Atomic Structure A

CH-4: ATOMIC STRUCTURE CHEMISTRY/CLASS-IX
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
4.1 INTRODUCTION
All matter is composed of tiny particles called atom.An atom is the smallest particle of an element that
can exist and still have properties of an element.
The first theory regarding atom is given by Dalton but later on it discarded by scientists. After that
J. J. Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr and many other scientist gave their atomic model.
4.2 DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

The main postulates of this theory are
(1) Each element is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
(2) Atom is indestructile.
(3) Atoms of a particular element are all alike but differ from atoms of another element.
Merits
(1) It explains the law of conservation of mass.
(2) It explains the law of definite proportion.
Demerits
(1) It fails to explain that why should atoms of an element differ in their masses.
(2) Discovery of isotopes and isobars, proved that atoms of same element mayhave different atomic
mass (isotopes) and atoms of different kinds may have same atomic masses (isobars).
(3) The discovery of various sub atomic particles like electron, proton, neutron etc. lead to the idea
that the atom was no longer the smallest, in divisble particle of matter.
4.3 CHARGED PARTICLES IN MATTER

(1) ELECTRON
 Properties of electron
(a) Electron was disovered by Sir J. J. Thomson
(b) Charge is 1.6 × 10–19 coulomb/gm
(c) The molar mass is 5.48 × 10–4 g/mole (0.000548 amu)
(e) In 1897, J. J. Thomson determined the e/m value of the electron
–1.7588 × 108 coulomb/gram.
(f) Robert A. Millikan, gave the value of charge by oil drop
experiment –1.6022 × 1019 Coulomb = 4.8 × 1010 esu. (g) mass of electron
1
9.1096 × 10–31 Kg = 0.000548 amu. ( of mass of hydrogen atom)
1837
 Cathode Rays
Scientists William Crookes 1879, Julius Pleuckar 1889 studied the electrical conduction
through gases at low pressures. Sir William Crookes designed discharge Tube.
The electronwas discovered at extremelylow pressure and highvoltage of the orderof10,000 volts.
J. J. Thomson’s Experiment and The Discovery of Electron
Properties of the cathode rays shows that these consist of streams of negatively charged particles
having verysmall mass. SirJ. J. Thomson called these particles corpuscles of negative electricity.
Later, G. J. Stoney called these particles electrons.
In 1897, an English physcist, J. J. Thomson studied the effect of electric field on cathode rays.
The discharge tube used by Sir J. J. Thomson consisted of the following parts:
 a cathode (C),
 a cylindrical metal disc having a fine hole at its centre, acts as anode (A) – this accelerates
the particles of the cathode rays,
 another metal disc (D) having a fine hole at its centre in line with the hole in the anode.
 the cathode rays (consisting of electrons) pass through these holes and strike the
fluoresecnt screen at the point E.
 Two flatplates P1 and P2, which can be connected to a source of high voltage.
 an electromagnet, generating field opposite to the field generated by the plates P1 and P2.
In the absence of any electrical or magnetic field, the cathode rays strike the fluorescent screen
at point E, and can be seen as a bright spot there.
When a high electric field is applied across the plates P1 and P2, the spot on the screen moves
towards the positively charged plate. Here, in figure the plate P2 is positively charged.
The bending of cathode rays towards the positive plate showed that the cathode rays consist of
negatively charged particles. The deflection suffered by the beam of cathode rays (or beam of
electrons) in Thomson’s experiment depends upon the strength of the electric field applied across
the electrodes.
 Properties of Cathodes Rays

(i) Cathode rays travel in straight line :When an opaque object like a metal cross is
placed in the path of cathode rays in a discharge tube , a shadow of the metal cross is
formed at the end opposite to the cathode.
(ii) Cathode rays produce mechanical effect : On placing a light paddle in the path of
cathode rays in a discharge tube the blades of the paddle wheel rotate. This shows that
cathode rays are a beam of particle having mass and possessing kinetic energy.
(iii) Cathode rays are negatively charged particles : When an electric field is applied in
the path of cathode rays, they are deflected towards the positive plate of the electric
field, which shows cathode rays are made up of negatively charged particles.
(iv) Cathode rays travel with high speed approaching that of light.
(v) Cathode rays cause fluorescence.
(vi) Cathode rays heat the object on which they fall due to transfer of kinetic energy to the
object.
(vii) When cathode rays fall on solids such as copper, X-rays are produced.
(viii) Cathode rays posses ionizing power i.e. they ionize the gas through which they pass.
(ix) The cathode rays affect the photographic plates.
(x) They penetrate through thin metallic sheets.
(xi) The nature of these rays does not depend upon the nature of gas and the cathode
material used in discharge tube.
(i) Similarly, when a magnetic field is applied on the cathode rays, these
rays are deflected in a direction which shows that they carry negative
charge.
(ii) The television picture tube is a cathode ray tube in which a picture is
produced due to fluorescence on the television screen coated with
suitable material. Similarly, fluorescent light tubes are also cathode
ray tubes coated inside with suitable materials which produce visible
light one being hit with cathode rays.
(2) PROTON
 Properties of proton:
(a) Discovered by Goldstein
(b) Charge of +1.602 × 10–19 coulomb
(c) Mass is 1.672 × 10–27 kg or 1.0072 amu
 Positive Rays-Discovery of Proton

In 1886 Eugen Goldstein first obsered that a cathode raytube also generates a stream of positively
charged particles that move stowards the cathode. These were called canal rays because they
were observed occasionallyto pass through a channel, or “canal”, drilled in the negative electrode.
Perforated
cathode
Positive
Cathode Cathode ray rays
Anode
+ –
Air at a very low Cathode

pressure
These positive rays, or positive ions, are created when cathode rays knock elements from the
gaseous atoms in the tube, forming positive ions by processes such as
atom   cation + e
+ –
or X  X+ + e–
These rays were attracted towards the negative plate in the electric. This means that these rays
consist of positively charged particles and were also named positive rays or anode rays.
(a) E. Goldstein in1886 discovered proton byrepeating the same discharge tube experiments
by using a perforated cathode.
(b) When a high potential difference was applied, not only cathode rays were produced but
also a new type of rays were produced simultaneously from anode moving towards
cathode and passed through the holes of the cathode. These termed as canal ray or
anode ray.
(c) Characteristics of Anode rays are as follows
(i) Travel in straight line and cast shadow
(ii) Deflected by the magnetic and electric fields
(iii) These rays have kinetic energy and produces heating effect also.
(iv) Unlike cathode rays, their e/m value is dependent upon the nature of the gas
taken in the tube.
(v) These rays can pass through thin metal foils.
(vi) They are capable to produce ionization in gases.
Illustration 1
What is the difference in the origin of cathode rays and anode rays?
Solution
Cathode rays originate from the cathode whereas anode rays are not produced
from the anode. They are produced from the gaseous atoms by knock out of
the electrons by high speed cathode rays.
(3) NEUTRON
 Discovery of Neutron
So far we have studied by Rutherford’s atomic model that the mass of the atom is mainly due to
the protons and it is concentrated in the nucleus. Chadwick (1932), while studying the
bombardment of light elements, such as beryllium, boron and lithium, byfast moving -particles
obtained highlypenetrating radiations. These radiations were found to have high ionising power
and were not deflected by electric or magnetic field. These neutral particles were found to have
mass 1.675 × 10–24 g and were named neutrons.
The reactions responsible for the production of neutron were later found to be
4
(i) 2 He  92 Be 
 12
6C  1
0n
(   particle) ( Neutron)
4 11
(ii) 2 He  5 B  147 N  10 n

Thus, a neutron is defined as a sub-atomic particle which has mass almost equal to that of a
proton (1.675 × 10–27 kg) but has no charge.
This discovery led to the modification of Rutherford atomic model. In the

modified atomic model the nucleus consists of protons and neutrons and these
are collectively termed as nucleons. The entire mass of the atom is due to the
number of nucleons present in the atom.
 Properties of Neutron (n):

(a) Chadwick (1932), discovered neutral particles which was called neutron. Nuclear
reaction is as follows 4 Be 9  2 He 4 
 6 C12  0 n1
(b) A neutron is a subatomic particle which has a mass 1.675 × 10–24 g, approximately
1 amu.
Non-fundamental particles :
1. Positron (1e0 or e+ ) :
(i) Also called as positive electron.
(ii) Discovered byAnderson in 1932.
(iii) Positive counterpart of electron.
(iv) Mass of positron is same as that of electron m = 9.1 × 10–28 g
(v) Charge of positron is same but with opposite sign as that of electron, e = +1.6 × 10–19 C.
2. Neutrino andAntineutrino :
(i) These are particles of approximately zero mass and charge.
(ii) Discoverd by Pauling (1933) and Fermi (1934).
3. Antiproton :
(i) Discovered by segre.
(ii) Mass of antiproton is equal to 1.673 × 10–24 g.
(iii) Charge of antiproton is equal to –1.6 × 10–19 C.
4. Meson :
(i) Discovered by Yakawa in 1935.
(ii) It may be positively charged, negatively charged and neutral.
(iii) On the basis of charge,the meson are of 3 types -meson, -meson and neutral
meson (°).
(iv) Meson indicated the stability of nucleus.
(v) Mass of meson is 200 times that of electron.
4.4 THOMSON ATOMIC MODEL(THE RAISIN PUDDING MODEL) (PLUM

PUDDING MODEL): FIRST ATOMIC MODEL
J. J. Thomson suggested atom is a sphere (Pudding) of positive electricity with a electrons (raisins)
distributed within a sphere, sufficient to neutralize the +ve charge the stability of an atom was explained
as a result of the balance between the repulsive forces between the electron and their attraction towards
the centre of the positive sphere.
Electrons
Sphere of
positive
electricity
LIMITATIONS
Thomson’s model of an atom could explain the main characteristics of the atom at that time. But it did not
have any experimental support. Therefore, it was opposed by his coscientists and was rejected.
Rutherford scattering experiment raised an objection against the model.
ACCEPTANCE
The prediction that an atom is electricallyneutral and has no net charge, is still accepted. This was indeed
a big contribution towards the structure of the atom.
This model is compared with a water melon in which seeds are embedded or
with a cake or pudding in which raisins (dried graphs/kishmish) are
embedded. That is why this model is sometimes called raisin pudding model
or watermelon model
4.5 RUTHERFORD MODEL OF AN ATOM

 DISCOVERY OFNUCLEUS:
Rutherford in 1911 designed an experiment. In this experiment, a fast moving -particle is made
to fall on a thin gold foil.
He took gold foil that was about 100 nm of 10–5 cm thick.by -particle. -particle are +2
charged helium ions. Since they have mass of 4u, the fast moving -particle have a considerable
amount of energy.
Atom of
metal foil Few
Beam of
-particle
Majority of
-rays
Very few
Nucleus
Majority
Few
Scattering of -particles by a gold foil :

The -particle scattering experiment gave totallyunexpected result. It has following observation:-
(i) Most of the fast moving -particles passed straight through the gold foil.
(ii) Some of them were deflected by small angles.
(iii) One out of every 12000 particles approved to rebound.
Rutherford gave following conclusion :

(i) Most of the space inside the atom is empty because most of the -particles passed
through the gold foil with out getting deflected.
(ii) Very few particles were deflected from their path, indicating that the positive charge of
an atom occupies very little space.
(iii) A very small fraction of -particle were deflected by 180°, indicating the all the positive
charge and mass of gold atom were concentrated in a very small volume within the
atom. From above data he also calculated that the radius of the nucleus is about 105
times less than the radius of the atom.
On the basis of his experiment, Rutherford put forward the nuclear model of an atom, which had
the following features :
(a) The size of an atom is 10–8 cm. Most of the space of the atom is empty called extra
nuclear space.
(b) The centre is positively charged body called nucleus and its size is very small i.e.
10–13 cm. Nearly all the mass of an atom resides in the nucleus.
(c) The electrons revolve around the nucleus in well-defined orbits.
Illustration 2
Why Rutherford’s model of atom is also called planetary model of atom?
Solution :
This model of atom is similar to our solar system where the nucleus is like the
sun and the electrons, are like the planets. That is why these electrons are also
called planetary electrons.
 Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model

(a) Stability of the atom is not defined.
(b) The observed spectrum should be continuous but found to be discontinuous
Nucleus Electron
The orbital revolution of the electron is not expected to the stable. Any particle in the circular
orbit would undergo acceleration.
According to classic science, whenever anycharge particle revolve in circular orbit and undergoes
acceleration, it emits radiation and loses energy.As a result of this, the orbit will become smaller
and the electrons will drop into the nucleus. This however does not happen.
Illustration 3
What is ratio of mass proton and electron?
Solution
1.67 1027 Kg
 1837
9.11031 Kg
4.6 BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM/NEIL BOHR [1885-1962]

 Important postulates of Bohr’s model of atom
To overcome the drawback of Rutherford’s model of atom and to explain the line spectrum of
hydrogen. Neils Bohr, a Danish physicist in 1913 proposed a new model of atom based upon
Plank’s quantum theory. This new model is called Bohr’s model of atom. Bohr proposed the
following postulates for revising the Rutherforrd model.
(a) Electron revolves around the nucleus in a fixed circular orbit of definite energy. These
orbits or shells are called energy levels.
(b) Electrons move around only in those circular orbit in which its angular momentum is
h
integral multiple of . Where h = Plank’s constant.
2
mvr = n(h/2)
where, m = mass of the electron,
v = velocity of electron
n = number of orbit in which electron revolves i.e. n = 1,2,3 ..r = radius of the orbit
(c) As long as the electron occupy a definite energy level, it is said to be in stationary state.
(d) The energy is emitted or absorbed only when the electron jumps from one energy level
to another. This amount of energy emitted or absorbed is given by the difference of the
energies of the two energy levels concerned.
n = 2_____ E2 , E = E2 – E1; n = 2_____ E2 E = E1 – E2
 
n = 1_____ E1 , Absorbed energy; n = 1_____ E1 Emitted energy
Illustration 4
Why are Bohr’s orbits called stationary states?
Solution
This is because the energies of the orbits in which the electrons revolve are
fixed.
 Usefulness of Bohr’s Model

(i) It explains the stability of the atoms :According to Bohr’s theory, an electron cannot
lose energy as long as it stays in a particular orbit.
(ii) It explains the line spectrum of hydrogen : The most remarkable success of the
Bohr’s theoryis that it provides asatisfactoryexplanationfor the linespectrum of hydrogen.
 Failures/Limitations of Bohr’s Theory
(i) He could not explain the line spectra of atoms containing more than one electron.
(ii) Could not explain the presence of multiple spectral lines
(iii) In 1923, de Broglie, the French physicist, suggested that electron, like light has a dual
character. It has particle as well as wave nature. Bohr had treated electron only as a
particle.
(iv) The main objection to Bohr’s theory was raised by Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
According to this principle, it is impossible to determine simultaneouslythe exact position
and the momentum of a small moving particle like an electron.
 ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN AN ATOM-BOHR-BURY RULE

Orbit : An orbit or shell is a circular path around the nucleus in which the electron revolves.
These are represented by the symbol K, L, M and N.
Orbital : An orbital is the region around the nucleus within which the probability of finding an
electron is maximum. These are represented by the symbols s, p, d and f each orbital contains
maximum 2 electrons. It represents three dimensional motion of an electron around the nucleus.
Distribution of electrons revolving around the nucleus of an atom, in different orbits (energy
levels or shells) is called electronic configuration. This scheme was proposed by two scientists
Bohr and Bury.
 Bohr-Bury scheme of electronic configuration :

(i) The maximum number of electrons which can be present in anyshell of an atom
is given by the formula 2n2, where n is the number of shells as counted from the
nucleus.
4 N Shell
3 M Shell
2 L Shell
1 K Shell
+ Positively charged Nucleus
K
L
M
N
Thus, according to this scheme the distribution of the electrons in the different shells in
shown in the table given below:
Shell number of energy level Maximum number of electrons

First shell or K-shell 2(n)2 = 2 (1)2 = 2
Second shell or L-shell 2(n)2 = 2 (2)2 = 8
Third shell or M-shell 2(n)2 = 2 (3)2 = 18
Fourth shell or N-shell 2(n)2 = 2 (4)2 = 32
(ii) The outermost shell (also called valence shell) cannot have more than 8 electrons
and the shell next to it cannot have more than 18 electrons.
(iii) It is not necessary for a given shell to complete itself, before another shell starts
forming.As a rule, new shell is formed as soon as the shell attains 8 electrons.
(iv) An atom becomes stable (i.e. it stops reacting with other elements), when its
outermost shell has 8 electrons or it has only one shell containing 2 electrons.
4.7 ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER
Atomic number (Z) : Number of protons = Number of electrons.

Mass number or Nucleon number (A) : Number of proton + Number of Neutron
Each element has been assigned as atomic number (Z) that describes the number of protons in
the nucleus of an atom of that element. i.e. atomic number (Z) = number of proton = number of electron
(in a neutron atom). The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines the identity of the atom.
Every carbon atom (Z = 6) has six protons in the nucleus of the atom, whereas sodium atoms (Z = 11)
have eleven. Since atoms are electrically neutral, the nucleus of the carbon atom must be surrounded by
six electrons, and the sodium atom must contain 11 electrons.
e– e–
e– e–
e– n e– e– p+ p+ e–
p+ p+n p+n n+ +p++
12 n e–
p p p
p+n n + n p+
p+ n pn+
23
6C 11 Na + p n
p nn n + e–
p+ p+ p+ p+ p
e– n e– e–
e–
e– e– e–
(a) (b)
The nucleus of an atom is also described by a mass number (A), which is the sum of the number of
protons and neutrons in the nucleus. The difference between the mass number and the atomic number of
an atom is therefore equal to the number of neutrons in the nucleus of that atom.
The carbon atom has a mass number of 12 because it contains six protons and six neutrons. The sodium
atom has a mass number of 23 because it contains 11 protons and 12 neutrons.
A shorthand notation has been developed to described the number of neutrons

and protons in the nucleus of an atom. The atomic number is written in the
bottom left corner of the symbol for the element and the mass number is written
A
in the top left corner : ZX. The atoms in figure would therefore be given the
12 23
symbol 6C and 11 Na .
Nuclear composition of the first eighteen elements

Element Atomic Mass Number of
number (Z) number (A)
Symbol* Name Neutrons Protons Electrons
(N) (P) (e)
1
1H
Hydrogen 1 1 0 1 1
4
2 He Helium 2 4 2 2 2
7
3 Li Lithium 3 7 4 3 3
9
4 Be Beryllium 4 9 5 4 4
11
5 B Boron 5 11 6 5 5
12
6 C Carbon 6 12 6 6 6
14
7 N Nitrogen 7 14 7 7 7
16
8 O Oxygen 8 16 8 8 8
19
9 F Fluorine 9 19 10 9 9
20
10 Ne Neon 10 20 10 10 10
23
11 Na Sodium 11 23 12 11 11
24
12 Mg Magnesium 12 24 12 12 12
27
13 Al Aluminium 13 27 14 13 13
28
14 Si Silicon 14 28 14 14 14
31
15 P Phosphorus 15 31 16 15 15
32
16 S Sulphur 16 32 16 16 16
35
17 Cl Chlorine 17 35 18 17 17
40
18 Ar Argon 18 40 18 18 18
* Mass number is written at the top-left of the symbol, and the atomic number at the bottom-left.
Illustration 5
30
How many protons, electrons and neutrons are present in 15 P?
Solution
Number of protons in one atom of Proton = Number of electrons in one atom of
proton = 15
Number of neutrons in one atom of P = (A–Z) = 30–15 = 15
Illustration 6
Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in 80 35 Br .
Solution
Here, Z = 35, A = 80
 No. of protons = Atomic Number = 35
No. of neutrons = A – Z = 80 – 35 = 45
As the atom is neutral, No. of electrons = No. of protons = 35.
4.8 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

The assignment of all of the electrons in an atom into specific shells and subshells is known as the
element’s electronic configuration.
A shell is designated by the principal quantum number (n), the subshell by the azimuthal
quantum number (l), and the number of electrons in that subshell by the appropriate superscript number.
For example, the existence of three electrons in the p-subshell of the fourth shell (n = 4) is shown as follows:
Number of electrons
in the subshell (3)
Principal quantum
3
number of shell 4p
(n = 4)
Subshell (p)
We being with the ground state of the one electron in the simplest and first element, hydrogen. The
electron is in the n = 1 shell, which has an s-subshell. The electron configuration for H is 1s1.
The next element, helium, has two electrons. The 1s subshell has a capacity of two electrons, so He has
the configuration 1s2.
 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION PRINCIPLES

The distribution of electrons in different orbitals is known as electronic configuration of the
atoms. Filling up of orbitals in the ground state of atom is governed by the following rules
(1) AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
(a) It is a German word, meaning ‘building up’
(b) According to this principle, “In the ground state, the atomic orbitals are filled in
order of increasing energies”, i.e. in the ground state the electrons occupy the
lowest orbitals available to them.
(c) In fact the energy of an orbital is determined bythe quantum number n and l with
the help of (n + 1) rule or Bohr Bury rule.
1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d
7s 7p
(2) PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

According this principle, “no two electrons in an atom can have all the four quantum numbers
n, l, m and s identical.
(a) An orbital cannot have more than two electrons.
(b) If an orbital has two electrons, they must have opposite spin i.e., they must be paired
electrons.
(3) HUND’S RULE OF MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY

(a) This rule governs the filling up of degenerate orbitals of the same sub-shell.
(b) According to this rule “As far as possible electron in the degenerate orbitals remain
single, pairing will not take place unless and untill each degenerate (equal energy) orbital
has got a single electron.
2 2 3
7N  1s , 2s , 2p
Wrong
Correct
1s2 2s2 1
2 p1x , 2 p y , 2 p1z
Thus, 7 N  1s 2 , 2s 2 , 2 p1x , 2 p1y , 2 p1z
(4) (n + l) Rule
This rule states that electrons are filled in orbitals according to their n+1 values. When (n+l) is
same for sub energy levels, the electrons first occupy the sublevels with lowest ‘n’ value.
Thus, order of filling up of orbitals is as follows
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d
(5) Half Filled and Completely Filled Orbitals

Half-filled and completelyfilled sub-shells have extra stability on the basis of Exchange Energy.
Extra stability is shown, when p, d, f orbitals are half filled or completely filled.
For example,
2 2 6 2 6 2 4
24Cr  1s , 2s , 2p , 3s , 3p , 4s , 3d
1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s1, 3d5
29Cu  1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d9

1s , 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s1, 3d10
2
Exceptional Configuration - Stability of Completely Filled and Exactly Half-filled Orbitals :

However in certain element when the two subshells differ slightlyin their energies, an electron may shift
from a subshell of lower energyto a subshell of higher energyonlyif such a shift results in the symmetrical
distribution (either completely filled or exactly half-filled) of the electrons in the various orbitals of the
shell of higher energy. This is due to the following two reasons :
(i) Symmetrical distribution : It is well known fact that symmetry leads to stability. Thus the
electronic configuration in which all the orbitals of the same subshell are either completely filled
or are exactly half filled are more stable because of symmetrical distribution of electrons. For
example, the expected electronic configuration of chromium (Z = 24) is
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d4
But if one of the 4s-electrons shifts to the vacant 3d-orbital, the distribution of the electrons will
become more symmetrical and this will impart extra stability.
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5
(ii) Exchange energy : The electrons with parallel spins present in the degenerate orbitals tend to
exchange their position. The energy released during this exchange is called exchange energy.
The number of exchanges that can take place is maximum when the degenerate orbitals are
exactlyhalf-filled or completelyfilled.As a result, the exchange energyis maximum and so is the
stability.
4.9 VALENCE ELECTRONS AND VALENCY

Valence electrons: The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called its valence electrons.
For example, the number of valence electron in sodium is one, the number of valence electrons in
chlorine is seven.
Valency of an element : The number of valence electrons of an element which actually take part in
chemical reactions is called the valency of that element or the number of hydrogen atoms, or chlorine
atoms, or double the number of oxygen atoms which combine with one atom of the element is called its
valency.
How can the electronic configuration of an element explain its chemical reactivity
The elements having a completely filled outermost orbit (or shell) will be chemicallyinert (non-reactive).
These elements do not form compounds with other elements
Element Total number of Distribution of electrons in
electrons various shells
K L M
He 2 2
Ne 10 2 8
Ar 18 2 8 8
Because of this chemical inactivity, these gases are called noble gases (earlier these were called inert
gases.
The elements containing only one, or seven electrons in their outermost shell show greater
chemical reactivity, i.e., such elements react very fast with other elements. For example, sodium and
chlorine having the follwing electronic configurations are highlyreactive.
 Sodium 2, 8, 1 - Here, the outermost shell has only one electron: one more than the completely
filledshell.
 Chlorine 2, 8, 7 - Here, the outermost shell has seven electrons: one less than that required to fill
the shell completely.
 Ion Formation
The atomic number of sodium (Na) is 11. Its electronic configuration is 2, 8, 1. Na+ ion is
obtained when one electron is lost from sodium atom.
So, the electronic configuration of Na+ is 2,8. The electronic configuration 2,8 is the electronic
configuration of neon (Ne). Thus, Na+ resembles neon (Ne) in its electronic configuration
 Na   e 
Na 
2, 8, 1 2, 8 electron
The atomic number of chlorine (Cl) is 17. Its electronic configuration is 2, 8, 7. Cl— ion is
obtained when one electron is gain from chlorine atom.
So, the electronic configuration of Cl— is 2, 8, 8. The electronic configuration 2, 8, 8 is the
electronicconfigurationofargon(Ar). Thus,Cl– resemblesargon (Ar) in its electronicconfiguration.
Cl  e  
 Cl –
2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8
4.10 QUANTUM NUMBERS

(i) The measurement scale by which the orbitals are distinguished, can be represented by sets of
numbers called as quantum number.
(ii) Each orbital in an atom is specified by a set of three quantum numbers and each electron is
designated by a set of four quantum numbers.
These quantum numbers are as follows
(i) Principal quantum numbers (Bohr) denoted by ‘n’
(a) It determines the size of atom and energy of the electron in an orbit.
(b) The maximum number of an electron in an orbit is calculated by 2n2
(c) If value of n is 1,2,3,.....it can be denoted by K, L, M.....
(ii) Azimuthal quantum number or angular quantum number, (Sommerfeld) denoted by ‘l ’
(a) It determines the number of subshells or sublevels to which the electron belongs
(b) It tells about the shape of subshells.
(c) It also expresses the energies of subshells s < p < d < f (increasing energy)
(d) The value of l = (n–1) always where ‘n’ is the number of principle shell.
(e) Value of l Name of subshell Shape of subshell

0 s spherical
1 p dumbell
2 d double dumbell
3......(n  1) f complex
Illustration 7
What is the difference between the notations l and L?
Solution
‘l ’ represents azimuthal quantum number which can have value 0, 1, 2 etc. L
represents second Bohr orbit for which n = 2 always.
(iii) Magnetic quantum number (Zeeman) denoted by ‘m’

(a) It gives the number of permitted orientation of subshells.
s-subshell l=0 m=0 i.e., s-subshell has one orbital.

p-subshell l=1 m = –1, 0, +1 i.e., p-subshell has three orbitals.
d-subshell l=2 m = –2, –1, 0, +1, +2 i.e., d-subshell has five orbitals.
f-subshell l=3 m = –3, –2, –1, 0, +1, +2, +3 i.e., f-subshell has seven orbitals.
(b) The value of m varies from –1 to +1 through zero.

(c) It tells aboutthesplittingofspectrallines inthemagneticfieldi.e.it provestheZeeman effect.
Zeeman Effect : In the presence of a magnetic field, each spectral line gets split up into closely
spaced lines. This phenomenon, known as Zeeman effect.
(d) For a given value of ‘I’ the total value of ‘m’ is equal to (2l + 1)
(e) Degenerate orbitals - Orbitals having the same energy are known as degenerate orbitals.
eg. for p-subshell px , py, pz
(iv) Spin Quantum number (s)
(a) The value of ‘s’ is +½ and –½, which is signified the spin or rotation or direction of
electron on it’saxis duringthe movement and the spin maybeclockwise and anticlockwise.
h
(b) It represents the value of spin angular momentum is equal to s ( s  1)
2
Spin of
e— electron e—
Fig. Clockwise and anticlockwise spins of an electron

Illustration 8
What designation is given to an orbital having
(i) n = 2, l = 1 (ii) n = 3, l = 0
(iii) n = 5, l = 3 and (iv) n = 4, l = 2?
Solution :
(i) n = 2, l = 1 means 2p-orbital. (ii) n = 3, l = 0 means 3s-orbital.
(iii) n = 5, l = 3 means 5f-orbital. (iv) n = 4, l = 2 means 4d-orbital.
 SHAPE OF ORBITALS
Shape of orbitals on the basis of quantum number
Y Y
Z Z
–
+ +
X X
1s 2s
Y Y Y
Z Z Z
+
+
+ –
X X X
– –
2 px 2 py 2 pz
Shape of ‘s’ orbital:

(a) For ‘s’ orbital l = 0 and m = 0, so ‘s’ orbital have only one unidirectional orientation i.e.
the probability of finding the electron is same in all directions.
(b) Spherical shape and does not have directional property.
Shape of ‘p’ orbital:
(a) For ‘p’ orbital l = 1 and m = +1, 0, –1 means there are three ‘p’ orbitals, which is
symbolised as px, py, pz.
(b) Shape of ‘p’orbital is dumbbel and it has directional property.
Shape of ‘d’ orbital:
(a) For the ‘d’ orbital l = 2 then the values of ‘m’ are –2, –1, 0, +1, +2. It shows that the ‘d’
orbitals has five orbitals as dxy, dyz, dxz, d x 2  y 2 , d z 2 .
(b) The ‘d’ orbital is double dumb belled and it has directional properties.
4.11 SOME IMPORTANT TERMS

 ISOTOPES
Atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers are called isotopes.
(i) First proposed by soddy.
(ii) The isotopes have same atomic number but different atomic weight.
1 2 3
e.g. 1H (Hydrogen) 1H (Deuterium) 1H (Tritium)
Atomic no. Z = 1 1 1
Mass no. A = 1 2 3
Other such examples
(i) Carbon 12 14
6 C and 6 C
35 37
(ii) Chlorine 17 Cl and 17 Cl
The chemical properties of isotopes are similar but their physical properties are different. If an
element has no isotopes then the mass of its atom would be the same as sum of proton and
neutrons in it. But if an element occurs in isotopic forms then the we have to know the percentage
of each isotopic form and then the average mass is calculated.
The characteristics of isotopes are :

(i) They have different atomic masses (mass number).
(ii) They have the same atomic number.
(iii) They have the same electronic configuration.
(iv) They have the same valence electrons.
(v) They have the same chemical properties.
(vi) They have slightlydifferent physical properties.
 How to calculate the atomic mass of an element from the mass numbers of its isotopes
(% of X1  Mass No. of X1)  (% of X2  Mass No. of X2 )

Atomic mass of the element X 
100
35 35
Chlorine has two isotopes 17 Cl and 17 Cl ; these are found in 3 : 1 ratio or 75% : 25%
respectively. Isotopic mass may be calculated as :
% of Cl 35 % of Cl 37
Isotopic mass of chlorine   mass of Cl 35   mass of Cl 37
100 100
75 25
  35   37  35.5
100 100
Illustration 9
79
If bromine occurs is in the form of say two isotopes 35 Br ( 49.7%) and
81
35 Br (50.3%) , then calculate the atomic mass of bromine atom.
Solution
79u  49.7  81u  50.3
Atomic mass of bromine  = 80 u
49.7  50.3
So, the atomic mass of bromine is 80.
 ISOBAR
The two different atoms which have same atomic masses but different atomic number is called as
isobar
40 40 40
e.g. 18Ar 19 K 20Ca
Atomic mass 40 40 40
Atomic number 18 19 20
18p 19p 20p

22n 21n 20n
Argon
Potassium Calcium
The characteristics of isobars are :

(i) They have the same mass number.
(ii) They have different atomic numbers.
(iii) They have different number of protons.
(iv) Theyhave different electronic configurations.
(v) They have different number of valence electrons.
(vi) They have different chemical properties.
 ISOELECTRONIC
Ion or atom or molecule or species which have the same number of electron is called isoelectronic
species.
 ISOSTERS
Substance which have same number of electron and atoms called Isosters.
e.g. CO2 N 2 O
22 22
 ISODIAPHERES
The elements which have same value of (n–p) is called isodiapheres.
14 16
e.g. 7N 8O
value of (n – p) 0 0
 ISOTONES
Elements which contain same number of neutron is called isotones.
30 31 32
e.g. 14Si 15P 16S
number of neutrons 16 16
 Kernel & Core

Orbit which present after removing the outer most orbit of that atom is called kernel and electrons
which is present that orbit called kernel electrons e.g. Mg = 1s22s22p63s2. Total kernel electron
= 2 + 2 + 6 = 10
(i) The outer most shell of an any atom called Core and the number of electron present of
that shell is called Core electron. e.g. Cl = 1s22s22p63s23p5
Core electron = 2 + 5 = 7
(ii) If the core is unstable for an atom then that atom shows variable valency.
4.12 RADIOACTIVITY
The elements like uranium, thorium, radium and polonium emit some invisible, ionizable rays which effect
a photographic plate just like ordinary light rays.
This spontaneous emissionof invisible, ionizable radiationbysome elements likeuranium, thorium, radium
& polonium due to splitting of their nucleus is called radioacivity& the element which emit such radiations
are called radioactive elements.
Radioactivity was discovered by a (French physicist Henri Bacquerl in 1896).
 Nature of Radioactive radiations

The invisible rays emitted by radioactive elements consist of three different type of radiations
1.Alpha particles 2. Beta particles 3. Gamma rays
Photographic plate Photographic plate
Gamma
Radioactive rays Alpha Beta
Electric field
Aligning slot
Lead shield
Radioactive
substance
Fig. Emission and separation of radioactive radiations
Comparision of ,  &  rays:

Property -particle -particle -rays
1. Charge +ve - ve Neutral
2. Nature 4
2 He
Electron Energetic rays
3. Relative 1 100 100 x 100
Penetration
power
4. Velocity 1 – 1/10% of light 33 – 99% Same as light
5. Ionising Very high Medium Very low
nature
6. Mass 4 a.m.u. 9.1 x 10-29 gm Zero
7. Energy 4.9 mev 5 – 2 mev E = hv
8. Effect on High Medium Very low
ZnS plate
 Cause of Radioactivity: unstable nuclei

When the nucleus of an atom contains relatively more neutrons than what is normally found in
nature, it becomes unstable & shows radioactivity.
Atom No. of protons No. of neutrons Stability

C  12 atom 6 6 Very Stable
C  14 atom 6 8 Radioactive
-decay : 238
92 U α 
- decay 234
90 Th + 42 He + energy
-decay : 14
6 C β 
- decay 14
7 N + 0-1 e + energy
 Applications of Radioactivity
(i) The radioactive isotopes are used to estimate the age of fossils like dead plants
and animals, and rocks called as radio-chemical dating or radio-isotope dating.
An important case is (carbon-dating). Which is a method of estimating the age of old
carbon containing objects like dead plants and animals by measuring the levels of C-14
radioactivityin them.
(ii) The radioacive isotopes are used as ‘tracers’ in medicine to detect the presence
of tumors and blood clots etc in the human body.
(a) Arsenic - 74 tracer is used to detect the presence of (tumors)
(b) Sodium-24 tracer is used to detect the presence of (blood clot)
(c) Iodine-131 radioisotope is used to determine the activity of (thyroid gland)
 Uses of radioactive isotopes

1. In Medicine :
(i) Co60 for treatment of cancer.
(ii) Na24 for circulation of blood.
(iii) I131 for thyroid.
(iv) Sr90 for treatment of skin and eye.
(v) Fe59 for location of brain tumor.
(vi) Radiographs of castings and teeth.
2. In Industries :
(i) For detecting leakages in water and oil pipe lines.
(ii) For investigation of wear and tear, study of plastics and alloys, thickness
measurement.
3. In Agriculture :
(i) C14 to study kinetics of plant photosynthesis.
(ii) P32 to find nature of phosphate which is best for given soil and crop.
(iii) Co60 for protecting potato crop from earth worm.
(iv) Sterilization of insects for pest control.
4. In Scientific research :
(i) K40 to find age of meteorites.
(ii) S35 in factories.
5. As Tracers :
(i) Avery small quantity of radio isotope present in any specimen is called tracer.
(ii) This technique is used to study complex biochemical reactions, in detection of
cracks, blockages, etc., tracing sewage or silt in sea.
6. In Geology :
(i) For dating geological specimens like ancient rocks, lunar rocks using Uranium.
(ii) For dating archaeological specimens, biological specimens using C14.
 Atom is smallest particle consisting of three fundamental particles namely electron, proton and neutron.
 Electron : Discovered by J.J. Thomaon, negatively charged particle carrying 1.60 × 10–19 C and has
mass of 1.60211 × 10–31 kg.
 Proton is a positively charged particle and has mass equal to 1.672614 × 10–27 kg.
 Neutron is a neutral particle and has mass equal to 1.67492 × 10–27 kg.
 Proton was discovered by Goldstein and neutron by Chadwick.
 Atomic number is the number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom whereas Mass number is
the sum total of protons and neutrons. (may called nucleons)
 Isotopes are different atoms of the same element having same atomic number but different number of
35 37
neutrons e.g. [ 11 H ; 12 D ; 13 T and 17 Cl ; 15 Cl ]
 Isobars areAtoms of different elements having same mass number but different number of protons.
40 40 40
[ 18 Ar ; 19 K; 20 Ca ]
 Isotones areAtoms of different elements having same number of neutrons e.g .[ 146 C ; 157 N ; 168 O ]
 Limitation of Bohr’s Model :

(i) Bohr’s model could explain the line spectra of H atom and hydrogen line species but failed to
explain the spectra of multi electron atom .
(ii) It could not explain the splitting of spectral lines into finer lines under the influence of magnetic
effect (Zeeman effect) and electric effect (Stark effect)
(iii) This is not in accordance with de Broglie concept of dual nature of matter and Heisenberg
UncertaintyPrinciple.
 Quantum numbers is set of four numbers used to locate the electron and to determine the amount of
energy associated with it. Out of four, three quantum numbers are derived from Schrodinger equation
and are associated with the orbit and fourth is associated with electron.
 Principal quantum number explains the main lines in the spectrum and represents the main shell, azimuthal
quantum number explains five lines in the spectrum and represents the number of sub shells present in
the main shell, and magnetic quantum number explains splitting of lines under the influence of magnetic
field and represents the number of orbital present in any subshell.
 Spin Quantum Number is associated with the electron and describes the spin of the electron which can
1 1
be either clockwise or anti-clockwise hence have the values  (denoted by the arrow ) and 
2 2
(denoted by the arrow ).
 Filling of orbital’s by electrons take place according to Aufbau Rule; Pauli’s exclusion Principle and
Hund’s rule maximum multiplicity.
 To write the electronic configuration of a cation, first write the electronic configuration of atom and then
remove number of electrons equal to the units of positive charges starting from the outermost shell.
 Rutherford’s model of atom was modified by Bohr in 1913.
 He postulated that so long as the electron is in a particular orbit it neither absorbs nor emit energy. In
other words no energy is required for the movement of the electrons in these orbits on the other hand a
definite amount of energy is absorbed or emitted when the electron moves from one orbit to the other.
 Space in which there is maximum probability of finding the electron is known as orbital.
 Pauli’s Exclusion Principle : According to Pauli’s Exclusion Principle, “no two electrons in an atom
can have all the four quantum number same” i.e. if two electrons occupy the same orbital they must
have opposite spin hence it restricts the number of electrons to two in an orbital.
 Maximum number of electrons in
(i) s-sub shell can be 2; (ii) p-sub shell can be 6
(iii) d- sub shell can be 10; (iv) f-subshell can be 14
 Aufbau Principle
 “An electron enters the orbital’s that has least energy” i.e. electron enters the orbital for which n
+ l is minimum, however, if n + 1 is same for two configuration then election will enter the orbital
with lower value of n.
 The sequence of filling the orbital’s is 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d , 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p , 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p,
7s and so on.
 Hund’s Rules of Maximum multiplicity or minimum pairing
 “No pairing of electrons in a degenerate orbital can take place until each degenerate orbital is
singlyfilled”.
 This is because the electron should be maximum distance apart so as to have minimum repulsion
and secondary electron entering different orbits should have paralled spin so that maximum
possible exchanges can take place.
[NCERT Questions]
Q.1 What are canal rays? [9040410392]
Ans. Canal rays are positively charged radiations. These rays consist of positively charged particles known as
protons. They were discovered by Goldstein in 1886.
Q.2 If an atom contains one electron and one proton, will it carry any charge or not?[9040410443]
Ans. An electron is a negatively charged particle, where as a proton is a positively charged particle. The
magnitude of their charges is equal. Therefore, an atom containing one electron and one proton will not
carry any charge. Thus, it will be a neutral atom.
Q.3 On the basis of Thomson's model of an atom, explain how the atom is neutral as a whole.
[9040410494]
Ans. According to Thomson's model of the atom, an atom consists of both negatively and positively charged
particles. The negativelycharged particles are embedded in the positivelycharged sphere. These negative
and positive charges are equal in magnitude. Thus, by counter balancing each other's effect, they make
an atom neutral.
Q.4 On the basis of Rutherford's model of an atom, which subatomic particle is present in the
nucleus of an atom? [9040410291]
Ans. On the basis of Rutherford's model of an atom, protons (positively charged particles) are present in the
nucleus of an atom.
Q.5 Draw a sketch of Bohr's model of an atom with three shells. [9040410342]
Ans. Bohr's model of an atom with three shells.
Q.6 What do you think would be the observation if the -particles scattering experiment is carried
out using a foil of a metal other than gold? [9040410393]
Ans. If the -scattering experiment is carried out using a foil of a metal rather than gold, there would be no
change in the observation. In the -scattering experiment, a gold foil was taken because gold is malleable
and a thin foil of gold can be easily made. It is difficult to make such foils from other metals.
Q.7 Name the three sub atomic particles of an atom. [9040410444]
Ans. The three sub atomic particles of an atom are:
(i) Protons(ii) Electrons, and (iii) Neutrons
Q.8 Helium atom has an atomic mass of 4u and two protons in its nucleus. How many neutrons
does it have? [9040410495]
Ans. Helium atom has two neutrons. The mass of an atom is the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons
present in its nucleus. Since helium atom has two protons, mass contributed by the two protons is
(2 × 1)u = 2u.Then, the remaining mass (4 – 2)u = 2u is contributed by neutrons.
Q.9 Write the distribution of electrons in carbon and sodium atoms? [9040410292]
Ans. The total number of electrons ina carbon atom is 6. The distribution ofelectrons in carbon atom is given by:
First orbit or K-shell = 2 electrons
Second orbit or L-shell = 4 electrons
or, we can write the distribution of electrons in a carbon atom as 2, 4.
Thetotalnumberofelectrons inasodium atom is11.Thedistribution ofelectrons insodium atomis given by:
First orbit or K-shell = 2 electrons
Second orbit or L-shell = 8 electrons
Third orbit or M-shell = 1 electron
or, we can write distribution of electrons in a sodium atom as 2, 8, 1.
Q.10 If K and L shells of an atom are full, then what would be the total number of electrons in the
atom? [9040410343]
Ans. The maximum number of electrons that can occupy K and L-shells of an atom are 2 and 8 respectively.
Therefore, if K and L-shells of an atom are full, then the total number of electrons in the atom would be
(2 + 8) = 10 electrons.
Q.11 How will you find the valency of chlorine, sulphur and magnesium? [9040410394]
Ans. If the number of electrons in the outer most shell of the atom of an element is less than or equal to 4, then
the valency of the element is equal to the number of electrons in the outer most shell. On the other hand,
if the number of electrons in the outer most shell of the atom of an element is greater than 4, then the
valencyof that element is determined bysubtracting the number of electrons in the outer most shell from 8.
The distribution of electrons in chlorine, sulphur, and magnesium atoms are 2, 8, 7; 2, 8, 6 and 2, 8, 2
respectively.Therefore,the number of electrons in the outer most shell of chlorine, sulphur, and magnesium
atoms are 7, 6 and 2 respectively.
Thus, The valency of chlorine = 8 – 7 = 1
The valency of sulphur = 8 – 6 = 2
The valency of magnesium = 2

Q.12 If number of electrons in an atom is 8 and number of protons is also 8, then (i) what is the
atomic number of the atom and (ii)what is the charge on the atom? [9040410445]
Ans. (i) The atomic number is equal to thenumberofprotons.Therefore,theatomicnumberoftheatomis8.
(ii) Since the number of both electrons and protons is equal, therefore, the charge on the atom is 0.
Q.13 With the help of Table 4.1, find out the mass number of oxygen and sulphur atom.
[9040410496]
Ans. Mass number of oxygen = Number of protons + Number of neutrons = 8 + 8 =16
Mass number of sulphur = Number of protons + Number of neutrons = 16 + 16 = 32.
Q.14 For the symbol H, D and T tabulate three sub-atomic particles found in each of them.
[9040410293]
Ans. Symbol Proton Neutron Electron
H 1 0 1
D 1 1 1
T 1 2 1
Q.15 Write the electronic configuration of any one pair of isotopes and isobars.[9040410344]
Ans. Two isotopes of carbon are C612, C613 .
[Isotopes have the same electronic configuration]
and The electronic configuration of C612 is 2, 4.
The electronic configuration of C613 is 2, 4.
and Ca2040, Ar1940 are a pair of isobars
The electronic configuration of Ca2040 is 2, 8, 8, 2.
The electronic configuration ofAr1840 is 2, 8, 8.
Q.16 Compare the properties of electrons, protons and neutrons. [9040410395]

Ans. Electron
(i) Electrons are present outside the nucleus of an atom.
(ii) Electrons are negatively charged.
(iii) The mass of an electron is considered to negligible.
Proton
(i) Protons are present in the nucleus of an atom.
(ii) Protons are positively charged.
(iii) The mass of a proton is approximately 2000 times as the mass of an electron.
Neutron
(i) Neutrons are present in the nucleus of an atom.

(ii) Neutrons are neutral
(iii) The mass of neutron is nearly equal to the mass of a proton.
Q.17 What are the limitations of J. J. Thomson's model of the atom? [9040410446]
Ans. According to J. J. Thomson's model of an atom, an atom consists of a positively charged sphere with
electrons embedded in it. However, it was later found that the positively charged particles reside at the
centre of the atom called the nucleus, and the electrons revolve around the nucleus.
Q.18 What are the limitations of Rutherford's model of the atom? [9040410497]
Ans. According to Rutherford's model of an atom, electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits. But,
an electron revolving in circular orbits will not best able because during revolution, it will experience
acceleration. Due to acceleration, the electrons will lose energy in the form of radiation and fall into the
nucleus. In such a case, the atom would be highly unstable and collapse.
Q.19 Describe Bohr's model of the atom. [9040410294]

Ans. Bohr's model of the atom
Niels Bohr proposed the following postulates regarding the model of the atom.
(i) Only certain orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons are allowed inside the atom.
(ii) While revolving in these discrete orbits, the electrons do not radiate energy.
These discrete orbits or shells are shown in the following diagram.
The first orbit (i.e., for n =1) is represented by letter K. Similarly, for n = 2, it is L-shell, for n = 3, it is
M-shell and for n = 4, it is N-shell. These orbits or shells are also called energy levels.
Q.20 Compare the properties of electrons, protons and neutrons. [9040410345]

Ans: Nature of
Particle Mass Location
charge
Outside the nucleus
(–1) or (–1.6 × 10–19 C)
Electron Negative –31 (Extra nuclear part distributed
or 9 × 10 kg in
–19
(+1) or (+1.6 × 10 C)
–27
Proton Positive or 1.672 × 10 kg (1 µ) In the nucleus
(approx. 2000 times that of
the electron)
–27
1.672 × 10 kg (1 µ)
Neutron No charge (mass is nearly equal; to the In the Nucleus
mass of a proton)
Q.21 What are the limitations of J.J. Thomson's model of the atom? [9040410446]
Ans. According to J.J. Thomson's model of an atom, it consists of a positively charged sphere with neutrons
embedded in it. However, it was later found that the positively charged particles reside at the center of
the atom called the nucleus, and the electrons revolve around the nucleus.
Moreover, Thomson attributed that the mass of an atom due to electrons and protons are evenly spread
throughout the atom. This is not in agreement with the observations of Rutherford who concluded that
mass is concentrated in a very small space in the center of the atom later called nucleus.
Q.22 What are the limitations of Rutherford's model of atom? [9040410447]
Ans. According to Rutherford's model of an atom, electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed circular
orbits. We know, any particle revolving in a circular orbit would experience acceleration. Due to this
acceleration, the electrons revolving in circular orbits will lose energyin the form of radiation and finally
fall into the nucleus. In such a case, atom would be highly unstable which is not true.
Q.23 Describe Bohr's model of atom. [9040410498]

Ans. Bohr's model ofAtom
According to Bohr's theory:

(1) The atom consists of a small positively charged nucleus at its center.
(2) The whole mass of the atom is concentrated at the nucleus and the volume of the nucleus is much
smaller than the volume of the atom.
(3) All the protons and neutrons of the atom are contained in the nucleus.
(4) Only certain orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons are allowed inside the atom.
(5) While revolving in these discrete orbits electrons do not radiate energy. These orbits or cells are
represented by the letters K, L, M, N etc. or the numbers, n = 1, 2, 3, 4,….. as shown in the
above figure.
Q.24 Compare all the proposed models of an atom given in this chapter. [9040410295]
Ans: Thomson's Model :
1. An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are embedded in it.
2. The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. As a result the atom is electrically
neutral.
Rutherford's Model :
1. An atom consists of a positively charged center in the atom called the nucleus. The mass of the
atom is contributed mainly by the nucleus.
2. The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.
3. The electrons revolve around the nucleus in well-defined orbits.
Bohr's Model :
1. Bohr agreed with almost all points as said by Rutherford except regarding the revolution of
electrons for which he added that there are only certain orbits known as discrete orbitsinside the
atom in which electrons revolve around the nucleus.
2. While revolving in its discrete orbits the electrons do not radiate energy.
Q.25 Summarize the rules for writing of distribution of electrons in various shells for the first eighteen
elements. [9040410346]
Ans. Following rules are followed to fill electrons in different energy levels.
1. If n gives the number of orbit or energy level, then 2n2 gives the maximum number of electrons
possible in a given orbit or energy level. Thus,
Ist orbit or K-shell will have 2 electrons,
IInd orbit or L-shell will have 8 electrons,
IIIrd orbit or M-shell will have 18 electrons.
2. If it is the outermost orbit, then it should have not more than 8 electrons.
3. There should be step-wise filling of electrons in different orbits, i.e., electrons are not accompanied
in a given orbit if the earlier orbits or shells are incompletely filled.
Q.26 Define valency by taking examples of silicon and oxygen. [9040410397]

Ans. The valency of an element is the combining capacity of that element. The valency of an element is
determined by the number of valence electrons present in the atom of that element.
If the number of valence electrons of the atom of an element is less than or equal to four, then the valency
of that element is equal to the number of valence electrons. For example, the atom of silicon has four
valence electrons and so, it has valency equal to four.
On the other hand, if the number of the number of valence electrons of the atom of an element is greater
than 4, then the valency of that element is obtained by subtracting the number of valence electrons from
8. For example, the atom of oxygen has 6 valence electrons and so, the valency of oxygen is (8 – 6) 2.
Q.27 Explain with examples (i) Atomic number, (ii) Mass number, (iii) Isotopes and (iv) Isobars.
Give any two uses of isotopes. [9040410448]
Ans: Atomic Number is defined as the number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom. For example,
there are 6 protons in carbon, so the atomic number of carbon is 6.All atoms are characterized by their
atomic numbers.
Mass Number is defined as the sum of the total number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of
an atom. For example, there are 6 protons and 6 neutrons in the nucleus of carbon, so its mass number
is 12.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element thus having same atomic number but different mass number.
For example, chlorinehas two isotopes with atomic number 17 but mass numbers 35 and 37 represented by
Two Uses of Isotopes :
(a) Isotope of cobalt (60Co) is used in the treatment of cancer.
(b) Isotope of uranium (235U) is used as a fuel in nuclear reactors.
Isobars are such atoms which have same mass number but different atomic numbers. Thus, isobars are
different elements. For example, Ne has atomic number 10 and sodium has atomic number 11 but both
of them have mass numbers as 22 represented by, Ne1022, Na1122.
Q.28 Na+ has completely filled K and L shells. Explain. [9040410499]

Ans. The atomicnumberofsodium is 11.So,neutral sodium atomhas 11electrons andits electronicconfiguration
is 2, 8, 1. But Na+ has 10 electrons. Out of 10, K-shell contains 2 and
L-shell 8 electrons respectively. Thus, Na+has completely filled K and Lshells.
 Na   1e 
Na 
79 81
Q.29 If bromine atom is available in the form of, say, two isotopes 35 Br(49.7%) and 35 Br(50.3%) ,
calculate the average atomic mass of bromine atom. [9040410296]

79
Ans. We known that 35 Br , 81
35 Br are isotope of bromine with atomic mass 79 u = 49.7% and 81 u = 50.3%.
Average atomic mass of element = u1 × % + u2 × %
49.7 50.3
= 79 × + 81 ×
100 100
= 39.26 + 40.74 = 80 u
 Average atomic mass of Br = 80 u.
Q.30 The average atomic mass of a sample of an element X is 16.2 u. What are the percentages of
16 18
isotopes 8 X and 8 X in the sample? [9040410347]
Ans: Atomic mass of element X = 16.2 u
Let the percentage of isotope 168 X be x.
Percentage of the isotope 188 X = (100 – x)

16 18
% of 8 X  16u  % of 8 X  18u
Atomic mass of ‘X’ =
100
x  16u  (100  x )  18u
16.2 u =
100
1620 u = 16x + 1800 – 18x
2x = 180
180
x= = 90%
2
 % of Isotope 168 X = 90%
 % of Isotope 188 X = 10%

Q.31 If Z = 3, what would be the valency of the element? Also name the element.[9040410398]
Ans. If Z = 3, i.e., atomic number is 3. The element is lithium and has distribution of electrons as 2, 1.
And so, lithium has a valency of 1.
Q.32 Composition of the nuclei of two atomic species X and Y are given as under
X Y
Protons = 6 6
Neutrons = 6 8
Give the mass numbers of X and Y. What is the relation between the two species?
[9040410449]
Ans: Mass number of X = 6 + 6 = 12
Mass number of Y = 6 + 8 = 14
Since X and Y both have atomic numbers as 6 but mass numbers are different, therefore, these are
isotopes.
Q.33 For the following statements, write T for True and F for False. [9040410500]
(a) J.J. Thomson proposed that the nucleus of an atom contains only nucleons.
(b)Aneutron is formed by an electron and a proton combining together. Therefore, it is neutral.
(c) The mass of an electron is about 1/2000 times that of proton.
(d) An isotope of iodine is used for making tincture iodine, which is used as a medicine.
Ans: (a) False (b) False (c) True (d) True
Put tick () against correct choice and cross ( ) against wrong choice in the following questions:
Q.34 Rutherford's alpha-particle scattering experiment was responsible for the discovery of [9040410297]
(A)Atomic Nucleus (B) Electron (C) Proton (D) Neutron.
Ans: (A)
Q.35 Isotopes of an element have [9040410348]

(A) the same physical properties (B) different chemical properties
(C) different number of neutrons (D) different atomic numbers.
Ans: (C)
Q.36 Number of valence electrons in Cl- ion is: [9040410399]

(A) 16 (B) 8 (C) 17 (D) 18
Ans: (B)
Q.37 Which one of the following is a correct electronic configuration of sodium? [9040410450]
(A) 2, 8 (B) 8, 2, 1 (C) 2, 1, 8 (D) 2, 8, 1
Ans: (D)
Q.38 Complete the following table. [9040410298]
Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of Name of the

Number Number Neutrons Protons Electrons Atomic Species
9 – 10 – – –
16 32 – – – Sulphur
– 24 – 12 – –
– 2 – 1 – –
– 1 0 1 0 –
Ans: Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of Name of the

Number Number Neutrons Protons Electrons Atomic Species
9 19 10 9 9 Fluorine
16 32 16 16 16 Sulphur
12 24 12 12 12 Magnesium
1 2 1 1 1 Deuterium
1 1 0 1 0 Protium

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CH-4: ATOMIC STRUCTURE CHEMISTRY/CLASS-IX

4.2 DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

4.3 CHARGED PARTICLES IN MATTER

 Properties of Cathodes Rays

 Positive Rays-Discovery of Proton

Air at a very low Cathode

This discovery led to the modification of Rutherford atomic model. In the

 Properties of Neutron (n):

4.4 THOMSON ATOMIC MODEL(THE RAISIN PUDDING MODEL) (PLUM

4.5 RUTHERFORD MODEL OF AN ATOM

Scattering of -particles by a gold foil :

Rutherford gave following conclusion :

 Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model

4.6 BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM/NEIL BOHR [1885-1962]

 Usefulness of Bohr’s Model

 ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS IN AN ATOM-BOHR-BURY RULE

 Bohr-Bury scheme of electronic configuration :

Shell number of energy level Maximum number of electrons

4.7 ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER

Atomic number (Z) : Number of protons = Number of electrons.

A shorthand notation has been developed to described the number of neutrons

Nuclear composition of the first eighteen elements

4.8 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION PRINCIPLES

(2) PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

(3) HUND’S RULE OF MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY

Thus, 7 N  1s 2 , 2s 2 , 2 p1x , 2 p1y , 2 p1z

(5) Half Filled and Completely Filled Orbitals

29Cu  1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d9

Exceptional Configuration - Stability of Completely Filled and Exactly Half-filled Orbitals :

4.9 VALENCE ELECTRONS AND VALENCY

4.10 QUANTUM NUMBERS

(e) Value of l Name of subshell Shape of subshell

(iii) Magnetic quantum number (Zeeman) denoted by ‘m’

s-subshell l=0 m=0 i.e., s-subshell has one orbital.

(b) The value of m varies from –1 to +1 through zero.

Fig. Clockwise and anticlockwise spins of an electron

Shape of ‘s’ orbital:

4.11 SOME IMPORTANT TERMS

The characteristics of isotopes are :

(% of X1  Mass No. of X1)  (% of X2  Mass No. of X2 )

18p 19p 20p

The characteristics of isobars are :

 Kernel & Core

 Nature of Radioactive radiations

Photographic plate Photographic plate

Fig. Emission and separation of radioactive radiations

Comparision of ,  &  rays:

 Cause of Radioactivity: unstable nuclei

Atom No. of protons No. of neutrons Stability

 Uses of radioactive isotopes

 Limitation of Bohr’s Model :

The valency of magnesium = 2

Q.16 Compare the properties of electrons, protons and neutrons. [9040410395]

(i) Neutrons are present in the nucleus of an atom.

Q.19 Describe Bohr's model of the atom. [9040410294]

Q.20 Compare the properties of electrons, protons and neutrons. [9040410345]

Q.23 Describe Bohr's model of atom. [9040410498]

According to Bohr's theory: