There are three programming constructs.

1. Sequence
2. Selection
3. Repetitions/loops

Sequence
Sequence denotes executing all the statements one by one from Top
to Bottom.

Arithmetic operators -

+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Modulus (for Remainder)

How to start C
To open an application we have to know the executable file name.
E.g.
Notepad – notepad.exe
Paint – mspaint.exe
MSword – winword.exe
Turboc C IDE – tc.exe

Click on the tc (icon) on the desktop.

Or
Search for the tc.exe file (StartSearch  For files or
folders).
Tc.exe will open Turbo C editor.
C editor is used to write the C programs.

Turbo C editor is also known as “TurboC IDE” (Integrated

Development Environment), which is an integration of the
following tools.

 Editor - To write/modify source

 Compiler - Creates .obj file
 Linker - Links .obj and .lib to create .xe files
 Debugger - To execute line by line

Turbo C Main screen consists of four parts

 Main Menu
 Edit Window
 Message windows/Watch window

F6 - to Switch from window to another window

Saving files in our own directory -
 Open Turbo C IDE
 File  OS Shell
 C:\turboc2> d:
 MD atish
 CD atish
 Exit

Input/output functions
The function which is used to display output on the screen is
known as Output function.

E.g. printf(); -- It is a readymade function/library function

 Syntax - For displaying a message.

printf(“………………………………”);

E.g. printf(“Hello Welcome to DATAPRO”);

 Syntax - For displaying a value.

printf(“format specifier”,variable);

E.g. printf(“%d”,no);

 Syntax - For displaying a message and value.

printf(“………………………………format specifier”,variable);

E.g. printf(“The value is: %d”,no);

The function which is used to accept data from the user is known
as Input function.

E.g scanf(); -- It is a readymade function/library function

 Syntax - scanf(“format specifier”,&variable);

E.g. scanf(“%d”,&no);

Program to display a simple message.

/* Program name: Hello.c

Task: Displays a simple message
Author: Atish jain
Date: 25-6-2005. */
 # include <stdio.h>
main()
{
clrscr(); /* clears the screen */
printf(“Welcome to Atish technologies…”);
getch(); /* waits for key stroke */
}

Alt+F Save (F2) – To save

[Give a meaningful file name and save for every 2/3 lines]

Alt+F  New – To create new file (program)

Alt+F  Load (F3) – To open the existing file (Program)
Alt+F  Pick(Alt_F3) – To open the recently opened programs
Alt+F  Write to – To Save the Program with another name
Alt+F  Quit (Alt+X) – To exit C editor
Alt+F9 – Compile
F9 – Link
Ctrl+F9 – Execute
Alt+F5 – To view the output
F7 – To trace the Program (to see the flow of the program)

Source code Compiler Object code

.C .obj
.exe
.bak

 Compiling is the process of converting source code into object code. (Alt+F9).
 Linking is the process of combining object code with library functions (F9).
 Execution is the process of passing to machine instructions to processor for output
(Ctrl+F9).

*** Compiler is a Software.

For e.g. If the C program is saved with the name Hello, after the compilation it will
create following files -
Hello.c – contains the source code.
Hello.bak – just like a duplicate copy.
Hello.obj – contains the object code (machine code).
Hello.exe – it is the executable file. The program can be executed without C
software (without source code also).
More about translators:
Translators are the programs which converts source code into machine code. The
Different translators are.
 Assemblers – for Assembly language
 Compilers – for HLL
 Interpreter – for 4GL’s

Compiler:
* Whole program is compiled at a time.
* A small change in the program requires whole program
compilation.
* So, the Program can be executed only if it is translated.
* Ex: BASIC, COBOL, C, C++, Pascal, etc...

Interpreter:
* Code is translated line by line.
* Interpreter program and source code program both are loaded in
the memory at a time.
* No copy of translation code exists, if the program is be re-
run, it has to be interpreted all over again.
* Ex: VB, Small Talk, PERL, etc....

Conclusion:

Compiled code: Program development is slow, Execution is fast.

Interpreted Code: Program development and testing is fast, execution is slow.

Program to add two no’s

/* Program name: add2.c */

# include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int a,b,c;
a=b=c=0;
clrscr();
 printf("Enter a no:");
scanf("%d",&a);
printf("Enter another no:");
scanf("%d",&b);
c=a+b;
printf("The result is:%d",c);
getch();
}

Program to find total and average for inputted 3 subjects

/* Program name: Avg.c */

# include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int m,p,c;
float t,a;
clrscr();

printf("Enter marks for Maths:");

scanf("%d",&m);
printf("Enter marks for Physics:");
scanf("%d",&p);
printf("Enter marks for Chemistry:");
scanf("%d",&c);

t=m+p+c;
a=t/3;
printf("Total is:%.0f",t);
printf("\nAverage is:%.2f",a);
getch();
}

Note: 1. %.2f is known as precision specifier, displays two digits after the decimal
2. %f displays 6 digits after the decimal ( by default )
Program to swap values of two variables A and B

/* Program name: swap1.c */

# include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int a,b,temp;
clrscr();
printf("Enter value for A:");
scanf("%d",&a);
printf("Enter value for B:");
scanf("%d",&b);
temp=a;
 a=b;
b=temp;
printf("A is :%d",a);
printf("\nB is :%d",b);
getch();
}

Note: \n is known as escape sequence, it prints the output in new line

WAP to convert the input total minutes into hours and minutes.

/* Program name: hours.c */

# include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int tm,h,m;
tm=h=m=0;
clrscr();
printf("Enter total minutes:");
scanf("%d",&tm);
h=tm/60;
m=tm%60;

printf("Time is %d hrs and %d mins",h,m);

getch();
}

Hands on-lab:
1. WAP to calculate amount for the input rate and quantity.
Note: Rate should be in decimals.
2. WAP to swap the values of two variables without using 3rd variable.
3. WAP to convert the input rupees into paises.
4. Write a program to convert Fahrenheit to centigrade.
Formula: c=f-32*5/9.
5. WAP to calculate Electricity bill amount from the input present month and last
month reading.
Note: Rate per unit is 2.50
6. Program to calculate gross salary and net salary from the input basic,
allowances and deductions.

Type casting:
Converting value of one data type to another type during runtime is known as type
casting.

Type casting example

/* Program name : type1.c*/

# include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int a=5,b=2;
float c=0;
clrscr();

c=a/b;
printf("%f",c);
getch();
}

Expected output is 2.5 but it will give 2.0, because...

Operand 1 Operand 2 Result

Integer Integer Integer
Integer Float Float
Float Integer Float
Float Float Float

So the above problem can be solved by declaring any of the input variables to float, or
type casting....

/* program name : type2.c*/

# include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int a=5,b=2;
float c=0;
clrscr();

c=(float)a/b;
printf("%f",c);
getch();
}

Value of a is temporarily promoted to float.

Converting int variable to char type.

 # include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int a;
char b='a';
clrscr();
a=b;
printf("a=%d",a);
getch();
}

Note:
C automatically does the conversion on its own. Still there are cases where we have to
do it explicitly.

Working with characters:

Char data type occupies 1 byte of space in the main memory.

WAP to accept a character and display the same.

# include <stdio.h>

main()
{
char ch;
clrscr();

printf("Enter a character..:");
scanf("%c",&ch);

printf("The character is: %c",ch);

getch();
}
Note: Only one character is stored in the memory, because char data type allocates
only 1 byte.

WAP to accept a string and display the same.

# include <stdio.h>
main()
{
char name[50];
clrscr();

printf("Enter u'r Name..:");

scanf("%s",&name);

printf("Hello\n\tMr. %s Welcome to World of

Computers....",ch);

getch();

Note: %s accepts string without spaces, ie %s terminates string whenever space

occurs.

WAP to accept a string with spaces and display the same.

# include <stdio.h>
main()
{
char name[50];
clrscr();

printf("Enter u'r Name..:");

scanf("%[^\n]",&name);

printf("Hello\n\tMr. %s Welcome to World of

Computers....",name);

getch();
}

Note: % [ ^ \n ] – keep on reading characters from keyboard buffer till enter key(‘\n’)
encounters.
stop Enter key

Whenever we enter any data from the keyboard, the data in initially stored in
keyboard buffer, when we press enter key then only the data is passed into RAM
ASCII codes:
*** Characters are internally stored as integer (ASCII) values.

ASCII – American standard code for information interchange.

All the data (input) is represented in binary format. Each and every data item has an
ASCII code.

There are 256 ASCII codes starting from 0 – 255.

A-Z – 65-90
a-z – 97-122
0-9 48-57

* Remaining all the codes represents special characters.

(0-47, 48-57, 58-64, 65-90, 91-96, 97-122, 123-255)

(0-9) (A-Z) (a-z)

Write a program to display the ASCII code for the inputed character.

# include <stdio.h>
main()
{
char ch;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a character....:");
scanf("%c",&ch);
printf("The ASCII Code for (%c) is %d",ch,ch);
getch();
}

Write a program to accept a no(0-255) and display its ASCII character.

# include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int code=0;
clrscr();
printf("Enter a no(0-255):");
scanf("%d",&code);
printf("The ASCII character for %d is %c",code,code);
getch();
}
Errors
There are four types of errors in “C” language.
 Compile time errors.
 Linking errors.
 Logical errors.
 Runtime errors.

Compile time errors

 These errors occur during compiling the program.

 These errors occur if we violate “C” language rules.
 The program can be compiled only after correcting these errors.
 E.g. missing semicolon / forgetting to define a variable.
 Detecting and correcting these errors is very easy.

Linking errors

 Linking is a process of combining the machine code versions of our source code
with the machine code versions of the library functions.
 If there is any problem during this process, then the linker software reports a
linking error.
 E.g. If there is any spelling mistake in the library function.
 Detecting and correcting these errors is very easy.

Logical errors

 These errors occur if there is any mistake in the logic of the program.
 These errors are not displayed on the screen.
 We can identify the logical error only if we know the result in advance.
 Detecting and correcting these errors is very difficult.

Runtime errors

 The errors which occur during the execution of a program are called as run time
errors.
 E.g. divide a number with zero / modifying illegal memory location.
 Detecting and correcting these errors is very difficult.

A software success depends on how far the runtime errors have been tackled.
Most of the program development time is spent on detecting and correcting runtime
errors.
Garbage value (Unknown value)

main()
{
int n;
clrscr();
 printf("%d",n);
getch();
}

Output of the program will be unknown value.

Initialization and Assignment

Initialization – one time

Assignment – many times

Program to illustrate Initialization and Assignment

main()
{
int n=10; /* initialization */
clrscr();
printf("\n%d",n);
n=100; /* assignment */
printf("\n%d",n);
getch();
}

Const keyword

If the value of a variable is fixed and should not be changed even accidentally, then
such a variable is defined as const.

Example program

# include <stdio.h>
main()
{
const float PI=3.14;
clrscr();

printf(“%f”,PI);
getch();
}
Data types

The data type of a variable tells us the following things.

 Type of value that can be stored.
 Range of values.
 Size of a variable (i.e. number of bytes).

Classification
C Data types

Primary Data types Secondary data types

Character Array
Integer Pointer
Float Structure
Double Union
Void Enum etc…

Syntax for declaring a variable

<Storage class> <data type> <variable>

Modifiers
The modifiers signed, unsigned, short and long are applied to get additional data
types.

DATATYPE SIZE RANGE FORMAT

char 1 -128 to +127 %c
signed char 1 -128 to +127 %c
 unsigned char 1 0 to 255 %c
int 2 -32768 to +32767 %d
short int 2 -32768 to +32767 %d
signed int 2 -32768 to +32767 %d
signed short int 2 -32768 to +32767 %d
unsigned int 2 0 to 65535 %u
unsigned short int 2 0 to 65535 %u
long 4 -2147483648 to +2147483647 %ld
long int 4 -2147483648 to +2147483647 %ld
long signed int 4 -2147483648 to +2147483647 %ld
long unsigned int 4 0 to 4294967295 %lu
float 4 -3.4e38 to +3.4e38 %f
double 8 -1.7e308 to +1.7e308 %lf
long double 10 -3.4e4932 to +1.1e4932 %Lf

Character data types

char/signed char
unsigned char

Integer data types

int/signed int/short int/short signed int
unsigned int/short unsigned int

Long data types

long/long int/long signed int
long unsigned int

Float data types

float

Double data types

double
long double

Escape sequence characters

\n – new line
\t – tab space
\a – alarm\alert
\b – back space
\” – to get a double code
\\ - to get back slash