Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 2013, 5, 336-342

http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2013.53A034 Published Online March 2013 (http://www.scirp.org/journal/jwarp)

Coastal Reservoirs Strategy for Water Resource

Development—A Review of Future Trend
Jianli Liu1, Shuqing Yang1, Changbo Jiang2
1
School of Civil, Mining & Environmental Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
2
College of Hydraulic Engineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha, China
Email: jl997@uowmail.edu.au

Received December 18, 2012; revised January 22, 2013; accepted January 31, 2013

ABSTRACT
Water use and access become a more and more important determinant of environmental equity and human development
according to the view held by the UN [1]. Water scarcity is one of the major crises which has overarching implications
for other world problems especially poverty, hunger, ecosystem degradation, desertification, climate change, threaten-
ing world peace and security [2]. In the decades to come, freshwater consumed by human will get to a tipping point.
Many projects and concepts have been proposed and implemented for several years to improve the effectiveness of us-
ing water. These research activities can be grouped as: desalination plants; water detention (like rainwater tanks for col-
lection and reuse); wastewater reuse; dams and reservoirs. This paper summarized the characters of these water solu-
tions. But these methods can’t provide enough fresh water due to limitations imposed by these methods as well as fol-
lowing industry and population’s development. To overcome these shortcomings, coastal reservoir strategy is proposed
in the paper. This new strategy is technically feasible, environmentally sustainable and cost effective by demonstration
and comparison.

Keywords: Water Crisis; Water Quality; Coastal Reservoir; Future Trend

1. Introduction future trend.

The shortage of fresh water reserves is a world-wide
2. Main Water Solutions
problem nowadays. As about 66℅ of the world popula-
tion would be confronted with water-shortage by 2025 There are mainly several kinds of water supply options in
[3]; the water from aquifers, which provide water for the world, for example, groundwater, inland reservoir,
one-third of the world’s population, are being used out seawater desalination, water diversion, wastewater reuse,
before nature can complement them [4]. Water scarcity is stormwater harvesting.
already a focus of attention all over the world [5]. For Groundwater is used as one of water sources, espe-
example, the Southwest and Midwest areas of the USA cially as drinking water source for thousands of years.
and Australia are vulnerable to water scarcity [6]. Espe- Yet groundwater resources in the world are almost fully
cially in Australia, water allocations for irrigation have developed. In some areas, they are already considered
caused a conspicuous decline in rainfall and runoff in the overdeveloped. The groundwater source that could po-
past decades [7]. tentially be developed in the world is so small that to be
Many ideas have been proposed to increase the avail- exploited isn’t economically viable and will affect envi-
ability of fresh water including: desalination plants, wa- ronment.
ter detention (collection and reuse), dams. However, the The water supply source of inland reservoir relies on
people are still facing water crisis. In the 6th World Wa- rainfall. Besides, the location of inland reservoir is diffi-
ter Forum, “The time for solutions” is put forward. This cult to be sited, as the construction of inland reservoir
study summarized the current situation of water solutions requires the correct combination of topography, hydrol-
and proposed the new waters strategy-coastal reservoir. ogy and geology. Building on-land Reservoir may mi-
The effectiveness of coastal reservoir was compared to grate people or change the local ecological environment,
the existing sustainable water methods to demonstrate the which is against by local people. For example, in Austra-
advantages and disadvantages of each method. Its appli- lia, in the recent two centuries, there are almost no new
cation was also discussed. The new type of water reser- dam sites built. Soil erosion also keeps reducing the
voirs utilizes rainfall (flood) scientifically and may be a storage capacity of the inland reservoirs by more than 1%

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 J. L. LIU ET AL. 337

annually. In Australia, inland reservoirs were subjected pend on local rainfall or local water quality. But this wa-
to very high siltation rates which are comparable to ter source would have very high construction costs. For
overseas [8]. In the future, soil erosion and reservoir instance, the government of Queensland in Australia has
sedimentation rates would be accelerated due to the se- considered diverting water supplies from North Eastern
verity of storms and rains as a result of global warming NSW, but this was found to be not economically viable.
[1]. This means that almost all existing inland reservoirs There were also numerous social, environmental and
may lose much of its capacity in about 100 years. There- interstate issues that were considered to be insurmount-
fore, the other water source options should be consid- able. Water could potentially be diverted from Northern
ered. Queensland. However, this would involve very high con-
The first desalination plant by the multi-stage flash struction costs and should only be considered if no alter-
(MSF) evaporation process installed in 1964 in Linarite native water sources are available locally. Another ex-
(Canary Islands), over 700 desalination plants exist ample, The South-North Water Transfer Project (SNWTP),
nowadays [9]. Desalination technologies account for a which is a multi-decade infrastructure project of the Peo-
worldwide production capacity of 24.5 million m3/day ple’s Republic of China to utilize water resources avail-
[10], the cost decreased to $0.50 - 0.80/m3 desalinated able, diverts 44.8 billion cubic meters/year of water from
water and even to $0.20 - 0.35/m3 for treatment of brack- South to North. The cost of the project is over 500 billion,
ish water [11]. However, they have potential negative which causes many experts to question if the project is
impacts [12]. These are mainly attributed to the concen- optimal [15,16].
trate and chemical discharges, which may impair coastal Reuse of wastewater does not depend directly on rain-
water quality and affect marine life, and air pollutant fall. But the level of contaminants is higher than other
emissions are attributed to the energy demand of the water supply options except seawater. Therefore, the
processes. A key concern of desalination plants is the operating cost of the treatment process would be higher.
concentrate and chemical discharges to the marine envi- It is a common practice to discharge untreated sewage
ronment, which may have adverse effects on water and directly into bodies of water or put onto agricultural land,
sediment quality, impair marine life and the functioning causing significant health and economic risks [17]. There
and intactness of coastal ecosystems [12]. WHO (World could also be public perception problems with the reuse
Health Organization) provided a general overview on the of wastewater.
composition and effects of the waste discharges in their Stormwater harvesting is used in house yards, streets
guidance document. Lattemann [12] and MEDRC [13] and parks in some countries like Australia, but there are
discussed details of the negative impacts. Reverse osmo- several shortages. Goonrey analysed the technical feasi-
sis (RO), a commonly used desalination technology, is bility of using stormwater as an alternative supply source
significantly more expensive than the standard treatment in an existing urban area [18], the shortcomings are:
of dam water for potable use. Furthermore, desalination firstly, its storage capacity is very small due to the struc-
technologies have the risk of oil pollution, as oil films tural constraints; then its water quality may be not very
can cause serious damage inside a desalination plant and good as the water comes from densely populated areas,
oil contaminants may impact the product water quality. and its cost is also very high as precious land is used to
Desalination also causes noise pollution. Most of the store the storm water.
noise is produced by the high-pressure pumps and the Now the current water solutions can’t satisfy people’s
turbines [14]. Desalination of seawater does not rely on increasing need for water. Commonly for one area, there
rainfall (it is a climate resilient water source). Desalina- is too much rain in the wet season which causes flood
tion plants are located on the coast, and as mentioned and excess rainwater discharge into the sea, but in dry
earlier this is where the majority of the water demand is season, there is not much rain, which causes water
expected to be located. But the treatment process would shortage. According to statistics, there is only about 1/6
have high energy requirements as well as high operating
of the runoff used by human in the world and about half
and maintenance costs because of the high concentrations
of all available fresh water on the earth runs into the sea
of contaminants that would have to be removed. The
from coastlines where the fresh water mixes with saltwa-
concentrate stream produced by the desalination process
ter. Therefore, the issue is not lack of water, but it is lack
can have detrimental environmental impacts. This could
of how to make use of the water. Coastal reservoir [19]
be a significant problem if the desalination plants were
was proposed to solve this problem.
located on the coast, because the discharge would be
released into a place, which is maybe a very sensitive
marine environment. Therefore, other water supply op-
3. Coastal Reservoir
tions need to be developed. Coastal reservoir is a freshwater reservoir in the seawater
Diversion of water from a remote source does not de- near a river mouth to capture the sustainable river flow

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338 J. L. LIU ET AL.

[20]. It provides water for people by storing water from

the runoff which will flow into the sea, or flood. The
location of a coastal reservoir can be inner, outer or be-
side a river mouth. The dam of a coastal reservoir can be
concrete, earth or soft dam. The water in the coastal res-
ervoir can be used for drinking, irrigation or industrial
usage.
Compared with water from seawater desalination proc-
esses, catchment runoff is a natural resource, which is
cost-saving and water quality is similar to storm water or
like the dam water in inland reservoirs. Different from
Figure 2. Multiple coastal reservoir design.
the inland dams, coastal reservoir harvests the catchment
runoff into the sea, its water sources from a river and the
redundant in terms of commercial or recreational activi-
reservoir has the potential to catch all runoff from a
ties.
catchment. Coastal reservoirs are usually below the sea
level while inland reservoirs are above the sea level. Ex-
3.1. Existing Coastal Reservoirs
isting freshwater lakes or lagoons on the shore can be
regarded as special or natural coastal reservoirs. The first coastal reservoir was built in Zuider Zee, Neth-
A coastal reservoir can be constructed using both a erlands in 1932, named Ijsselmeer with water area of
primary and secondary barrier. The primary barrier can 1240 km2. At that time, people mainly enclose sea area to
be high enough to be above the tidal and wave height of set up land with getting water as a fringe benefit. During
the ocean/river/bay of unwanted water. It also can be the late 20th century and early 21st century, coastal res-
strong enough to withstand the forces imparted on the ervoirs are predominantly built to get potable water by
wall by wave and tidal actions. The secondary barrier is a catching flood or rainfall and diluting salt water.
floating barrier that has a skirt suspended from it. The This type of Coastal Reservoir is being used in Singa-
skirt can extend to the floor of the reservoir and can be pore, South Korea, Hong Kong and China. Currently,
weighted with ballast to fix it. It can also be moved with there exist many coastal reservoirs in the world are listed
an anchor and chain system. The purpose of this is the in Table 1.
buffer zone can be varied in volume to allow for the From this table, it can be seen that coastal reservoirs
volume of contaminated fresh water and keep it sepa- allow a huge amount of water to be stored by collecting
rated from the uncontaminated fresh water (Figure 1). water over a large Catchment area. The Qingcaosha
The reservoir is filled by either allowing fresh water which is currently the longest dam in the world supplies
inside through a gate system during times of freshwater over 7 GL of potable water a day to the 11 million resi-
flows in the river, for example flood times; or by way of dents in Shanghai, which is also half of Australia popula-
a conventional catchment system where the coastal res- tion.
ervoir is positioned correctly so that it is fed by catch- The Plover Cove Reservoir, located in Plover Cove
ment inflows. Country Park, is the first “reservoir in the sea” over the
Coastal reservoir is designed in such a way that it can world which is specially designed for drinking purpose.
be adapted to different locations without blocking off It is also the second largest reservoir in Hong Kong (see
entire rivers or lakes as shown in Figure 2. Thus not dis- Figure 3). The imposing dam is 28 meters, which is
turbing environmental flows or leaving the waterway Hong Kong’s longest dam. Water storage capacity is
230,000,000 m3, which equals to 230 billion bottles of 1
L beverage.
Singapore has high annual rainfall but with very little
readily available water, more than half of the annual
rainfall runs off into the sea [21]. Due to its rapid eco-
nomic and population growth in the past decades, the
demand for potable water in Singapore increases steadily,
the former way of water supply can’t satisfy the need of
people’s living and production. To augment water supply,
Singapore has built the Marina Barrage to develop fur-
ther its rainfall (see Figure 4). It provides approximately
10% of the population’s potable water supply which ac-
Figure 1. Coastal reservoir construction [20]. counts for 462,000 people at the time of completion 2008

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 J. L. LIU ET AL. 339

Table 1. Existing coastal reservoirs in the world.

Name Catchment (km2) Dam length (m) Capacity (million m3) Year (completed) Country
Qingcaosha 66.26 48786 435 2011 China/Yangtze
Saemanguem 33900 530 2010 South Korea
Sihwa 56.5 12400 323 1994 South Korea
Marina Barrage 350 42.5 2008 Singapore
Chenhang 1.4 9.14 1992 China/Shanghai
Yuhuan 166 1080 64.1 1998 China/Zhejiang
Baogang 12 1985 China/Shanghai
Plover Cove 45.9 2000 230 1968 Hong Kong
West Sea Barrage 8000 1986 North Korea

person in Singapore is 153 litres [21]. Marina Barrage

provides 71 ML of potable water per day which is 25.8
GL a year, which alleviates water problems in Singapore.
The Marina Barrage is a dam built across the 350-me-
tre wide Marina Channel to keep out seawater. Marina
Reservoir, together with Punggol and Seragoon reser-
voirs, increased Singapore’s water catchment area from
half to two-thirds of Singapore’s land area in 2011. It
achieves three aims: to act as a tidal barrier for flood
control; to create a new reservoir to augment the water
supply; to maintain a new body of freshwater at constant
level in the heart of the city as a major lifestyle attraction.
The project has been carefully designed to blend in well
with the environment, which won many Awards nation-
ally and internationally. Figure 5 shows the flood-con-
trolling working principal of the Marina Barrage.

3.2. The Functions of Coastal Reservoir

For three main functions-irrigation, industrial and do-
Figure 3. Plover cove reservoir.
mestic water using, most of coastal reservoirs are used
for irrigation and domestic water using, like Sihwa, Ma-
rina Barrage, Qingcaosha, Yuhuan, and Plover Cove.
According to the difference of water quality, two coastal
reservoirs in the same area are divided for different func-
tions. For example, Chenhang Reservoir, which is lo-
cated in Yangtze River Estuary of China, mainly pro-
vides drinking water for north area of Shanghai. Baogang
Reservoir, which is besides Chenhang Reservoir, plays
an important role in providing industrial water to keep
Baoshan Steel going on (see Figure 6).

3.3. Environmental and Social Impact of Coastal

Reservoir
Coastal reservoir at a river mouth can capture every sin-
gle drop of runoff, and also has potential to collect all
Figure 4. Location of the marina barrage. contaminants yielded from the catchment. For water
quality, coastal reservoirs catch the stormwater runoff
[22]. If the average daily taken, water consumption per which is closer to drinking water in quality than the

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340 J. L. LIU ET AL.

periods, the excess water will be drained into the ocean

this preventing any form of flooding. For place selection,
coastal reservoirs are able to fit into any location at the
mouth of a river (river estuary) entering into ocean. This
is very convenient for coastal cities which have huge
population and less space.

3.4. Comparison between Desalination, Storm

Water Harvesting, Waste Water Reuse and
Coastal Reservoirs
For Desalination, its advantages are it can be used
whenever a water shortage is present due to the constant
availability of salt water. A constant maximum output
can always be achieved if necessary. It has high output
that covers a large portion of the population. But the dis-
advantages are it has very high capital costs and very
high ongoing cost. It environmental damage can’t be
Figure 5. Working principal of the marina barrage.
neglected. Besides, a percentage of the plant’s ongoing
costs still exist even if the plant is not operating, meaning
that during extended periods the plant produces nothing
but still incurs ongoing costs for maintenance and elec-
tricity.
For Storm Water harvesting, its advantages are its wa-
ter source is from storm water, which of cost is lower
when compared to other methods. And it has low ongo-
ing costs. There is little or no energy needed to produce
water. It has long design life that will last as long as a
catchment area exists. But the disadvantages are the fol-
lowing. The first is it has high negative environmental
impact due to a large amount of land that needed to be
Figure 6. Baogang and Chenhang reservoir (① is Baogang converted. The second is it relies on large rainfall events,
Reservoir and ② is Chenhang Reservoir). meaning that during times of drought storm water har-
vesting will provide very little to know usable water. The
treated salt water produced by desalination. third is limited maximum capacity. Now storm water
For environmental impact, as there is nearly no land harvesting is mainly used in household or parks, which is
requirements for building coastal reservoirs and water difficult to satisfy massive water demand.
quality can be guaranteed, the damage to the local eco- For waste water reuse, its advantages are: the first is it
systems and marine wildlife can be minimized greatly. provides environmental benefits instead of a negative
The proposed method of harvesting will avoid any severe environmental impact. The second is it can be used all
environmental impacts such as depriving local rivers of year round due to the constant volume of wastewater
water. As the reservoirs construction at sea, no land is produced by the population. The third is its low ongoing
needed for construction purposes making them better for cost. But the disadvantages are also obvious. The first is
the environment than typical inland mountainous reser- water cannot be used for human consumption. The Sec-
voirs. As only high quality water (free of contaminates) ond is it has small maximum output. The Third is it
is allowed to enter the reservoir, it will help to minimize needs very high capital cost per GL produced. The fourth
the impact of the coastal reservoir on the local ecosystem is it requires high energy requirements to produce water.
and marine wildlife. For coastal reservoir, it can easier expand the amount of
Due to the reservoirs’ ability to capture every single water it could store and can operate 365 days a year or as
drop of runoff, it is functional as long as rain continues to needed and will incur. There are no costs when not in use
fall. Thus it is highly sustainable; its life span could last and nearly no or low negative environmental impact. For
for many decades and does not pose any major risks to the cost comparisons, see Table 2.
the population. Coastal reservoirs will not lead to flood- Table 2 shows the comparison of construction cost
ing, as the water collected is in the ocean. When there is and cost per kilolitre of water between coastal reservoir
too much stormwater which may occur during long wet and other water solutions.

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 J. L. LIU ET AL. 341

Table 2. Cost comparison between coastal reservoirs and by the University of Wollongong, Australia. The works
other water solutions. are also supported, in part, by the research projects
Construction cost per Cost per kilolitre “Sediment Transport Processes and Mechanism of Beach
kilolitre of water (US$) of water (US$) Profile Evolution under Global Climate Change”
Coastal reservoirs 2.67 - 6.01 0.15 - 0.25 (51239001) and “Investigation on Formation Mechanism
Inland reservoirs 5.83 - 7.5 0.34 - 0.4 of Secondary Currents and Its Roles for Mass and Mo-
Desalination 6.41 - 10.08 0.43 - 1.13 mentum Transfer” (51228901) funded by National Natu-
Water recycling 5.57 - 8.30 1.44 - 1.53 ral Science Foundation of China.

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