Journal of Scientific Research and Reviews Vol. 1(5), pp.

060 - 068, November 2012

Available online at http://www.wudpeckerresearchjournals.org
2012 Wudpecker Research Journals
ISSN 2277 0690

Review

Optical sensors and their applications

Dhiraj Ahuja and Deepa Parande
M. Tech (EE) students, YMCA University of Science & Technology, Sector-6, Mathura Road, Faridabad Haryana-121
0006, India.
Accepted 15 September 2012

Optical Sensors are used in numerous research, and commercial applications today. These sensors are
used for quality and process control, medico technologies, metrology, imaging, and remote sensing to
mention a few examples. Today there are many types of optical sensors; many based on the use of
lasers, imaging systems, and/or fibers. In this article, development of devices to implement the various
sensor types and their configuration into sensing elements are presented. Some of the enabling
technologies discussed include advances in short pulsed high power lasers, imaging methods, micro
and nano-structured optical sensing systems, and THz sensing. This article addresses various sensor
types, and include all aspects of optical sensors from the components employed, their configuration
through detection schemes and algorithms, and application of sensors.

Key words: Extrinsic sensors, intrinsic sensors, multiplexed sensor, distributed sensor, pressure sensor.

INTRODUCTION

An optical sensor is a device that converts light rays into imaging systems, and/or fibers. In addition, novel sensor
electronic signals. Similar to a photo resistor, it measures methods that enable more advanced sensing are
the physical quantity of light and translates it into a form continuously being developed by using novel materials,
read by the instrument. One of the features of an optical such as meta materials, micro and nano structured
sensor is its ability to measure the changes from one or materials or by employing new frequency bands as for
more light beams. This change is most often based example THz radiation.
around alterations to the intensity of the light. Optical
sensors can work either on the single point method or
through a distribution of points. Through the single point Advantages and disadvantages of optical sensors
method, a sole phase change is needed to activate the
sensor. In terms of the distribution concept, the sensor is Research and development in the optical sensor field is
reactive along a long series of sensors or single fiber- motivated by the expectation that optical sensors have
optic array. significant advantages compared to conventional sensor
Other features of optical sensors include the distinction types, in terms of their properties. Below is given list of
of whether it is placed internally or externally in a device. some of the advantages of optical over non optical
The comparison of the two types is given in table 1. sensors.
Today Optical Sensors are used in numerous research,
and commercial applications such as for quality and Greater sensitivity
process control, medico technologies, metrology, Electrical Passiveness
imaging, and remote sensing. There are many types of Freedom from Electromagnetic interference
optical sensors; many based on the use of lasers, Wide dynamic range
Both points and distributed configuration
Multiplexing capabilities

*Corresponding author E-mail: slahuja2002@yahoo.com. Taking advantage of the capacity of optical fibers to send
61 J. Sci. Res. Rev.

Table 1. Comparison of Extrinsic and Intrinsic optical sensors.

Extrinsic Intrinsic
 Applications- rotation, acceleration,
 Applications- temperature, pressure, liquid level and flow.
 strain, acoustic pressure and vibration.
 Less sensitive
 More sensitive
 Easily multiplexed
 Tougher to multiplex
 Ingress/ egress connection problems
 Reduces connection problems
 Easier to use
 More elaborate signal demodulation
 Less expensive
 More expensive

and receive optical signals over long distances, a current by causing them to interact or interfere with one another.
trend is to create networks of sensors, or sensor arrays. Thus sensors in this category are termed either intensity
This avoids having to convert between electronics and sensors or interferometric sensors. Techniques used in
photonics separately at each sensing site, thereby the case of intensity sensors include light scattering (both
reducing costs and increasing flexibility. A difficulty of all Rayleigh and Raman), spectral transmission changes
sensors, both optical and non optical, is interference from (i.e., simple attenuation of transmitted light due to
multiple effects. A sensor intended to measure strain or absorption), micro bending or radioactive losses,
pressure may be very temperature-sensitive. reflectance changes, and changes in the modal
properties of the fiber.

Optical sensor technologies

Extent of sensing
Measurands and sensor categories
This category is based on whether sensors operate only
Through evolution of optical sensing technology, one can at a single point or over a distribution of points. Thus,
measure nearly all of the physical measurands of interest sensors in this category are termed either point sensors
and a very large number of chemical quantities. The or distributed sensors. In the case of a point sensor, the
measurands possible are listed below: transducer may be at the end of a fiber. Examples of this
sensor type are fiber Bragg gratings distributed along a
Temperature fiber length to measure strain or temperature.
Pressure
Flow
Liquid level Types of optical sensors
Displacement (Position)
Vibration Optical sensor has two points. One is the transmitting
Rotation point where light is emitted and the other end is the
Magnetic fields receiving end. Generally there are 3 types of optical
Acceleration sensor, through beam, reflective and retro reflective.
Chemical species Each of this type has different advantages:
Force
Radiation Through Beam Sensor
Ph
Humidity This sensor is suitable for absolute detection of solid
Strain object. The transmitter and receiver are pointing to each
Velocity other directly in order to create a straight light path.
Electric fields Whenever there is any object which passes by the light
Acoustic field transmission path, the amount of received light by the
receiver will be zero or reduced and the sensing method
is interrupting the light source received by the receiver
Means of sensing (Figure 1 and Figure 2).

In this category, sensors are generally based either on Reflective Sensor: This type of sensor if suitable to
measuring an intensity change in one or more light perform color differentiation. The transmitter and receiver
beams or on looking at phase changes in the light beams of this sensor are parallel to each other. The method of
 Ahuja and Parande 62

Figure 2. With object interupting the light path.

Figure 1. Without object.

listed below (Fidanboylu KA* and Efendioglu HS, 2009)

a. Easy integration into a wide variety of structures,
including composite materials, with little interference due
detection is through reflection of light emitted by the
to their small size and cylindrical geometry.
receiver (Figure 3).
b. Inability to conduct electric current.
If we are to use reflective sensor, we should take note
c. Immune to electromagnetic interference and radio
that this sensor actually does detection base on quantity
frequency interference.
of light that is reflected back to the receiver. If the light
d. Lightweight.
source used is red LED, we will face problem to
e. Robust, more resistant to harsh environments.
differentiate red and white objects. Red and white
f. High sensitivity.
actually reflect back almost the same amount of light.
g. Multiplexing capability to form sensing networks.
Refer to the color differentiation chart below (Figure 4).
h. Remote sensing capability.
i. Multifunctional sensing capabilities such as strain,
General advantages of optical sensors pressure, corrosion, temperature and acoustic signals.
12. Techniques by which the measurements are made
General advantages of optical sensors are listed below: can be broadly grouped in three categories depending on
(a) How the sensing is accomplished,
1. Completely passive: can be used in explosive (b) The physical extent of the sensing, and
environment. (c) The role of the optical fiber in the sensing process.
2. Immune to electromagnetic interference: ideal for
microwave environment.
3. Resistant to high temperatures and chemically reactive Means of sensing
environment: ideal for harsh and hostile environment.
4. Small size: ideal for embedding and surface mounting. In this category, sensors are generally based either on
5. High degree of biocompatibility, non-intrusive nature measuring an intensity change in one or more light
and electromagnetic immune: ideal for medical beams or on looking at phase changes in the light beams
applications like intra-aortic balloon pumping. by causing them to interact or interfere with one another.
6. Can monitor a wide range of physical and chemical Thus sensors in this category are termed either intensity
parameters. sensors or interferometric sensors. Techniques used in
7. Potential for very high sensitivity, range and the case of intensity sensors include light scattering (both
resolution. Rayleigh and Raman), spectral transmission changes
8. Complete electrical insulation from high electrostatic (i.e., simple attenuation of transmitted light due to
potential. absorption), micro bending or radioactive losses,
9. Remote operation over several km lengths without any reflectance changes, and changes in the modal
lead sensitivity: ideal for deployment in boreholes or properties of the fiber. Interferometric sensors have been
measurements in hazardous environment. demonstrated based upon the magneto-optic, the laser-
10. Multiplexed and distributed sensors are unique in Doppler, or the Signac effects.
that they provide measurements at a large number of
points along a single.
11. Fiber optic sensors are excellent candidates for Extent of sensing
monitoring environmental changes and they offer many
advantages over conventional electronic sensors as This category is based on whether sensors operate only
63 J. Sci. Res. Rev.

Figure 3. Reflective sensor.

at a single point or over a distribution of points. Thus,

sensors in this category are termed either point sensors
or distributed sensors. Point sensor: detect measure and Figure 4. Colour differentiation chart (Red LED light source).
variation only in the vicinity of the sensor.

Multiplexed sensor

Multiple localized sensors are placed at intervals along

the fiber length.

Distributed sensor

Sensing is distributed along the length of the fiber.

Optical fiber

An optical fiber is a thin, flexible, transparent fiber that Figure 5. Sensors and fibre lasers.
acts as a waveguide, or "light pipe", to transmit light
between the two ends of the fiber. The field of applied
science and engineering concerned with the design and
application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics. Figure 6 and 7 shows a schematic of a step-index optical
Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals fiber. Light is guided inside the core region by total
travel along them with less loss and are also immune to internal reflection at the core-cladding interface.
electromagnetic interference. Specially designed fibers Depending on the size of the core region,
are used for a variety of other applications, including one single or multiple light paths (modes) are permitted to
sensors and fiber lasers (Figure 5). propagate, referred to as single-mode or multimode fiber.
Optical fiber typically consists of a transparent core Typically, the bare optical fiber has an outer diameter of
surrounded by a transparent cladding material with a 125µm with a core diameter of 9µm in the case of single-
lower index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by total mode fibers and 50µm or 62.5µm for multimode fibers
internal reflection. This causes the fiber to act as a Different protective coatings are applied to protect the
waveguide. Fibers which support many propagation fiber from possible mechanical damage.
paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers
(MMF), while those which can only support a single mode
are called single-mode fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers ROLE OF OPTICAL FIBER
generally have a larger core diameter, and are used for
short-distance communication links and for applications Extrinsic sensors are those where the light leaves the
where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode feed or transmitting fiber to be changed before it
fibers are used for most communication links longer than continues to the detector by means of the return or
1,050 meters (3,440 ft). receiving fiber. Intrinsic sensors are different in that the
 Ahuja and Parande 64

Figure 6. Schematic of step-index optical fibre. Figure 8. An intensity based extrinsic sensor for measuring the
distance l between two objects.

Figure7. Schematic of step-index optical fibre.

light beam doesn’t leave the optical fiber but is changed Figure 9. An intensity based fibre optic pressure sensor for
whilst still contained within it. measuring the pressure between plates A and B.
The simple sensor detects any increase or decrease in
the length/between the two fibers. As the distance
between the two is increased the amount of light
launched into the return fiber will decrease. Conversely
as the length is decreased the light intensity collected by
the receiver will increase giving a relatively simple fiber
optic sensor for determining small shifts between objects.
While a sensor of this kind has problems with sensitivity
to lateral movement it is a good illustration of a basic
sensing technique Figure 8.
An example of an intensity based intrinsic sensor would
be a sensor based on micro bending. This is illustrated
below in Figure 9.
This type of sensor may be used to measure the force
being exerted between the two objects A & B in Figure
10. As the pressure increases the fiber will become
slightly deformed and experience increased micro Figure 10. Schematic of pressure transducer based on Fabry-
bending losses which results in a decrease in the light Perot cavity.
intensity received at the detector. A decrease in the
pressure relieves stress on the fibre and hence there is
an increase in transmitted light detected.
to become the large-volume leader. Some techniques,
however, seem to be more prominent than others for
Sensor types sensing a given measurand, and each technique tends to
have its own specialists among the company and
As a result of the myriad ways now available to sense the university labs. This is definitely a field in which new
same quantity, no single sensing technique has emerged technologies are being developed and tested
65 J. Sci. Res. Rev.

continuously; it is this plethora of new techniques that optoelectronic sensors to be developed, beginning in the
leads to the fragmented nature of the optical sensor late 1970s and early 1980s. These simplest sensors rely
marketplace on the change in retro reflectance of light into a fiber
because of movement of a proximal mirror surface. One
of the first Photometric sensors was of this type, in which
Pressure sensor a conical tip was applied to the end of a fiber. In this light
is totally reflected back into the fiber if the surrounding
Pressure sensors based on movable diaphragms, on medium is air; however, if the fiber is inserted into a liquid
small Fabry-Pérot interferometers, or on micro bending, matching the fiber index, light is extracted from the fiber
are the primary types being used today. They are finding and lost. Thus, displacement of the liquid surface can be
use in biomedical, process control, marine, and engine tracked. For obvious reasons, these displacement
control applications. The first pressure sensors for sensors are referred to as liquid level sensors.
biomedical usage relied on piezoresistive techniques. This technique is commonly employed to measure the
These were developed in the late 1950s for intravascular depth of a submerged body (such as a diver or
pressure measurements. Later, fiber sensors based on submarine), or level of contents in a tank (such as in a
moving diaphragms and monitoring retro reflected water tower). For most practical purposes, fluid level is
intensity emerged. Camino Labs in San Diego, CA, directly proportional to pressure. The basic equation for
manufactures devices of this type and is reported to be such a measurement is
producing around 60,000 devices/year. Consider the
schematic of an optical pressure transducer shown in P= pgh …………………… (1)
Figure 10.
Essentially, it consists of a pair of parallel mirrors Where P = pressure, p = density of the fluid, g = standard
separated by an air gap Ls. This arrangement is referred gravity, h = height of fluid column above pressure sensor.
to as a Fabry-Perot (FP) cavity or sensing interferometer.
A semi-reflective mirror 1 is formed by depositing a
dielectric layer at the end of the optical fiber. Mirror 2 is Temperature sensors
formed by a diaphragm mounted in front of the optical
fiber. Exposing the diaphragm to the pressure p to be Temperature sensors probably constitute the largest
measured changes the gap Ls. Hence, by measuring Ls class of commercially available optical sensors. Many
the applied pressure p can be determined. Different different physical phenomena are used to perform the
pressure ranges can be accommodated by appropriately sensing, each with attributes suitable for a particular
selecting thickness and diameter of the diaphragm to application; no single technique can accommodate the
keep the maximum deflection of similar value and entire range of temperatures and resolutions required for
maintain a linear relation between pressure and different applications.
deflection (Anbo et al., 1992). Optical fiber based distributed sensors have been
widely used to monitor temperature. The main advantage
of the system is that the fiber itself is the sensing
Flow sensor element. Distributed temperature sensing technology
shows real advantages over conventional temperature
Flow sensor is the use of pressure sensors in conjunction sensing technology when a temperature profile of the
with the venture effect to measure flow. Differential installation is required or when a large number of sensing
pressure is measured between two segments of a points is crucial. Therefore this technology lends itself to
venture tube that have a different aperture. The pressure long length applications (pipelines, tunnels, power cables,
difference between the two segments is directly conveyor belts), applications where only small sensors
proportional to the flow rate through the venture tube. can access (oil wells) and safety critical applications
where it is important to have all points monitored
F= sqrt (p1-p2) (refineries, LNG plants, electrochemical processes).
In Raman scattering based distributed temperature
A pressure sensor may be used to sense the decay of sensor a pulsed laser is injected into the optical fiber
pressure due to a system leak. This is commonly done by which is the sensing element. In the fiber the photons
means of utilizing the pressure sensor to measure interact with the molecules of the fiber material. The
pressure change over time. spectrum of the backscattered light includes the
Rayleigh, the Brillion and the Raman backscattered light.
The Raman backscattered light is caused by thermally
Displacement and position sensors influenced molecular vibrations. Consequently, the
Raman backscattered light carries the information on the
Displacement sensors were some of the first temperature of the fiber and can be used to obtain
 Ahuja and Parande 66

information about the temperature distribution along the sensor technologies exist and offer a wide range of
fiber. The Raman backscattering light has two performances and suitability for different applications.
components: the Stokes (I) and the Anti-Stokes (I) The most widely used sensing techniques include point
component (Figure 11). They can be separated from the sensors (Fibre Bragg Gratings and Fabry-Perot
primary and the Rayleigh backscattered light due to their interferometers), long-gauge sensors (SOFO) and
differences in wavelength. distributed sensors (Raman and Brillouin scattering
The Stokes component is only weakly dependent on sensors). These sensing technologies are now widely
temperature, while the Anti-Stokes component shows a used in routine application for health monitoring of
strong relation to temperature. The ratio of the intensities structures such as bridges, buildings, monuments,
of Stokes and Anti-Stokes components is a measure of tunnels, dams, dykes, pipelines, landslides and many
temperature. Since the injected light is a pulse of a few others. This contribution reviews these systems and
nanoseconds, the time of arrival of instantaneous back technologies and presents some significant application
scattered intensity can be correlated with the distance examples, in particular to bridges, buildings,
along the fiber length from where it is scattered. geostructures and pipelines (Inaudii and Glisic, 2008).

Applications Biometrics applications

Industrial applications Optical sensor scans our finger- it functions like a

camera, and obtains our fingerprint image indirectly. We
A variety of in-process inspection and control functions may have similar kind of experience: when a government
can be performed through non-contact optical sensors. agency takes our fingerprint, someone will check our
Here are some examples of applications being developed fingerprint to see if it is visible. Then, they will put some
at IMI: lotion on our finger, and the operator will press our finger
on scanner to take our fingerprint. Optical sensor works
1. Temperature measurement by infrared sensors in a similar way, so it needs good visible finger, clean
2. Surface and subsurface detection of defects and finger surface, not too dry and so on Figure 12.
delaminations
3. Surface inspection for gauging roughness and
thickness Applications of fiber optic sensors
4. Characterization of particle flows (temperature,
velocity and diameter) Fiber optic sensors are used in several areas.
5. In-process composition analysis by laser-induced Specifically;
plasma spectroscopy • Measurement of physical properties such as
6. Real-time thermal imaging of dynamic processes strain,displacement, temperature, pressure, velocity, and
7. In-situ monitoring of coatings and lubricant films. acceleration in structures of any shape or size.
• Monitoring the physical health of structures in real time.
• Buildings and Bridges: Concrete monitoring during
Biomedical applications setting, crack (length, propagation speed) monitoring,
prestressing monitoring, spatial displacement
Flow monitoring by laser Dopplerimetry is used in several measurement, neutral axis evolution, long-term
biomedical sensing applications, including dermatology deformation (creep and shrinkage) monitoring, concrete-
for testing of skin irritants, gastroenterology via steel interaction, and post-seismic damage evaluation.
endoscopes for making blood perfusion measurements in • Tunnels: Multipoint optical extensometers, convergence
the stomach and duodenum, etc., and dentistry for monitoring, concrete / prefabricated vaults evaluation,
contact probes to measure blood flow in the teeth and and joints monitoring damage detection.
gums. Sensors are used in internal medicine for • Dams: Foundation monitoring, joint expansion
angiology and vascular surgery to monitor blood flow monitoring, spatial displacement measurement, leakage
during vascular reconstruction and the degree of monitoring, and distributed temperature monitoring.
arteriosclerosis in arteries, and they are used in • Heritage structures: Displacement monitoring, crack
orthopedics for monitoring the blood perfusion in tissues opening analysis, post-seismic damage evaluation,
during and after surgery. restoration monitoring, and old-new interaction.
Fibre optic sensors have proven to be ideal transducers
for structural monitoring. Being durable, stable and
insensitive to external perturbations, they are particularly DISCUSSION
interesting for the long-term health assessment of civil
and geotechnical structures. Many different fibre optic Since a large percentage of today's optical sensors
67 J. Sci. Res. Rev.

Figure 13. End view of specialty fibers.

Figure 11. Raman backscattering light.

must be maintained, and the physical strength of the fiber

must not be jeopardized. Shown in Figure 13 are the
cross-section views of several types of fiber
manufactured and used today.
A basic operation of the very simple optical sensing
system of fuel leakagein uniform sandy and clayey soils,
which is consisting of a plastic optical fiber (POF)
transmission line, the POF-type sensor heads, and a
single LED photodiode pair, has been studied
theoretically and experimentally by Masayuki Morisawa
and Shinzo (2012). Its sensing principle is based on the
POF structure change in the sensor head caused by fuels
such as petrol. A scale-downed model prepared in the
experimental room showed a possibility of optical
Figure 12. Optical sensor. detection of fuel leakage points in uniform soil. As this
system operates without receiving the influence of water
containing in fuels and soils, its application to fuel leak
monitor around a filling station and oil tank can be
involve optical fibers in some form, it is important to expected.
discuss the status of fiber R & D. For much of the work, Pham et al. (2011) demonstrated the versatility of a
sensor designers have made use of the all-glass fibers silicon nitride grated waveguide optical cavity as compact
that are readily available commercially due to high- integrated optical sensors for (bulk) concentration
volume use in telecommunications. Interferometric detection, label-free protein sensing, and - with an
sensors need single-mode, all-glass fibers; intensity type integrated cantilever suspended above it - gas sensing.
sensors typically utilize multimode fiber for greater light- They also reported in the same year a proof-of-concept
gathering capability. While high-NA (numerical aperture) on fabrication and characterization of a novel and
plastic fibers are used for some intensity type sensors, compact integrated mechano-optical sensor based-on a
the transmission and fluorescence properties of the micro-bridge suspended above a Si3N4 grated
plastic complicate the spectral response, so all-glass waveguide.
fibers are favored for many spectroscopic-type sensors. Consigned to the shadows of telecommunications,
Polarized light transmission is important for a number optical sensing has often taken a back seat in a young
of sensors (e.g., the fiber-optic gyroscope, FOG); many person’s mind when considering the importance of
fiber devices are designed to retain this property along photonics, or optics, to the advancement of the society
the length of the fiber and in the presence of macro- and and of knowledge. Now broad optical sensing and
micro-bending. In the case of the FOG, the requirements sensing generally has become the catalyst for the
are for a small coil of fiber for which the bending loss convergence of many technologies and in the process
must be small, the polarization properties of the light raising significant philosophical questions about the
 Ahuja and Parande 68

transformation of our society and indeed ourselves (John, IIInaudii D, Glisic B (2008).13th FIG Symposium on Deformation
Measurement and Analysis LNEC, LISBON, 4th IAG Symposium on
2012).
Geodesy for Geotechnical and Strictural Engineerin 2008 May 12-15.
John C (2012). Optical sensing: the last frontier for enabling intelligence
in our wired up world and beyond. Photonic Sensors, 2(3): 193-202.
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