Journal of Cleaner Production: Tao Wang, Feipeng Xiao, Xingyi Zhu, Baoshan Huang, Jingang Wang, Serji Amirkhanian

Journal of Cleaner Production 180 (2018) 139e158
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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro
Review
Energy consumption and environmental impact of rubberized asphalt

pavement
Tao Wang a, Feipeng Xiao a, *, Xingyi Zhu a, Baoshan Huang b, Jingang Wang a,
Serji Amirkhanian a, **
a
Key Laboratory of Road and Traffic Engineering of Ministry of Education, Tongji University, Shanghai, 201804, China
b
Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The focus of this paper is to evaluate the energy consumption and environmental impact of rubberized
asphalt pavement during the life cycle. Reducing the environmental influences of the highway infra-
structure has received the increasing attentions recently. Application of crumb rubber in asphalt pave-
Keywords: ments overcomes the used tires disposal problem and achieves materials savings and environmental
Rubberized asphalt benefits, due to the reduction of raw material and extension of pavement service life. In addition,
Energy consumption
rubberized asphalt production is a highly energy consuming process due to a higher mixing temperature.
Greenhouse gas emissions
However, the warm mixing technology can lower the mixing temperature of rubberized asphalt mixture,
Environmental impact
leading to approximately 20e25% of fuel savings. Moreover, the consumed energy of rubberized asphalt
during maintenance phase is lower than that of conventional asphalt. In addition, the greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions from the production and construction of rubberized asphalt mixtures are similar to
those from hot mix asphalt, but their emissions of CO and CH4 are much lower. Meanwhile, the noise
reduction is an environmentally friendly benefit. The leachate from asphalts used wet and dry-process
crumb rubber modifiers (CRM) does not pose a measurable threat to the environment. Rubberized
asphalt technology as a green technology in term of lowering GHG emissions, saving energy and raw
material and reducing noise level of pavement should be widely used to achieve environmental
sustainability.
© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2. History of rubberized asphalt pavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.1. Recycled tire rubber as engineering material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.2. Current uses of rubberized asphalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.3. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3. Energy consumption of rubberized asphalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.1. Materials production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.2. Highway construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.3. Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.4. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4. Environmental impact of rubberized asphalt pavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.1. Materials production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.2. Highway construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.2.1. Asphalt fumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail address: fpxiao@tongji.edu.cn (F. Xiao).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.01.086
0959-6526/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
140 T. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 180 (2018) 139e158
4.2.2. New pavement construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

4.3. Rubberized asphalt pavement in service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.3.1. Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.3.2. Tire wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.3.3. Leachate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.4. Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.5. End of life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.6. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5. Conclusions and further research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.1. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.2. Further research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
1. Introduction (Amirkhanian and Corley, 2005). In order to lighten the problem,

many countries had focused on the production and application of
Climate change and global energy shortage have become the crumb rubber for asphalt pavements to reduce its environmental
challenge of sustainable development of the international com- burden and achieve decent engineering properties (Amirkhanian
munity. The goals of emission-reduction and energy-saving require and Corley, 2005; Bahia and Davies, 1994; Esenwa et al., 2010;
the cooperation from the communities of nations (Zhu and Geng, Huang et al., 2004).
2013). Pavement construction is a major constituent part of the Nowadays, the crumb rubber modified asphalt (CRMA) had been
transportation industry, which consumed a great amount of energy widely accepted and used since it overcame the disposal problem of
with imposing a particular burden on the ambient environment. scrap tires. Meanwhile, the CRMA possessed many merits including
The materials used in highway construction, as well as electric saving cost and quantity of construction materials (Huang et al.,
power and fuel for the plants and construction equipment have 2004; Xiao and Amirkhanian, 2009a, 2009b; Xiao et al., 2009a;
remarkable environmental effects, including the generated solid Xiao et al., 2009b). In addition, the crack propagation, durability,
waste, discharged water and emissions (Park et al., 2003). skid resistance and fatigue of pavements were also improved by
According to Magnum's report (Mangum, 2006), the North adding the crumb rubber into the asphalt (Xiao and Amirkhanian,
America and Europe had by far the most extensive nets of the 2009a, 2009b). The increase in mixing and compaction tempera-
highways and paved roads in the world. In Europe, more than 90% tures as a result of the addition of crumb rubber could be reduced
of 5.2 million kilometers of highways and paved roads were esti- by the incorporation of warm asphalt additives, which could lower
mated to surface with asphalt materials. In the USA, more than 92% the mixing and compaction temperatures of rubberized asphalt
out of 4 million kilometers of highways and roads were surfaced mixtures compared with traditional hot mix asphalt (HMA) (Xiao
with asphalt. Additionally, 85% of airport runways and 85% of et al., 2009c).
parking areas were paved with asphalt mixtures. Meanwhile, Moreover, the cost benefit ratio in the highway construction was
asphalt pavements in Canada and Mexico accounted for 90% and evaluated by the newly introduced indicators, such as the raw
96%, respectively (Mangum, 2006). material saving, reduction of noise and reduction of greenhouse gas
Nearly 90% of the roads all over the world were comprised of (GHG) emissions in recent years (Bilal and Chappat, 2003;
bituminous mixtures, while the remained 10% were made of Chehovits and Galehouse, 2010; Temren and Sonmez, 2012). The
Portland cement concrete (Zapata and Gambatese, 2005). Almost new indicators contributed to define and quantify the benefits of
500 to 550 million tons of asphalt mixtures were produced and the “green technology”, which expanded the economic balance to
paved in the USA annually (Hansen and Copeland, 2015). Con- environmental sustainability (Bartolozzi et al., 2012).
struction of new roads meant to imply interference with the sur- Rubberized asphalt technology as the green technology was
rounding environment, such as a large amount of aggregate used and considered to be environmental beneficial in terms of the
requirement for construction and the road alignment (Birgisdottir great potential of consumption large amounts of end-of-life tires,
et al., 2006). Due to the increasing amount of highway pavement providing a useful contribution to reduce the environmental
constructions over the years, reductions of energy consumption burden of waste tires (Xiao et al., 2012). Meanwhile, the application
and GHG emissions should be paid close attention to (Birgisdottir of end-of-life tires in asphalt pavement formed three types of
et al., 2006). technology including processes of wet process, dry process and
At the same time, due to the increasing automobiles in China, terminal blend rubber modified asphalt (Oikonomou and
Europe, US and Japan, the demands of tires increased rapidly every Mavridou, 2009). The rubberized asphalt produced by wet pro-
year all over the world (Li et al., 2010). Eventually, a large number of cess was widely used because of its high-performance (Wang et al.,
tires developed into the category of end of life tires (ELTs). Because 2017).
of the generated large volume and good durability, the scrap tire The objective of this review article was to discuss the energy
was one of the largest and difficult treatment sources of wastes consumption and environmental impact of the rubberized asphalt
(Nehdi and Khan, 2001). The disposal of scrap tires had been pavement produced by wet process in its service life. The main
considered to be a serious problem because it was illegal to send studied aspects included the disposal of scrap tires and application
the used tires to the dump. Taking into account the level of tire of rubberized asphalt, as well as evaluation of the energy savings
consumption and its full recycle, it was necessary to improve the and environmental impacts during material production, construc-
properties of reused products and expand the application scopes. tion and maintenance and end of life. The overall structure of this
Scrap tires as fuel for either tire-to energy-facilities or paper mills review article is shown in Fig. 1.
were used in many countries. Nevertheless, the use of scrap tires as
fuel released substantial carbon, causing environmental problems
T. Wang et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 180 (2018) 139e158 141
Fig. 1. The flowchart of all the structure of paper.
2. History of rubberized asphalt pavement the USA passed several regulatory provisions for the reuse of scrap
tires to prevent further stacking of used tires (Moo-Young et al.,
2.1. Recycled tire rubber as engineering material 2003). The scrap tires as engineering resources were used in
various ways (Feraldi et al., 2013). The scrap tires used for tire
Due to the increasing number of automobiles, the corresponded derived fuel contributed more than half of the annual generation of
scrap tires had increased dramatically, especially in the US, Europe, scrap tires in the USA in 2007, followed by the application in ground
China and Japan (Li et al., 2010). The disposal of used tires had rubber material and civil engineering which accounted for 17.2%
become a worldwide difficult problem owing to their durability and and 12.2% respectively (Feraldi et al., 2013).
large volume generated (Nehdi and Khan, 2001). The improper At present, the landfill disposal of tires was illegal and banned in
disposal of tires might impose potential dangers to human health most countries, while the recovery options were explored such as
under some circumstances and potentially enhance environmental “energy recovery” where the end-of-life tires having a calorific
risks. Meanwhile, the landfill of scrap tires had attracted a lot of value equivalent to that of good quality coal are used as an alter-
public attentions and concerns, becoming an unattractive choice native to fossil fuels, or ‘‘chemical processing’’ such as pyrolysis,
(Feraldi et al., 2013). Recycled scrap tires could also be used as fuel thermolysis and gasification, and finally ‘‘granulate recovery’’ (Lo
for energy recovery or as recycling materials (Lloyd, 2004). Ground Presti, 2013). Large machines were used to cut up tires into small
rubber was of high value that could be used as raw materials for pieces of different sizes in the granulate recovery. The recycled
many products (Lloyd, 2004). Nevertheless, its production required rubbers could be used as civil engineering materials which were
a great quantity energy consumption and delivered detrimental applied in flooring for playground, paving blocks, rubberized
substances, making it a less advantageous way to disposal the scrap asphalt pavements etc. (Shen et al., 2009). Meanwhile, the size of
tires from the view of environmental protection (Fang et al., 2001; tire rubber was reduced to produce the crumb rubber which could
Li et al., 2014). be compatible to use in asphalt industry. In general, turning end-of-
The tire was a kind of complex high-technology safety product. life tire into crumb rubber modifier (CRM) could be achieved by
The tire was made up from elastomeric compound, fabric and steel ambient and cryogenic grinding technologies (Oliver, 1981).
(Rahman, 2004). Actually, nature rubber is sticky in nature and
easily brittle when cooled down and deformed when heated. The
property of nature rubber was as shown in Table 1. 2.2. Current uses of rubberized asphalt
Some materials including reinforcing fillers and mineral oil
could be added into the tires to satisfy the ultimately different re- Crumb rubber modifier had been used in hot mix asphalt since
quirements (Miskolczi et al., 2008). Some properties of tires, such several decades ago (Epps, 1994). The use of tire rubber in asphalt
as non-biodegradability, the resistance to heat and humidity were pavements started 170 years ago, with an experiment involving
beneficial to their road service functions, which were not conducive natural rubber with asphalt in the 1840s, attempting to endow the
to collection and disposal (Puşc a et al., 2010). Forty-nine states in flexible nature of rubber with a longer lasting paving surface
(Heitzman, 1992). In 1960s, scrap tires were processed and used as a
secondary material in the pavement industry. As one of common
Table 1 applications the crumb rubber was used as a partial substitute of
Effect of temperature on natural rubber (Mukhopadhyay et al., 1977). the mineral aggregate in the mixture, via a process known as ‘‘dry
Temperature Property process’’(Epps, 1994). Meanwhile, Charles McDonalds in 1960 made
the first attempt to blend crumb rubber with base binder and found
200 C Decomposes
180 C Break down as in the masticator that after thoroughly mixing tire rubber with bitumen and allowing
120 C-160 C Vulcanized when agent, e.g. Sulfur, are added it to react for a period of 45 min to 1 h, this material obtained
50 C Plastic and sticky beneficial engineering characteristics. This technology was known
20 C Soft, Resilient and translucent as the ‘‘wet process’’ (Lo Presti et al., 2014). Crumb rubber was
10 C Brittle and opaque
successfully incorporated into asphalt in 1975. By 1988, American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) International defined energy to achieve the predetermined temperatures (Chong et al.,
rubberized asphalt as a mixture of at least 15% ground tire rubber 2016). For instance, the energy used in production of asphalt mix-
derived from scrap tires and base bitumen (Lo Presti, 2013). In 1991, tures was approximately 1.36 108 MWh every year all over the
the widespread use of the asphalt rubber technology is mandated world (EAPA and NAPA, 2011). Enormous energy consumption
in accordance with the United States federal law (Kuennen, 2004). meant a huge amount of greenhouse gas emissions and costs. A
Since then, the main applications of CRMA in pavements included study done by Gillespie (2012) applied regression analysis to esti-
chip seals (Baker et al., 2003), stress absorbing interlayers (Scofield, mate the energy consumption in the production of asphalt mix-
1989), crack and joint sealants (Epps, 1994), and hot mix asphalt tures. The result indicated that fuel and electrical consumption
(Takal, 1991). Considerable research had been done worldwide to were 9 L/ton and 8 kWh/ton with a result of CO2 emission of
validate and improve technologies related to rubberized asphalt 28.8 kg/t (Gillespie, 2012). Meanwhile, the aggregate moisture
pavements. Nowadays, paving with rubberized asphalt could pro- content had a direct impact on energy consumption with added
vide many advantages, including constructability (Shen et al., 0.7 L for 1% increase in moisture content (Gillespie, 2012). In
2009), recyclability, safety, reduced maintenance, durability another study, the result revealed that the production of asphalt
(Wang et al., 2017) and as reflected in the energy savings (Sousa mixture accounted for the largest proportion of energy consump-
et al., 2007). Due to the benefits as mentioned above, rubberized tion compared with the aggregate production phase, transportation
asphalt was being used more and more in many countries (Xiao phase and construction phase (Feng et al., 2014). Aghbashlo et al.
et al., 2007). (2013). proposed a model to quantify energy consumptions of
aggregate in different drying technologies. The energy consump-
2.3. Summary tion of material or process was shown in Table 2. The variability of
the energy consumption of aggregate production was great due to
Rubberized asphalt technology from its emergence to the cur- the different process technologies used in different regions
rent mature application had a history of a hundred years. The wet (Bennert et al., 2011; Gillespie, 2012). Meanwhile, the energy con-
process made rubberized asphalt capture beneficial engineering sumption of asphalt production was different in various regions.
characteristics in 1960s. The rubberized asphalt technology was Some studies concluded that the energy of asphalt production was
mandated by the United States federal law in 1991. Since then, the generally different, including 2890 MJ/t (Stripple, 2001), 5320 MJ/t
rubberized asphalt technology had been widely studied and used. (Athena, 2006), and 6000 MJ/t (Ha €kkkinen and Ma €kel€
a, 1996). In
addition, the report indicated that the energy consumption of
3. Energy consumption of rubberized asphalt producing asphalt mixture was 2860 MJ/t (Hammond and Jones,
2011).
3.1. Materials production Researchers found that rubberized asphalt had excellent energy
saving capacity. Several studies indicated that application of
In general, the life cycle of pavements consists of five phases, rubberized asphalt benefited energy saving due to the reduction of
including materials production, construction, service, maintenance raw material and its longer service life (Antunes and Murachelli,
and end of life (Santero et al., 2011). Energy consumptions and 2009; Bartolozzi et al., 2012; Elliott, 1994). Meanwhile, the thick-
emissions occur at each phase, as shown in Fig. 2. Materials pro- ness of 50 mm gap graded rubberized asphalt was less than one half
duction and construction were the major phases. The materials of conventional dense hot mix asphalt pavement leading to energy
production stage involved raw material procurement, transport of saving (Way and Flagstaff, 1999). Sousa et al. (2001). compared the
raw materials and material manufacture (Wang et al., 2012a, energy costs in kilo-Joule gain/loss associated with three disposal
2012b). Pavement construction included transport of mixtures, methods of scrap tires. The result shown in Table 3 indicated that
the paving of mixtures, and the compaction of pavement (Huang there was a net positive gain in energy between 310,267 and
et al., 2009). 566,109 kJ/kg by using granulated tire rubber as a modifier to
The raw materials in rubberized asphalt mixtures including asphalt pavement. In addition, the disposal method of using crumb
rubberized binders and aggregates required a huge amount of rubber in asphalt had great benefits in energy recovery (Sousa et al.,
2001).
Energy consumption could also be reduced due to aggregate
savings. High quality road construction materials were in short
supply and difficult to obtain in parts of the US and Europe. Sousa
et al. (2001). found that 109,314 kJ/kg energy saving in aggregate
production was obtained when rubberized asphalt was used. The
energy saving by using rubberized asphalt was very impressive. The
energy saving coupled with other benefits including less cracking
and maintenance makes rubberized asphalt very attractive and
beneficial in highway industry (Sousa et al., 2001).
Based on the life cycle assessment (LCA), Farina et al. (2017).
found that the crumb rubber production chain corresponded to a
net energy saving of 4236 MJ/t (Farina et al., 2017). It could be also
concluded that the use of materials containing crumb rubber
caused a reduction of the overall energy ranging from 43% to 46%
(Farina et al., 2017). Yu et al. (2014). found that a smaller amount of
energy during materials production process for plastic rubber
asphalt (PRA) mixture was consumed than that for styrene-
butadiene-styrene (SBS) asphalt mixture, saving about 9.6% en-
ergy, as shown in Table 4. For both mixtures, mixing process was
Fig. 2. The relationship between energy and environmental impacts in life cycle of the main contributor to total energy consumptions, followed by
highways (Park et al., 2003).
Table 2
Primary energy consumption of each material or process (MJ/t).
Source material Athena Corti et al. (Corti and Frischknecht (Frischknecht Stripple Elliott
(Athena, 2006) Lombardi, 2004) et al., 2012) (Stripple, 2001) (Elliott, 1994)
Nature aggregate 57.6 140 78.6 59.1

Crushed aggregate 36 59 7.67
Asphalt: Feedstock 40200 40200 40200
Asphalt: Manufacturing 5320 9000 2890 814
Crumb rubber modifier: Feedstock 34900
Crumb rubber modifier: Manufacturing 42700 2015
Asphalt mixing plant: Hot mix asphalt 531 551
Asphalt mixing plant: Rubberized hot mix asphalt 375 404
asphalt, aggregate and modifier productions. PRA mixture was consumption was slightly higher due to a higher mixing tempera-
more environmental-friendly in terms of energy consumption (Yu ture and an increased mixing duration (Mcquillen et al., 1988;
et al., 2014). Meanwhile, the reduced temperature by using warm Oliveira et al., 2013). The use of additives such as waxes to lower
mix additives in mixing and paving would cut down the energy the mixing temperature, thereby reducing the energy consumption
requirement to produce HMA, leading to less emissions and odors had been studied recently (Butt, 2012). The warm mix asphalt
from plants and a good working conditions in mixing plant and (WMA) technology could reduce 30 C of the mixing temperature of
paving site (Gandhi and Amirkhanian, 2007; Hurley and Prowell, rubberized asphalt, and thus there was approximately 20e25% of
2006). It was also concluded that the compaction temperature of fuel savings (Xiao et al., 2009a). The mixing and compaction tem-
CRM mixture including the warm mix additives could achieve en- peratures of rubberized asphalt were reduced by adding warm mix
ergy savings (Akisetty et al., 2008). additive (Behl et al., 2013). Meanwhile, the warm crumb rubber
It was concluded that, as shown in Fig. 3, the energy con- modified asphalt mixture exhibited a better moisture resistance
sumption of SBS modified asphalt was more than that of rubberized compared with conventional hot mix asphalt (Oliveira et al., 2013).
asphalt. The major reason was that the production of SBS modifier
consumed more energy than that of the tire powder which was
derived form waste tires and noly the energy consumed for 3.2. Highway construction
grinding was included in life cycle inventory (Zhu et al., 2014).
Because the mixing temperatures of field blended rubberized Studies of energy consumption during the service lives of
asphalt (FBAR) and terminal blended rubberized asphalt (TBAR) asphalt and concrete pavements had been conducted. According to
were higher than those of SBS modified asphalts, the energy con- Horvath and Hendrickson's (Horvath and Hendrickson, 1998)
sumption of producing FBAR and TBAR increased 5%e10% (Qin findings, the asphalt pavement consumed 30% energy more than
et al., 2009). concrete pavement, while the Swedish Environmental Research
In terms of rubber modified asphalt production, the energy Institute (IVL) concluded that concrete pavement consumed 37%
more energy than asphalt pavement (Stripple, 2001). The results
indicated that asphalt and concrete were both energy-intensive
Table 3 materials (Horvath and Hendrickson, 1998; Stripple, 2001).
Comparison of kilo-Joule gain/loss of three scrap tire disposal methods (Sousa et al., Utilizing the method proposed by Society of Environmental
2001). Toxicity and Chemistry, the energy consumed for a 1.0 km asphalt
Tire derived material kJ (gain/loss)/kg rubber pavement during its life cycle was calculated, as shown in Table 5
(Stripple, 2001). The results showed that the total energy
Alternative daily cover 1837
Tire derived fuel þ31399
consumed was close to 23 trillion joules (TJ). The energy consumed
Crumb rubber modified asphalt þ310267 to þ566109 during the construction phase was approximately 8 TJ (35% of the
total consumption). In the maintenance phase, the energy con-
sumption was less than 3 TJ (13%). The energy consumption
Table 4 increased to 27 TJ/km in a life cycle (40 years) by using concrete
Energy consumption of PRA and SBS asphalt mixtures per metric ton (Yu et al., pavement instead of asphalt pavement. This increase occurred
2014). mainly in the construction phase and little or no changes occurred
Mix type Types Energy (MJ) in the operation and maintenance phases. The reduction of energy
consumption was not noticeable by switching to cold mix asphalt
PRA mixture Asphalt 104.2
Aggregate 82.9 (Stripple, 2001).
Rubber 29.8 It could be observed that the use of materials containing crumb
Polypropylene (PP) 6.2 rubber caused a significant reduction of the overall energy con-
Mixing 401.0 sumption compared to SDGM, with percentages equal to the values
Milling of PP 0.4
Crumb rubber manufacturing 7.2
represented in parentheses in Fig. 4 (Farina et al., 2017). However,
Transportation 47.1 the rubberized asphalt obtained by dry process did not reveal en-
Total 678.8 ergy saving advantages compared with standard dense-graded
SBS asphalt mixture Asphalt 125.4 mixture, with gross energy consumption of 19370 MJ/m and
Aggregate 82.9
18851 MJ/m, respectively (Farina et al., 2017).
SBS 98.8
Mixing 401.0 As shown in Fig. 5, Zhu et al. (2014). stated that the energy
Milling of SBS 8.6 consumption in mixing of SBS modified asphalt was lower than that
transportation 27.1 of rubberized asphalt mixture. However, the total energy con-
Total 743.8 sumption of TBAR mixture was 13.66% lower than that of SBS
Notes: PRA: plastic rubbe asphalt, SBS: styrene-butadiene-styrene. modified asphalt mixture, followed by TOR and FBAR modified
6000
5000
Engegy Consumption (MJ/t)

4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Virgin asphalt SBS modified FBAR TBAR
asphalt
Fig. 3. The energy consumption of different asphalt (Zhu et al., 2014). Notes: FRAR ¼ field blended rubberized asphalt; TRAR ¼ terminal blended rubberized asphalt.
Table 5
Energy consumed (TJ) of LCA results for a road (Chiu et al., 2008; Stripple, 2001).
Road construction, maintenance and operation for 1 km long road during 40 years of operation Construction Maintenance Operation Total
Asphalt road, hot method, low emission vehicles 8.0 3.0 12.0 23.0
Asphalt road, cold method, low emission vehicles 6.5 3.5 11.5 21.5
Concrete road, low emission vehicles 11.5 3.0 13.0 27.5
Asphalt road, hot method, normal emission vehicles 8.0 3.0 12.0 23.0
Asphalt road, cold method, normal emission vehicles 6.5 3.5 11.5 21.5
Concrete road, normal emission vehicles 11.5 3.0 13.0 27.5
aspahlt mixtures, 13.61% and 5.75% respectively. The result indi- Due to the improved mechanical performance of rubberized
cated that rubberized asphalt had evident energy saving advan- asphalt, the costs for pavement maintenance and conservation
tages in the life cycle (Zhu et al., 2014). could be reduced throughout the service cycle so that considerable
The construction of asphalt pavement was an energy-intensive energy and nature resources could be saved (Jung et al., 2002;
process. Meanwhile, the use of materials containing crumb rub- Sousa et al., 2001; Van Kirk and Holleran, 2000). Meanwhile, the
ber caused a significant reduction of the overall energy spent. use of rubberized asphalt contributed to the waste materials
disposal and reduction of landfill, which reflected the concept of
3.3. Maintenance sustainable development (Jung et al., 2002). In addition, carbon
black in rubber could keep the pavement blacker for a long time so
The use of waste material in the construction and rehabilitation pez et al., 2009).
as to ensure the driving safety (Lo
phase could reduce the energy consumption. The material obtained Notes: SDGM ¼ standard dense-graded mixture;
by milling the road surfacing that had reached the end of its design RGGM ¼ rubberized gap-graded mixture; RGGMR ¼ rubberized
life was known as reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) (Miller and gap-graded mixture with RAP; RDGM ¼ rubberized dense-graded
Bahia, 2009). Since aggregate materials were non-renewable re- mixture.
sources, the main advantage of using RAP was to lessen the In Fig. 7, the study done by Antunes et al (Antunes and
requirement of new aggregate/binder and waste material disposal Murachelli, 2009). showed that both reduced hot mixes produc-
in landfill (Chiu et al., 2008). In addition, the use of some additives tion and reduction of milling thickness were the major items
such as warm mixes could reduce the mixing and compaction contributing to the large amount of energy saving of rubberized
temperatures of mixtures, thereby reducing the energy consump- asphalt application in comparison with conventional hot mix
tion (Tabatabaee and Bahia, 2012). Carlson indicated that RAP asphalt during the pavement rehabilitation (Antunes and
containing CRM asphalt cement was fully recyclable into new HMA Murachelli, 2009). Overall, the energy savings amount of
mixtures (Carlson and Zhu, 1999b). 28.651 kWh/m3 were obtained by using rubberized asphalt tech-
Farina et al. (2017). focused on life cycle assessment of various nology instead of conventional HMA solution. The energy savings of
types of highway paving technologies containing recycled material rubberized asphalt application accounted for 47% of the total en-
such as crumb rubber and RAP. Fig. 6 indicated the gross energy ergy consumption associated to the rehabilitation stage (Antunes
requirement contributions of materials and operations which were and Murachelli, 2009). It was concluded that using the rubber-
part of pavement construction and maintenance. Productions of ized asphalt hot mixes could consume less energy than conven-
binders and modified binders were the most energy intensive tional asphalt mixtures during the rehabilitation stage, resulted
process (Santero et al., 2011). Furthermore, the different types of from the landfill space saving and the recycled rubberized asphalt
rubberized asphalts showed significant energy saving benefits not to be hauled away (Antunes et al., 2005; Decker and Hansen,
compared with the reference solutions. The environmental per- 2006).
formance benefits were highly remarkable (Farina et al., 2017).
20000
Construction
18000 0%
Maintenance
Total
Gross energy requirement (MJ/m)

16000
Reduction(%)
14000
12000 43% 43% 45%

10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
SDGM RGGM RGGMR RDGM
Different types of pavements
Fig. 4. The comparisons of different pavements of gross energy requirement (Farina et al., 2017). Notes: SDGM ¼ standard dense-graded mixture; RGGM ¼ rubberized gap-graded
mixture; RGGMR ¼ rubberized gap-graded mixture with RAP; RDGM ¼ rubberized dense-graded mixture; Heat loss of asphalt concrete during transportation was one of the major
problems during road construction phase. Karacasua et al (Karacasua et al., 2012). concluded that it was possible to reduce the heat loss of asphalt concrete with appropriate
application type and amount of rubber. Insulation decreased the amount of energy required to replace heat losses, thereby reducing energy costs. Rubber could also help reduce
heat produced during the production on site. This could provide cost effective and energy efficient solutions and maintain environmental sustainability (Karacasua et al., 2012). A
study done by Sousa et al (Sousa et al., 2007). indicated that the energy savings of using rubberized asphalt gap-graded and rubberized asphalt open-graded mixtures during
construction phase could reach 1,375,962,879 kJ/km and 3,059,839,016 kJ/km, respectively. Approximately 70% of the used tires in Arizona was applied in highways to gain a great
energy saving benefit (Sousa et al., 2007).
Asphalt Aggregate
Transportation of raw materials (50km) Mixture mixing
Transportation of mixture (20km) Paving
Compaction
800
700
Energy consumption (MJ/t)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
FBAR TBAR TOR SBS modified
asphalt
Fig. 5. Energy consumption of different type of asphalt (Zhu et al., 2014). Notes: FBAR ¼ field blended asphalt rubber; TBAR ¼ terminal blended asphalt rubber.
26
23
20
Gross Energy Requirement (MJ/t)
17
14
11
-1
SDGM RGGM RGGMR RDGM
Work equipment 2.14 1.25 1.25 1.58
Transportation 2.553 1.423 1.383 1.676
Bituminous mixture plant 2.9 1.44 1.383 1.676
RAP 0 0 -0.8 0
Bitumen/AR bitumen 13 7.81 7.81 6.64
Aggregates 1.95 0.94 0.84 1.21
Fig. 6. Gross Energy Requirement associated to individual material and operations

(Santero et al., 2011).
3.4. Summary Fig. 8. The asphalt pavement LCA framework showing the input-output flows in the
system (Park et al., 2003).
Application of rubberized asphalt would benefit immediately in

term of energy saving due to the reduction of raw material and production of raw material, construction, maintenance, use in
benefits of longer life of rubberized asphalt pavements. The WMA service and end of life, imposed unique environmental burdens.
technology could reduce 30 C of the mixing temperature of The various materials used in pavement construction, as well as
rubberized asphalt, and there was approximately 20e25% of fuel electricity and fuel used for plants and machinery had remarkable
savings in term of warm crumb rubber modified asphalt. The en- environmental effects. The waste generation, discharge into water,
ergy consumption occurred mainly in the construction phase and and emission to air were the three major forms of environmental
the proportion of energy consumption in the operation and impacts, as shown in Fig. 8 (Park et al., 2003).
maintenance phase was less. Application of rubberized asphalt Kucukvar and Tatari (2012) studied the atmospheric emissions
could provide energy efficient solutions and maintained environ- for Portland cement pavement and hot mix asphalt, and concluded
mental sustainability. The use of rubberized asphalt contributed to that Portland concrete pavement emitted approximately 2.6 times
the waste materials disposal and reduction of landfill, reflected the more atmosphere pollution than hot mix asphalt (Kucukvar and
concept of sustainable development. It was concluded that using Tatari, 2012). The life cycle emission phases suggested that mate-
the rubberized asphalt hot mixes could consume less energy than rials production and transportation were the dominant phases of
conventional asphalt mixtures during the rehabilitation stage, atmospheric emissions (Kucukvar and Tatari, 2012). However, ac-
resulted from the landfill space and transportation savings. cording to Santero et al. (2011), from an energy and air emission
standpoint, the transportation impacts associated with the long
4. Environmental impact of rubberized asphalt pavement distances between sources and locations were also important.
Typically, transportation accounts for only a fraction of the energy
4.1. Materials production consumption of the materials and construction phases. An increase
in distance would in turn increase the proportion of impact
The each stage of the pavement life cycle, including the attributable to transportation (Santero et al., 2011). Meanwhile, the
sensibility analysis of haul distance on environmental effects
18 indicated that the contribution of haul distance to environmental
16 effects could reach 10% (Bartolozzi et al., 2012). The haul distances
14 should be as short as possible to reduce the impact on the envi-
Energy saving (kWh/m3)
ronment (Bartolozzi et al., 2012).

12 Rubberized asphalt was produced on the base of virgin binder
10 by adding crumb rubber. The GHG emission for rubberized asphalt
8 consisted of rubber power modifer and production (Zhu et al.,
2014). The values of GHG emission of rubber power production
6
calcalated were 0.97 kg CO2eq/kg (Liu and Yin, 2001) and 1.15 kg
4 CO2eq/kg (Wang et al., 2012a, 2012b) by several researchers (Zhu
2 et al., 2014). It was concluded that the GHG emission of asphlat
rubber was more than that of SBS modified asphalt productio and
0
Hot mixes Hot mixes Hot mixes Milling Transport for
the production of rubberized asphalt consumed much more elec-
production transport laying disposal tricity (Zhu et al., 2014).
Stout et al. (2003). compared the emissions due to the addition
Fig. 7. Energy saving per unit of rubberized asphalt hot mixes (Antunes and
Murachelli, 2009).
of crumb rubber to asphalt cement and the emissions derived from function of energy used to produce hot mix asphalt. Results showed
the manufacture of non-modified asphalt concrete, as shown in that asphalt plants based on only gas consumption emitted the
Fig. 9. Emissions of O2, N2, CO2, NOx and SO2 from the production of lowest amount of CO2. On the other hand, plants based on only
rubberized asphalt mixtures were somewhat similar to those for electricity should be avoided as they emitted the greatest amount
hot mix asphalt (ranging from þ0.5 to 10.7%). However, emissions of CO2 (117% more). Chappat and Bilal (2003) estimated the CO2
of CO and CH4 were much lower from rubberized asphalt mixture, emissions for both material production and laying down for
i.e., 39.7% and 61.7%, respectively (Stout et al., 2003). different pavement structures. Portland cement concrete in terms
Crumb rubber modified asphalt mixtures required a higher of CO2 equivalent had greater CO2 emissions than other mixtures.
temperature to blend, thus potentially increasing the hazardous The CO2 emissions from warm mix asphalt and hot mix asphalt
emission in hot-mix plants. A study conducted by the Michigan were similar (Chappat and Bilal, 2003). Yu et al. (2014). found that
Department of Transportation indicated that the inclusion of CRM the environmental burden of PRA production was been reduced
would not produce additional hazardous emissions (Stout et al., due to the utilization of the recycled materials, as shown in Table 6.
2003). In addition, the constitutions of GHGs for two mixtures seemed
Based on the IEA model (Fulton and Eads, 2004), Sousa et al. similar. Meanwhile, the PRA emitted less GWP than SBS asphalt
(2007). studied the CO2 emissions of rubberized asphalt mixture. mixture (Yu et al., 2014).
The result showed that the total CO2 savings reached 154 tons per Several studies investigated the environmental benefits of two
mile of lane if rubberized asphalt was used as a gap graded mixture. different treatments of scrap tires (Feraldi et al., 2013; Schmidt
However, if rubberized asphalt as an open graded was used over et al., 2009). One treatment was that all tires were incinerated in
pavements replacing 7.6 cm of hot mix asphalt then CO2 savings cement kilns while the other was that the rubber from all used tires
reached 343 tons per mile of lane. was used partly as infill in artificial turf and partly for modification
White et al. (2010). evaluated the impact of road material pro- of asphalt. The result showed in Fig. 11 revealed that the environ-
duction and highway construction of four different pavement types mental benefits of scrap tires as recycled material were far greater
on climate change (global warming) potentials. The results than those of scrap tire used as co-incineration (Feraldi et al., 2013).
confirmed that emissions from mixtures using Portland cement Based on the ReCiPe approach (Goedkoop et al., 2013), Farina et al.
concrete were severer compared to asphalt mixtures. In Fig. 10, the (2017). found that the application of rubberized asphalt produced
Portland cement mixtures had greater total CO2 emissions by wet technology showed significant benefits compared with
(0.1055 kg CO2 equivalent % weight) in comparison with fly ash standard paving solutions in terms of global warming potential and
cement concrete (0.0743 kg CO2 equivalent % weight), hot mix gross energy requirement (Farina et al., 2017). Meanwhile, the
asphalt (0.0238 kg CO2 equivalent % weight) and rubberized asphalt crumb rubber production chain corresponded to a net greenhouse
(0.0299 kg CO2 equivalent % weight). emission gain of 103 kg CO2 eq/t and to a net life cycle energy
Bartolozzi et al. (2012). concluded that the environmental saving of 4,236 MJ/t (Farina et al., 2017).
burden was mainly derived from the electricity consumed during The recycling scrap tires are used to produce the proprietary
the production of hot asphalt mix. The result showed that the asphalt modifier Roadþ (Feraldi et al., 2013). The use of asphalt
global warming potential (GWP) emissions of rubberized asphalt modifier Road þ had excellent environmental advantage and
and conventional technologies derived from electricity consump- reduced the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) by 30% in com-
tion were about 2 104 (65%) and 3 104 kg (67%) CO2, respec- parison with SBS modified asphalt (McGraw and Lott, 2005).
tively. Overall, the rubberized asphalt technology was in favor of In sum, research concluded emissions of O2, N2, CO2, NOx and
reducing the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission (Bartolozzi et al., SO2 from the production of rubberized asphalt mixtures were
2012). somewhat similar to those for hot mix asphalt (ranging from þ0.5
Bueche and Dumont (2012) calculated the CO2 emissions as a to 10.7%). Meanwhile, the inclusion of CRM would not produce
500
430.5 Asphalt rubber mixture
450
400 Hot mix asphalt
350
300 259.5
250
200
139.3
150 124.4
100 81.88 81.46 76.7 74.4
50 27.7
6.48 6 12.1 12.75 10.6
0
CO (%) N (%) O (%) CO (ppm) SO (ppm) NOx (ppm) CH (ppm)
Emissions
Fig. 9. Emissions measured during the production of the mixtures (Stout et al., 2003).
120
g CO equivalent/g Reduction of CO emission (%) 140
Reduction of CO emission (%)

100
120
g CO equivalent/g
80 100
80
60
60
40
40
20
20
0 0
Portland cement Fly ash and PCC Hot mix asphalt Asphalt rubber
concrete
Different types of pavements
Fig. 10. CO2 equivalent values for mixture productions (White et al., 2010).
Table 6
Emissions of PRA and SBS asphalt mixtures per metric ton (Yu et al., 2014).
Input-output CO2 kg CH4 g N2O g VOC g NOx g CO g SO2 g PM10 g PM2.5 g
PRA mixture Asphalt 6.7 23.0 e 12.8 30.0 23.6 30.0 6.2 e
Aggregate 1.4 4e-4 0.03 0.02 11.7 1.4 0.7 0.4 e
Rubber 1.5 7.1 0.18 2.2 3.9 4.8 5.0 1.2 0.5
PP 0.3 1.4 0.04 0.3 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.2 0.1
Mixing 22.6 5e-3 2e-3 4e-3 45.9 3.8 38.4 2.9 e
Milling of PP 0.03 0.06 e 3e-3 0.06 0.01 0.1 0.03 e
Crumb rubber manufacturing 0.01 0.03 e 0.04 0.03 0.08 0.04 0.03 e
Transportation 3.6 5.3 0.08 1.3 4.2 2.1 1.0 0.5 0.3
SBS asphalt mixture Asphalt 8.1 27.6 e 15.4 35.7 28.4 36.2 7.5 e
Aggregate 1.4 4e-4 0.03 0.02 11.7 1.4 0.7 0.4 e
SBS 5.5 20.3 0.76 9.7 14.8 16.4 12.5 3.4 1.4
Mixing 22.6 5e-3 2e-3 4e-3 45.9 3.8 38.4 2.9 e
Milling of SBS 0.7 1.1 e 0.06 1.3 0.2 2.1 0.6 e
Transportation 2.1 3.1 0.04 0.8 2.5 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.2
Notes: PRA¼ Plasticerubber asphalt, PP ¼ polypropylene, SBS¼ Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene block copolymer.
additional hazardous emissions. Overall, the AR technology was in than the value to the minimal carcinogenic effect (Kriech et al.,
favor of reducing the GHG emission. 2002).
Federal air quality and health professionals studied the fume
emissions from rubberized asphalt manufacturing and paving sites,
4.2. Highway construction indicating that the rubberized asphalt emissions were as same as
conventional asphalt (Burr et al., 2001; Gunkel, 1994). A study
4.2.1. Asphalt fumes revealed that the rubber particles were not small enough to
The fumes from the construction of asphalt pavements were a become air borne or volatile as PM 10 or particulate matter
potential source of disadvantageous environmental impact on hu- (Hartmann, 2010). According to Mcquillen et al. (McQuillen and
man health. The components in asphalt fume were complex, con- Hicks, 1987), the air quality during the production of rubberized
sisting of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and volatile organic asphalt was affected by the plant type. The air quality was improved
compounds (VOCs), as shown in Table 7 (Bloomquist et al., 1993). by adjusting the plant (McQuillen and Hicks, 1987). The application
A study done by National Institute of Occupational Safety and of rubberized asphalt would not contribute more undesirable
Health (NIOSH) concluded that asphalt fumes could cause the acute compound emissions than conventional pavements (Carlson and
and chronic health issues, including irritation to the throat, nose, Zhu, 1999a; Gunkel, 1994; Momm and Salini, 2000).
and eyes (Butler et al., 2000). However, NIOSH emphasized that the A study done by Gunkel et al (Gunkel, 1994). indicated that the
existing data from their 2000 hazard assessments of exposure to particulate matter for rubberized asphalt fumes was below the
asphalt fumes was not conclusive as a potential carcinogen (Butler limit value. At the same time, the result showed that paving
et al., 2000). The similar conclusion was obtained by a two-part workers exposure to hazardous compounds in asphalt-rubber
study that discussed whether the asphalt fumes were in relation fumes did not increase and even was below the levels required
of increased lung cancer rates (Boffetta et al., 2003). The result by health organizations. Moreover, similar to the Gunkel's findings,
indicated that the relationship between lung cancer and asphalt the results from Crockford (Crockford et al., 1995) revealed the
fumes was unclear. The PAH levels for 45 workers across 11 paving same conclusion that application of rubberized asphalt did not
sites were measured and the result indicated that the asphalt fumes increase the health risks of paving workers due to exposure to
existed carcinogens, but the level of carcinogens was 17 times lower
Co-incineration Material recycling
Photochemical ozone creation…

Human toxicity (PM 10 risk)
Energy damand
Mineral resource use (iron)
Global warming potential
Nitrification potential (soil)
Nitrification potential (water)
Haman toxicity (carcinogenic risk)
Acidification potential (soil)
0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 -1.2

Person equivalaents per tonne of tyers
Fig. 11. Potential environmental savings from recycling and co-incineration in person equivalents per ton of tire (Feraldi et al., 2013).
Table 7 gases including CO2, CH4 and N2O (Wang and Li, 2005). Moreover,
Chemical analysis by GC/MS of storage-tank and laboratory-generated paving the greenhouse warming potential (GWP) of these gases was
asphalt fume condensates, mg/ml per sample (Bloomquist et al., 1993).
expressed as a CO2 equivalent (Myers et al., 2000).
Chemical analyte Laboratory Tank fumes at 149 C The results shown in Table 8 indicated that the rubberized
fumes asphalt technology provided better environmental performances
149 C 316 C compared to the traditional technology over the entire life cycle
Acenaphthene 0.03 e 0.12 (Bartolozzi et al., 2012). Results obtained from the LCA analysis
Anthracene 0.46 0.0.3 0.13 showed that use of wearing courses containing rubberized asphalt
Chrysene 0.03 0.07 e produced by means of the wet technology could lead to remarkable
Benz[a]anthracene and chrysene 0.11
e e
benefits in terms of environmental effect, human health, preser-
Fluorene 0.22 0.09 0.12
Dibenzothiophene 0.57 0.24 0.09
vation of ecosystems and minimization of resource depletion
Methyl fluorenes 0.36 0.16 0.17 (Farina et al., 2017). However, application of crumb rubber in
Methyl naphthalenes 5.2 0.4 4.90 highway pavement by dry technology had no changed for carbon
Methyl chrysenes e 0.11 e dioxide emissions compared with traditional hot mix asphalts
“C2” alkyl dibenzothiophenes 1.3 1.1 0.17
(Farina et al., 2017).
“C3” alkyl dibenzothiophenes 0.88 0.85 0.1
According to Bartolozzi's report (Bartolozzi et al., 2012), the
environmental burden imposed by rubberized asphalt technology
was 5%e10% less than that imposed by traditional technology in
asphalt-rubber fumes. Meanwhile, the impact of crumb rubber on
highway construction process. The merit was a result of the thick-
emissions might be relatively small in comparison with other var-
ness decrease of rubberized asphalt road and the saving of material,
iables including asphalt content, asphalt throughput rate, mix
energy and fuel during the construction process (Bartolozzi et al.,
temperature and fueling rate of the dryer (Lo Presti, 2013). Never-
2012).
theless, the report also got the conclusion that an unpleasant smell
In Fig. 12, the results showed that the GHG emission of
existed when rubberized asphalt mixtures were produced (Cheng
rubberized asphalt was obviously higher than SBS modified asphalt
et al., 2011). At the same time, some studies concluded that the
mixture. Zhu et al. (2014). concluded that the rubberized asphalt
use of warm mix technology in rubberized asphalt could gain a
did not have obvious benefits in GHG emission reduction (Zhu et al.,
remarkable reduction of emission during field operations due to
2014). In addition, the transportation demand of materials was
the decrease of compaction and mixing temperatures (Behl et al.,
reduced due to decreased thickness of the asphalt-rubber layer,
2013; Cheng et al., 2011). According to Esenwa et al. report
thus reduceing the emission from trucks during the construction
(Esenwa et al., 2010), the visible fume of the warm mix rubberized
process (Bartolozzi et al., 2012). Meanwhile, the WMA technology
asphalt at both the plant and paver hopper were virtually
could reduce the mixing and compacting temperatures of CRMA.
nonexistent.
There was an overall reduction in pollutants emission when the mix
temperature decreased from 150 C to 120 C (Behl et al., 2013). In
4.2.2. New pavement construction addition, the emissions in production of the rubberized warm-mix
According to Park et al. study (Park et al., 2003), large quantities asphalt were lower than those of hot mix asphalt. The similar
of nature and man-made materials were used in the pavement compaction levels were achieved for rubberized warm-mix asphalt
construction phase. Meanwhile, the construction process with a lot and hot mix asphalt (Jones et al., 2012).
of energy consumption generated large quantities of greenhouse The fume emissions from rubberized asphalt manufacturing and
Table 8
Results of environmental performances rubberized asphalt road/conventional road (Bartolozzi et al., 2012).
Impact category units LCA conventional road LCA rubberized asphalt road
Abiotic depletion kg Sb eq 690,0650983 470,4820614

Acidification kg SO2 eq 292,4172741 200,6254185
Eutrophication kg PO3
4 eq 59,41062426 40,77403416
Fresh water aquatic ecotox. kg 1,4-DB eq 6855,59203 4585,796209
Global warming (GWP 100) kg CO2 eq 46608,61182 31676,04318
Human toxicity kg 1,4-DB eq 18077,84697 12503,81109
Marine aquatic ecotoxicity kg 1,4-DB eq 18886861,13 12698961,68
Ozone layer depletion kg CFC-11 eq 0,011791892 0,008077139
Photochemical oxidation kg C2H4 eq 13,37387651 9,103604073
Terrestrial ecotoxicity kg 1,4-DB eq 191,8532325 128,1745591
Asphalt Aggregate
Transportation of raw materials (50km) Mixture mixing
Transportation of mixture (20km) Paving
Compaction
70
60
GHG emission (kg.t-1
50
40
30
20
10
0
FBAR TBAR TOR SBS modified asphalt
Fig. 12. GHG emission of rubberized asphalt mixture production (Zhu et al., 2014). Notes: The virgin asphalt content of trans-polyoctenamer asphalt mixture is 5.0%, FBAR ¼Field
blended rubberized asphalt; TBAR¼ terminal blended rubberized asphalt and Trans-Polyoctenamer (TOR) mixture; SBS ¼ Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene block copolymer.
paving sites were as same as conventional asphalt (Burr et al., 2001; pavement (Bai, 2009; Cooper, 2013; Mcquillen et al., 1988; Wen and
Gunkel, 1994). Meanwhile, the rubber particles were not small Yang, 2008).
enough to become airborne particulate matter. Paving workers The rubberized asphalt was first applied to reduce the noise
exposure to hazardous compounds from asphalt-rubber fumes did problems associated with highway transportation in Brussels,
not increase (Crockford et al., 1995). Meanwhile, the use of warm Belgium, in 1981 (Mavridou and Kehagia, 2017). Since then, Canada,
mix technology in rubberized asphalt could gain a remarkable France, Germany, Austria, America, and Italy began to apply
reduction of emission during field operations due to the decrease of rubberized asphalt to alleviate the problem of excessive use of tires
compaction and mixing temperatures (Behl et al., 2013). and road noise pollution (SCPWA, 1999). Meanwhile, many coun-
LCA analysis indicated that the use of rubberized asphalt pro- tries started the noise level assessment, indicating that traffic noise
duced by means of wet technology could lead to remarkable ben- levels significantly were reduced by the application of rubberized
efits in terms of environmental effect, human health, preservation asphalt. Table 9 summarized the successful application of rubber-
of ecosystems, and minimization of resource depletion. ized asphalt to mitigate the tire noise in different countries and
regions (SCPWA, 1999). Rubber Pavement Association stated that
4.3. Rubberized asphalt pavement in service the noise of tire/pavement could be reduced by approximately 50%
by means of using scarp tire rubber in open-graded mixture binder.
4.3.1. Noise Moreover, the rubber particles had good sound absorption in spray
Noise pollution is the presence of intrusive and unnecessary application (Zhu and Carlson, 2001).
sounds that can seriously influence human mental and physical Some studies found that the overall noise of highway is mainly
health. The potentially harmful effects of noise include pressure, due to the tire/pavement interaction noise (Bernhard et al., 2004;
increase in heart rate, insomnia, the hearing loss and dysphoria Donovan and Rymer, 2003). The factors that affected the tire/
(Regecova and Kellerova, 1995). Many countries are now facing the pavement noise were pavement friction and thickness, age state,
problem of traffic noise pollution. The tire/pavement noise is a tire vibration and rolling resistance, the type and properties of
major factor in traffic noise problem (Herman, 1998). The noise pavement material, porosity and so on (Cesbron et al., 2009;
reduction is an important indicator in highway design taking into Ramussen et al., 2007; Sandberg and Ejsmont, 2002). Viscoelastic
account environment effects. Low-noise pavement was widely used properties were one of the major factors that affected the tire/
in many countries (Donavan, 2009). Various studies have indicated pavement noise regarding asphalt concrete mixtures (Biligiri, 2008;
that the application of rubberized asphalt reduces the tire/pave- Biligiri et al., 2010; Biligiri and Kaloush, 2010). Furthermore, Ongel
ment interface noise by 40e88% in comparison with ordinary et al. found that asphalt rubber friction course (ARFC) mixtures
Table 9
Sound studies of using rubberized asphalt and resulting noise reduction (Donavan, 2005; SCPWA, 1999; Way et al., 2012).
Country Noise Level Reduction Country Noise Level Reduction
Belgium 8-10 dB (65e85%) Phoenix, AZ 10 dB (88%)

Canada Shown noise reduction Tucson, AX 6.7 dBs (78%)
France 2-3dB/3-5 dB (50e75%) Sacramento County 7.7 dB
Germany 3 dB (50%) Orange Country 3-5 dB on Open Graded asphalt
Austria 3 þ dB Los Angeles Country 3-7 dB
China Significant noise reduction Arizona, USA 9 dB
could mitigate the tire/pavement noise because of the increasing attenuation capability of materials (Schubert et al., 2010; Wang and
viscoelastic properties of asphalt mixtures as an acoustic absorber Ho€ eg, 2010). Moreover, damping ratios of the asphalt mixtures
(Ongel and Harvey, 2010). were used to understand the vibration mechanism and damping
According to the reported results (Bennert et al., 2005; SCPWA, (Broutin and Theillout, 2010). Several studies were conducted that
1999; Way et al., 2012), the noise measurements of different the rubber modified asphalts with different rubber contents had
pavement types were shown in Fig. 13. These measurements clearly higher damping capacities than conventional mixtures (Biligiri,
illustrated that the ARFC surface was the quietest with a value of 96 2013; Wang and Zeng, 2006). Biligiri (2013) reported a similar
dBA. As a result, the pavement surfaces composed of either ARAC or conclusion that rubberized asphalt conduced to higher damping
ARFC exhibited a very remarkable tire/pavement noise reduction. ratios which could reduce the tire/pavement noise (Biligiri, 2013).
At the same time, the long-term noise reduction performance The presence of rubber powder could lower the noise frequency
impacts of rubberized asphalt pavements were studied by some of interface between tire and pavement (Tehrani, 2015). A study
researchers (Bucka, 2002; SCPWA, 1999; Tehrani, 2015). Fig. 14 found that rubberized asphalt overlay could reduce noise effec-
showed the traffic noise test results of rubberized and non- tively in a frequency range between 500 and 4000 Hz, which is
rubberized asphalts (SCPWA, 1999). A 6-year study by Bollard identical with the inherent frequency of tire noise (SCPWA, 1999).
(SCPWA, 1999) illustrated that rubberized asphalt leaded to an Particularly, McNerney et al. (1998). revealed a similar conclusion in
average 5 dB reduction in traffic noise levels compared to the details, indicating that rubberized asphalt pavement could effec-
conventional asphalt. In addition, a 10-year study by Bucka (2002) tively reduce the noise with frequency above 1600 Hz.
clearly stated that rubberized asphalt surface could moderate the Field studies showed that the noise reduction effect of rubber-
noise by 3e7 dB, where the noise reduction of non-rubberized ized asphalt open graded surface was directly related to traffic
asphalt overlays was only 1e2 dB (Bucka, 2002). speed, which was 3 dB for speeds below 50 km/h, 4 dB for speeds
Based on the long-term field measurements from 23 test sites between 50 and 90 km/h, 6 dB more than 90 km/h. Tests completed
from several locations in California, USA, it could be concluded that in the U.S and Europe showed that a noise reduction of 4.5 dB was
the rubberized asphalt overlays had lower sound intensity level achieved when used rubberized asphalt pavement at an average
(Ongel et al., 2008). It was also found that the noise reduction of speed of 40 km/h (Zhang and Tan, 2015). Bucka found that a faster
pavement was potentially related to the air-void content of the speed of traffic flow could significantly reduce tire/pavement noise
mixture and its pavement thickness (Ongel et al., 2008). Moreover, (Bucka, 2002). The result was verified by Bennert et al. by means of
Wang et al (Wang and Zeng, 2004). indicated the increased thick- studying 42 pavement overlays in New Jersey (Bennert et al., 2005).
ness of overlays could reduce the traffic noise, nevertheless, the At the same time, the generation of tire/pavement noise increased
effect was not remarkable for 15 cm or thicker overlays (Wang and linearly at a speed of 0.2e0.3 dB per kilometer (Bennert et al.,
Zeng, 2004). 2005). In sum, the reduction of noise was an environmental
The damping ratio parameters were used to study the vibration benefit, where the use of CRMA lowered the noise level at tire/
pavement interface (Tehrani, 2015).
4.3.2. Tire wear

AZ 202 Random Time PCC 109.2
1-80 PCC 104.1 Feraldi et al. (2013). analyzed the compositions of new and scrap
tires and pointed out that the rubber tire mass was lost due to tread
Tire/Pavement Measurements for
Haimen Concrete 103.9

AZ 202 Long Time PCC 102 wear during the use stage, shown in Table 10 (Feraldi et al., 2013).
Concret
1-280 Ground PCC 101.2 The loss of tire tread mass was estimated to reach the values of
Various Surfaces
AZ Old AR-ACFC(Worst) 101.4 10%e20% (Schmidt et al., 2009). The loss of tire tread due to tire-
SR 138 BWC 99.9 pavement friction caused many problems. Tire wear resulted in
AZ1-10 Test SMA 99.6 the need for more tires that could increase energy consumptions
SR 138 New DGA Avg 98.3
and environmental burdens.
Ninghang G25 ARAC13 98.8
Nanjing Ring ARFC13 96
At the same time, tire dust due to tire wear contained heavy
1-5 Crumb Rubber Avg 97.8 metals, causing potential detriment to the surrounding environ-
SR 138 75mm OGAC 96.9 ment (Adachi and Tainosho, 2004; Councell et al., 2004). Even more
ARFC
AZ1-10 Test AR-ACFC 96.6 serious, most of the tire dust fall off the form of PM 2.5, PM 10 and
Rt 195 West (SHRP Section) CRM 96.2 even ultrafine particles (d < 100 nm) which could compose poten-
80 90 100 110 120 tial threat to the cardiovascular and respiratory health (Dahl et al.,
Sound Intensity Level, dBA 2006; Luhana et al., 2004). The rate of tire wear was affected by the
type and roughness of pavement. Alexandrova et al. (2007). pointed
Fig. 13. Sound Intensity Level of Tire/Pavement Measurements for Various Surfaces out that the PCC pavements wore tires down 1.4 to 2 times faster
(Bennert et al., 2005; SCPWA, 1999; Way et al., 2012). Notes: ARFC ¼ asphalt rubber
friction course; ARAC ¼ asphalt rubberized asphalt concrete; PCC¼ Portland cement
than asphalt-rubber pavements. Nevertheless, the roughness
concrete; CRM ¼ crumb rubber modifiers; OGAC¼Open Graded Asphalt Concrete; values of pavement on tire wear rate was not clear (Alexandrova
SMA ¼ stone mastic asphalt. et al., 2007). Ho €lzl et al. (2013). pointed out that tire wear might
be one of sources to produce airborne particulate matter. It was
found that tires running over concrete pavement wore down faster
than rolling over rubberized asphalt pavement (Ho€ lzl et al., 2013).
4.3.3. Leachate
Table 11
Summary of batch leaching and removal/reduction/retardation process results for CRAC (Azizian et al., 2003).
Test Conditions Potential toxicant Toxicant conc. (mg/l) Algal %EC50 D. magna %LC50
Short-term batch leaching 24 h Benzothiazole 0.45 17 44

Aluminum 1.5
Mercury 0.02
Long-term batch leaching 7 days Benzothiazole 0.54 25 42
Aluminum 1.81
Mercury 0.116
Flat-plate leaching Init.eday 10 Aluminum 0.04e0.24 NTE NTE
Volatilization Init.eday 7 Benzothiazole 0.42e0.040 49-NTE 38-NTE
Aluminum 1.98e1.89
Mercury 0.02e0.016
Photolysis Init.eday 7 Benzothiazole 0.44e0.437 9e5 31e34
Aluminum 1.67e1.65
Mercury 0.019e0.018
Biodegradation Init.eday 10 Benzothiazole 0.44e0.019 21-NTE NTE
Aluminum 1.62e0.04
Mercury BDL
Notes: NTE: no toxic effect. BDL:concentration below detection limit.
environment (Kayhanian et al., 2008). quantitatively analyzed the environmental benefits of using
The application of rubberized asphalt reduces the tire/pavement rubberized asphalt in road pavements, the result showed that the
interface noise by 40e88% in comparison with ordinary pavement. significant GHG emission saving was achieved under maintenance
In a word, the reduction of noise is an environmental benefit from stage in term of life cycle assessment (Bartolozzi et al., 2012).
CRMA pavements. Tire wear might be one of the sources of par- In Fig. 16, the values of CO2 emission saving per cubic meter
ticulate matter in the air while the PCC pavements wore tires down CRMA were presented. It was concluded that, during pavement
1.4 to 2 times faster than CRMA pavements. In addition, CRMA rehabilitation, using CRMA had significant environmental benefits
leachates contained a mixture of organic and metallic contami- compared with traditional HMA (Antunes and Murachelli, 2009). At
nants. However, leachate from rubberized asphalt pavement did the same time, CRMA could present better functional and structural
not show a measurable threat to the environment. performances, leading to a remarkable reduction in environmental
burden (Antunes and Murachelli, 2009). Chui et al (Chiu et al.,
4.4. Maintenance 2008). found that the reduction of the amount of asphalt and the
consumption of heat were the two key factors to reduce ecological
Chiu et al. (2008). compared three recycled materials (recycled burden during rehabilitation process. The effective way to mitigate
hot asphalt mixtures, asphalt rubber, Recycled Glassphalt) with ecological burden was to assure the quality of pavement and reduce
conventional HMA to provide a selection of material to apply dur- the heat required during rehabilitation process (Chiu et al., 2008).
ing pavement maintenance process. The results showed both During maintenance process, the use of CRMA could reduce the
asphalt rubber mix and recycled hot asphalt mix decreased the ecological burden. The application of rubberized asphalt during
ecological burden by 23% while the Glassphalt added the ecological maintenance stage reduced GHG emission according to the life
burden by 19%. Overall, the asphalt rubber mixture was the best cycle assessment. CRMA could present better functional and
alternative due to reducing ecological burden (Chiu et al., 2008; structural performance, leading to a remarkable reduction in
Thives and Ghisi, 2017). A Dutch method (Audenaert et al., 2012), environmental burden.
as an index, was used to indicate the environmental effect of a
product or manufacturing process. Fig. 15 showed the ecological 4.5. End of life
burden of each material in terms of 40-year life span.
Meanwhile, the result obtained by Farina et al. (2017). was in At the end of pavement service life, the pavement could be
agreement with the conclusion that the use of rubberized asphalt recycled, landfilled, or simply stayed in place as part of infrastruc-
binders could reduce the ecological burden. Bartolozzi et al. ture. The rate at which each of these options happened for various
Table 12
Metal leachate test results and allowable limits (ug/L) (Kayhanian et al., 2008).
Vashisth et al. (Vashisth et al., 1998) Kriech (Kriech, 1990) Kriech (Kriech, 1992) EPA (EPA, 2002)
Metal DGAC CRM(wet) CRM(dry) HMA HMA PCC Allowable Limit

Arsenic <5 <5 <5 10
Barium <2000 2900 <2000 2000
Cadmium 0.5 0.4 0.2 <20 <20 <20 5
Chromium 0.5 0.5 1.1 100 <10 72 100
Copper 0.4 0.5 0.4 1000
Lead BDL 2.1 BDL <200 <200 <200 15
Mercury <5 <5 <5 2
Nickel 0.8 0.7 0.8 100
Selenium <5 <5 <5 50
Silver <40 <40 <40 100
Zinc 5 11.5 2.5 5000
Notes: Values with the “less than” (<) symbol preceding them indicate that the constituent was below the detection limit for the study, DGAC ¼ dense graded asphalt concrete,
CRM ¼ crumb rubber modifiers.
14
12
Environment Load(kPt.)
10
0
Stone Sand Asphalt Electricity Heat Diesel Transporation
Conventional HMA Recycled HMA AR-HMA Glassphalt
Fig. 15. Environmental loads of milling/overlaying one lane-kilometer of asphalt pavement for 40 years using different materials (Chiu et al., 2008).
10
9
/m3)
8
CO2 Emission Saving (kg CO2
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Hot mixes Hot mixes Hot mixes Milling Transport for
production transport laying disposal
Fig. 16. CO2 emission saving achieved for each m3 of rubberized asphalt hot mixes during rehabilitation processes (Antunes and Murachelli, 2009).
pavement types, locations, and other pavement details was not well (Carlson and Zhu, 1999b). reported that rubberized asphalt mixes
documented (Rieradevall et al., 1997; Santero, 2010). Carlson et al were successfully recycled. A study conducted quantitative analysis
of the environmental benefits of rubberized asphalt technology
used in Italy, demonstrating that rubberized asphalt technology
could reduce about 44% carbon dioxide emission compared with
14,000
traditional pavement rehabilitation, as shown in Fig. 17 (Antunes
12,000 and Murachelli, 2009).
CO2 Emission Saving (kg CO2)
10,000
4.6. Summary
8,000
Emissions of O2, N2, CO2, NOx and SO2 in the production of
6,000 rubberized asphalt mixtures were somewhat similar to those in hot
mix asphalt. Hazardous compounds in rubberized asphalt fumes
4,000
exposure to paving workers did not increase. Meanwhile, the use of
2,000 warm mix technology in rubberized asphalt could gain a remark-
able reduction of emissions during the field operations due to the
0 decrease of compaction and mixing temperatures. The environ-
Hot mixes Hot mixes Hot mixes Milling Transport for mental burden imposed by the rubberized asphalt technology was
production transport laying disposal
5%e10% less than that by traditional technology during the pave-
Fig. 17. Overall CO2 emission saving by using rubberized asphalt hot mixes (Antunes ment construction process. The application of rubberized asphalt
and Murachelli, 2009). reduced the tire/pavement interface noise by 40e88% in
comparison with traditional mixture. In addition, PCC pavements C The energy consumption of rubberized asphalt pavement in
wore tires down 1.4 to 2 times faster than rubberized asphalt service should be studied and quantified.
pavements. Meanwhile, the impact of rubberized asphalt pavement C Quantitative analysis of energy consumption in recycling
on the environment was small because leachate from rubberized stage of rubberized asphalt should be conducted.
asphalt pavement did not pose a measurable threat to the envi- C The environmental impact of rubberized asphalt material
ronment. Moreover, the application of asphalt rubber could reduce during recycling stage should be analyzed.
the ecological burden. The significant GHG emission saving was C More case studies are recommended to be conducted to
achieved by using rubberized asphalt in the process of maintenance compare various types of asphalt mixtures, including
according to the life cycle assessment. rubberized asphalt by wet, dry and terminal blend processes
and asphalt mixture containing SBS modified binder, RAP
5. Conclusions and further research materials and many others.
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Journal of Cleaner Production 180 (2018) 139e158

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

Energy consumption and environmental impact of rubberized asphalt

4.2.2. New pavement construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

1. Introduction (Amirkhanian and Corley, 2005). In order to lighten the problem,

Fig. 1. The ﬂowchart of all the structure of paper.

Nature aggregate 57.6 140 78.6 59.1

Engegy Consumption (MJ/t)

Gross energy requirement (MJ/m)

12000 43% 43% 45%

Fig. 6. Gross Energy Requirement associated to individual material and operations

Application of rubberized asphalt would beneﬁt immediately in

ronment (Bartolozzi et al., 2012).

Reduction of CO emission (%)

Input-output CO2 kg CH4 g N2O g VOC g NOx g CO g SO2 g PM10 g PM2.5 g

Notes: PRA¼ Plasticerubber asphalt, PP ¼ polypropylene, SBS¼ Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene block copolymer.

Co-incineration Material recycling

Photochemical ozone creation…

0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 -1.2

Abiotic depletion kg Sb eq 690,0650983 470,4820614

Country Noise Level Reduction Country Noise Level Reduction

Belgium 8-10 dB (65e85%) Phoenix, AZ 10 dB (88%)

4.3.2. Tire wear

Haimen Concrete 103.9

Short-term batch leaching 24 h Benzothiazole 0.45 17 44

Notes: NTE: no toxic effect. BDL:concentration below detection limit.

Metal DGAC CRM(wet) CRM(dry) HMA HMA PCC Allowable Limit

Conventional HMA Recycled HMA AR-HMA Glassphalt

5.1. Conclusions References

143e152. Whole Tires in Highway Applications. University of Wisconsin-Madison,

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