6
12.6 1.0529 1.3504 11.6
12.7 1.0533 1.3505 11.7
12.8 1.0537 1.3506 11 .8
12.9 1.0542 1.3508 11.9
13.0 1.0546 1.3509 12.0
13.1 1.0551 1.3511 12.1
13.2 1.0555 1.3512 12.2
13.3 1.0559 1.3514 12.3
13.4 1.0564 1.3515 12.4
13.5 1.0568 1.3516 12.5
13.6 1.0573 1.3518 12.5
13.7 1.0577 1.3519 12.6
13.8 1.0582 1.3520 12.7
13.9 1.0586 1.3522 12.8
REFERENCE TABLES 297
T"BLE I.--CQtltinu ed
._--
Refractometer
Spec~fic
Total solids Spec!fic reading at 20 ' C.
fravlty
in vacuo graVity o filtrate
at 70 ' C. at 20' C. Refractive Brix at 20'C.
index scale
14.0 1.0591 1.3523 12.9

14.1 1.0595 1.3525 13.0
14.2 1.0599 1.3526 13.1
14.3 1.0604 1.3528 13.2
14.4 1.0608 1.3529 13.3
14.5 1.0613 1.353 1 13.4
14.6 1.0617 1.3532 13.5
14.7 1.0621 1.3534 13.5
14.8 1.0626 1.3535 13.6
14.9 1.0630 1.3537 13.7
15.0 1.0635 1.3538 13.8

15.1 1.0639 1.3540 13.9
15.2 1.0644 1.3541 14.0
15.3 1.0648 1.3543 14.1
15.4 1.0652 1.3544 14.2
15.5 1.0657 1.3545 14.3
15.6 1.0661 1.3547 14.4
15.7 1.0666 1.3548 14.4
15.8 1.0670 1.3550 14.5
15.9 1.0675 1.3551 14.6
16.0 1.0679 1.3553 14.7

16.1 1.0683 1.3554 14.8
16.2 1.0688 1.3556 14.9
16.3 1.0692 1.3557 15.0
16.4 1.0697 1.3559 15.1
16.5 1.0701 1.3560 15.2 , ..
16.6 1.0706 1.3562 15.3
16.7 1.0710 1.3563 15.4
16.8 1.0714 1.3565 15.5
16.9 1.0719 1.3566 15.5
17.0 1.0723 1.3567 15.6

17.1 1.0728 1.3569 15.7
17.2 1.0732 1.3570 15.8
17.3 1.0737 1.3572 15.9
17.4 1.0741 1.3573 16.0
17.5 1.0745 1.3575 16.1
17.6 1.0750 1.3576 16.2
17.7 1.0754 1.3578 16.3
17.8 1.0759 1.3579 16.4
17.9 1.0763 1.3581 16.5
18.0 1.0768 1.3582 16.5

18.1 1.0772 1.3584 16.6
18.2 1.0776 1,3585 16.7
18.3 1.0781 1.3587 16.8
18.4 1.0785 1.3588 16.9
18.5 1.0790 1.3589 17.0
18.6 1.0794 1.3591 17.1
18.7 1.0798 1.3592 17.2
18.8 1.0803 1,3594 17.3
18.9 1.0807 1.3595 17.4
298 PRESERVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABJ,ES
TABLE 1.-C011c1uded
Uefractometer
Spec~fic
Total solids Spec~c reading at 2O · C. gravity
in vacuo gtavlty of filtrate
at 70·C. at 20·C. Refractive Brix at ZO·C.
index scale
19.0 1.0812 1.3597 17.5

19.1 1.0816 1.3598 J7.5
19.2 1.0821 1.3600 17.6
19.3 1.0825 1.3601 17.7
19.4 1.0829 1.3603 17.8
19.5 1.0834 1.3604 17.9
19.6 1.0838 1.3606 18.0
19.7 1.0843 1.3607 18.1
19.8 1.0847 1.3608 18.2
19.9 1.0852 1.3610 18.3
20.0 1.0856 1.3611 18.4
TABLE 2. TOMATO PASTE
Total solids in Refractometer reading at 20 · C. Specific gravity

vacuo at 70·C. at 20 · C.
Refractive index Brix scale
20.0 1.3611 18.4 1.0856

20.1 1.3613 18.5 1.0860
20.2 1.3614 18.6 1.0865
20.3 1.3616 18.7 1.0869
20.4 1.3617 18.7 1.0873
20.5 1.3619 18.8 1.0878
20,6 1.3620 18.9 1.0882
20.7 1.3622 19.0 1.0886
20.8 1.3624 19.1 1.0891
20.9 1.3625 19.2 1.0895
21.0 1.3627 19.3 1.0899

2J.J 1.3628 19.4 1.0904
21.2 1.3630 19.5 1.0908
21.3 1.3632 19.6 1.0912
21.4 1.3633 19.7 1.0916
21.5 1.3635 19.8 1.0921
21.6 1.3636 19.9 1.0925
21.7 1.3638 20.0 1.0930
21.8 1.3639 20.1 1.0934
21.9 1.3641 20.2 , .0938
22.0 1.3643 20.2 1.0943

22.1 1.3644 20.3 1.0947
22.2 1.3646 2Q.4 1.0951
22.3 1.3647 20.5 1.0956
22.4 1.3649 20.6 1.0960
22.5 1.3651 20.7 1.0965
22.6 1.3652 20.8 1.0969
22.7 1.3654 20.9 1.0973
22.8 1.3655 21.0 1.0978
22.9 1.3657 21.1 1.0982
23.0 1.3658 21.2 1.0986

23.1 1.3660 21.3 1.0991
23.2 1.3662 21.4 1.0995
23.3 1.3663 21.5 1.0999
23.4 1.3665 ZI.6 1.1004
23.5 1.3666 21.7 1.1008
23.6 1.3668 21.7 1.1012
23.7 1.3669 21.8 1.1017
23.8 1.3671 21.9 1.1021
23.9 1.3673 22.0 1.1025
24.0 1.3674 22.1 J.J030

24.1 1.3676 22.2 1.1034
24.2 1.3677 22.3 1.1038
24.3 1.3679 22.4 1.1043
24.4 1.3681 22.5 1.1047
24.5 1.3682 22.6 1.1 051
24.6 1.3684 22.7 1.1056
24.7 1.3685 22 .8 1.1060
24.8 1.3687 22.9 1.1064
24.9 1.3688 23.0 1.1069
- - - - - ----
TABLE 2.-Colllinued
Total solids in Refractometer reading at 20·C. Specific gravity

vacuo at 70 · C. at 20·C.
Refractive index Brix scale
25.0 1.3690 23.1 1.1073

25.1 1.3692 23.2 1.1077
25.2 1.3693 23.2 1.1082
25.3 1.3695 23.3 1.1086
25.4 1.3697 23.4 1.1090
25.5 1.3698 23.5 1.1095
25.6 1.3700 23.6 1.1099
25.7 1.3701 23.7 !.I 103
25.8 1.3703 23.8 !.I 108
25.9 1.3705 23.9 1.111 2
26.0 1.3706 24.0 1.1116

26.1 1.3708 24.1 1.1.(21
26.2 1.3710 24.2 1.1 125
26.3 1.3711 24..3 r.1129
26.4 1.3713 24.4 1.11 34
26.5 1.3715 24.5 1.1 138
26.6 1.3716 24.6 1.1142
26.7 1.3718 24.7 1.1147
26.8 1.3720 24.8 1.1151
26.9 1.3721 24.9 1.1 ISS
27.0 1.3723 25.0 1.1160

27.1 1.3724 25.1 1.1164
27.2 1.3726 25.1 1.1168
27.3 1.3728 25.2 1.11 73
27.4 1.3729 25.3 1.1177
27.5 1.3731 25.4 UI82
27.6 1.3733 25.5 1.1 186
27.7 1.3734 25.6 1.1 190
27.8 1.3736 25.7 1.1 195
27.9 1.3738 25.8 1.1199
28.0 1.3739 25.9 1.1203

2B.I 1.3741 26.0 1.120B
2B.2 1.3742 26.1 1.1212
28.3 1.3744 26.2 1.1216
2B.4 1.3746 26.3 1.1 221
28.5 1.3747 26.4 1.1225
28.6 1.3749 26.5 1.1229
28.7 1.3751 26.6 1.1234
28.8 1.3752 26.7 1.1238
28.9 1.3754 26.8 1.1242
29.0 i .3756 26.9 1.1247

29.1 1.3757 26.9 1.1251
29.2 1.3759 27.0 1.1255
29.3 1.3761 27.1 1.1260
29.4 1.3762 27.2 1.1264
29.5 1.3764 27.3 1.1268
29.6 1.3765 27.4 1.1273
29.7 1.3767 27.5 1.1277
29.8 1.3769 27.6 1.1281
29.9 1.3770 27.7 1.1286
T i\ I\u,: 2.- Collcluded
Refractometer reading at 20· C. Specific gravity

Total solids in
vaCUO at 70·C. at 20·C.
He[ractive index Brix scale
----- - --
30.0 1.3772 27.8 1.1290
30.1 1.3774 27.9 1.1 294
30.2 1.3776 28.0 1.1 299
30.3 1.3777 2B. 1 1.1 303
30.4 1.3779 28.2 1.1 308
30.5 1.378 1 28.3 1.1 312
30.6 1.37B3 28.4 1.1 316
30.7 1.3784 28.5 1.1 32 1
30.8 1.3786 28.6 1.1 325
30.9 1.3788 28.7 1,1330
31.0 1.3790 28.8 1.1 334

31.1 1.3791 28.9 1.1 338
31.2 1.3793 29.0 1.1 343
31.3 1.3795 29. 1 1.1 347
31.4 1.3797 29.2 1.1 352
31.5 1.3798 29.3 1.1356
31.6 1.3800 29.4 1.1360
31.7 1.3R02 29.5 1.1 365
31.8 1.3804 29.6 1.1369
31.9 1.3805 29.7 1.1374
32.0 1.3807 29.8 1.137R

32.1 1.3809 29.9 1.1382
32.2 1.38\ \ 30.0 1.1387
32.3 1.3812 30.1 J.I391
32.4 1.3814 30.2 1.1 396
32.5 1.38 16 30.3 1.1400
32.6 1.3818 30.4 1.1404
32.7 I.:lR20 :l0 ..) 1.1409
32.8 1.382 1 30.6 1.141 3
32.9 1.3823 30.7 1.1418
33.0 1.3825 30.8 1.1422

33.1 1.3827 30.9 1.1426
33.2 1.3828 31.0 1.1431
33.3 1.3830 nl 1.1435
33.4 1.3832 31.2 1.1440
33.5 1.3834 11..1 1.1444
33.6 1.3835 31.3 1.1448
33.7 1.3837 31.4 1.1453
33.8 1.3839 31.5 1.1457
33.9 1.3841 31.6 1.1461
34.0 1.3842 31.7 1.1466

34.1 1.3844 31.8 1.1470
34.2 1.3846 31.9 1.1475
34.3 1.3848 32.0 1.1479
34.4 1.3849 32.1 1.1484
34.5 1.3851 32.2 1.1488
34.6 1.3853 32.3 1.1492
34.7 1.3855 32.4 1.1497
34.8 1.3856 32.5 1,1501
34.9 1.3858 32.6 1.1506
35.0 1.3860 32.7 U510

302 PRESERVATION OF FRUI'fS AND VEGETABLES
TABLE: 3. TOMATO KETCHUP
Per cent. toral Ro!ids Specific gravity at Abbe refractomerer reading

WF. (20 ' C.) at 68 ' F. (20 · C.)
16.0 1.067 1.3557

16.5 1.069 1.3565
17.0 1.072 1.3573
17.5 1.074 1.3582
18.0 1.077 1.3590
18.5 1.079 1.3598
19.0 1.082 1.3606
19.5 1.084 1.3614
20.0 1.087 1.3622
20.5 1.089 1.3631
21.0 1.091 1.3639
21.5 1.094 1.3647
22.0 1.096 1.3655
22.5 1.099 1.3664
23.0 1.101 1.3672
23.5 1.104 1.368 1
24.0 1.106 1.3689
24.5 1.109 1.3698
25.0 1.111 1.3706
25.5 1.1 13 1.371 5
26.0 1.11 6 1 .:~723
26.5 1.1 18 1.3732
27.0 1.121 1.3740
27.5 1.123 1.3749
28.0 1.126 1.:1758
28.5 1.128 1.3767
29.0 1.131 1.3775
29.5 1.133 1.3784
30.0 1.136 1.3793
30.5 1.138 1.3802
31.0 1.140 1.3811
31.5 1.143 1.3820
32.0 1.145 1.3829
32.5 1.148 1.3838
33.0 J.lSO 1.3847
33.5 1.153 1.3856
34.0 1.155 1.3865
34.5 I.lS8 1.3874
35.0 1.160 1.3883
35.5 1.162 1.3893
36.0 1.165 1.3902
36.5 1.167 1.3911
37.0 1.170 1.3920
37.5 1.172 1.3930
38.0 1.175 1.3939
38.5 1.177 1.3949
39.0 1.180 1.3958
39.5 1.182 1.3968
40.0 1.185 1.3978
TABLE 4. CORRECTIONS .·OR SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND Blux· READI1'(CS .11' DII'1'r.REl<"
TF.MPF.RATURES TO 68'F. (20 ' C.)
Temperature CorreclionR Temperature Corrections
- ----- -
Deg. F. Deg. C. Sp. Gr. Brix Oeg. F. Ocg. C. Sp. Gr. Bril'
50 10.0 .0017 .38 59 15.0 .0010 .22

51 10.6 .0016 .36 60 15.6 .0009 .20
52 11.1 .0016 .35 61 16.1 .0009 .IS
53 11.7 .0015 .33 62 16.7 .0008 .16
54 12.2 .0014 .31 63 17.2 .0007 .13
55 12.S .0014 .:'10 64 17.R .0006 .J I
56 13.3 .0013 .28 65 18.3 .0004 .08
57 13.9 .0012 .26 66 18.9 .0003 .05
58 14.4 .0011 .24 67 19.4 .0002 .03
Corrections to be suhtracted from specific gravity or degrees Bril'
TABLE 5. CORRECTIONS TO BE Aom:n 'ro SPECIFIC GR,\vn'Y OR DIOCRESS RIUl'
Temperature Corrections Temperature Corrections
Deg. F . Deg. C. Sp. Gr. Bril' Oeg. F. Oeg. C. Sp. Gr. Bril'
69 20.6 .0002 .03 79 26.1 .0017 .35

70 21.1 . OOO~ .0.5 80 26.7 .0018 .39
71 21.7 .0004 .08 81 27.2 .0019 .42
72 22.2 .0006 .11 82 27.S .0021 .46
73 22.8 .0007 .15 8:'1 28.3 .002.1 .49
74 23.3 .0009 .18 84 28.9 .0024 .54

75 23.9 .00 11 .21 85 29.4 .0026 .58
76 24.4 .0012 .24 86 30.0 .0027 .62
77 25.0 .OOJ 3 .28 87 30,6 .0029 .66
78 25.6 .0015 .32 88 31.1 .0031 .70
• These temperature corrections are for a Brix instrument standardized for 20·C.
304 PRESERVATION OF FRVITS AND VEGETABLES
TABLE Sa. CORRECTIONS FOR REFRACTOMETER BRIX READINC WilEN DETERMINED

AT TEMPERATURES OTlfER THAN 6soF. (20 °C.)
Temperature Refractive index reading

°C. OF. 1.3400 1.3500 1.3600 1.3700 1.3S00 1.3900 1.4000
To be subtracted from reading

15 59.0 .0004 .0005 .0005 .0006 .0006 .0007 .0007
16 60.S .0004 .0004 .0004 .0005 .0005 .0005 .0005
17 62.6 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0004 .0004 .0004
IS 64 .4 .0002 .0002 .0002 .0002 .0002 .0003 .0003
19 66.2 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .(1001 .0001
To be added to reading
21 69.S .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001
22 71.6 .0002 .0002 .0002 .0002 .0003 .0003 .0003
23 73.4 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0004 .000{ .0004 .0004
24 75.2 .0004 .0004 .0005 .0005 .0005 .0006 .0006
25 77.0 .0005 .0005 .0006 .0006 .0007 .0007 .0007
26 7S.S .0006 .0006 .0007 .OOOS .0008 .0008 .0009
27 SO.6 .0007 .OOOS .OOOS .0009 .0010 .0010 .0010
2S 82.4 .OOOS .0009 .0010 .0010 .0011 .0011 .0012
29 84.5 .0010 .0010 .0011 .0012 .0012 .0013 .0013
30 86.0 .0011 .0012 .0012 .0013 .0014 .0014 .0015
TABl.E 5b. CORRf:CTIONS FOR REFRACTOMf;TER BRIX READING WHf;N DETERMINEJ)

A'C TEMPERATURF,s OTIJER THAN 68 °F. (20 °C.)
Temperature Refractometer Brix reading

°C. OF. 5 10 IS 20 25 30 35
To be subtracted from reading
15 59.0 0.29 0.31 0.33 0.34 0.34 0.35 0.36
16 60.8 .24 .25 .26 .27 .28 .28 .29
17 62.6 .18 .19 .20 .21 .21 .2 1 .22
18 64.4 .13 .13 .14 .14 .14 .14 .15
19 66.2 .06 .06 .07 .07 .07 .07 .OS
To be added to reading
21 69.8 0.07 0.07 0.D7 0.07 0.08 O.OS 0.08
22 71.6 .13 .14 .14 .15 .15 .15 .15
23 73.4 .20 .21 .22 .22 .23 .23 .23
24 75.2 .27 .28 .29 .30 .30 .31 .31
25 77.0 .35 .36 .37 .38 .38 .39 .40
26 78.8 .42 .43 .44 .45 .46 .47 .48
27 80.6 .50 .52 .53 .54 .55 .55 .56
28 S2.4 .57 .60 .61 .62 .63 .63 .64
29 84.2 .66 .6S .69 .71 .72 .72 .73
30 86.0 .74 .77 .7S .79 .80 .80 .81
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APPENDLX Jl
FRUIT PRODUCTS ORDER 1955

(AS AMENDED UPTO J8-2-J9j8)
Government of India, Ministry of Food and Agriculture
New Delhi, the 3rd May 1955
S.R.O. 1052.-II1 t:xcrci c of the powers conferred by Section a o[ the

Essential Commodities Act, 1955 (10 of 1955), the Central Government here-
by makes the following order, namely;-
J. (I) This Order lllay be called the Fruit Products Order, 1955.
(2) It extends to th e whole of India except the State of Jammu and
Kashmir.
2. In this Order, lin less the context otherwise requires,-
(a) "the Act" means the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 (10 or 1955) ;
(b) "Committee" means the Central Fruit Products Advisory Committee
constituted by the Central Government under Clause 3 ;
(c) "Form" means a Form set forth in the First Schedule;
(d) "fruit product" means any of the following articles, namely : -
(i) synthetic beverages, syrups and sharbats;
(ii) v~egar, whether brewed or synthetic;
(iii) pickles;
(iv) dehydrated fruits and vegetables;
(v) squashes, crushes, cordials. barley waters, barrelled juice and ready-
to-serve beverages or any other beverages containing fruit juices or
fruit pulp;
(vi) jams, jellies and marmalades;
(vii) tomato products, ketchup and sauces;
(viii) preserves, candied and crystallized fruits and peels;
(ix) chutneys;
(x) canned and bottled fruits, juices and pulps;
(xi) canned and bottled vegetables;
(xii) frozen fruits and vegetables;
(xiii) aerated waters containing fruit juices or pulp ;
(xiv) any other unspecified items relating to fruits or vegetables ;.
(e) "Licensee" means a manufacturer to whom a licence is granted under
this Order;
309
310 PHESERVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
(f) "Licence number" means the number of a licence granted to a manu-

facturer under this Order ;
(g) "Licensing Officer" means the AgricuJturaJ Marketing Adviser co d1e
Government of India and includes any other officer empowered in this behalf
by him with the approval of the Central Government;
(h) "manufacturer" means a licensee engaged ill the business of manu-
facturing any fruit products for sale and includes a person purchasing such
fruit products in bulk and rep..cking dlem for sale, either by himself or
through some one else;
(i) "Schedule" means a Schedule annexed to this Order;
(j) "sharbat" means any non-alcoholic sweetened beverage or syrup COll-
taining non-fruit juice or A,lYoured with non-fruit flavours, such as ros(' .
khus, kewra. etc, ;
(k) "synthetic beverage" llleans any non-alcoholic beverage or syrup,
other than aerated waters, containing no fruit juice but having an artificial
flayour or colour resembling any fruit; and
(1) "term" means a period of twelve months ending on the 31st day of
December of any year.
3, (1) As soon as may be after the commencement of this Order. and
thereafter at the interval of every two years, the Central Government shall.
by order published in dle Official Gazette, constitute a Committee, to be
called the Central Fruit Products Advisory Committee. which shall consist
of the licensing officer who shall be the Chairman of the Committee, and
the following other members, namely:-
Members
(a) five persons. one each to be elected by the licensees in the northern,
central. western, eastern and southern zones, respectively in such
manlier as the licensing officer may, from time to time. by order
direct; .
(b) two persons po sessing. in the opinion of the licensing officer, suitable
technicaJ qualifications with regard to the manufacture 'of fruit
products, to bc nominated by the licensing officer ;
(c) the Director, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore
or any other officcr of the Institute nominated by him in this
behalf; .
(d) the Agricultural Commissioner of the Government of India . or any
other officer Dominated by him in this behalf ;
(e) the Technical Adviser in the Ministry of Food and Agriculture or
any other officer nominated by him in this behalf; and
(ee) two persons representing fruit and vegetable growers in India to be
nominated by the Licensing Officer ;
Member Secretary
(f) the Senior Marketing Development Officer (Fruit Products) in the

Directorate of Marketing and Inspection.
(2) A member of the Committee shall hold office for the period for which
the Committee has been constituted:
Provided that a member may resign his office by notice in writing given
to the licensing officer.
(3) If a vacancy occurs by death, resignation, efflux of tim e, or otherwise
in the office of any elected or nominated members of the Committee. the
\'acancy so caused shall be filled by election or nomination by the body or
authority which elected or nominated him , as the case may be, under sub-
clause (I), and any person appointed to fill a casual vacancy shall hold
office so long only as the member in whose place he is elected or nominated.
would have held office.
(4) The quorum of the Committee shall be five but subject thereto, the
Committee may act notwith standing allY vacancy in its number.
(5) The Committee may regulate its proceedings in such mann er as it
thinks fit, but on any matter on which th e votes of the Committee are
equally divided the Chairman or the person presiding at the Committee
shall have a second or casting vote.
(6) The functions of the Committee shall be to advise the Directorate of
Marketing and Inspection in the Ministry of Food and Agriculture on any
matter appertaining to the fruit preservation industry.
(7) The Central Government may, at any time, if it so deems expedient in
the public interest, by order, dissolve the Committee and th ereupon the
Committee shall stand dissolved and all persons elected or nominated to the
Committee shall cease to be members thert:of with effect from the date of
the order:
Provided that the Central Go\'crnmcnt shall take steps to reconstitute the
Committee as soon as possible in the manner provided in sub-clause (1).
4. No person shall carryon the business of a manufacturer except under
and in accordance with the terms of an effective licence granted to him
under this Order in Form 'B'.
5. -(I) Every application for the grant of a licence under clause 4 shall be
made in duplicate to the licensing officer in Form 'A' and shall be accom-
panied by a fee of such • amount as is appropriate to each of the class of
licence for which such application is made under the provision of sub-
clause (2).
(2) The following fees being appropriate fees shal1 be payable for one form
or part thereof under sub-clause (I), namely: -
(a) in the case of manufacturer using no power or using up to one Horse
Power, Rs. 25 for all types of fruit products:
20
312 PHI!: ERVATJON OF FHUITS AND VEGETABLl~S
(b) in the case of a manufacturer using more than one Horse Power but
up to ten Horse Power, Rs. 100 -for all types of products:
(c) in the case of a manufacturer lIsing more than ten Horse power-
(i) Rs. 40 for synthetic beverages, syrups and sharbats;
(ii) Rs. 40 for vinegar, whether brewed or synthetic;
(iii) Rs. 40 for pickles;
(iv) Rs. 40 for dehydrated fruits and vegetables;
(v) B.s. 80 for squashes, crushes, cordials, barley waters, barrelled juice
and ready to serve beverages or any other beverages containing fruit
juices or fruit pulps;
(vi) Rs. 80 for jams, jellies and marmalades ;
(vii) Rs. 80 for tomato ketchup, tomato sauce and any other sallce;
(viii) Rs. 160 for preserves, candied and crystallized fruits and peels;
(ix) Rs. 200 for chutneys;
(x) Rs. 250 for canned and bottled fruits, juices and pulps, including
tomato juice;
(xi) Rs. 250 for canned and bottled vegetables;
(xii) Rs. 250 for frozen fruits and vegetables;
(xiii) Rs. 250 for aerated waters containing fruit juices or pulps ;
(xiv) Rs. 250 for any other unspecified items relating to fruits and vege-
tables.
(3) Any fcc paid by any applicant for a licence under this clause shall not
be refundable.
(4) The licensing officer may, by order for reasons to be recorded in writing.
refuse to grant a licence to any applicant and shall furni sh him as soon as
possible with a copy of the order so passed.
6. (I) The licensing officer may, after giving the manufacturer an oppor-
tlLl1ity to show cause and after giving him three months' notice, cancel any
license granted to him under this Order for any breach of the terms of
tbe 1i ence or for any conu'avention of the provisions of this Order or for
any failure to comply with any order, direction or requisition made under
this Order.
(2) The manufacturer may appeal to the Central Government against any
order passed by dIe licensing officer under sub-cl:u c (I) cancelling dle
licence within a period of thirty days after the receipt of the order by such
manufacturer and the decision of the Central Government shall be final.
7. Every manufacturer shaH manufacture fruit products in conformity
with the sanitary requirements and the appropriate standard of quality and
omposition specified in dle Second Schedule to this Order. Every other fruit
and vegetable product not so specified shall be manufactured in accordance
FJWIT PRODUCTS OIUJER 3 13
with the standard of quality and composition laid down 111 this behalf by
the Licensing Officer.
S. (1) Every manufacturer shall, in regard to the packing, marking and

labelling of containers of fruit product~ , comply with the following re(]1lire-
ments, that is to say·_
(a) every container in which allY fruit product is packed shall bear such
label as may, from time to time, be approved by the licensin~
officer and different labels may be approved for different fruit
products aud a manufacturer in packing such container shall u~c
a label which is for the time being approved by the licensing
Officer ;
(b ) when a bottle is used in packing any fruit products, it shall be SU

scaled that it cannot be opened without destroying the licence
number and the special identification rnark of the manufacturer
to he displayed on th e (oP or neck of the boule. The licence
number of the manufacturer shall also be exhibited prominentl y
on the side label on sHch bottle ;
(c) when a tin, barrel or other container is used ill packing any fruit
product, the licence llumber of th e manufacturer sh all either he
exhihited prominently on the side label o( such lin or be embossed
prominently thereon;
(d) each container in wruch any fruit product is packed shall specify a
code llumber indicating the lot 01' the clate of manu f actllre of
sllch fruit product;
(c) lhe labels should not contain allY statemcn t, claim, design or device
which is false or misleading ill any particular eonccrning the fnlit
products contained in the package or concerning the quantity or
the lluu·itive mIlle or ill relation to the place of origin of th e said
fruit products.
(2) Without prejudice 1"0 the generality of the provision contained in sub-
c.:1ause (I), the licensing officer may, by order published in the Official
Gazette, specify the requirement in regard to the packing, marking and
labelling of containers of fruit products of any specified type or description,
whether such fruit products are manufactured in India or not and every
manufacturer 01' any l'erson fol' the time being acting on his behalf shall
be bound to comply with the provision of such order.
9. Every manufacturer shall, as soon as possible afler the end of every
term or on or before such date as the licensing officer may in any case, by
order, specify in this behalf, submit to the licensing officer a return in
31 .. PRESERVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
duplicate in respect of each class of fruit products manufactured by him

during that term.
10. No person shall sell, or expose for sale, or despatch or deliver to any
agent or broker for the purpose of sale, any fruit products which do not
conform to the standards of quality and composition specified in the Second
Schedule or which arc not packed, marked ;lnd labelled in tlle manner laid
down in this Order.
Provided that nothing in this clause shall apply to any fruit products
imported into India, except when such fruit products arc repacked by any
licensee for retail sale; hut notwidlstanding anything in the foregoing pro-
vision, no fruit products imported into India may be sold in the original
containers unless the name of the country of manufacture of such fruit
products is mentioned and unless the said fruit products conform either to
the standards of quality laid down in the Second Schedule or to the specifi-
cations of the country of their origin, as may be determined by the
licensing officer.
11. (1) Any beverage which does not contain at least twenty-five pel'
centum of fruit juice in its composition shall not be described as a fruit
syrup, fruit juice, squash or cordial or Cf llSh and shall be described as a
synthetic syrup.
(2) Every synthetic syrup shall be clearly and conspicuously marked on

dle label as a 'SYNTHETIC' product, and no container containing such
product shall have a label, whether attached thereto or printed on the
wrapper of such container or, otherwi c, which may lead the consumer into
believing that it is a fruit product. Neither the word "FRUIT" shall be
used in describing such a product, nor shall it be sold under the cover of
a label, which carries the pictw'e of any fruit. Aerated water containing no
fruit juice or pulp shall not have a label which leads the consumer into
believing that it is a fruit product.
12. Every manufacturer to whom any direction or order is issued in

pW'suance of any provision of this Order shall be bound to comply with
such direction or order and any failure on the part of the manufacturer to
comply with such direction or order ~hall be deemed to be a contravention
of the provision of this Order.
13. The licensing officer or any officer authorised by him in this behalf
may with a view to securing a compliance with this Order:
(a) require any person to give any information in his possession with respect
to the manufacture and dispo~al of any fruit products manufactured
by him;
(b) enter upon and inspect, the premises of any licensee or manufacturer
at any ti~e during the business hours with a view to satisfying himself that
the reqUlrements of this Order are being complied with, and-
(i) on giving a proper receipt, seize or detain any fruit products manu -
factured, marked, packed or labelled otherwise than in accord-
ance with the prorisions of this Order or suspected 10 he manu -
fachlred, marked, packed or labelled in contravention of the pro-
\·i~ions of this Order:
(ii) seize or detain , on giving a proper receipt, raw materials, docum ents.
account books or other relevant cyidence connected II ill! manu -
facture of fruit products in respect of which he has reason to
believe that a contr:l\·ention of the Order has tahn place:
(iii) dispose of aU fruit products or raw materials so seized or detained in
such manner as he deems fit ;
(c) Not more than twice during olle term, insp ct ilny books or other docu-
ments of a licensee relating to the manufacture and di sposal of fruit
products ;
(d) Collect, on payment, samples of fruit products intended or exposed fur
sale, or sold, or under despatch or delivery to any dealer, agent or broker
for the purpose of sale, and have such samples analysed at a laboratory
selected for the purpo~e by the licensing officer;
(e) Collect, from the licensee or manufacturer, free of charge, on giving a
proper receipt, samples of any fruit prodncts or any chemical, dye or any
other ingredients used in the preparation of such fruit products from the
premises of such licensee or manufacturer; in respect of which he has
reason to believe that a contravention of the Order has taken place ;
(f) By an order in writing prohibit the sale or manufacture of any fruit
products in respect of which he has reason to believe that a contravention
of this Order has taken place.
14. No person shall refuse to fllfnish any information which hI:! is legally
bound to furnish and which may be lawfully demanded of him under the
provisions of this Order, or cancel, destroy, mutilate or deface any book
or other document with a view to evading the provisions of this Order.
IS. No proseclltion for contravention of any of the provisions of this Order
shall be instituted without the previous sanction of the licensing officer.
16. Nothing in this Order shall be deemed to apply:-
(i) to any syrups which-
(a) contain fruit juices for medicinal use,
(b) are prepared in accordance with the allopathic, homoeopatbic,
Ayurvedic, Uoani or any other system of medicine, and
3 16 PRESERVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
(c) are sold in bottles bearing a label containing the words 'For
medicinal use only' which does not exhibit any picture of fruits, and
(ii) To any fruit products manufactured by a person in any non-municipal
areas in quantities not exceeding twO hundred pounds during a term.
(iii) To any fruit products produced by institutions, colleges and training
centres for demonstration and training purposes and not for sale on com-
mercial basis.
THE FIRST SCHEDULE
FORM 'A'
[See clause 5 (1)]
Application for licence under the Fruit Products Order, 1955.
1. Name and address of the applicant.
2. Address of the factory.
3. Description of the fruit products which the applicant wishes to

manufacture.
4. Period for which the licence is required.
5. Plan of the factor y and list of equipment~.
6. Whether any power is used in d1C manufacture of fruit products. If

so, state the exact Horse Power used.
7. Licence fee paid during th e previou s year.
8. Total value of frnit products manufactured during the previous year.
9. J/We hereby undertake to comply w!th all the provisions of the Fruit
Products Order, ]955.
10. J jWe have forwarded a sum of Rs. in resp ct of th e licence fee due
according ro the provisions of Fruit' Products Order, 1955.
[Signature (8) of the applicant (8).J

FORM 'B'
(Sec clause 4)
Government of Inelia
Ministry of Food and Agriculture
Direcrorate of Marketing and Impeclion.
GO"ernment of India
Emblem
Licence under Fruit Products Order, 1955
LICENCE NO FPO- - - - - -
I. Name and address of licensee.
2. Address of authorised premi s('~ fur manufacture.
3. Change of prem ises, if any.
Tbis licence is granted undcr and is Sltb jeer to the prol'i ~ i o n s of F.P.O ..
1955 all of which must he complied with by the licensee.
Place.
Dare.
Licensing Offieer,
Agricultural Marketing i\clviscr to tIle' GO\'t. of lndia .
Validation and Renewal
Period Categories of fruir Rate of licence Licence Sigll,llllre

of products authorised fee per category fcc paid of Liccm-
validity to manufa ture ing Officer
THE SECOND SCHEDULE

(See clauses 7 and 10)
PART I A
Sanitary Requirements of a factory manufacturing fruit products.

The place where any fruit products are manufactured. (hereinafter
referred to as the factory). shall comply with the following requirements and
in the opinion of the licensing officer shall be fit for manufacmring the
item or items for which the licence is granted to the manufacturer.
1. The premises shall be clean. adequately lighted and ventilated and

shall be cleaned. if required, by lime-washing or colour washing or painting
01' disinfecting or deodourising.
2. Windows. doors and other openings suited to screening shall be fly.

proof. The doors should have springs so that they may close automatically.
The ceiling or roof shall be of permanent nature. The floor should be
cemented, tiled or laid in stone.
3. The premises may be used to manufacture any product not repugnant
to the manufacture of food and other allied products like Gulkand, Ark.
herbaceous products. the like.
4. The premises shall be located in a sanitary place and free from filthy
surroundings.
5. All yards, outhouses, stores and all approaches of the premises shall
be kept clean and sanitary.
6. The authorised premises shall be so constructed or maintained as to
permit hygienic production and all operations. in connection with preparing
or packing of product shall be carried out carefully under strict sanitary
conditions laid down in the Factories Act. 1934, as amended and modified
from time to time.
7. Equipment and machinery when employed shall be of such design

which will permit easy cleaning. Adequate arrangements for cleaning of
containers, tables, working parts of machinery etc., shall be provided.
8. No vessel, container or other equipment, the use of which is likely to
cause metallic contamination injurious to health shall be employed in the
preparation. packing or storage of fruit. (Copper or brass vessels shall be
always kept tinned. No iron or galvanised iron shall come in contact with
fruit products).
9. The water used in the manufacture shall be potable and if required

by the Licensing Officer shall be got examined chemically and bacterio·
logically by any recognised laboratory. The manufacturer will bear the cost
of such analysis.
10. There should be efficient drainage sys tem and there ~hall be adequate
provisions for disposal of refuse.
II. Wherever five or more employees of either sex are employed. a
sufficient number of latrines for each sex n$ under shnll he prOl'ided ;-
Number of workers Number of latrines
5 to 24 1
25 to 49 2
50 to 100
Adequate facilities for cleanliness shall be provided by providing clean
towels, soaps, hand-scrubbing brllshes and wash basins.
12. Wherever cooking is done on open fire, proper arranp;ements will be
made for outlet of smoke and soot.
13. No workers suffering frol11 infectious or contagious di~ease shall be
allowed to work in the factory. ArrangemeI1ls shall be made for examina ·
tion of workers and such staff once a year to check that they are free from
any infectious, contagious or other diseases and they will be inoculated and
vaccinated against the enteric group of diseases once a year and against
small-pox once in two years and certificate whereof will be kept for inspec-
tion. In case of epidemic, aU workers should be inoculated.
14_ The workers working in processing and preparation shall be provided
with proper aprons and headwenrs, which shall be clean.
PART J B
I. All the factories licensed tinder the Fruit Products Order, 1955 will
comply with the requirements under Part 1(A) the factories will be further
categorised under the following categories;-
(a) Cottage Scale-Maximum yearly sales of Rs. 10,000.
(b) Small Scale-Maximum yearly sales of Rs. 1,00,000.
(c) Large Scale-Yearly sales over Rs. 1,00,000.
2. The following minimum requirements are laid down for cottage ~cale
manufacturers: -
(a) The minimum area for manufacturing premises shall be 250 sq. ft.
(b) Minimum of 100 gallons of potable water shall be available per day.
(c) Wherever process of sterilization is involved in the manufacture,
adequate arrangements will be made.
320 PRESERVATION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES ·
3. The following minimum requirements are laid down for small-scalc

manufacturers: -
(a) Minimum area for manufacturing premises shall be 500 sq. ft.
(b) A minimum of 250 gallons of potable water shall be available pcr
day.
(c) Wherever process of sterilization is involved in the manufacture,
adequate arrangcments shall be made.
4. The following minimum requirements are laid down for large-scale
'manufacturers: -
(a) Minimum arca for manufacturing prcmises shall be 1500 Sq. ft.
(b) A minimum of J,ooo gallons of potable water shall be avaibble
per day.
(c) Adequate number of kettles, cxhausters, sterilizing equipment shall
bc provided wherever required.
(d) The manufactLU'c of fruit products shall be supcn-ised by a qualificd
person.
FRUIT PRODUCTS ORDEH 321
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324 PRESERVATION OF FHUITS AND VEGETABLES
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340 PRESERVAll0N OF FRUlTS AND VEGETABLES
PART XX
J. Fruit and vegetable products shall be packed ill such suitable con·
tainers as are described below and all containers shall be securely packed
and sealed.
(a) Canned fruits, juices and vegetables. Sanitary top cans made from
suitable kind of tin.plate shall be u~cd for canning fruits. juices
and vegetables.
(b) Bottled fruits, juices and vegetables. Bottles and jars capable of
giving hermetic seal shall be used.
(c) Juices, squashes, crush, cordials. syrups, barley waters and other
beverages shall be packed in clean bottles and securely sealed.
These products when frozen and sold in the form of ice shall be
packed in suitable cartons. Juices or pulp may be packed in
wooden barrels when sulphited.
(d) Preserves, jams, jellies and marmalades-New cans, new cannisters,
clean jars, bottles, chinaware jars or aluminium containers may be
used for packing these products and they shall be securely sealed.
(e) Vinegar, pickles. ketchup. sauces and chutneys. Clean bottles, jars,
and wooden casks may be used.
(f) Candied fruits and peels and dried fruits and vegetables. Paper bags,
cardboard or wooden boxes, new tins. bottles, jars, aluminium or
other suitable approved containers shall be used.
2. Following particulars shall be clearly marked on the containers:
(a) Kind and variety of fruit.
(b) Nature of the product, viz., juice, squash, marmalade, etc.
(c) Net weight or volume of the contents (variation in net content may
be 5 per cent. in case of bottled fruit products)
(d) Name of the manufacturer and place of manufacture or the brand
owner's name and place of manufacture.
(e) Where any permitted preservative and/or colouring agent otl~er
than natural colour is added, a statement to the effect that it con-
tains permitted preservative and/or colouring agent other than
natural colour.
PART XXI
Limits of Heavy Metals in Fruit products
Lead-Not more than 5 parts per million.

Copper-Not more than 15 parts per million.
Zinc-Not more than 19 parts per million.
Tin-Not more than 143 parts per million.
Arsenic and arsenious oxide-Not more than 1.43 parts per million.
PART xxn
List of Permissible Harmless Food Colours
I. ~atural colouring matler which may be used :

The following natural colouring principles, whether isolated from natural
colours or produced symherically, may be used in or upon any article of
food:-
(a) Cochineal or Carmine (b) Carotene and Carotclloid~
(c) Chlorophyll (d) Lactoflavin

(e) Caramel if) Annatto
(g) Ratanjot (h) Saffron
(i) Curcllmin
2. Coal tar dyes which may be used :
No coal tar dyes or a mixture thereof except the following shall be used in
fruit products.
Colour Common nam e ColOlJr index Chemical da ss
I. Red Ponceau 4R 185 Azo

Carmoisine 179
Red 6B 57
Red FB 225
Acid Magenta Jl 692 Triphcnylmethane
Fast Red F. 182 Azo
2. Yellow Tartrazine 640 Pyrazo)onc

Sunset Yellow FCF • Azo
3. Blue Blue VRS 6'72 Triphenylmethane

Indigo Carmine 1180 Tndigoid
4. Black Brilliant Black BN Bisazo
OF. D. lie C. Index No.6.
3. Dyes when used in fruit products shall be pure and free from all harm -
ful impurities.
The maximum limit of any permitted coal tar colours or mixture of
permitted coal tar colours which may be added to any fruit product shall
not exceed 1.5 grains per pound of the final fruit product for consumption.
PART xxm
Limits lOT permitted preservative in frui, products
Permitted preservatives are:
(a) Benzoic acid including salt8 thereof; and
(b) Sulphurous acid including salts thereof.
Only one of the preservatives will be used in the fruit products lilted below :
Fruit products Preservative Pans pcr

Million
J. Fruit and fruit pulp or juice (not dried) for

conversion into jam or crystallized, glac~d or
cured fruit or other products.
(a) Cherries Su lpburdioxide 3,00(1
(b) Strawberries & Raspberries do- 2,000
(c) Other fruits do- 1,000
2. Fruit juice concentrate -do- 1,500
3. Dried fruits '
(a) Apricots, peaches, apples, pears and others -do- 2,000
(b) Raisin s or sultanas -do- 750
4. Squashes, crushes, fruit syrups, cordials, fruit Sulphurdioxide 350
juices and barley waters or
Benzoic acid 600
5. Jam. marmalade. preserve aDd fruit jelly SlIlphurdioxide 40
or
Benzoic acid 200
6. Crystallized. glac~d or cured fruit (including SlIlphurdioxide 150
candied peel).
7. Fruit and fruit pulp not otherwise specified -do- 3$0
in this schedule
8. Sweetened ready-to -serve beverages ·do- 70
01 Benzoic acid 120
9. Pickles and chutneys made from fruit and Benzoic acid 250
vegetables
10. Tomato and other sauces -do- 750
II. Dehydrated vegetables Sulphurdioxide 2,000
12. Tomato puree and paste Benzoic acid 250
13. Syrups and Sharbats Sulphurdioxide 350
or
Benzolc acid 600
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103. - - (1931), EX/Jcrimellts 011 Hyrirogl'll Su'el/s & Perfomtiolls with s/lCcial refel'cllcl'
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105. Hopkins, R H. and Krau s, B. (1947), Iliochrillistry . I/,/,/il'llio ,\llIllillg 0",1 Hrcwill g.
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J'£'cllllolo~y of Food [.,. FMr/ Pmr/Ilc'ls.

112. Jacob, Morri s, B. (195 1), Thr Ch£'lIIis/I'Y [.,.
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114. Jain, N. L .• Bhatia, R. S. and Girclhal'i Lal (19.5.,). (;fllII,i1lg Cllrril'd Vl'geln/JIl's,
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lIS. Jain, N. L., 'Bharia, n. S., Anand. J. C. allrl Girdh:lri Lal (IOSI), C(lsltl'wa /'/'/I'
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116. Jain, N. L., Das, D. P. and Girdhari Lal (1954), Prl'j,nralioll of Cllam Cheesl', Tndian
Chemical Age, Sedes 9, BB.
117. Jain, N. L. and Girdhari Lal (1954), Stlldies Ort the prcparalioll of A1IIla Syrup,
Central Food Technological Research Institutc, Mysorc, Bullctin, 3(11 ), 297·299.
11 8. - - (1950), Prevention of Mould Grow tlt ill JIIIIlS allli Jellies PllrTted ill Jars Lacl(·
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133. - - (1942), Preparation Of Citrus Fruit Squashes and Cordials, Punjab Fruit
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134. - - (1944), Citrus By·Products, The Punjab Fruit Journal, 8(29), 18·20.
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138. - - (1941), Semi Commercial Trials on the Matlufacture ot Canned Pean
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139. - - (1942), Drying of Vegetables, The Punjab Fruit Journal. 6(21), 1099· 1103.
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INDEX
Acetic acid, 235, 238 facture of, 41 ; Jl ;llUre of defecls ill ,

Acidity, efle'cr on slcrilizatioll, 35 42; sizes (if, 46
Albumen, 104 Carbonated beverages, 132
Alcohol, 234, 238 Carbonation methutl of prl'~cl'\'a tiun ,
Amla, preserve of, 179 113
Apple, canning of, 60; crushing Carrot, canning of, 73 ; dehydration
method of, 91 ; juice of, 128; pre- of, 253; presc1'l"c of, 181
serve of, 180; chutney of, 204; Casein, Ilse of, 104
pickles of, 222; Pectin content of, Cashew apple juke, 12R
265; vinegar of, 232 Cauliflower, canning of. 73; dehy -
Apple grater, 91 dration of, 254 ; pi klc of, 226
Apricot, canning of, 60; chutney of, Certified colours, 28 I
205; wa ste material of, 257 ; drying Champagne, 138
of,241 Chemlca1 fillings, 103
Asparagus, canning of, 71 Ch micals for prcsel"l'<l lion, 1(Ii -12 ;
I recautions for using. 111 -12
Cherries, canning of, 63 ; preserve of,
Bael, prescrl"e of, 180 181-82
Bamboo, chutney of, 205; pickle of, Chili sauce, 200-1
226 Chuln ys, 203-8; hottling of, 203;
Bananas, canning of, 60; drying of, c(Juipmcnt for preparing. 204;
242 re i pes for, 204
lkans, canning of, 71 ; dehydration Cider, 138
of, 253 Cidcr vinegar, 230
Beetroot, canning of, 71 ; pickle of, Citric acid, preparation 0(, 260
223 Citrus-fruit, barley waters, 123-24
Bel', preserve of, 181 Clarification, methods of, lOS
Berry fruits, 70; crushing of, 91 Colour, usc of in food preservation,
Beverages, types of, 94; preparation 281-87: certified colours, 281;
and preservation of, 94, 115-35 banned colours, 283
Bitter gourd, dehydration of, 253 CommeJ:ciaJ canning. 19-37; invest-
Black oerries, canning of, 63 ment for, 19; factory site for, 19;
Brines, 59 factory building for. 19; water
Brinjal, dehydration of, 253 supply and drainage for, 20 ; labour
in, 21 ; equipment for, 21 ; process
of, 21-37
Cabbage, canlling of, 71 ; dehydra- Containers, 38-50; types of, 38; tin
tion of, 253 ; pickle of, 222 containers, 38-46 ; glass containers,
Candy, making of, 176-78, ginger 46-50
candy, 183-84 Crushing of fruits, 91 .
Canning, 15-18; inventor of, 15 ; Crystallized fruits, 179-86
methods of, 17-18; brines for, 59 Curried vegetables, 75
Cans, filling of, 26; scaling of, 28; Cucumber pickle, 223
heat penetration in, 31; effect of
processing on, 35; cooling of, 36 ;
testing dCfects of, 37; labelling, Dates, drying of, 242
storing and packing of, 37; manu- Deaerater, use of, 93-94
355
356 INDEX
Defects in cans, 42-45 Grapes, canning of, 64; crushing of,

Dehydrated fruits and vegetables, 91 ; juices of, 130 ; wine of, 136-38 ;
storage and packing of, 255-56 by-products of, 257 ; vinegar of, 231
Discolouration of fruit products, Grar fruit, canning of, 64; squash
77-80 o • 116; barley water of, 123
Drying of fruits and vegetables, 241- Grape wine, 136-37
S6; apricots, 241; bananas, 242; Greengage, canning of, 65
figs, 242; grapes, 242; jack fruits, Guavas, canning of, 65 j waste mate-
245; mangoes, 245; peaches, 246; rial of, 258
pears, 246; other frults, 246
Honey, vinegar of, 232

Enzymes, 101
Equ1pment for extracting fruit juice,
87-94 Jack-fruit, canning of, 65; nectar of,
124; pickle of, 224-28, drying of,
245; waste material of, 259
Fermented beverages, 136-39 Jaman squash, 125
Figs, canning of, 64 ; drying of, 242 Jams, 140-49
Fiftragel, 102 Jellies, 149-69
Filtration method of preservation, Juices, equipment for, 87; prepara-
113 tion of, 128-31; concentrates of,
Fining agents, 101-4; mechanical use 132-35; powder of, 135 ; preserva-
of, 103 tion methods of, 105-14
Food colours, 281-87 ; certified
colours, 281-82; banned colours,
282-87
Food processing, principles of, 16-17 Karonda, r.reserves of, 184
Freezing method of preservation, 112 Knol-Kho , dehydration of, 254
Fruit juices, 84-114; equipment for
preparin&, 87-91 ; preparation and
preservation of, 94-114; extraction Lacquering containers, 41
of, 97 ; deacration of, 97 ; straining, Ladc acid bacteria, 239
filtration and clarification of, 97- Lady's finger (Okra), canning of. 73
105; deterioration of, 105; pasteu- Lemon, squash of, 121 ; barley water
rization of, 106-107 of, 123
Fruit Product Order, 309-42 Lime, squash of, 121; cordial of,
Fruits, sorting and grading of, 22; 122; barley water of, 124; pickle
washing of, 25 ; peeling, coring and of,228
pitting of, 25 ; beverages of, 94-105, Litchi, canning of, 66
115-39; juices, squashes and cor- Loquat, canning of, 66
dials of, 84-114; crushing of, 91 ;
pressing of, 91; jams, 140-49;
Jellies, 149-69; marmalades. 169-73 ; Malt vinegar, 231
drying of, 241-56; by-products of, Mangoes, canning of, 66; waste
257-64 material of, 259; squash of, 125;
preserve of, 184; chutney of, 206 ;
pickle of, 328 ; drying of, 245
Garlic, dehydration of, 254 Marmalades, 169-73
Gelatin, usc of, 103 Mechanical dehydration. kinds of,
Glacing, 179 246-51; process variations of, 251·
Glass containers, 46-50 52; processes for vegetables, 252
Gram, canning of, 73 Mechanical linings, use of, 103
INDEX 357
Miscellaneous preservation methods, Preserves, preparation of. 174-76;

114 preliminary processing of, 174-75 :
Molasses, 232 cooling and packitl~ of, 175-76
Muscat, 138 Preservation of fruit Juicl:s. 105-14
Mushroom, canning of, 73; ketchup Preservation of fruits and vegetables.
of. 209 \·arious methods o;f, 15. 114; inven·
tor of, 15; principles of, 16-17
Pre ervation with chemicals. 107-12 ;
Oha, canning of, 73; dehydration sodium benzoate. 108; ~ulphur di·
of. 254 oxide, 109
Onion. pickle of. 224; dehydration Pressing machines. types of, 91 -92
of. 254 Pulpin&, equipment for, 92
Oranges, canning of, 66; squash of, Pumpkm, dehydration of. 255
115; barley water of, 124: vinegar
of, 232 ; wme of, 139
Saddington, Thomas, 15
Papaya. canning of. 69 Sauces. preparation of, 200-1, 208-11
Passion fruit squash. 126 Sherry, 138
Pasteur, Louis, 15 Sodium benzoate, its use in juices,
Pasteurization. 15; methods of. 106- 108
107 Soya sa uce, 209
Peaches. canning of. 69; squash of. Spmach. dehydration of, 255
127; drying of. 246 Spirit vinegar, 230
Pears, canning of, 69; preserve of, Spoilage in canned foods, 76-83 ; indi-
184 ; drying of. 246; waste·material cations of. 76-77; spoilage by
of, 259 micro.organisms, 81
Peas, canning of. 73; dehydration Sterilization. 35 ; methods of. 114
of. 254 ; waste rna erial of. 259 Strawberry, preserve of, 186
Pectin, manufacture of. 265-72 ; grad· Sugar syrups, 51-58; preparation of.
ing methods of. 267; preparation 51 ; testing strcngth of, 53 ; correct-
of, 269 ; uses of. 271 ing temperature of, 55 : calculating
Pectinol, 101-2 strength of. 55
Peeling methods. 25 Sulphur dioxide, u~c of. 109-12.
Perry, 138 147-48
Petha. preserve of, 185 Sun·drying, 241-46
Phalsa squash, 127 Syrups. 13;-32; recipes for. 131
Pickles, preparation of, 211-29; action
of preservatives on. 212; raw mate·
rials for, 213; colouring and 1'in containers. 38-46
hardening agents for, 214: equip. Tin plates, grades of. 38-41 ; lacquer.
ment for, 215; packing methods of, ing of, 41
220; causes for spoilage of, 220-21 : Tokay, 139
various kinds of. 222-29 Tomatoes, cauning of, 74; products
Pineapple, canning of, 70, squash of, of. 187-202; juice of, 187-91 ; puree
127; preserve of, 185; waste mate- of, 192-93; paste of. 193. 299-301 :
rial of. 259; juice of, 130 cocktail of, 193-95; ketchup of,
Plums. canning of, 70; squash of, 195-200 ; sauce of, 200-201 ; soup of.
127 ; chutney of, 207 201-202; chutney of, 208 ; dehydra-
Pomegranate Juice, 131 tion of, 255 ; waste material of, 259 ;
Port. 138 pulp of, 295-98, 305-308
Potatoes, canning of, 74 ; vinegar of. Turmp, cannin~ of, 75; pickle of,
232; dehydration of. 254 229; dehydrauon of, 255
358 INDEX
Vegetables, canning of, 71 -75; drying Walnut, pickle of, 225; ketchup of,
of, 241-56; by-products of, 257-64 209
Vinegar, 230-40; quality of, 230; Waste-material, utilization of, 257-64
varieties of, 230-31 ; cider vinegar, Water melon squash, 128
230; wine vinegar, 230; spirit vme- Water for a cannery, 273-80; quali-
gar, 231 ; malt vinegar, 231 ; prepa- ties of, 274; softening processes
ration methods of, 231-38; clarifica- of, 274-75; purification of, 276;
tion and storage of, 235; acetic acid mineral constituents of, 279; bac-
fermentation in, 235; variou pro- teriological examination of, 279-80
cesses of, 236-38; post production Wine vinegar, 230
processes of, 238 ; checking spoilage Wines, 136-39
of,239 Worcestershire sauce, 210
Vitamins, 288-91 Yeast, 233-34
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PRESERVATION OF FRUITS

G. S. SIDDAPPA. M.A. (Hons.). Madras,

G. L. T ANDON. M.Sc. (Hons.), Punjab

INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

All Rights Reserved,

teachers as well as students in Home Science Colleges in popularising

M. S. RANDHAWA, D.Se., F.N.I., I.C.S.

The authors are indebted to Dr. V. Subrahmanyan, Director, Central Food

CHAPTER I. CANNING AND BOTTLING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 15

CHAPTER II. COMMERCIAL CANNING 19

CHAPTER III. CONTAINERS 38

CHAPTER IV. SYRUPS AND BRINES FOR CANNING 51

CHAPTER V. CANNING FRUITS 60

CHAPTER VI. CANNING VEGF.TABLES 71

CHAPTER VII. SPOn..AGE IN CANNED FOODS 76

CHAPTER VItI. FRUIT JUICES, SQUASHES AND CORDIALS 84

CHAPTER lX. FRUIT BEVERAGES 115

CHAPTER X. FERMENTED JlEVERAGES 136

CHAPTER XI. JAMS, JELT.IF.S AND MARMALADES 140

CHAPTER XU. PRESERVES, CANDlES AND CRYSTALLIZED FHUITS 174

.HAPTER xnr. TOMATO PRODUCTS 1117

CHAPTER XIV. CHUTNEYS, SAUCES A lD PICKLES 203

CHAPTER XV. VINEGAR 230

CHAPTER XVI. DRYING OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 2"1

CHAPTER xvm. MANUFACTUIU:: OF PECTIN 265

CHAPTER XIX. WATER FOR A CANNERY :!i3

CHA PTER XX. FOOl.> COLOU RS 18 1

CHAl>TER XXI. VITAMiNS .. . 28B

CHAPTER XXII. LTMITS FOR '5E OF PRE ERVATIVES

APPENDIX I. REFERENCE TABLF. 2\15

.\PI'ENDIX II. FRUIT PRODUCTS OHDER 1955 .~09

36. Laboratory flash pasteurizer 99

CANNING AND BOTTLING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

It is a common experience that fruits. vegetables. mears. aud many other

first to describe the method of canning of foods in 1807. According to

PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PROCESSING

CONTAINERS FOR PACKING

Before dealing with the various processes involved in the canning of

Water Supply and Drainage

- r-- ~ !"- -~--

Ftc. 2. LAYOtlT PLII.N OF 1\ CII.NNINC LINE

Fl c . 3. LAYOUT PLA1'I r.1' 1\ JUICE

Sorting and Grading

FIG. 4. PREPAIUTIO N A1"D GRADING ov FRUITS IN A ANNING FACTORY

Flc . 5. PEELINC, I'ITI1NC AND CORINC KNIVES

FIG. 6. Fn.t.INC CANS WITH Srnup IN A CANNINC FACTORY

Peeling, Coring and Pitting

filled by hand to prevent bruising as also to ensure a properly graded

FIG . i. PEELINC, SLICINC AND CORINC MACHINES

Fic. 8. STEAM EXHA ST LINE IN A CANNI 'C FACTORY

FIG. 9. A DOUBLE SEAMF.R 1 1\ CANNING FACTORV

speaking, however. almost all fruits can be processed satisfactorily at a

Heat Penetration in Cans

bottom of the tank. An improved type of this cooker is a galvanized iron

T"nLE I. RELATION OF STEAM PRF.SSIJRE TO TEMPEMTlJnE OJ' CANNINC R ETORTS

Pounds press ure Temperature

8..U Otr' s!=~::1:!:!::~ -NC""')"It'