Wonders of Univers 00 New y

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LIBRARY
Brigham Young University
Library Of
President
GEORGE ALBERT SMITH
AND HIS WIFE
LUCY WOODRUFF SMITH
Gift Of Their Children
EMILY SMITH STEWART
EDITH SMITH ELLIOTT
GEORGE ALBERT SMITH. JR.
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2017 with funding from
https://archive.org/details/wondersofuniversOOnewy
CANAL.
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TO
ENTRANCE
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THE
SAID,
PORT
THE
WONDEKS or THE UNIVERSE
A RECORD OF
Things IVondcrfnl and A/arvclons in
NATURIi, SCIRNCR AND ART.
INTRODUCTION
By CHARLES BARNARD.
“ What does Philosophy impart to man

But undiscovered Wonders? Let her soar
—
Even to her proudest height to where she caught
The soul of Newton and of .Socrai es —
She but extends the scope of wild amaze
And admiration.”
Henry Kirke White.
CASSELL & COMPANY, Limited.

NEW YORK, LONDON. PARIS IP MELBOURNE.
Copyright,
i88s,
By O. DUNHAM.
"JUGILUl young > v- -
i -
INTRODUCTION.
There are two ways of looking at things. You may look at a strange bird, a curious
insect or some new piece of machinery and say, “ Oh, yes ! Very queer, wonderful, and all
that,” and pass on in search of the latest returns from the base ball match, the last novel, or
the opinions of the City Correspondent as to what is going to be worn this season. You
can see these things and pause in wonder saying, Why were they made ? what are they for ?
“
where can I learn more about them ? ” Some people having eyes see not at all, and the
marvels of modern science, art and invention pass before them as a pretty show having no
meaning. Others with curious eyes survey all nature and art in eager haste to know, to un-
derstand and to learn.
There is much talk in these days of culture, and people run about seeking the society
of cultivated men and women. Who are they ? Who are these cultivated people of whom
we hear so much ? Why, even the men and women who affect to despise it, and who think it
rare wit to spell culture with a k, secretly admire it, and, if brought into the society of really
cultivated people, are charmed and gratified, and take pride to themselves on their good for-
tune in knowing such people. The cultivated man or woman is one who knows. It is not
one who knows a great deal about one thing and nothing else. It is not the woman, slat-
ternly in dress, with inky lingers and verses in the “ Poet’s Corner ” in the evening paper.
It is not the old gentleman who is posted on every insect in the fields and who is in debt to
his grocer, because he cannot earn a living. It is not the young man with unkempt hair who
plays the organ so sweetly on Sunday and who cannot calculate the interest on a three
months’ note. It is none of these or those like them. Every man and woman must know one
thing well, must be well posted in the art, trade or business whereby they keep the wolf from
the door. All that expected as a simple matter of course. To be cultivated means, much
is
more. It means to know something more than the details of one’s trade. Every man must,
as Emerson says, have his vocation and his avocation. Have your business and add to it some
science, some art, some study that is an aside to business. —
This is to be cultivated to know
something of many things, to be an all round ” man or woman.
When we meet cultivated people we find they can talk intelligently about many things.
—
Bring up any subject, music, art, electricity, physics, farming, business, what not and they
listen to learn and speak with understanding. You may wonder how they came to know so
much about so many subjects. How many years did they spend in schools to obtain so
much ? Very likely they will say they had very little schooling and went to work at sixteen
to earn a living. How, then, did they do it ? The answer is simple enough. Reading.
They observe, they look about and see the world and find it full of wonders, and they at once
look up some book that will tell them about these things, that will explain these wonders. It
is this that makes the educated man or woman reading. They see some strange bird and
;
they look up its name and learn its habits. They see an insect they never met before, and,
instead of idly wondering about it like a silly child and then turning ignorantly away to
read the silly newspaper, they take down the dictionary or the encyclopedia and get a few
ideas concerning the creature and his life history. They do not attempt to know every
detail of its habits, nor do they commit to memory the names of all its parts. That is useless,
because it is an unessential detail. They look only for general information that will give
them the chief facts about the creature, his name and native country, and the order or class
to which he belongs.
11 INTRODUCTION.
Every art, science, trade, manufacture and profession has its general principles, its main
facts. What is needed is to know these, and to leave the details to those who make a
special study of the subject. Take, for example, electricity. It is, at first sight, a very com-
plicated science, and yet it is really very simple. It is a science that is becoming of greater
use every year, and enters largely into social and business life. To be ignorant of its few
simple laws is to expose one to all the tricks of the mountebank on the street corner,
who tells you “ electricity is life,” for five cents a shock, or the quack who sells you electric
plasters or tooth brushes. Electricity cannot do every thing. It really does very little, and
nothing at all alone and of itself. __It is only a means of doing things in a superior way.
A water-fall runs to waste with much roaring, fury, foam and mist. A man of science puts
in a turbine, and whole streets are lighted up with brilliant electric lights. It is the water-
fall that lights the town —
electricity is merely the means whereby the power of the falls
appears as light in the lamps. The uncultivated young person flits along the way, glad the
brilliant light offsets her dress so nicely, ignorant and careless why and how it happens her
ribbons are so much more beautiful in the new light than in the gas lamps of the ball
room. The cultivated man sees in the dazzling light the latest and most wonderful advance
of science applied to the comfort and well-being of men and women.
Let us understand this matter clearly. The old monks, who formerly held in selfish
mystery all the learning of the world, feared that if knowledge and learning were suffered to
go out among the people they would be maltreated and lost. We know now that this was
all a mistake. All knowledge, all science, all learning and art are for all the people. The
man of science has no secrets. His culture is for the helping of men and women and little
children. The student now learns that he may teach the people. The sciences are not
mysteries. They are easily understood, as far as their main principles are concerned, by any
intelligent young man or woman. Let no man think he cannot study because it takes a life-
time to become a master. Why be a master ? We may do that in our daily vocation, but for
these other things, these arts and sciences, what we need is to be students and observers of
general principles. We only need to know the great laws of all sciences to be fairly educated
in all. It is this that makes the educated man or woman. To know something of many
things.
It is with this view this book has been prepared. The aim has been to take some of the
Wonders of the Universe and to make their grand general principles clear to all who can
read. Notice the word Universe. Formerly men were content to study the things in their
own land, and to be ignorant of every thing in other lands. In time this narrow view gave
place to a wider outlook over the world. Then it was discovered that the world is every-
where alike, that the laws of nature are the same on one continent as on another. This led
to a wonderful broadening of ideas. Men of science became citizens of the world, instead
of being Frenchmen, Englishmen, Germans or Americans. The railroad and steamship
brought all people together, and now the wonder is not that the world is so big, but that it is
so very, very small. Then came the last and most remarkable change. It was found that
the elements of which this little Earth is formed exist in the Sun and in the most distant star-
If we hydrogen burns here, we no longer wonder to find flaming hydrogen so far away
find
in the starry depths that we have no figures to express the distance at which those pale fires
are burning. So our view spread to the Universe, and we found that true culture includes
the Universal. So, by slow steps, science grew up from the small to the great, from the
study of stones to the study of the globe, from the Earth to the Solar System, and from this
little group of stars to the illimitable Universe. To be cultivated is to read of these things,
to know the why, the way and the end to which all these laws of nature tend, to see that a
Universal Mind pervades all things, from the infinitely little to the infinitely great, and this
Universal Mind we have called God.
In the Universe of Wonders one science has been treated in detail. This is electricity,
and the reader is advised to try as many of the experiments as possible. If the apparatus
INTRODUCTION. Ill
cannot be obtained, try and make it for yourself out of materials in the house. For instance,
a very good electroscope, see page 23, can be made of a wide-mouth pickle jar, by taking a
piece of stiff copper wire, bending one end, for about an inch, at a right-angle, and rolling up
the other end into a round knot. Bore a hole in a cork that fits the jar, and let the bent end
of the wire hang in the jar with the top projecting above the cork. Hang on the lower
end a little strip of Dutch metal and you will have an electroscope answering just as good a
purpose as one costing two or three dollars from the instrument makers. For an electro-
phorus get a thin disc or circular piece of common hard rubber or vulcanite and tack it to a
block of wood. At the tin-man’s get a disc of common tin-plate, a trifle smaller than the
rubber disc. Take a piece of sealing-wax, and setting fire to the end of the stick, press it
while burning against the centre of the tin-plate, and it will stick fast and form an insulated
handle for the electrophorus. Then rub the rubber disc with a flannel rag or pad, and lay the
tin plate on it. Touch it quickly and gently with the finger, and then raise the plate by the
wax handle, and on presenting the knuckle to the plate a little electric spark will flash to the
hand. By warming the vulcanite over a stove and performing the experiment in a dry,
warm room, a great number of sparks can be taken in succession from the tin-plate. To
make a Leyden Jar, cover the bottom and sides of a tumbler to within an inch of the top with
Dutch metal or tin foil, fastening it to the glass with flour paste. Cover the inside of the
tumbler in the same way, and then get a piece of stout copper wire, roll up one end into a
ball or round top, set it upright inside, the tumbler and fasten it to the foil with sealing-wax.
These are only hints of what can be done, and with a little ingenuity many interesting elec-
trical experiments can be performed at home, with home-made tools. It is always best to
perform experiments in every science, because every experiment will teach more than can be
told in any printed description of the experiment or its results.
Besides these descriptions of the Sciences there will be found in the book any strange
and curious things concerning insects, fishes, and the minute plant and animal that swims
life
or grows unseen in a drop of water. 'I'here are also accounts of strange habits and customs
among different barbarous and savage peoples, that are interesting because they are passing
away. Science tends to make all men alike by showing all peoples that they are really
brothers in the great Human Family. This in turn tends to remove and destroy the differ-
ences between races. Costumes and national habits and manners disappear before the
spread of civilization, and in time the dress and manners of the English and American will
become the manners and dress of the Universal Man. Distinctions of race slowly fade, and
when they have gone national differences will follow, and then we shall be neither English-
men nor Americans, but citizens of the World. So the.se passing and fading traits of barbar-
ous peoples are wisely preserved here beside the modern sciences as mile-stones along the
path of Civilization.
CHARLES BARNARD.
1
INDEX
The asterisk (*) denotes that the Article is accoinpanied by one or more illustrations.
PAGE PAGE PAGE

Accusations, Remarkable Blunders, Curious Press ... 83 The Growth
Coral, of ... 242
False ... ... ... 326 Boiling Lake of Dominica ... 148 Corona, The Solar ... 194, 329
* Adam’s Peak and its Shadow 32 Boiling Water, Ice Plotter Cotton- Pod, Contents of a ... 83
* Agate, A Wonderful ... ... 136 than ... ... ... 320 Cotton-Trade, A Romance of
Air, A Wedding in the ... 75 Book, Biggest, in the World... 95 the ... ... ... 170
Akbar, Tomb of ... ... 44 Borneo, The Head-Hunters Court Etiquette, Curiosities of 130
-Vlchemy ... ... ... 397 of 372 Craters of the Moon, Moun-
Âmerica, The Ancient Sculp- Bottom of the Atlantic, The 168 tains and .. ... ... 223
tures of Centtal... ... 215 Bradford, Jonathan ... ... 326 Crew, A Frozen ... ... 203
•“•American Cliff-Dwellers, The 345 British Columbia, The Can- Crimes Discovered through
*.\merican Mound- Builders ... 84 dle-Fish of ... ... 95 Dreams ... ... ... 167
American Silk Dress, The Buried under the Snow ... 150 Crime, Remarkable Dis-
first 135 coveries of ... ... 191
* Analysis, Spectrum ... ... 143 C. Crocodile’s Jaw, Power of ... 208
Aniline Dyes ... ... .
. 365 California, Giant Trees of ... 237 Crystallisation of Ice... .. 18
* Animal Companionships ... 184 Canada, The Great Lakes of 330 Cultivated and Wild Fruits ... 173
Ânimals, Flying ... .. 300 Canal, The Suez ... ... 19 Curse, Strange Fulfilment of a 243
^'Animals, Stinging ... 160 Candle-Fish of British Co- Cuttle-fishes, Giant ... ... 7
Antipathies, Remarkable ... lu lumbia, The ... ... 95
Archery, Feats of ... ... 289 Cannibalism ... ... ... 342 D.
*Army Worms... ... ... 364 Cannon-Ball Tree, The ... 96 Decorative Mutilations ... 41
Art, Nature and ... ... 115 Caraboo, The Princess ... 49 Delusions, Mental ... ... 146
Asbestos ... ... ... 409 Carbon Compounds ... 335, 365 Derangements of Vision . . . 209
Assassin, Origin of the Word 300 Carbon, Forms of ... ... 365 Diamond Fields of South
Astrology 354 Catacombs ... ... ... 362 Africa ... ... ... 151
Asthma, Extraordinary Cure Cataract of Opal, A ... ... 279 Diamond Rock, The ... 177
for 43 Caves of Bellamer, The ... 172 Discoveries of Crime, Re-
Atlantic, The Bottom of the 168 Celluloid ... ... ... 222 markable... ... ... 191
Atomic Theory, The... ... 310 Centipede, A Giant ... ... 287 Disease-Germs ... ... 267
Atoms and Molecules Central America, The Ancient Diseases, Feigned ... ... 262
... 333
Australia, Giant Trees of ... 235 Sculptures of ... ... 215 Divers and their Work ... 107
Chameleon, The ... ... 68 Dog, A Mysterious ... ... 223
B. Dominica, The Boiling Lake
Chemical Combination ... 335
Baalbec ... ... ... 292 Chemistry of the Stars, The 192 of 148
Beards... ... .. ... 394 China, The Great Wall of ... 302 Dreams, Crimes Discovered
Bedstead, An Extraordinary 287 Christophe, King, and hs through ... ... ... 167
Beetles, Spectre ... ... 404 Palace ... ... ... 336 Dreams, Remarkable ... 6
Begbie, William, of Leith ... 190 City, A Mysterious ... ... 292 Drinking, Extraordinary ... 174
Bellamer, The Caves of ... 172 City Saved by Milkmaids, A 271 Du Moulin, Jacques ... ... 326
Bermuda, “ P'ossil Trees” of 256 Cleopatra’s Needle ... ... 128 Dust Explosions ... ... 203
Bermuda, Sand-Glacier in ... 196 Cliff-Dwellers, The American 345 Dwarfed Trees, Japanese ... 105
Bessemer Steel ... ... 226 Coffin, At Sea in a ... ... 14 Dwellings, Swiss Lake ... 63
Bird-Hermit, The ... ... 14 Coincidence, A Singular ... 403 Dyak Weapons ... ... 373
Bird and Insect Warfare ... 31 Colours, Sound in ... ... 112 Dynamite ... ... ... 3^7
Blind Jack of Knaresborough 374 Companionships, Animal ... 184 Dynamo-PTlectric Machines... 179
1 1
VI INDEX.
PAGE PAGE PAGE
E. P'ruits, Cultivated and Wi.d 173 Journey, A
Remarkable ... 250
* Earth, The Rotation of P'ornace, The Hottest known 371 Jupiter, Giant Changes in ... 98
the 2
Eccentricities, Philosophical 234 G. K.
Eclipse, The Sun in Total... 327 Ghost, Hanged by a... ... 190 King Christophe and His
Edison’s Great Dynamo-Elec- Giant Centipede, A ... ... 287 Palace 336
tric Machine... ... 181 Giant Cuttle-fishes ... ... 7 Knaresborough, Blind Jack
* Carbon Transmitterand Given Back by the Sea 271 of
„ ...
374
Loud-speaking Tele- Glass-Engraving ... 147
phone ... ... 361 Gjass, Toughened ... 278 L.
Egyptian Hieroglyphics ... 303 Glycerine ... 366 Lake Dwellings, Swiss ... 63
Electric Incandescent Lamp 251 Greenacre, James ... 191 Lakes of Canada, The ... 330
Electric Light, The ... ... 211 Growth of Coral, The ... 242 Lamps, Electric Incandescent 251
* ,, j> in the Surgery 318 Growth, Premature ... ... 271 Land-Tenures, Remarkable 270
Electric Machines ... ... 23 Guilty Woman at the Theatre, Leaf-Insects ... ... ... 322
Electric Telegraph, The 339 A ... 190 Letter, Three Thousand
I'llectrical Induction ... ... 119 Guns, Our Great •
137 Years Old, A ... ... 143
Electricity as a Motive Power 283 Gyroscope, The 2 LifeAssurance Story, Strange 410
Electricity, Storage of ... 313 Life, A Remarkable.. ... 214
Electricity, Voltaic ... ... 60 H. Life, Nitrogen and ... ... 368
Elements, The Chemical ... 310 Hairy Human Beings ... 384 Life, Restored to ... ... 229
*“ Elevated ” Railways of New Hanged by a Ghost ... ... 190 Life, Saved by a Hen ... 14
York, The ... ... 72 Head-Hunters of Borneo, Light, The Electric ... ... 21
Energy 378 The .. ... ... 372 „ „ in Surgery 308
Epicurean Wonders ... ... 187 Heart, Wonders of the ... 29 Liquid State, The ... ... 320
Ether, The ... ... ... 414 Heat, Correlative with Work 378 Living Beings in Water . .
. 349
Etiquette, Curiosities of Court 130 Dissipation of London aiwl Paris, The
,, 379
Eugene Aram... ... ... 19 ,, Gravitation and ... 380 Sewers of ... ... 390
Explosions, Dust ... ... 203 Hen, Life Saved by a ... 14
* ,, Frost ... ... 288 Plieroglyphics, Egyptian . .
303 M.
.
Extinct British Reptiles ... 199 Horns, Human ... ... 59 .Machines, Dynamo-Electric 179
Extinct Sea Cow, The ... 334 Hottest known Furnace, The 371 Electric ... ... 23
,,
Extraordinary Finger-Nails... ii Human Beings, Hairy ... 384 ,, Magneto-Electric 163
,, Wild ... 197 .Vlagic Serpents, Pharoah’s ... 388
F. Magic Mirrors of Japan, The 188
False Accusations, Remark- I. Magnetism ... ... ... 88
able ... ... ... 326 *Ice and Water ... ... 15 Magneto Electric Machines... 163
Falkland Island, The Stone Ice Plotter than Boiling Water 320 Main-Spring of the Univer.se,
Rivers of the ... ... 134 Ice Palace of Moscow, The... 306 The 378
Fedavees, The ... ... 299 Icebergs ... ... ... 47 Man, An Ossified ... 43 .
P'inger-Nails, Extraordinary 1 Ice-Yachts and Win I -Car- Man-Eating Tigers in India... 183
Fire, The Origin of ... ... 91 riages ... ... ... 260 Maria Martin, Murder of ... 167
Fish and Frog Parents ... 79
Idiot Detective, An ... ... 167 Matter and its Particles . .
.
309
Fishes out of Water ... ... 1 16 Implements, Ancient Flint ... 154 Medical Super.stitions ... 318
Pishes, The Nests of. .. ... 5*^ Impudence, The Power of ... 141 Mental Delusions ... ... 146
P'lagellation ... ... ... 259 India, Man - Eating Tigers Microphone and its Allies,
P'lesh-Feeding Plants ... 124 in 183 The ... ... ... 400
P'lint Implements, Ancient ... 154 Induction Balance, The ... 402 Milkmaids, A City Saved by 271
Floating Gardens and Fields 353
Induction, Electrical... ... 119 I
Miniature Railway, A ... 343
Footprints, Fossil ... ... 243 Ingenious Stratagem, .\n ... 183 Mines, Turquoise ... ... 232
Forest, A Subterranean ... 255 Insects, Leaf... ... ... 322 Miracles, Modern ... 338 ..
Fossil Footprints ... ... 243 * ,, Stick 264 Mirrors of Japan, The Magic 188
*“ Fossil Trees ”of Bermuda, Instantaneous Photography ... 294 Molecules 310, 333
The 256 Ironclads;, Our ... ... loi ,, The Structure of 333
Foucault's Pendulum Experi- Monster Sloth and its Con-
ment ... ... 4 T. temporaries, The .. 275
Frost Explosions ... ... 288 Japan, Tlie Magic Mirrors of 188 Monster Water-Lily, A ... 26
•Frost F'airs on the Thames ... 33 Japanese Dwarfed Trees ... 105 Moon, Mountains and Craters
Frozen Crew, A ... ... 203 John Stockton, Case of ... 168 of the ... ... ... 223
1
INDEX.
PAGE PAGE PAGE
Moscow, The Ice Palace of 306 Power, Muscular ... ... 207 of Rome
Months having ;
Motion, Correlative with Predictions, Extraordinary ... 207 - Thirty-one Days; Notes
Matter ... ... ... 415 Premature Growth ... ... 271 of the Scale ; Sages of
^Motive Power, Electricity as a 2S3 Press Blunders, Curious ... 83 Greece ; United Pro-
* Mound-Builders, American... 84 Princess Caraboo, The ... 49 vinces ;
Wonders of An-
Mountains of the Moon ... 223 Prodigy, A Musical Slave ... 254 tiquity; Wonders of His-
Power
.Vluscular ... ... 207 Pulse Records ... ... 407 tory 347, 348
Museum, A Smuggling ... 97 Sewers of London and Paris,
Music, Effects of ... ... 135 R. The ... ... ... 390
Musical Slave Prodigy, A ... 254 Railway, A Miniature ... 343
Shaw, William ... ... 326
Mutilations, Decorative ... 411 Railways, The “ Elevated,” Ship, An Old Viking’s ... 317
^ Mystery, The Ultimate ... 414 of New York ... ... 72
Shot through the Heart ... 43
Mysterious City, A ... ... 292 Railways, The Underground Silk Dress, The First Ameri-
Mysterious Dog, A ... ... 223 of London ... ... 52
can ... ... ... 135
Rainbow and the Spectrum,
Silver Mine, Remarkable 75A
N. The Skates, Sailing on ... ... 396
... ... ... 40
Nature and Art ... ... 115 Rainbows, Wonderful Sleep of Plants, The... ... 202
... 76
Needle, Cleopatra’s 128 Sleep, Prodigies of ... ... 74
... ... Reality, The, not Comprehen-
Needles, Vagrant 87 Smallest People in the World,
... ... sible ... ... ... 416
Nests The
of Fishes, ... 56 Records, Pulse The 368
... ... 407
New York, The “ Elevated ” * ,, Sunshine 387
Smell,The Sense of ... ... 163
Railways of ... 72 Remarkable Dreams Smuggling Museum, A ... 97
... ... 6
New Zealand, Hot Springs of 279 Reptiles, Extinct British ... 199
Snow, Buried under the ... 150
Newts... ... ... 391 Restored to Life
Sound in Colours ... ... 112
... ... ... 229
Nitro-Glycerine 365 Ride on the Wind, A ... 41
South Africa, The Diamond
Rings The
of Saturn,
Fields of... ... . .151
... 376
O. *Rock, The Diamond Speaking in Unknown
.
... 177
Opal, A Cataract of Romance of the Cotton Trade 170 Tongues ... ... ... 70
... ... 279
Origin of a New Word Roman War- Engines Spectre Beetles ... ... 404
... 67 ... 247
Origin of Fire, The 91 Rose Tamiser... Spectrum and the Rainbow,
... ... ... ... 338
OssifiedMan, An Rose-Tree, A Wonderful The ... ... ... 40
... ... 43 I
... 275
Ostrich Stomachs Rotation of the Earth, The 2
Spectrum Analysis ... ... 143
... ... 404
Ozone Rotorua, Hot Springs of ... 279 Spider-Life, Wonders of ... 219
335 j
!
Sponge-Life, Wonders of ... 131
P. S. j
*Stars, The Cheinistrj' of the 192
Steel, Bessemer ... ... 226
Palace, King Christophe and
I
Sailing on .Skates ... ... 396

Stick-Insects ... ... ... 264
his 336 Saint Vincent Volcano, The 246
Stone Rivers of the Falkland
Parents, Fish and Frog ... 79 “Sand-Glacier” in Bermuda,
Island, The ... ... 134
Paris, The Sewers of London A 196
Storage of Electricity ... 313
and ... ... ... 390 .Saturn, The Rings of ... 376
Particles of Matter, The
Stratagem, An Ingenious ... 183
... 309 Sculptures, Ancient, of Cen-
SubmarineWells, Water from 196
Patent Law, Curiosities of ... 159 tral America ... ... 215
Peak (Adam’s) and its Shadow 32 Sea-Cow, The Extinct
Subterranean Forest, A ... 255
... 344
Peels of Manchester, The ... 170
Suez Canal, The ... ... 19
Sea, Given Back by the ... 271
Peli«an-Fish, The
Sun in Total Eclipse, The ... 327
... ... 257 Sea-Serpent, The ... ... 36
Pendulum Sunshine Records ... .. 387
Experiment, Fou- Sentinel, The Wooden ... 243
Superstitions, Medical ... 318
cault’s 4 Sequoia, A Gigantic Tree ... 237
Pharaoh’s Serpents Surgery, The Electric Light
... ... 388 Serpents, Pharaoh’s ... ... 388
in . . . . . ... ... 30^
Philosophical Eccentricities... 234 Serpent, The Sea- ... ... 36
Swiss Lake Dwellings 63
Phoneidoscope, The... ... 112 Sevens, Remarkable Cities : — Sympathies, Extraordinary
...
71
Phonograph, The ... ... 67 of Antiquity; Colours of
Photography, The History of 272 the Rainbow ; Days of
Photography, Instantaneous 291 the Week Different T.
;
Photophone, The ... ... 403 Languages Spoken by Talking without a Tongue ... 43
Physiological Wonders, Some 43 Queen Elizabeth Follies ;
Tallest Trees in the World,
Plants, Flesh-Feeding ... 124 of Science ; Hills of The 235
Plants,The Sleep of. ... 202 . .
London ;
Hills on which Tattooing ... ... ... 45
Plants, The World of Lower 174 Rome stood ;
Kingdoms Taxation,The Old Days of 294
Poison- Eating ... ... 386 of the Heptarchy ;
Kings Telegraph, The Electric ... 339
1
viii INDEX.
PAGE PAGE PACE
Telephone, The 359 Universe, The Main-Spring of Water and Ice ... ... 15
Thames, F'rost Fairs on the 33 the 378 Water, Fishes out of ... 116
Thebes, The Wonders of ... 3S0 Unknown Tongues, Speaking Water from Submarine
Thumb Portraits 114 in . . . ... ... ... 70 Wells ... ... ... 196
Tigers in India, Man-Eating 183 Water-Lily, A Monster ... 26
Tomb, The Most Wonderful V. Water, Living Beings in ... 349
in the World 44 Wedding in the Air, A ... 75
Vagrant Needles ... ... 87
Tongue, Talking without a ... 43 Weight, Absolute, Inconceiv-
Value of a Voice, The ... 383
Tongues, Speaking in Un- able by Man ... 416
Venus’ Flower- Basket ... 132
known 70 ,, Curiosities of ... 94
Viking’s Ship, An Old ... 317
Torpedo Warfare 239 Wellingtonia Gigantea ... 237
Vision, Derangements of ... 209
Tortoises 311 Wells, Submarine ... ... 196
Voice, Value of a ... ... 383
Toughened Glass 278 Whales ... ... ... 356
Volcano, The Saint Vin-
Treasure Finder of Marseilles 327 Wild Human Beings ... 197
cent ... ... ... 246
Tree, The Cannon Ball 96 W’ills, Some Ftrange ... 369
Voluntary Motions, Minute ... 43
Frees, Tallest, in the World 235 Voltaic Electricity ... ... 60
Wind Carriages ... ... 260
Trial, A Singular 179
Vortex Theory, The ...
Wind, A Ride on the ... 41
... 415
Turquoise Mines 232 Wonders of Sponge-Life ... 131
Vortices ... ... ... 5 *
Tyndall’s Ice Flowers 18 Wonders of the Heart, The 29
Wonders of Thebes, The ... 380
U. W. Wooden Sentinel, The ... 243
Ultimate Mystery, The 414 Wall, The Great, of China ... 302 Word, New, Origin of a .. 67
Underground Railways of War-Engines, Roman ... 247 World of Lower Plants ... 174
London, The 52 Warfare, Bird and Insect ... 31 Wound, A Singular 43
LIST OF SEPARATE PLATES.
Port Said, the northern Entrance to the Suez Canal ... Frontispiece
A Tattooed Japanese Servant To face page 46
Skeletons of Siliceous Sponges ,, 132
Edison’s Great Dynamo-Electric Machine at Paris ... ,, 180
A Stick-Insect {Enrycantha annata) from the Solomon

Islands ,, 266
The Giant Centipede {Scolopendra gigintcd) of India ... ,. 287
The Floating Gardens of Kashmir >> 353

are passing from the age of Steam necessary and proper to seek that it should reflect
into that of and the something of this change in the disposition of
Electricity ;
change expresses a great deal, the human thought and marvel. To explain some of
meaning of which is only beginning the leading features of Nature’s own World of
to be fully understood. It may be Wonders will therefore be the main task under-
said, however, that the extraordinary taken in the present volume, though at the same
advances made, through patient ob- time not excluding such lighter articles and items
servation and experiment, in our of curious intelligence as may be likely to interest
knowledge of the secrets of Nature, have had two the reader.
principal effects upon the imaginative faculty. On The wonders of Electricity will necessarily
the one hand, what were once called “ marvels ” have a prominent place in these pages. So much
have largely ceased, merely as such, to excite the progress has been made in this particular direction,
same vulgar wonder as formerly in the human as almost to amount to a revolution in our practical
mind. But on the other hand, it is felt more and relations to this marvellous force ;
and a complete
more that the whole world around us, and what series of popular articles has therefore in this case
we have called “ natural ” forces and phenomena, been arranged, in order that the subject may be
are themselves crowded with marvels such as our brought up to the present state of knowledge.
fathers never imagined. This is not only true The wonders of the Telephone and Microphone
of the infinitely great, but of the infinitely little. will be explained, and those marvellous “ dynamo
The smallest portion of the commonest
Mat- machines” at which so many have stared will be
ter, which we can take up between our finger popularly elucidated ;
as will also the varieties of
and thumb, is found to present problems full of Electric Light, and the applications of the same
profound mystery and wonderful fascination and ;
wondrous force as a motive power.
as we even begin to learn something of these, we Some endeavour will likewise be made to show
are overwhelmed with wonder at the whole world how much the wonderful phenomena of Light have
\ of marvels in which we dwell. done to elucidate the physical constitution of the
In commencing at this date an entirely new Universe. Of the immense advânces made in spec-
volume of The World of Wonders, it is both troscopic science of late years some idea will be
B
—
2 THE WORLD OF WONDERS.

given, as also of the mode in which this and other THE ROTATION OF THE EARTH.
forms of optical study have cleared up many points,
not only concerning the far-off orbs around us, but There is an instrument called the Gyroscope,
about the humdrum forms of matter which lie invented by Bohnenberger, but subsequently
first
nearer home. much improved by Foucault, the celebrated

Something, too, must be said about this French physicist. It has many forms, some of
Matter which, simple as it looks, is perhaps the

;
which are swung on several systems of complicated
greatest mystery and wonder of all. What is it } gymbals or swing-joints, like those used about a
What are those Atoms and Molecules of which ship’s compass but the simplest is that now pretty
;
the physicist now speaks ? What evidence is well known as the “ magic top,” which consists of
there for their existence, how are they counted or a small but heavy and accurately-turned fly-wheel
measured, and how do they behave ? Not the least truly balanced in the centre of an axis, which
interesting may be the few chapters in our World turns upon hard conical points screwed into a ring,
OF Wonders which attempt either to answer as shown in Fig. i. The ends of the screws
these questions, or at least to tell what men of project through the ring; one being usually pointed,
science now believe and the other fur-
about these Atoms, nished a small
with
and how their be- smooth knob, which
haviour and combina- can rest in a small
tions explain alike the polished cup at the
terrific results of a top of a pedestal.
dynamite explosion or By violently pulling
the beautiful array of a long piece of string
aniline dyes. coiled round the axis
But not only from of the instrument, the
such subjects as these fly-wheel of this simple
shall we select mate- Gyroscope can be
rial for our pages. We made to rotate very
shall wonders
collect rapidly ;
and if the
of all kinds from the point at one end of the
Earth, from the Sea, axis be inserted into
from the Sky. We the cup with the axis
shall find marvels in vertical, the whole
character, and in other spins just as a com-
phases of human and mon top would do. If,
animal Life. We shall on the other hand,
extract from the stores without spinning, the
of what seems at first top be placed with the
Fig. I. —
MAGIC TOP.
knob in the cup, as
the unfathomable past.
We shall gather up shown in the engrav-
remarkable achievements and striking triumphs of ing, it will, of course, fall to the table by its
constructive Art. With so much to draw upon, we own weight. But if, while rapidly rotating, the
cannot fail to fill another volume with interesting knob be placed in the cup with the axis either
and instructive material. horizontal or inclined, it is not so. The appara-
—
And through all through such wonderful forms tus while thus spinning resists even the strong
of Life as may come under our notice, as well as in force of gravity, and the top retains its position,
the wonders of the inanimate Matter which lies on even if of several pounds’ weight the whole slowly ;
every hand, and is necessary for even Life itself as revolving round the pedestal, as shown by the
—
we know it here we shall try to preserve the one horizontal curve, the direction depending upon
great and grand idea which has more and more that of the rotation. It seems like magic, to see
towered above every other during the last quarter a heavy mass of metal apparently thus suspended
of a century. We shall try to show something of in air, with nothing to sustain it. Sometimes the
the Unity of Nature to point out, though more spinning portion of the Gyroscope is mounted
;
indirectly than directly, that all these Wonders are so as to revolve in a hollow metal ball or shell,
no disjointed puzzle, but that even through the with a small hole in it through which to pull the
darkness there ever looms a stupendous Plan. string. In that case, when it is spun and the shell
Not a Chaos, but a WORLD nay, a Universe — is held in the hand, if the fly-wheel be heavy and
of Wonders, is that of which some brief outlines the motion quick enough, it is marvellous to feel
are to be attempted in the following pages. how strongly what seems a simple round metal
;
THE ROTATION OF THE EARTH. 3
ball any change in the direction of the

resists diagram.
orbit, like the perpendicular lines in the
spinning axis it seems to push and turn against

;
were the case, as the reader can easily see
If that
the hand, when change of position is attempted, with a little reflection, the equator would always
like a living thing. pass daily under a directly vertical sun, and the
This extraordinary phenomenon teaches us a poles would never receive the sun’s rays except
very important lesson, which it is not so very from the very horizon both the heat of the tropics :
difficult to understand. We know that all matter and the cold of the polar regions would be enor-
is what we call inert. If it is still, it cannot move mously exaggerated, and life would be intolerable
of itself and if it is
: in motion, it must keep 07i in all but the temperate zones. Again, we may
moving in the very same direction, unless stopped conceive of the axis of the earth always inclined in
or turned aside by some fresh and overpowering one direction towards that of the sun as it would ;
force. We know very well that if the particles of be if we suspended a ball by a string, tied the other
^ our Gyroscope were loose and free, they would end of the string to the top of an upright pole, and
therefore fly off at a tangent when it was rotated, then swung the ball, revolving on the string as an
like the drops of water from a trundled mop ; but axis, round the pole. If the earth could revolve in
Fig. 2. —INCLINED AXIS OF THE EARTH.
being bound to their axis in one mass, they revolve thisway, we can see that either the north or the
round it. But the law holds good otherwise they ; south pole would always be partially turned to-
cannot change their direction unless gravity or wards the sun, and would enjoy perpetual day at
some other force is great enough to overcome their the price of a tropical heat while the other pole
;
momentum, and change the direction of their would be condemned to perpetual night, and to a
motion into some other. In a swiftly- rotating degree has no knowledge or
cff cold of which man
body the momentum is very great and hence experience. The seasons would again be constant
;
comes the wonderful phenomenon we have seen, and, excepting in one narrow zone, would be ex-
which physicists call the “ fixity of the axis of treme the alternations, which now make extremes
:
rotation.” Every man who rides a bicycle takes both of heat and cold endurable and even enjoy-
advantage of the very same law. able, would cease to exist.
—
Now our earth and all the heavenly bodies too, As it is, the earth’s axis is inclined in the direc-
—
but we confine ourselves to the earth behaves tion of the lines NS
in Fig. 2 ; and as the great
exactly like the Gyroscope, and in fact is one, Gyroscope revolves freely in space, the axis always
though on a vaster scale and a great deal of our maintains the same direction.
;
The consequence
comfort depends upon its doing so, owing to this is that the equator E Q, as can be readily seen,
general law of rotating bodies. In Fig. 2 we have only comes under a vertical sun twice in each year,
a diagram of the earth in four positions of its represented by the top and bottom positions while ;
annual orbit. In traversing this orbit round the in the right and left positions the sun is vertical
sun the earth also turns upon its axis, as everybody over the northern or southern tropic. Each pole
knows. But this axis is not perpendicular to the also gets in turn its greater and lesser share of the
; —

sun’s rays,and its alternate long day and night of circle, and so make visible tiie earchs rotation
six months each and so this great law of rotation upon its axis in twenty-four hours.
;
not only ensures the due alternatioti of colder and We cannot get at either of the poles ;.and it is-
warmer seasons, but also moderates the extremes difficult, if not impossible, to get a free pendulum
of each over all the surface of the globe. which will swing accurately so long, for a reason
Strictly speaking, this “ fixity ” of the earth’s axis immediately to be seen. But it occurred to
issubject to one modification the axis itself rotates,
: Foucault that these difficulties did not touch the
or “ wobbles ” a little, very slowly, round the centre essence of the question, only making a difference
of the globe, so that both north and south poles in in degree and in the cellar of his mother’s house
;
the course of a very long period of tipre describe a in Paris he first successfully made the celebrated
small circle in the heavens. This causes an im- “pendulum experiment,” which immediately after-
perceptible change in the seasons, known as the wards attracted crowds to see it repeated at the
“ precession of the equinoxes,” which can, how- Pantheon. A few weeks afterwards the experiment
ever, only be detected by acute observations ex- created a similar excitement in London. At the
tending over many years, a complete revolution of Pantheon the experiments were conducted by
the axis in this way only occurring once in 25,000 Foucault and Arago, and the arrangements were
years. The causes of it can only be shown by ma- as in Fig. 3, the pendulum swinging over a divided
thematical analysis octagonal table, sur-
but the phenomenon rounded by a large
itself is exhibited by circle divided into
the Gyroscope when degrees, with a
properly arranged, movable index, so
being due to the that the deviation
same mechanical from any starting-
reasons. point could be sh own.
The fixity of the At the Polytechnic
plane or axis of rota- similar experiments
tion may be even were conducted by
employed to make Dr. Bachhoffner, at
the earth’s rotation the Royal Institution
on its axis visible to by Professor Baden
the naked eye. The Powell and they
;
motion of a pendu- were afterwards re-

lum, or the balance- peated at many other
wheel of a watch, places. Some con-
may be regarded as Fig. 3. FOUCAULT’S PENDULUM EXPERIMENT. troversy was at first
rotation in alternate excited owing to

directions round an somewhat different
axis, and is subject to the same laws. A pen- results but the ;
reasons of these were gradually
dulum suspended quite freely will, therefore, main- traced out, and found to be due to mechani-
tain the same plane of vibration (/.^., line of cal causes, or the distance of the point of
swing) and this though its point of suspension be suspension from
;
the earth’s pole. Mechanically,
turned completely round. On a piece of board it extremely difficult so to draw aside and re-
is
about a foot in diameter let some light arched lease a free pendulum that it may vibrate truly in
support be fixed, from which a leaden bullet can a plane. The ball must be most accurately turned
be hung as a pendulum over the centre of the and equally smooth all round the wire must be ;
board. Lay the board on a music-stool and, ;

inserted exactly central and opposite the point ;.
having drawn the bullet to one side, let it swing. and finally, the release a matter of much nicety.
is
If carefully swung the vibration will remain in Currents of air also affect the swing. And, on the
one plane ;
and when this is accomplished let other hand, a very little reflection will show that
the music-stool be turned round. The bullet will when the experiment is made anywhere between
still swins; in the old plane, towards, say, the equator and pole, the force of gravity itself is a
same corner of the room ;
and thus, as it crosses disturbing cause. It acts at first to draw down
different points in the circumference of the circle, the bob exactly in the line of the original swing
it will make visible the rotation of the music-stool. but when the earth has made a quarter-revolution,
It is easy to see that if a pendulum, large and ifthe plane of vibration could remain exactly the
heavy enough to swing for a whole day, could same, it would not be so the pull of gravity would
:
be thus suspended over either pole of the earth, it be from one side of that plane. Thus gravity
must gradually appear to swing round the whole itself, except at the actual poles, tends to draw a
THE ROTATION OF THE EARTH. 5
pendulum slightly but steadily to one side, and Polytechnic the wire was 45 feet long, and the bob
thus to convert the straight or plane swing into 28 lbs. in weight. A pendulum of this size, when
a curve, and somewhat to diminish the angular set swinging, kept up good work for over an hour ;
deviation of per hour, which a pendulum and during that —

period occupied by an inte-
swung at the actual pole would show. When care resting lecture, with other experiments illustra-
was taken to avoid the mechanical causes of error, tive of the same subject — was found
have to
and the effect of the other deviations was cal- apparently deviated from its first by
direction
culated,the results were found nearly to corre- an average of about 12°, or half a yard on the
spond, and the deviation per hour to increase circle.
with the latitude, as it ought to do. An average Thus simply may we see with our own eyes, if
of several experiments showed that the pendulum we will, the rotation of the earth. And there is
ranged in an hour over 11° 30' at Paris, ii® 42' one thing more we may learn from this interest-
at Bristol, 12^^ at Dublin, and 13'’ at York. ing experiment, viz., that the same law of rotation
Our shows the experiment as per-
last illustration holds alike in its grasp our petty pendulum and
formed, in perhaps its most imposing form, at the the stupendous world on which we live. Ponder
once-celebrated Polytechnic Institution in Regent either a tiny bullet shot from a rifle, or the grandest
Street, London, in May, 1851. A large divided globe in the heavens both must be, and are,
;
circle, 16 feet in diameter, hollowed out to the governed rigidly by the same laws, and are con-
swing of the ball, was drawn conspicuously on the nected together by them. So it is throughout all
stage, and a heavy bob, most accurately turned and Nature. Nothing stands alone throughout the
smoothed, was swung by a long and carefully- material world, or can escape from the order and
straightened wire from a girder overhead. At the harmony which rule the rest.
;

REMARKABLE DREAMS. five, his health then became good, but, probably in
consequence of a cold he received, when twenty-
Guiseppe Tartini, a famous Italian musician eight years old he became speechless, losing the
and composer of the last century, had a dream articulate use of his tongue, and being nearly
which led to his composition of a piece of music unable to make the least noise. He soon recovered
now well known as “ The One
Devil’s Sonata.” from his cold, but he did not recover his voice.
night in the year 1713 he dreamt he had made a The rest of the case we may give in the Rev. Mr.
compact with the devil, who promised to be at his Squire’s own words :
—
“ He continued in this way
service on all occasions. At length he thought dumb for four years, till one day in the month of
he gave Satan his violin, to see what sort of a July, in the year 1741, being at Stoke, in the above-
musician he was when, to his great astonish-
;
mentioned county, he got very much in liquor,
ment, he heard him play a so singularly so much that upon his return home at night to
beautiful, and executed with such superior taste Devizes he fell from his horse three or four times,
and precision, that it surpassed all the music and was at last taken up by a neighbour, and put
he had ever heard or conceived in his life. He to bed in a house upon the road. He soon fell
awoke vvith the violence of his sensations, and asleep ; when, as he tells the story himself, dream-
instantly seized his instrument, in hopes of ex- ing that he was falling into a furnace of boiling
pressing what he had just heard, but in vain. wort, it put him into so great an agony of fright,
He, however, composed the piece which is per- that, struggling with all his might to call out for
haps the best of all his works, and called it The help, he actually did call out aloud, and recovered
DeviPs Sonata; but it was so inferior to what his the use of his tongue from that moment as effectu-
sleep had produced, that he declared he would ally as ever he had in his life, without the least
have broken his instrument and abandoned mrusic hoarseness remaining, or alteration in the old
for ever if he could have subsisted by any other sound of his voice, as near as can be discerned. He
means. was not used to drink hard he is still alive, con-
;
Samuel Taylor Coleridge had once an equally tinues in good health, and has the use of his tongue
remarkable dream when under the influence of an as perfectly as ever he had in the former part of
anodyne. The poet had been reading “ Purchas’s his life.”
Pilgrims,” and when he had finished this passage, The preceding examples are special cases of
“ Here the Khan Kubla commanded a palace to remarkable dreams, but looked at in the abstract,
be built, and a stately garden thereunto and thus ;
any dream whatever is a remarkable one, the
ten miles of fertile ground were enclosed with a dream state being closely allied to idiocy. It is
wall,” he fell asleep. During this sleep, which noteworthy that in dreams generally some pre-
lasted about three hours, he composed from 200 to ceding thought or act gives the bent to the dream
300 lines of poetry about Kubla Khan’s palace and as when Henry Axford thought he fell into “a
pleasure-grounds. His last waking thoughts affected furnace of boiling wort,” his preceding experience
his sleep, and his poetic imagination conjured up of falling from his horse was passing through his
visions of the things he had been reading about, mind. Wonderful dreams may arise from con-
solid and life-like. tact with some substance which is thought, in the
Watts, the Bristol plumber, had a dream more dream state, to be something else widely different.
profitable than either of the preceding, if we take Thus, Dr. Gregory with a warm bottle to his feet
into account the £ s. d. which accrued to the thought he was walking about the hot crater of
dreamer. As he slept one night in the year 1782, Mount Etna Dr. Reid with a blister on his head
;
he imagined that he was out in a shower of rain. imagined he was being scalped by a party of Red
But curiously enough, the clouds seemed to rain Indians and M. Maury when tickled on the lips,
;
molten lead instead of water, and the drops of lead thought pitch plasters were being torn off his face.
as they came down were perfectly spherical. When Excessive fatigue may give rise to strange dreams.
he awoke he was struck with the idea that there A friend of the writer’s, tired by overwork, dreamt
was probably here a method of making lead shot. during the night that a man entered his bed-room
He put the matter to the test, and from the top of and approached his pillow. He awoke, but so
the tower of St. Mary Redclifife Church he poured thoroughly had the subjective vision got hold of
molten lead into some water below. The plan him, that he still saw it in the waking state. It
succeeded well, and he sold the invention for a retreated towards the foot of the bed, and there it
largesum of money. melted into nothing. Again, a gentleman who had
Another remarkable dream was that described had no sleep for forty-one hours was so overcome
in the “Philosophical Transactions” for 1748, in as to fall asleep and dream, while engaged in writ-
a paper by Archdeacon Squire. Henry Axford ing up his diary. He was writing when he fell
was the son of an attorney of Devizes, in Wilt- asleep, and when he awoke he found he had
shire. Subject to fits up to the age of twenty- entered up his dream.
GIANT CUTTLEFISHES. 7
GIANT CUTTLEFISHES. often asserted. The ancient naturalists described

many cases of the occurrence
of these animals,
Cuttlefishes are animals belonging to the group although these accounts, until within a few years
known to naturalists as Mollusca. They are there- back, were regarded as mere exaggerations. Pliny,
fore near relations of the “Shellfish.” Indeed, a an account of a giant member of
for instance, gives
cuttlefish may be regarded as having its body con- the cuttlefish group which was alleged to haunt the
structed on the same plan as that of a snail or coast of Spain. Its body was stated to have
whelk. At the same time it is of superior organi- weighed 700 pounds, and its arms to have
sation to these latter animals, and exhibits a much measured 10 yards in length. The weight of
higher structure of body, seen especially in the the head was likewise set down at 700 pounds.
highly-developed nervous system. Any one who The most famous of the legendary cuttlefishes
has seen an Octopus in an aquarium may recall to was the Kraken. According to naturalists of the
mind the chief features of the cuttlefish-group. middle ages, this was a gigantic monster which
When we look at an ordinary member of this inhabited the northern seas, especially the coast
group, we see a very distinct body, and as distinct of Norway, and resembling in size a small island
a head. The head, indeed, forms one of the most rather than a beast. One Denis de Montfort,
prominent features of the cuttlefish group. It is far not very long ago, seriously described a
so
more prominent than that of the snail or whelk, and —
colossal “ poulpe ” this latter name being equiv-
bears a pair of very large eyes the presence of ; alent to that of Octopus — which he actually
these organs giving to the animals a singularly weird figured in the act of destroying a three-masted
appearance. The top of the head bears a circle or vessel. The animal is represented as tearing
crown of long arms. In the Octopus there are down and yards, and as making short
the masts
eight of these arms ;
but in other cuttlefishes (such work generally of vessel and crew. Indeed, De
as the Squids) there are ten —
two of these ten arms Montfort was so unscrupulous in his inventions,
being longer than the remaining eight. The arms that he boldly asserted his intent to make this
are provided with suckers and as each sucker can
; giant poulpe capable of swallowing a w'hole fleet of
be instantaneously applied to any object, the grasp ships, if and milder instalment of its powers
his first
of the cuttlefish may be regarded as being of a very were accepted by the public. It may be interesting
firm nature. The suckers are applied on the same to quote at this stage the account given by
principle wherewith a schoolboy’s leather sucker Pontoppidon, Bishop of Bergen, of the Kraken
is attached to a stone in other words, the air
; itself. “ Its back,” says this author, describing
below the sucker is exhausted, and the structure is from imagination aided by the exaggerated narra-
kept applied by the pressure of the outer atmo- tives of sailors, “ which appears to be a mile and a
sphere. half in circumference, looks at first like a number
Altogether, as regards their organisation, the of small islands surrounded with something which
cuttlefishes stand at the head of their class. The floats like seaweeds here and there a larger
;
“ shell ” seen in the Molluscs is, however, de- rising is observed like sandy banks at last
;
veloped in a rudimentary fashion in all living several bright points or horns, appear, which grow
cuttlefishes except one —
the Pearly Nautilus, thicker the higher they rise, and sometimes they
or Nautilus pompilius of the zoologist. In the stand up as high and large as the masts of middling-
Octopus and its neighbours, a horny pen-like sized vessels. It seems that these are the creature’s
structure, or a limy plate (as in the Sepia), repre- arms (it is evident that the author has the idea of a
sents the shell of other mollusca. With their cuttlefish before him), and it is said that if they
highly active habits, it would seem that the ordi- were to lay hold of the largest man-of-war, they
nary cuttlefishes of to-day have little or no need of would pull it down to the bottom. After the
a shell by way of protection or defence. They are monster has been a short time on the surface of
amongst the wariest of animals. They capture the water, he begins slowly to sink again and ;
their prey in a highly agile manner by aid of their then the danger is as great as before, because the
tentacles, and they possess, when largely developed, motion of the sinking causes such a swell, and such
a muscular power in the face of which even man an eddy and whirlpool, that he carries everything
may hesitate to attack them. They exist in all with him.” Pontoppidon further enlarges on the idea
our seas and oceans. Those of the tropics present that the existence of the Kraken gave rise to stories
”
us with the greatest variety, but, as we shall of the disappearance of islands the “ islands ;
presently see, the giant members of the group are which were thus credited with having passed out of
by no means confined to tropical oceans. existence being merely the huge bodies of the
From the earliest times, the cuttlefishes appear Kraken and its allies.
to have played a prominent part in the legendary But the tales of the giant cuttlefishes had evi-
lore of maritime countries. In the classical period, dently penetrated to regions farther south than the
the existence of giant members of this group was area said to have been inhabited by the Kmken.
De Mon /ort tells us in his natural history of the their ship from its grasp. The arms were set down
Mollusca, that one Dens, captain of a merchant- as being thirty-five feet long, and the suckers borne
vessel, related particulars of an attack made upon on the arms were said to have been as large as
Ills Angola by a huge poulpe.
vessel off the coast of saucepan-lids.
Its arms were thrown across the vessel, and it Modern naturalists, it will readily be believed,
proceeded to demolish the masts, when the crew, refused to credit the tales of De Montfort and
attacking it with hatchets, succeeded in releasing Pontoppidon. The Kraken, for them, had no
GIANT CUTTLEFISHES.
9
HEAD AND TENTACLES OF A GIANT CALAMARY FOUND OFF NEWFOUNDLAND.
existence. It was merely a myth, which doubt- well as both curious and interesting, to note how
less, most other legends, had sprung from a
like the truth and has of late years
reality of nature
germ of truth and fact, but which, at the same been presented to our view from beneath the
time, had so overgrown the original incident as overlying mass of legendary lore. For many
to render futile all attempts to trace the actual years before the actual existence of giant cuttle-
occurrence. It is highly instructive, however, as fishes was ascertained, naturalists had received
C
lO THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
occasional fragments and detached pieces of miles from St. John’s, in Conception Bay. Espying
evidence that their existence was a matter of a floating mass in the water they rowed towards it,
fact. It is therefore extremely curious to note how when one of the men struck the supposed inorganic
this evidence at last became of a full and complete At once the mass awoke into
object with his oar.
nature, so as to place the occurrence of these and stretched out its arms towards the
vitality
giants of the Molluscan race beyond a doubt. boat in other words, the fisherman had in-
;
Several of the early explorers placed on record advertently surprised a sleeping, or at least a quiet
that the remains of giant cuttlefishes were by no and floating cuttlefish. It was apparently of large
means uncommon in the seas and oceans at large. size, and as two of its arms were shot over the boat,
Peron, for example, tells us that he met with a one of the men promptly cut them off with an axe.
cuttlefish eight feet in length in the Australian seas The animal next ejected a quantity of the inky
;
such dimensions far exceeding the ordinary sizes fluid these beings possess by way of a defence for
of these animals. Near Nice, a cuttlefish of the obscuring the water, and then swam away. The
Squid species was found, which weighed thirty cuttlefishes, it may be mentioned, propel themselves
pounds and at Montpellier, the remains of a very swiftly through the sea by means of jets of
;
specimen six feet long have been preserved. water expelled from a tube or “funnel” placed in the
Quoy and Gaimard, the celebrated explorers, front of the body. The water thus expelled is that
detail the occurrence of a monster cuttlefish in which has been used in breathing, and these
the Atlantic Ocean. It was dead, and according animals thus progress by a kind of hydraulic
to their calculations must have weighed about engine, such as human ingenuity has applied in
200 pounds. Molina, describing the natural the propulsion of vessels. The men estimated the
history of Chili, speaks of Sepias weighing 1 50 body in the specimen just described at
size of
pounds. In Captain Cook’s first voyage, a dead sixty feet, and its breadth across the tail-fin at
cuttlefish, found floating in the sea, is described as ten feet. These proportions, it is safe to say, were
having measured six feet in length, inclusive of the exaggerated, because the men had little or no
arms. On the coast of Denmark a large Squid opportunity of forming an exact judgment of the
was cast ashore, and measured twenty-one feet in size of their antagonist. But the portions of the
length of body alone, the tentacles being eighteen arms which were chopped off enabled an American
feet long. In 1854, on the coast of Jutland, naturalist to calculate the length and other dimen-
another specimen was stranded. The fishermen sions of the animal. These are given as follows — :
cut up the body for bait, and it was so large that it length 10 feet length of the long arms or tentacles
;
furnished many wheelbarrow-loads. The beak or 32 feet length of head 2 feet total length about
; ;
iaws of this specimen were said to have been nine 44 feet.
inches long. In November, 1873, curiously enough, another

.A.gain, in 1861, the French war-steamer Alecton, Calamary or Squid of large size was met with off
when sailing between Teneriffe and Madeira, fell the Newfoundland coast. On this occasion, the
in with a giant Squid. The body alone was animal was brought ashore in the fishermen’s
estimated to be eighte?n feet long, and the colour, nets. The body was 7 feet in length, and the
as in the Squids, was described as being of a tail-fin 22 inches broad the two large arms were
;
reddish-brick hue. The hinder part of the animal each 24 feet long, and the eight shorter arms 6
was secured, having been pulled off by the rope feet in length. The total length was 32 feet the ;
which was passed round the tail extremity. This eyes were 4 inches in diameter, and the number
portion, which was seen by the French Consul at of suckers was estimated at 1,100. Between 1870
Teneriffe, weighed about forty pounds, and a and 1875 various specimens of similar giants,
painting was made of the event, from which the attaining a length of from thirty to fifty-two
accompanying illustration is copied. After the feet, inclusive of arms, were found. It is probable
recital of these well-verified appearances of cuttle- that these giant cuttlefishes haunt the Newfound-
fishes, which vastly exceeded in size the ordinary land coast on account of the shoals of cod and
members of the group, the ancient legends appear other fish with which that region teems. Our
rather as slight exaggerations than as actual myths. own coasts, also, do not want for examples of giant
It remained, however, for the observations of the cuttlefishes. A Captain Neill, of the ship Robertson,
lasttwenty years or so to show that the existence of Greenwich, in 1834 was voyaging between that
of actual giants of the cuttlefish race was an un- port and Montrose. On the 22nd of June in that
doubted fact. year, he fella large sea-monster, which,
in with
On the North American coast, and especially from and sketch given of the
the description
in the region of Newfoundland, several instances occurrence, seems to have been a giant cuttlefish.
of giant cuttlefishes have from time to time been On Sunday, the 5th of August, 1876, the master
recorded. In October, 1873, two fishermen were and mate of a Norwegian ship saw, off the
pursuing their avocation in a small punt about nine .Scottish coast, a huge animal, also believed to
1
EXTRAORDINARY FINGER-NAILS. 1
have been a largely-developed cuttlefish. The possible that such forms may be to some extent
occurrence was testified to before a Dundee inherited in youth, but would hardly preserve their
magistrate. Near the Shetland coasts, large symmetry through manhood and age if subjected to
cuttlefishes have been seen on more than one the constant rough usage to which the finger-nails
occasion. On the Irish coast, on the 26th of of a bricklayer, for instance, are daily liable. We,
April, 1875, a huge cuttlefish was seen and however, seldom see finger-nails which extend above
chased.
follows :
—The account given of the occurrence as
“ On the 26th of April, 1875, a very large
is two or three millimetres beyond their junction
with the fleshy part of the finger, and are apt to
Calamary was met with on the north-
(or Squid) regard with aversion rather than with admiration
west of Biffin Island, Connemara. The crew of a nails to attain a much greater
which are permitted
curragh (or coracle) observed to seaward a large With
however, unless it be an upstart
growth. us,
floating mass surrounded with gulls. They pulled parvenu, no one thinks it an indignity to follow some
out to it, believing it to be wreck, but to their manual occupation, and many a gentleman amuses
astonishment found it was an enormous cuttlefish, himself and employs his spare hours in carpentry,
lying perfectly still, as if basking on the surface of sculpture, or turning with the lathe. Never-
the water. Paddling up with caution, they lopped theless, it may be fairly affirmed that the in-
off one of its arms. The animal immediately set habitants of any civilised country, such as Eng-
out to sea, rushing through the water at a tre- land, France, or Germany, might, with a very near
mendous pace. The men gave chase, and, after a approach to accuracy, be divided into two classes
hard pull in their frail canvas craft, came up with of writers and labourers by the form of their finger-
it, five miles out in the open Atlantic, and severed nails alone, though it would be far from true to
another of the arms and the head. These portions state that by this means could be decided the social
are now in the Dublin Museum. The shorter arms position or the mental acquirements of each person.
measure each eight feet in length, and fifteen inches When, however, we travel to the far east, we
round the base the tentacular arms (or longer find the form of the finger-nails proclaiming un-
;
arms) are said to have been thirty feet long. The questionably the claims of their owners to rank
body sank.” and fashion, and are astonished that any people
Reviewing the details just recorded, it will be should be willing to submit themselves to the
seen that all but the most exaggerated legends of inconvenience which such distinction necessitates.
the older naturalists and writers were founded We are all more or less acquainted with the extra-
on a solid substratum of truth and fact. The ordinary manner in which the feet of Chinese
most curious part of the recital, perhaps, is the ladies of the upper ranks are disfigured during
fact that it is only within very recent years that infancy, so that in after life they are of little or no
these huge animals have been met with in the service as organs of progression, but become mere
flesh, and in their entirety. This fact alone may mummied records of what they might have been.
serve to impress the notion, that hidden in the So also we find both men and women belonging
sea-depths from the eye of adventurous man, there to the upper classes permitting the finger-nails to
may exist creatures of larger size and stranger attain an enormous, and to our eyes a hideous
form than are dreamt of in our furthest philosophy. development, under the same influence of the mode.
Chinese belles and dandies are in consequence often
to be seen with the nails projecting from an inch
EXTR.\ORDINARY FINGER-NAILS. to an inch and a half beyond the finger-tips and ;
these unseemly appendages are pared and tended

The finger-nails of those who are employed as with the utmost care, and are regarded with pride
artisans differ remarkably from those of persons and gratification by their happy possessors.
following other, and in a sense, less arduous pur- But it is in Siam, in Annam, and in Cochin
suits. In the former case they are as a rule short, China that this extraordinary custom is carried to
thick, and in many ways adapted for the rough its greatest development. The nobles of Annam,
usage to which at times they must be inevitably for instance, pennit their nails to grow to such a
subjected in the latter, they frequently acquire
; length that the hands are absolutely useless for
considerable length, and become thin and flexible, any practical purpose. The nails on the second,
merely because the hands are seldom or never third, and fourth fingers attain a length of from
employed in those “ wearing ” tasks with which the four to nearly five inches. They are straight, with
workman in all parts of the world is constantly a slight inward curve, and present the appearance
occupied. No doubt from the effect thus produced of immense claws or talons which we could ima-
;
by manual labour upon the nails of the fingers gine might be of use to man in his most savage
arose the notion, entertained at least by the old state, for scratching up the ground to find roots or
novelists, that prettily-formed “rosy, filbert nails,” seeds, but certainly do not appear adapted for
were a mark of aristocracy ;
and indeed it is quite either use or ornament under any of the ordinary
incidents of life. The nail of the thumb is hardly nails is supposed to be produced by hypertrophy
so long as those of the other digits. It at first grows of the horny tissues, induced doubtless by some
nearly straight, with also a tendency to curve in- special agency or mechanical irritation for the pur-
wards, but presently takes the form of an elongated pose of obtaining a plentiful secretion of the horny
spiral, and must almost entirely prevent the use material. But that any state of society should
•of the thumb as an organ of prehension. On the exist in which to render the hands thus utterly use-
finger alone is the nail kept within reasonable
first less and hideous was regarded as a virtue, cannot
bounds, and with this only must be performed but strike persons unaccustomed to such vagaries
all those innumerable of fashion as remark-
trifling acts which able in the extreme.
taken together add so So essential as a
greatly to our com- mark of nobility,
fort and well-being. however, are long
It sometimes hap- nails regarded in
pens that the nails are what is known as the
allowed to grow to a Transgangetic Penin-
great length to indi- sula, that Siamese
cate that the wearer actors and actresses,
leads a religious life, when playing the
and forsworn at
Jras parts of “lords and
once the labours and ladies,”usually appear
the frivolities of the with long silver horn-
world. The hand of shaped ornaments at-
a Chinese ascetic, tached to the ends
leading such an in- of the fingers, not to
dolent and wasteful represent the nails
existence, presents the themselves of the
most extraordinary aristocracy, but those
spectacle. The nail long silver cases with
of the first finger is which the beaux and
indeed, as in the case belles either protect
of the Annamese these valuable ap-
already described, left pendages when they
sufficiently short to are there, or make
render the finger of believe that they are
some -practical ser- there when in reality
vice. The other they are absent.
fingers are, however, Though it is in
disfigured by im- Siam and the neigh-
mense horny growths, bouring states that
which can scarcely be the custom of wear-
called nails, which ing these prodigious
reach the enormous appendages reaches
length of from six-
HAND OF AN ANNAMESE NOBLE.
its most ridiculous
teen to eighteen inches. height, yet long finger-
These hideous excrescences do not grow straight nails are more or less fashionable in many
and claw-like, as do the Annamese nails referred other parts of the world. Gentlemen in Eng-
to above, but in a curious irregular spiral curve, land and in France may often be found taking
the nails of the second and third fingers inter- a pride in the exuberant development of these
lacing in an extraordinary and particularly ugly organs, while throughout the East it is more or
fashion. The nail of the little finger, after project- less the fashion to permit one or more of the nails
some distance almost straight, with a slight to attain what may be regarded as an abnormal
ing for
upward tendency, makes a sudden bend, and reaches growth. Thus ambassadors and visitors of dis-
with a regular sickle-shaped curve across the nails tinction from Asiatic states to Europe, are often ob-
of the two neighbouring fingers. The thumb is served to permit the excessive growth of the nail of
furnished with an almost flat nail, which assumes a the little finger, and this is also a common occurrence
spiral form from its immediate junction with the with many of the people in India and other parts
fleshy part of the organ. of Asia.
This extraordinaiy development of the finger- With whatever feelings of disgust the appear-
EXTRAORDINARY FINGER-NAILS. 15
blAMESE ACTOR, REPRESENTING A NOBLE, WITH NAIL-CASES.
ance of hands thus furnished may fill us, we influences. Nevertheless it cannot be supposed
should, however, remember that for the anatomist that the nails upon our hands and feet were ever
and physiologist not a little interest is attached to intended to attain such extraordinary^ length, and
this excessive development of the finger-nails. For it is in fact only by becoming entirely dependent
by this it is seen that certain growths of the nail upon the service of others that these aristocrats of
hitherto regarded as abnormal and extraordinar}', the half-civilised countries of the East are enabled
are in reality indications of the normal growth of to proclaim their miserable superiority to their
the nails when carefully preserved from all retarding fellow-men.
— —

THE BIRD-HERMIT. LIFE SAVED BY A HEN.
In an old book of travels in Spain, written by Mr. On the 19th September, 1751, when a grand
Thicknesse and published about the close of the last entertainment was given in the Hall of the Apo-
century, we have a very curious record of what he thecaries’ Company to celebrate the election of
terms “the bird-hermit,” of whose fame he heard i

a new master and wardens, a picture of one of
when in Catalonia, and whom he visited. It is the I
the society’s founders was presented to them, and
duty of those who isolate themselves from the the following story was told in connection with
haunts and companionship of men, as hermits, to it. The original of the portrait, w'ho lived in the
devote their every thought and hour to prayer and reign of James I., while in France was committed
self-denial, to have with them in their lonely cells to prison as a and cruelly ill-used.
Protestant,
no cat, dog, bird, nor any living thing whereby At last he was left dungeon entirely without
in his
their hearts might be weaned from God and their food. After some days he was astonished to find
thoughts given to His creatures instead of to Him a hen in his cell, the bird having contrived to force
alone. Mr. Thicknesse says, therefore, of this bird- herself through the bars of a small low aperture
hermit; near the ground. Every night the bird returned,
“He cannot be said to transgress the law, but he and every morning the starving prisoner found an
certainly evades it for though his feathered cour-
;
egg laid for his breakfast. These eggs preserved
tiers do not live within the walls,’ they are always
‘ his life, and soon after he contrived to escape
attendant upon his court nor can any princess ;
and cross the sea to England.
upon earth boast of heads so elegantly plumed as
may be seen at his court. ... If his meals are AT SEA IN A COFFIN.
scanty, his dessert is served up with song, and he is
hushed to sleep by the nightingale.” An old magazine, published in 1821, records the
His hermitage, which was situated in a deep extraordinary escape of a Dutch sailor, then alive
lonely valley, consisted of a few small buildings in Holland in thetown of Horn. For participating
standing in a garden at the foot and amongst the in a mutiny, which resulted in the death of one of
roots of a gigantic pine. It was called St. Cathe- the officers, be w'as sentenced to be hanged. The
rine’s, by
and was shut in foliage. The days there captain being, however, reluctant to execute him,
were almost always mild and bright throughout the determined to send him to the uninhabited island
year, and it was the favourite resort of innumerable I
of St. Jdelen, off which the vessel was lying be-
birds, with whom
the hermit of St. Catherine was calmed and unable to move. The boat which
upon terms of the most extraordinary intimacy. carried him from the ship contained also the body
They came to his call, clustered upon his person, of the slain officer, in a hastily and rudely con-
nestled to rest in his beard, and fed from his hand structed coffin. This was buried in the island, and
and mouth, permitted him to caress them, and a post set up to mark the grave, after which the
would allow his visitors to caress them also but — unfortunate sailor’s shipmates wished him a melan-
only when he was present. The hermit himself choly good-bye. The horror of his desertion and
was a courteous, affable, and amiable man, who !
solitary state so preyed upon the Dutchman’s mind
fed upon vegetables exclusively. Hearing the voice that he determined upon running any risk rather
of man rarely and at long intervals, he found con- than remain on the island. He therefore dug up
solation in the songs of his birds, to which he gave the dead body, removed it from the coffin, and
food, shelter, and safe places for nesting. converting the coffin-lid into a kind of rudder,
“ If there is a happy man on earth,” wrote Mr. carried the other part down to the shore, and,
Thicknesse, “there he dwells. His features, his getting it sprang into it. The vessel was
afloat,
manners, all his looks and actions announce it, and a league and a half away, but he contrived at
yet he had not a single maravedi in his pocket. length to paddle towards it, and was presently
Money is as useless to him as to one of his black- spied by the look-out. The crew and captain
birds. .Here the nightingale, the linnet, and
. . were not a little startled to see a coffin afloat,
an infinite variety of little songsters, greater and were still more surprised when they dis-
strangers to my eyes than fearful of my hands, covered that the condemned man had been
dwell in perfect security, and live on the most desperate enough to trust himself upon the sea,
friendly intimacy with their holy protector. . . .
j
calm as it was, in a box made with three thin
I was sorry my host did not understand English, !
boards slightly nailed together, in order to reach
nor Spanish enough, to give him the sense of the
I those who had already condemned him to swing
lines written in poor Shenstone’s alcove: from the yard-arm. He was taken on board, and,
“ ‘ Oh, you that bathe in courtly bliss, after considerable discussion, was allowed to live
Or toil in fortune’s giddy sphere.
until he reached Holland, by which time it had
Do not too rashly judge amiss
Of him that bides contented here.’” been determined to pardon and set him free.
; —
ICE AND WATER. 15
ICE AND WATER. water in this respect, which makes it so valuable

for warming and many other purposes. Related
We are apt to think of it as “natural ” that the air to this property is its extraordinary amount of
we breathe should form of a gas, water
exist in the “ heat of fusion,” or vaporisation, commonly called
in the form of a fluid, and other substances around “ latent heat.” An enormous amount of heat must
us in a solid state and we say that the air is a

;
be applied to melt a quantity of ice, or to boil away
gas, water a fluid, and iron or copper a solid, into steam a quantity of water, as we all know.
accordingly. But the truth is that Nature has no All this time, the ice or the water is not raised
such essential distinctions, and that all these in temperature one fraction, and hence the heat
states of matter are simply results of circumstances. absorbed is called “ latent.” Conversely, however,
They partly depend on temperature, and partly when the water is frozen or the steam liquefied, all
also on the surrounding pressure. It may be said, this quantity of heat is given out again. Thus it is
without an exception, that under certain conditions that in a thaw, by the very melting of the ice or
of high pressure and low temperature all the known snow, heat is absorbed, the atmosphere cooled, and
gases have been liquefied, and many of them solidi- the thaw kept from being so rapid as to cause
fied ;
on the other hand, we know now that
while, inundations while, on the other hand, in freezing
;
sufficient heat will not only melt the most refrac- the heat is given out, and the temperature
tory metals, but convert them into gas. Mercury moderated. The same applies to the evaporation
is as real a metal as any other, though it becomes of water. In this way, by these properties, in which
solid very far below the freezing-point of water ;
the substance known as Ice—Water — Steam is so
and so when we say that water “ freezes ” at 32° of remarkable, it acts as the great steadier of tem-
English thermometers, we simply mean that under perature all over the globe. Finally, the difference
the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere this is the between the freezing and boiling points of water
temperature at which the fluid becomes solid, or —
32° and 212® Fahr. is extraordinarily small so ;
the solid fluid, just as, at a very different tempera- that man is able to obtain and use this kind of
ture, a paraffin candle does the same. In the matter in any form most convenient for his pur-
same way, at the higher temperature of 212° in poses, with the greatest ease.
the open air the water assumes the shape and Without the shadow of doubt all these remark-
obeys all the laws of a true gas, being then called able properties, extraordinary as they appear, are
steam. The steam is as really a gas as ammonia. the result of general physical laws. But they are
We shall see in a future article how entirely these none the less extraordinary ;
none the less as far
melting and boiling points depend on pressure so ;
as possible from being accidental or undesigned.
that not only does water boil when only comfort- When we find physical laws bestowing upon the
ably warm at the top of Mont Blanc, but under most plentiful of substances properties so remark-
certain conditions ice may be surrounded by a tem- ably subservient to both animal and human life, the
perature higher than that of boiling water without most natural reflection must be concerning the
melting and there is much reason to think that in
;
wisdom of laws which accomplish such far-reaching
an absolute vacuum, could we obtain and keep one, results.
the fluid state of any substance would be impos- While all know that there are still large regions
sible at all. of the earth in which ice is the “natural” con-
Ice, or water, in its various forms, is one of the dition, and water has to be liquefied from it by
most remarkable substances known. The excep- artificial heat, few people realise what immense
tion it law of expansion by
offers to the general masses of this solid water are congregated round
heat and contraction by cold, expanding as it does the poles. Think of a massive ice-sheet hundreds
from 39° down to the freezing-point, is well known; of feet in which are broken off
thickness, from
also the importance of this to us in preventing as mere fragments those giant icebergs which we
the conversion of ponds, rivers, and oceans into must describe in a future article. Remember that
vast masses of ice during a frost.* Almost more these gigantic glaciers still linger even in the
remarkable, however, is the enormous amount of region of Italy and Switzerland, and that there
its “ specific heat,” or heat required to raise a was a time not so very long since (as geologic ages
given weight by a given temperature, say a degree go) when this grim mass of ice covered nearly all
while, conversely, heated water gives out again of what we now call Europe or the temperate zone.
enormous heat in cooling one degree. No solid or Now it is different ;
but ice is so necessarj^ to us
fluid substance, and no other substance whatever — in hot climates it is really more of a necessity
except hydrogen gas, one of its components, and than a luxury —that from very early ages the
the most inflammable substance known, approaches greatest pains have been taken to preserve it for
* The expansion during the fluid state, from 39° to 32®, is the
the use of man. The Romans fetched pressed
remarkable fact. Expansion in freezing is shared by many metals
snow from Sicily and the Apennines and the ;
and other substances. Hindoos from time immemorial have made ice by
i6 THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
HUDSON.
RIVER
THE
ON
HARVEST
ICE
THE
ICE AND WATER. 17
evaporation in the dry night air, carrying to per- swing in the accompanying plate. Along each shore
fection the process by which we water in
cool are immense storehouses, each of which will hold,
porous jars. In open and dry plains they dig pits say, 50,000 tons, and which are built of wood, double,
twenty or thirty feet square and a couple deep, in with an air-space between the two skins of the
which they set very wide, flat, porous earthenware wall, to prevent conduction of heat. The harvest
pans about an inch deep, upon light bamboo commences when the ice on the river
about nine
is
frames or stiff open straw. They thus promote inches thick; then a smoothish surface being chosen,
rapid evaporation both from the surface of the is marked out, and ice-ploughs cut grooves nearly
water and the bottom surface of the pans, and the through (only leaving enough to bear the weight of
result is a thin coating of ice which is carefully men and machines), so as to divide the area into
Tyndall’s experiment, showing the crystallisation in a slab of ice.
stored away before sunrise. In recent years ice oblong rectangles of nearly a square yard each. A
is made onthe same principle of rapid evapora- portion containing many squares is then detached
tion by complicated and costly machines, which by a pickaxe, and drawn near an ice-house, where
hasten the evaporation of very volatile liquids by each block is separated by a strong iron fork, and
a vacuum kept up by mechanical means. placed on the foot of an “ elevator,” or endless band
The greatest supply of ice for almost the whole travelling up an incline. At the top of the slope
world is now Northern America. There has grown the blocks are seized and stowed, leaving a space
up a vast ice-industry, which exports yearly of a few inches between them to allow circula-
thousands and thousands of tons to the Southern tion of air, keep from freezing together, and allow
States, to England, France, and Italy, the Cape, water to drain away. The Hudson ice goes mainly
Australia, and India. The fresh- water lakes of from New York the Canadian from more northern
;
Canada supply a great deal of this, and Wenham ports. At Boston alone the industry employs 4,000
Lake is by no means the only one but of late men, and in Canada a great many more. Such is
;
years a large industry of the same kind has grown the demand for this solid water in all quarters of
up on the River Hudson, at about a hundred the globe and the magnitude of the traffic is
;
miles from New York, which is represented at full further shown by the fact that in London ice can
D
generally be purchased in the hottest season at six-sided, six-pointed stars, or six-sided figures.
about two-pence per pound. They are many shapes, of varied and marvellous
But we have by no means fully described ice beauty, but all agree in this —
that they are put
when we have said that it is water cooled or together at the one definite angle of 6o°, or one-
“ frozen ” to the solid state. Let us compare it sixth of a circle.
with something else that, at first sight, may appear Now this is not only true of snow, but of ice also.
very similar glass. We often hear it said that
— In other words, ice is a crystal; it is not only water
some piece or other of ice is “ as clear as glass.” cooled, but water crystalnsed, and its crystallisation
Both are brilliantly clear both are brittle both
; ;
proceeds on the very same plan as the snow-
can be melted by heat, and converted into gas by crystals. Looking at the beautiful crystal ferns
more heat. How which in winter
much alike they often form on our
seem and yet
;
there window - panes, a
is a fundamental square of which is
difference. In glass drawn on this page,

we can discern no we may not think
sign whatever of so. In truth the
orderly building- crystallisation is in
up, or symmetrical such a case often
parts — in other dragged out of
words, what scien- form, as it were,
tificmen call “struc- by the adhesion of
ture.” It not only the glass surface :
breaks “ anyhow,” it is not the fact, as

but in cooling also some of the text-
it shows no ten- books say, that on
dency to take any such a perpendicu-
particular form ;
lar plate of glass
and in a fluid state the angle of 6o°,
it is very slow to or its double of
diffuse itself among 120°, is always ex-
other fluid sub- actly preserved.
stances. It is what But as a rule it is,
chemists and phy- even there if the ;
sicists call a colloid, angle where the

a word which de- needles or little
scribes this special branches of crys-

kind of matter. And tal Join their stems
when we mix other are measured, the
substances with it, peculiar angle cha-
solidificationdoes racteristic of ice
not separate them, can, as a rule, be
nor do they practi- traced. On the
cally alter much the surface of water
temperature at which it becomes solid, or “ freezes.” itself, where the crystallisation is unfettered, the
In all these points water is very different. It dif- angle of the rays is invariable, and the very same
fuses readily into other fluids (not colloids). If other as that of the snow-crystals, which are simply ice-
— —
things such as salt are mixed with it, the salt crystals on a small scale. From this we learn still
makes it much more difficult to freeze ;
and when another thing — viz., that the axis of the crystalli-
itdoes freeze at last, there is a strong tendency to sation, or directibn round which the stars or crystals
separate the salt or throw it out, so that the ice on are symmetrically built, is in ice perpendicular to
the sea in the Polar regions very nearly fresh. But,
is the plane of freezing, or surface of the water. A
still more remarkable, the water cools in a particular wide sheet of ice may appear to be all clear and
form, always. If it freezes from thick clouds (whichdev'oid of structure but, on the contrary, all its ;
are quite different from steam in being small par- molecules are put together on a mathematical plan,
ticles of real water suspended in air, not gas), it with most rigorous exactness.
becomes “ snow,” and this snow is all made up of By a beautiful experiment. Professor Tyndall
those beautiful forms with which Captain Scoresby’s showed this to be the case in a slab or block of
drawings have made us so familiar. They are all solid, clear ice. Applying heat to such a slab, it is
—
THE SUEZ CANAL. 19
found that the particles are unlocked from the polar THE SUEZ CANAL.
forces which bind them together, in precisely the
same order which bound them together, as we It would be difficult to exaggerate the advantages
should expect. This beautiful experiment is shown which the commerce of the world has derived from
on p. 17. A beam of sunlight reflected from the the construction of the Suez Canal. To have re-
mirror of a heliostat * is brought full upon a slab of duced the distance between India and Western
clear ice, either natural, or so cut from a solid block Europe from 11,379 to 7,628 miles, thereby effect-
that the parallel surfaces are parallel to the surface ing a saving of thirty-six days in the voyage, is
of the water on which it froze. The illuminated ice undoubtedly a great achievement, and one which
is focussed by a large lens, so that a brilliant en- must be allowed a place among the Wonders of
larged image of anything that occurs in it is thrown the World.
upon a screen. As the heat of the sunbeam begins M. de Lesseps declares that every intelligent
to act, the ice slowly melts at a number of points but child, on first seeing a map of Egypt, must have
;
round each point it becomes fluid in the form of a asked his teacher why the road to India was not
six-rayed star, or six-leaved flower. The formation across the Isthmus of Suez. This question had
of the ice-crystal is reversed, and the structure of certainly engaged the attention of intelligent men
the ice stands revealed. In the blocks of Wenham- long before Lesseps took it up and gave it such
lake ice before any fishmonger’s door, we may see a practical solution. A canal across the isthmus
patches of a cloudy white here and there, especially was actually constructed 600 years before the
in warm weather. Examination with a microscope Christian era, and served as a water-way for
shows that such a milky patch is entirely due to small vessels until about 1,000 years ago, when
thousands of these six-rayed stars or flowers, though it was allowed to fall into disuse. Napoleon I.
they are so small as to be almost invisible to the revived the idea, and instructed one of the great
naked eye. engineers of his day to investigate the matter but,
;
We thus learn finally, that the wonderful struc- though a report favourable to the restoration of the
ture of ice extends down to the most minute por- ancient canal was presented to him by M. Lepere,
tions : the smallest bit is accurately built up upon the work itself was never touched.
one exact plan. We are therefore forced to imagine To Great Britain the problem was necessarily
each separate smallest bit, or molecule, as being one of vital importance. Her close connection
linked on to its neighbours by uniform polar forces, with India, and the rapid increase of trade between
or laws and equally forced to conclude that every the two countries, gave the people of this country
;
molecule itself must be uniform, and also built a special interest in any scheme which promised
up on the same plan. Can we see into this at all ? to render intercommunication more rapid. Hence
We do know that every molecule, or very smallest the scheme known as the “ Overland Route ” was
portion of water or ice that is ice or water, is com- readily approved by the Government and the com-
—
posed of three atoms one of oxygen and two of mercial classes of this country. At best, however,
hydrogen. It is easy enough to conceive of these the “ Overland Route ” was but a make-shift it ;
three atoms being combined together as an equi- simply shortened the journey for Indo-European
lateral triangle ;
—
and if we cut a lot of such triangles travellers, and accelerated the mails that was all.
out of paper and put them together, we shall soon But something more than this was wanted. A
arrive at a six- rayed star. It seems natural to think road to India across the isthmus, to be of greatest
the arrangement may be something of this kind. service to Europe, and to this country particularly,
Extended investigations do not bear out this view, must be such as would not necessitate the dis-
for though a certain relationship is found to exist embarking and re-embarking of passengers and
between similarity in chemical composition and mails, and such as would permit merchandise also
similarity in crystalline form, we do not find that to be carried without the trouble and expense of
every substance composed of three atoms to each transhipment. A maritime canal, wide and deep
molecule crystallises in this form. The hypothesis enough for ocean-going vessels, was the only plan
fails us in this precise form, as a general rule. But which would meet all the necessities of the case.
it may still serve to show us the way in which Was a maritime canal practicable ;
and would
men of science begin to think about these pro- such a canal, if constructed, be financiallyprofitable ?
blems ;
how definite to them is the idea of These were the questions which M. de Lesseps
molecules and their structure and the nature of debated with himself and with the world many
;
some of the reasons why they are very sure that years. An absolute affirmative was not to be
there must be and are definite laws by which hastily given by the great engineer for himself
the ultimate atoms of bodies are arranged to- he had to patiently win it, by persuasion from his
gether. friends and by the logic of facts from his foes.
The story of the enterprise is one of true heroism,
• The electric or lime-light will also answer the purpose. and worthy every way of being told in unwearying
detail, but we must content ourselves with a simple
outline.
Two points of great importance were very quickly
decided by M. Lesseps first, that it was unde-
:
sirable to follow up Napoleon’s idea of restoring

the disused canal second, that the shortest and
;
most direct practicable line between the Red Sea

and the Mediterranean must be drawn. The route
being fixed upon, questions of considerable interest
and no little difficulty confronted him. Was the
sea-level at the two extremities of the proposed
canal about the same } or was there, as had gene-
rally been supposed, a difference so great that the
canal would be literally flooded as soon as it was
opened } Would the process of “ silting up ” choke
the canal } Would it be possible to construct a
port and keep the entrance clear on the Medi-
terranean side of the canal ? When those ques-
tions were disposed of, there were others ready to
present themselves, but these were the most diffi-
cult ;
except, perhaps, that of finding the tens of
thousands of labourers which the work would re-
quire, and of feeding them in such “ a desert place ’*
when they were found.
For the solving of some of these problems,
M. Lesseps betook himself to the wilderness, and
dwelt there four years, making observations and
borings all over the course of the future canal.
First and foremost, he perfectly demonstrated the
fact that the level of the two seas was the same,
and that there could be no danger of an inunda-
tion. A sojourn of a whole year on the shores of
Lake Menzaleh satisfied him that a secure har-
bour could there be constructed. Patient watching
and repeated scientific experiments proved that
the sand of the desert did not accumulate as was
commonly believed and borings made at nine-
;
teen separate points between the Red Sea and the

Mediterranean showed that the soil of the isthmus
is firm and fixed ;
not liable, therefore, to become
slimy, as the opponents of the undertaking had
predicted. In short, M. de Lesseps, in the course
of this preliminary investigation, reached two con-
clusions, which were afterwards confirmed by our
own eminent countryman. Sir John Hawkshaw,
C.E.— viz., I, that no unusual engineering difficulties
would be met with in the construction of the canal;
and 2, that when made, no obstacles of an insur-
mountable character would prevent its being kept
free for navigation.
Mohammed Said, the then reigning Viceroy of
Egypt, watched the movement with sympathetic
interest, and readily granted a concession to M. de
Lesseps for the construction of the canal. No time
was lost in bringing the scheme before the world.
The French people received it with the utmost
enthusiasm, and readily responded to the appeal
for the necessary capital. In this country the pro-
ject excited no small degree of hostility. Lord
THE SUEZ CANAL. 21
Palmerston denounced it as “ one of those bubble through 66 miles of the course ; 14 miles of the
schemes which are often set on foot to induce bed were made by dredging through the lakes,
English capitalists to embark their money upon leaving but 8 miles requiring no works of any kind,
enterprises which in the end will only leave them the natural depth being equal to that of the canal
poorer, whoever else they may make richer.” And as projected. The canal was intended to have a
the great engineer, Mr. Robert Stephenson, while navigable depth of 26 feet for a width of 72 feet at
not denying its practicability, cast doubts upon the the bottom^ the width at the top to vary according
commercial prospects of the project. To secure to the character of the cuttings. From Port Said
the support of English capitalists, M. de Lesseps the canal crosses about 20 miles of Menzaleh Lake,
visited this country, and held interviews with the where it is 112 yards wide at the surface; 22 miles
authorities of many of the principal towns, ex- further it reaches Timsah Lake by means of a
DREDGING MACHINERY USED IN THE SUEZ CANAL.
plaining the leading features of his scheme, and. cutting through the ground to a depth varying from
pointing out the advantages which British com- 30 to 80 feet Timsah Lake itself is 3 miles long,
;
merce was certain to derive from its accomplish- and at this point the flourishing town of Ismailia
ment. has taken the place of what was a small Arab vil-
The plans of the great engineer were, however, lage. From Timsah Lake a fresh-water canal was
at length completed, and on the 25th of August, made and fed from the Nile, to supply the popula-
1859, the making of the Suez Canal was begun. tion engaged on the line of the maritime canal.
Engineers and skilled artisans were of course en- The work from Timsah Lake to the edge of the
gaged from France and England; but the Khedive Bitter Lakes was very heavy. Deep cuttings, vary-
undertook to supply an army of fellaheen 30,000 ing from 30 to 62 feet, were necessary and, as the
;
strong, for the heavier and more laborious parts quantity of sand to be dug out was enormous, a
of the work. large number of gigantic dredging-machines and
The course of the canal is shown in the accom- elevators had to be employed. The deepest cutting
panying map. The whole length of the water-way of all was at Ed Gisr, where the canal is 173 yards
is 88 geographical miles. Cuttings had to be made wide at the summit-level, 112 yards wide at the
—

water-level, and 85 feet in depth. Embanking inclined channel 5 feet wide and 2 feet deep, one
rather than excavating was the kind of work re- end connected with the dredger and the other
quired in passing through the Bitter Lakes, the running out over the embankment. It was sup-
bottom of that region being very little above the ported in the middle by an iron framework on the
intended level of the great canal. From the Bitter deck of a barge. A steam-pump kept a stream of
Lakes to Suez, a length of about 13 miles, the work water flowing through this channel ;
so that when
again became severe, ground to the depth of from 30 the dredged-up matter fell into the upper end of the
to 56 feet having to be dug out and carried away. couloir^ it easily ran through the duct and was cast
Port Said owes its existence to the Suez Canal, ashore on the bank, thus saving all the labour of
but the canal itself could not be made until the filling the dredgings into boxes and removing them
Port of Said was built. That was M. de Lesseps’ to the bank by means of an elevator. The action
first task.He could collect no materials and build of the couloir was sometimes aided by a balayeur —
no workshops until he had dug a channel for the z>., an endless chain passing through the channel,
Mediterranean through the bare sand, and had and bearing with it a number of iron scrapers for
constructed docks in which large ships could enter removing accumulations of slime and mud. Some
with their cargoes of stores. It was further neces- idea of the enormous size of these machines may
sary to build a vast breakwater^ for the twofold be gained when we say that the largest of them
object of keeping the mud out of the canal, and were 75 yards long; and if placed on end, one of
enabling vessels to approach the mouth of the canal them w'ould have towered nearly 8 yards above
with safety even in rough weather. This breakwater is the Monument at London Bridge. The quantity
now one of the most striking features of Port Said ; of material removed by these gigantic excavators
the western pier runs out to a distance of more than was 2,763,000 cubic yards a month sufficient, as —
a mile, and separated by 1,500 yards from the
is M. de Lesseps has calculated, to cover the Place
eastern pier, which forms an arc of about 1,100 Vendome five times the height of the surrounding
yards in extent. Stone, which had to be brought buildings ;
or if laid out between the Arc de
from a great distance, was at first used but after-
; Triomphe and the Place de la Concord, to cover a
wards blocks of artificial stone, weighing 20 tons mile and a quarter of the avenue to the height
each, were made on the spot, by mixing sand and of the trees on either side Such machines are !
cement together in wooden boxes or moulds, then still used on the canal to keep the channel clear.
taking away the moulds and leaving the blocks to The total cost of constructing the canal from
harden in the open air. first to last was, according to a report published in
The sudden withdrawal of the native labourers 1880, 1 The last barrier was pierced
7, 5 1 8, 729.
by order of the Khedive threatened to bring the August 15, 1869, almost exactly ten years from the
whole scheme to an inglorious conclusion but; date of commencing the work and the canal was ;
M. de Lesseps and the contractors, MM. Birel and opened for traffic November 17, 1869.
Lavalley, were equal to the emergency. They M. de Lesseps was sanguine enough to estimate
hired as many fellahs as they could, and super- that the tonnage of ships passing through the canal
seded manual labour to a large extent by employ- would be three millions in the first year, and would
ing dredging-machines and elevators of colossal probably be twice as much during the second year.
dimensions. These dredges, which were similar The following table, compiled from official sources,
to those commonly used in cleansing rivers and shows the actual growth of the traffic through the
canals in this country, were specially constructed canal :
for the purpose, and varied in size from 15 to 75 No. of Vessels. Tonnage.
00
0 491 436,618
horse-power, the larger machines costing, it is said,
1871 .. 761 76*, 87s
^20,000 each. The elevator was a contrivance for 1872 .. 1,082 1,439,166
lifting the box of sand from the dredger and carrying CO
1,171 2,085,270
1874 1,264 2,423,672
it on to the embankment. One end of the elevator
1875 1,496 2,940,708
hung over the punt or barge in which the boxes of 1876 1,461 2,095,870
dredgings were landed each box was drawn up
; 1877 1,651 2,251.556
1878 3,291,535
by a steel rope and carried on a small truck to the 1,593
1879 1,477 3,236,942
other end of the elevator, which extended several 1880 2,020 4,344,400
yards over the embankment. On reaching that 1881 2,727 5,794,400
point the end-door of the box opened, the contents

emptied themselves over the ground beneath, and The company’s charges for all ships passing
the empty box then ran dowm the return line of through the canal are 10 francs per ton on the
wire-rope back to the punt. A far more effective register tonnage, 10 francs per passenger, and 20
machine, however, was the long cmiloir^ a sketch of francs per decimetre for vessels over 20 feet draught
which is given.This apparatus consisted in as a pilotage charge. The total receipts of the
reality of a long mechanical duct, with a slightly company from all sources in 1881 were ;^2,20o,ooo.
; —
ELECTRIC MACHINES. 23
ELECTRIC MACHINES. but we also find that if the two things are allowed
to touch, this attraction once changed to
is at
If, three hundred years ago, we had been required repulsion. Another thing which we can learn is
to write an account of electricity, we could have that the rubbed body will be attracted to any sub-
done so in very few lines. The science of elec- stance which has not been thus electrified. By
tricity, as known up to the year 1600, was comprised making a little cradle of wire in which to hang the
in the fact that amber and jet possessed the curious rubbed sealing-wax in the place of the pith ball, we
property, when rubbed, of attracting any light shall find that it will turn towards the hand directly
bodies —such as feathers, bits of straw or paper — to the hand is lifted near it but if we approach towards
;
which they were approached. it another rubbed rod of sealing-wax, the suspended
About the year mentioned a Dr. Gilbert found one will be immediately repelled. Another way of
that many other substances possessed the same showing attraction and repulsion is to hang two
' attractive property when excited by rubbing, and to ! pith balls to the glass support, and touch them with
these bodies he gave the name of Electrics. To a rubbed glass rod they immediately fly apart, and
:
substances which apparently did not share that j

will separate still more as the rod is brought between
power he gave the name of Non-electrics, and this them. But on approaching towards them a rubbed
rough division was rod of sealing - wax,
adopted by all the ex- they will be attracted
perimenters of that by it.
day. Later on, it was Hence

it was sur-
found that this classi- mised by early expe-
fication was inaccu- rimenters that there
rate ;
for if such so- were two kinds of
called non-electrics as electricity — the one
the metals were iso- being excited in glass
lated, or insulated by by being rubbed with
a handle of glass or silk, and the other
porcelain, which pre- being aroused in resin-
vented the electricity ous substances, such
being carried through as sealing-wax, by fric-
the hand which held tion against flannel or

them to the earth, wool. The first was
such metals would called vitreous elec-
show, on being sub- tricity, and the second
jected to friction, the resinous electricity.
same phenomena as These names have now
Fi;;
the “Electrics.” been given up in fa-
A stick of sealing- vour of the epithets
wax perhaps the best material for these first
is positive and negative, the electricity appearing
experiments in electricity and although it is easy
;
on rubbed glass being positive, and that on rubbed
enough, by rubbing it on the sleeve of one’s coat, wax being negative and the algebraic signs + and
;
to prove its power, when thus electrified, of at- - are generally used to denote the electrical con-
tracting any light particles placed beneath it, a far dition of any substance under consideration. A
better contrivance, called an Electroscope, can be few experiments with the pith ball will soon teach
arranged with very little trouble. (See Fig. i.) us that two positively electrified bodies or two —
It consists of a bent glass rod cemented into a —
negatively electrified bodies will repel one another;
wooden foot. To the projecting arm of this glass but that a positively electrified body will attract
support is hung, by a fine thread, a little ball of one which is negatively electrified.
elder pith, which, from extreme lightness, is easily
its The two principal theories which were first ad-
moved directly a rubbed rod of glass or sealing-wax vanced to account for these phenomena are known
is brought near it. We can with this simple little as the two-fluid theory and the one-fluid theory
instrument try many experiments of an interesting respectively. According to the two-fluid theory
character, which will help us in understanding —
advanced by Symmer every material thing in the
something of that science which had its beginning world contains an indefinite quantity of an impon-
six hundred years before the Christian era, and derable fluid, which itself is compounded of two
which has grown to such wondrous proportions in fluids. In combination these fluids are neutralised,
this nineteenth century. but by friction they can be separated, and then be-
We find, then, that this pith ball is attracted come evident to our senses. Benjamin Franklin
directly the rubbed sealing-wax is brought near it held that one fluid only existed, and that its par-
— ;

tides were mutually repellant of one another. mill will also give evidence of the electricity aroused
We have at present no definite theory to account in its particles by the friction of grinding. little A
for all the phenomena e.\hibited by electricity dry whiting or chalk urged upon the electroscope
but it is thought . by being placed in
that the opinion the nozzle of a pair
held by Faraday of bellows, will also
—that explanation show signs of elec-
was to be looked trical action. Even
for in the mole- a disc of insulated
cular condition oi cork, which has
the bodies rubbed been warmed and
— is perhaps the merely pressed
most probable; and against a piece of
it is at all events the same material,
pretty certain that cause the leaves
will
electricity is one or of the instrument
the forms, capable to diverge. The
of being trans- fractured end of a
formed into other broken rod of seal-
forms (such as Heat ing-wax or sulphur
or Motion) of that presented to the
mysterious Energy plate gives a like re-
which, in one form sult, while the crys-
or other, and chiefly by its very changes of form, tals of many chemical salts show electrical excitation
does the work of the universe. when heated and placed on the little brass table.
A far more sensitive form of electroscope is shown Seeing, then, that electricity is of so universal a
in Fig. 2. It consists of character, and can be
two leaves of gold, such so readily made to give
as are used by gilders, evidence of its presence,
attached by their ends it is not surprising that
to either side of a slip many attempts were
of brass. This contriv- made produce it in
to
ance is placed under an greater quantity by me-
inverted glass jar, so chanical means. The
that the delicate leaves first of these attempts
cannot be disturbed by must be credited to
any gust of air. A brass Otto von Guericke of
wire passing from the Magdeburg, who made
slip of metal by which a machine in which the
the leaves are supported, electricity was excited
finds its exit through the by holding a rotating
cork of the jar, and is ball of sulphur between
crowned with a little the open palms. With
plate or table of the this machine he was
same This in-
material. able to produce sparks
strument is extremely and many other mani-
sensitive, as can be festations of electrical
shown by innumerable activity. Later on, glass
experiments. A rubbed
'
was used in the same
glass rod held at some / manner and after se-
;
distance from the plate Fig. 4. — HYDRO-ELECTRIC MACHINE. veral contrivances were
will cause the gold in turn by produced
leaves to diverge, rod will
while a sealing-wax different inventors, the survival of the was fittest
cause them once more to fall. But the gold leaf exemplified in the well-known cylinder machine
electroscope will give evidence of being sensitive to shown at Fig. 3.
far more delicate impressions than these. A lump Here we have the means of turning rapidly a
of sugar, cut with a saw, and held in such a position cylinder of glass, against which is pressed a cushion
that its dust will fall on the plate, will cause the of horsehair covered with leather. To increase the
leaves to separate. Coffee freshly ground from the friction thus induced, the rubber is treated with an
ELECTRIC MACHINES. 25
amalgam of mercury and tin. The electricity is an electric discharge,accompanied by a brilliant

collected by what is known as the prime conductor spark. Sir Armstrong was led to examine
\V.
—
— a cylindrical metal body supported on a glass the cause of the phenomenon, and after a careful
stem, and furnished with a row of pointed wires, series of experiments, found that it was due to the
with their ends almost touching the revolving glass water against the sides of
friction of the particles of
cylinder. the aperture through which they escaped. Later
Another form of machine which is adopted when on, he produced the hydro-electric machine just
grander effects are desired is that known as the alluded to (Fig. 4).
plate electrical machine. As its name implies, the This may be briefly described as a steam boiler
cylinder is here replaced by a plate of glass. This with a series of bent iron tubes, terminating in jets
plate, as it revolves, is pressed on each side by —
made of partridge-wood a material which was
rubbers, and the electricity is collected by a prime found by Sir W. Armstrong to ensure the best
conductor, as in the case of the cylinder machine. results. The watery steam from these jets impinged
In small machines of this character, the glass plate upon metallic points which were in connection with
Fig. 5. — LEYDEN JAR.
Fig e —DISCHARGER. BATTERY OF LEYDEN JARS,
has been superseded by a disc of vulcanite which, — a prime conductor. Dry steam was found to give
on account of its lightness, is far more convenient no effects whatever, and special precautions had to
for the purpose. Such machines as these last were be adopted to keep the vapour in a saturated con-
introduced some years ago for mining purposes, |
dition.
where it was required to explode fuses by electrical ! With all these machines, it is customary to store,
agency. or accumulate, the electricity by what is known as
Another machine, which caused much excitement the Leyden jar (Fig. 5). This jar was first con-
when first exhibited in London many years ago, is trived by some experimenters at the town from
the hydro-electric machine contrived by Sir W. which it takes its name. Its primitive form was a
Armstrong. The invention of this machine was due glass bottle, half filled with water a nail being —
to a curious accident. seems that at Sedgehill,
It thrust through the cork, and touching the surface of
near Newcastle, there happened to be standing a the liquid. The idea was to solve that problem
locomotive engine, which exhibited a fissure in the which is exercising the minds of so many workers
cemented joint by which the safety-valve was fitted in the present day — namely, the storage of elec-
to the boiler. Through crack the high-pressure
this tricity. The Leyden philosophers succeeded beyond
steam, of course, forced itself in a powerful jet. The their expectations ;
for one of them, holding the jar
engineer in charge found, to his surprise, that when- in his hand, and touching the nail with the other
ever he passed his hand through this jet he received hand, received a smart shock. This shock may be
E
——

said to have made itself felt throughout Europe, for —
disruption as we saw in the case of the broken
the details of the experiment were speedily made sealing-wax applied to the electroscope all give —
known to the world. The jar as now made consists manifestations of electric action. In addition to
of a glass vessel, coated inside and outside to within these, we find that more than one living creature
an inch or two of its mouth with tin-foil. The has the power of giving powerful and dangerous
mouth of the jar is closed with a cover of wood, electric —
shocks a power which it uses both for
through which passes a stout brass wire. Internal killing its prey and as a means of defence against
connection with the foil is ensured by the attach- its enemies. Even certain plants have been known
ment of a piece of brass chain while the other end ;
to show signs of electricity. To the daughter of
of the brass wire, outside the jar, is terminated with the great Linneeus is due the observation that in
a brass knob. * dry weather certain plants give out flashes of light
The action Leyden jar can be readily the marigold, nasturtium, and tiger-lily being noted
of the
understood by what has gone before. The knob of as those commonly affected in this way. Another
the jar being placed near the prime conductor of source of electricity is heat. The junction of two
the electric machine, receives on its inner coating a dissimilar metals, such as bismuth and antimony,
charge of positive electricity. This induces a charge when heated, will produce what is known as a
of negative electricity on the face of the outer coat- thermo-electric current. But more important than
ing nearest the glass so that the two opposite any of these is the production of electricity by
;
kinds of electricity are close together, but kept chemical action, as exemplified in the Voltaic
separate by the glass of the jar, through which they battery,and by means of the magnet as shown in —
cannot pass. To discharge the jar, it is held in one those wonderful machines which are now coming
hand, whilst the knuckle of the other hand is into common use for electric lighting purposes.
applied to the knob. If the jar be a large one, These machines, and the phenomena by which they
fully charged, this proceeding would be attended by are surrounded, will form subjects of future articles.
danger, for the convulsive shock from a Leyden jar
is by no means to be despised. It is therefore
necessary to use the “discharger” shown in Fig. 6. A MONSTER WATER-LILY.
Where it is required to accumulate a large charge
of electricity, a number of jars are joined together by The water-lilies form a small but very well
their brass terminals, and they then form a Leyden marked group of plants, inhabiting still or gently
Battery (Fig. 7). There was an immense battery running water in the temperate and tropical
of this description at the late Polytechnic Institution, regions of both hemispheres. They have always
in Regent Street. It consisted of fifty jars, each with commanded the admiration, at times created the
a capacity of about five gallons. It was charged in wonder, and in one case at least, have even enjoyed
about seventy seconds by the Armstrong hydro- the solemn religious respect of mankind. The
electric machine. It is noteworthy that these im- large handsome flowers of the white water-lily
mense jars, when sold with the other effects of the “ Rising in fearless grace with every swell,”
Institution, commanded the extravagant price of
sixpence apiece. expanding during the day and closing at sunset,
Great care is necessary in manipulating batteries, are familiar and striking summer objects in our
as the shock from one of them may be very dan- ponds and sluggish streams. The gigantic Amazon-
gerous. One of the early experimenters relates river water-lily, the famous Victoria Regia, has
that on one occasion he received the discharge filled beholders with amazement since first it
through the top of his head he fell down “in a
: wonder-struck its discoverer in the still warm
heap,” all nerveless, as if paralysed, though he waters of its Brazilian home. The Sacred Lotus
recov’ered afterwards. He was certainly very for- Bean, or Pudma, the most beautiful of all the water-
tunate in getting over his foolhardy experiment so lilies, is treated with the greatest and most pro-
well. found veneration by the natives of India and China

There are many other sources of electricity at the present day, and was so regarded at a period
besides friction. can be proved that the eva-
It so remote as 4,000 years ago, by a particular sect
poration of a liquidis accompanied by the production of Egyptians now long ago extinct as is also their;
of electricity and there is no doubt that atmos-

;
inviolable from the waters of the Nile, the
lily
pheric electricity owes its constant presence to this plant having since then spread itself eastward over
action. The crystallisation of all salts previously the warmer regions of Asia.
in solution also shows signs of electricity and in Altogether there are only about thirty or forty
;
one instance at least is accompanied by flashes of different species of water-lilies, two of which the —
light. The percussion of substances induces oppo- white and the yellow-flowered are the only in- —
site electrical states in the striker and the matter habitants of British pools and streams. They are
struck. Pressure, vibration, combustion, cleavage. of perennial habits, and most of them at least are
—
A MONSTER WATER-IJLY. 27
provided with prostrate, submerged stems, otten carpel containing a single seed these become loose
;
discovered creeping along the mud in shallow when ripe,and make a sharp rattle-like noise when
water. From these, stems and flowers are sent the fruit containing them is shaken.
upwards carried on short stout stalks. The leaf- But the most remarkable species of this interest-
stalks are often attached to the centre of the under- ing family is undoubtedly the Victoria Regia. It is
surface of the generally roundish or heart-shaped a monster plant with large orbicular leaves carried
blade, and these usually float on the surface of the on very long floating stalks attached to and
water. In the Sacred Lotus, however, the leaves radiating from a submerged stem, and producing
and flowers are carried upwards on long stalks to correspondingly and strikingly handsome
large
a considerable height, thus giving to it a graceful- floating flowers. The leaves are often more than
ness of form unpossessed by any of its aquatic six feet in diameter, and many of them have their
relations. margins turned upwards, forming a circular rim
The leaves before their expansion are character- from four to five inches high. The upper surface
istically folded by each lateral half of the blade, of the leaves are smooth and dark green, and the
being unrolled from the margin to the central nerves, or veins, very indistinct on the under
;
nerve or midrib. When fully grown and expanded surface, however, the nerves are most prominent,
the blade is generally large, being six or eight, or coloured a clear red, and armed with rather long
sometimes even ten inches prickle-hairs. The stalks,
in diameter, in our com or petioles, are several
mon white variety, but feet in length, and are
considerably larger than also provided with long
this in other individuals sharp prickles. In the
of the same family. The substance of the leaf and
handsome and conspicu- petiole there are large air-
ous flowers, borne solitary cavities, not in communi-
at the end of usually short cation, or at least not in
leafless stalks, have seve- direct communication with
ral general, constant, and the exterior, and the pos-
interesting points of struc- session of these give a
ture. The sepals, or outer surprising buoyancy to
floral leaves, may be green the leaves. In the aqua-
or coloured, and the petals, rium at the Botanical
numbering from three or Gardens at Ghent, some
five in some species to experiments were made a
many times that number few years ago, to ascer-
in others, may be either tain what weight the leaves
white, yellow, blue, or of a Victoria they had
rose-coloured. growing there could sup-
The stamens are always very numerous, and port before they would be submerged. At first a
what is most interesting from a botanical point child was placed on one of the largest leaves, then
of view, the petals in a great many species may one of the gardeners reclined on the living float,
be seen gradually transforming themselves into but it was not until they had afterwards piled on
stamens, the transition stages being represented bricks equalling in weight that of three men of
in the annexed engraving. It was formerly believed average size, that the loaded leaves began to sink
that the flowers of our white water-lily sank be- beneath the surface of the water. It is indeed said
neath the water in the evening and rose again with that Indian mothers coming down to bathe in the
the sun in the morning, the petals in this way rivers where these lilies naturally grow, find the
retaining their spotless purity. Moore refers to leaves most safe and convenient cradles wherein
this supposed habit in the lines to lay their infants, during their usually lengthened
“ Those virgin lilies all the night

stay in the water.
Bathing their beauties in the lake, The flowers are first of a pure white colour, but
That they may rise more fresh and bright they soon become tinged with rose, which in its
When the beloved sun’s awake.”
turn quickly deepens in colour as the flowers ap-
The carpels, or seed-producing organs found in proach maturity. They are fragrant, and sometimes-
the centre of the flower, are often surrounded by a measure as much as forty inches in circumference.
fleshy disk which gives a characteristic appear- The plant is a native of the waters of the
ance to this part of the plant. In the Sacred Lotus Amazon basin, and of the rivers of Guiana and La
the carpels are inserted in funnel-shaped cavities Plata, and was discovered in the year 1801 by the
made in the broad top-flattened disk, each ripe famous botanist Haenke, in the marshes by the
28 THE WORLD OF WONDERS,
side of the Rio Alamore. Haenke had been sent the object that had raised my curiosity a vege- —
out by the Spanish Government to investigate the table wonder. All calamities were forgotten. I
vegetation of Peru, and it is stated by a missionary felt as a botanist, and felt myself rewarded a :
who accompanied him, that his admiration for the gigantic leaf from five to six feet in diameter,
“ surpassingly beautiful and extraordinary ” plant so salver-shaped with a broad brim, of a light green
transported him, that he “ fell on his knees and above and a vivid crimson below, rested on the
expressed aloud his sense of the power and mag- water. Quite in character with the wonderful leaf
nificence of the Creator in His works.” was the luxuriant flower, consisting of many hun-
It was not, however, until 1837 that public dred petals passing in alternate tints from pure
THE VICTORIA REGIA.
attention was directed to this wonderful plant, by white to rose and pink. The smooth water was
Sir Robert H. Schomburgk, who found it as he was covered with blossoms, and as I rowed from one
journeying up the river Berbice in British Guiana, to the other I always observed something new to
and who thus describes its discovery and the effect admire.” This was in 1837, and it was shortly
a sight of it produced upon his mind. “ It was on afterwards that this “ sculpture-like and stately
the 1st of January, while contending with the river queen,” was imported into England and
difficulties Nature opposed in different forms to named Victoria —
after and by permission of Her
—
our progress up the river Berbice, that we arrived Majesty but it was not until twelve years after
at a point where the river expanded, and formed that the plant was successfully introduced into
a currentless basin. Some object on the southern cultivation, although many attempts had been
extremity of this basin attracted my attention ;
it made to induce it to grow. It is now, however, a
Avas impossible to form any idea what it could be, thriving inhabitant of many a hot-house tank, and
and animating the crew to increase the rate of a fine specimen may be seen at any time during
their paddling, we were shortly afterwards opposite the summer at the Royal Gardens at Kew,
WONDERS OF THE HEART. 2^
THE WONDERS OF THE HEART. as might be naturally expected towards the end of
life’s duties. A
very correct estimate of the heart’s-
The heart of any animal simply a kind of muscle,
is work has been made by the physiologist. This
and is therefore similar in its nature to the other estimate shows us an amount of force and energy
“ muscles ” which form the flesh of our bodies. for which we would certainly be unprepared, unless
Such a declaration at once reveals to us a somewhat through some previous acquaintance with the heart’s
singular feature of the heart’s action. shows us It work we were led to expect a large expenditure of
that the heart, being simply a muscle, must work power. The “unit of work,” as it is named in
as do other muscles, and that the same force which England, a convenient standard of power. It is
is
moves our fingers in writing and grasping, or our defined as that amount of energy which is expended
legs in walking, circulates our blood. Every one in raising one pound weight one foot high. Now, by
knows that when muscles act, they contract or accurate measurements of the heart’s force, it has
shorten themselves. For example, when we bend been calculated that in 24 hours a man’s heart does
the fore arm on the upper arm, we are enabled so an amount of work equal to 124 foot tons. In other
to do through the action of a well-known muscle, words, if the whole force expended by the heart
the biceps, just as,when we straighten the arm, it in 24 hours were gathered into one huge stroke,
is the triceps muscle which performs the action. such a power would lift 124 tons one foot off the
The biceps is enabled to bend the fore arm, be- ground.
—
cause it has one end the fixed extremity of the A similar calculation has been made respect-
—
muscle attached to the shoulder, whilst the other ing the amount of work executed by the mus-
— —
end that which moves is attached to one of the cles involved in breathing. In 24 hours, the
fore-arm bones. Hence, if we suppose the muscle latter are estimated to do work equal to 21 foot
to be at rest when the arm is straight, we can tons. One of the literal wonders of our frames
readily imagine that if the muscle grew shorter may thus legitimately be regarded as consisting
it would pull the fore arm nearer to the upper in the immense amount of work performed by
arm, or, in other words, would bend the arm. This the heart and by the breathing-muscles, when their
power of shortening itself forms the property known work is summarised even for such a brief period as
as contractility, and the possession of it cha- 24 hours.
racterises all muscles. But if the question of the heart’s work is thus
Now the heart in the same way possesses the important, no less interesting is that of its rest. If
power of shortening its muscular fibres, and as a we
sounds of the heart by putting our
listen to the
consequence, limits the size of the hollows or com- ear to a person’s chest, we may at once discover
partments it contains. In this way the fluid (or that two distinct sounds are made by the heart.
blood) in these compartments is forced outwards The first is a long, dull sound, whilst the second
into the great pipes or blood-vessels which lead from sound is sharp and short. After the sounds comes
them. This is one action of the heart whilst a pause, and the length of the pause is about equal
;
when the fibres relax and the hollows of the heart to that of the two sounds together. The causes of
expand once again, fresh blood enters therein, pre- the sounds are known. They are produced by the
paratory to the next contraction. The existence of flapping of certain valves which regulate the flow of
the heart may thus be regarded as being spent blood through the heart. Now, as it can be proved
between contracting and expanding. At first sight that after every stroke of work, the heart’s action is
it might be thought that the heart worked inces- —
suspended that is, after every sound of work there
santly. —
A poet has spoken of the heart as a is a pause the heart must rest periodically
“ throbbing slave ” which asks “ no rest ” whatever during its work. It is, in fact, in the position of a
;
but it is easy to show that in this case the poetic workman who takes short naps between short spells
imagination has at least overstepped the bounds of of work. And as physiologists have pointed out,
reality. To understand the true state of matters the constitution of the heart would seem to point to
concerning the heart and its work, we may make a such a combination of rest and work as ‘hat best
series of easy calculations. These calculations will fitted for the organ. We are apt to think of the
show us that the heart’s work is not over-estimated, heart as an organ which would require an immense
whilst the question of its rest will present none the deal of rest, but we are equally apt to fcrget that
less interesting features because of our knowledge everything depends, after all, on the consdtution of
of the activity of this curious organ. an organ. A clock, by its very mechanism, is
In the adult man, the normal beat of the heart adapted for a ceaseless round of duties such as it
is from 70 to 75 times per minute. In the infant would be impossible for the steam-engine to per-
of a year old, it beats from 115 to 130 times per form. The engine requires a meed of rest and
minute, but the frequency of its pulsations slowly attention such as the clock does not demand. The
diminishes until we arrive at the adult rate first heart is in the position of the clock. It is one of
mentioned. Then in old age it slows perceptibly, Nature’s own pieces of mechanism, practically
3° THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
adapted to work incessantly, but also intended to they meet together, as represented in the figure {a).
take periods of rest between its strokes of work.
its The delicate cords attaching the flaps to the wall
Considerations of this kind, whilst they remove of the ventricle prevent them from falling over into
much of the mystery attaching to the heart, only and thus the blood is prevented, as by
the auricle,
serve, at the same time, to show how wonderful are a kind of partition-wall, from going back into the
the facts which the scientific study of the heart auricle (r a). Then when the blood has been
reveals. driven from each ventricle outwards into the blood-
The human we have seen, is a hollow
heart, as vessels, other valves, shaped like pockets {b\
rrwiscle. It is divided into two sides (right and prevent its return into the heart. These pocket-
left),and each side is again divided into two like valves arenamed semi-lunar (“half-moon
chambers. The chambers are situated, one at the shaped ”) from their form. Each consists of three
upper extremity or base of the heart, and one (the pockets placed in a circle at the entrance to the
larger of the two) blood-vessel leading
below. The upper from each ventricle.
and smaller chamber That leading from
of each side is called the right ventricle
the auricle (la and of the heart is the
R a), whilst the lower pulmonary artery
and larger compart- (P a), which carries
ment is known as blood to the lungs
the ventricle (see to be purified. The
illustration, R V and great vessel leading
I, v). Each side oi to the body from the
the heart has a left ve7it7-icle (L v) is
special duty to per- the aorta (Ao), and
form. The side semi - lunar valves
drives impure blood also exist at the en-
to the lungs to be trance to this latter
purified, whilst the tube, from which
left sidesends pure arteries (ar, ar) are
blood from the lungs given off to supply
outwards through the the body with pure
arteries to nourish blood. Each semi-
the body. The upper lunar valve, consist-
chambers,or auricles, ing of three pockets
receive blood, and as already men-
when they contract tioned, allows blood
their fluid is thus to pass into the ves-
sent into the ven- sel from the ventricle,
tricles. From these DIAGRAM OF THE HEART S ACTION. as the pockets open
latter cavities the away from the ven-
blood is then sent tricle. If, however,
to the body and the lungs respectively. There the blood attempted to return into the ventricle
exists in however, an admirable and
the heart, the pockets would fill, and completely block up the
wonderful apparatus of valves for controlling When we reflect upon the intricate mech-
way.
and directing the currents of blood through the anism of the valves of the heart, and upon the
organ. Thus between each auricle and ventricle regularity with which their duties are performed, we
exists a valve. The valve between the right auricle may well be inclined to regard the heart as one
(r a) and right ventricle (R v) is the tricuspid of the most perfect pieces of bodily mechanism
valve {a) that between the left auricle and left that exists.
;
ventricle being named bicuspid or mitral valve. The course of the circulation may now be readily
Each valve consists essentially of three or two understood. The pure blood from the lungs is
flaps; the extremities of the flaps (a) being returned to the left auricle (l a) of the heart by the
attached, as shown in the figure, to projections pulmonary veins (P V, P v). Thence it passes to
arising from the interior wall of the ventricle. the left ventricle (L v), which sends it to the body
Thus when blood passes from, say, the right auricle through the aorta (Ao). Becoming impure in the
(r a) into the ventricle (R v), the flaps fall back, body, it is returned to the right auricle (r a) by the
like swing doors, and allow the ventricle to fill with vencB cavce., or great veins (v c S and v c l). Thence
blood. Then the flaps float upon the blood till it is sent to the right ventricle (r v), which, in its
BIRD AND INSECT WARFARE. 31
turn, forces it through the pulmonary artery (p a) BIRD AND INSECT WARFARE.
to the lungs for purification. Thus we again reach
the commencement of the wondrous cycle of cir- Amongst the most curious records preserv'^d
' in
culation which, as long as life lasts, is represented the British Museum is a pan )hlet published for
within our frames. B. B., London (qto), 1622, Wnich describes how,
But lastly, the regulation and control of this in the twelfth year of Richard II., at Shene, now
wonderful pumping-engine form together a phase called Richmond, the air was darkened for a time
of its history of not the least remarkable kind. The by an extraordinary cloud of gnats engaged in
heart, allowed to jog on its way peaceably and conflict so desperately, that the ground was thickly
unrestrained, performs its duties with an unflagging covered with their dead before a section of the
vigour and punctuality. It may safely be affirmed, whole, numbering about one-third, alone remained,
that the heart works best when left to itself. The as if victorious, and then suddenly dispersed. The
proof of this statement is of two-fold nature. same old work records a desperate engagement
First, the experience of health shows us its truth ;
between starlings, which took place on the 12th of
and secondly, we discover that the heart has been October, 1621, at Cork, in Ireland, and states that
provided by nature with a set of nerves and nerve- they were divided into what seemed like hostile
masses destined to provide for its harmonious camps, to which, during the previous four or five
regulation. Specially distributed within its own days, great numbers of these birds were observed
substance, and intended for the regulation of its flying, from east and west, some to one side, some
movements, we find a series of small nerve-masses to the other. Curiously enough the birds of each
and filaments. Scientifically, these nerve-masses side avoided the others even in feeding the —
are known as cardiac ganglia a gangliofi being — westward camp seeking their food to the west of
simply a mass of nervous matter whence issue Cork, and that in the east seeking theirs eastward,
supplies of the peculiar force required for the regu- not one flying within the circuits of the other. The
lation of life’s actions. day of their battle was the Saturday, and on the
is aware that the mind exercises
Every reader Sunday not a bird was visible, but on the next day
more or less influence over the heart’s movements. the bird armies re-appeared, and the fight was
Such a statement only requires to appeal to our daily waged as furiously as before. Strangely enough,
experience to receive full verification. Now, this on that same Sunday which divided their two great
outward influence of mind must spring from the battles, a precisely similar battle was witnessed in
brain and adjacent parts of the nervous system, as England, at a place between Gravesend and Wool-
the seat of mind and of other complex actions proper wich, when it was noted that a raven took its flight
to the controlling system of our bodies.Hence, as in a direct line between the contending armies.
might be expected, very decisive evidence is forth- In each case large numbers of wounded and dead
coming regarding the seat of the mind’s action on bodies were found on the house-roofs and in the
the heart. One nerve, for example, is known to act streets underneath their aerial battlefields. In
as a slower and a depressor of the heart. Another Cork they picked up amongst these a crow, a kite,
nerve quickens its action. The former is to the and a raven. The writer of the pamphlet evidently
heart what the bridle is to the horse —the latter is inclines to the belief that the English armies and
its Thus, when the fleeting emotions of the
spur. the Irish armies were the same.
mind pass across the mental atmosphere they un- In the Museum there is also preserved another
doubtedly affect the heart. Anger, fear, jealousy, pamphlet printed at Oxford in 1676, for J. Colley,
and kindred passions either slow its action or which is described as a translation of one published
kindle and quicken its pulsations into renewed originally at Lisle, on March 17th. This contains
vigour. Not always is this stimulation a healthy a very strange account of a prodigious gathering of
one. birds between Dole and Salines, in the Tranche
We may enough understand why the
readily Comt^ on February 26th, 1676. These also
physiologist condemns in the strongest language fought in two distinct bodies with great fury and
the unrestrained play of passion or emotion. Each for some hours, and were composed of birds of all
has on the heart, and not always for the
its effect kinds, and the heaps of dead and wounded are said
good of the organ. Thus the moral or religious tohave been high enough to reach a man’s head in
teaching which urge us to place a restraint on some places, and to have extended over an area of
passion, is supported throughout by the dicta of more than five hundred paces.
physiology and the words of the Wise Man
;
Certain insects also display wonderful skill in
may thus receive a new reading and applica- mustering and employing great armies in battle.
tion, since physiology emphasises in the strictest The younger Huber, to whom we are indebted for
fashion the well-known advice, “ Keep thy heart many remarkable discoveries connected with in-
with all diligence, for out of it are the issues sect life, has pointed out how regular armies of the
of life.” wood-ant assemble, and wage war upon each other,
not only in the most determined but also in the a view of the island scenery of unexampled magni-
most systematic and scientific way, observing rules ficence, which the Mohammedans have associated
of warfare which seem to be devised in the most with our first parents, as they account for the foot-
able manner. He says “The warfare is conducted
: print on its summit by saying that Adam impressed
in various manners, according to the genius of the it there when taking his last look of Eden. The
species engaged in it ;
and when a party of the Hindoos say the impression was made by their god
wood-ants rufa) attacks a party of the sanguine
(/'. Siva whereas the Buddhists, who have charge of
;
ant {F. sangJtinea), the manoeuvring reminds us the Peak, say that Buddha left his mark there, im-
strongly of our own battles.” He adds: “ Not the pressing his foot on the hard granite summit with
least wonderful circumstance connected with these as much ease as if it had been made of soft wax.
insect battles is the instinct which enables each ant The so-called footprint is a hollow, resembling
to know its own party.” These battles are some- the form of a human foot, five feet four inches long
times continued, with intervals of rest, for days. and two feet six inches wide. Its margin is set
SHADOW OF ADAMS FEAK, FROM THE SUMMIT.
ADAM’S PEAK AND ITS SHADOW. with gems, and the Buddhists have railed it off and
erected a wooden canopy over it. A priest is there
Adam’s Peak an object of more than ordinary
is to receive the offerings of both believers and un-
interest to the traveller, because on its summit believers.
there is a gigantic footprint, to account for which In the rather difficult climb to the summit of
there are various legends, and at dawn its elongated Adam’s Peak, the traveller, wishing “ to kill two
shadow, some four score miles long, behaves in the birds with one stone,” arranges to be on its summit
most mysterious manner. It is no wonder that the before the sun rises, so that he may see the shadow
Cingalese regard the Peak, sometimes hiding its of the mountain at daybreak rising with the sun
head in the clouds, with superstitious veneration. until it is suddenly dispelled. Standing there on
The mountain rises like a sugar-loaf to a height the top of the Peak and looking westward while the
of 7,420 feet above the level of the sea. It is about sun is rising, he sees an enormous shadow of the
forty-five miles E.S.E. of Colombo, and commands mountain projected over land and sea to a distance
FROST FAIRS ON THE THAMES. 33
of seventy or eighty miles. As the sun ascends, FROST FAIRS ON THE THAMES.
the shadow appears to approach the mountain,
rapidly rising above the spectator in the form of “ ril tell you a story as true as ’tis rare
a gigantic pyramid of shade, projecting against a Of a Bartlemy Fair.

river turn'd into a
Since old Christmas last
sort of cloud of vapour on the horizon. This is not
There has bin such a frost,
all, however. Very often from the summit of the That the Thames has by half the whole nation been crost.*'
shadow there appear to project rays of constantly- Seventeenth Century Ballad.

—
changing form sometimes like luminous smoke,
and sometimes like the rays of the sun issuing from Amongst the most extraordinary of English
a cloud. Round these rays seem at times actually weather records are those of long severe frosts, by
FROST FAIR ON THE THAMES IN 1683, FROM AN OLD PRINT.
to gather all the stray patches of cloud or vapour which the Thames was so thickly frozen that fairs
to be seen near them in the sky, when they appear were held upon its surface. The first of these known
to glow with the most brilliant colours of the prism. as a Frost Fair was held in the year 695 and it ;
The effect of these coloured rays of light, as seen seems probable that another was held in 760, when
in the illustration, is indescribably beautiful. And the frost continued from the ist of October to the
still, as the sun mounts towards the zenith and 26th of February ;
a third in 923, when the Thames
the shadow appears
to fall back to the foot of the was frozen for thirteen weeks and a fourth
;
mountain, its blue or dark track is accompanied in 998, when the river remained frozen five
on each side by an aureola, or luminous border, weeks. The Thames was again hard with frost
which shows all the colours of the rainbow. This in 1063, and continued so for fourteen weeks.
beautiful phenomenon is evidently due to diffrac- Stow, in his “ Annals,” chronicles its being in the
tion, exalted in effect owing to some local peculiarity same condition “from Christmas to the Purifi-
in the atmosphere, and which throws its coloured cation of our Lady ” in 1281, when London Bridge
fringes on the light vapour in front as on a screen. was partially destroyed. In 1434 the river was
F
— —— :

frozen between the latter end of November and the the Thames before London was still planted with
beginning of February. It is most probable, al- boothes in formal streetes, all sorts of trades and
though unrecorded, that on each of these rare and shops furnish’d and full of commodities, even to a
singular occasions a fair sprang up on the surface printing-presse, where the people and ladyes took
of the water. In 1564 another winter of extra- a fancy to have their names printed, and the
ordinary severity is mentioned in Holinshed’s day and yeare down when
set printed on the
“Chronicle,” when again the booths and sheds Thames ;
this humour tooke so universally that
were erected on the Thames, and “people went ’twas estimated the printer gained a day for
ouer and alongst the Thames on the ise from printing a line only at sixpence a name, beside what
London Bridge to Westminster. Spme plaied at he got by ballads, etc. Coaches plied from West-
the football as boldlie there as if it had been on minster to the Temple, and from several other
the drie land diuerse of the Court being then at
;
staires to and fro as in the streetes sleds, sliding ;
Westminster, shot dailie at prickes set vpon the with sheets, a bull-baiting, horse and coach races,
Thames and the people, both men and women,
;
puppet-plays and interludes, cookes, tipling and
went on the Thames in greater numbers than in other lewd places, so that it seem’d to be a bac-
anie street of the Citie of London. On the third chanalian triumph, or carnival on the water."
daie of January at night, it began to thaw, and on From another old account written in verse, we
the fift there was no ise to be scene between London glean that King Charles the Second, with his queen
Bridge and Lambeth, which sudden thaw caused and her ladies and most of his courtiers, visited the
great floods and high waters, that bare down fair, and had their names duly printed. One of
bridges and houses, and drowned manie people.” these papers, now extremely rare and curious,
Tradition states that Queen Elizabeth visited this formerly in the possession of Mr. William Upcott,
fair. of the London Institution, is in existence, on which
Another account of a frost fair on the Thames the names figure as follow ;
figures inEdmund Howe’s “ Continuation of the Charles, King.

Abridgement of Stow’s English Chronicle,” pub- James, Duke.
lished in 1611. From this we learn that in 1608 Katherine, Queen.
Mar>’, Duchess.
the river, after being partially frozen over, became Anne, Princesse.
completely so “from Sunday the tenth of January George, Prince.
same,” so that “ all sorts of
vntill the fifteenth of the Hans in Kelder.
men, women, and children went boldly upon the ice These names, thus arranged one below the other,
in most parts some shot at prickes, others bowled
; are enclosed within an ornamental type border, and at
and danced, with other variable pastimes by ; the bottom “
London Printed by G. Groom
we read :
reason of which concourse of people, there were on the ICE on the River Thames, January 31, 1684.”
many that set vp boothes and standings vpon the The king is also reported to have passed one entire
ice as fruit-sellers, victuallers, that sold beere and night on the ice, and to have taken part in hunting
wine, shoemakers, and a barber’s tent,” &c. He a fox upon it. Our view of this wonderful fair
adds that all these had fires to warm them. is reproduced from a contemporary drawing or
Gough, in his “ British Topography” (V'ol. I., p. 731), woodcut, of which more than one copy is in the
mentions as very rare a tract published in London British Museum. In a broadsheet, the title of
at the time of this frost, which contained an ac- which is “ Great Britain’s Wonder, or London’s
count of it, and also a rude woodcut representing Admiration,” is mentioned “a street of booths,”
the fair. It is called “Cold doings in London, which extended from the Temple to Southwark.
except it be at the Lottery with newes out of the
: It has some doggrel verse, referring to the refresh-
Country. A familiar talk between a Countryman ment and coffee-booths, the printer “ on the rocky
and a Citizen touching this terrible Frost, and the ice,” the “ quaking watermen,” who, like Othello,
them.”
effect of found their occupation gone, the bull and bear
In the beginning of the December of 1683, a baiting, the fox-hunting-, the taverns, &c., and
wonderful frost, which lasted until the 5th of says :
February, 1684, again set up the sheds and booths “ Here also is a lottery too ; music too ;
on the fair in such abundance that in Maitland’s Yea, a cheating, drunken, lewd, and debauched crew
Hot codlins, pancakes, ducks, and goose, and sack.
“History” (V'ol. L, p. 484) he describes the effect as
Rabbit, capon, hen, turkey, and a wooden jack."
that of “another city,” in which, “by the great
Other rhymes, which appear in another rude con-
number of streets and shops, with their rich furni-
ture, it represented a great fair, with a variety of temporary record, tell us that
carriages and diversions of all sorts and near “ coffee houses in great numbers were
;
Scattered about in this cold-freezing fair.

Whitehall a whole ox was roasted on the ice.”
There you might sit down by a char-coal fire.
Evelyn, in his famous “ Diary,” says of this strange And for your money have your heart’s desire
"
city, “ The frost continuing more and more severe. A dish of coffee, chocolate, or tea
— — — — ;
FROST FAIRS ON THE THAMES. 35
From December to March, 1709, was the reign prospect of the Bridge were presented with a very
of another mighty frost, but the London Frost Fair odd scene, for on opening their windows, there ap-
was then so short and so poor a one, that beyond a peared underneath, on the River, a parcel of booths,
bill purporting to have been printed on the Thames shops, and huts of different forms, and without
at Westminster by “ Mr. John Heaton ” on January any inhabitants, which, it seems, by the swell of the
7th, we have no record of it. waters and the ice separating, had been brought
About the end of November, 1715, however, a down from above. As no lives were lost, it might
frost of greater severity set in, which continued be viewed without horror. Here stood a booth
until the ninth of the following February, when all with trinkets, there a hut with a dram of old gold ;
the sports, and buying and selling of

pastimes, in another place a skittle-frame and pins and in a ;
1683 were renewed, and vigorously kept up. ..Of fourth ‘the Noble Art and Mystery of Printing, by
^
.-this several engravings on wood and copper are in a servant to one of the greatest trading companies
With much difficulty, last night, they
j
'
existence. One, “ Printed and Sold by John Bowles, in Europe.’
at the Black Horse in Cornhill,” is called “Frost had removed the most valuable effects.”
Fayre, being a True Prospect of the Great Varietie !
In the great frost of 1785, which extended over
of Shops and Booths for Tradesmen, with other 1
1 5
days, and was of extreme severity, booths
curiosities and humors, on the Frozen River of re-appeared upon the ice, with many thousands of
Thames, as it appeared before the City of London persons, as they did again in 1789, when regular
in that memorable Frost in ye second year of the passages across the ice were made with ashes at
Reigne of Our Sovereigne Lord, King George, Gun Dock, Execution Dock, &c. A January num-
Anno Domini 1716.” ber of the Lotidoti Chronicle says “No sooner :
—
On Wednesday, December 26th, 1739-40, another had the Thames acquired a sufficient consistency
remarkable frost solidified the Thames, and Frost than booths, turn-abouts, &c. &c., were erected ;
Fair again began its wildly turbulent and merry the puppet-shows, wild beasts, &c., were trans-
,
reign. In Vol. X. of the old Gentleman's Maga- ported from every adjacent village while the ;
zine we are told that the river represented “ a watermen, that they might draw their usual
snowy field, everywhere rising in masses and hills resources from the water, broke in the ice close to
of ice and snow,” of which many drawings were ,
the shore, and erected bridges with toll-bars, to
made. On this occasion booths, printing-presses, make every passenger pay a halfpenny for getting
roasting oxen, and shows uprose again. It was to the ice. One of the suttling booths has for its
in this fair that “ Doll, the Pippin-woman,” lost her sign, Beer, Wine, and Spirituous Liquors without a
‘
life, and was immortalised in Gay’s “Trivia.” The Licence.’ A man who sells hot gingerbread has a
event was therein thus described : board on which is written, ‘No shop-tax nor window
duty.’ All the adventurers contend in these short
Doll every day had walk’d these treacherous roads ;
Her neck grew warp’d beneath autumnal loads sentences for the preference of the company, and
Of various fruit ; she now a basket bore :
the Thames is in general crowded.” The Public
That head, alas ! shall basket bear no more.
E:?ch booth she frequent pass'd in quest of gain.
Advertiser of Thursday, January 15th, quotes from
And boys with pleasure heard her thrilling strain. a board over one of the temporary shops these
Ah, Doll ! all mortals must resign their breath, words, “ This Booth to Let. The present possessor
And industry itself submit to death.
The crackling crystal yields, she sinks, she dies.
of the Premises is Mr. Frost. His affairs, how-
Her head, chopt off, from her lost shoulders flies ;
ever, not being on a permanent footing, a dissolu-
*
Pippins,’ she cried, but death her voice confounds, tion or bankruptcy may soon be expected, and
And ‘ pip-pip'pip ’
along the ice resounds.”
the final settlement of the whole entrusted to Mr.
Another of Old London’s remarkable characters, Thaw.” Printing-presses were again set up, and
whose portrait and history figures in Old and New from one, the property of William Bailey, emanated
Lo 7idon, “Tiddy Doll,” died in the same place the following lines, which re-appeared in the great
and manner, as did many others. Some of the frost fair of 1814 :
newspapers which record this fair stated that its “ The silver Thames was frozen o’er.
attractions had emptied the theatres. Numerous No Stream and shore
diff’rence ’twixt the
illustrations of it were printed on the ice from

The no Man hath seen before,
like
Except he liv’d in Days of Yore,”
copper plates, and sold, mostly at sixpence each.
One has the following verse :
the days which, in that case, existed four years before.
“ Amidst y* arts y‘ on y* Thames appear,
On this occasion they roasted a pig and hunted a
To tell y” Wonders
of this frozen Year. bear on the ice. The ice by Blackfriars was
Sculpture claims Prior place, since y' alone eighteen feet in thickness. “ The various parts of
Preserves y” Image when y* Prospect’s gone.”
the River,” said the Daily Advertiser of January
The Daily Post of Tuesday, January 22nd, thus appearances in some the
9th, “ present different ;
notices the breaking up of this extraordinary frost :

surface smooth for a mile or two, and then rough
is
“Yesterday morning the inhabitants of the West and mountainous, from the great quantities of snow
driven by the wind and frozen in large bodies.” anything for them, and it is not yet sufficiently dis-
The same paper, describing the condition of the united for a boat to live.” The Thames, however,
Thames at Putney, says :
— “ Opposite to Windsor was quickly re-frozen.
Street, booths have been erected since Friday last, The last Frost Fair was celebrated in the year
and a fair is kept on the river. Multitudes of people 1814, when a severe frost set in on the 27th of
are continually passing and re-passing puppet- December, and lasted until the 5th of the following
;
shows, roundabouts, and all the various amusements February. There was then a grand mall, or
of Bartholomew Fair are exhibited. In short. Putney walk, lined on either side with sheds and booths,*
and Fulham, from the morning dawn till the dusk extending along the centre of the river from
of returning evening, are a scene of festivity and Blackfriars to London Bridge, and called “ The
gaiety.” The thaw set in on Tuesday* January 13th. City road.” Kitchen fires and furnaces blazed
The Daily Chronicle says :
—
“ The breaking up of in every direction donkeys were brought on
;
the Fair upon the Thames last Tuesday night, the ice for hire gambling, drinking, and feeding
;
below Bridge, exceeded every idea that could be abounded the watermen re-established their toll-
;
formed of it, as it was not until after the dusk of bars skittles were played, and tents set up for
;
THE SEA-SERPEiNT, AS SEE.N OFF GALVESTON 1872.
the evening that the busy crowd were persuaded dancing ;

laughter, singing, and music, shouts, and
of the approach of a thaw. This, however, with a Babel of varied noises filled the air ;
tea and
the cracking of the ice about eight o’clock, made the coffee were in great demand and the printing- ;
whole a scene of the most perfect confusion, as presses were once more at work. One of the
men, beasts, booths, turnabouts, puppet-shows, &c. booths was thus advertised “ This Shop to Let.
:
&c., were all in motion, and pouring towards the N.B. — It is charged with no land tax, or even
shore on each side. The confluence here was so O sronnd rent.”

sudden and impetuous, that the watermen who had
formed the toll-bars over the sides of the river, not
being able to maintain their standard from the SEA-SERPENl. THE
crowd, &c., pulled up the boards, by which a
number of persons who could not leap, or were Is the great sea-serpent which we have so often
borne down by the press, were soused up to the heard about a reality, or a myth ? The tradition
middle. The difficulty of landing at the Tower seems to possess a vitality which defies extinction..
“ dull season ’’the serpent
Stairs was extreme, until near ten o’clock, occasioned During every succeeding
by the crowding of people from the shore, who seems regularly to take up its position in the news-
were attracted by the confusion on the water. The papers, in company with the colossal gooseberry and
inconvenience to the shipping is now increased other abnormal productions of nature. Can there
more than since the setting in of the Frost, as no be after all any substratum of truth in the oft-repeated
person will venture upon the ice to fetch or carry tale.? We cannot at once set aside the question of the
—
THE SEA-SERPENT. 37
existence of tlie great unknown kinds, has a high and broad forehead, but in some
as an absurdity not
worth consideration, abundant
because there a pointed snout, though in others it is flat, like
is
testimony by respectable witnesses that monsters that of a cow or horse, with large nostrils, and
of the kind have been actually seen. It is impos- several stiff hairs standing out on each side like
sible —indeed it would be impertinent to assume whiskers. The eyes of this creature are very
that so many people could be induced to affirm, large, of a blue colour, and look like a couple of
and in many cases to testify upon oath, to that bright pewter plates. The whole animal is of a dark-
which they know to be false. Neither can we hur- brown colour, but “ speckled or variegated with
riedly admit that intelligent people could be alto- light streaks or spots, which shine like tortoise-
gether mistaken as to the evidence of their own shell.” This terrible creature is further described
senses, particularly as many accounts describe the as being dangerous to navigators, as it occasionally
âppearance of the creature at close quarters. will throw itself upon a ship and sink it by its
There is no doubt whatever that something has great weight. The way to guard against it is to
— —
been seen and often seen but what this some- keep at hand some castor oil, the smell of which it
thing can be, if not a serpent, it is very hard to will avoid.. The good bishop believed this Nor-
guess. Let us examine a few of these sea-serpent wegian monster to be identical with the Leviathan
stories, and judge for ourselves of their truth. of scripture. So much for “ travellers’ tales ” of the
book by Gesner, dated 1620, we find

In a Latin past. Let us now see how far they are corroborated
an account of two different kinds of sea-serpent. !
by those of the present.
The one is described as being 30 to 40 feet long, In the Times newspaper of the 9th of October,
when
j
and to be quite harmless unless provoked, 1848, appears an account of an enormous sea-
it will turn upon its assailants. The other one is serpent which was seen by the captain and most
a far more terrible creature, found upon the coast of the officers and the crew of H.M.S. Dadalus.
of Norway. It measures 100 to 300 feet in length, This ship was on its way home from the East
and has the disagreeable habit of seizing an un- Indies, when the monster was sighted between the
suspecting sailor from the deck of a ship, or even Cape of Good Hope and St. Helena. Captain
enveloping in its gigantic embrace the vessel itself, McQuhae, who commanded the ship, supplies the
and dragging it to the bottom of the sea. The i
narrative. He describes the animal as “an enor-
author of this account also describes how the folds mous serpent with head and shoulders kept about
j
of the animal’s body often form arches above the 4 feet constantly above the surface of the sea, and
surface of the sea through which a good-sized as nearly as we could approximate by comparing
vessel can easily sail. it with the length of what our main-topsail-yard
The of a sea-serpent near Norway
tradition would show in the w'ater, there was at the very
seems be well established, and the animal is
to least 60 feet of the animal, no portion of which
described at length by Pontoppidan, Bishop of was to our perception used in propelling it through
Bergen, in his Natural History of that country. the water, either by vertical or horizontal undula-
He gives its length as being 100 fathoms (600 feet), tion.” The captain adds that the animal passed
and describes it as having been seen by many so closely by the ship that, had it been any man
observers at different times. The head, in all the of his acquaintance, he must have recognised him
without the aid of a glass. The next example is Pontopiddan already alluded to. Another report
of twenty years later date, and was supplied to the of a sea-serpent was declared on oath before the
to
Graphic by a well-known Liverpool shipowner, magistrate at the Liverpool Police Court by the
who signed the statement as a witness to the master and five of the crew of the barque Pauline
writer’s identity. It is the report of Captain A. (of London ). This statement describes how, on
Hassel, of the barque St. Olaf, from Newport to July 8, 1875, they “observed three large sperm
Galveston, Texas. It runs as follows: ‘‘Two whales, and one of them was gripped round the
days before arrival at Galveston, and at 4 p.m. body with two turns of what appeared to be a
on May 13 (1872), weather calm, smooth sea, lat. huge serpent. The head and tail appeared to
26° 52', long. 91° 20', I saw a shoal of sharks have a length beyond the coils of about 30 feet,
passing the ship. F'ive or six chme under the and its girth 8 or 9 feet. The serpent whirled
vessel’s stern, but before we could get out a line its victim round and round for about fifteen
they went off with minutes, and then
the rest. About suddenly dragged
two minutes after, the whale to the
one of the men bottom, head first.”
sang out that he On a subsequent
saw something on occasion the same
the weather bow serpent, or one like
like a cask on its it, was seen by three
head. Presently of the crew “ele-
another one called vated some 60 feet
out that he saw perpendicularly in
something rising the air.”
out of the water We now come
like a tall man. to an appearance
On a nearer ap- which was seen off
proach we saw that the coast of Sicily
it was an immense injune, 1877. Lieut.
serpent, with its Haynes, of H.M.S.
head out of the Osborne, writes as
water, about 200 follows :
—“ My at-
feet from the vessel. tention was first
He lay still on the called by seeing a

surface of the water, long row of fins
head up
lifting his appearing above
and moving the the surface of the
body in a serpen- water at a distance
tine manner. We of about 200 yards
could not see all from the ship, and
of it, but what we away on our beam.
could see from the They were of irre-
after - part to the gular heights, and
head was about 70 feet long, and of the same extending about 30 or 40 feet in line. (The
thickness all the way, excepting about the head former number is the length I gave, the latter
and neck, which were smaller, and the former the other officers.) In a few seconds they dis-
flat like head of a serpent.
the It had four appeared, giving place to the fore-part of the
fins on its back, and the body of a yellow, monster. By this time it had passed astern,
greenish colour, with brown spots all over the swimming in an opposite direction to that we were
upper part, and underneath white. The whole and as we were passing through the water
steering,
at ten and a half knots, I could only get a view of
crew were looking at it for fully ten minutes before
it moved away. It was about 6 feet in diameter.it end on,’ as shown in the sketch. The head v/as
‘
One of the mates has drawn a slight sketch of bullet-shaped, and quite 6 feet thick, the neck
the serpent which will give some notion of its narrow, and its head was occasionally thrown back
appearance.” We need not comment upon this out of the water, remaining there for a few seconds
account except to notice that the markings of the at a time. It was very broad across the back or
animal —
“yellow, greenish colour, with brown shoulders, about 15 or 20 feet, and the flappers
motion, which
—
spots” have a strange similarity to the tortoise- appeared to have a semi-revolving
They were
shell appearance of the serpent described by seemed to paddle the monster
along.
—
THE SEA-SERPENT. 39
about 15 feet in length. From the top of the head appear to have been too close to the object seen,
to the part of the back where became immersed,
it and to have had it too long within view, to be easily
I should consider 50 feet, and that seemed about mistaken. The only reasonable conclusion that we
one-third of the whole length. All this part was can come to is that a marine monster exists, but
smooth, resembling a seal. I cannot account for as to its nature we can only hazard conjectures.
the fins, unless they were on the back below where Sea-snakes of from three to twelve feet in length
itwas immersed.” are found both in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
Less than two years after the above circum- They feed on fish, and, although of a most poisonous
stantial narrative was published, the great unknown nature, are rarely fatal to human beings, for the
once more made its appearance. This time it simple reason that they are shy, and swim away at the
was seen from the steamship City of Baltimore, least alarm. Even in British waters a small species
in the Gulf of Aden, by Major H. W. J. Senior, of is found, called the Red Band fish, or snake fish,
the Bengal Staff Corps. This gentleman executed measuring from 18 to 20 inches in length. After
a sketch of the monster, which was afterwards a storm, in 1839, the coast of Devonshire was
reproduced in the Graphic of April 19, 1879. The strewn with many specimens of this fish. Now in
narrator describes how, on the 28th of J anuary, in every department of nature we find eccentricities of
the same year, at 10 a.m., he observed a long black form, and instances of gigantic stature. Cuttle-
object at a distance of about three-quarters of a fishes, as we have seen, are now known to reach
mile from the ship, darting rapidly in and out of a size which, until lately, would have been regarded
the water, and advancing nearer and nearer to the as altogether fabulous. Why should not the sea-
vessel. The observer thereupon shouted out “ Sea- snake occasionally exhibit a like tendency?
” Some
serpent ! sea-serpent ! attracting the attention of There is anothei; possibility. of the re-
the captain of the ship and others, who were for- corded appearances closely correspond with that
tunate enough to catch a sight of the creature. of several of the extinct reptiliaif monsters. If some
The serpent on this occasion was only 500 yards of these — such as the Plesiosaurus with its long neck
from the ship, on a bright sunny morning, so that and tail — still and were of large dimen-
survived,
it could be observed under the best conditions. sions, the published would be but
descriptions
Major Senior writes :
—
“ The shape of the head little exaggerated and, indeed, some of the re-
;
was not unlike pictures of the dragon I have often corded details, such as the fins or flappers men-
seen, with a bull- dog appearance of the forehead tioned in some accounts, correspond better with
and eyebrows. When the monster had drawn its such an animal than with a real snake. Some
head sufficiently out of the water, it let itself drop naturalists are therefore disposed to think that
as it were like a huge log of wood, prior to darting such forms, or others closely allied to them, may
forward under the water. This motion caused a not be “ extinct ” as supposed. It is at least
splash of about 15 feet in height on either side of very remarkable that the old legends of gigantic
the neck, much in the shape of a pair of wings.” cuttle-fishes should only lately have been verified ;
The last account of the sea-serpent which we and it is possible that a similar process may be in
can find appeared in Nature of June 24, 1879. store for the present case.
This is in the form of a letter from a clergyman at We cannot do better than conclude our remarks
Busselton, a little seaport on the west coast of by quoting the summing-up of an article on this
.Australia. This gentleman describes how he saw, subject by Dr. Andrew Wilson, the well-known
close to the shore, a serpent which appeared to be zoologist. He concludes :
—
“ Firstly, that many
about 60 feet long, “ straight and taper, like a long of the tales of sea-serpents are amply verified when
spar with the butt-end— his head and shoulders judged by the ordinary rules of evidence this ;
showing well above the water.” conclusion being especially supported by the want
Other sea-serpent narratives have been ex- of any primd facie reason for prevarication. Se-
plained away satisfactorily sometimes a long
; condly, that laying aside appearances which can be
straggling mass of seaweed has, to a heated imagi- proved to be deceptive, and to be caused by inani-
nation, taken the form of a serpent, and the motion mate objects, or by unusual attitudes on the part
of the waves has given it the necessary vitality. of familiar animals, there remains a body of
We have also before us the records of two appear- evidence only to be explained on the hypothesis
ances which showed a distinct serpentine form of that certain gigantic marine animals at present
enormous dimensions. In these cases examination unfamiliar, or unknown to science, do certainly
with a good glass proved that the monsters were exist and, thirdly, that the existence of such
;
made up of myriads of birds in rapid motion. animals is a fact perfectly consistent with scientific
But the stories that we have quoted at length can- opinion and knowledge, and is most readily ex-
not be dismissed in such a cursory manner. They plained by recognising the fact of the occasional
are by no means the only ones of the kind and in ; development of gigantic members of groups of
some at least of such narrations the observers marine animals already familiar to the naturalist.”
;

THE RAINBOW AND THE beautiful experiment. Taking a hollow glass globe
filledwith water to represent a spherical drop of
SPECTRUM.
rain, he placed it in the sun’s rays, to see how it
behaved, as we may do to-day with one of those
Most of the many magnificent phenomena of optics
require some little apparatus to observ'e them penny water-microscopes often sold in the streets.
Letting the rays from the sun, S (Fig. i), fall upon
but the most beautiful of all is familiar to every
the globe at G, he found that when the eye of the
one of us, and must have challenged attention from
observ'er at O was so placed that the reflected and
the very earliest ages. It must soon have been
refracted ray G O made the angle s G O about 40°, the
discovered that rainbows were only visible when
ray appeared blue and that when the eye was moved
;
a very little lower down, or the globe was moved up
the observer was placed between the sun and a these angles were always the same, he reasoned
shower of rain, but the ancients do not seem to very correctly that if there were a number of small
j
have known anything beyond this and the very

;
drops between the two positions, all the colours
earliest approach to any explanation that is known would be seen in their proper places at the same
was made in 1311 by a Dominican friar, named time, and that there ought from a shower of rain to
j
Theodoric, who gave diagrams of both a single and appear a circular arch of all the colours, the diameter
°
double reflection of the sun’s rays within a drop of of the bow making the doubled angle of 80 to 84*
water, which show that he had a true notion to a with the eye. The rainbow, it was found, did sub-
tend exactly that angle from the eye of the observer.
c
De Dominis does not seem to have had a very
clear idea of the course of the sun’s rays, though his

general idea was not far from the truth ;
but he
certain extent of what occurred. But there were no certainly did find out, and show by actual experi-
printing presses or periodicals then to explain the ment, that the beautiful phenomena could be traced
“World of Wonders,” and as no one knew what had out in a single transparent globe of any kind, and
been thought our by Theodoric till some hun- that the “ bow ” resulted simply from the great
dreds of years after him, the philosophers were all number of drops of rain.
quite astray in their attempts to explain the beau- Descartes, in 1637, showed why the bow could only
tiful bow. occur at the particular angle of 40° to 42". He
About the year 1600, however, another church- worked this out from the simple and beautiful law
man, Antonio de Dominis, made a very simple and of refraction, discovered seven years before by SnelL
THE RAINBOW AND THE SPECTRUM. 41
Supposing A B a surface of water or

(Fig. 2) is and are more and more bent and there must be
;
other refractive medium, and c D a perpendicular some point at C where a parallel bundle of rays are
just brought to one point, or focussed,” at R on
to it let a ray of light, I O, strike obliquely upon
;
the back side of the drop. Striking obliquely there

the water at O it will be refracted or bent, say to
:
Let another ray strike more obliquely, as at also, these focussed rays are in great part reflected ;
R.
/ O be bent say to O r. Describing a circle
it will when they must diverge at the same angle as they
;
from where the rays strike the surface, let fall on

O,
converged, and finally be refracted out again at r
the perpendicular c D, from where all these rays back to the eye at O, very nearly parallel, as they
cut the circle, perpendiculars to c D, as i S, z R s', i', entered at C. At other angles the light, not being
rs'. These lines are what geometers call the accurately converged to R, must be, with one excep-
“ sines ” of the angles made by each ray with tion to be noticed, scattered or dispersed. It was
water or anything soon calculated that in water the angle between
C D ;
and it is found that in
else, whatever is the proportion of the sine i S to S and O must be about 40°.
THK RAINBOW.
the sine R s' of its refracted ray, there is exactly the The outer bow, so constantly seen when a rain-
fame proportion between the sine i s of any other bow is bright,was explained by Descartes in the
incident ray and the sine r s' of its refracted ray. same way, from the exception mentioned above.
Therefore, whenever we know how much one Taking another rain-drop, as in Fig. 4, he found by
particular ray bent aside or refracted, in water,
is calculation that there was another point, D, farther
glass, or any other substance, we can calculate from the centre than in the other case, at which
exactly how much any other ray will be bent as, : a parallel bundle of rays from S would be converged
for instance, where a ray will go to which passes in to such a point or focus, f', that the rays again
any direction, and at any point, through a drop of diverging from that focus would be brought nearly
water, or any other form of lens. parallel when 7 -eflected from the hollow surface of
This was what Descartes learnt from Snell ;
the drop at R, which acts like a small concave mirror.
and applying it to the rain-drop, he soon found why This parallel beam is again reflected at T and further
we see the rainbow just of the size (or angle) we do, converged by the hollow surface to a focus F, and
and nowhere else. If the rays struck the drop thence refracted out of the drop at r. There being
perpendicularly, at A (Fig. 3), they would, of course, a second reflection in the drop for these rays, the
go straight through, and we should see nothing. bow must be fainter and the order of the colours
As they strike more from A towards B, they meet inverted ;
and the calculated angle between S and
the surface of the drop more and more obliquely. o was from 50° to 54”. This is just the angle
of the outer bow and the coloured light, or the
;
angles, as in the illustration on the last page. Any
coloured images of a candle, can be seen also by one standing by sees the rainbow in quite other
experiment in the globe of water, or even in such drops of water, according to his own position. So
a plain globular carafe of water as is found in many also the size of the rainbow depends upon the dis-
bedrooms. tance of the rain-drops in which it is seen. The
But Descartes only showed why a bright semi- angle the bow subtends to the eye will be the same ;
circular appearance of some kind must be seen but a bow may occasionally be seen in the same
where the rainbow was seen. The colours were street, almost as if in a neighbouring fountain,
still a mystery, until Newton made his famous dis- when it will appear small while, on the other
;
covery of the dispersion or decomposition of white hand, if the shower is distant it will appear very
light, and proved that it was brokert up into colours large.
by refraction. His grand discovery was, that this Beautiful rainbows can be seen whenev'er a
happened simply because one colour is more or shower of small drops can be looked at in front,
less bent than another. If all colours were bent with the observer’s back to the sun. A watering-
alike, then a ray of white light, after refraction, pot with a fine rose will make a good one and so ;
would still be white and as any difference is

;
will any fountain that scatters close and fine spray.
not easily seen ip small refractions, people had At the seaside, whenever the sea dashes against
hitherto, without reflection, supposed that it was so. the wall of an esplanade to any extent, as at Hast-
Newton, however, wanted ings, fine rainbows can
to find out more about often be seen in the sea
the bending aside of rays spray. Besides the usual
of light ;
and as in enter- outer bow which has been
ing a denser substance explained, some other se-
the oblique ray is bent condary bows are possible
towards the perpendicu- when the sun is very
lar, and in passing out of bright and the rain fine
it into air is bent frovi and dense but they are
;
the perpendicular, he took usually too faint to be

a piece of glass with in- perceived. And besides
clined faces,a called all these appear-
usual
“ prism,” so that the bend- ances, some very remark-
ing might be doubled. able and extraordinary'’
He let the light from the ones are sometimes seen,
sun at S pass through a which are worth making
small hole in the shutter of a dark room into the the subject of a separate account.
prism P, striking it at A, Fig. 5. The whole ray Lunar rainbows are not often seen, because the
was bent away from K on the floor, up to H I. light is not sufficient unless the moon is bright, and
But this was the curious thing about it the red : the atmosphere clear between the moon and the
part of the lightwas only bent to r, while the orange spectator. This very' seldom happens at the same
was more bent to and the yellow farther up toy, time as a shower of rain and when it does, there
<?, ;
and so on, till the violet was bent up to v. Thus are seldom people abroad to see it. Still, lunar
the ray of white light was drawn out into a rainbows are seen occasionally', several being
“ spectrum,” showing “all the colours of the rain- recorded ;
they are sometimes singularly' beautiful,
bow ;” and finally, Newton showed we took
that if the soft moonlight appearing to add an additional
all these separate colours and gathered them into charm to them.
one spot again, they made white light. The rain- Meantime, there is one more thing to be said
bow was now all cleared up because when the ;
about the “ spectrum ” of the sun’s ray's which
sun’s rays were bent on entering. and leaving each Newton got with his prism. We know now how to
drop, the blue rays were in just this same way see it better than he did. By using a round hole,
more bent than the red rays. Everything else had all the colours more or less overlapped each other,
been explained before. It is a real circular which we can avoid by' using a very narrow slit or
“ spectrum ” we see in the sky, though rather slice of light. There is no need to darken a room,
faint, because only a part of the light is reflected either. We may' stretch across the upper part of
from the farther side of the rain-drops, and a great a window a band of black paper a foot deep, with
deal passes right through, and is lost to us. a perpendicular slit in the middle several inches
It be readily seen from all this that two
(viil long, and one-eighth of an inch wide. Then from
people never see exactly the same rainbow. Each the farthest side of the room look at this slit
sees his own, in those drops which reflect and through a glass prism off one of the three-cornered
j
refract the sun’s rays to his own eye at the proper ,

lustres on the mantelpiece or chandelier, turning this
! ; —
SOxVIE PHYSIOLOGICAL WONDERS. 43
simple prism, and looking obliquely through it, till Extraordinary Cure for Asth.ma. When —
the slit of bright light from the sky is drawn out Colonel Masters, who died in 1799, and fought
into the beautiful rainbow band. The farther off under the old Duke of Cumberland, met any one
we go the longer it is, and we want it as long as suffering from a violent asthma, he used to tell
”
possible. Now be seen that the “spectrum
it will them was violently attacked by that dis-
that he
is crossed by several black lines. How many are order, and found a sudden and perfect cure on the
seen will depend on the goodness of the glass from battle-field, where a musket-ball passed through his
the lustre, and the width of the room but there will ;
lungs.
always be seen at least one very plain line in the Talking Without a Tongue. — The tongue
yellow part, and another in the violet or blue, is usually regarded as absolutely essential to
while a very heavy or dense prism will show five or speech, and it is so, so far as regards the pronun-
six lines. The curious thing is that when we use ciation of t and d. It would appear, however, that
’^sun-light for our slit, whether direct, or reflected with these exceptions, speech is possible without a
from the sky or anything else, these black lines are tongue, as Professor Huxley has given an account
always there and as soon as this was discovered,
;
of a tongueless man he himself examined who
people naturally began to ask what they meant. could talk. The man’s tongue had been removed
Out of them, and out of those questions, grew the as completely as possible by a skilful surgical
wonderful science of Spectrum A ualysis : a science operation, so that when the mouth was opened
well worthy of a little explanation by itself, and only the stump of it could be seen as far back as
which has revealed a whole universe of wonders to possible. His conversation was perfectly intel-
the inquiring mind of man. ligible ;
clearly pronounced such words as
and he
think, the, cow, and kill. Words with an initial or
final d or t sound were too much for him, thus
tin became fin X.2iok,fack or pack ; tool, pool; dog,
;
ipbgsiolcrgkal ^toitbcrs. thogj dine, vine; dew, thew; cat, catf mad,
madf; and goose, gooth. All /’j and d’s were con-
An —
Ossified Man. There was, and probably verted by him into f’s, p's, v’s, or th’s. Th was fairly
still in the Dublin Museum, the carcase of a
is, given in all cases s and sh, I and r, with more or
;
man named Clerk, a native of Cork, whose body less of a lisp. Initial g's and k's were good, but
and limbs gradually ossified, so that he resembled final g's were all more of less guttural.
at last a statue of stone, being unable to bend his Voluntary Motions of iAtsTh of an
body or use his joints. A magazine published in —
Inch. At the top of the wind-pipe there are two
1838 states that he had been a young man famous muscles called the vocal chords, which produce
for strength and agility, and that the first indication voice. When
they are stretched, and air is forced
of his disease followed close upon a night which past them from the
lungs, they emit sound, the
he had passed asleep in the open air after a de- loudness of the sound depending tJo a great extent
bauch. From that time, by slow degrees, every upon the force with which the air is expelled from
part of him solidified, his joints becoming rigid, the lungs. The pitch of the note depends upon the
and only his eyes, skin, and intestines retaining tension of the vocal chords. Now these muscular
their natural condition. His teeth became a chords in man are only, when at rest, about APnths
single bone, through which a hole was bored for of an inch long. When stretched to the greatest
the admission of food. Before he expired sight extent they are about A’lsths, or ith of an inch
deserted him, and he was unable to speak. longer. From a state of repose to a state of
A Singular Wound. On June i8th, 1855, — extreme tension, there are a great variety of sounds
before Sebastopol, Lieutenant French, of the 38th which a vocalist could emit at pleasure. If we
Regiment, received a gun-shot wound, which “ pene- suppose with Carpenter that the natural compass
trated the chest, resulted in a most copious sup- of the voice is twenty-four semitones, and that with-
puration from the left side, with compression of the in each semitone the singer can produce at least
left lung, and removal of the hea^-t to the right side ten distinct intervals, then this would mean 240
of the chest ” The result was loss of power to use different states of extension for the vocal chords
the right arm, enfeebled health, and ultimately on — i.e., in passing from one interval to another the
December 9th, 1857 — death. vocal chords would not be stretched out more
Shot through the Heart.— In the Military than T^Tsth of an inch. And in distinguished
Hospital at Plymouth, there was until recently pre- singers the sense of hearing and power of regu-
served, and may still be, the heart of Samuel lating the movements of the vocal chords have
Evens, a private grenadier in the 2nd Regiment been known to be brought to such a state of
of Foot, who died in that hospital on January 30th, perfection that it was possible for them to stretch
1 809, sixteen days after he had been shot through or contract the chords by the rsiinsth of an
the heart ! inch !
THE MOST WONDERFUL TOMB IN leries, and domes, gradually diminishing as they
THE WORLD. ascend crowned by a square platform and
till it is
elaborate lattice or screen-work, both of white

The tomb of the monarch India ever marble, in the centre of which is the altar-tomb of
greatest
had, Mohammed Akbar, who reigned between the same material, “ carved,” says Bishop Heber,
i
1556 and 1605, is truly a wonderful one. Ap- “ with a delicacy and beauty which
do full justice
proached through a grand and lofty archway, with to the material and to the graceful
forms of Arabic
ENTRA.NCE TO THE TOMB OF AKBAR.
gallery chambers, and vaulted dome, it stands by characters which form its chief ornament.” Tlie
the ruined village of Secundra in a quadrangle en- plain and narrow tomb immediately above the
closure, at each corner of which a minaret rises. ashes of Tamerlane’s mighty descendant exists in
You follow apaved pathway through what was a small but very lofty vault at the base of the
once a beautiful garden overshadowed by graceful building. It is of white marble, narrow, plain, and
trees, in the centre ofwhich, rising to the height of without adornment. There are four entrance gate-
too feet, stands the mausoleum, a massive pile of ways to the tomb of red granite, one in each of the
red stone, each side of the base measuring 300 feet, lofty, battlemented walls, at the four corners of
adorned with stone and marble, with rich carvings which are four octagonal towers with their minarets.
and inscriptions from the Koran. The area in Around the tomb, and
for about six miles on the
which the tomb stands covers about forty acres. road to Agra, walls, tombs, mosques, minarets, and
The tomb itself has five stories, forming a kind of summer-houses of marble, granite, and other stones
I
pyramid, surrounded externally by cloisters, gal- exist in a ruinous condition, some of the old tombs
TATTOOING. 45
having been converted into dwelling-places, and the origin of the habit of tattooing the body
not far from Akbar’s tomb is that of his famous arose from the more primitive custom of painting
minister Abulfazel. The tomb is approached by the skin of various colours —a custom which has
four causeways, along which may be still traced prevailed amongst manner of men from the
all
the relics of stone pillars placed at intervals earliest recorded times, even down to the present
amongst trees, which formerly existed along either day. When Caesar first landed his legions upon
side of them, with watch-towers, halting-places, and the shores of Albion, he found the gallant Britons
serais with wells of his time stained
for pilgrims. It is and decorated with
traditionally stated the blue juice of
that the trees which the woad. Dr. Pri-
first shaded the chard tells us that
wayfarers were car- the Red
Indians
ried away full- owe their name, not
grown from the to their copper-
forests and planted coloured skins, but
along the sides of to the practice so
the causeways. The common amongst
Prince of Wales them of painting
when in India the face, and some-
visited Akbar’s times even the
tomb, the grandest whole body, of a
men ever reared brilliant scarlet hue.
to perpetuate the The great warriors

memory of a fel- did not, however,
low-man. Mr. confine themselves
Bayard Taylor de- always to a single
scribes it as nobler tint, but might
and greater in con- sometimes be seen
ception and em- with one side of
bodiment of Sara- the face orna-
cenic art than the mented with
Alcazar or Alham- various - sized cir-
bra. It is not only cles of vermilion,

the ground it while the other
covers, and the side was plastered
solid amount of with alternate
masonry that streaks of red and
makes up the vast green. The tribes
and stately build- of the Amazons,

ing : the marvel too, are distin-
rather is in the pro- guished by the
fusion with which quaint and gro-
the whole has been enriched, down to the smallest tesque patterns with which they frequently paint
detail, with the utmost perfection of oriental art. their bodies, either to make them appear more ter-
rible to their enemies, or more pleasing to their

friends. Nor is the art of painting the face confined
entirely to the savages of either the Old or the New
TATTOOING. World. High-caste Brahmins may often be seen
in India decorated with an occasional streak of
The practice of tattooing the skin has probably, at red or white paint and we are all acquainted
;
one time or another, been universal throughout the with the delicate tints imparted to the skin by
world. We
still, however, occasionally see the she-Brahmins nearer home, by a judicious appli-
school-boy disfiguring or adorning his arms and cation of pearl-powder and rouge.
hands by rude tattooings, of which he is suf- From the temporary adornment of painting it
ficiently proud —at least until, having arrived at was not an unnatural transition to adopt the
years of discretion, he sees the folly of his ways. practice of tattooing, by which means not only was
Our sailors, too, are often tattooed with various the trouble of painting avoided, but some brilliant
designs symbolical of their calling. Probably and startling effects could be produced, which
;

were attainable in no other way. As America may then followed with a sharp bone knife, made for the
be regarded as the chief seat of the art of painting, purpose, which cuts deeply into the flesh, leaving
so in the islands of Polynesia does tattooing attain upon the part thus operated upon an exact repro-
its greatest development, though, in fact, the custom duction of the design intended. Into the wounds
prevails from New Zealand to Japan, and from produced by this painful process is introduced
Malay most western islands of the Pacific
to the not only colouring-matter of various kinds, but also
while for the word itself we are indebted to the vegetable irritants, particularly wood-ashes, which
language of the South Sea Islanders. retard the healing process, and frequently result in
Though tattooing is mainly resorted to for the the production of hard ridges, raised considerably
purpose of ornamentation, occasionally there is above the regular level of the skin. The Maori
some signification in the operation, as when the warriors this most
are particularly addicted to
Hawaiians tattooed their bodies in token of grief painful practice, and are often to be seen covered
and respect, upon the death of their king. The with complicated patterns in relief, not dissimilar
various designs tattooed upon the body some- to those designs which they are accustomed to
times serve, also, to indicate the rank, family, carve upon their paddles, clubs, or canoes.
or exploits of their bearer in some parts of
;
Sometimes tattooing would seem to take the
Africa, for instance, a long scar on the thigh place of clothing not only taking away all appear- ;
indicates that the possessor of this coveted ance of nakedness, but often being highly orna-
decoration has done bravely in war. Some- mental. The Polynesians, for instance, are fre-
times, too, the tribe or nation to which a negro quently covered with arabesques, circles, and other
belongs may be indicated by the design tattooed designs, which produce a most graceful effect ;
upon his face or body, such as “ a pair of long cuts while in Japan there is no end to the extraordinary
down both cheeks, or a row of raised pimples down representations which are to be met with upon
his forehead to the tip of his nose.” Amongst some of the votaries of the fashion of tattooing. At
some tribes of Australians it is usual to tattoo new Yokohama the house-servants may often be seen
designs upon the skin upon any important occasion covered by a many-coloured tattooed design, re-
and sometimes tattooing
in the life of the individual ;
sembling a quaint and complicated damask pattern,
appears amongst certain people to be analogous to or such pictorial designs as are shown in the
the rite of armament of the newly-made knight accompanying plate and so completely is the
;
during the Middle Ages while it is curious to

;
body covered by this extraordinary vestment, that
observe that the Tchuktchis of Eastern Siberia, but the smallest scrap of clothing is sufficient to
though completely clothed, are yet accustomed to take away all appearance of indelicacy.
tattoo themselves deeply, to show their prowess in Popular as is the practice of tattooing through-
hunting, in fishing,and in war. In New Zealand out the whole of the islands of the Pacific, the
a Maori woman would be regarded with scorn extent to which it is carried by different tribes varies
and disgust who had not at least her mouth considerably. The painful operations undergone by
tattooed, and her people would taunt her with the many of the New
Zealanders have been described
disgrace of having “ red lips,” so greatly do ideas by some travellers as resembling the crimping
of beauty differ. Upon whom the duty of per- of fish more than anything else and sometimes
;
forming the unpleasant operation devolves it is not these operations occupy months, and even years,
always easy to determine sometimes it is per-
: in their progress to perfection; while it is evident
formed by the old women of the tribe, but when that the profuse decorations of the Japanese must
the tattooing possesses any religious or symboli- occupy a very considerable period for their pro-
cal meaning, as it does amongst the Alforians, duction, and must often entail the most acute
or Alfourous, who inhabit the interior of New suffering during that time. Amongst others, the
Guinea, it is carried out either by a priest or Pelew Islanders were observed by Miklucho-
by a great chief of the tribe to which the acolyte Maclay, during his voyage in Micronesia in 1876,
belongs. to be tattooed to a less degree than their neighbours,
The most common form of tattooing is that pro- the Japanese and other Polynesians but this was ;
duced by making small punctures in the skin, and accounted not by their greater indifference
for,
rubbing into them some colouring-matter, generally to personal adornment, but by the fact that they
the coloured juice of some native plant. But in were unable to support the physical shock pro-
Polynesia the operation is by no means limited to duced by tattooing upon a large scale. So great,
simple punctures. When, for instance, a youthful indeed, the shock to the nervous system, that
is
brave of Fiji, of New Zealand, or of the Marquesas the Tiealth generally suffers under the operation,
is tobe tattooed, a drawing of the design which it and death itself has been known to result from
is proposed to produce is made either upon a leaf the laudable desire of the unfortunate islanders
or upon a fragment of thin and pliant bark. This to possess as highly-decorated a cuticle as their
drawing is applied to the skin, and the lines are neighbours.
TATTOOED JAPANESE SERVANT,
2
ICEBERGS. 47
Amongst the American Indians, who, as already adornment and though we may stigmatise the
;
observed, are distinguished by their love of gaudy more painful and elaborate tattooing of the Poly-
and grotesque painting, the custom of tattooing, nesians as savage and barbarpus in the extreme,
though known, is but seldom practised, and is we should still remember that we have not our-
sometimes even regarded as a disgraceful and ig- selves quite abandoned those habits of mutilation,
nominious kind of mutilation. But in Africa it is for which doubtless we are indebted to our early,
almost as common as in the islands of the Pacific, and almost equally barbarous progenitors.
though possessing none of the complicated and
aesthetic qualities of the Polynesian tattooing.
Generally, indeed, the Africans confine themselves ICEBERGS.
to rough incisions, which produce coarse raised
scars, and to rows of small pimples upon the Ice-mountains or icebergs floating in the ocean
•Cheeks and temples, and sometimes upon other are wondrous sights. A comparatively new one in
parts of the body, such as are respectively seen Ocean appears like a flat expanse of
the Antarctic
amongst the Bantetochs of Loango, on the western snow bounded all round by perpendicular ice-cliffs,
coast, and the Barabras and the Bejas of the Nile. as high as 300 feet from the surface of the water.
The Bongos are, however, sometimes completely As they are met with in the comparatively warm
covered with tattooing, which consists, not in a waters of the North Atlantic after floating from the
series of punctures, but in groups of long incisions, shores of Greenland, Spitzbergen and other places,
the healing of which is retarded by the use of irri- they present all kinds of fantastic shapes which
tant substances until strongly-raised ridges are pro- have been produced by the melting influence of
duced. The natives of Ouwinuza, on the famous sunshine, warm winds, and warm water. Their
Lake Tanganyka, indulge in a more tasteful form of upper parts present imaginary likenesses to crags,
tattooing, covering the body with spirals, circles, cliffs, and castles picturesque cascades flow down
;
straight lines, and other simple figures while at them into the sea, while the action of the ice pin-
;
' Kasangalohowa, upon the same lake, the natives, nacles, &c., on the sunlight produces all the colours
according to Cameron, wear a line of tattooing down of the spectrum in wl d profusion.
the middle of the forehead, and two similar rays They are, however, things of danger as well as
upon the temples, which are sometimes continued to of beauty. On the 7th ot November, 1879, one of the
the chin, and which he regards as distinctive of the Guion steamers, the Arizona, struck on an iceberg
tribe. West of Lake Tanganyka the same traveller at ten o’ clock at night when 300 miles from St.
describes both sexes as being tattooed in an ir- John’s. The sea was calm, and it was not at all
regular manner, the frightful scars left by the deep dark, but, strange to say, no one saw the berg until
gashes inflicted during the process being often of the ship was on it. She was going at the rate of
the most repulsive appearance. 15 knots when she struck head on, recoiled, and
A form of tattooing existing amongst the negroes struck again in the same place, smashing in about
of the African coast has been described by Dr. 1 5 feet of her bows. The fear and confusion of the
Tavano. A long thick steel needle is introduced passengers and crew may be imagined. The fear
obliquely under the skin, to a depth varying with was not misplaced, as there was imminent danger
the size of tattooing desired. By means of this that some ice-masses would topple over and crush
needle the skin is drawn up as by a lever, and thus the ship and all its live cargo. The engines were
gathered into a kind of ball, or knob, which, when quickly reversed, and the Arizona managed to get
healed, forms a more or less regular sphere. These off with only a few tons of ice on the deck. The
strange ornaments are generally placed below the ship was put back to St. John’s. This iceberg
nose and upon the lobes of the ears, and are was estimated at from 400 to 500 feet in diameter,
affected as a rule only by the men. The operation, with three pinnacles 60 or 70 feet above the water.
which must be an extremely painful one, is per- Not long after, the Gudren, a Norwegian bark
formed during extreme youth, possibly because bound to Quebec, was wrecked by ice.
no one who had attained to riper years would During the year 1882, the North Atlantic was
be willing to undergo the necessary amount of made most unusually perilous by the presence of
torture. icebergs. The Western Belle, from Greenock,
Even higher in the scale of civilisation, tat- struck an iceberg off Newfoundland on May i,
tooing still holds a place; and not only Hindoos, and sank instantly with all her crew, and the
but also Arab women may yet be seen en- brigantine Rescue was completely crushed near
deavouring to add to their personal charms by Belle Isle. One ship passed bergs daily from the
slight touches of indigo beneath the skin of 7th to 17th of May in latitude 43’’ and longitude
their faces, arms, and ankles. Nor must we 37°, some of immense size, with arctic animals
forget that our own fair daughters still have their living and dead on them. Fortunately these bergs
ears pierced with a view to their own personal cannot proceed beyond a certain limit on their
—

southward course without disappearing, and they berg and broken. Accordingly to Mosely, the sea
are seldom, if ever, observed beyond the 40th at the foot of one of these bergs usually looks of a
parallel of latitude. dark indigo colour and the colouring of the cre-
;
In Southern seas great fleets of icebergs

the vasses, caves, and hollows in the bergs themselves
have been seen as far north as the latitudes of is of the deepest and purest possible azure blue.
Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope. When Regarding the birth of icebergs, they would
H.M.S. Galatea, captain the Duke of Edinburgh, appear for the most part to be the product of
was on her way home from her cruise round the glacier motion. A glacier, say on the coast of
world, icebergs were met with before rounding Greenland, like the Humboldt glacier, of vast ex-
Cape Horn, lletween the 50th and both parallels of tent and thickness, slowly pushes its wide river of
S. latitude bergs ice into the sea.
were constantly The sea end of the
coming in sight. glacier extending
In Milner and some distance un-
Brierley’s account der the water, there
of the voyage they is an enormous
say, “ Our anxiety strain upon it be-
was great, consi- cause of the ice’s
dering the almost tendency to float.
total destruction of When the strain
our ship and 540 has reached a cer-
lives that a colli- tain point, large
sion one of
with masses of the ice
these dangers must are broken off, and
have brought about, then surge upwards
as the ship was and float away as
travelling at a great icebergs. Kane, the
speed before strong Arctic explorer, ob-
westerly winds. We serves, “ Regarded
did not relax in our upon a large scale,
vigilance, however, I am satisfied that

but with men the icebergis not
placed to look out, disengaged by de-

and testing the bacle, as I once
temperature of the supposed. So far
water every hour, from falling into
did all in our the sea, broken by
power to secure the its weight from the
safety of the ship.” parent - glacier, it
As the Challenger rises from the sea.
proceeded towards The idea of ice-

ICEBERGS.
the Antarctic circle being
bergs dis-
all the icebergs charged, so uni-

seen were numbered each day, and their positions versal among systematic writers and so recently
noted down. But when they came to have forty in admitted by myself, seems to me now at variance
sight at once, this planwas abandoned, and sub- with the regulated and progressive actions of
sequently they had as many as a hundred in sight nature. Developed by such a process, the thou-
on several occasions. Coleridge’s lines in “ The sands of bergs which throng these seas should
Ancient Mariner” forcibly describe their position; keep the air and water in perpetual commotion.”
Only a small part in comparison of the total
And now there came both mist and snow,
And it grew wondrous cold :
bulk of an iceberg can float above the water-line, so
And ice, mast high, came floating by. that the proportions of an iceberg above and below
As green as emerald.
*
water be much as represented in the figure. They
will
• * • ^
The ice was here, the ice was there, have been seen as much as 600 feet in height above
The ice was all around : the water-line, but usually they are not more than
It cracked and growled, and roared and howled, 200 or 300 feet high. Stranded icebergs have been
Like noises in a swound
Lieutenant Parry and Captain Ross
!
measured.
The Challenger had many narrow escapes, the found one grounded in Baffin’s Bay, 20 miles from
jibboom being once forced against the side of a land and in 61 fathoms of water. It was 4169
THE PRINCESS CARABOO, 49
yards long, 3,869 yards broad, and 51 yards high, THE PRINCESS CARABOO.
and its weight was estimated at 1,292,397.673 tons.
Dr. Hayes measured one farther north off the har- AmoN'G.ST the less well-known instances of extra-
bour of Tessi Usak, aground in water nearly half a ordinary imposture, not the least strange and
mile in depth. It contained 27,000,000,000 cubic amusing is that of a supposed Eastern princess,
and must have weighed not less than
feet of ice, carried away from her native land by pirates, who
2,000,000,000 tons. When such an iceberg is was said to have been discovered some miles from
stranded in lands in the temperate zone, its cooling land in the Bristol Channel, swimming, in appa-
influence is felt for miles, and temporary desolation rently the last stage of exhaustion, and brought to
is produced all round it. shore. She spoke a language no one understood.
H
which she wrote in a clear, delicate, but singular family, where she was kindly
strictly respectable
handwriting ;
and she intimated signs that she and remained three years. At the expira-
treated
had recently experienced ill-treatment at the hands tion of that time she was so heartily weary of a life
of some persons from whom she had, at the risk of of tame commonplace respectability, that she gave
death by drowning, contrived to escape. She was notice and went away.
without clothes when taken up, and wore round her Disguising herself as a man, she soon after
neck something supposed to be a charm. Her case applied for and obtained another situation as foot-
excited the strongest interest in Bristol, and found man in a gentleman’s family, and was actually taken
I
its way into the newspapers, in consequence of down into Devonshire, where she resided for some
which a then well-known physician residing at time within a stone’s throw of her mother and
Bath interested himself in her behalf* and brought father without being recognised by them. About
her to that city, where he was well known. three years after, while still in Devonshire, the
It was then noted as astounding that the lan- supposed footman was sent out one winter evening
guage she spoke was a strange one, even to the to deliver a letter. On her return she lost her
most accomplished linguists. Her letters were sent way in a snow-storm, and, overcome by the intense
to both the Universities to be deciphered, but in cold, sank down exhausted, where she was found
vain, and this fact becoming very widely known, by those sent in search of her (him) on the following
created a still greater sensation. morning. When she was carried home, on her
Her name was supposed to be Caraboo, and the clothes being removed her sex was discovered, and
country she came from was supposed to be Eastern, she was discharged.
and named Javasu it was also believed that she
; She was afterwards in the service of some re-
was of royal rank but as these ideas were derived spectable families in Ayrshire, in the west of
;
only from her signs, there was not much certainty Scotland, where she also figured somewhat pro-
about them. The curiosity she awakened led ulti- minently under the name of Mrs. Mackrinkan.
mately to her exposure, and it soon afterwards Then came the crowning piece of imposture.
oozed out that her birthplace was Devonshire, and Soon after a storm in the Bristol Channel a young
her career a very remarkable one. woman was picked up in the sea, where she was
She was born at a little place called Witheridge swimming, apparently, as we have said, in the last
in the year 1792, her name was Mary Baker, and stage of exhaustion. She was very pretty, had “ a
she was employed by her mother when very young sweet smile,” and spoke in an unknown tongue.
at spinning. She was, however, of a wild, roving, Being brought ashore and wrapped in a blanket,
reckless disposition, and fond of boyish games and she was taken in b)' a charitable person named Fay.
sports, particularly of swimming, in which she She strove to express by signs her having been
excelled most of her age. Spinning was irksome, taken prisoner by violence and carried away on
and she preferred the labour of weeding in the board a ship, from which, nearing some strange
cornfields. Becoming a source of intense anxiety country, and being rendered desperate by fear, she
and trouble to her mother, she was sent to service escaped by leaping into the sea, and had been
in Exeter, where she remained but a short time. swimming for some hours, when she was taken up
To gratify her love of freedom and adventure, she and brought to Bristol. Her story, finding its way
deliberately adopted the degrading trade and crafty into the local papers, attracted the attention of Dr.
devices of a wandering beggar, wearing her oldest Wilkinson, who took charge of her and brought her
clothes, neglecting her person, and doing all she to Bath. Here her case soon attracted general
could to increase the misery of her appearance and attention, and her story travelling, brought many
awaken pity in the charitable. She slept by the persons to Bath who were anxious to investigate
roadside, under sheds, hedges, and hayricks, and the case. All sorts of facts were brought forward
in this way arrived in Bristol, where she made to support the story she told in signs and the ship
;
application to the Stranger’s Friend Society for in which she had been prisoner was soon identified
assistance. The inquiries made by the officers of as that of a desperate pirate who had been seen
the society so frightened her, that she suddenly in different quarters by various nautical observers
left that city to make her way to London. at different times. Ever^^thing she did was made
When nearing the great metropolis she was public. It was said that she wore as a charm
taken ill and conveyed by a kindly waggoner to something “ not unlike the Chinese suon-p 7ton,^’
St. Giles’s Hospital, to which she was admitted that the food she preferred was fish ;
that she had
delirious with fever. There, her seeming inno- a strong dislike to the society of men that she
;
cence, shyness, youth, and engaging manners worshipped the sun at its rising and setting that ;
awakened considerable interest, and the chaplain she was an accomplished wielder of sword and
of the institution was deeply touched by her dagger that she had a scar upon her back.
;
friendless and forlorn condition. On her recovery Suddenly she disappeared, and the next thing
he procured her a situation as maid-serv'ant in a heard of her was that she had been seen begging
—
VORTICES.
on a country road, and that she had asked a man gently delivered to the surface of the watei in the
who passed her on a cart, in English., to give her glass. When the globule of milk comes into con-
“a lift.” tact with the water, it descends, and, after the
She afterwards made a full confession. manner of the ink, soon forms a beautiful system
There is extant, in various old magazines and of rings. The rings here are so small that one sees
ballad collections, a song which was popular then, no motion except that which carries them to the
and was dedicated to “ Dr. n of Bath.” W— We bottom of the vessel.
quote but one of its fourteen verses :
— To make vortex-rings in air is a trifle more
difficult. Perhaps the most simple plan is the fol-
“ One morning, when gorged to the full,
She stole from her cage like a squirrel,
Glumdalclitch ne’er griev’d for her gull
Like the gull of all gulls, Mrs. W—
rr— II.
* Hue and cry —
search the whole of the nation ;
She’s stolen by some Macratoo !

Tve lost my outlandish Circassian
”
Oh, where, and oh, where’s Caraboo f
VORTICES.
There no such thing as rest in the universe.

is
Everything is in motion, and the whirling or rotat-

ing motion appears to be the favourite one in
Nature. All the planets as they pass through
space have a whirling motion they roll round on :
their axes. The earth also rotates, and on its

Fig. I.
'
surface there are rotating fluids — cyclones and
whirlpools— and the very atoms of which the world
isformed are supposed to be etherial vortices.
lowing. Take a match-box, and make a small round
The gigantic vortices on the earth’s surface, viz., hole in one end (Fig. 2). Now slide out the inner
the whirlpool and the cyclone, are essentially of

portion of and put in a little very dry tobacco.
it,
Ignite the tobacco, by dropping a lighted match on

the same nature as the eddy of dust one sometimes
sees at a street corner, or as the little hollow
to it, and then close the box. By giving the end of
wake of a rudder. They are the box opposite the hole a smart tap with one
vortices seen in the
finger, tiny smoke-rings will be made to issue from
masses of air or water, with a top-like spinning
motion, and they are the simplest kind of vortex.
the orifice. Of course it is necessary to have the
tobacco within the box burning to furnish smoke
The only difference between a tiny dust whirlwind
and a cyclone, or between a small whirlpool and
the Maelstrom, is one of strength, the cyclone and
the Maelstrom dashing about large objects with
the same ease that the tiny whirlwind and whirl-
pool move dust-specks about.
What is known as a “vortex-ring” is of a more
complex nature than either a simple whirlpool or
whirlwind. Fortunately, it can be made with ease
either in a liquid, like water, or in a gaseous
Fig. 2.
mixture, like the air we breathe. Vortex-rings may
be made in water, for example, in the following
simple way. We require a glass of water, some for the rings, and the box must be so held with
ink or milk, and a needle or pern Let us suppose regard to the light that the issuing rings can be
we are writing: then we simply dip the pen-point, seen.
charged with ink, below the surface of the water ;
These smoke-rings are also often made by
when instantly there is formed a slowly descending smokers, some of whom have the knack of pucker-
ink ring, which before long grows into two others, ing up the mouth when full of smoke, and sending
and these, in their turn, multiply, and so on until quite forth rings at pleasure. They may sometimes be
a network of rings is seen to be travelling towards seen issuing from the chimney of a locomotive,
the bottom (Fig. i). If we are using milk instead and they are regularly produced by the chemist
of ink, then it is necessary to dip a needle into when making phosphoretted hydrogen. In the
the milk, so that when withdrawn there may be a gas coming from a retort is led
latter case, the
drop formed at the end of it. This drop is now under the water ; bubbles of it then ascend, and
breaking as they reach the surface of the water, represent a section of one of these rings, the big
give rise to beautiful white rings of phosphoric arrow showing the direction it is moving in, then
oxide. the smaller arrows will show the nature of the
Vortex-rings of smoke may be made on a large vortical motion of the ring. Such a ring is really a
scale in the same way as with the match-box, by string of whirlwinds put end to end in circular
the following simple means. Procure a tea-chest, fashion, and all moving together in the same direc-
from which, of course, one side will have been tion.
taken to remove the tea or a strong band-box will
;
We must remember that the smoke has nothing
do as well. A
round hole, three or more inches in to do with the vortex. That is in the air, and the
diameter, has to be cut or sawn by the carpenter smoke only makes it visible, as the dust-motes do
out of the side directly opposite to the one vvhich a sunbeam. Now this whirling ring of air will
has been removed. A sheet of canvas must next travel unbroken all across quite a large room, and
be nailed over the open end of the tea-chest. If even blow out a candle there. How wonderful it is-
the canvas be now struck, a “vortex-ring” issues that free air, unconfined —
the most free and “ loose”
from the circular hole, and may be made to travel —
medium we generally think of should thus keep
many yards off. This ring is, however, invisible as separate, tied together, as it were, by this curious
yet, for it consists only of air. To make the ring circular vortex motion! It is so much so that
box must be filled with smoke, which
visible, the if two separate rings are sent against each other,,
may be done by holding inside some smoking they recoil and tremble much as two floating india-
big- 3-
brown paper. When the box is charged with rubber rings would do and if we try to cut one ;
smoke a beautiful white ring issues every time the with a knife, we cannot do it it recoils, and will —
canvas is struck. fwt be cut, though it is gradually dispersed by the
The best way of filling the box with smoke— or friction of the air itself. We shall see in another
|
rather, with visible particles to make the rings visible article how these facts have helped our greatest
— is, however, to have a couple of flasks attached philosophers to the latest and most probable con-
I
to the box (Fig. 3). The way in which this is clusions now generally held concerning the mystery
managed is very simple. A
bent piece of tubing of matter.
passes through two corks, a and b; one of the corks,
a, is fitted into the side of the box,
.
and the other,
b, fits into the flask. There is thus a communica- THE UNDER-GROUND RAILWAYS
tion between the contents of the flask and the inside OF LONDON.
of the box. Two flasks joined to the box in this
way, one containing strong solution of ammonia In the early days of our great railway system the
and the other hydrochloric acid, are now gently inhabitants of the large towns were as anxious to
heated with Bunsen burners or spirit-lamps, and keep railway stations away from their houses as
the gases arising from the solutions enter the box, they are now desirous of having them at their very
and combine to form a dense white “ smoke,” con- doors. This objection, and the legal and other
sal-ammoniac.
sisting of fine particles of difficulties which prevented, in those times, the
By watching the large rings which issue from the acquisition, on reasonable terms, of house pro-
vortex-box, it will now be seen that they have two perty in London (belonging in many cases to a
motions : a motion of translation and the “vortical” large number of owners) kept the termini of the
motion. In this vortical motion the inner portions great railways at a respectable distance from the
of the ring appear to be moving in the direction the town itself, as it then was. But when the in-
ring is bodily going, but the outer portions appear credible and totally unexpected results of the rail-
to have a motion contrary to this. Thus, if Fig. 5 way system and the increasing congestion of the
j
THE UNDERGROUND RAILWAYS OF LONDON S3
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DOUBLE TUNNEL NEAR FARRINGDON STREET STATION, METROPOLITAN RAILWAY.
traffic were fully realised, the absolute necessity of Parliamentary Committee of both Houses was ap-
uniting the various stations by a line which should pointed,and the “ Inner Circle ” plan of Mr. Fowler,
bring them into communication with one another, C.E., was adopted, together with an “ Outer Circle’
and with all parts of the metropolis, became scheme.
manifest. The first section of under-ground rail- The engineering difficulties which, at almost
way, from Paddington to Farringdon Street, every yard, surrounded the enterprise, were of
having been opened on the loth of January, 1863, course varied and enormous and to form a slight ;
numerous schemes were immediately proposed a ;

idea of these one has only to dwell for a few
— ;

minutes on the nature and multiplicity of the the two companies possess the apparently small
under-ground communications which already ex- stock of 92 engines and 458 passenger carriages
isted in London, complicated as they were by of various classes, while they maintain 28 miles
branches at every street-corner, and ramifications of double and 2 miles of single line, making a
in every direction. Telegraph-wires laid in iron total of 58 miles of railway worked by the two
pipes ;
sewers and drains of all sizes, from the four- companies, while the portion known as the “ Inner
inch pipe to the brick sewer six feet high “ ven-
;
Circle” is about 12 miles in length. Over these
tilating-shafts,” rising straight from the crowns of lines, however, other companies run their engines
the sewers to gratings in the roads “manholes,”

;
and carriages ;
and in addition to the under-ground
or “ side entrances,” springing obliquely from their lines maintained by the two companies, the London,
walls and ending in the pavements water-pipes
;
Chatham and Dover system is connected with the
of every diameter from one inch to three feet ;
Metropolitan Railway by a subterranean line from
gas-pipes as large or larger, and sometimes as Ludgate Hill to Aldersgate Street and the north
;
many as six in one street and last, but not least

;
and north-west districts of London by a similar
at any rate in number —
the pipes which connect line from Baker Street to the Swiss Cottage, con-
every house with the sewer, the water-sqpply, and tinued above-ground from the Finchley Road to
the gas-main; crossing and re-crossing one another Willesden and Harrow; while the “ East London”
everywhere. Among, above, and under all these, line, starting from the Great Eastern Terminus at
a communication far larger than any of them, and Liverpool Street, plunges through the old Thames
less susceptible than any of them of deviation, Tunnel, conferring on this remarkable engineering
either upwards or sideways, from its appointed work, so long known as a mere curiosity, a new life of
course, had to be driven with unheard-of care and utility and interest. Then, emerging gradually from
precautions. Alterations and diversions innumer- its subaqueous passage, this line delivers its passen-
able had of course to be made but the regular flow

;
gers at stations in South London, ending in con-
of the water, the sewage, the gas, and the electric nections with the London, Brighton and South
currents had still, even during the alterations, to Coast and other southern systems. This railway,
be provided for. Here an unexpected patch of un- and a subway at T ower H ill, are the only means of
sound soil, there a superannuated sewer, would river (except, of course, by water)
crossing the
cause subsidences which threatened the lives of the which exist below London Bridge.
W'orkmen, the stability of the unfinished work, or It ought to be added that, from various parts of
the safety of the houses, below which the new the under-ground lines already alluded to, similar
tunnel was being driven as if by some mighty branches and loop-lines form connections with
burrowing animal. And when all is complete, the the Great Northern, the Midland, and the Great
former communications re-established, or very Western main lines with the districts of Bays-
;
likely re-arranged on a far better and simpler plan water, Notting Hill, Kensington, Fulham, Ham-
the new houses built up again, the stations or plat- mersmith, and Pimlico, and, via Clapham J unction,
forms open, and the trains, thronged with passengers, with the whole of the South Western, South
rapidly following one another along the newly-laid Eastern, London, Chatham and Dover, and Lon-
metals; how little record is left of the difficulties of don, Brighton and South Coast lines.
which we have endeavoured to convey some faint The enormous demands of the traffic on the most
idea! frequented parts of the “Inner Circle” may be esti-
Above-ground there seems to be no diminution mated from the facts, that from Moorgate Street
of the ceaseless, and apparently endless flow of Station, on the “ Metropolitan ” line, trains run.
wheeled and pedestrian traffic. It is, however, every four minutes from 8 a.m. to 8 p.m. and ;
impossible, in view of the enormous growth from the City terminus of the “ Metropolitan Dis-
of London, year by year, to say what the state trict” line every three minutes during the same
of its streets might now have been were the part of the day. It appears from the reports of
metropolis still unprovided with .underground rail- the two companies that the average cost per mile,
ways. During the year ending December 31, including working, stock, and allowing for the pur-
1881, the number of passengers conveyed by the chase and re-sale of land, has been, in the case of
two companies which carry the bulk of the under- the first-named line, ;i/(498,322 per mile, and in that
ground traffic, viz. the “Metropolitan” and “Metro- of the second, ;^42 1,360.
politan District ” Railway Companies, was more The extent and advantages of the under-ground
than 100,500,000! Ten years ago this total was railways of London having been thus indicated, it
only 63,500,000 the increase in that time being
;
may be interesting to note some of the principal
more than one-third, and the average daily number features and peculiarities of construction which
of passengers carried over the system during the occur in the course of the “ Inner Circle ” route.
year 1881 being 275,400. The portion constructed and worked by the District
For conveying this enormous amount of traffic. Company commences at the “Mansion House
THE UNDER-GROUND RAILWAYS OF LONDON. 55
Station,” which is its City terminus, and thence is scarcely to be called under-ground, inasmuch as
proceeds to Blackfriars Station, where passengers it open almost the whole way on to Kensing-
is
may frequently hear the rumbling overhead of ton, Shepherd’s Bush, Fulham, Hammersmith,
London, Chatham and Dover trains, which have Clapham junction, and Richmond.
just crossed the river, and are preparing for Between Edgeware Road Station and King’s
their under-ground dive to Snow Hill and Alders- Cross the Metropolitan line is entirely tunnelled
gate Street. At this point arrangements had to under the roadway and piercing it and the front
;
be made for a large subway along the Embank- courts of several of the houses on either side are
ment, in which numerous pipes of all kinds were numerous ventilating-shafts and gratings, without
laid for a tram-road for landing coals from
;
which the transit would be almost insupportable.
the river ; for the low-level main sewer which As it is, although the engines are ingeniously
intercepts all the old sewers formerly discharging constructed so as to condense their waste steam
^ into the Thames ;
and last, not least, for the well- in special tanks, and although a particular kind
known “ of fuel is used, so as to minimise the contami-
Fleet Ditch,” a veritable river which, at
several points in the Inner Circle Railway, formed nation of the air, yet the consumption of oxygen
one of the chief difficulties of the work, and had to and the evolution of carbonic acid gas, flavoured
be first temporarily and then permanently diverted with a perceptible admixture of sulphurous com-
by an iron tube seven feet in diameter. pounds, render the atmosphere far from pleasant
Between “Blackfriars” and the “Temple” Sta- at this portion of the line, and indeed produce,
tions the line (here, as in other parts, covered in by in a hot summer, a notable decrease in the
a system of girders and flat brick arches) passes traffic.
over numerous sewers, which discharge into the The line now proceeds directly Citywards, and
low-level intercepting sewers lying on the left at the next station. Baker Street, is a junction
between the railway and the river. All these enabling the traveller to reach, in a very few
tributary sewers had to be, as it were, flattened, minutes, St. John’s Wood and the Swiss Cottage
or rather, reconstructed with flat tops, so as to allow Stations, while further stations at Finchley Road
the rails to be laid at a proper level. Above, of Hampstead) and at
(within ten minutes’ walk of
course, are the Embankment and its gardens, and Edgeware Road are found on the way to Willesden
within the precincts of the Temple the train passes and Harrow. Portland Road and Gower Street
over a substratum of six inches of tan, in order are, like Baker Street, lighted by oblique shafts in-
that its passage may disturb as little as possible the geniously and pleasantly lined with white glazed
abstruse legal studies of the tenants of the adjoining tiles, and at Portland Road special provision for
chambers. Thence, passing under one of the ventilation is made by means of capacious openings
arches of Waterloo Bridge, where, before the Em- into the roadway above. Perhaps no under-ground
bankment was constructed, the muddy foreshore of line is so much needed as one which, starting from
the river lay, the line proceeds to Charing Cross Charing Cross, should join the Metropolitan Rail-
and Westminster Stations, the latter having a way at, or near, Gower Street Station.
subway communicating direct with the Houses of Some of the most interesting works on the line
Parliament. Taking a sharp turn to the right, the are to be found near King’s Cross. They were
line reaches the St. James’s Park Station, near necessitated by the problem of effecting, with the
Queen Anne’s Gate. Numerous difficulties, of a terminus of theNorthern main line at
Great
different class from those hitherto met with, were King’s Cross, and that of the Midland main line
here encountered, owing to the nature of the soil at St. Pancras (a short distance farther west)
and the propinquity of the foundations of West- junctions which should enable trains leaving or
minster Abbey and St. Margaret’s Church, while going to the City, and travelling along the under-
numbers of fossil remains were brought to light by ground railway, to reach the two main lines
the excavations. referred to, which are of course to the north of
.A.t subway gives access
Victoria Station another the under-ground railway, and considerably above
to the West-end termini of the London, Brighton it in level. This, too, was to be done without any
and South Coast and the London, Chatham and crossing of the latter line on the level. The pro-
Dover lines. The drainage of the whole railway blem has been solved by making the branch “con-
has been effected by a barrel-drain laid under its necting” lines dive deep into the earth below the
centre and here, a^d at the two next stations,
; level of the under-ground line, and then, crossing
are pumping-engines for relieving this drain of its obliquely under the same by sharp curves and
contents. At the next station, Sloane Square, a steep inclines, re-ascend till they reach the level of,
sewer, in the form of a huge square iron conduit, and are connected with the lines of the two great
passes over, instead of under, the railway. From railways, stretching away to the northernmost
the spacious station at South Kensington, which regions of the kingdom. A reference to the illus-
is next reached, the line, though below the level. tration will make this more clear. In the fore-
ground, at the lowest an engine just coming
level, is passing through th^ heart of the City, will involve,
from the main and proceeding on
lines referred to among its most important benefits, the construction
its way eastward. Above it is a train going west- of a fine new street, which will replace the nar-
ward on the Metropolitan under-ground line, and row and tortuous thoroughfares of Great and
above that level again is the roadway. LittleTower Street, now so congested with traffic
The section of the line near Farringdon Street as to be in an almost chronic state of block.
Station crosses three times the Fleet Ditch before When this most important link in the chain is
referred to, and in welded to its fellows,
each case special London will possess
in completed
its
necessarily made for “Inner Circle” of

its waters, which under-ground rail -
had to be conveyed ways a system
above the line of worthy of the great-
rails. .At the station est city in the world,
itself this is done by and unparalleled, .
means of a large though not unimi-

wrought-iron tube, tated, by its Conti-
or rather aqueduct ;
nental compeers.
and on two or three
different occasions
during the construc- THE N E S 1' S
tion of the line the OF FISHES.
“ Fleet ” burst its
bounds, and caused, No feature connect-
of course, much ed with animal life
trouble and delay. at large is better

At this station, too, calculated to inter-
is a goods depot of est the observer than
the Great Northern the relations between
Railway ;
and, far- parent and young,
ther on, the line and the care which
passes under the animals exercise in
Meat Market con- providing for the
structed on the site safety of their off-
of old Smithfield spring. Amongst
Market, and con- the higher groups
nected by winding of animals, this re-
cart-roads and sid- lationship between
ings with the lines parent and young is
of rail. well marked. It
From Aldersgate may be credited, in-

Street Station, where deed, with the mo-
there is a junction STICKLEBACKS AND THEIR NESTS. dification of higher
with London,
the life, and with the
Chatham and Dover production of not a
Railway, a tunnel and open cutting lead to Moor- few of the peculiar features which that life exhi-
gate Street Station, which is scarcely ten minutes’ bits. In lower life, the care of the young in-
walk from the Mansion House terminus before fluences the parent forms in many ways. This
mentioned, although the circuit by train occupies is nowhere better seen, perhaps, than in a class
no less than an hour. The reader will thus per- of animals which are not, as a rule, credited
ceive that the name “Inner Circle” is somewhat with paying much attention to their offspring-
of a misnomer, and only justifiable in a prophetic namely, the fishes. In illustration of this remark,
sense ;
but, at the present moment, the missing the Sticklebacks present us with notable exceptions
section qf the incomplete circle is being prepared for to the rule that fishes are but careless parents.
public use, and has, in fact, been already opened With these little fishes every reader must be well
as far as a new station at Trinity Square, Tower acquainted ;
but a brief description of their zoo-
Hill. This extension will be met by another logical position and affinities will not be out of
starting from the Mansion House Station, which. place, by way of introduction to the special
THE NKSrS OF FISHES 57
peculiarities they exhibit in tljf care of their possessed a diameter about that of a horse’s hair.
young and in the construction of an abode. Two days after this first gorge, it ate sixty-two
The Sticklebacks form a special family the — i
more, and its voracity was, even then, apparently
Gasterosteidie of the technical naturalist. In this far from being satisfied.
family, some ten different kinds or species are When the spawning season arrives, these fishes
included. The best-known of these fishes are the begin to exhibit an unwonted degree of activity.
“Three-spined ” Stickleback {Gasterosteus acu- The male fish then sets about the work of nesfi
THE GOURAMI AND ITS NEST.
leatiis) which is found in Britain and Europe building. The materials used appear to consist of
generally; the “ Four-spined ” species {G. spinu- the stalks of grasses, and of similar materials. The
losiis)-, and the “ Nine-spined ” species {G. pngni- site chosen for the nest is usually a hollow in the
tii(s.) Of these three, the first is the most common. ground and the foundations being first laid, the
;
It is not merely an active fish, but its greed seems sides are erected, and finally the top of the nest
developed proportionately to its activity. It is is built. The grasses are cemented together
extremely voracious, and is highly destructive to apparently by a kind of mucus^ or glutinous secretion
the young fry of other fishes. A smal' Stickleback, of the mouth and skin. The average dimensions
kept in an aquarium, has been known to devour in of the nest are about six inches in depth and three
five hours no less than seventy-four young dace, inches wide. The entrance is a small hole which
which averaged a quarter of an inch in length, and exists at the side of the structure. The male
I
alone appears to be the nest-builder. It is only Mr. Darwin remarked that, besides the common
after the nest is completed that the mother-fish Sticklebacks, there are other species of which the
enters the home to deposit her eggs therein. After males seem to undertake the whole duties of nurses.
this process is finished, the mother-fish bores He says, “ The male of the Smooth-tailed Stickle-
her way out through the wall of the nest, thus back {Gasterosteus leiurus) performs the duties of
making a second aperture in the abode. The a nurse with exemplary care and vigilance during
T)bject of this arrangement appears to be that of a long time, and is continually employed in gently
securing the flow of a stream of water over the eggs leading back the young to the nest when they stray
— a measure calculated to assist their development. too far. He courageously drives away all enemies,
Day by day, fresh eggs are deposited within the including the females of his own species. It would
nest,and when a goodly store of young has in this be no small relief indeed to the male, if the female,
way been accumulated, the first part of the parental after depositing her eggs, w'ere immediately de-
duty of these fishes has been accomplished. voured by some enemy, for he is forced incessantly
But the labours and anxieties of the male to drive her from the nest.”
Stickleback end not here. Reversing the general But the Sticklebacks .are by no means solitary
rule of higher life that the mother is the proper and in their nest-building habits. One of the most
natural guardian of the infantile young, the male curious members of the fish class the Gourami —
fish now enters upon a period of unceasing watch- —
{Osphromenus olfax) is also a nest-builder. This
fulness. For at least a month he rarely leaves fish occurs in Java, Borneo, and Sumatra, and is a
the vicinity of the nest. Day and night he hovers fresh-water form. The body is somewhat shortened
round the treasures it guards, and spends his and compressed in shape, and one of the rays of the
time in a state of watchfulness. Sad to relate, ventral fins is very long and lash-like in conforma-
one of the anxieties of the male .Stickleback is tion. The Gourami is celebrated as a food fish. It
that of guarding the eggs from the unwelcome is highly tenticious of life, and in the East is tamed
attentions of the female fishes. There is no and kept in captivity in the same fashion in which
question of the cannibal-like propensities of the goldfish are kept amongst ourselves. This fish is
mother-fishes. If allowed to gain access to the a near relation of the famous Anabas scaneieus, or
eggs they devour their offspring intuitively the Climlting Perch, whose habits will be described in
;
male fish, therefore, keeps the opposite sex at a a future paper. The nest of the Gourami exhiijits
safe distance. When the young are hatched, the much care in its construction, and the young appear
cares of the male cease. They are soon able to for- to be tended assiduously by the parent fishes.
age for themselves, and the nest is soon deserted Amongst the nest-builders familiar enough to
and forsaken for the ordinary life of these fishes. visitors to our own sea coasts are the “ Bullheads.”
The habits of the Fifteen-spined species of These fishes derive their familiar name from the
Stickleback {Gasterosteus spinachia), often named large size of the head-extremity. They ard near
the “ Sea Adder,” from its inhabiting the sea, are not allies of the w'ell-knowm “ Gurnards,” and are often
materially different from those of the fresh-water called Miller’s Thumbs.” The Bullheads are found
“
species just described. With that adaptation to both in the sea and in fresh waters, and the nest-
surroundings which forms one of the principal building species are the common forms, the .Sea
features of animal life, the marine species finds in Scorpion or Father 'Lash&r {Cottus scorpius), and the
the seaweeds, and especially in the fronds of Cottus bubalis or Long-spined Bullhead. Here
Zostera^ the materials wherewith the nest is con- again it is the male fishes which become the
structed. The seaweeds are bound together by p.atient nurses and attendants on the developing pro-
means of a strong silken thread resembling that geny. The nest is built of seaw'eeds and
and stones,
which the mussels manufacture. The thread of within this erection the eggs are deposited.During
the Stickleback seems to consist of several distinct the whole process of development the male fish
strands : such a disposition of matters recalling to hovers around the nest. All intruders are at once
mind the fact that the spiders make their web with w'arned off, and the females, as in the case of the
a thread composed of many hundreds of excessively Sticklebacks, are carefully deterred from approach-
fine strands. Mr. Couch has placed on record the ing the vicinity of the nest. The familiar “ Lump-
curious fact that on one occasion the nest of this suckers” {Cyclopterus) also build a nest, .and again
Stickleback was discovered in the hollow formed it is the male on which all the care of the young
by the half-untwisted strands of a rope which devolves and the exceedingly curious fishes called
;
depended into the sea. Here again the watchful “ Hassars,” belonging to the group Catlichthys, are
care of the male fish is exercised. The eggs, not merely celebrated as nest-builders, but, like the
which are of a yellow colour, seem to be de- Climbing Perch, are able to travel overland for
posited in packets throughout the meshes of the considerable distances. These fishes inhabit South
nest. American rivers, and also occur in the West Indies.
Speaking of the w'atchfulness of these fishes. Dr. Hancock tells us that the “Round-headed
HUMAN HORNS. 59
Hassar ” forms its nest of grass, whilst the “ Flat- HUxMAN HORNS.
headed Hassar” employs leaves for that purpose.
Both sexes of these “Hassars” guard the nest, and In the anatomical museum of the Edinburgh
,
remain attentive and watchful by the side of the nest University are preserved four horns which were
until the eggs are hatched. Dr. Hancock speaks of taken from the heads of four women. One, which
these fishes guarding their offspring “ with as much is seven inches long, crooked, and as thick as the
solicitude as a hen guards her eggs,” and^he adds littlefinger of a man’s hand, bears the following
“they courageously attack any assailant. Hence inscription. “ This horn was cut by Arthur
the negroes frequently take them by putting their Temple, chirurgeon, out of the head of Elizabeth
hands into the water close to the nest, on agitating Low, being three inches above the right ear, before
which the male Hassar springs at them, and is thus the witnesses, Andrew Temple, Thomas Burne,
captured.” George Smith, John Smytone, and James Tweedic,
j(<' It is interesting, by way of contrast to the fore- the 14th of May, 1671. It was a growing seven
going examples of nest-construction amongst fishes, yeares. Her age fifty yeares.”
to turn for a moment to cases in which the opposite There is an account, which has often been re-
extreme of indifference to the welfare of the progeny printed, of Mrs. Mary Davis, of Great Sanghall,
is shown. In very many cases, the eggs are simply near Chester, who, when she was in her twenty-
deposited in gravel or sand, and are covered over by eighth year, was troubled with an excrescence upon
the parent fishes, which sweep the surrounding her head supposed to be due to wearing a hat too
materials over the eggs by means of their fins. In tight for it, out of which thirty years after grew
such a case, the eggs are simply left to be hatched a pair of wrinkled horns resembling those of a
by the heat of the external water, and the parent ram. “ She cast her horns thrice,” says the old
fishes take no further charge of them after the record “ the first time was but a single horn,
;
mere act of egg-deposition. When such a state of which grew long and slender as an oaten straw •.
matters is contrasted with the care of the Stickle- the second was thicker than the former. They did
, backs, Gourami, or “Hassar” fishes, which con- not keep an equal distance of time in falling off,
struct a more or less elaborate nest, the variation some at three, some at four, and another at four
in habits is seen to be of immense extent. A and a half years’ growth. The third time grew two
well-nigh similar instance of such variation is to horns, both of which were broken off by a fall back-
be seen in the construction of the nests of birds. wards. An English lord having obtained one of
If we think for a moment of the elaborately- them presented it to the French King as the
woven nest which a tailor-bird constructs, and greatest curiosity in nature. The other, which was
compare this with the mere hole in the ground the larger, was nine inches long and two in cir-
and the few straws carelessly placed together, cumference, and was much valued for its novelty,
which a gull or other sea-bird may construct, being reckoned as great a curiosity as the greatest
or which a partridge or like bird may form by traveller can with truth affirm to have seen.” Mrs.
way of nest, we are at once enabled to appreciate Davis died in 1668, aged seventy-four.
the immense differences existent between birds in Sir Everard Home, Bart., F.R.S., in q paper,
respect of their nest-building habits. The Balti- which appears in Vol. 81 of Philosophical Tran-
more Oriole even exhibits such modifications in its sactions, wrote on human horns, pointing out
habits as to utilise silk, string, worsted, and all many other instances of their growth recorded in
manner of threads in the manufacture of its different countries at various times. He said, “In
curiously woven nest ;
and even the common giving the history of a disease so rare in its occur-
sparrow seems to vary its habits, according as it rence, and in its effect so remarkable as almost to
builds amongst trees or in houses. In the former exceed belief, it might be thought right to take
situation this bird builds a domed nest e.xhibiting some pains in bringing proofs that such a disease
a high degree of skill in its construction ;
but does really exist : I consider the doing so as less
when the bird finds amongst the crevices of a necessary at present, there being now (1791) two
building a suitable hole wherein to live, it expends women now alive, and residing in England, who
infinitely less labour in its work of nest-formation. are affected by the complaint.” Of these two cases
What is true of birds is equally true concerning one was that of a Mrs. Lonsdale, a women fifty-six
fishes. They protect their eggs in very varied years old, and a native of Horncastle in Lincoln-
ways now forming an elaborate “ nest ” amid the shire, and the other a middle-aged woman named
:
waters ;
now merely depositing their eggs in the Allen, residing in Leicestershire. In the first case,
sand but throughout their history exhibiting that the first indication of this abnormal growth was a
:
wondrous adaptation to circumstances and to tumour on the left side of the head a little above
surroundings which not merely causes change of the ear, which in course of fire years gradually
habits, but forms one of the most singular features increased in size, until, attaining the size of a
of living beings at large. pullet’s egg, it burst, and from it grew slowly a
6o THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
fleshy protuberance of a reddish colour on the top. VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
At first not larger than a pea, in about three months
it had grown long and thick, curling like a ram’s It may be taken for granted that had no other
horn, but remaining soft then it began to
still ;
means been found for producing electricity than
assume the horny form, and in two years and three the agency of friction, its commercial use to man-
months it was about five inches long. Maddened kind would have been nil. The electricity given
by the pain it inflicted, the poor woman in a frenzy by the Irictional machine, and held by the Leyden
strove to tear it from her head, but at first only jar, is said to possess high tension, whilst that
succeeded in breaking it, the roots being extracted given by a battery current is of low intensity. In
afterwards. At the time Sir Everard wrote, how- the first case, the electricity is ready to fly off to the
ever, another was growing in its ‘place, together earth by the shortest path in the second, we can
;
with several others. In the case of Mrs. Allen the lead it by metallic wires where and how we please ;
premonitory symptoms and signs of but there is, at the same time, no dif-
growth were precisely the same, and ference in kind between the electricity
in November, 1790, when the writer produced by friction and that which is
saw her, the horn was five inches long, given by a Voltaic cell. The discharge
much contorted, and with an irregular from a Leyden jar has been compared
laminated appearance. Mrs. Allen to the sudden emptying of a small cis-
was brought to London and exhibited tern of water from a height. The fall
as a show, to the great disgust of her will break anything in the path of the
friends and neighbours in the country, water, and will give the idea of great
who compelled her husband to bring intensity. The discharge from a bat-
her back. In the “ Ephemerides Aca- tery cell, on the other hand, is more
demias Naturae Curiosorum ” is the like the gradual emptying of a re-
case of a German woman from whose servoir. The water will flow quietly
head a horn grew in the way already out in far greater quantity, and al
described, and in “The flistory of the though it will not smash and tear
Royal Society of Medicine,” a woman anything in its path, it can, by means
ninety-seven years old is mentioned, of a water-wheel, be made to do a far
who for fourteen years had worn the greater amount of work. It is due to
horn. In this case the excrescence the circumstance that we can control
appeared as one of several tu-
first the action of the battery current that
mours it was very easily moved, being
;
its use in the arts has become so im-
attached to the scalp only, and al- portant.

though was often sawn off, it always
it Galvani’s well-known experiment
grew again. Bartholme in his Epistles in which, by touching the lumbar
mentions another case which he saw nerves of a recently-killed frog with
in 1646, when the horn on a woman’s a copper wire, and the muscles with
head was twelve inches long. In a zinc wire, he caused its limbs to be
“The Natural History of Cheshire” a thrown into convulsions, may be looked
woman is spoken of who in 1668 had a wen or upon as the first contribution towards another
tumour upon her head thirty-two years, out of method of obtaining electricity. Curiously enough,
which, when she was in her seventy-second year, its author did not see its true bearing. Anxious to
two horns grew. There used to be, perhaps still establish a theory of vital energy by the aid of what
is, a specimen of a human horn in the British he called “ nervous fluid,” he attributed to the dead
Museum, taken from a woman named French, who body of the frog mysterious powers quite uncon-
lived near Tenterden. This also first appeared in nected with electricity'. It was reserved to Volta to
the form of a tumour. It was eleven inches long point out that the muscular contractions were due to
and two and a half inches in circumference when the metals used, and not to any inherent power in
Dr. Grey saw it. Many other instances are on the muscles themselves. Volta supported his opinion
record, but they are all of the same kind. by pointing to an observation which, although
There is only one instance known, so far as the made many years previously, had attracted little
writer is aware, of a man suffering from this disease. attention —
namely, that two dissimilar metals
This case was that of a German nobleman, and the placed the one above and the other beneath the
horn grew from the lowest vertebras of his back. tongue will give rise to a curious sensation in the
In the case of all the women mentioned above, mouth.
the abnormal growth was from some part of the Volta’s experiments were, in the year 1800, made
head, whence horns grow in other animals and known to the Royal Society, when he described the
;
this fact is very remarkable. apparatus which he had contriv'ed, together with
VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY. 6r
was capable. 1 he Voltaic pile, the water to the copper, and back again through,
the effects of which it
the joined wire (Fig. 2). Such an arrangement is
as it came to be called (Fig. i), consisted of a series
called a closed circuit. When the plates are once
of plates, zinc and silver alternately, each couple
more separated by releasing the joined wire, all
being separated by a piece of cloth, or parchment,
of these pairs action ceases.
moistened with brine. With twenty
the size of a As electricity is an invisible force, we can only
of plates, although they were only
sparks, could detect its presence by certain effects, which ensue
penny-piece, Volta could produce
when a
other signs of current passes through a conducting
receive an electric shock, and exhibit
electrical action. was given
Later on, the pile up medium. These effects are of various kinds, and
“ crown may be either thermal, chemical, magnetic, or
in favour of the arrangement known as the
of a series of cups, each physiological. As
an illustration of the first, we
of cups.” This consisted
containing a zinc and copper plate immersed in may instance the heating of a fine wire, when the
iTquid, the copper plate in one vessel being con- current is made to pass through it. The chemical
effects of a current are seen in its
nected with the zinc of its neigh-
power to decompose water, to de-
bour. By a brief examination of
we shall
posit metals from their solutions, &c.
one of these simple cells,
Fig. 3. — DANIELL CELL.
Fig. 2.— SIMPLE CELL.

Fig. 4. — GROVE CELL.
be better able to understand the The magnetic phenomena are

action of the various electric bat-
Fig. 5 . — GROVE BATTERY.
seen in the power of a current to
teriesnow in such general use. affect a magnetic needle placed
Ifwe immerse a clean plate of zinc in water near the wire through which it is passing and the ;
acidulated with sulphuric acid, we shall find that physiological effects are seen in that well-known
the surface of the metal is gradually corroded, and process called receiving an electric shock. These
that bubbles of hydrogen are given off. If, before various manifestations of electrical phenomena will
this action has proceeded very far, we lift the zinc receive notice in detail as we proceed.
from the acid water, and rub it with metallic mer- The simple cell, consisting of a zinc and copper
cury, we shall find that the zinc assumes a brilliant couple, or other dissimilar metals immersed in a
appearance, and that it is no longer acted upon found in practice to speedily lose
suitable fluid, is
by the acid. Plates treated in this manner are said its power. The reason of this lies in the fact that
to be amalgamated, and are then fit for use in an one of the plates becomes gradually covered with
electric battery. Taking, then, an amalgamated zinc minute bubbles of hydrogen, so that the surface
plate, and placing it in a glass or earthenware vessel exposed is practically much diminished. Plates in
containing dilute acid, together with a plate of this state are said to be polarised, and although the
copper, we can watch their behaviour. For con- power can be again renewed by brushing their
venience of attachment, each plate should have surfaces free of the bubbles, they speedily get into
soldered to it a copper wire. So long as the plates the same state. For this and other reasons the
remain separate from one another we can detect single fluid cell has now been superseded by
no change, but directly the wires attached to them batteries of a far more constant character, in which
are brought into contact, we hear a hissing noise, two fluids are employed. That invented by Pro-
and bubbles of hydrogen are given off from the fessor Daniell, and generally known as the Daniell
copper plate. Oxygen, the other constituent of the cell (Fig. 3), has, from its constancy, been always a
water in the cell, is absorbed by the zinc, and a favourite. In this arrangement the copper element,
current of electricity passes from the zinc through which it will be remembered had the hydrogen
62 I'HE WORLD OF WONDERS.
bubbles liberated upon it, is separated from the than a minute or so the current ceases. But to
zinc by a porous partition. This partition in the obviate this the carbon is packed round with a
first form of Daniel cell consisted of an ox gullet, mixture of coke and powdered binoxide of manga-
but, as now made, the Daniell cell consists of nese. The latter material slowly yields oxygen,
an outer cell of copper, which serves at the same which combines with the hydrogen formed, so that
time as the copper element, and an inner cell of after a short rest the cell is again available for
porous earthenware, P, containing a rod of amalga- work. The work of ringing bells being of an inter-
mated zinc, z. The inner cell is charged with dilute mittent character, and constantly giving the cell
sulphuric acid, while the copper vessel contains a its necessary rest, the Leclanche arrangement is
saturated solution of sulphate of copper, together specially fitted for this purpose. It will, if properly
with some crystals of the same salt,* to replace that constructed, work many months without attention.
which, by the action of the battery, is decomposed There is another form of battery, in which the
into the metallic state. In this battery the porous porous cell is dispensed with, and the two liquids
division neither stops the electricity from passing are kept apart by the heavier of the two remaining
from metal to metal, nor does it interfere with the at the lower part of the containing-vessel. These
process of decomposition, but the hydrogen, instead are known as gravitation batteries. The Daniell
of collecting upon the copper and stopping the cell has been thus modified by more than one ex-
action, as in the case of the single fluid cell, unites perimenter, but it is not necessarj' to give details of
with the oxygen obtained from the decomposition the various arrangements which they have adopted.
of the sulphate of copper, and forms water. The The liquids slowly mingle, so that the separation
copper deposited in the outer cell in the metallic
is is nev'er so perfect as when a porous pot is em-
form, so that this container of the arrangement is ployed.
always increasing in thickness. Another battery, The various forms of batteries which have been
which is deservedly a favourite with experimenters invented, and named after their contrivers, are far
where great intensity is required, as in the produc- too numerous to mention. Some are best suited for
tion of the electric light, or in the exhibition of the one purpose and some for another. The Daniell
calorific effects of the current, is the Grove cell (Fig. 4.) 1
cell is largely used for telegraphic purposes, and
In this case we have an outer cell of earthenware, the Leclanche cell for nearly all electric bells in
glass, or ebonite. A, containing a zinc plate, Z, which houses. Bunsen’s, Grove’s, and what is known as
in order to gain surface is generally bent round or the Bichromate battery, are chiefly used for ex-
into the form of the letter U. In the hollow thus periment.
formed is placed a porous cell, containing a strip of The degree to which any body is electrified is
platinum in strong nitric acid. The outer cell is filled expressed by the word “ potential,” and the ex-
with dilute sulphuric acid. In this cell the hydrogen pressions “ high potential ” and “ low potential ” are
decomposes the nitric acid, and as in the previous used in just the same manner as we should speak
case, forms water with the oxygen set free. A of two bodies of water at a high and low level. To
modification of this cell, where the platinum is carry the simile still further, we might say, in a body
replaced by a plate of carbon, is known as Bunsen’s electrified to a high potential, the electricity will,
cell, and is, on account of its cheapness when com- like water at a high level flowing towards that at a
pared with the other, often preferred. When these low level, tend to flow towards that at a low potential.
single cells are joined together, after the manner of The earth, whose surface is always to some extent
Volta’s crown of cups, they constitute a Voltaic electrified, is taken as zero for purposes of measure-
battery. Square troughs are most used, and the ment, and bodies are said to be at a higher or lower
cells are connected in the manner shown in Fig. 5. potential in comparison with it.
—
For domestic purposes that is to say, for ringing Another term, electro-motive force generally, —
the electric bells now so common in hotels and for the sake of brevity, expressed by the three
—
large houses a battery is used in which the acid letters E. M. F. —
requires a few words of explanation.
solution is replaced by a saturated solution of When it is said that the zinc andt:opper cell already
chloride of ammonia —
commonly known as sal- described produces a definite electro-motive force,
—
ammoniac. This cell is known after its inventor it is meant that the chemical action due to the
— as the Leclanche cell. It consists of an outer arrangement causes a difference of potential of a
vessel, containing the ammonia solution, immersed definite amount. We find, on examination, that the
in which is a rod of zinc. In a porous pot is a wire from one element is of higher potential than
plate of carbon, such as can be obtained from gas the other, and that the electricity flows from the
retorts. In action the zinc gradually dissolves, higher to the lower. The chemical action going
while ammonia gas and hydrogen are given off at on in the cell constantly renews the difference of
the carbon plate. This hydrogen speedily causes potential, so that the electricity is re-supplied as fast
polarisation, so that if the circuit is closed for more as it flows, and thus we have a continuous current.
SWISS LAKE DWELLINGS. 63
SWISS LAKE DWELLINGS. protected by a kind of wattle or hurdle-work,

formed of small branches and twigs. Occasionally,
While researches into the primteval history and instead of being driven into the mud, the piles
manners of the inhabitants of other parts of Europe were fixed, by means of a rude mortice and tenon
were being carried on slowly and laboriously, and arrangement, into split logs of wood lying upon the
against such difficulties as were almost insuperable, bottom of the lake and sometimes probably
; —
the discoveries made by Dr. Keller at Meilen, near owing to some difficulty in driving the piles to a
Zurich, in 1853 and 1854, were sudden and complete, sufficient depth —
it is found that large quantities of
and, as Professor Vogt has said, burst upon the stones have been brought to the spot and strewn
world like a thunderclap. In those years an ex- between and around them, in order to retain them
traordinary drought, accompanied by prolonged more firmly in their place. A boat, still laden with
cold, was experienced in Switzerland, in conse- such stones, has been discovered in the Lake of
?fuence of which the water in the lakes fell lower Bienne, serving to prove, if proof were needed,
than had ever before been known, laying bare large that these elevations are of artificial production.
expanses of shore, and exposing to view various The substructure of the fascine dwellings differs
islands, the existence of which had not previously entirely from that of the more common pile
been so much as suspected. It was in the course dwellings. It consists of various layers of wooden
of operations for the reclamation of land, under- material, brushwood, clay, and gravel, and seems
taken during these favourable circumstances, that to have been employed only in shallow lakes, or
the first discoveries of lake habitations were made when the peaty bottom would have been incapable
which have since led to such interesting results. of supporting the weight of the settlement if
Of the Swiss lake habitations there were two erected upon the ordinary piles. The labour of
kinds, described by Dr. Keller as pile dwellings and constructing these fascines must have been immense.
fascine dwellings, the latter of which resemble, to It has been conjectured that piles were first driven
some extent, those lake dwellings known in Ireland into the mud at distances of from twelve to twenty
'as crannoges. They differed principally, as far as feet apart that between these piles a layer of
;
can now be judged, not in the construction of the timber and brushwood was spread upon the surface
huts, but in the formation of the substructure upon of the lake, which, when of sufficient thickness, was
which they were erected. Examples of the pile sunk to the bottom by covering it with clay and
dwellings have been found in large numbers not gravel and that by constantly repeating this
;
only in the Lake of Zurich, but also in the Lakes of process an island was at length produced, suffi-
Bienne, Constance, Geneva, Moosseedorf, Morat, ciently raised above the level of the water to be
Neufchatel, Sempach, and in many of the smaller suitable for the erection of a settlement. The
lakes of Switzerland. The piles forming the sub- platform upon which the huts were erected was
structure were made of a large variety of woods, and simply laid upon the surface of the fascine
varied considerably in length, as would naturally be structure, and sometimes consisted only of a layer
expected when the varying depth of the water in of small straight stems, but occasionally, as in the
which they were placed is considered. They were lake of Niederwyl, of planks as much as two feet
sometimes as little as ten or eleven feet in length, in breadth, and from two to three inches in thick-
but more frequently ranged between fifteen and ness. In the pile dwellings, the piles were often
thirty feet. The lower ends are found to be pointed, four or five feet above the water, the heads being
sometimes by the agency of fire, sometimes by carefully brought to a level. Upon these the beams
means of stone hatchets, and •sometimes with the bearing the platform were placed, and were some-
help of bronze, and probably even of iron cutting times fixed with wooden sometimes by means
pins,
implements. Even thus pointed, however, it is of a rude mortice. The itself was generally
platform
marvellous how these primitive people should have of rude construction, and consisted usually of one
been able to drive the piles into the bed of the lake. or two layers of rough stems, placed parallel to one
They appear to have been placed, at least in some another occasionally, however, split planks were
;
instances, in the direction of the cardinal points, used for its construction. The platform upon which
and though generally at regular distances apart, each settlement was built seems as a rule, though
were found sometimes in pairs, and sometimes even not invariably, to have been connected with the shore
without any perceptible order. Their distance only by a single bridge supported upon piles, and
from one another varies greatly in different settle- was in some cases as much as 2,000 yards from the
ments, sometimes not more than a foot separating land, though often nearer, and sometimes within a
each pile from its neighbours, while in other places very short distance. Its surface appears to have
they are two, three, and even more feet apart. been covered with a coating of loam, clay, and
They are frequently found to have been strength- gravel, while occasionally a layer of large pebbles
ened by cross-beams below the level of the plat- formed a sort of pavement throughout its whole
form, and in many cases the outer piles were extent.
The huts varied considerably in size in different hinge, or by means of cords of leather or flax, and
—
^
localities one case they were 27 feet long and

in 1 holes have been found in these doors, indicating
22 feet broad, in another, 20 feet long and 12 feet 1
probably the use of bolts. Each hut was furnished
broad. They appear generally to have been with a hearth, consisting of three or four slabs of
arranged upon the platform with considerable stone, showing that the lake dwellers possessed the
regularity, and in some cases at least were no more comfort of an indoor fire, while the presence of
than from two to three feet apart. The framework heaps of soft hay and straw in certain localities
consisted of piles similar to those supporting the has led to the belief that their dormitories were
platform,and often shows no little skill in the thus furnished.
workmanship. The walls between the framework Such were the results of Dr. Keller’s careful in*
RESTORATION OF A TAKE SETTLEMENT NEAR THE SHORE.
were of wattle, covered with a thick coating of clay, vestigations of these Swiss lake dwellings. Of
large pieces of which, bearing the impression
still their inhabitants not much is known, but from the
of the wattle, have been discovered in a burnt state, very few human bones which have hitherto been
proving the destruction of the settlement by fire. discovered, they seem to have been of rather low
Generally there appears to have been a sort of skirt- stature, and well and delicately formed. One of the
ing-board round the outer wall of each hut, but skulls is described as closely resembling that of a-
hitherto has not been decided whether the huts

it young man of the present day in Switzerland, the
were divided into separate apartments. They were forehead being high and regularly arched, and the
almost invariably of rectangular form, though evi- brain-cavity of considerable size. That they
dence of circular dwellings has been discovered. took their rise in what has been termed the stone
From remains which occur upon different sites, they age is proved by the presence in some of the
are proved to have been thatched with coarse straw settlements of implements made of no other ma-
and reeds. They were sometimes furnished with terial. Other settlements contain only bronze
wooden doors, fixed either by a rough wooden implements, while in a great number the stone
SWISS LAKE DWELLINGS. ^>5
and metal are so mixed together as to warrant agricultural implements have occasionally been
the belief that the two periods were continuous, found. Rye appears to have been entirely un-
and presented no marked line of separation. known, but at an earlier or later period several
Nor, during this long space of time, estimated species of the commoner cereals were possessed,
at about 4,000 years, does any change appear including barley, millet, oats, and wheat, the
to have taken place in the race of the lake Egyptian wheat being amongst them. Not only
dwellers, though undoubtedly they acquired, as have large quantities of these grains been found on
time went on, such knowledge and experience as different occasions, but also fragments of bread,
rendered them immeasurably superior to many of which appears only to have been made of wheat
the savage races of the present day. There can and millet, with occasionally a slight admixture of
MODERN LAKE VILLAGE OF THE MARACAIBO INDIANS.
be no doubt that these lake settlements were linseed. It is not remarkable that few remains
really the habitations of the people, and were should have been discovered of culinary vegetables,
adopted as a means of protection themselves
for but in settlements of the stone age, peas, and later,
and their cattle against the attacks of neighbour- small beans and lentils, have occasionally been met
ing predatory tribes. Upon their platforms were with. Apples in large quantities, pears, cherries,
erected not only huts for themselves, but also sloes, raspberries, blackberries, and strawberries
stalls for domesticated animals, the excre-
their have also been found in more or less fragmentary
a
ments of cows, sheep, pigs, and goats having been condition, as well as nuts of different kinds in some
frequently met with in this situation, together with abundance.
the litter they had used. Some of the domestic animals of the lake
They must have been an essentially agricultural dwellers have already been enumerated ;
of oxen
race. found what have
In almost every hut are they possessed two varieties, and they also turned
been described as corn-crushers and mealing- to their service the horse, and
two varieties
at least
stones, the latter being almost identical with of dog ;
and mice
indications of the presence of rats
similar instruments observed by Dr. Livingstone have also been discovered, but the domestic cat
in use on the Zambesi and flails and other
;
seems to have been almost unknown, though bones
J
of the wild cat have been met with. Nothwith- artistic talent in the making of pottery by hand.
standing that they were skilled in agriculture, and It would, however, be impossible here to give any
bred their own cattle, there can be no doubt that to lengthened description of the various domestic
the chase they were largely indebted for their utensils which have been discovered. Some beauti-
means of subsistence, and the large number of ful horn cups have also been found, and, of a later
bones of the stag and the wild ox prove that these date, bronze cauldrons and other vessels, knives,
two animals were their staple article of food, while and even spoons have been met with. It is in-
the remains of other animals, birds, beasts, fishes, teresting to note that some of these metal utensils
and reptiles, have also been found in greater or less have been repaired with solder, and that a frag-
abundance. Fish were sometimes captured by means ment of an earthenware vessel has been found
of a sort of night-line, and sometiiAes in wicker which had evidently been broken and repaired
baskets, of similar construction to the eel-baskets of with asphalte.
the present day. Their fish-hooks were generally of That these people were ignorant of the art of
boars’ tusks, often very carefully worked, though in writing cannot be doubted nor has it been possible
;
later times they are found of bronze, and som.etimes to gain any insight into the nature of their religion.
of iron. From the way in which the carcases of It has, however, been proved that they were in the
the larger animals were cut up, it is supposed habit of burying their dead in tumuli upon the land,
that there must have been professed butchers, and several of these have been discovered and ex-
who used not only axes and hatchets of various amined. 1 n one of them the remains of a large number
kinds, but also saws, which at first consisted of of individuals were found, and from the position of the
pieces of flint, sometimes six or seven inches in bones it was obvious that they had been deposited in
length, and serrated upon one or both sides, but the tomb after the flesh had been removed from
were afterwards made of bronze. Besides flint them, many of the small bones of the hands and
and bronze, a large number of implements, some feet being placed within the skulls.
of very beautiful construction, were of horn, Ofthe age of these lake dwellings various esti-
bone, and jade or nephrite the presence of the
;
mates have been made. That they existed during
latter substance leading to the belief that even the ages of stone and bronze, and in some cases
at that early period the people of Switzerland must even to the subsequent age of iron, has been
have had trading relations with peoples inhabiting satisfactorily proved. These ages are, however,
those eastern countries whence alone nephrite was arbitrary divisions, indicating only the local age
then to be obtained. of the various settlements, and not their age as
Though doubtless largely indebted to the furs compared with other parts of the world and ;
and skins of various animals for their clothing, the remains of now extinct animals show as much the
lake dwellers were not wholly dependent upon this more recent date of age of the
these, as the greater
source, as they cultivated flax to a large extent, and contemporaneous human remains. It has, however,
used itnot only in the manufacture of cords and been estimated by geologists that the age of the
ropes, but also for making cloth of various qualities earliest “ stone ” settlements is about 6,000 years,
and fineness. That the weaving was
art of and that of the first of the bronze habitations about
universal in these lake settlements proved by theis 2,000 to 3,000 years, while some of these lake-
presence, in almost every hut which has been ex- dwellings were probably still inhabited far into the
amined, either of the remains of weaving-looms, or Christian era. Even as late as the last century
of clay weights for weaving, and of spinning there were on the River Limonat, in the neigh-
whorls. The cloth is generally of coarse texture, bourhood of Zurich, several fishing huts built upon
and occasionally the yarn employed was almost as the same plan — a survival, perhaps, in this limited
thick as fine string. That shoes of some kind were space, of a custom which had once been universal
worn is shown by the remarkable discovery of a throughout Switzerland.
shoemaker’s last. It is of wood, and instead of being Nor was Switzerland the only country in which
hollowed into the shape of the foot, is perfectly
. this mode of life prevailed. Numerous remains of
flat upon the sole. The shoes were probably made these lake habitations have been met with in
of untanned leather, and to them were doubtless Northern Italy and elsewhere in Europe, and Hero-
attached in the winter season the skates, made of dotus describes a Thracian tribe which, in the year
the long bones of the horse, and measuring some 520 B.C., was settled in Prasias, a small mountain
ten or eleven inches in length, which have occa- lake of Pasonia. Their huts were built upon a plat-
sionally been met with in these ancient settlements. form of planks, supported upon piles placed in the
Possibly they were reserved for this purpose alone. middle of the lake. This platform was of con-
Though indications of the use of the potter’s siderable extent, for upon it dwelt, not alone the
wheel are of rare occurrence, yet the many frag- Paeonians and their families, but also their cattle.
ments of pottery which have come to light show For their means of living they depended chiefly
that the lake men possessed great skill and no little upon the supply of fish from the lake, upon which
—
THE PHONOGRAPH. 67
strange food they are also stated to have foddered people talking, only the hoax of some one who
their horses. This aquatic settlement was adopted wanted to humbug and laugh at the entire popu-
as a protection against aggressive neighbours, and But the word was never forgotten,
lation of the city.
the inhabitants even resisted the attacks of Uarius, and it is now in common use, with a well-defined
and preserved their independence during the Per- meaning attached to it, in India, Australia, Ame-
sian invasion. In the country of the Caucasus and rica, Canada, in short, wherever the English •
throughout tlie East, particularly in the Malay language is spoken. The word was the now ex-
Archipelago, similar dwellings are still to be seen. pressive, but at first meaningless, one (2UIZ. —
They were met with by Dumont d’Urville in his
voyage of discovery to New Guinea, and still exist
in some parts of America, the City of Mexico
THE
PHONOGRAPH.
having been, at the time of its conquest by the
“Spaniards, a huge lake dwelling of not dissimilar
The endeavour to imitate vocal sounds by mecha-
nical means has been a favourite pursuit 6f inventors
construction. Our second illustration shows a lake
belonging a tribe of the
for ages. The inarticulate sounds of animals have
settlement of to-day, to
Thus, not presented an insurmountable barrier to their
Maracaibo Indians in South America.
appear,
inventive powers, and one of the best known
throughout the world primitive races after
achievements of this kind is the common cuckoo
having acquired a certain degree of civilisation, to
clock, which emits pretty faithfully the notes of the
have resorted to this mode of existence and it ;
bird every time the long finger points to twelve

was probably when civilisation became still more
on the dial-plate but for the articulate sounds of
advanced, when this mode of protection was no ;
longer needed, or no longer adequate to the times,

human speech, thoroughly effective machines were
that they deserted their fragile aquatic settlements
—
not devised notwithstanding the labours of Faber,
Kratzenstein, Kempelen, Mical, Willis, Wheat-
for more stable habitations upon land.
stone, and others —
until, in 1877, Thomas Alva
Edison invented the Phonograph.

ORIGIN OF A NEW WORD. The Phonograph is an instrument into which one
speaks while its cylinder, covered with tin foil, is
Richard Daly, proprietor of the Smock Alley revolving. The speech is, so to speak, impressed
Theatre, Dublin, in the year 1791, had an extra- on the tin foil, and by a simple process the machine
ordinary propensity for making wagers. Hearing may next be made to speak out what it may be said
an actor described in French as un fagotin, a term to have heard. The parts of the Phonograph are
for which it was argued there was no English few and simple. There is a cylinder, M, with a spiral
equivalent, a discussion arose, in the course of groove running round it. The shaft on which the
which he offered twenty guineas that within
to bet cylinder is fixed is also grooved to the same pitch,
forty-eight hours a perfectly new word should be in so that when the handle is turned round, the
the mouths of nearly all the people in Dublin, and cylinder, besides revolving, has a lateral motion,
within a week begin to be commonly used, with a which slowly carries it past the mouthpiece. This
new and definite meaning attached to it. The bet lateral motion may be caused by either a female
was accepted by Alderman Moncrieffe in combina- screw or a knife-edge acting on the groove of the
tion with three others who were present, and the shaft. The mouthpiece. A, is of some importance,
stakes were duly deposited. After the performances for it performs the function of an ear in receiving
of his theatre were over, Daly wrote a word on each sounds, and of a mouth in again uttering them. At
of a dozen or two cards, and giving one to each of the bottom of it there is a thin disc of ferrotype
the call-boys, scene-shifters, carpenters, and super- fixed at the edges, and this disc is in communica-
numeraries, with a lump of chalk, directed them to tion with a movable style of metal, so placed, that it
perambulate the city until daybreak, chalking the isalways opposite the groove of the cylinder. Before
word upon as many doors and shutters as they being used, the cylinder is covered with tin foil, and
could. The next day was Sunday, and upon the its motion is made uniform, either by means of
doors of shops, warehouses, and private dwellings, clock-work or by having a fly-wheel, V, at one end
this one word appeared, in every direction, creating of the shaft.
no little wonder and alarm. Some believed it to The power of sound to make things vibrate, as
be the watchword of a secret society, and the when the rolling notes of an organ shake the beams
signal for some unlawful slaughter-house doings ;
in the roof of a church, is well known. Here also,
some believed on first seeing it that it was a nick- when a person speaks with his mouth close to the
name for themselves all over Dublin it was talked
;
mouthpiece of the phonograph, the vibrations of the
about, discussed, and wondered at. After a few air which have been created by the voice are im-
days the general conclusion was that it meant parted to the disc of ferrotype. This disc, or drum
nothing more than a joke, a mere trick to set for it acts like the drum of the ear —vibrates, and
—

moves the style connected with it backwards and ducing s sounds. Thus when words like boys, shall,
forwards. As the cylinder covered with tin foil steady, fleece,and last were spoken against the
revolves in front of the kicking style, it is indented whole diaphragm, the hissing sounds were not
more or less, according to the nature of the sounds faithfully produced but by the use of a small hole
;
which are causing the drum and the style to vibrate. provided with sharp edges Edison found that the
Sound is then stamped on to the tin foil as a series difficulty was got over.
of minute ridges and valleys, which appear to the The phonograph is really a marvellbus machine :
naked eye as so many dots and dashes on us sur- marvellous in its simplicity and marvellous in its
face. powers. When it was first shown before the
The operation of making the phonograph give French Academy in 1878, one of the members,.
out its sounds is now a very simple one. The M. Bouilland, openly asserted that deception was
cylinder is slid back, and the point of the style is being practised, and that the results obtained must
placed in the very first dent it made in the tin foil. be the work of ventriloquists. The phonograph is,
The cylinder is now revolved as near as possible at however, a reality, and one of the most marvellous
the old rate, and the style, pressing gently against inventions of this century.
THE PHONOGRAPH.
the foil, is pushed rapidly backwards and forwards THE CHAMELEON.

by the succession of ridges and valleys passing past
its point. This causes the ferrot>q)e plate it is con- Although Chameleon does not live in this
the
nected with to vibrate again, and in vibrating it country, it isknown to most people from
well
emits similar sounds to those which were originally Merrick’s popular poem, and it is perhaps one
uttered in front of it, although, of course, very much of the most wonderful animals in the world to the
weaker. ordinary observer. It is grotesque to look upon,
By such a series of operations as we have de- with its thin legs, feet with opposable toes, scaly
scribed, one may obtain from the phonograph coat, saw-like ridge on its back, creased neck, and
either a speech or a song, yes, and even the com- a triangular head with a pyramidal prominence at
bination of several voices, as in a chorus. The the top.
sounds are, of course, not so loud as the original, Seen from a distance it appears to be feeding on
and there is even something comical in them when air, as it darts out its worm-like tongue with amaz-
they are first heard, but the individuality of the ing swiftness and that such was the case was
;
voice is perfectly recognised. The loudness of the really believed by the ancients, Pliny remarking
sounds emitted by the phonograph (or by the tele- “It always holds the head upright and the mouth
phone) may be increased by taking a sheet of stiff open, and is the only animal which receives
paper, and rolling it into a cone, with the apex of a nourishment neither by meat or drink, nor any-
sufficient size to insert into the mouthpiece. Such thing else, but the air alone.” The truth is, how-
a cone materially increases the sound, by prevent- ever, that the chameleon lives on insects, and not
ing it from spreading out to the extent it would on air. It will watch patiently until an insect is
otherwise do. Cones of different materials are only a few inches off it, and then it strikes it with
usually employed perhaps tin is as good as any.
;
its tongue, and the insect adhering to this sticky
With regard to the phonograph’s articulation, it organ is at once brought into the mouth.
was early found that it had a difficulty in repro- The most remarkable thing about a chameleoa
THE CHAMELEON 69
CHAMELEONS
power of changing colour, under the influence

is its able energy, or walks rapidly away with its body
of rage, and variously-coloured lights.
fear, Mr. leaning over in the direction farthest from the
H. M. Middleton, who had five chameleons in snake, opening huge cavernous mouth, hissing,
its
captivity, recently made the following notes of their and even snapping at what it evidently regards as
behaviour :
—
“ When a large Algerian chameleon its natural enemy. At the same time its body
[Chameleon vulgaris) now in my possession,” says assumes an almost instantaneous change of colour,
he “perceives a common snake wriggling in its and is quickly covered with a large number of
vicinity, it at once inflates its body and pouch, small dark brown spots. It is curious that similar
sways itself backwards and forwards with consider- symptoms of fear and anger are displayed when a
—

lizard {Lacerta viridis\ or even a tree-frog {Hyla Hindostan, and Ceylon. There are a great many
arborea) is them. The climax of species, the best known being the common
exhibited to
grotesque nervousness was, however, reached one chameleon {Chameleon viily;arts), which is found in
day, when the sight of a child’s doll produced the Southern Asia and Northern Africa. It soon dies
like effect in this case it is probable that the glass in England, but will live in the warmer southern
;
eyes of the doll giving to it the appearance of life countries of Europe.

were what caused this terror in the reptile.”
This colour-change in the chameleon is a curious
one, and has given rise to many surmises in ancient SPEAKING IN UNKNOWN TONGUES.
times, and investigations in these days, as to its
cause. Aristotle thought the colour-change was In 1831 public attention was called to some extra-
caused by the chameleon inflating itself with air, ordinary doings at Port Glasgow, where it was said
and it is only comparatively recently that natural- the gift of speaking in “ unknown tongues ” had
ists have begun to attribute the change to the fallen upon a family of great piety and respecta-
working of the emotions and passions of the bility named Macdonald, and was fast spreading
animal. Milne-Edwards has shown that what- to others. Mr. Cardale, of Bedford Row, London,
ever the exciting cause may be, the colour-change visited Port Glasgow, and stayed there three weeks,
is only rendered possible by
presence of for the purpose of investigating the case, attend-
the
two layers of pigments m ing regularly private meetings, which took place
differently- coloured
the skin, capable of displacing each other, or of every evening. After reading from the Bible and
appearing simultaneously at the surface the praying, addresses were delivered by some of those
;
colour of course varying with the amount of dis- present, several being spoken, or rather chanted, in
placement, etc. And M. Bert has recently made a perfectly unknown language. Mr. Cardale said:
experiments showing the effect of variously-coloured “ The tongues spoken by all the several persons
lights, and of the agitation of sections of nerves on who had received the gift are perfectly distinct in
the colour-change. Thus a chameleon was placed themselves and from each other. J. Macdonald
under the influence of coloured sun-light, red light speaks two tongues, both easily discernible from
being made to fall on the fore part of the body, each other. I easily perceived when he was speak-
and blue light on the hind part. Its body seemed ing in one tongue, and when in the other tongue..
divided into two portions, the anterior part being J. Macdonald exercises his gift more frequently
of a clear green with red spots and the posterior of than any of the others and I have heard him ;
a darkish green. Again, the spinal cord of a speak for twenty minutes together, with all the
chameleon was cut into at two places, and upon energy of voice and action of an orator addressing,
exciting at one point the portion which led to the an audience. The language which he then and,, —
hind part of the body, and at the other that portion indeed, generally uttered is very full and har- —
which led to the head and brain, &c., it was found monious, containing many Greek and Latin radi-
i
that the part of the body between the nerves, cals, and with inflections also, much resembling
j
which had not been excited, remained of a dark those of the Greek language. I also frequently
|
tint, while the fore and hind parts, to which the noticed that he employed the same radical with
!
excited portions of the cord sent off ramifications, different inflections, but 1 do not remember to
became of a clear green. have noticed his employing two words together,
In the natural state the chameleon changes its both of which, as to root and inflection, I could pro-
colour to some extent so as to make it correspond nounce to belong to any language with which I am
|
with its surroundings. Thus a chameleon which was acquainted The only time that I evêr had a
seen walking on the top of a dark old wall at Ephesus serious doubt whether the unknown sounds which
was noticed to change its colour as soon as it got I had heard were parts of a language was when
on to one of the blocks of white marble with which the Macdonald’s servant spoke during the first
the wall was here and there varied. It appeared evening. When she spoke on subsequent occasions
to accommodate itself at once to the altered nature it was invariably in one tongue, which was not only
of the material it was walking over, becoming as perfectly distinct from the sounds she uttered at
near the same tint as it was possible for the animal. the first meeting, but w'as satisfactorily established,
By similarly assuming the tints of the foliage to my conviction, to be a language.”
among which it may be moving, it is supposed to It is not necessary to attribute conscious decep-
keep out of sight of its enemies, and at the same tion to those who take part in such manifestations,
time insects may be deceived into coming within which have appeared during many periods of ex-
the length of the animal’s tongue, when they fall a citement. Self-deception, it is probable, is more
prey to it. commonly the case. But Mr. Cardale was, it is te
The chameleons are widely distributed, being be feared, very easily satisfied, and scarcely com-
found in Southern Europe, Africa, Asia Minor, petent to deal with the matter.
——
EXTRAORDINARY SYMPATHIES. 71
EXTRAORDINARY SYMPATHIES. and although it seemed likely that she might never
see him again, she knew she would, and dreaded
We read and hear continually of unaccountably sin- his coming, for, said she, “ I don’t like him, and he
gular sympathies which have leaped into being will be my husband.” They have been married
between individuals who, meeting for the first more than twenty years, and we have private
time, have recognised, as it were, each other’s reasons for believing that she did and does like
thoughts and feelings. Mr. J. G. Millingen, M.D., him very much indeed.
M.A., in the second edition of his work on “ Medical It was an attempt to govern these mysterious
Experience” tells a story of this, which runs as sympathies between the sexes which originated a
follows : superstitious belief in the guarding power of charms,
“A brother officer of mine was a man of taciturn amulets, love-philters, and magic potions. That a
and retired habits, seldom frequenting public places sympathetic fondness could be transmitted at will,
of amusement, and, when doing so, feeling any- ! from one person to another, by the use of certain
thing but gratification. He was, however, one |
substances, is a theory of great antiquity not yet
evening after dinner prevailed upon to go to a ball. ! altogether exploded. In Italy, Portugal, and Spain,
We had not been long in the room when, to my \
a belief in their potency is still to be found. Plato
utter surprise, he expressed great admiration of a warned the husbands of antiquity to guard their
|
young lady who was dancing and what still more

; j
wives against the influence of such secret enemies.
amazed us all, he engaged her to dance. Such an ]
Virgil mentions them as genuine sources of power,
act struck us all as a singularity only to be accounted '
and by the laws of the Twelve Tables the practice

for by an unusual indulgence at table, although we of such enchantments was made punishable by
knew him to be habitually abstemious. We were death. When the bride of Marc Antonius fell
unjust to him. The dance was scarcely over before, passionately in love with an actor, it was supposed
with a look of utter despondency, he told me that that she was under the influence of a love-charm,
his lovely partner was a married woman. The air to counteract which a potion was administered to
of deep grief with which he addressed me was her containing some of the comedian’s blood.
truly ludicrous. A few minutes after he left the Petrarch tells a story of Charlemagne being com-
ball-room. His strange conduct awakened doubts pelled to love a fair dame who carried the charm
of his sanity. I was alarmed, and he confirmed my w'hich controlled him to her will under her tongue,
melancholy impression of his mental condition where it was found some time after her death. Its
when he told me, on the following morning, that he removal destroyed the bond, and not before it was
was satisfied that he would be married to the object taken away could the great king be induced to part
of his sudden affection, whose husband was a young with her embalmed and magnificently-coffined body.
and healthy clergyman in the neighbourhood. From that time forth Charlemagne regarded
Here matters rested, and we both went abroad. everything that reminded him of her with horror.
We did not meet until three years after, when, to .St. Jerome, in the “ Life of Hilarius,” mentions a
my utter surprise, I found that his prediction had similar case.

been verified. The lady’s husband had died These marvellous potions for the creation of
through a fall from his horse.” unnatural composed of curious
sjanpathies were
The strangeness of this story is increased by the ingredients. Mandrake-roots, the clothes of the
additional fact, that precisely thesame impression j
dead, one particular hair plucked from the tail of
was made at the same time on the mind of the a wolf, the heart of a swallow and a dove’s heart
lady, who, on returning from the ball, told her sister, reduced to dust, donkeys’ brains, vipers’ tongues,
with deep emotion, that she had danced with a gen- and a vast number of other things, including nail-
tleman who was a complete stranger to her, and was scrapings and chopped hair.
convinced that she would some day become his wife. By what means the serpent-charmers exercise
The conviction long embittered her life, for the im- venomous snakes is a mystery still
1
control over
pression, despite all her efforts, could not be remo\'ed. unexplained. The power has existed from remote
.•\nother instance of this kind, for the truth of times, and whether it is natural or artificial cannot
which we can vouch, may be found in the following be confidently said. The ancient Cyrenaica being
facts :
infested with poisonous snakes, it was found that
.•\n artist and novelist, stilla in harness, visited one tribe, the Psylli, were able by the mere effort
house on business, where he was ushered into a them harmless. Cato is said
of their will to render
parlour and introduced to those present amongst — to have carried some of them with his army when
others to a near-sighted bashful young lady, who he pursued Juba into the Cyrenaica desert, to protect
was so busy with needlework that all he saw of her the soldiers. Bruce is responsible for the statement
was the parting of her fair hair. When he had that in the kingdom of Sennar the blacks exercise
gone she asked her aunt who the visitor was, and the same influence neither scorpion nor viper
;
what he was like ? She was afraid to look at him, would bite them.
THE “ELEVATED” RAILWAYS OF terranean conduits had to be diverted and re-
arranged no expensive house property had to be
NEW YORK. acquired
;
and no difficulties of lighting and

;
ventilating had to be surmounted. On the other

Though the extent and population of the great hand, the railways, though as light and ornamental
American metropolis are far inferior to those of in character as the exigencies of their construction
London, yet the inhabitants of the former city have, admitted, cannot be considered as an improvement
like those of the latter, felt the pressing necessity to the appearance of the city streets, although at
of some means of communication which should some points effects of a certain picturesqueness are
NEW YORK ELEVATED RAILWAY.
afford greater facilities than those by

offered net wholly absent. It is also admitted that the
ordinary road traffic. This need, satisfied in London aerial railways, in spite of their elevated position,
by the system of “Under-ground Railways,” of which produce a certain amount of inconvenience in
we gave an account at page 52, has been met in New crossing the narrower streets, and that the noise
York by the singularly contrasting expedient of caused by the passage of the trains alarms the
“Aerial Railways,” constructed along the principal horses in the roadways beneath.
streets, and raised at a considerable height above The details of construction of the aerial system
their level. In some respects this system compares do not offer any particularly interesting features,
favourably with that of the subterranean lines so and our illustrations amply indicate their chief
successfully adopted in London and in certain points. It only remains to add that, in order to
Continental towns. The whole line, as well as the prevent the possibility of a train running off the
covered stations and platforms, erected, like the line rails, a strong beam is in some parts of the line
itself,on columns and girders, is light, airy, and firmly fixed outside and a few inches above the
free from dust, and the cost of construction was of rail, while in the newer portions of the railway the
course very much less than that of an under-ground beam is placed inside the lines of the rails, and the
railway. No sewers, water-pipes, or other sub- outside is guarded by a strong wooden framework.
NKW YORK EI.EVATP:n RATEWAYS. 73
As in the case of one of the earliest railways from economical alternative, the charges being i dollar
London (the London and Blackwall line), the first (4J. 2ci.) for the first two miles, and i dollar per hour
“elevated” railway in New York, though con- if hired by time.

structed nearly forty years later, was to have been A
glance at a map of New York reveals some
worked by a stationary engine and cable, but this striking peculiarities. In the first place, it is seen
plan was abandoned for the ordinary system of that the city is built chiefly upon an irregularly-
locomotives, constructed, however, on a smaller shaped island 13^ miles in length, and 24 in width
scale than usual. As on most American lines, the in its widest parts. Its area is nearly 22 square
carriages are of considerable length, entered at miles, and it lies about north-east and south-west,
either end, and mounted on a pair of “ bogie- in the direction of its length. The second striking
trucks,” small frameworks placed at the ends of feature is the great regularity of the streets, which
BATTERY STATION ON THE NEW YORK ELEVATED RAILWAY.
the carriage, each carrying two pairs of wheels, and are almost invariably perfectly straight, and cross
both turning freely, like the lock of an ordinary one another exactly at right angles, so that the
four-wheeled vehicle. By this arrangement much whole town is cut up into a multitude of rectangular
sharper curves can of course be passed than by the blocks of buildings. Most of the roadways run-
ordinary form of carriage. The system of fares is ning across the island retain the name of streets,
simple, being limited to a charge of 10 cents {^d.) and are numbered, while those traversing the
for any distance, except between the hours of 5 and 8 island lengthwise are called “ Avenues,” and are
a.m., and of 4.30 and 7.30 p.m., when the fare is 5 also numbered. There are twelve of these num-
cents. This is tolerably cheap for long distances, bered “Avenues,” and no less than 190 of the
but for short distances the tramways are, no doubt, numbered streets. The general plan of the Aerial
preferred. The charge by tram is also uniform, Railways of New York will now be better under-
but is one-half the figure named above. The cost stood when we say that they all start from the
of travelling by train or tram in New York is south-western end of the island, and diverging
therefore only a little dearer than in London but ;
more or less from one another in direction,
the use of cabs does not by any means offer an traverse its whole length by passing chiefly along
the “ Second,” “ Third,”“ Sixth,” and “ Ninth ” I
PRODIGIES OF SLEEP.
“Avenues,” with numerous branches along the
cross “ streets,” and occasional changes from one There is a case, read before a society of phy-
avenue to another ;
while in the central part of sicians in 1756, and recorded in “The Philo-
the city there are, for a distance of five miles, two sophical Transactions,” of a woman named Eliza-
parallel lines of Elevated Railways, only 250 yards beth Orvin who never, for ten years, slept less
apart. than seventeen hours out of each four-and-twenty ;
It will thus be seen that these lines are as and who in 1738 slept through four successive
different from London’s Under-ground Railways days. Ur. Brady says some very strange methods
in plan as they are in their mode
their general were resorted to for the purpose of arousing her,
of construction. In fact, while Ve pass under- such as rubbing her bare back with honey and
ground our American cousins pass overhead, and exposing it to bees, running pins into her flesh,
while we surround our town
as with a girdle they and flagellating her, etc. When awake she was
traverse almost “ as the crow flies,” in
theirs sullen and surly. Another case mentioned in the
more senses than one. It would, of course, be same pages is that of a lady twenty-three years of
nearly impossible for Londoners to follow the plan age, in perfect health, who on the night before the
adopted in New York. The irregular, and in many day on which she had promised to witness a pain-
places narrow and tortuous, streets of London ful surgical operation performed upon a dear
would render “Aerial” Railways a practical im- friend, went to bed with her fears and imagination
possibility, and it is doubtful whether they would so highly excited and hysterics
that convulsions
be tolerated even in our widest roadways. In supervened, followed by a profound sleep which
New York, however, their success has been re- continued sixty-three hours. Several of the most
markable. Four years ago, scarcely nine miles of eminent physicians of the day being called in
these railways were completed, and at the present consultation she was cupped. This awoke her, but
time nearly twenty-six miles are in operation ;
whilst the hysterical and convulsive effects returned, fol-
in addition to these “aerial” lines. New York lowed again by a long sleep which, with some few
possesses between fourteen and fifteen miles of short intermissions, lasted a fortnight. After this
ordinary railway, constructed chiefly on a level or she slept as naturally as before for twelve months,
in cutting. and then, with no apparent cause, the extra-
The need ample supply of railway accom-
for this ordinary long periods of sleep returned, and con-
modation is by no means evident if the mere tinued irregularly for ten or twelve years, the
population of the city itself be the only question periods of each sleep varying from thirty to forty
considered. The census of 1880 gives the popula- hours, but steadily diminishing until she was again
tion as 1,206,500, but this figure conveys almost well and slept naturally. Following her recovery
as erroneous an idea of the importance of New came restlessness and irritability, followed by three
York as would be derived from a census confined months of total sleeplessness ending in madness.
to the “City” of London. Dealing with New After the expiration of precisely six months the
York and the adjacent localities on the same plan long sleeping fits returned, but were regular in
as that usually applied to London, the population their coming, and their duration, each generally
of the former city would be found to be nearer lasting forty-eight hours and always beginning a «
2,500,000. The localities alluded to are nofmerely few minutes after midnight. Her reason had
residential, and are all accessible by a large number then returned. She had a great horror of attempt-
of ferries and a very few bridges. Again, the im- ing to keep herself awake.
portance a commercial point of view of this, the
in Another case resembling the above is the better-
chief port of the United States, may be estimated known one of Elizabeth Perkins, who lived at
from the facts that about three-fifths of the entire Morley St. Peter in Norfolk. She at first only
foreign commerce of the States passes through the awoke for one day in every seven, but after a con-
port, and that about 20,000 vessels arrive and siderable time the periods of sleep became irre-
depart each year. gular and precarious, and although shorter in

Considering these circumstances, it is not surpris- duration, were, while they lasted, equally profound,
ing that New York should possess, in addition to the defying all attempts either to keep her awake at
railways described above, a complete system of first or to avv'aken her afterwards. Various experi-
tramways, or, as they are called on the spot, “ street ments were vainly tried, and on one occasion an
railways.” The latter, however, are much more itinerant quack who was consulted pronounced the
numerous, there being no less than twenty-six, sleep a counterfeit one, and the patient a prodigy of
seventeen of which run across, and nine along the obstinacy instead of sleepiness. However, the
island, while there are also seven branches in rascal professed ability to work a cure, whether it
various directions. The railways are, however, by was real or false, and blew into the poor creature’s
far the most striking feature of the traffic. nostrils the powder of white hellebore, which is a
A REMARKABLE SILVER MINE. 75
terribly His patient remained
strong stimulant. According to this, as quoted in credulous old
insensible inhumanity of the act, which
to the Wanley’s “ Wonders,” the inhabitants of Lukomoria
dreadfully excoriated the skin of her nose, lips, and sleep through their intensely) cold winters “ after
face. the manner of swallows and frogs.” Fernelius
There is in the British Museum, amongst the speaks of one who was mad and who slept for
rare pamphlets preserved there, one giving an fourteen months.
account of “ The sleepy man awakened of his five In the reign of Henry VIII., a pot-maker named
days’ dream being a most strange and wonderful
;
William Foxley fell asleep on Tuesday in Easter
true account of one Nicholas Heart, a Dutchman, week, says Wanley, “ and could not be awakened
a patient of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital in West with pinching or burning, till the first day of the
Smithfield, who sleeps five days every August. next term, which was full fourteen days and when ;
The title-page goes on to declare, in the curious he was then awakened he was found in all points
^shion of those days, how the lad’s mother on the as if he had slept one night.”
first of August fell asleep for five days immediately
before his birth, which wakened her and then pro- ;
ceeds to narrate of him the fact that “ as soon

as he was born he sleeped for five days and five A REiMARKABLE SILVER MINE.
nights together with the true dream which he
;
and his mother dreamt every year alike. But In the sixteenth century an Indian peasant was
what is more particular than all the rest, he pursuing wild goats up the sides of the Cerro de
gives an account of one Mr. William Morgan, Potosi, a mountain in Bolivia, South America, a
who he saw hurried to a dismal, dark, castle ;
little over 16,000 feet high. Coming to a more
and one Mr. John Palmer; he saw him going than ordinarily steep place, he laid hold of a shrub
into a place of bliss (these two men were patients while climbing, to prevent himself from falling.
in the hospital, and dyed while in his sleep).” The shrub gave way, and Diego Hualca fell but ;
\ Amongst numerous records of such remarkable in falling, his quick eyes took note of the fact that
sleeping, ancient and modern, are that mentioned in uprooting the shrub he had laid bare a rich
by Platerus of one who slept soundly through three mass of silver. The discovery was not long in
successive days and nights that mentioned by
;
oo'iing out, and 1545 mining operations were
in
Aristotle of a nurse who every year would hide commenced. The Spaniards were quick to take
herself away in some place, where she fell into a advantage of this new source of wealth, and a city
deep sleep, which continued two months and the ;
reared its head in close proximity to the mines on
young scholar of Lubeck mentioned by Crantius as the mountain-side, with a population of adventurers
one who, in the time of Pope Gregory XL, hid him- which in about fifty years from the discovery
self in a box behind a wall to sleep, and w'as found numbered 160,000.
in it, still asleep, seven years after, long after it had The Cerro de Potosi is now perfectly honey-
been believed that he had gone away to his own combed, having, it is said, no less than 5,000 open-
country. On being awakened the young man said ings into it. The value of the silver which has been
it seemed to him that he had slept but one night obtained from it since 1556 is nearly ;^25o, 000,000
and part of the day. This case may easily have sterling. The mines are now nearly exhausted,
been a mere hoax. Marcus Damascenus mentions and the town of Potosi only contains about 23,000
a German rustic who went to sleep under a hay- inhabitants. Its main source of wealth has gone,
rick, and being very weary, did not wake all through and the town generally has now a ruinous aspect.
the following autumn and winter and Pliny has
;
told us how Epimenides, the Gnossian or Cretan

boy, being hot and weary, went to sleep in a cavern —
A Wedding in the Air. At five o’clock in the
and remained asleep for fifty-seven years He ! afternoon of October 19th, 1874, an immense con-
seems to have been the original Rip Van Winkle ; course of people assembled in the city of Cincinnati,
for returning home to his native village, he was Ohio, to witness the ascent of a bride and bride-
terribly perplexed by the wonderful changes groom in a balloon to be married in the air by a
wrought there, and by recognising his little baby clergyman who ascended with them, and delivered
brother in a feeble old man. The old-world pro- an address to the crowd before the machine was
verb concerning the sleep of Epimenides came set free. The couple were horse-riders in a circus,
from him. We need hardly add to these ancient and the idea was, no doubt, that of combining
prodigies that of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, business with pleasure, since hundred.s 'vould be
whose story is so well known but the case men- ; curious to see them in the circus .xfter their
tioned by King Henry HI., to which that monarch marriage, who, before that remarkable event took
was an eye-witness in Poland when with other place would only regard them with the ordinary
princes and noble personages, may not be so familiar. amount of curiosity due to their skill as riders.
76 THE WORLD OF WONDERS
WONDERFUL RAINBOWS. higher than some cirro stratus clouds which were
seen in front of it.
.A. RAINBOW with neithersun nor moon visible ;
a bow More interesting is the case of reflected bows,
stretching across between the two usual bows and inasmuch as Science, which at times criticises its
them ;
sister. Art, has
and the image of an found fault with the
unseen rainbow in way which re-
in
the water, are such flected rainbows
very unusual ap- have often been
pearances that one represented on can-
may call them won- vas. What these
derful on account images water
in the
of their rarity alone, are like, will be
for it is seldom apparent from a
given to a man to perusal of a minute
see such sights account of a few
more than once in observations. On
his lifetime. February' 2, 1874,
We shall confine Mr. George Dawson
ourselves here to saw a reflected bow
a brief description at Balbriggan in
of these wonderful Ireland. The two
rainbows, thus legs of the aerial
making up in a bow seemed but a
poor way for the few hundred yards
want of a sight of from the observer,
them, which most and a reflection of
of us will have to a bow w’as seen in
submit to, and we the water. The
may also, in pass- latter was evidently
ing, point out the REFLECTED RAINBOW. not an image of the
surprising features l)Ow in the air, as
of each case. the two bows were
To see an or- not feet to feet.
dinary rainbow, The reflected bow

either solar or lunar, appeared to be
the light of the sun lying inside the
or moon is required, other, the red of
and one or other the one commenc-
of these sources of ing where the violet
light mostly occu- rays of the other
pies a prominent po- disappeared. Mr.
sition in the heavens Wm. Crookes, the
at the time. It is physicist, has re-
not a little curious, corded a somewhat

therefore, to hear similar observation,
of a rainbow pro- made on August 6,
duced by the sun’s 1877. He was

light after that lu- standing at the end
minary had set. of Eastbourne Pier
Such a phenome- looking towards the
non was seen at sea. Behind him
Whitby, on the th 1 1 the sun was low on
NON-CONCENTRIC BOW, SEEN BY PROFESSOR TAIT,
the horizon, but
of August, 1855, by
Mr. C. P. Knight. shining brightly,
On this day a rainbow was observed at 7.30 p.rn., and overhead and out to sea rain was falling
while the sun was yet above the horizon. The sun from somewhat broken masses of clouds. In front
set at-7.44 p.m., but, strange to say, the rainbow was a brilliant primary or inner rainbow formed a
visible for full four minutes afterwards, extending complete semi circle, the two ends apparently
WONDERFUL RAINBOWS. 77
resting on the sea, and outside this there was a the lower and broader reaches of the Hardanger
secondary or outer bow shining with considerable Fiord on a steamboat, he saw a bright reflected
intensity. The sea was calm, but its surface was by rainbow without the usual prismatic colours. The
no means glassy, being ruffled over with minute water was almost tranquil, and a brilliant aerial bow
wavelets. Reflected from the surface of the sea, appeared upon a heavy shower of rain which was
and extending in a broken curved line from the falling on the farther side of the fiord. The image
extremities of the rainbows nearly up to the pier, seen in the water was a very peculiar one, for it
there was an apparent complete reproduction of the was whitish, and consisted of a broad and nearly
colours in the sky. That it was not really a case straight streak of confused light extending from the
of reflection of the aerial bows was evident from base of one side of the bow to within twenty yards
the fact here again seen, that the feet of the primary of the steamer, where the reflection rather suddenly
NON-CONCENTRIC AND EXTRA BOWS SEEN AT NYA, SWEDEN, IN 1875.
and secondary bows in the air did curved off in an awkward, sickle-like form, and
not correspond
completely with the feet of the primary and was soon abruptly lost. The whitish colour of this
secondary bow images in the water. The diameter reflection was due to the minute ripples on the
of the reflected bows seemed less than those of the surface of the water causing an over-lapping of the
aerial bows. colours and therefore a mixture of them before they
Mr. Robert Sabine, commenting subsequently on reached the eye. Shortly before his unfortunate
the foregoing observations, showed how it was death. Professor Jevons saw a reflected rainbow
possible to obtain reflected bows artificially, and under more perfect conditions. He was standing
remarked that those reflected bows he saw were on the flat wet sands of the sea-shore, when he
always apparently smaller in diameter than the observed the image of a rainbow on the wet sands
real bows which were visible at the same time from almost perfect both as regards form and colour. In
the same position. passing we may remark, that an artist unacquainted
Another observation of a reflected bow made by with the science of the matter would be disposed
the late Professor Stanley Jevons is worthy of to make the feet of the aerial bow correspond
mention here. In 1880, while proceeding up one of with the feet of the reflection, just as he makes
the feet of a bridge correspond with those of the Hampshire, July 9th, 1792. Both fragments sprang
reflected bridge in the water. The two cases are, from the right legs of the usual inner and outer
however, entirely different, and it will suffice for us bows, and their lengths were very evidently limited
to say here, that when a reflected bow is seen, its by the extent of sea-surface reflecting the sun’s
feet do not correspond with the feet of an aerial rays. Perhaps one of the most remarkable cases
bow the same observer may see at the time. To is that represented in our third illustration, in which
put it in another way, if a person sees a rainbow it is it be noted that between the ordinary inner and
will
impossible for him to see the image of the self-same j
outer bows there are the legs of a bow non-concen-
bow reflected in the water. Herein lies the marvel *
tric with both. This splendid sight was seen at

of the observations we have described. The i
Nya, Kopparberg, in Sweden, by M.* Gumoelius, on
extreme rarity of the phenomena arises from there June 19th, 1875, arid if is remarkable that similar
being such a conjuncture of circumstances required bows have been recorded in Sweden on several
before a reflection can be seen ;
for the observer occasions. In this case, besides the non-concentric
must be in a suitable position with regard to the bow, several supplementary concentric bows were
reflecting surface, there must be a brilliant sun, and seen, as shown in the engraving.
a tranquil sheet of water. A fragment of a very curious non-concentric bow
j
The same combination of conditions is required was seen in 1665 at Chartres by M. Estienne. The
before one can see the remarkable non-concentric
bows which we shall next describe. It is a curious
fact in connection with such non-concentric bows,
that when they are seen the sun is generally at a
very low altitude, as a rule not more than ten
degrees above the horizon. The slanting rays of
the sun being then reflected from the water in
great quantity, produce rainbows higher up in
the heavens than those that are made by the
sun’s direct rays, and the two systems of bows,
those produced by the direct rays and those pro-
BOW SEEN BV M. ESTIENNE.
duced by the reflected rays, consequently intersect
each other. The complete non-concentric bow is
seldom seen, for it is requisite the observer should sun was about six degrees above the horizon, and
have a calm reflecting surface of water extending there was the river close by, which was presumably
in front, around, and behind him. But as an the reflecting surface. The curious feature of this
observer is generally standing on land with a observation was that the fragment of non-concentric
river or arm of the sea behind, before, or to one bow is described as not springing from either foot
side of him, only a fragment of a bow is seen, of the primary, their relative positions being as in
the particular part observed depending of course the annexed engraving.
upon the position of the reflecting surface. A Other wonderful rainbows, or perhaps more
fragmentary bow was seen on September nth, correctly, mist-bows^ have been seen on rare occa-
1874, hy Professor Tait, at St. Andrews. The sions. Aeronauts and mountaineers have observed
reflecting surface was to the left of the observer, them of a completely circular form, when they have
and for some distance nearly parallel to the direc- happened to be in elevated positions. A some-
tion of the sun’s rays, and consequently there was what similar phenomenon is sometimes observed
only one leg of the non-concentric bow seen, and- by the boatmen of Lake Superior when there is
that was the left one. a low-lying fog on the water, and a brilliant sun
Non-concentric bows have been seen at overhead. On such occasions an iridescent halo
various times during the last two hundred years. surrounds the shadow of the observer’s head, but is
One of the most perfect was observed by Halley, generally of a simply circular form.
the astronomer, on August 6th, 1698, between six A very remarkable mist-bow or fog-bow of this
and seven p.m., as he was standing by the Dee. It sort was witnessed by Mr. Edward Whymper, in
appears to have been a very perfect specimen of a descending the Matterhorn, immediately after the
non-concentric bow, extending in an unbroken arch disastrous accident w’hich signalised his first ascent
from the feet of the inner bow to the summit of the in 1865, and is figured as well as described in his
outer or secondary bow. The order of colours in work in this case the circular bows were accom-
:
this non-concentric bow was the same as in the panied by straight, perpendicular, iridescent lines,
primary so that where it appeared to overlap the which appeared by their intersections with the
;
secondary bow there was a portion of a white arch. bow's to produce figures in the form of a cross.
Dr. Sturges saw the fragments of two non-con- These modifications have several times been seen
centric bows off Alverstoke, on the sea-coast of in fog-bows.
FISH AND FROG PARENTS. 79
FISH AND FROG PARENTS. sufficient to arrest attention. The male Sea Horse
possesses a pouch on the under surface of his body,
A HIGH authority on all matters relating to the in which the eggs are hatched, and in which the
structure and history of fishes relates that young reside for sometime. There appears to be a
“instances of the female taking care of her progeny strong attachment between the parent and the
are extremely scarce in fishes.” On the other hand, young, for it has been related that the young
cases in which the male fish attends to the wants swim and out of the pouch, and that when the
in
and cares of the offspring are tolerably common. parent has been captured and held over the side
Only two examples are known in which the mother of the boat, the young, which had previously es-
fishes tend their young. These instances are seen caped into the water, again entered the pouch.
in the fishes known to naturalists under the names The Pipe Fishes — so named from their elongated
^spredo and Solenostoma. The former fishes jaws, which form a pipe-like snout — possess a pouch
belong to the group known familiarly as “ Cat similar in its nature to that of the Sea Horses. An
Fishes.” Their habitat is Guiana, and the pecu- American naturalist, Mr. Lockwood, is of opinion
liarity observable in their care of the young is not that in addition to its function of protecting the
only in itself remarkable, but is also allied in some young, the pouch in the Sea Horses also discharges
degree to the similar care exhibited by certain a nutritive function. He believes, as the result of
species of the frog class, to be hereafter noted. observations made in the development of these
When the time of egg-laying approaches, the skin fishes, that the inside of the pouch affords nourish-
on the lower surface of the Aspredo becomes soft, ment in some way to the young. If this observation
and assumes a spongy consistence. The eggs are should prove to be correct, it will place the Sea
deposited in this soft skin after they have been laid, Horses in a still nearer relationship to those
by the mother-fish pressing upon them. Here the quadrupeds which, like the Kangaroos, protect
young are carried during the whole period of their young within a pouch, and also nourish them
hatching. When they are fully developed, they whilst so protected.
'escape from the maternal integuments, and the More extraordinary still, in respect of the pecu-
skin of the parent resumes its normal condition. liarities of parental habits, are the cases of those
The second example of the care of the offspring fishes which carry the eggs, and hatch them, with-
by the mother-fish occurs in the group Solenostoma^ in their mouths. Certain fishes belonging to the
which, curiously enough, belongs to a division of genus Arius, for example, illustrate this habit,
fishes including the Sea Horses {Hippocampi) and these fishes being allied to the “ Cat Fishes.” The
Pipe Fishes {Syn^nathidce), in which the males eggs are carried about by the fishes in their mouths,
attend to the interests of the young. These fishes and appear to be safely lodged during the period
occur in the Indian Ocean. The cradle for the of hatching in the large and capacious pharynx., or
young in this case is formed by the two ventral hinder part of the mouth-cavity.
or “ belly fins,” which at the proper season unite Another well-known instance of a like habit is
with the skin of the body so as to form a long and furnished by the fishes of the genus Chromis, from
capacious pouch. In this pouch the eggs are con- the Sea of Galilee. These fishes in the same way
tained and hatched and it would further appear
; carry the eggs in their mouths, and thus hatch the
that within this pouch there are developed long young ;
and it is interesting to note that a similar
thread-like processes, which spring from the fins in or analogous practice is witnessed in certain frogs,
question. The use of these threads appears to be to be presently described.
that of the attachment of the eggs, and possibly Within the class of the frogs, toads, and newts,
some nutritive function may be also discharged or that of the Amphibia, we discover still better
by these organs. It is evident, at any rate, that marked cases, in which the young are protected in
in such fishes a special provision is made for the fashions at once curious and interesting. The case
welfare of the young and this of a character
: of the fish Aspredo, for instance, is almost exactly
even more perfect and pronounced than is seen paralleled by that of a curious toad found in Suri-
in the previous e: ample. That it should be so nam, and named accordingly the Surinam Toad, or
in one of the rare cases of maternal care is very Pipa Americana. It is the female frog which
interesting. assumes parental duties, and at the breeding
The
care of the offspring in fishes by the males season the skin of the back becomes of soft and
findsample illustration in the groups of the Sea spongy texture. The male frog takes the eggs
Horses and Pipe Fishes already mentioned. The which have been laid by the mother frog, and
Sea Horses are well known as denizens of our presses them into the spongy skin of her back, so
aquaria their heads curiously resembling those
; that each egg becomes imbedded within a little
of horses in shape, and the lithe bodies swimming extemporised cavity of the skin. Here the eggs
upright in the water, together with the flexible tail, undergo development. The tadpole stage, which,
constitute a combination of characters more than as all readers know, is passed outside the egg,
8o THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
and in the ponds and pools in the case of the 1
of eggs are seized by the male frog, who twines them
common frog and others of its passed
race, is round his thighs, and retires into some shady nook,
within the egg in the case of the Surinam Toad. Here he remains until the period arrives at which
The young toads in due course emerge from the the young frogs are destined to escape from the
^
cells in their mother’s back, fully developed in every egg then the parent plunges into the water, into
;
^
respect save size. It is stated that over 120 eggs 1

which the young frogs escape, to undergo their
SEA HORSES {Hippocampi) and yoi:ng.
have been counted in the back of a single Surinam further development. One of the little Tree Frogs
Toad. possesses the habit of laying its eggs in the angles
A frog quite common on the Continent of Europe, between the leaves of trees and the branches on
and known as the Alyfes obstetricans^ illustrates which they are borne. Here the eggs, which, like
another phase of parental anxiety, as represented in those of most other Amphibia, appear to demand a
the amphibious class. Here the female deposits the supply of water for their due development, obtain
eggs in long strings, united to one another by the such supply from the water-drops that find a lodg-
gelatinous outer covering of the eggs. These chains ment in the leaf-angles. The existence of this
FISH AND FROG PARENTS 8i
FEMALE SURINAM TOAD {Pipa Americana).

SHOWING CELLS IN THE BACK.
L
/
;

habit serves to show how material may be the But these sacs, it appears, have become diverted
alteration in mode of life which an animal whose from their original function to subserve a widely
its
eggs are normally deposited in water may undergo. different use. Instead of participating in the modi-
One of the most singular cases in which parental fication and intensification of the voice, they have
duties are discharged by the frog and toad group is become utilised as “brood pouches.” Into the
seen in the American Tree Frog, known to natural- “vocal sacs” of the males —which,
indeed, alone
ists as Notot?-e)na jnarsupiatuni. Here a pouch possess them — the eggs are introduced there they;
extends over the back surface, and possesses a and undergo development, and wfithin
are protected
hinder opening. The eggs are placed in this them the young are kept until they can forage
pouch, and are therein protected. Rut leading us for themselves.
to still more curious developments of the parental That the vocal sacs of the Rhinoderma in their
CHROMIS PATERFAMILIAS AND YOUNG.
habit, w'e find in a little frog found in Chili a modi- original nature were small cannot be doubted
in size
fication surpassing any of the preceding features but in the frog as it exists they have
at present
in interest. This frog is named the Rhinodej'ina become greatly enlarged. Instead of existing
Dajwinn. Like the common edible frog {Rmta merely as simple sacs, confined to the mouth of
esculenta) of Europe, this Chilian frog possesses in the animal, they are found to extend beyond the
the male two vocal sacs. These latter are two chin, and onwards to the body of the animal,
sacs, or bags, situated in the mouth, and which ap- uniting in the middle of the abdomen. Within
pear to aid in increasing the resonance of the voice. each of these sacs one observer found from five to
They thus increase the loudness of the “ croak,” fifteen young in the tadpole stage of development.
and are in this way analogous to the “ voice sacs ” The smallest and least developed of these young
of certain of the American monkeys, such as were found at the bottom of the sacs and it w ould ;
the Howlers, whose voice resounds for miles appear that in their development the tadpoles of
through the forests of the New World. The Rhinoderma exhibit a somewhat shortened and
Rhinoderma possesses a clear, and almost musical abbreviated life history', as compared with that of
croak, testifying to the utility of the vocal sacs. other frogs. But the comparatively new' use to
— — —
CURIOUS PRESS BLUNDERS. 83
which the vocal sacs of this frog have been put halves, but into “ calves.” In one edition of
has not been without its due effect on the structure Cowper’s Memoirs, “ Montesquieu ” figures as
and organisation of the animal. We find that the “Mules Quince.” In a New York paper we find
“ the brass hoppers used in coffee-mills ” converted
tongue is remarkably shortened, and that even the
bones of the shoulder have become compressed and by a blunder into “ the grasshoppers used in coffee-
altered, so as to make way for the enlarged vocal mills.” In an old copy of the Evangelical Observer
sacs when these contain their full complement of a writer who said he was rectus in ecclesia, that is, of
progeny. The internal organs of the frog are also good standing in the church, was made to say he
much displaced, especially when the sacs are dis- was rectus in culina, of good standing in the kitchen.
tended with young and it would thus seem as if the
;
The Eclectic Review once appeared in an advertise-
whole organisation of the animal were modified to ment as The Epileptic Review, which somebody ex-
îve due effect to the singular provision which plained as a new publication which was coming
Nature has in this case made for the perpetuation out in “ fits and starts.” In a leader on the Irish
of the race. Obstructionists, The Times, speaking of a sitting
in Parliament which lasted from “ four in the
afternoon till six in the morning,” said “ if it be
asked what passed in this long interval, the answer
CURIOUS PRESS BLUNDERS. must be twenty-six (!) hours.” Another London
paper, instead of saying a lady died of haemorrhage,
Max Adeler described an angry poet whose verses
informed the public that she died of her marriage.
on “ The Surcease of Sorrow ” contained this line Mr. E. A. Freeman was once spoken of as “a man
:
“ Take away the jingling money is only glittering dross.”

who had gained real distinction as a barbarian”
;
it
which the blundering printer converted into instead of historian, and the same paper described
Take away thy jeering monkey, on a sorely-glandered boss.” Mr. Gladstone as addressing not a “noisy mob”
but “ a noisy snob.” A writer who wrote of nature’s
and also another line
works as “ silent preachers of morality,” found them
,
I am weary of the tossing of the ocean as it heaves.”

in print “ preachers of immorality,” and on another
which appeared in type as
occasion the table decorations at a fashionable
“ am wearing out my they’re open at the knees.”
I trowsers till
wedding were described as “ pot-house ” instead of
Extravagant as these fictitious errors may be, “ hot-house.”
actual blunders have been perpetrated which are
hardly less so. At the time when Mr. Gladstone,
our present Prime Minister, was making many CONTENTS OF A COTTON-POD.
speeches, the compositor made one of his greatest
admirers speak of him as the “ spout ” of the By sundry operations of ginning, scutching, spin-
Liberal party instead of its “ spirit.” A report of ning, &c., the white fibrous contents of the cotton-
the number of children born alive in a certain pod are worked up into a variety of useful textile
hospital not long since figured in print as children articles and these contents are as wonderful in
;
“burned alive” in it. Not long since Mr. W. E. their way as the uses to which they are ultimately
Forster made a speech at Bradford in which, instead put. So fine are the cotton-fibres, that one grain
of denouncing, he was made to advocate secular weight of American cotton will contain from 14,000
education at the Board schools, by the printers’ to 20,000 individual filaments : in other words,
omitting the little word “not.” Lord John Manners the average weight of one of these cotton hairs is
was once made by a similar blunder to recommend only part of a grain ;

and it has been
starving agricultural labourers, instead of yeomen calculated that if the filaments in 1 1 lbs. of cotton
farmers, to employ their enforced leisure in fox- were placed end to end, they would form a ring
hunting In like way Sir William Harcourt
! stretching all round the earth.
accused Sir Robert Peel, in type, of sitting at the The cotton-fibres consist of a substance which
”
feet of the “ Gamebird ” instead of the “ Gamaliel chemists call cellulose, which may be worked up
of Birmingham. The Daily Telegraphy at the time into other materials besides textile fabrics. Paper
of the Russian War, stated that a certain district had is often made from cotton rags. The cellulose
been placed under “marital” instead of martial law ;
may also be made to undergo some wonderful
and some time after another morning paper as- changes by means of chemical re-agents. Thus a
tounded not a few by saying that the Lord Chan- proper strength of sulphuric acid will convert a
cellorwas “ less accustomed to palsy and fever ” sheet of unsized paper into parchment paper
than the Prime Minister was, the words of the (papyrin), and cotton wool is converted into gun-
writer being “parry and tierce.” A provincial cotton, a highly explosive substance, by steeping it
paper, some time since, told how a railway train in a proper mixture of nitric acid and sulphuric
had knocked down a cow, and cut it, not into acid.
THE AMERICAN MOUND-BUILDERS. to fivehundred feet, it is not always possible tO'
recognise the form of the mound until it has
Primitive as were the habits and customs of the been carefully surveyed, and laid out upon paper
America at the time of its discovery
inhabitants of on a small scale. Animals of all sorts found
by the Europeans, upon the great
yet the researches American prairies ;
of American archae- bears, panthers,

ologists have shown turtles, alligatons
that some consider- (Fig. i), snakes,
able portions of the deer, and many
northern continent others, are seen in
had, in prehistoric immense basso-re-
ages, been occupied lievos— the monu-
by a race of men ments of a people
who had arrived at who have long since
a comparatively passed away and ;
high state of civi- it is remarkable

lisation. The Aztecs that amongst other
of Mexico are al- forms are found
ready well known that of the extinct
to most readers. mammoth elephant
But a race of semi- (Fig. 2), or, as some
civilised people, -ALLIGATOR-MOUND IN think, the masto-
MISSISSIPPI VALLEY.
possessing, if pos- don, and of man
sible, even more himself (Fig. 3).
interest than these, at From the forms adopted
one time occupied an in the construction of
immense tract of land these mounds, and from
to the north of the the fact that human bones
.•\ztec settlements. These have occasionally been
were the people known found buried in ^heir
to us only as “ Mound- midst, it has been sug-
builders,” the remains of gested that they were
whose settlements and originally erected as
works are met with places of sepulture by
throughout the western the different Indian tribes,
part of the United States. who are known to use
The monuments of these early in- various animals as their characteristic
habitants occupy the entire area of the totems, or tribal ensigns. But were
great Mississippi Valley and its tribu- this really the case, how extraordinary
taries, and the fertile plains extending would be the degeneracy of their
along the Gulf of Mexico. present descendants The erection
!
It is in the north-west, chiefly in of these huge mounds in definite and

Wisconsin, that the most extraordi- more or forms implies a
less artistic
nary and incomprehensible of the large degree of knowledge of men-
mounds occur. They are frequently suration and surveying, as well as a
in the form of various animals and of large and steady supply of labour ;
human beings. They are invariably which could never have been at the
erected upon level plains, and gene- command of savages dependent, as
rally consist of homogeneous sand or most of the North American tribes
earth, which in most cases, if not in until recently were, upon the chase for
all, cannot be distinguished from the their means of subsistence. Nor have
surrounding soil. They are raised the existing tribes any sort of tra-
above the plain upon which they are dition regarding the erection of these
erected sometimes not much more Fig. 3. — MOUND IN WISCONSIN. ancient monuments, but look upon
than a foot, sometimes as much as them with simple reverence, as the
six feet, and where they have remained undis- work of the “ Great Manitou.”
turbed present a regular and well-marked outline. - Interspersed amongst the “ animal ” mounds are
As, however, they have often a length of from one some of those tumuli which occur in great abun-
—
THE AMERICAN MOUND-BUILDERS. 85
dance, unaccompanied by the more strange animal area of twenty or thirty acres. The walls were built
forms, in the southern region of the Mound-builders. of large irregular blocks of stone, but probably
were never cemented together, and have now fallen
It is curious to observe that these tumuli, which are
generally circular, are almost always much higher into complete ruin, though occasionally indications
than the surrounding mounds (Fig. 4), and that from have been met with tending to prove that
the walls
on the exterior. “ The
their summits may generally be obtained a view of were regularly faced, at
least
the entire group of earthworks with which they are appearance of the line,” in the case
of the works
were undoubtedly surveyed near Bourneville, in Ohio, “ for the most
connected. Some of these tumuli
used as places of sepulture, but in others not the part, is just what might be expected
from the
slightest traces of human remains have been found, falling outwards of a wall of stones placed, as this
and we are therefore led to the belief that these was, upon the declivity of a hill.” When these
ivigher elevations were used as towers of observa- enclosures have been erected upon steep eleva-
As we proceed towards the south, the tions, a more gentle slope will, as a rule, be dis-
tion.
Fig. 4. TUMULUS IN OHIO.
“animal” mounds disappear. In their place, we covered at one, or sometimes more points, by
find works the use of which seems far more easy which an easy approach could be made from the
of explanation. These are immense “ enclosures,” outside. These slopes were, however, always
which were sometimes erected for the defence of protected by a strong enclosing wall, having two
the settlements, sometimes, doubtless, for the pro- or three narrow passages only, for ingress and
tection of sacred works. The defensive enclosures egress, and often a strong outer barrier of stones
are generally situated upon sites which are natur- or earth was also erected, which must have
ally strategically strong. Often a rocky hill sur- added greatly to the security of the defenders in
rounded at its base by some deep and winding case of attack. Some idea of the enormous labour
stream has been selected for the erection of the of erecting these fortifications may be gathered
fortifications, and in every case some natural advan- from the fact that in one case the enclosing wall
tage in the formation of the land surface has been measured no less than 8,224 in length, and
seized upon for the combined purposes of saving rested on a base measuring from thirty-five to
labour in the erection of works of defence, and of forty feet. The height varied considerably it was ;
attaining the greatest possible security from attack. sometimes from six to ten feet, and occasionally
The walls of these enclosures sometimes circum- reached as much as fifteen feet.
scribe an area of as much as 140 or 1 50 acres, Within the wall was a ditch, having an average
though they are frequently of much smaller extent, width of no less than fifty feet, and it was doubtless
and’the enclosed settlement often stood upon an of the earth and sandstone excavated in its for-
mation that the enclosing wall was constructed. nected with the worship of the sun and of fire of ;
When it is considered what would be the labour of this, however, it cannot be said that there is any
constructing defences such as this, even with the absolute proof. Other of the mounds, sometimes
appliances now at our command, we are filled with as much as eighty feet in height, were doubtless
amazement that a primitive people, unacquainted used as points of observation, and others, again,
with the use of any metal except native copper, were the tombs of important individuals amongst
should yet have possessed the power, the will, and the community, possibly of the priests, who are
the unity necessary for their erection. also supposed to have been the patriarchs and
Another class of enclosures, which it is obvious governors of the Mound-builders. In the sacri-
could never have been ficial mounds
are found
erected for defensive pur- symmetrical altars of
poses, have been regarded burnt clay or stone, and
— no doubt, justly — as on these are often depo-
sacred enclosures, al. sited various remains, al-
though their use has not ways bearing unquestion-
been, and probably never able traces of having been
will be, definitely settled. subjected to the action of
It is interesting to ob- fire.
serve that in these en- Many specimens of pri-

closures the forms of the mitive art have been taken
circle and square predo- from both the sepulchral
minate, and these two and sacrificial mounds,
figures are frequently met and some of these possess
with together, and in such great merit, even from an
a connection that there aesthetic point of view.
can be no doubt they They consist of vessels of
were employed symboli- clay and of implements of
cally (Fig. 5). In place of various kinds, of stone,
the square, however, an flint,and copper orna- ;
octagon is frequently met ments of these minerals

with, and these two the — and also of silver have,
circular and rectangular too, been frequently met
enclosures —are generally Fig. 5. — ENCLOSURE IN OHIO.
with, and a large number
connected by a narrow of pipes, often very power-
passage, enclosed on either side by a wall or em- fully have been figured and described.
carved,
bankment. Unlike the defensive works, these The elephant on a pipe (Fig. 6) may be compared
sacred enclosures are found generally upon per- with the mound shown in Fig. 2 The sculptures
.
fectly level plains, and sometimes occur within of the Mound-builders show, indeed, more than
other enclosures of quite a anything else the degree
different character. Their of culture to which they
walls were often of the had attained, and we can-
most massive construc- not but be surprised that
tion, and were occasion- a people once so highly
ally as much as twelve civilised should either
feet high, with a base of have become utterly ex-
no less than fifty feet. tinct, or should be now
Where the enclosures take represented by those Red
the form of squares and Indians whose few good
circles, it is worthy of re- have been soqualities
Fig. 6.— ELEPHANT ON PIPE FOUND IN IOWA.
mark that these are found by Fenimoreextolled
by the most careful sur- Cooper and his imitators.
veys to be absolutely geometrical figures, proving That an immense space of time must have
how advanced must have been the knowledge of elapsed since the Mound-builders ceased their
the Mound-builders in mathematical science. labours in the Mississippi Valley it is easy to affirm ;
Within, and in the vicinity of, both sacred and but to calculate this lapse of time in years is a far
defensive enclosures, innumerable mounds, or more serious undertaking. Much has been argued
tumuli, are met with. Some of these were used as from the now extinct mammoth being represented
altars, and it has been supposed that the religion both in mound and sculpture, but this argument
of the Mound-builders was, in part at least, con- cuts both ways, and it is quite as possible that the
VAGRANT NEEDLES, 87
mammoth has rather survived to a more recent date asylums naturally afford a large proportion of the
than has been supposed. We find here and there cases recorded. But persons apparently sane, and
that the ancient earthworks have in part been eaten with nothing whatever the niatter with them, have
away by the gradual change in the course of occasionally indulged in the curious pastime of
neighbouring streams— a change which in some swallowing and charging their flesh with pins and
cases extends to many hundreds of feet. But to needles.
calculate the annual rate at which the river has When, by accident, a solitary needle has been
thus encroached upon its bank is difficult in the broken short off in any part of the body, the sui -
extreme nor can we be sure that the encroachment
;
geon has great difficulty in displacing it, for it
has been always regular, and always in precisely generally leaves no trace of its path, and any effort
the same direction. Growing upon most of the to remove it with the forceps will infallibly drive
enclosures and other works, if not upon them all, it farther into the flesh, unless fortunately it is at
we find, however, a dense forest jungle, and the once seized. P'or this reason, as in cases where
ages of the trees forming this forest may of course fragments of metal have flown into the eye, a
be approximately arrived at by counting the number powerful magnet is often employed to remove it.
of annual rings of growth. By this means it has In other cases, where its exact locality cannot be
been ascertained that some of the trees growing ascertained, a compass-needle will show by its
upon the mounds, or in the midst of the now sympathetic deflection the near presence of a
ruined walls or embankments, must have an age of metallic body. Another method employed of
at least 700 years, while the trunks of other trees recent years represented by an ivory probe
is
still lie in a mouldering state at their base, which furnished with two wires in connection with an
from their size must have had an equal antiquity, and electric bell, which rings directly the wires are
would throw back still farther the age of the works. bridged across by touching the particle of metal
No trace is now met with amongst the luxuriant buried in the wound.
vegetation of the Mississippi Valley of the remains If such difficulties arise in the case of a single
of cultivated plants. These were doubtless over- fragment of metal, how much more care is required
grown and replaced, ere many years had passed, in dealing with patients whose bodies are the re-
by a rank and heavy growth of reeds and grasses, ceptacles of not one, but hundreds of needles A !
which in their place must gradually, and as we French surgeon records the case of a woman who
know from experience in the tropics in similar swallowed such a quantity that at her death fif-
cases, very slowly, have been supplanted by the teen hundred were extracted from different parts of
forests which now cover the whole of the country. her body. In another case 320 were extracted from
When we consider, therefore, the time which must a girl, but whether she swallowed them or intro-
have elapsed before the once cleared and culti- duced them through the skin was never ascertained,
vated land of the enclosures could have become although for a time she was carefully watched. A
covered with a dense forest, in no way distinguish- curious part of these stories is, that the foreign
able from that primaeval forest which we have no bodies seem to have had no deleterious effect upon
reason to believe has ever been disturbed by man, the general health. In the case just referred to the
the probable antiquity of these pre-historic settle- needles behaved in the most peculiar manner,
ments becomes more and more remote, so that the coming out head first in various parts of the body,
estimate of 1,500 years made by Messrs. Squier and and generally in series. Thus, in one day sixty
Davis may justly be deemed within rather than made their appearance, preceded by some pain and
without the mark. fever. Another well-authenticated case is that of
a girl who swallowed a large number of both pins
VAGRANT NEEDLES. and needles, which appear to have wandered about

her frame for two years before giving any indica-
Among the curiosities of surgical literature are tion of their presence. At the expiration of that
numerous cases which patients have contrived
in time, and covering a period of nine months, 200
to harm themselves, without any apparent reason, needles and pins emerged from her skin at the
by introducing foreign substances into their bodies. hands, arms, thorax and other parts. Another
It can hardly be imagined that any person of case, brought before a scientific society in Dublin,
sound mind would endeavour to make a pin-cushion recorded the removal of 300 needles from a
of herself, but there are on record several cases of woman’s body, who owed her death to their pre-
girls and grown women, who have not only intro- sence. But it is remarkable how little, as a rule,
duced pins and needles by pushing them beneath these eccentricities of behaviour have interfered
the skin, but have also swallowed those necessaries with the general functions of life and it is still
;
as part of their regular diet. It must be owned more singular that in the majority of cases ex-
that, in the majority of instances, this has occurred amined post mortejH^ death has not been due to the
to patients afflicted with hysteria, and lunatic cause which would seem most probable.
—

MAGNETISM. ends, and this fact can be rendered evident to the
sight by scattering over the magnet a quantity of
An ordinary horse-shoe magnet — such as we can iron filings. These will be attracted towards the
buy at any toy-shop —gives evidence _that it extremity of the bar in such a way, that they will
possesses properties of a very wonderful and hang there in thick clusters (Fig. i), just as if the
mysterious nature. The great Faraday, who per- particles of iron were little beads which had been
haps experimented with the magnet, and knew threaded together, and hung to the magnet in short
more about it, than any other human being, was lengths. It will now be understood why magnets
once watching a companion who was idly handling a are commonly made of the horse-shoe form. The
magnet, so as to attract a balanced needle. The strange power being resident at the ends of the
great man remarked “How mysterious is that power bar, these two ends are bent towards one another,
you have there the more I brood over it the less
;
so that they can act together. A horse-shoe mag-
I seem to know.” That net, therefore, is merely a
mysterious power which bar-magnet bent for con-
seemed so inexplicable to venience’ sake.
the master-mind of Fara- As a natural lodestone
day has not even to this was able to confer its
day found a seer who can properties upon a piece

tell us what it is.
MAGNET AND FILINGS.
of steel rubbed against it,
The ancients were ac- so is the latter able to

quainted with a certain black stone, found, among affect another piece of steel. If we take a common
other places, at Magnesia, in Asia Minor. This steel knitting-needle, we it very easy to
shall find
stone exhibited the property of attracting small convert it magnet, by rubbing it with a
into a
pieces of iron, and after a time it became known horseshoe - magnet in a particular manner. It
as a magnet, from the place named above, where it should be laid on a table, and held there firmly,
was found. About the twelfth cen- by pressing the left hand thumb
tury it was first noticed that this upon its centre. The magnet is
stone, ifsuspended by a thread so then grasped in the right hand,
that it was
free to move, invariably and rubbed backwards and for-
placed itself north and south. This wards along the needle a number
directive property of the magnet of times in rapid succession. The
soon caused it to be used for the needle is now turned round, so
guidance of mariners at sea, and that its unrubbed side
uppermost, is
hence we have the mariner’s com- and the rubbing is repeated the
pass. The Chinese claim to have same number of times (Fig. 2). A
known this property of the magnet knife-blade, a sewing-needle, or any
3,000 years other piece
ago, and to of steel, can
have taken be magne-
advantage of tised in this
it in journey- way, but for
ing across purposes of
wide ex- experiment
panses of Kig. 2. — HORSESHOE MAGNET AND KNITTING-NEEDLE. the knitting-
countryc needle is
The natural magnet, or is an
lodestone, iron ore, most convenient. Our knitting-needle is now a
now known as magnetic has the chemical com-
;
it magnet, as we can prove by dipping it into iron
position Fe 3 O 4, and is found in various parts of filings, which will cluster round its ends, as just
the world. It was soon discovered that a piece of now they clustered round the bar-magnet in Fig. i.
steel, if rubbed on the natural magnet, or lodestone, There is another way of showing that the mag-
acquired its magnetic properties, and would after- netic force is chiefly resident at the ends of a
wards behave in all respects as a magnet. Such magnet, and there is perhaps no prettier experiment
pieces of steel are known as perma?ie 7tt magnets, in the whole region of physics. The magnet
in contra-distinction to electro- 7nagnets, the nature whether horse-shoe or straight being immaterial is —
of which will be presently explained. placed on a table, or other flat surface. Above it
Permanent magnets are commonly sold of a is placed a white card. Iron filings are now sifted
horse-shoe shape, but for experimental purposes a over the card from a muslin bag, which retains all
straight bar-magnet is to be preferred. The mag- particles over a certain size. The card, being
netic power is found to reside principally at its two '
well dusted over with fragments of iron, is now

MAGNETISM. 89
gently tapped at one corner with the hnger-nail. confusion of terms. Summing up
the results of
Immediately the iron tilings begin to arrange them- our experiments on the attitude of one magnet
selves in a certain order, forming beautiful feathery towards another, we find that dissimilar poles,
curves, which seem to spring from two spots, and north and south, attract one another, and similar
blend with one another in the most curious manner. poles — two norths or two souths — as the case may
Upon gently lifting the card, it will be seen that be, one another
repel so that with a magnet
;
these two spots from which the curved lines spring properly marked at one end we can easily find the
are just above the ends of the magnet beneath. north or south pole of any other magnet, whether
These curious lines are known as the curves of marked or not.
magnetic force, and show optically what a curious Dr. Gilbert, who, in 1600, was the first to dis-
—
atmosphere of power if we may use such an ex- cover the difierence between the poles of a magnet,
—
«^ression surrounds the ends of a magnet. made a greater discovery in showing that the
still
It is customary to call these ends the poles of earth itself is a magnet, with poles coinciding
Fig. 3. — MAGNETIC CURVES IN IRON FILINGS.
the magnet. If we suspend the bar of magnetised nearly with the geographical north and south.
steel by a thread, we shall find that it will naturally We shall now see how, by examining the ends of
take up a position north and south. We may a magnet in the same way, we are apt to be led
place it east and west, but directly it is released into ambiguity. If unlike poles attract one another,
It will vibrate backwards and forwards, until it the north pole of a magnet should of course be at
assumes once more its normal position. While that end which points south, and vice versa. For
hanging thus suspended by its centre, we must this reason, many writers use the terms north-
notice its behaviour when another magnet is seeking and south-seeking, but it has become so
approached towards it. be either attracted
It will much the fashion for manufacturers to mark the
or repelled, according to which end, or pole, of north-seeking end with N, that it is commonly
the magnet we present to it. Hence it will be seen called the north pole of the magnet. To obviate
that the two poles show distinctive qualities, and the difficulty, Faraday spoke of the marked end,
one is known as the north pole, and the other as and another well-known scientist has distinguished
the south pole. It is usual to mark that end of a the poles by the colours blue and red. In experi-
magnet which points to the north, and that end is ments to show attraction and repulsion, magnets of
commonly known as the north pole of the magnet. any size can be used. A mariner’s compass can
We shall presently see that this has led to some also well take the place of the suspended bar-
M
;

magnet : indeed, it is really precisely the same between the terminals of an electric battery will be
thing, only that the needle is balanced upon a point found to be strongly magnetic, and will attract iron
instead of being hung by a thread. filings. Directly the circuit is broken, the filings
By magnetic induction
meant the power which
is will fall off, showing that the magnetism continues
a magnet possesses of inducing magnetism in a only so long as the current traverses the wire. If
piece of iron held near it, and not necessarily we employ a powerful battery, and lead from its
touching it. Thus we find that if we lay a bar- terminals a copper wire covered with cotton or
magnet on a table, and place a short piece of other material, so as to insulate it, we shall find that
iron near one of its ends, but not touching on coiling it round any bar of iron, the bar will
it, that filings will attach themselves to the pre- become strongly magnetic.
viously unmagnetised piece of metal.We can also If the bar be of soft iron,
prove that this iron has for the time being two it only remains magnetic
poles, and that the pole next the magnet is dis- while the current passes
S'lTiilarto that end of the magnet. We can thus if it be of steel, the mag-
understand to some extent how the magnet comes netism is retained by it.
to attract a piece of iron. 1 1 first induces magnetism The power given by this
in it, and then attracts it, the north pole of the one method of making a magnet
acting attractively on the south pole of the other. is much greater than that
The effects of magnetic induction can be more before described. A soft

Fig, 5.
curiously shown by attaching to a magnet a piece iron bar, coiled with wire, ELECTRO-MAGNET,
of iron a b (Fig. 4.) This depending piece imme- and usually of the horse-shoe
diately becomes a magnet by induction, and will form (Fig. 5), is known as an electro-magnet. Large
support a smaller piece. A third and fourth can electro-magnets, when thus excited by a copious
voltaic current, are of immense power, far exceeding
that of any permanent steel magnets which can
possibly be constructed, h'or instance, it is per-
fectlyeasy to construct electro-magnets which will
sustain many hundredweights from their keepers
or armatures, and quite a small one will sustain
many pounds whilst a permanent steel magnet,
;
of even the last power, must be a compound one

of great size, and Vv.ry costly.
This power of generating magnetism in soft iron
be added, until we have quite a little chain hanging by means of the passage of an electric current in
to the original magnet. If the magnet be detached
'
a wire surrounding it, has been taken advantage of

from the first piece of iron, the rest will fall, show- [
in the construction of many contrivances indeed, :
ing that the magnetism conferred upon iron is only it would be pretty safe to assert that in any
temporary. If steel be used, the various pieces will machine actuated by electricity the electro-magnet
retain their magnetism. T

It will be seen from the foregoing* that the two
opposite poles, or different kinds of magnetism, may

be compared to the negative and positive states of
electricity, and in their inductive properties are
very similar in behaviour. But there is one
important point of difference which is worthy of
notice, and that is, that in electricity, when one
,
body comes in contact with another so as to

influence it inductively, it gives' up some of its
charge. The magnet, on the other hand, may be
used to magnetise any number of others, and will
retain its strength. It should, however, be noted
here that the so-called permanent magnets do to — ELECTRIC BELL.
Fig. 6.
some extent lose their power, certain machines in
which such magnets have oeen used for many is the principal feature. One reason why this form
years having been found to have relinquished a of magnet is so useful is that its action is not only
large amount of their original power. energetic, but it is very quick. The moment the
One more experiment with iron filings will give current is applied the magnetism is created, and
us an idea of the intimate connection between directly the current is broken it departs. Indeed,
magnetism and electricity. A copper wire stretched by employing a vibrating piece of metal as a
—
THE ORIGIN OF FIRE. 91
contact- breaker, the iron can be magnetised and made by all the families of mankind. To it the
demagnetised several hundred times in a second. world has been indebted for many religious rites,
This is taken advantage of in the common form of and in ancient times fire waS an important agent
electric Dell which is so much used in hotels and in the burial ceremonials of the Chaldees, the
private houses. An electro-magnet is made to Hebrews, the Greeks, and the Romans while ;
attract a piece of iron, called the armature, f; to amongst the Persians, Hindoos, Peruvians, Mexi-
this armature is fastened the little hammer (k) which cans, and
others, it still holds a place in the
beats on the gong, or bell (t), every time contact is religious observances of the people. In some
made with the battery.By a simple arrangement, countries, indeed, the worship of fire has been the
the armature is made
break contact in the act of
to chief religious ceremonial of the inhabitants, and
being attracted to the magnet, so that we have a the priests of Baal, the Ghebers, or fire-worship-
series of contacts and breaks, whichgive the hammer pers of Asia, the priests of Brahma in India, the
a trembling movement. Vestal Virgins in Rome, and the priestesses of the
The magnetism of the earth is sometimes found Sun in Peru, have all ministered at the shrine of
to have magnetised bars of steel which have Fire, regarding it not alone as a powerful and
remained in an upright position for a long time. useful ally — as, deserved to be regarded
indeed, it
It is also possible to magnetise a bar, such as a but as a god, to be worshipped and respected.
poker, by holding it in the magnetic meridian, and Of the discovery of fire there is absolutely no
strikingit with a mallet so as to make it vibrate. record; and though it has sometimes been affirmed
Bars of steel are also endowed with magnetism if that certain tribes of savages were ignorant of its
they are brought to a red heat, and allowed to cool use, yet all the evidence goes to prove that no race
while lying north and south, but no such actiort or family of men exists, or ever did exist within the
occurs if their position be east and west during historic period, to whom the use of fire was entirely
the cooling process. Magnets of a very powerful unknown. Certain of the Australian tribes have,
character have recently been made of cast-iron, by indeed, been met with who either were ignorant
placing the moulds in which they were cast between of all means of procuring fire, or who regarded
the poles of an electro-magnet or, in other words, — it as too tedious an operation to be needlessly
in a magnetic field. undertaken, and these were accustomed, upon the
The magnetised needle in the ordinary mariner’s accidental extinction of their own fires, to seek a
compass is mounted horizontally, and its movement fresh supply from their nearest friendly neighbours.
is therefore horizontal. But if a magnetised needle That there are many means by which fire might
be mounted so that it will move vertically, it will be be obtained by people quite unacquainted with
found to dip towards the earth in other words, its ;
its artificial production, cannot be doubted. From
marked end will point to the north pole of the lava-flowsand other volcanic disturbances, more
earth directly, i.e.^ through the earth itself. The common apparently in past ages than at the
direction of this dip will be different for different present time, fire could frequently have been
latitudes. Thus, at the equator or, to speak more — obtained in many parts of the world, while the
correctly, the magnetic equator the needle will be — accidental rubbing together of two dry branches
horizontal, while at either pole it would be quite during a steady wind or the vivid lightning of the
vertical. The dip and the direction of the needle tropics might also be a not uncommon source of
vary at different hours of the day, and such changes fire, and now and again perhaps the spontaneous
are noted at our observatories by special apparatus. combustion of vegetable matter led to a similar re-
sult. Still the fact remains that from the most re-
mote ages of which we have any knowledge man has

been in possession of this most useful agent, and
THE ORIGIN OF FIRE. has moreover, in all probability, possessed the
knowledge requisite for its artificial production.
Few amongst us perhaps ever give a thought to The Indian and Greek mythologies represent
the immense importance of the possession of fire man as having ascended to heaven, and there
to the whole of the human race. To it we are seized upon a fragment of celestial fire, which was
indebted for heat, light, and even for the preserva- ultimately disseminated throughout the world. The
tion of life itself. To its influence is to be attributed fable of Prometheus relates how that individual, by
in no small degree the sociability so characteristic the aid of Minerva, climbed to the heavens, and
of humanity nor, probably, would even our family
;
stealing fire from the chariot of the sun, brought it
ties remain as close and intimate as they are were we down upon the earth at the end of a ferula. This fable
deprived of this useful and important servitor. With- is almost identical with the mythological account
out fire, too, we should be without the means of pur- contained in the Vedas of India, in which the god
suing those innumerable arts and industries to which Agni is represented as lying concealed in a hiding-
alone is due the material progress which has been place, until forced by Matarichvan to leave his
;

retreat, and to communicate to baked earthen discs found in such abundance by
Manou, the first
man, or to Bhrigu (the Dr. Schliemann beneath the ruins of llion, and has
Brilliant), the ancestor of
the priestly family of the same name, the secret of been regarded as additional proof, if proof were
obtaining the much-coveted element. Now strangely needed, of the Aryan origin of the Trojans; while
enough, philology shows that the name of Prome- certain rites which gradually crept into the Church
theus is of Vedic origin, and in fact records the of Rome, analogous to some of the ceremonies of
means employed by the ancient Brahmins to obtain the fire-worship of Agni, are also regarded as
Fig. I. — STICK AND GROOVE. Fig. 2 — FIRE-DRILL.
fire. For this purpose they employed a stick of favouring the community of origin of the two races,
wood, called matha^ or prainatha, the prefix pra i
The parent fire was called Twastri, or
of the sacred
adding an idea of force to the root matha^ of the the Divine Carpenter, and by him were made the
verb 7nathami, or ijta/iihfiami, meaning to produce Swastika and the Pramatha, by the rubbing
by means of friction. From Pra»tantha, or Pra- 1 together of which was produced the holy infant
manthyus, the transition to the Indian Pramathyus —
Agni in Latin, Ignis.
and to the Greek Prometheus is simple and natural These early mythological accounts of the origin
while, to add to the importance of the heathen deity, of fire are of great interest, though, of course, as
it is related of him that he facts they are totally un-
fashioned the two earliest reliable. Nevertheless, when
human beings in clay, and we turn to practices which
kindled in them the spark it is still possible to observe,
of life by means of the fire we are able to perceive how
which he had filched from such myths may have come
heaven. into existence amongst a
To the prainatha, or fire- primitive, superstitious, and
stick, at its upper end, was poetical people.
attached a cord of hemp Probably the earliest of
mixed with cow’s hair, by all methods for the artificial
means of which the priests production of fire was the
of Brahma were enabled to rubbing together of two
impart to it a rotatory Fig. 3. — FIRE-DRILL, FROM MEXICAN PAINTING. pieces of dry wood, but this
movement, alternately from must have been an exceed-
right to left and from left to right. The lower ingly slow and process, and doubtless
tedious
€nd of this rod was inserted into a small cavity all the ingenuity of the primitive races was em-
situated at the point of intersection of two small ployed in the discovery of an easier and quicker
pieces of wood, placed transversely one upon the method. Accordingly we find in use amongst
other in the form of a cross, the extremities of the inhabitants of New Zealand, Tahiti, Tonga,
which were usually bent at a right angle, and were Samoa, the Sandwich Islands, and other places,
firmly fixed by four bronze rivets, so that they what has been termed by Mr. E. B. Tylor the
remained perfectly firm and rigid. This imple- Stick-and-Groove (Fig. i). This consists of a
ment, which was called the Swastika, is figured small piece of dry wood, along the grain of which a
in various forms upon the spinning-whorls or small channel has been formed, into which is in-
—
THE ORIGIN OF FIRE. 93
serted the end of a sharp s ick, also and

of dry in an under-piece of wood, and is then twirled
hard wood. By sliding this stick backwards and round between the hands with such rapidity and
forwards with great rapidity and with considerable force that at length the charted dust worked out in
force, small sparks of fire are at length produced, the process of boring becomes ignited. It is said
that by this means can be obtained in a few
fire
minutes ;
but great skill and knack, as well as a
Fig. 6. — BOW DRILL.
Fig. 4.— FIRE-DRILL.
knowledge of the best wood to use for the purpose,

which are carefully made captive, and at length are needed, and the operation would probably be
'
fanned into a flame. not only tedious, but absolutely impossible to those
A commoner and more widely-spread implement quite uninitiated in the art. To prove how
for the production of fire is, however, the Fire-drill ancient is this method of procuring fire, we have
(Fig.»2), of which there are a multitude of varying an antique drawing of an early Mexican in the act
forms. It is met with in one shape or another in of churning fire in this manner (Fig. 3) while in ;
Australia, Sumatra, and the Caroline Islands, in India, the high priests of Brahma, if by chance the
Fig. 5. THONG DRILL.

Fig. 7. —IROQUOIS DRILL.
Karhtschatka, and in other parts of North and South sacred fire burning upon their altars should be ex-
America, in China, and in Africa and it has also
;
tinguished, still resort to this early practice of their
been observed in use amongst the hill tribes of ancestors to re-kindle the divine flame, though well
Ceylon and the barbarous Gauchos of South acquainted with other methods of obtaining Are,
America. and doubtless in many cases supplied with lucifer-
The simplest form of this instrument is that matches. Another form of fire-drill, in use amongst
commonly used by the savage natives of Australia. the wild Gauchos of the American pampas, is
It consists of an arrow-like stick, cut at one end to shown in Fig. 4,and consists in a stick of wood
a blunt point. This is inserted in a small hollow slightly bowed, which, while resting upon an under
piece,is turned rapidly with one hand, the other which was not only the name of the mineral, but
being employed in putting pressure upon its upper also meant “ fiery,” thus bearing witness to the
end. probable origin of the flint and steel. The use of
The Esquimaux and the inhabitants of the the flint and steel continued in Europe from the
Aleutian Islands have advanced somewhat farther earliest historic period almost to the present time ;
than this in their fire-making apparatus, and use and it was not until about the year 1834 that the
what has been termed the Thong drill. This, like lucifer-match, with which we are all now so familiar,
the former, consists in a blunt-pointed stick placed came into ordinary use. If all these modern
upon a small block of wood. Its upper end is, appliances could now be destroyed, and the art of
however, inserted into another fragment of wood, making them were lost, the state of affairs can per-
which is held firmly between the* teeth, while a haps be better imagined than described.
cord twisted two or three times round the stick is
held by its two ends, and is pulled rapidly back-
wards and forwards by the hands, imparting to the CURIOSITIES OF WEIGHT.
implement a quick rotatory movement with com-
paratively little labour (Fig. 5). Weight is a variable quality. A stone of pota-
A still advance is seen in the Bow drill, toes weighed at the base of a mountain in a pair of
farther
in use among the Sioux and some of the Indian ordinary scales is not a stone when taken to the
tribes of British North America (Fig. 6) while the top of the mountain and weighed again in a spring
;
famous Iroquois have from the earliest times made balance. Still, the potatoes have lost none of their
use of what has been termed the Pump drill, by substance.
which means one hand is left at liberty to gather The same stone of potatoes, if it could be sud-
together the sparks as they are thrown off from the denly transported four thousand miles away from
“ fire-stick,” while the other easily works the bow the earth’s surface, would only weigh a quarter of a
up and down, by which the rotatory motion is stone in the spring balance !
maintained (Fig. 7). Again, our stone of potatoes would weigh more
Such are the primitive appliances by which fire has than a stone if we could weigh it on the surface of
been obtained, nor have many years elapsed since a planet like Jupiter. We should now find that we
similar customs died out in some parts of Europe, had got slightly less than two and a half stones.
and even in Britain. It was long usual, upon the These apparently anomalous facts are readily
appearance of a murrain amongst cattle, to kindle explained. Weight is caused by gravity, or that
a “ need-fire,” through which the herds were driven universal attraction which subsists between all kinds
to preserve them from the scourge, and this fire of matter. Our stone of potatoes is drawn towards
was obtained by means of friction. As lately as the earth by this attraction when on the scale of
1826 “wild-fire” was thus obtained at Perth for the balance, and its tendency to go down is not
this purpose and in Sweden, even in the present stopped until a number of iron weights have been
;
day, these “ need-fires ” may perhaps still be seen, put in the other scale, which are drawn towards
kindled upon the occurrence of cholera or other the earth to the same extent therefore the iron ;
infectious disease. And it is curious to observe, weights counterpoise the potatoes. The farther
as pointed out by Mr. Tylor, that during the last one gets away from the earth or any other planet,
century a law was passed prohibiting the super- the weaker attraction becomes
its hence the ;
stitious friction-fire in the district of Jdnkdping, on the stone of potatoes at the top
pull of gravity
which has since become famous for the cheap of a mountain and four thousand miles away is
Swedish matches known as tatidstikor, or tinder- much weaker than it was at the base of the moun-
sticks. tain when tested by a spring balance. On the
In obtaining fire by means of friction, all that was other hand, the attraction of gravity increases the
necessary was, of course, the production of a single more matter there is which is exerting
in the planet
spark, which was made captive in a bunch of dry its influence. For this reason
a particular weight
grass, or in dry leaves or bark prepared, and some- which stretched out the spring of our balance to a
times even carbonised, for the purpose. And pre- certain extent on the earth would stretch it out
sently it came to be known that this spark could be much more on the surface of Jupiter, the latter
more easily obtained by striking together two frag- planet having a much greater mass than the earth.
ments of hard stone, or a fragment of stone and On the earth’s surface all substances have not the
another of metal, than by the more tedious process same weight when compared bulk for bulk. Pla-
of continuous friction. At first, probably, the tinum, for example, twenty-two times heavier than
is
nodules of iron pyrites often to be picked up along water, while at the opposite extreme the metal
the sea-coast were employed together with frag- lithium is only a little over half the weight of water.
ments of flint for this purpose, and the name Lead is usually looked upon as an extremely heavy
pyrites is clearly derived from the Greek piirites. metal, but it is only about half the weight of pla-
THE CANDLE-FISH OF BRITISH COLUMBIA. 95
tinum. Among compounds, the sulphate of barium mighty conception, truly, and in its execution it
has been called heavy spar on account of its weight, remains unique down to the present time. For the
although it is only about four and a half times purpose of carrying out the work, Kang-he appointed
heavier than water. It was its heaviness which a commission of learned men to select and collate
led Cascariolo, the Bologna cobbler, to take it
the writings to be reproduced, and employed the
hope of extracting gold from it, and Jesuit missionaries to cast copper types with
home in the
by his experiments he obtained from it a substance which to execute the printing. The commission
which appeared to shine in the dark, the sulphide was occupied for forty years in its great task.
of barium.
Before the work was completed Kang-he died, but
“ he had provided that his successor should see the
The question is sometimes asked, Which is the
”
heavier a pound of feathers or a pound of lead ?
:
book completed, and he faithfully carried out his
In commerce they pass as being equal but in ;
trust. The book is arranged in six divisions, each
Reality they are not of equal weight unless the dealing with a particular branch of knowledge.
weighing be performed m
vacuo: z.e., in a space The divisions are thus designated : — i, writings
relating to the heavens writings relating to the
void of air, like the exhausted receiver of an air- ; 2,
pump. As they are usually weighed, both the lead earth ; 3, writings relating to mankind ; 4, writings
relating to inanimate nature writings relating
and feathers are buoyed up by the amount of air ; 5,
they displace, and since the feathers displace more to philosophy ;

and 6, writings relating to political
air than the lead, more feathers have to be added economy.

to make the pound than would be required in vacuo.
In other words, a pound of feathers, as usually
weighed, would weigh more than a pound of lead it
THE CANDLE-FISH OF BRITISH
the re-weighing were performed in a vacuum. COLUMBIA.
The greatest of all sublunar weights is the weight
of the earth itself, and probably the least, at all There is found, in some of the rivers of British
'
events as far as we can ascertain, is the weight
North America, a species of smelt so rich in oil
of an atom of hydrogen. We speak of the weight that it may when dried be used as a candle or torch.
of the earth in trillions of tons, and of the weight This curious and useful fish is of slender make, and
of the atmosphere in billions of tons, and of some measures about a foot in length. It is silvery
— —
other large masses like icebergs, for example in white, and is regarded by' the natives to be the
millions of tons. A tiny speck of dust may weigh most delicious of edible fishes. At certain seasons
much less than the thousandth part of a grain. It the fish swarms up the rivers from the sea, and is
would be hard to tell, however, what is the weight then caught by the natives in wickerwork traps.
of one of those quickly-moving organisms, like During the fishing season, which lasts from two to
ûglena, which the microscope has revealed to us three weeks, it is a staple article of food.
;
Large
yet infinitesimal as it is, they have a weight, precise quantities are dried for future consumption, and
and of such relation to their bulk that they live and from others the oil is extracted and preserved.
move, and fulfil their appointed tasks without any The dried fish furnish excellent food but their ;
apparent difficulty. most remarkable use is that of an illuminating

agent. When a candle is required a dried fish is
stuck, tail upwards, in a lump of clay or in a cleft

THE BIGGEST BOOK IN THE WORLD. stick a light is applied to the tail, which instantly
;
flames up, and the fish burns steadily downward,

The Chinese Department of the British Museum giving a light superior to that of the best quality' of
Library contains a single work which occupies no “ dips.” The fish is, however, most successfully
fewer than 5,020 volumes. This wonderful produc- used as a torch, because in moving it through the
tion of the Chinese press was purchased a few years air the rather dense smoke which it emits is got
ago for ;î,5oo, and is one of only a very' small rid of. So highly is the fish prized for its illu-
number of copies now in existence. It is an

minating qualities, that the natives of the region in
Encyclopjedia of the literature of China, covering a which it is found find a profitable trade in bartering
—
period of twenty-eight centuries from 1100 B.C. to it with the people of less-favoured districts. The
1700 A.D. It owes its origin to the literary pro- oil of the fish is of a yellow whitish colour, and at
clivities of the Emperor Kang-he, who reigned from a medium temperature assumes the consistency of
1662 to 1722. In the course of his studies of the thin lard. This oil is used for many purposes, but
ancient literature of his country, Kang-he discovered, is most highly prized for its medicinal qualities.
that extensive corruptions had been allowed to It is said to be as efficacious as cod-liver oil in
creep into modern editions, and he conceived the pulmonary diseases, and has the advantage of being
idea of having the text of the originals reproduced, much more palatable. The scientific name of this
and preserved in an authorised form. This was a fish is the Thaleichthys pacijicus.
THE CANNON-BALL TREE.

THE CANNON-BALL TREE. 97
THE CANNON-BALL TREE. is more than one reason for this reduction. In the
first place, the number of commodities upon which
The Cannon-ball tree {Couropita gtdanensis) is a duty is considerkbly reduced.
levied is When
remarkable plant, inhabiting the extensive alluvial and other luxuries easy of
jewellery, watches, lace,
plains skirting the rivers of British Guiana. It be- concealment on the person, were heavily taxed,
longs to the myrtle family, and is closely related to there was a great temptation offered to both the
the Brazil-nut tree. An idea of its general appear- professional and amateur smuggler. Then, again,
ance will be gathered from our illustration, taken such articles as now carry customs dues are much
from The Gardener's Chronicle, and which was less heavily taxed than they were in times gone
engraved from a photograph of a young tree j
by, therefore there is not the same profit to be
growing in the Promenade Gardens, Georgetown. |
had from their concealment, while the risk of dis-
Its large and globular fruit plentifully produced has covery remains the same as ever. Tobacco and
given the plant its very appropriate name. The ardent spirits have always borne a heavy duty,
natural height of the tree reaches eighty to a hun- but it is now about half what it was a few years
dred feet, or even taller, with straight, unbranched ago. In spite of this, these two luxuries, perhaps
stem having a thickness of eighteen inches or there- owing to the universal demand for them, are
abouts. It bears a dense “hive-shaped” head of still favourite goods with smugglers, and the first-
dark green leaves, which suddenly fall away some named, from its portable character, is by far the most
time during the month of March, and are rapidly (in commonly found in such hands. We see, then,
a few days) replaced by a fully-matured foliage that there are causes for the decline of smuggling
of the brightest and freshest green. The flowers as a fine art, if the term may be used in such a
are large, of a pinkish colour, and highly scented, connection. We think that it may ;
for the in-
and are freely produced along the elongated flower- genuity exercisedevading the law certainly
in
ing branch. The fruit is a hard globular capsule, raised the perpetrators far above ordinary criminals.
six inches or more in diameter, containing numbers That this was so may be Judged from an inspection
of flat circular, pulp-imbedded seeds, rather larger of a collection of articles seized from smugglers
than a sixpenny-piece. The fruit, says Kingsley, which are now preserved as curiosities at the
is a “ rough brown globe, as big as a thirty-two- Custom House, London.
pound shot, which you must get down with a certain These curiosities of law-breaking assume many
caution, lest that befall you which befell a certain different forms, and, with few exceptions, have
gallant officer on themainland of America. Fired been contributed by passengers and members of
with a post-prandial ambition to obtain a cannon- the crew of steam-vessels trading between London
ball, he took to himself a long bamboo, and poked and the various continental ports. Let us look at
at the tree. He succeeded, but not altogether as these examples one by one, as we learn from their
he had hoped. For the cannon-ball, in coming custodian their objects and uses. Here is a great
down, avenged itself by dropping exactly on the coat, and a very ordinary-looking coat too. Was
bridge of his nose, felling him to the ground, and there ever a duty upon coats 1 we mentally ask
giving him such a pair of black eyes that he was ourselves. Our conductor turns the coat inside out,
not seen on parade for a fortnight.” and shows that it is literally honey-combed with
little pockets, each constructed to hold a watch.
The individual who owned this valuable hide was

A SMUGGLING MUSEUM. discovered with 150 watches concealed in it.
Another way of hiding w'atches is next pointed out.
Ever since it became customary for the gov'crn- It is a venerable-looking volume with leather
ment of a state to raise revenue
by imposing binding. We open it and find that the leaves are
duties on certain articles of consumption there cut through inside in circular pits, each one of
have been found persons who will do their best which would hold several timekeepers. Another
to evade payment. In the case of this country garment, technically known as a petticoat, is very
such attempts at smuggling are constantly ingeniously arranged to hold brandy. For this
brought before us by the published convic- purpose a number of long fish-bladders, like huge
tions in the various police courts, and there sausage-skins, depend from the waist-band, their
are few that are unaware that the punishment total capacity being several gallons. Another
awarded consists of a heavy fine, besides the petticoat is ingeniously sewn with cigars, which
payment of treble duty, and confiscation of the make a kilted edge of great regularity, while an-
goods seized. In default of payment, the delin- other is furnished with flat pockets to hold twenty-
quent is condemned to a term of imprisonment. seven pounds of cake tobacco. The latter material
Although these convictions are frequent enough, is also made up into pieces the shape of the sole,
they bear a very small proportion to the number of so as to be carried inside the boots.
cases which occurred only a few years back. There But the various modes of concealing goods show
N
far more inventive talent where they are carried |
long ago, a parcel of tobacco weighing 34 lbs. was
separate from the person, and probably every dropped on the beach at New Brighton, and re-
portion of a ship and its furniture has at some time mained unclaimed. This proves in a measure that
or other served as a hiding-place. Cigars strung the Customs officers are well There on the alert.
together end to end on a long line have been found is little methods of
likelihood that the ingenious
dropped between the outer and inner skin of the smuggling goods which we have enumerated will
vessel ;
blocks of wood, ships’ fenders, and other ever be repeated.
articles, including even a loaf of bread, are here
shown hollowea out and stuffed with contraband
tobacco. Even the rigging has helped in the work,
for here are ships’ blocks, with ‘.wheels inside, GIANT CHANGES IN JUPITER.
instead of being constructed of iron, made of com-
pressed tobacco. Our attention is next directed Manifold as are the wonders displayed amongst
to a pigeon cage, which at one time belonged to a the celestial bodies, there are few perhaps of more
certain enterprising stewardess, who added to her striking interest than that exhibited by the largest
income by carrying pigeons from Rotterdam. planet of our solar system—J upiter. Apart from
Pigeons not being subject to any tax, one was his enormous bulk, which enables his leading
clearly at liberty todo so but unfortunately it was
;
features to be discerned with telescopes of very
found that the cage had a false bottom, under moderate capacity, he shows unmistakeable evi-
which was concealed a quantity of Cavendish dence that his surface is in a state of great com-
tobacco. We may mention that the same birds motion. Highly-coloured markings of large extent
have more recently been detected as aiders if not |
and definite outline appear on his disc, and give
abettors to the smuggler. Two dozen carrier !
rise to a remarkable series of phenomena very
pigeons were let off regularly from Belgium to find difficult of explanation, but which are certainly the
their way across the French frontier each bird ; outcome .of marvellous forces such as have no
being burdened with about fifteen grammes of analogy upon the surface of our own earth. This
tobacco in the form of a coil. One of the birds is rendered patent by very recent results of tele-
fell exhausted in the Seine, and this led to a dis- scopic scrutiny directed to this planet, and is more-
covery of the system, which was speedily stopped. over corroborated by former observations.
Another still more cunning and bold way of cheat-
ing the revenue is represented by a cake of
material which well imitates the oil-cake upon
which cattle are fattened. A large quantity of
this stuff was imported, but was found on exami- Fig. I. —THE KED SPOT.
nation to consist of compressed snuff. The duty
on oil-cakewas about a penny per pound, while 1878 there appeared a large red spot on
In
that on snuff was three shillings or more so that ; Jupiter’ssouthern hemisphere, and this curious
the substitution of one for the other left a conformation has certainly caused the planet to receive
siderable margin for profit on the transaction. more attention than at any other period since the
Sometimes the smugglers have been too cautious invention of the telescope. The spot we allude to
to trust their goods inside the vessel, for bladders is of extraordinary size, the approximate dimensions
of spirit and tobacco, and in other cases lobster- being 29,000 miles in length and 8,300 in breadth.
pots full of various articles, have been found float- It is elliptical in form, with tapering ends, and the
ing, but attached to a cord below the water-line. major axis lies perfectly parallel with the dusky
For many years it was customary to destroy the belts of the planet. The early history of this
goods smuggled, and they were taken to a furnace singular object is merged in doubt, for when in
in the London docks which was crowned by a July, 1878, conspicuously attracted notice, it
it first
huge chimney-shaft. This receptacle was known 1 was already well developed, and we cannot trace its
as the Queen’s tobacco-pipe, and sometimes it *
earlier stages of formation from prior observations.

emitted its fragrant smoke for many days together. We may, however, safely assume that in 1877 the
Of late years this wasteful procedure has ceased, spot could not have been visible under the same
and the forfeited tobacco has been consigned to bold aspect as that which immediately led to its
the commissariat officers for distribution among detection in the summer of 1878.
our soldiers when on active service. As we have During the four years which have now elapsed
already hinted, smuggling is on the decline. Such this object has preserved its integrity of figure and
cases as now come before our magistrates are of persistency of appearance. It is now fainter than
the most commonplace character, and bear very formerly, and black specks are ends visible at the
little of that romance about them which used to (Fig. i). We may changes indicate
infer that these
hang about the doings of the bold buccaneer. Not the approaching disappearance of the spot. It has
GIANT CHANGES IN JUPITER, 99
served some useful purposes, the most significant of themost noticeable and wonderful features visible
of which is that it has enabled a rotation-period upon the planet’s surface (Fig. 2).
for the planet to be determined with a degree of
certainty far surpassing all previous efforts. This
is now found to be ph. which is nine
seconds in excess of the value formerly adopted.
The apparition of this great red spot upon the
surface of Jupiter naturally leads us to ask what
is the cause of such a monstrosity.^ Is it a gap
in the outer envelope of Jupiter, through which Fig 2 . — WHITE SPOT.
we are enabled to discern the ruddy tint of the

region below, or is it merely a mass of aqueous These variations, together with the greater
"•Vapour suspended over the planet ? Must we velocity and fairly regular motion of the bright spot,
assume that it is the result of extraordinary lead us at once to the inference that it is situated
cyclonic action, or was the spot more probably below the red spot in Jupiter’s cloud-envelopes, and
formed by the emission of gases from the lower affords us the best clue to the true rotation of Jupiter.
shell of the planet, which have condensed upon The red spot probably a condensed exhalation on
is
being confronted by colder regions without, and the outer limits, and thus it lags behind the very
are thus formed into a compact and permanent swift motion of the kernel of the planet, from which
mass ? In any case this wonderful spot affords it is materially dissociated. The difference of
ample evidence of gigantic changes going on in the motion two spots amounts to 13m. 24s. daily,
in the
planet, and is certainly one of the most notable and in 445 days the red spot loses ground to an
features which has ever come within the power of extent equal to one circumference of the planet.
telescopic revelation. The probability is that it is The dusky belts of Jupiter, which are familiar
situated on the extreme outer shell of Jupiter, and to all celestial observers, have opened up some
^ that an elevation, because the black specks on
it is interesting speculations as to their nature. They
the interior margin of the spot are very plain when are obviously not very permanent features upon
close to the planet’s limb. They would disappear the planet, as they change their positions in certain
entirely in this position were they placed on the cases, and are sometimes obliterated altogether.
sloping sides of a cavity. Moreover, the distinct New belts are occasionally seen tohave formed at
outline of the spot is invariably preserved, and short intervals, while others after remaining visible
this sufficiently shows it to be situated above those for several months have disappeared, but the pro-
regions of the planet most affected by atmospheric gress of these changes never seem to have been
currents and gaseous ejections from the probably studied with critical assiduity until very recently,
heated surface below. when the apparition of the red spot attracted the
The slow rotation of this red spot also affords closer attention of observers. During the winter
evidence that it is a phenomenon of the outer of 1880 a new belt formed upon the planet, and the
surface, for its period of gh. 55m. 35s. is no less process was watched during its several stages of
than 5^ minutes greater than that of a brilliant development. The position of the new belt was
white spot which has been visible during the last some 25° north of the equator of Jupiter, and we
three years at least, shining amid the dark belts of will give some description of this unique occur-
the planet’s equator. The latter shows a much rence. At first, on October 17, two minute black
swifter motion, for it crosses the central line of spots were noticed on a very narrow belt in the
Jupiter, at intervals of gh. 50m. 6s. ;
and the writer These had increased in size
position referred to (a).
has witnessed its re-appearances on
in this position by October 23, and several fainter spots came into
numerous occasions, for the purpose of determining view on October 2g they had further developed
;
its rate of motion and learning something of its sin- so as to extend over 32° of longitude (b). On succes
gular behaviour. It varies rapidly: s metimes it is sive nights they continued to enlarge, and many
brilliant, while now and again it is so faint that only additional spots appeared, and it was remarkable
intent gazing and the application of the highest that the group was extending itself in a perfectly
telescopic power will succeed in revealing it. These longitudinal direction ;
so that early in November
temporary obscurations admit of ready explanation. it an irregular chain of spots lying
constituted
They are caused by the passage of dark, semi- parallel with the dark belts of the planet. On
transparent masses over the spot, for when it November 8 the spots extended over 66° of longi-
appears faint there is always seen a dusky conden- tude (c). This means that during the ten days from
sation lying immediately near it. These remain October 2g to November 8 this confluent eruption
for a few days, until receding from the position of had more than doubled its length, so that it must
the bright spot, the latter is enabled to recover its have increased some 25,000 miles On Novem- !
accustomed brilliancy, and it becomes at once one ber 23 they were seen to have gone on increas-
lOO THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
ing with marvellous rapidity ; for now they covered planet, became by means of his very
distributed
120® of longitude, and were in fact entwined ;
swift axial rotation. we must conclude
In any case
around one-third of the planet’s circumference ! that the spots were ejecta or uprushes from the
On December 30, the group had become partially j
planet, and were not formed above his surface.

detached from the narrow belt from which they We see similar phenomena in constant process
were first ejected, and had so far continued to of repetition in the dark belts which environ
accumulate and disperse that they now covered his equator. These become fainter at times, bu'i
281°, which is more than equivalent to three- are intensified and re-invigorated by the apparition
fourths of the planet’s sphere ! Towards the end of dark spots and patches, which sweep rapidl>
of January the girdle was complete ;
the planet westwards, and lengthen out until they are dis-
was encircled by a perfect chain of spots, with only persed amongst the dusky material of the belts.
slight irregularities here and there, insufficient to dTien the latter assume a darker hue by the
break the continuity of their appearance. But the reinforcement, but daily grow fainter until another
individual outbreak of
spots, while spots restores
thus increasing their dark and
and stretching definite aspect.
out, had been In a word, the
losing their belts of Jupiter
definite cha- simply repre-
racter, and had sent the ma-
now grown terial of con.
somewhat fluent erup-
faint, so that tions of dark
the very defi- spots and
nite and con- masses, which,
spicuous black are ejected
spots seen from the sur-
during Octo- face and spun
ber 23 and or woven into
November 8 longitudinal
Fig. 3. —GRADUAL FORMATION OF A NEW BELT.
were resolved streams by the
into dusky effects of the
patches and specks of irregular form. With in- planet’s very rapid rotation. The velocity of an
creasing faintness they had shown a disposition to object on the equator of Jupiter equal to 467
is
leave the belt upon which they were first seen, miles per minute, whereas for an object on the
and were now observed to be scattered along a earth it is only seventeen miles per minute. This
region slightly nearer the equator (d). In Feb- marvellously swift motion must be sufficient to
ruary the spots formed a new belt upon the planet originate the phenomena alluded to; indeed, any
(e), and in the summer months of 1881, when one who makes a special study of the telescopic
Jupiter came again into favourable view, it con- features of this planet must admit that their forms
tinued visible. All traces of the black spots had and disposition on the Jovian disc prove them to
disappeared, but their rapid dispersion had formed be influenced by a series of swift currents, brought
the material of a new belt, lying some distance about by the great axial motion of the planet.
north of the equator, and in close juxtaposition to As to the bright bands of Jupiter, they probably
j
the narrow band from which the spots had for- represent highly-reflective clouds, somewhat analo-
merly been evolved (f). !
gous to those of our own atmosphere. Below this
The stupendous forces which -originated so ex- !
there is probably a much denser strata, and nearer
tensive an outbreak, and the wonderful phenomena again to the surface we may conclude, according to-
|
which subsequently led to its development into a j

Mr. Matthieu Williams, that there is a layer of
new belt, can hardly be conceived. The equatorial heated and condensed gases; while surrounding the
diameter of Jupiter is about 88,000 miles, and his kernel of the planet is a profound ocean of denser
circumference more than three times as great, so vapours, and of such volatile metals and minerals
that we can understand with what remarkable ve- as may exist on Jupiter. The body of the planet
locity the spotsmust have accumulated. There can is red-hot, or rather white-hot. Extravagant and
be little doubt that the new belt was evolved from chimerical as this theory may be to some, it is
the surface or kernel of the planet, and represented consistent with many observed facts, and seems to
a gigantic escape of probably heated vapour, be the most plausible conclusion at which we can
which, as it mingled with the outer strata of the arrive as to the present condition of the planet.
OUR IRONCLADS. lOI
OUR IRONCLADS. coupled with the faculty of resistance in the highest

degree.
It is quite obvious that the idea of armour being The Norman freebooters arranged their bucklers
j
applied to the outside of a vessel could not in the vessels, and various plans were
alongside the
nature of things be a very original one. The use adopted to protect the sides of their vessels in
of armour by the individual was of very ancient engagements. As early as the twelfth century
date, and the transfer of a similar protection to the they were in the habit of putting a belt of iron
sides of a ship would be as natural as the plating around their ships, just above the water-line, the
—
of doors in old castles a practice of singular anti- belt terminating in front by a spur. The Spaniards,
quity. So also with regard to rams the principle in 1304, had the sides of their vessels covered with
:
of ramming or butting an enemy, whether a ship, raw hides, to protect them from incendiary attacks ;
a castle, or a wall, belongs to the very early ages of at the battle of Lepanto, in which the celebrated
'*^var. Notwithstanding, however, these general re- author of “Don Quixote” took part as a private
semblances to something which was the common soldier, the Genoese ships were strengthened by
property of our ancestors, there is still room for rea- blindages, or bulwarks, composed of old sails,
sonable astonishment and interest in the develop- cordage, heavy beams, &c. Coming down to a
ments which have taken place in the normal idea, later period, in 1782, at the unsuccessful siege of
and it is that to which we are about to call atten- Gibraltar, the Chevalier d’Arcon, at the suggestion
tion. The original element in the matter is that in of M. de Verdun, constructed and used ten floating
the old system the vessel was all in all the weapons ;
batteries, having their tops bomb-proof, and the
of offence and the arrangements for defence were sides protected by parapets six feet thick, composed
subsidiary in a certain measure to the necessities of hard wood, reinforced by cork, leather, and bars
of the ship as a ship. At the present time, in naval of iron. The batteries themselves carried 214
architecture the ship per se is nothing all is ; guns of large calibre, of which seventy-two were
subordinated to her aggressive and defensive reserves. Although no success attended the expe-
powers. The poet has described a ship as “ walk- dition, yet for several hours at close range these
ing the waters like a thing of life.” As a matter of ships withstood a tremendous artillery fire concen-
fact, the ironclads have neither symmetry nor pic- trated upon them from the forts ;
eventually they
turesqueness, or any attraction whatever to invite were all burnt or blown up, having yielded to red-
poetic description what they have is a particular
;
hot shot. In 1826 an anonymous writer in Paris
and exact adaptation to the purposes of destruction, proposed the construction of ironclad frigates, the
walls of which should have a thickness sufficient the Adtniral type, is an answering move to the
to resist cannon ;
this was with direct reference to boastful ship-building of the Italian Government.
Colonel Paixhans’ system of horizontal shell-firing, Our earlier ironclads were of two types ;
now
“ because,” the writer contended, “ wooden ships they are various. Originally there were those in
would no longer be of any use.” Colonel Paixhans, which the walls were protected by plates laid on
the inventor of the guns which were to do so much the walls of the ship, such as the Warrior,
mdschief, himself recommended, in 1841, the the Achilles, and the Bellerophon, and those carry-
plating of war vessels, so as to resist his own ing their batteries in turrets, such as the Mina-
system of artillery ;
but his proposals, ingenious tonoinah, the Minotaur, the Glatton, the Thunderer,
and expedient as they were, did not then com- and the Devastation ; and these in turn were sub-
mand the acceptance of the French naval autho- divided in a rough fashion, according as their uses
rities. were for cruising, defending harbours, &c.
In 1854, the American Government commenced There are some curious gradations to be marked
some experiments in the construction of iron bat- in this subject. The universal introduction of
teries ;
one feature system was the use
in their then rifle fire-arms rendered rifle artillery a necessity,
of inclined instead of vertical plating, so as to change for if the smallweapons exceeded the large ones in
the direction of the enemy’s projectile after impact. precision and range, the gunners working the guns
The iron plates consisted of 35-inch iron slabs laid would be killed by the bullets of the rifleman’s fire
on triangular backing of timber, extending in their at a distance beyond the range of the heavy guns.
length four feet below water-mark. From the outer Then the general introduction of rifle guns of heavy
edge of this side protection, the shot-proof case- calibre rendered it, in turn, indispensable that
mate proceeded upwards and inwards at an angle some way be protected from large
ships should in
of I vertical to 2 horizontal, and to a height of projectiles and their augmented power and pre-
28 feet from the bottom of the ship and 5^ feet cision. Hence each development was a necessary
from the fighting-line. consequence of the preceding one ;
it followed
The Woolwich, and also the
authorities at also that the simplicity which would be sacrificed
French Admiralty, tested the theory and design of in the construction of our guns would have to be
this vessel. The Eimperor of the French (Napoleon sacrificed in an equal degree in the construction of
III.) acting on the plans of M. Guieysse, directed our new ships and whilst the guns required more
;
the use of iron plates 45 inches thick, an elastic manipulative skill on the part of the gunners, the
backing of oak of 8 inches, and plates rolled to the ship would also require a new quality of intel-
required thickness, instead of a variety of plates ligence (that of the engineer) on the part of those
considerably thinner united together. Five float- who worked her.
ing batteries were so constructed, 160 feet long, 42 Since the construction of the Warrior the changes
wide, 8 feet draft. The armament consisted of ten in structure, in armour, and in armament have been,
50-pounder guns under the cuirass and two 12- and continue to be, so varied that the description
pounders on the forecastle. These improvements of to-day may be obsolete to-morrow. One of
in the French navy caused immense excitement in the first ironclads constructed, and now afloat,
England, which some of our readers may be old was 380 feet long, breadth 58 feet, 6,170 tons,
enough to remember. The French Minister of engines 1,250 horse-power, with bunkers that held
Marine sent plans of these vessels to the English coal for nine days’ steaming. She carried origi-
Government, and eventually the latter ordered five nally thirty-six 68-pounders and two 25-pounders.
batteries to be made of the new type. They were The armour might have appeared, at a superficial
merely batteries, and had no merits as ships. glance, mere thin plates of tempered steel but ;
These French vessels proved themselves in the if you had examined these during construction,
attack on the Russian forts of Kinburn so as to you would have been surprised to find slabs of
satisfy the most sanguine expectations of their iron 4J inches wide, backed with 21 inches of
architect and of the Government.. teak, whilst the inner skin was of half-inch iron.
The building of the Gloire at Toulon, in 1858, Between decks there were ponderous iron doors,
distinctly marks a new era in naval artillery. She which ran across on slides, and could be bolted on
was carry 36 guns of 6'3 calibre ; her side
to the inside if the boarders got possession. These
plates 45 inches thick, backed by 24 inches of were found at each end of the vessel, so as to turn
timber. From that date every improvement in it on an emergency into a shot-proof fort.
artilleryhas been met by a corresponding improve- The Inflexible, a much later vessel ( 1 874), had un-
ment in the naval armoury. In England, it has armoured ends. She
a turret-ship of the citadel
is
been said, the building of the Warrior^ the Defiance^ kind, the turrets being amidships. The central
and the Black Prince was a practical answer to division of the hull is heavily armoured beyond
the French activity, just as at the present moment its limits fore and aft the vertical armour plat-
;
the building of the Camperdown at Portsmouth, on ing is succeeded by the horizontal shot-proof deck,
; ;
OUR IRONCLADS. 103
so that the shot hop off it like raindrops from a on the inside with f-inch iron plates, stiffened
cabbage-leaf. The citadel portion, situated amid- with 7-inch frames ;

the total thickness of iron
ships, is (on the lower deck) divided into boiler- is iij inches, of which 9 Inches are in one thick-
engine and boiler compartments. The turrets are ness. The armour of the new ironclad, the Camper-
not facing each other (so to speak) on the deck in down, to which we have already referred, will reach
the centre of the ship, but placed diagonally, so as to a depth of five feet below the water-line, and she
to give a wider horizontal sweep to the two guns on will be protected by a belt rising two feet six inches
each side. From the accompanying illustration of above the water-line. Her armour will consist of
the steerage and turning gear, an idea may be compound plates on the side, 18 inches; bulkheads,
:
formed of the thickness of the walls and the 16 inches; barbettes, 14 inches and 12 inches; con-
thorough protection enjoyed by the “ man at ning rower, 12 inches and 9 inches and screw
;
the wheel. ’
bulkheads, 6 inches. She will differ from all
The Camperdown^ now under construction, will existing types, armoured or unarmoured, in having
differ from the Inflexible, and, indeed, all her pre- vertical ventilating tubes extending from the flying
decessors, and will be considerably larger than the deck to the lower deck; these tubes are armoured
Italian Diiilio. She will be propelled by twin screws, to the thickness of 12 inches. She will be also
and be of 9,800 horse-power. She will carry
will protected by an armoured deck, 3 inches thick
four 63-ton guns and six 6-inch guns, besides over the belt, and 2\ inches thick below the water-
machine guns and torpedoes. Her bunkers will line at the ends.
hold 900 tons of coal. It is contended by some persons that it is a great
In connection with the recent operations before advantage to our navy to have vessels possessing
Alexandria, it will be interesting to know the different characteristics and fighting capacities
architectural types of the different ironclads. The thus we have from the 4^ -ton guns of the Warrior,
largest vessels of the earlier type are the Warrior, 9, 12, 18, and 25-ton guns of the Monarch and the
the Hercules, and
Minotajir
the the smaller Glatton, whilst the turret-ship Devastation has a
' vessels of the earlier type, the Hector and Resis- 30-ton gun. The turret or Minotatir class of vessel,
tance. The largest recent masted vessels, the however, marked a distinct epoch in naval archi-
Monarch, Hercules, the Sultan, Alexandra.^ and tecture, and it needs a few words. This vessel
Temeraire; smaller masted types, the Fanûardand was constructed by an American engineer, named
the Triumph; belted ships, the Shannon and the Ericsson. She had a revolving turret, com-
Nelson; mastless, or lightly-rigged, the Devasta- posed of wrought-iron plates an inch thick, and
tion, Dreadnought, Inflexible. Rams, the Hotspur belted together until a thickness of eight inches
and the Rupert. Minotaurs, the Gorgon and had been obtained. The turret was 20 feet in
Glatton. All these vessels are constructed in diameter, 9 feet high, and contained two 91 -inch
water-tight compartments, and the Achilles has Dalghren guns, trained side by side, and re-
no less than 106, the Alexandra 115, and the volving with the turret. The hull was of iron,
Itiflexible 135. 127 feet long, 36 feet 2 inches wide, with a 12 feet
In the construction of these vessels due regard depth of hold. She was built in 1862, in the short
had to be paid to the character of the materials. space of too days, and cost 275,000 dollars, or
Apart from the actual experience of their manner about ^55,000. The advantage of the turret-ships
of behaviour in action, drawn from the lessons of is the facility which they afford for training large
the American civil war, the authorities have been guns smoothly and easily through large arcs,
able, by constructing targets which shall correctly giving a large range of horizontal command, and
represent the sides of an armour-plated ship, to making the same guns available for both sides of
•ascertain the adaptability of iron, steel, and timber, the ship. The turret system describes itself : the
and their relative power of resistance to the gun or guns revolve in a turret, in precisely the
various missiles which can be used against them at same manner as a railway truck is made to revolve
various ranges. Compound armour - plates are upon a turn-table; the great drawback which they
those now in favour. With respect to the thick- have to contend with is the weight of armour.
ness of the armour, great changes have already With a given weight it is practicable to mount
been seen. Nine-inch armour at the water-line eight guns on the broadside principle, four and
was considered the desirable maximum, and 6 four, and to work them as effectually as four guns
inches on the remainder then we had lo-inch
; only, mounted in two turrets it is, of course, more
;
teak backing, with longitudinal girders at intervals desirable to have four guns on each side, two firing
of about two working upon i^-inch section
feet, simultaneously, than to have only four altogether.
plates,supported by lo-inch vertical frames placed The Americans have a method of mounting guns
two feet apart, the space in between being filled in pairs atbroadside ports.
with teak; inside the frames a further thickness How.long the international competition in the
of 19 or 20 feet of teak; the whole being banded construction of these vessels may continue it is
H.M.S. “ IN'FLEXIIil.E.”
JAPANESE DWARFED TREES. ^°5
impossible to say. To the scientific development and no one can tell what developments of defence
of the system there appears to be hardly any clear the gradual improvements in artillery may render
limit probably the
;
financial necessities imposed necessary. But England has least cause of any
upon governments be the practical limit to
will power to be anxious about this. No other power
this system of competitive armament. In England has made such indefatigable efforts, nor expended
we have within the last few years unreluctantly ungrudgingly such vast sums in tentative construc-
expended upwards of ;îo, 000,000. The Achilles tions, as the English Government, supported by
cost ^484,311, Bellerophon cost

the the public spirit of a people proud of their mari-
Twelve ironclads, including those of the types time supremacy. Our reward is the possession of
named before, cost, in actual labour and materials, the most formidable navy the world has ever seen.
JAPANESE DWARFED TREES,
;^3,438,345, and if i2h per cent be added to this as JAPANESE DWARFED TREES.
establishment charge, we get the astonishing total
of about ;^3, 500,000. The Invincible was a con- Perh.aps no people are more remarkable than
tract-built ship. The Inflexible, of which we give the Chinese and Japanese for the minute care and
an illustration from perhaps her best point of view, attention which they bestow upon their agricultural
and which did such good service during the bom- undertakings. This is not only the case as regards
bardment of Alexandria, is a type of the “ mastless the production of cereals, pulses, and other useff'l
sea-going vessel,” built in 1874 she cost ;^484,ooo.
;
plants, but they devote not a little care to purely
Her displacement is 11,400, horse-power 8,000, ornamental cultivation, and especially delight in the
length 320 feet, breadth 75 feet. !
production of quaint and abnormal growths. The
The between guns and armour seems
rivalry old Swedish traveller, Thunberg, for instance,
likely to continue. Year by year, almost, guns describes the beauty of the Japanese flowering
are made capable of piercing thicker and thicker almonds and peaches, which, as well as plum,
armour, or of penetrating it at a greater distance ; ;
clierry, apple, and pear trees, were covered with jt
O
io6 THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
mass of double and single blossoms, of the former branches being bent and intertwined, or tied
of which the Japanese were particularly proud. together in order to force them into some unnatural
Both in Japan and in China it is the custom to and grotesque position. By this means the appear-
produce dwarf fruit-trees, such as have of late ance of great age is often imparted to comparatively
years become not uncommon in our own green- young plants, while by the simple process of dwarf-
houses, while in many of the houses in Japan may ing a semblance of sickly youth is preserved, even
be met with tiny specimens of the orange-tree, when the plant has reached a considerable age.
which are seldom above six inches in height, and It is possible that the climate of Japan favours to
bear oranges only of the size of a cherry, “ and yet some extent the growth of plants under these most
sweet and palatable.” unfavourable conditions and probably in countries*
;
Distinguished as they are by Vhat we should colder, more arid, and more isolated, the production
consider the grotesque in art, they are, also, remark- of such monstrosities would be attended v. iih much
able for the strange liberties which they take with greater difficulty. Still, there can be no question
the natural growth of plants, not only producing, that both the Japanese and the Chinese are gifted
by clipping, those hideous monsters in the shape of with specialskill in this branch of arboriculture,
dragons, serpents, lizards, and the like, of which and indeed can hardly be said to have any com-
the counterparts might to some extent be seen in petitors in the art.
England about a century ago, but actually altering The English botanist, Fortum, in his travels in
and retarding their normal development. In this China and Japan, had frequently an opportunity
art ofproducing monstrous growths in plants the of admiring the skill and knowledge with which
Japanese excel all others, and by their mode of their singular gardening was performed. Of Japan
treatment induce such strange results in the forms he writes as follows —
“As the lower parts of the
of their victims as to leave them hardly recognis- Japanese houses and shops are open both before
able as the things they are. and behind, I had peeps of their pretty little
How these results are obtained appears now to gardens as I passed along the streets, and when-
be tolerably clear. The production of dwarfs is ever I observed one better than the rest I did not
indeed based upon one of the commonest principles fail to pay it a visit. Many of these places arc
of vegetable physiology, namely, the retardation of exceedingly small, some not much larger than a
the flow of sap in the young trees. Where the good-sized dining-room but the surface is ren-
;
dwarfs are raised from suckers, as is frequently the dered varied and pleasing by means of little
case, the main stem is in most cases twisted mounds of turf, on which are planted dwarf trees,
in a zigzag form, which at once checks the free kept clipped into fancy forms, and by miniature lakes,
circulation of the sap, and at the same time pro- in which gold and silver fish disport themselves.”
motes the growth of side branches at those points Among the plants which he noticed in these tiny
of the stem at which their production is most plantations were azaleas, pines, junipers, some
desired. But should the branches, thus encou- ferns, and a pretty little dwarf variegated bamboo.
raged, grow symmetrically, the labour of the

fail to These little gardens, with their dwarfed, but well-
arboriculturist will have been thrown away, for tended plants, belonged for the most part to the
neither by the Chinese nor by the Japanese is a poorer classes, but in the outskirts of the larger
one-sided dwarf tree considered of any value. towns plantations of greater extent may be occa-
When the trees are raised from seed, those seeds sionally seen, the property of the wealthy nobles.
are selected w'hich are themselves the smallest, In these, however, the dwarfs are by no means
and which have been gathered from the smallest absent, while here and there may be seen a giant
trees. The supply of water is reduced to the of its kind, amongst which may be mentioned a
smallest possible quantity, and as new branches huge azalea, which measured no less than forty feet
are in the act of formation their growth is retarded in circumference, and must, when in flower, have
in various ways, the points of the leaders being presented the most magnificent appearance.
generally nipped out, while every means is adopted It is upon the conifers (pines, firs, Src.) that the
to prevent the production of young shoots possess- Japanese chiefly exercise their ingenuity in the
ing any degree of vigour. Doubtless, too, those production of these monstrosities, the pines being
plants are selected for the purpose which lend them- apparently the best able to withstand the effects
selves most readily to the operation, and are capable of such unnatural treatment. In the figure
of retaining their vitality under the most adverse (Fig. 4) is represented a dwarf pine {Pinus dcnsi-
conditions. Nearly all flora\ which is known to be certainly a hundred
the vegetable monstrosi-
ties are dwarfed in and consequently must years old. The pot in which it is contained is but
size,
to no inconsiderable extent have been deprived of 195 inches in diameter, and is completely filled
requisite nourishment, and in some cases almost up by the growing stem. Notwithstanding its
of the absolute necessities of life. Added to this, age, the dwarfed tree reaches in height only 47
they are frequently further modified in form, the inches, and though to all seeming healthy, will
DIVERS AND THEIR WORK. 107
probably never attain to any much greater de- DIVERS AND THEIR WORK.
velopment.
Another e.xample of the very remarkable results Little does the world at large know of the perilous
obtained upon v>.getable growth by the abnormal undertakings beneath the surface of the sea, so
treatment practised by the Japanese is that shown skilfully carried out by submarine engineers. It is
in Fig. 3. Here the trunk of the dwarfed and mis- not until the imposing superstructure of lighthouse
shapen tree (also Pinus densiflora) appears or other edifice rears itself above the waters that the
suspended in mid air, while the long bare roots, result of their submarine labour is manifest ;
and
supported by props, and here and there tied to keep too often the readier admiration is given to that which
.
them in the desired position, at length reach the is visible, than to the more perilous and e.xhausting
earth, whence they draw up the nourishment re- labours, out of sight, in the depths of the sea.
quisite to sustain the life of the diminutive tree. In So great is the cold and exhaustion attending^
^this example it is not easy to distinguish the root of the work of divers under water, even when pro-
the pine from the stem, nor to tell where the one tected by the best scientific appliances, that the
terminates and the other begins. Though at least hardiest can work only for an hour or two at a
forty years old, the total height of the plant, includ- stretch, and but few hours in the day. In many
ing the bare suspended roots, did not exceed cases bleeding at the nose and ears, deafness, and
twenty-eight inches. other ailments, soon supervene, if the work is to be
In Fig. 2 is shown a young pine {Rhyncho- carried on at any considerable depth.
spermian japonictcm), perhaps ten years of age, A diver’saccoutrements consist of a water-proof
which was brought to the Paris Exhibition of 1878, suit, rendered water-tight at the wrists by india-
while in Fig. i is another example of a dwarfed rubber, so as to leave his hands free, and his head
and deformed Pinus densiflora. is covered with a copper helmet, which makes a
But perhaps one of the most remarkable in- water-tight junction at the neck and shoulders with
stances of dwarfed trees of which any account has his waterproof suit, and which is provided with
'
reached us is that related by President Meylan, glass goggles, to enable him to see his work. Any
who in 1826 saw a box which he states to have failure in the water-tight character of this suit and
been but one inch square and three inches high, in helmet would allow the water to enter and stifle the
which, nevertheless, were growing a fir, a bamboo, diver. Fresh air for his consumption, when under
and a tiny plum-tree, the last being thickly covered water, is the hollow helmet, through
supplied to
with blossom. The happy possessor of this vege- flexible tubing, from an air force-pump. This pump
table curiosity was willing to dispose of it, but for a is carried on a barge or boat, where it is operated
sum of no less than one hundred pounds. If the by two attendants. Should this air-tube become
amount of patient labour, and the degree of skill, entangled, or cut, the diver’s life would be again in
necessary to produce such a wonder be duly con- great danger. The air escapes from the helmet by
sidered, the sum may not appear exorbitant nay, : its own pressure through a waste-vaK'e, which
it may be doubted if such a curiosity of vegetation prfevents the entrance of water.
could be profitably produced for the money. The strangest difficulty that the diver has to face,
Though the production of some of the dwarfed and allow for, is the buoyancy of the surrounding
fruit-trees already referred to is no doubt advan- water. Were he to attempt to descend into the
tageous, and performed more with a view to
is sea without any further appliances than those we
utility than ornament, the artificial formation of have hitherto described, he would not find himself
such vegetable monstrosities as those exhibited in able to descend at
all. The human body has
the figures can be regarded only in the light of a nearly the same specific gravity as the water in ;
singular caprice. It certainly cannot be claimed fact, a little less when the lungs are inflated, which
for them that they are ornamental, but there is a enables a swimmer to float. As the volume
quaintness about some of them which is more or occupied by the air in the helmet of the diver still
less attractive, while it is interesting to see to what further diminishes his specific gravity, he would
extent the direct agency ofman is capable of alter- find himself, when in the water, so supported by its
ing the normal growth of trees which, in their buoyancy that he could not get below its surface at
natural state of existence, present so uniform a all. To overcome this tendency he carries heavy
character as the pines. When therefore we see leaden weights, slung over his shoulders and
one of these trees with the respectable girth of fastened to the soles of his feet, and thus weights
about five feet, and yet having a height of under himself as if bent on suicidal intentions. These
four feet, it is an object not only of curiosity but of weights present a new element of danger. He is
interest, and leads us to consider what changes, obliged to carefully descend a ladder from the boat,
under peculiar circumstances, might be gradually from which he is as liable to fall as if in the air. In
brought about on even our most familiar and the same way, whilst working on the summit of a
common plants. pinnacle of rock, he is liable to miss his footing
io8 THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
SUliMARINK OI’KRATIO.N'S AT THL ROCK OF LAVFZZI, IN THE MEDITERRANEAN.

i)ivi:rs and their work 109
and fall into unknown abysses. Nor can he readily In the face of such manifold dangers does th&
return to the surface in cases of extreme emergency, hardy diver pursue his necessary and valuable
as his leaden weights nail him to the bottom. The work below th chill waters, and sees, no doubt,
-
weights are usually so ti.xed that the diver can ^

many wonders in the deep beyond ordinary ken.
SUBMARINE REPAIRS TO 1 HE “ COLUMBIA.”
readily throw them emergency, should

off in cases of '
The accompanying illustration gives a graphic
he have the presence of mind to do so but a new ;
idea of the submarine operations carried out in the
danger may arise even from such a proceeding, construction of a signal-tower upon a dangerous
Were he incautiously to remove the weights first sunken rock between the islands of Corsica and
from his feet whilst those on the shoulder still Sardinia. This rock, known as the Rock of
remained, he would find his feet rise vertically Lavezzi, lies in the centre of the navigable Straits
above him, whilst his weighted head would descend of Bonifacio, between the said islands ;
and as it
CO the bottom, and he would thus be rendered is low tide some seven feet below the surface, its
at
more helpless than ever. ,
jagged point forms a dangerous trap not easily
no THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
discerned. It has been the scene of numerous concrete foundation was run into the caisson as
wrecks. In particular the frightful wreck, in the year before. The surface was levelled off ready for
1855, of the French war frigate La Semtllante, on building upon, and the holes were then pierced
board of which were 743 souls, not one of whom by plungers or “jumpers” in the hands of divers
was saved, gave it a dreadful notoriety. The Sar- —as shown in our illustration — through the hollow
dinian Government had endeavoured to indicate its pipes into the rock beneath. Into these holes
position by a floating bell surmounted by six the iron bars were inserted, and liquid cement
mirrors, which served to reflect the rays of the sun run in to the pipes to fix the bars and make all
by day, and those of a neighbouring lighthouse by secure. Upon this was the super-
foundation
night. Unfortunately, this beacon was destroyed structure built, which was child’s play compared
by being dashed against the rock in the very storm with the submarine work. The divers had to
when its warning was required, so the government go to their work armed with daggers, to defend
determined to erect upon the rock a plain pillar of themselves against the possible attacks of the
masonry, to act as a signal-tower. The upper “ squids ” and sharks, which are numerous in
surface of the rock presented an irregular inclined those waters and their work could only be carried
;
and jagged circle of about twenty feet in diameter ;

on from the attendant boats when the weather was
so the site, which was never uncovered by the fine and calm. They were unlucky in their
water, presented as awkward a base for architec- weather, having no than eleven tempests in
less
tural purposes as could well be imagined. How- the spring them only thirty-six
season, allowing
ever, engineering ingenuity fitted to the rock a working-days out of one hundred and seventy.
caisson — that is, a cylinder with an interior diameter No doubt many were the hair-breadth escapes
equal to that of the proposed tower, and without of the party, when fleeing from the rock at the rise
any bottom, the sides being formed irregularly, so of the sudden tempests of the But again
seas.
as approximately to fit the rock on which it rested, has the work been successfully completed, the
and the upper edge extending some
distance above tower rising some twenty-three feet above the
the surface of the This was to form a
water. level of the sea, painted in alternate streaks of red
mould, as it were, for the tower. Concrete that — and black, to be the more conspicuous. We hope
is, a mixture of stones, sand, and cement, was pre- this time that such brave persistence will meet
pared in barges, floating near, and the concrete with the reward it merits, in the final immovability
was thrown into the interior of the caisson to form of the signal-tower of Lavezzi.
a base upon which the superstructure could be built. Our second illustration records an equally brave
This was successfully effected, and it was hoped and audacious submarine feat of skill. A serious
that such a heavy mass of solid concrete and accident happened to the steamship Columbia,
masonry would be a permanent fixture upon the of the Compagnie Royale du Pacifique, when on
rock, and that the rock was done with for the her voyage from Panama to Callao, in July of 1878.
future. A second lighthouse was erected on She was thrown, in a storm, upon the rocks of the
a neighbouring isle, so that two lighthouses port Ballenita. These rocks, which have jagged
should, from opposite sides, throw converging points, pierced her hull near the stern, the vessel
rays of red light upon this beacon during the remaining firmly fixed upon the rocks. When fine
night. All was successfully carried out,and the weather supervened, the cargo was all discharged,
indication of the sunken rock was perfect by day the aid of other vessels was obtained, and she was
or night, had the signal-tower been able to with- towed off the rocks to float once more. It was
stand the fury of the tempest. But it was well that found, however, that the hole pierced in her iron
no lives were entrusted to its keeping, as the tower hull was so serious, that no ordinary means were
was swept completely away during a furious storm capable of keeping out the water, and so much
in the year 1875. R had lasted but six years from water entered, that she was soon water-logged at
its commencement. the stem, and that portion of the vessel was
However, with creditable perseverance, always almost submerged. Under these circumstances it
characteristic of the struggle of man against the was impossible for the vessel to continue her pas-
forces of nature, it was determined again to sage to Callao, which was the nearest port where
build a tower which no storm should be able to efficient aid could be obtained, though distant
remove. The engineers determined this time to nearly 500 miles. It must be remembered that at
secure the concrete foundation by piercing through such foreign or colonial ports as Ballenita there
it no less than thirteen strong perpendicular bars of are no dry docks, shipwrights, or engineers to give
iron, which werebe sunk some three feet into the
to efficient aid to vessels which may have undergone
rock, thus absolutely pinning the foundations to serious damage and as a rule, vessels once
;
the rock. In order to save the labour of piercing seriously injured, under such circumstances, are
the holes through the concrete foundation, cast-iron irrecoverably lost.
tubes were placed in proper position before the The chief engineer of the company, however.
rp:markable antipathies. Ill
(James Thomson by name, as we are proud to very common amongst all classes and kinds of
observe), made the spirited resolve that he would people, and more remarkable and extra-
in their
take men and temporarily repair her, where she lay ordinary developments have puzzled even the most
in deep water, by the aid of divers. When he and learned philosophers. In some cases such anti-
his party arrived at Ballenita, he sent his divers pathies appear to arise from some peculiar
down to ascertain the extent of the damage. The condition of the senses. Amatus Lustianus knew
size of the hole they found may be best judged by a monk who fainted when a rose was shown to
our readers from the illustration. him, and while that flower was in bloom was afraid
Two blades out of four of the propeller and the to quit his cell. The celebrated physician Peter
rudder were broken clean away. However, Mr. d’Apono could not endure the smell of cheese, and
Thomson did not despair, but sent down the divers fainted when it was put near him and there is ;
to make a template, or pattern, of flexible laths, of still, we believe, in existence a treatise on this
tie shape of the ship’s hull, clear outside the hole, subject, called “ De Aversione Casei,” written by
so as to enclose the leak within it. From this pat- Martin Schoockms, a professor of philosophy who
tern, when brought on deck, the engineer and his also possessed this singular antipathy, bcaliger
assistants made a strong timber box or frame, mentions one of his relations who could not look
caulking it securely, to make it water-tight, the at a lily, and Montaigne mentions some men who
edges being fitted by the pattern, so as exactly to had more dread of apples than of musket-balls.
fit the hull round the leak. This box was then The brave and daring Duke of Epernon swooned
lowered, and braced into position by strong chains with terror at the sight of a leveret, although he
passing round the hull of the vessel, so that it was could look at a hare unmoved. Caesar d’Abret
firmly pressed into the required place. When could not sit at the table on which a sucking-pig
firmly secured in place by internal clamps, under was placed, unless, curiously enough to add, its
the direction of the divers, these latter then set head had been previously removed. Deslandes
to work to firmly caulk the frame all round where relates other instances as extraordinary in the
jt touched the ship’s hull. Mercure de France, one of which was that of a
The protector being thus made water-tight over soldier who turned faint whenever linen was cut
all its joints and surface, prevented the water from in his presence. Thomas Hobbes had such a
entering the leak. The water from the hold was terror of darkness at night that if left in it without a
soon pumped out, and the stern of the vessel began light he would swoon. Tycho Brahe grew sick
to rise from the water until it regained its proper with terror at the sight of a fox or hare. Bayle
height. The propeller being found to act fairly well was seized with convulsions when he heard the
in its broken state, and the rudder being repaired, noise of water falling from a rain-spout. Zimmer-
the Columbia started off to complete her voyage to man mentions a lady who would shudder at the
Callao in triumph, where she arrived with perfect touch of silk, satin, or the velv'ety skin of a peach.
safety on the 7th of September. She was kept Boyle has placed on record the case of a man who
afloat in that port until the 28th of March following, had so powerful a dislike of honey, that when it
awaiting her repair-plates from England, when she was introduced without his knowledge into a
was docked and put permanently in order. Thus plaster that was applied to his foot he imme-
successfully terminated one of the most remark- diately detected it and insisted upon its removal.
able of enterprises in ship-repairing in deep w'ater Julia, a daughter of Frederick, King of Naples,
by the aid of divers. could not taste meat without experiencing danger-
These examples may serve to illustrate the or- ous consequences. Scaliger turned pale at the
dinary business operations of submarine diving sight of w'ater-cresses. Erasmus became feverish
machinery, such as are more or less carried on when he smelt fish Henry III. of France swooned
;
almost every day. Recently, however, there have at the sight of a cat, and Marshal d’Albert at the
been some special and remarkable developments of presence of a pig.
the power of remaining under water, and perform- Mr. J. C. Millengen, M.D., mentions the curious
ing various operations in such a situation ;
which antipathy of a clergyman, who fainted whenever a
may serve as the subject for a separate article. certain verse in Jeremiah was read and says, “ I
;
lately dined in company with a gentleman who w'as

seized with symptoms of syncope whenever a
surgical operation or an accident was spoken of.
REMARKABLE ANTIPATHIES. .St. John Long’s name happened to be mentioned,
and he was carried out of the room. I have also

IN a previous article we have briefly referred to known a person who experienced an alarming
some remarkable cases of sympathy. It is re- vertigo and dizziness whenever a great height or
markable that the converse is also the case. dizzy precipice was described, such as Edgar’s
Irrational prejudices against certain things are description of Dover clilf in King Lear.
;
II2 THE WORLD OF WONDERS.

SOUND IN COLOURS. colour depends upon, and changes with, the thickness
of the soap-film. A common soap-bubble soon
It has been explained in the article on the Phono- breaks but by dissolving a quarter of an ounce of
;
graph (page 67) how the waves of sound, impinging very pure Marseilles soap in ten ounces of distilled
upon a thin plate or membrane, set the latter water made hot, and mixing with the solution
vibrating and that such vibrations, if reproduced
;
seven and a half ounces of pure glycerine, a mix-
from impressions taken from them, can actually ture is obtained which, when well shaken, left to
render back the original settle, and afterwards filtered
sounds to the ear. In a clear in a cool temperature,

future article upon the Tele- will blow a bubble a foot or
phone we shall see how the more in diameter, and last

vibrations of a thin plate, with ordinary films a very
produced by sounds, can long time. .Such a solution
also reproduce them in an- will readily stretch a flat film
other way. But neither of over a wire ring dipped in
these machines give us any it;
or the edge of a card
clear idea of how compli- dipped in it, and passed over
cated these sound-vibrations a hole in a flat plate, will
in a stretched plate really stretch a soap-film over that.
are. We
should be much Having such a solution, we
mistaken did we imagine want some apparatus with
that the middle of the plate, which to observe the film,
bearing the style of the pho- which is usually termed a
nograph, simply moved to Phoneidoscope, both the ap-
and fro, dragging the rest paratus and the phenomena
with it, as when a drum is being based on the experi-
beaten in the centre of the parchment. The net ments of Mr. Sedley Taylor.
actual movement of the style is the result of most A very simple and good form is shown in Fig. i,
complicated vibrations, more analogous to Chladni’s where A is an open funnel-shaped tube with a flat
sound-figures on plates strewn with sand. They ring joined to its upper edge, on which to lay the
can, however, be best studied by optical means plates. Under the ring, round the top, holes (cc)
and one of the easiest methods of doing so is to are pierced to allow air to escape, without which the
examine the vibrations in a soap-film. film soon bursts. The aperture at top may be from one
Every one knows the exquisite colours displayed and a quarter to two and a quarter inches diameter ;
by a soap-bubble. These are due
to the waves at the bottom contracting to an elbow, whose outside
of light reflected from the top surface of the soap- aperture (b)maybe from three-fourths of an inch to
film, and others from the bottom (which have got one inch diameter, the whole being fixed on a flat
twice the thickness of the film behind the others), piece of wood as a base. On the elbow (b) is
interfering with each other. As the wave-lengths at stretched a piece of vulcanised india-rubber tubing,
one end of the spectrum are nearly double those at the at the otherend of which is an ordinaivy speaking-
other end. these interferences destroy some colours tube’s open mouthpiece of wood. There are further
more than others at each thickness but all we need ; required some plates of metal, each having in the
trouble ourselves about here is the fact that the centre a hole either square, round, or some other
;
SOUND IN COLOURS. 113
shape ;
hexagons and triangles give fine figures. alters,even with the same film on the same hole.
The holes should be slightly bevelled, or larger at The some of these beautiful pat-
general nature of
one side of the plate than the other, and the plates terns is shown in Figs. 2, 3, 4, taken from Mr.
should be blackened for contrast. Thick cards Taylor’s communication to the Royal Society.
will do very well if cut through with rather a slant- These figures were, however, actually obtained by
ing cut with a sharp knife, and well varnished and him in another way, which may also be employed.
blackened before It is common for
using. The holes students of acous-
should be a little tics to mount the
smaller than the leg of a tuning-
open top of the fork in the top of
^funnel. a box open at
Dipping the one end, of such
edge of a card in a length that the
the solution, one column of air
of the holes is within corres-

now stroked over ponds in pitch
with it on the with that of the
smallest side of fork. This is
Fig.
the hole, thereby called a reso-
covering it with a soap-film, This is held upright nance-box, and by it the sound of the fork is much
till coloured bands begin to show, when the plate increased. Mr. Taylor turned one of these boxes
is laid —solution downwards —
on the ring and the ;
with the open end upwards, and the fork projecting
tube connected with the elbow being taken in hand, horizontally. The plate with the soap-film was
the mouthpiece is sung into. It must not be blown then laid on the open end, and the fork strongly
I
into, or the film will soon break ;

sounded by bowing with a
or other source may fall on the film,and be thence Phoneidoscope in the manner previously described.
reflected to the observer’s eye. At once it will be The film is, however, not only divided into very
noticed that the exquisitely thin and elastic film is perceptible ridges and furrows as it vibrates, but it
thrown into the most complex vibrations, of in- will readily be understood that these different
tricate or simple patterns,
connected with the shape states of vibration tend to thicken or to thin it in
of the hole more or less but it will soon be seen
;
different parts. But a difference of thickness in-
that with each change of note, or even change of volves in a thin soap-film a change of colour also
vowel on the same note, the pattern somewhat and hence these sound-vibrations produce geome-
P
;

trical patterns in different colours. Portions of seconds, at only two or three inches from the sur-
some of these patterns often consist of whirling pools face of the mercury, but as naturally and with as
or vortices, arranged symmetrically and in constant little constraint as bending the head a
possible,
motion but the effects are endless, varying, as
;
little forward. A few trials may be necessary, some
already said, with every change in the note or word people being much more awkward at such experi-
sung into the speaking-tube, and so transmitted to ments than others but with a few trials in different
;
the under side of the film. The sound of a musical tones, and at different distances near the mercury,
instrument, if sufficiently powerful, and concen- the will soon appear
figures ;
and being thus
trated by a cardboard cone into the mouth-piece, formed independent of any boundary edge, the
will produce varying patterns in the same way. A same general figure for the same sound will be
very brief study of these exquisite and varying found preserved with wonderful constancy. Fig. 5
figures will make it comparatively easy to under- gives the general effect of the French sound for A
stand how the vibrations of a simple thin flexible (English AA) ;
and in Fig. 6 M. Gebhard gives the
plate, in I’honograph or Telephone, can reproduce constant figures for the principal vowel sounds
the most complicated forms of speech. according to the F rench pronunciation. The com-
It is even possible to show in this way how the plicated figure for A {Ak) is very noticeable, and
vibrations of one film can be conveyed to another. very singular, and corresponds well with the com-
With all the care possible, the film will burst pretty plicated sound which the student can discover in
frequently with an open mouthpiece ;
and for the voice.
lengthy experiments it is better to make one Another very curious thing about these figures
almost exactly like that of a telephone. This has is, that the pattern is found to depend scarcely at
an opening and after contracting to a

for the lips, all upon the shape assumed by the lips. . By
comparatively small hole, expands again into a practice many vowels can be pronounced with the
sort of chamber, across which is stretched the lips in widely different positions, such as with a
vibrating plate. Where the iron plate would be circular orifice, or with the lips forming a thin slit
in a telephone it is sufficient to stretch a sheet and one ignorant of the subject might have sup-
of bladder, a film of thin mica, thin india-rubber, or posed that this chiefly governed the figure. But it
even a piece of paper. Such a mouthpiece does is not so however the lips are shaped, the figure
;
not allow any blast of air to enter at all, but simply is almost exactly the same for the same vowel,
transmits the vibrations from the film enclosed in showing that it is the true sound vibrations which
it. Yet the effects are just the same, except that determine the matter. The only thing to observe
the soap-film lasts much longer. particularly is, that if the vowel be sung too gently,
Sounds thus “ drawn in colours, ” however, or too far off, its formative power seems rapidly
beautiful as they are, depend much for their pat- converted into general vibrations of the air, and
terns upon the shape of the aperture on which only such circular rings result as may be obtained
they are displayed. Another method of observing from simple breathing.
them, discovered by IVI. Gebhard, is free from More complicated sounds of speech may also be
studied by this method, though less readily than
this limitation, and requires still less of apparatus.
All that is required, in fact, is a saucer full of mer-
the vowels but it is no part of our purpose to go
;
cury, tolerably pure. When the thin film of oxide into any detailed analysis of the sounds of the
and dust which rapidly forms on the surface is human voice. It has only been attempted here to
removed, by lightly scraping over with the edge of give some general idea of one of the most beautiful
a dry card, a brilliant mirror-like surface appears discoveries in modern scientific experiment, and of
for a short time and when this is breathed upon, a the simple means by which any one can see for
;
brilliant series of coloured bands, more or less —

himself sound or, more correctly, the vibrations of
—
approaching the character of Newton’s rings,” is sound literally written down or drawn in all the
“
at once seen, due to the thin film of moisture, colours of the rainbow.
whose two surfaces act upon the light by inter-
ference in the same way as a soap-film. Any-
thing that alters the thickness modifies the colour ;
THUMB PORTRAITS.
and since heat rapidly promotes the evaporation
of the condensed breath, if the image of a nearly Every one knows how the features change with
invisible Bunsen-burner flame be focussed on the It is common for a child to be like
lapse of years.
mercury, the flame-figure will at once be seen, one parent at one age and like the other at a
disturbing the previously almost circular form of subsequent period, and often the child would
the rings. never be recognised in the adult man or woman.
But what we have to do with here are the The skin wrinkles, the hair darkens often from
phoneidoscopic effects. To obtain these the vowel light whity-brown to rich dark brown but the ;
sounds must be sung pretty clearly for several features of the thumb remain the same, and can be
NATURE AND ART. ”5
identified as belonging to the same individual at NATURE AND ART.
any age.
If the “ball,” or cushion-like surface of the top The manufacturing arts are now carried to such
joint of the thumb be can be seen that in
e.xamined, it perfection, that it would seem that there is hardly
—
the centre as, indeed, in the fingers also is a kind — any task that is impossible to the hand of the
of spiral formed by fine grooves in the skin. The skilled mechanic. The
locomotive which
giant
spiral is, however, rarely, if ever, quite perfect —there tears its resistless passage along our iron roads,
are irregularities, or places where lines run into each and the delicate little timepiece which lies in our
other here and there. Examining both thumbs, it waistcoat-pocket, each tell a tale of the wondrous
will be seen that they do not exactly match but ; capabilities of the human mind which designed
the figure on each thumb is the same through life. them, and of the hand which executed them. But
I^the thumbs of any two persons are compared, it even in far more insignificant things we see to
will further be found that no two are alike. There what perfection, the human hand can attain, and
may be, and generally is, a “ family resemblance ” how by means of marvellous machinery articles of
between members of the same family, as in other every-day use can be produced by thousands with
features ;
there are also national characteristics; incredible speed and regularity. Common pins
but the individuals differ. and needles may be numbered among these pro-
All this and easier seen by taking “ proof
is better ducts of the factory. Let us e.xamine one of these
impressions” of the thumb. This is easily done by needles closely. How smooth it is what a bril- ! —
pressing it on a slab covered with a film of printers’ liant polish it bears ! — and to what a fine and
delicate point it is drawn The least pressure
!
on the naked skin with this little dart will show

us that its point is sharp, and we no longer re-
gard with wonder its power to penetrate the thick
materials it is often called upon to stitch together.
But what does the microscopist say to this beau-
j
tiful example of manufacturing skill. He will tell
! us needle is a very useful thing to
that a fine
1
him work.
in his In preparing an object for the
—
microscope whether it be of animal or vegetable
origin —
it often becomes necessary to separate its
tissues or fibres (as the case nray be), so that its
delicate structure may be exposed to view.

Needles, set in slender wooden handles, are em-
ployed for this purpose, the very finest being se-
THUMB IMPRESSIONS. lected for the work. So it often happens that the
operator, when preparing his objects, has in the
ink, and then pressing on a piece of white paper
it ;
field of view under the microscope the objects
or a little almost anything,
aniline dye, Indian ink — themselves, and the needles for dissecting them.
may be used. The result will be such an impres- But what a contrast the latter now present to what
sion as shown in the illustration, which is engraved they did a minute before. Their size is magnified,
from actual impressions taken in this way from the it may be 300 or 400 times. The polished steel,
thumbs of two men. In the two impressions the in the surface of which the unaided eye could de-
characteristic differences can be readily seen. tect no flaw or blemish, is now rugged, and so full
The Chinese take advantage of all this to identify of pits and inequalities that it appears more like
their important criminals, at least in some parts some weatherbeaten spear-head than the delicate
of the empire. We
photograph their faces they ;
needle which it really is (Fig. 2). A pin shows
take impressions frorp their thumbs. These are still more clumsy workmanship when examined by
stored away, and if the delinquent should ever the same critical eye. In addition to its rugged
again fall into the hands of the police, another outline, appears flattened at the point, for the
it
impression at once affords the means of comparison. softer metal has been dulled by the constant wear
The Chinese say that, considering the alteration and tear of pinning garments together although —
made in the countenance by hair and beard, and those garments are represented by materials so
the power many men have of distorting or altering much more yielding than itself. The coarse ap-
the actual features, &c., their method affords even pearance of the pin-point —
and that one of the
more certain and easy means of identification than —
sharpest that could be found is shown in Fig. i.
our plan of taking the criminal’s portrait. Perhaps Let us now cofnpare these artificial points with
we might with advantage take a leaf out of their some forms of the same kind found in nature. The
book, i thorn of a rose is represented at Fig. 3. How much
1 16 THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
more delicate is the work here shown, when com- FISHES OF WATER. OUT
pared with the needle by its side The rough
!
texture has disappeared, giving place to regular An old and familiar proverb declares that a fish
lines which no human hand could describe. In out of water is one of the most helpless and mis-
the animal kingdom we can find also innumerable placed of living beings and in truth, as applied
;
instances of perfection of form in minute processes. to most fishes, the adage may be said to be justi-
Fig. 4 is the image as seen under a microscope of fied by zoological science. The beautiful silvery
—
a wasp’s sting the form of which will help us to herring, for instance, dies well-nigh as soon as it
understand wLy its wound should be so painful. leaves the sea and the cod, haddock, and salmon
;
But the point is as perfect as ever. , expire, after a few gasps, when they are taken from
Thousands upon thousands of instances might their native waters and laid on the shore. With
be adduced to prove how wonderful is the world certain other fishes, however, the case is different,
of nature in its minutest belongings. The finest in degree at least. An eel, for example, is highly
cambric thread which the art of man can pro- tenacious of life. It will survive for a long period
ART AND NATURE CO.MTAREU IN THE MICROSCOPE.
duce is when compared with

as the thickest cable after being removed from the water, and its life
the weavings of the humble spider. Searching* may be preserved for a very considerable time if
far lower in the scale of life, we come to won- the fish is allowed to remain amongst damp sea-
drous forms indeed. The mud from any stagnant weed. So, also, some of the blennies are capable
pool, the water from a ditch by the roadside, the of living out of water for long periods of time but ;
gravel from the garden-path, examined under the as a rule, a fish expires with even a limited ex-
microscope, will introduce us to a world of life of posure to the atmosphere. Why, then, it may be
which before we had no conception. When we asked, are fishes incapable of living out of water ?
consider that stupendous chalk deposits and coral A little reflection shows us that must breathe
fishes
reefs, which form continents, are due to the re- the same medium as ourselves, namely, the atmo-
mains of tiny organisms, we must acknowledge that spheric air. This consists, as most readers know,
such apparently insignificant creatures may probably —
of a mixture not a chemical combination of two —
be of as much importance as the larger animals gases, oxyooi and nitroyêtt. It is the former gas
which need no microscope to observe them. But which is the all-important element in the air
however this may be, down to the smallest particles around us. The animal perishes unless a due
that eye can see, Nature’s work is perfect, and suffers supply of oxygen is afforded it. The nitrogen
nothing under the most minute scrutiny. appears to serve as a kind of diluent to the oxygen.
FISHES OUT OF WA'l’ER 117
since the animal suffers from breathing o.xygen our fingers, or by taking up some of the water in a
in a pure state. The fish, then, breathes the same squirt, and sending the water forcibly into the
atmosphere as ourselves, but with this difference : globe. The water in its idescent absorbs fresh air,
that it breathes the air which is mixed with or and in this w'ay we afford the fish a new supply of
entangled in the water, instead of inhaling it the aerating medium. In an aquarium a similar
THE CLI.MBING PERCH.
directly from the atmosphere, as do land animals. principle is carried out for the continued pre-
It is a very common error to speak of fishes servation of the tenants of the tanks. We do not
“breathing water.” No animal “ breathes water ” ;
require to change the water in an aquarium, as
it is air^ and air alone, which is breathed. This air, many persons erroneously suppose. What is
as we have just noted, is not chemically combined accomplished by the engine and circulating ap-
with the water, but is mixed with it. We can, in paratus of the aquarium is the production of a
fact, mix air and water mechanically. If a gold- continuous flow of newly “aired” water. In this
fish in its globe is perishing from lack of air, we way, the water of the tanks remains fresh and pure,
can give fresh air to the water by agitating it with and the fishes and other animals obtain the need-
ii8 THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
fulsupply of o.xygen from the atmosphere whence, — ing the air-bladder to expand, the body becomes
indeed, the ocean itself obtainsits air, through the and the animal rises in the water
specifically lighter,
incessant play of winds and waves. accordingly. In some fishes {e.g.., herring, &c.) the
The breathing-organs of fishes, as every one air-bladder may open into the throat through a
knows, consist of organs CAWe-d gills. If we lift up tube or duct, and in others, again, it seems to pos-
the horny flap seen on the neck of any common sess a curious relationship to the organ of hearing.
fish, and known as the gill-cover.^ we see the We shall see presently that this air-bladder, in a
red gills situated beneath it. The gills in fishes very important fashion, enables certain fishes,
vary in structure. In a common fish, such as the through its modifications, to live out of water, and
cod or herring, the gills may be described as con- practically to become denizens of the land.
sisting of a senes of beautifully delicate red fringes, Very varied contrivances are known to exist in
resembling the teeth of a comb, and borne upon fishes for the purpose of enabling them to exist
“ arches,” which represent the back, or shaft, of the 1
independently of a continued residence in their
comb. Each of these delicate fringes is in reality j
native element. One of the most notable of these
a network of blood-vessels, formed by the inter- j
contrivances is seen in a curious fish, known as the
lacing of the minute vessels in which the main Climbing Perch (Anabas scandens), found in
blood-trunks end and begin. Thus impure blood Eastern Asia. In 1797 Daldorf related that in
is pumped into the gills by the heart of the fish, and 1791 he had captured one of these fishes “in the
passes at last into the fine network of which thej act of ascending a palm-tree which grew near a
gills consist. Here it is exposed to the action of the i
pond.” It had climbed, by means of its tail and
air contained in the water which the fish has spiny fins, to a height of five feet above the water.
“ breathed ” in. The impure blood is thus ren-
'
In the Malayan language, the fish is known as the

dered pure, and fitted for re-circulation through the “ Tree-climber” average length is seven inches.
;
its
body of the animal and it accordingly passes out

;
But we are less concerned with the climbing habits
of the gill by blood-vessels formed by the union of of the fish than with the adaptation of its breathing-
the fine vessels of the gill, and is re-distributed to organs for such an aerial existence. When the
the body. Such is an outline of what takes place head of the climlping perch is exajnined, we discover
in the breathing of fishes and the same remarks
;
that it possesses a ver>' peculiar arrangement of
apply to the breathing-process in man and in all thin bony plates, so arranged as to form a highly-
other animals. Whether obtaining air from the intricate kind of labyrinth. It would appear that
atmosphere or from water, the animal demands this peculiar twisting of certain of the skull-bones
oxygen, which passes into its blood, whilst at the increases in complexity with the age of the fish.
same time the waste matters of the body and blood i
This labyrinth, moreover, is lodged within a cavity
are given out. It is these waste matters which situated near the gills, and its obvious function
render the air around ourselves impure, and which is said to be that of retaining a supply of
causes the water in which a fish swims to become moisture, which serves in place of the water in
unfit for the animal’s breathing. In the case of which the fish lives, and supplies the condition ne-
humanity, a room or house is accordingly “ ven- cessary for the breathing-process when the climbing
tilated,” whilst in the case of the fish we similarly perch has left the water, and is making its way
renew the air-supply of the water. overland. .A somewhat similar adaptation to a land-
This preliminary sketch of what is implied in life occurs in the land-crabs of the West Indies.
the ordinary breathing of a fish is a necessary The gills are kept a moist state, and these
in
feature for the comprehension of the curiosities anim.-îs are thus enabled to take their long jour-
which fish-life way of respiration.
exhibits in the neys overland. Other naturalists are, however,
It is also necessary, however, to note, by way inclined to believe that the labyrinth-like bones
of similar preparation for understanding the in the skull of Anabas really act as a kind of
peculiarities of the animals involved in the de- true air-breathing organ, and that they discharge
scription of fishes out of water, that in many the functions of a true lung. If this latter view
fishes there exists a sac, or bag, known as the be correct, then there can be no need for any
“air-bladder,” or “ swimming-bladder,” and some- moisture to be contained within the bony mazes,
times also as the “ sound.” This latter organ is since the blood of the fish will be purified by
a bag, containing common air, or gas of some the air which it inhales directly from the atmo-
kind, and which in its simplest guise presents the sphere.
appearance of a closed sac. Its use is that of In a nearly- related group of fishes, another con-
enabling the fish to rise or to sink in the water. By trivance appears to enable its possessors to
compressing the gas contained in its swimming- emulate the ways of land livers. The fishes in
bladder, the body of the fish is rendered relatively question are called Ophiocephali. They are fresh-
heavier than an equal bulk of the surrounding water, water fishes, found in India and Eastern Asia
and the animal sinks ;
whilst conversely, by allow- generally. It was long known that they were able
—
ELECTRICAL INDUCTION. 119
to survive long periods of drought, and that they {Callichthys) also ascends regularly to the surface
could live half-baked amongst the mud
which was in order to breathe. It can live completely out of
left at the bottom of pools nearly obliterated by the water, and

can also exist in water from which the
it
sun. Recent researches show, however, that these air has been expelled by boiling, and on the
fishes are habitually air-breathers — that is, they are surface of which a layer of oil prevents the access
accustomed to rise to the surface to breathe air of air. But if prevented from gaining access to the
directly from the atmosphere, and this, although outer air whilst thus situated,
it dies. In this case,
they possess the gills of other fishes. Thus we the gills are evidently inadequate to discharge the
discover these fishes to possess two sacs, or bags, functions they originally possessed in the fish
which may be described as offshoots from the under consideration, and which they still possess in
throat. If the fishes are kept below water (as by a other and ordinary fishes.
net tied below the surface of the water in the globe Doras, a South American fish, which breathes like
jîn which they are confined), they make frantic a species already described, by means of an offshoot
efforts to approach the surface. If prevented from of its digestive system, is known to travel overland
inhaling the atmospheric air, they will die suffo- in quest of fresh waters, when its pools have been
cated, as truly as we should apply that term to a dried up by the sun’s heat. Dr. Gimther tells us
dog which had been drowned by being placed in a that “these journeys are occasionally of such a
similar position to the fishes. Here modification length that the fish spends whole nights on the
has so far affected the lives of these fishes, that they way, and the bands of scaly travellers are so large,
are actually unable to live if not allowed periodi- that the Indians who happen to meet them fill many
cally to escape from the water to inhale air. They baskets with the prey thus placed in their hands.
are much in the position of those animals near — The Indians supposed that the fish carry a supply of
relations of the frogs, in fact, such as the Proteus water with them, but they have no special organs, and
—
and Siren which breathe by both gills and lungs can only do so by closing the gill-openings, or by
throughout the whole of life. retaining a little water between the plates of their
I
More startling still are th6 facts now known bodies, as Hancock supposes.” As we have seen,
respecting the breathing of certain other fishes of however, the Doras possesses in its digestive
South American waters, named Sudis and Erythi- system a special means for alffating the blood in
nus. Here the air-bladder becomes converted into a its overland journeys.
veritable lung, as in two other fishes well known as The examples thus detailed of the wonderful
the Lepidosiren, or Mud-fish, of the Gambia and means whereby Nature modifies the habits and
Amazon, and the Barramunda, or Ceratodus, of structure of the children of life need no comment.
Australia. These fishes breathe air into the air- If any moral need be drawn from these curious
bladder, which, instead of aiding them to rise and histories it is simply this that the whole universe
:
sink in the water, thus purifies their blood. This of life is continually being subjected to change
curious fact explains how such fishes are able to and alteration, and that new ways of life and new
survive the droughts and dry seasons of their native forms of life are perpetually being evolved from the
lands. So long as they exist in the water, they old ways and from existent organisms. The
breathe chiefly by their gills but when occasion
; adaptation of the fishes of to-day for a land exis-
—
requires if, indeed, they do not habitually respire tence may, in fact, repeat the history of ancient
—
atmospheric air as well they convert themselves fishes, whose descendants we see in the frogs of to-
into lung-breathers, through the air-bladder serving day, which begin life as fishes, and end it as land-
the function and taking the place of the lungs of living animals.
higher animals.
Another fish Hypostojnus byname rises to the—
surface to breathe with great regularity. It is ELECTRICAL INDUCTION.
necessary to remark that in this fish it is not the
air-bladder which becomes the air-breathing organ, One of the most notable discoveries of the great
but a pouch given off from the digestive tube, just Faraday was the fact that an electric current pass-
behind the stomach. Such a fact, taken in connec- ing through a wire will induce another current in
tion with the modifications already noted, shows a wire near it. To more
fully understand this
clearly thatNature may, and does, attain a special action we must a simple experiment that
refer to
object in a great variety of ways. In one fish it is can easily be made with the help of a bat-
the head which is modified for air-breathing, in tery cell and a galvanometer. The galvano-
another it is the air-bladder, in a third the throat, meter must have its two terminals bridged over
and in a fourth the stomach. Still more curious is it with a piece of copper wire. The battery being
to find that in another fish the air for breathing is placed near it is also furnished with a similar loop
taken in and expelled through the intestine, or of wire, which can be conveniently brought near to
posterior part of its digestive system. This fish the loop which covers the galvanometer. The
battery loop should, in the first instance, be con- the batterv along the rough surface, the current
nected only by one end, but directly the circuit is will be quickly closed and ruptured as the pointed
closed, by joining the end of the wire to the
free wire crosses the ridges of the file. With such an
other pole of the battery, the galvanometer needle arrangement the needle of the galvanometer will
will be deflected, but will immediately resume be seen to rapidly oscillate from side to side.
its normal position. On again breaking the circuit These induced currents, but of a very exalted
by once more detaching the wire, the needle again character, are now obtained by means of an instru-
moves, but in the ment called the
opposite direc- inductorium, or
tion,once more induction coil
immediately re- , (Fig. 2). This
suming its old apparatus, which
position. We iscapable of giv-
learn from this ing some of the
experiment that a most remarkable
current can be and beautiful ef-
induced in a fects that can be
n eighb o u r n g i obtained,is merely
wire, and that a modification of
that current is but that experiment
of a transient just described in
character, mani- which a coil
festing itself only through which a
when the exciting current is pass-
Fig. I. — INDUCF.D CL'RKENT.
or primary curing is placed
rent is made or within another
broken. coil, so as to
This experi- induce a current
ment can be in the latter. In
varied by using the inductorium
helices or coils of we have two such
wire instead of coils, one being
mere loops (see permanently fixed
Fig. i). The coil within the other.
towhich the gal- The inner coil is
vanometer is at- made of stout

tached may be copper wire, co-
hollow, so as to vered with cotton,
receive within it which is wound
the smaller coil upon a kind of
in connection with reel, or cylinder
a battery. When of cardboard, with
Fig. 2.
the smaller coil
INDUCTION COIL.
ebonite ends.
through which the This thick wire
current is flowing constitutes what
is placed within is known as the
the other, the gal- BATTERY primary coil,
vanometer needle which is ulti-
is deflected, and when the coil is withdrawn the mately to be put in connection with a battery.
needle once more moves, but in the opposite direc- The primary coil is continuous, and is carefully
tion. In both cases the needle quickly returns to wound on the reel from one end to the other, and
its normal position. We thus see that an induced back again, so that the terminals {J/ and b*) are
current differs from an ordinary battery current in brought together ready for attachment to the
not being continuous. But an approach to con- battery employed.
tinuity may
be obtained by causing the makes and The secondary coil is made of much finer wire,
breaks of the circuit to follow one another in quick which is insulated, or covered with silk. It is
succession. We can bring about this result by separated from the primary coil by some non-
interposing in the battery circuit a common file. conducting substance, such as india-rubber tissue,
Then by drawing the wire from the other pole of varnished or paraffin paper, and as it is wound
KLECTRTCAT. INDUCTION. I2I
above the primary coil the greatest care is exer- j

which is almost identical with the armature of a
cised in insulating one layer of wire from its '
common electric bell of the “ trembler ” form. It
neighbour. The modern practice is to wind the (f) with an iron

consists of a piece of flexilile metal
]
secondary coil into sections, and in order that the ,

head. This placed so as to face the centre of
is
various layers of wire in each may

be well insu- one end of the coil, and is caused to vibrate in the
lated from one another, each section is placed for following manner.
|
a time in hot melted paraffin wax. This material I The has a core consisting of a bundle of iron
coil
soon saturates the coil, and when it becomes cold wires cut to the same length. The ends of these
it is so hard and compact that the instrument is wires, which are flush with the sides of the
^y/m/// 7 4
Fig. 4 .— Edison’s electric pen.
not only well insulated, but is protected by the reel on which the coil is wound, constitute the poles
same means. of a powerful magnet whenever the battery-current
It will now be understood that an inductorium flows through the primar}% Therefore the contact-
consists of two coils, one within the other ;
the inner, breaker is attracted towards the core. But in the
or primary being connected with the battery,
coil, act of moving it is caused to break the battery-
and the secondary, or outer coil, terminating in two circuit, the magnetism ceases, and the flexible
connecting screws {b^ and IF), to which wires for ex- metal flies back to its old position. In this way it
periment can be easily attached. But there is one is kept vibrating backwards and forwards, breaking
thing to be provided without which such an instru- and making the current several times in every
ment would be of no use, and that is a contact- second, the number of its vibrations in any given
breaker, by which the battery-circuit can be time depending upon its length and thickness.
quickly made and broken. There are many con- The character of the spark obtained from the
trivances for accomplishing this end, but the most secondary or induced current is very different from
common form is the vibrating contact-breaker, the feeble spark which the wires from a battery-
Q
cell will exhibit when brought together. In the foil upon a table or other support, and
sheet of tin
latter case no spark is apparent until the two connecting one of the terminals with it. Upon
terminals actually touch. Indeed, in usings a pow'er- is laid a piece of writing-paper, and
this tin foil
ful battery of fifty or sixty cells, the thickness of it be found that whenever a wire from the
will
a piece of tissue paper is sufficient to prevent a other terminal of the coil is brought above it,
spark from passing. But the induced current the spark in passing will puncture a hole. In
behaves more like the current from this way, and with a suitable pencil,
a frictional machine. It will give a which might consist of an ebonite
noisy discharge, and will leap over tube with a metallic core, any pat-
wide distances. In fact, induction- tern or writing can be traced. This
coils are often classified by the dis- plan was lately advanced as one by
tance so covered, or, as it is com- which manuscripts and drawings
monly described, by the “length of could be readily multiplied the ;
spark.” Even a tiny coil giving a original being transformed into a

quarter-inch spark will administer a stencil of this kind, and then brushed
shock which will not be forgotten, over W'ith some kind of ink which
and the shock from a coil of moderate would sink 'through the perforations,
size is of a severe and dangerous cha- and so impress the design on any sheet
racter. of paper placed below it. Fig. 4 shows
The discharge from a coil becomes the instrument and mode of action, as
far more violent if the primary coil is adopted in Edison’s Fdectric Pen.
connected with a condenser, consist- Wires from the single-cell bichromate
ing of a number of sheets of tin foil battery are connected up with the
insulated from one another (Fig. 3). induction-coil B A, while one of the
In modern coils such a condenser is wires from the secondary or intensity
usually placed out of sight in the coil leads to the metal core of the
box or base upon which the coil is pencil, and the other comes under-
mounted (b. Fig. 2). neath the table to the tin foil on
In Fig. 3 will be noticed the way which the sheet of paper is laid. The
in which the leaves of tin foil are laid Fig
pencil has only to be drawn over the
one on another, but each separated DISCHARGE IN VACUO. outline quickly, as the contact-breaker
by a sheet of paraffined paper or will prevent the perforations from
other non- being con-
conducting tinuous.
mater al. i Many
The figures other cu-
I, 2, 3, &c., rious effects
show how can be ob-
altern at e tained from
leaves are an induc-
connected tion - coil.
together — A piece of
the odd fine iron
numbers wire placed
on one side between the
Fig. 6.— GEISSLER VACUUM-TUBES.
and the electrodes
even num- will be-
bers on the other side. The way in which this come red-hot. Leaf metal is rapidly deflagrated
condenser is connected w'ith the induction-coil is if placed in the same position. Gun - cotton,
indicated by the letters and which cor- ether, phosphorus, and other inflammable bodies
respond in Figs. 2 and 3. are readily ignited by the passage of the spark.
Having thus briefly described the Induction-Coil, A Leyden jar can be charged if one electrode
we will now refer to some of the phenomena which be fastened to its ball and the other be held at a
can be exhibited by its help. At one time it was littledistance from the outside coating of tin foil.
much used for firing mines in combination with Indeed, the number of experiments that can be
Statham’s fuse, but now a magnetic machine has performed to show the action of the induced
supplanted it. But the coil is still used for lighting current upon different solid and liquid bodies are
gas-burners in large buildings. The disruptive innumerable, and are highly important scientifi-
ttction of the spark can be illustrated by laying a cally but for splendour of effect they are altogether
;
ELECTRICAL INDUCTION. 123
surpassed by the behaviour of the current when the contact-breaker. But the discharges follow
passed through rarefied atmospheres. one another so quickly that really they appear to
A simple instrument for this purpose is shown at be quite continuous, particularly in the case of
Fig. 5 —
a glass globe with a stop-cock attached these tubes, which give out such a wondrous glow.
so that it can be placed on an air-pump, and But we can detect the breaks in the current even
exhausted of air until it contains but a very attenu- by sight, and in a very curious manner. By gazing
ated atmosphere. The two electrodes are carried at one of these illuminated tubes, and then moving
through the ends of the globe, and directly the the head from side to side, successive images of the
attached coil is put into action the current passes different discharges will be imprinted upon the
between them but not as a succession of deto-
;
retina of the eye. As the image of any object
nating discharges, but as a beautiful glow of light, which we see remains upon the retina for at least
the terminals themselves being surrounded by a the eighth part of a second, and as these discharges
peculiar radiance. If the globe be still further are far more rapid than that, we see several of
exhausted, and the vapour of some hydro-carbon these images at the same time, apparently side by
such as naphtha be introduced, the light will be side like the rungs of a ladder.
found to undergo a great change. The globe This curious phenomenon is taken advantage of
will now be filled with curious in the construction of what is
zones or belts of light which called the Gassiot star. One

appear to keep up a continual or more vacuum-tubes, in this
rotation. A metallic conductor case, are fixed upon a disc which

held to the side of the glass will is caused rapidly to revolve.
cause the current to be diverted (Fig. 7). By reason of the
to that side, and will produce apparent multiplication of
a very curious effect. We need images on the retina, caused
hardly point out that all these by the rapid movement of the
experiments must be made in tubes, we see what appears to
a dark room, for the luminosity be a luminous wheel with many
is not of a sufficiently brilliant spokes. It does not appear to
character to be otherwise well be revolving, although it owes

seen. its effect to that cause. Were
Glass tubes for showing these the electric discharges con-
phenomena were first continuous, there would be an un-
structed by Geissler, of Bonn, broken whirl of light ;
but being
and are hence known as Geis- intermittent, each discharge
ler’s tubes, or vacuum-tubes. finds the rapidly-moving tube in
They are now also extensively a different position, where it
made in this country, and gene- shines as a spoke in the wheel.

rally ina highly ornamental form (Fig. 6). Such A beautiful variation of the experiment is to select
tubes can also be made into letters and words, the three tubes all different, or to vary their posi-
which become luminous directly they are connected tions on the disc, and to interpose in the circuit a
with a coil. Of late years many improvements Reiss transmitter, or other telephone (to be de-
have been made in these tubes, by introducing scribed in a future article).Then on singing into
within them not only different vapours, but liquids this, the intervals of making or breaking contact
which possess the property of fluorescence. A are varied, and so every change in the voice makes
solution of sulphate of quinine, for instance, a change in the pattern of the star.
although quite white by ordinary light, becomes Several of the experiments to which we have
a rich blue when viewed by the light of a briefly referred can be made with coils and tubes
vacuum-tube. Glass which has oxide of uranium of small dimensions, and such as can be bought
in its composition is also subject to a strange for a but where really brilliant
few shillings ;
change of colour, appearing yellow by ordinary effects are required, far larger coils must be
light and bright green by the light from the employed. One of the largest ever made, if not
induction-coil. Sulphide of calcium and sulphide the largest, is that recently employed by Mr.
of strontium are also used in the construction of Spottiswoode at Royal Institution.
the This
these tubes, because of their phosphorescent immense inductorium has two primary coils,
qualities. Tubes are now made combining these either of which can be removed by two men
different and giving a very splendid
materials, and the other placed in position in a few
effect. minutes. One is made of wire of a different gauge
It will be remembered that the discharge is not from the other, and is used for certain experiments
continuous, but is continually being interrupted by to which we need not more particularly refer.
The copper wire for the other primary', which is FLESH-FEEDING PLANTS.
more generally used, is 660 yards in length, and
the secondary coil contains the enormous length of The remarkable structure of Diontea, or Venus’
280 miles of wire. This giant coil will give a spark Fly-trap, is now very known
generally but is ;
forty-two inches in length, the contact-breaker not dealt with at length here, being the subject of
working with such rapidity that it will give 2,500 a separate article. From numerous recent ob-
breaks per second. Particulars of the remarkable servations and experiments, much of the obscurity
results which were obtained by this apparatus are that enshrouded the meaning of such remarkable
noted in the “ Proceedings of the Royal Society.” organs has been cleared away, and we now know
Another large inductorium was made by the that such structures are nothing less than adaptive
same maker some years ago for the, Polytechnic, contrivances developed by flesh-feeding plants for
Fig, I Fig. 2. Fig. 3-
LEAF OF SUNDEW. LEAF OF BUTTERWORT. BLADDER OF BLADDERWORT.
and was recently sold to the South Kensington the purpose of securing for themselves a supply of
Museum. The construction of this machine entailed animal food.
a cost of several hundred pounds, which its pro- Lengthened and unremitting research has dis-
prietors hoped win back with heavy interest by
to covered the existence of carnivorous habits in
its exhibition to the public.But in this they were many plants. In England, the little sundew
disappointed, for the public were rather alarmed ' plants, butterwort, and bladderwort in America, ;
at its thundering detonations nor were they ;

the trumpet, or side-saddle-flower ;
and in the Old
reassured when they w'ere told by the lecturer that '
World, the true Australian pitcher-plants, are all

it his hand touched a certain knob the result would good examples of vegetable insectivora.
I
be immediately fatal. We may mention that Dr. The sundew, or Drosera, is a very small plant,
Richardson conducted some experiments with this found in spongy bogs, the almost round leaves
coil, in order to note its physiological effects. being spread about on all sides over the damp moss.
Sheep and other animals immediately dropped The leaves are closely beset with hairs, or tentacles,
dead when the current was passed through them, each ending in a viscid or sticky knob-like gland.
but some other animals showed a strange im- Upon examination, each leaf will most probably be
munity from harm. It has been proposed more found to retain one or more captive insects, mostly
than once to slaughter animals in this manner, flies, or else the dead or mangled bodies of late
but for several reasons it would be impracticable. I

captives. The flies are caught by each alighting
— ;
FLESH-FEEDING PLANTS. 125
on the sticky substance that covers what will pre- replaced by morsels of raw meat, the tentacles were
sently be shown to be the very sensitive tissue of immediately inflected. Again, minute pieces of
the gland its struggles to escape induce on all sides
;
meat were placed by means of needles on some of
a remarkable movement of the tentacles, which the marginal glands, when the tentacles were
sooner or later surround the vibrating object, while greatly inflected, and carried the objects in five or
the excited glands pour out a secretion, in which six minutes to the centre of the leaf at another ;
the body of the doomed insect is slowly digested time, pieces of flieswere carried to the centre in
(Fig. i). thirty-five minutes through a distance of 180
Looking a little more closely, it may be observed degrees while in yet other cases, minute flies were
;
that the closely-set tentacles vary considerably in carried to the centre of the disc in one hour and
length and direction, according to their position, thirty seconds. But even more remarkable were the
those in the centre being very short and upright, experiments showing how particles of extreme
while thosetowards and minuteness were sufficient to
around the circumference are cause inflection of the ten-
comparatively long, and either tacles. Bits of blotting-paper
in the same plane as the leaf, weighing drsth of a grain, and
or else reflexed. The average bits of cotton thread ^‘sth of
number of tentacles on each an inch in length, and weigh-
leaf has been computed to ing only the ^rVith of a grain,
vary from 1 30 to 260, or were found to cause inflection
thereabouts. When a fly in the latter case, the gland
alights upon the leaf, it is carried the bit of thread to
retained, as we have seen, the centre of the leaf in one
by one or more of the sticky hour and forty minutes while ;
glands. A motor impulse is further, a minute morsel of

immediately propagated to human hair, the rAuth of an
neighbouring tentacles, caus- inch in length, and weighing
ing them to move and inflect so inconceivably little as the
in such a way as to approach, 7¥^Tjth of a grain, induced a
and subsequently clasp, the distinct movement of the ten-
struggling prey. And further, tacles. Mr. Darwin, remark-
immediately the tentacles ing upon the last and other
commence moving, the glands experiments, conjectures that
become locally active, and are this piece of hair could hardly
excited to secrete the viscid have exerted a pressure equal
fluid with greater freedom. to the millionth of a grain.
What is more remarkable remarking how a bit of hair ‘
still, the fluid thus secreted, rsth of an inch in length, and

even from the first n\pvement therefore much lighter than
Fig. 4.— SARRACENIA.
of the tentacles, differs in a those used in the above ex-
notable respect from the periments, was not perceived
—
normal fluid in being distinctly acid an Important when placed on my tongue, and it is extremely
property, which certainly endows it with a solvent doubtful whether any nerve in the human body,
power unpossessed by the neutral fluid. even if in an inflamed condition, would be in
The length of time taken by the tentacles to any way affected by such a particle supported in
complete their movements varies from one to five a dense fluid, and slowly brought in contact with
hour^, depending upon the vigour and age of the nerve. Yet the cells of the gland of Drosera
—
the leaf, size and nature of the object that is, (or sundew) are thus excited, and transmit a
whether or not it contains soluble substances of the motor impulse to a distant point, inducing move-
—
proper kind and finally, upon the temperature ment.” :
conditions upon which the duration of the inflection But the behaviour of the leaves when placed in
—
of the tentacles varying from one to seven days various kinds of fluids gave perhaps the most
also depends. Minute flies were found to be well extraordinary results of all. In perfectly pure or
embraced by the tentacles in a few hours, while distilled water no movements were observed,
tiny balls of paper, bits of moss, quill, and such nor could any movements of the tentacles be
like non-nutritious bodies, were either not em- induced by immersing the leaf in solutions of
braced at all, or only a very few, and that not until any organic substance not containing nitrogen ;
after the lapse of twenty-five hours. Yet, when the while milk, infusions of meat, isinglass, and
balls of paper or bits of moss were removed, and such like nitrogenous substances, produced in-
flections on every trial. The plant likewise minute aquatic animals, and using them for pur-
showed a sensitiveness to inorganic substances poses of nutrition. Little stalked bladders, until
containing nitrogen for instance, when a minute
: quite recently described as floats, are found at the
drop of phosphate of ammonia, containing r^Vinith base of the young leaves, springing from the
of a grain, was held for a few seconds in contact spreading root-like branches. The bladders are
with a gland, the tentacle was induced to move ;
about a quarter of an inch or less in diameter, and
while even still more extraordinary, if a leaf is im- provided with a short stalk at one end, and a pair of
mersed for a short time in a solution so weak that a branched hairs, or “antennae,” at the other (Fig. 3).
gland can absorb only the r?7?îniTrsth of a grain, it On the under, or inner, surface of the bladder, and
will be enough to excite the tentacles into move- towards the end, there is a broad slit, or opening, to
ment, and cause their complete inflection. the margin of one side, to which a flap or valve is
If it is remembered that nitrogenous substances i
attached, and having its free end sloping into the
are beyond comparison the most essential and
all j
cavity of the bladder, and resting on a rim, or
scarcest constituents of plant-food, the advantage of collar, springing from the base of the opposite side
|
this amazing sensitiveness to the presence of such j

of the aperture. The contrivance is such, therefore,
substances as raw meat and ammoniacal compounds that the valve admits of ready entrance to the
will be readily recognised. bladder, but effectually prevents egress. As the
It is well-known that digestion is brought about plant generally delights to live in rather foul water,
in the animal stomach by the action of a ferment these bladders collect a vast number of aquatic
called pepsin, in presence of a weak acid. Now, it animals, including insects, small crustaceans, "and
has been before remarked that immediately an even worms, all of which are eventually killed,
object touches and excites, say the disc-glands on choked or asphyxiated, in fact, in their confined
the leaf of Urosera, they at once commence to water prison. After this, they gradually putrefy, as
secrete an acid juice a motor impulse is pro- in this case the bladder has apparently no digestive
;
pagated to the marginal tentacles, in consequence power, like the sundew and butterwort. The
of which they commence their inflection, at the soluble products of putrefaction are absorbed, thus
same time also secreting an acid fluid. If the contributing in no mean way to the general support
’
object caught turns out to be merely a fragment of of the plant.

useless matter, the tentacles relax, and the flow of Passing now from native British plants with
acid secretion ceases but should the object, on carnivorous habits to those found in other parts
;
the other hand, happen to be of a nitrogenous of the world, we will first describe the trumpet,
nature, the tentacles will remain closed, and, in or side-saddle flowers, or Sarracenias, of North
addition to the acid fluid, the glands will secrete a American bogs. The leaves, which are often a
digestive ferment analogous to pepsin, which, foot or two long, spring from the earth, and are
|
acting in conjunction with the acid, will as developed in a characteristic manner. The blade
thoroughly digest the animal matter as would the is incurved, and so formed, that for the greater
stomach of one of the Car7iivora. part of its length its opposite margins are united,
In the common Butterwort, we have the leaves thus producing a trumpet-shaped pitcher, the upper
performing a similar function of digestion and free portion of the blade forming a scoop-shaped
absorption, but the mechanism of the organ is arching hood (Fig. 4). These vessels are generally
somewhat different from that of the sundew. The half-filled with water, in which numerous ants,
plant is an inhabitant of wet bogs and other moist flies, and other insects are drowned, forming a rich
land, but generally, it is said, affecting mountainous and nutritive food for the vegetative needs of the
districts. Its spreading leaves are of an elongated plant. But how does it catch its prey ? The
—
oval form, and their upper surfaces except at the adaptive contrivance is certainly most ingenious
—
margins are covered whth very short glandular and effective. The inner surface of the upper
hairs, that secrete a colourless viscid fluid, which portion of the tube in the neighbourhood of the
fulfils, as in Drosera, the double function of catching entrance is coloured most attractively, and pro-
and digesting insect food. When an insect creeps vided with a great number of honey-glands, that
over the edge, on the upper surface of one of the keep the surface well lined with nectar. Beneath
leaves, it is not long until it is caught fast in the this, the surface is rather glossy, and clothed with
sticky secretion the margin of the leaf along its long glossy hairs, that lie so that their ends point
;
whole length, on the side nearest the struggling downwards. Immediately beneath this there is
intruder, then becomes slowly incurved, and in another region, the surface of which is still more
time clasps the insect, thus making its capture smooth and slippery, while the liquid lies in the
secure. It is then digested and absorbed (Fig. 2). lowest region of all, the surface of the walls of
The common Bladderwort, found in many deep which is armed with long stiff hairs, pointing
pools and water ditches throughout the country, obliquely downwards. Attracted by the showy
has a most ingenious contrivance for entrapping colouring, an insect may alight on the upper region
—
CLEOPATRA’S NEEDI.E. 127
of the pitcher, and begin at once to sip the honey endeavouring to steal the caught flies, are them-
which is found so abundantly around. Following selves caught, and ultimately digested. As to the
this “ honey-baited pathway ” for some distance digestive functions of -the plant, the glands seem
into the tube, it will soon reach the second region, first an acid juice, then a true digestive
to secrete
where, finding no foothold, it will drop, perhaps ferment, or peptone and from experiments recently
;
head downwards, for a short distance, but, soon conducted, it would seem that all sorts of nitro-
recovering itself, it will make a vigorous struggle genous organic compounds can be successfully dealt
to escape coming in contact, however, with the with in this monster vegetable stomach.
;
opposite wall, it will instinctively endeavour to We. have now seen that at least in one relation
alight, so as to make a fresh start, but again finding that of digestion —
the great functional barrier once
no foothold, again slip and this may take

it will ;
supposed to exist as sharply separating the animal
place several times, each effort only sinking it kingdom from the individuals in the world of plants
^^lower and lower in the tube, until at last it is has completely and for ever broken down for here ;
tumbled headlong into the water. Once immersed, we have such plants as the sundews in England, the
there is no escape, for not only is the water of a trumpet-flowers of America, and the pitcher-plants
clammy or sticky consistency, but the deflexed hairs of the Old World, with a power rivalling, in its
prevent any attempts at climbing up the side wall. thoroughness and efficiency of action, the digestive
In a short time the unfortunate feaster is dead, operations of any of the higher Carnivora. We
after which it is soon decomposed and absorbed. see also that in another relation —that of sen-
The true pitcher-plants — or
Nepenthes of bota- sitiveness — some plants, at all events, are able
nists — are inhabitants of the Old World, chiefly to instantly resjDond tooutward impressions and ;
affecting the wanner regions of the Malay that in one plant we have been considering the —
Archipelago. The pitchers are, as may be readily —
sundew this sensitiveness actually exceeded the
conceived from analogy, merely modifications of a keenest sense of feeling in even the highest-de-
portion of the leaf, being developed from the part veloped of all animals — Man !
at the point, the basilar portion of the leaf-blade

retaining its normal appearance. The two parts
are separated by a length of naked midrib, forming, CLEOPATRA’S NEEDLE.
in cases where the plant wishes to secure ground
game, a cord of considerable length — ^just so long, The ancient Egyptian obelisk which very recently
indeed, as to place its pitcher in a convenient found a resting place upon the Thames Embank-
position on the ground. The mouth of the pitcher ment, between the Charing Cross and Waterloo
is kept permanently distended by a thickened bridges, is one of several monoliths to which the
corrugated ring, which secretes a plentiful supply same name of Cleopatra’s Needle is applied. It
of honey. This honey is, of course, only the old is, however, a complete misnomer, as these monu-
familiar bait to lure the unwary nectar-feeding ments date from a period long before the time of
insect into the ingenious trap artfully arranged for the renowned Egyptian Queen, with whom they
its capture. A walled pathway, leading in a most have no sort of connection.
direct manner up to this delectable feeding-ground, The obelisk was, amongst the ancient Egyptians,
iseven constructed evidently for the express service symbolical of the Supreme Being and the sun ;
of all roving insects. This narrow alley is formed being with them an object of worship, the Egyptian
by two longitudinal fringed wings, extending from priests styled these monoliths the Fingers of the
the base of the pitcher to the rim, and is often the Sun, while the Arabs called them Pharaoh’s Needles,
means of guiding many an unfortunate insect to a term quite as inappropriate as our more familiar
certain death. many species
Further, the ring in name. Amongst the few objects of interest in the
turns over, and dips into the pitcher, ending in a neighbourhood of Alexandria were these so-called
marginal row of stiff spines, forming an insur- Cleopatra’s Needles, and the famous column, now
mountable barrier to all imprisoned climbers. The universally but incorrectly called Pompey’s Pillar.
lid, while keeping out useless objects that might by The needles were situated in the immediate
accident fall into the vessel, forms, from its showy vicinity of the Palace of Cleopatra, which was
appearance, an attractive object to insects and built upon the walls facing the port of Alexandria,
other small animals. Below the spinose margin and doubtless from this association they acquired
of the indexed rim, the inside surface of the wall their erroneous appellation, though, as will presently
of the pitcher is so smooth, that it is absolutely, or be seen, they were not erected until some years
almost, impossible to gain a foothold below this ;
after the death of the last native Egyptian ruler in
region the walls are glandular and secretive, 30 B.c. A learned Frenchman, named Denon,
enclosing the liquid contents of the organ. The who accompanied the French army of 1798 into
number and variety of animals these pitchers entrap Egypt, supposed these pillars had at one time
are simply wonderful ; sometimes even small birds, decorated the entrance to the Palace of the
Ptolemies, the ruins of which are not far distant but
;
ever, amongst the hieroglyphics with which they
laterit was decided that they had been brought to are covered, the names of Thothmes III., of
ADJUSTING THE OHELISK PARALLEL TO THE SHORE.
this spot from some ancient Egyptian Temple Raineses II., and of a still later king have been
during Greek or Roman rule, and are stated to deciphered upon one of them, it seems probable
CONSTRUCTION OF THE CYLINDRICAL CASE.
have been originally erected at Heliopolis about that their true history and origin has yet to be
1600 B.C., by the King Thothmes III. As, how- discovered, and all of which we can be assured is
—
CLEOPATRA’S NEEDLE, T29
that they date back to an early period of Egyptian Antony and Cleopatra), until the year 14 .\.u., we
history, and form a part of that strange forgotten learn that this, and doubtless the other needles,
record of ancient civilisation which has for so was erected by the engineer Pontius in 21 A.D.,
many ages puzzled the learned of more recent times. and was placed before the Cresareum of Alex-
Regarding the removal of the needles to their site andria, or, as it is sometimes called, the Temple of
before the ruined palace of Cleopatra, we have, how- Augustus Cresar.
ever, at last obtained the most certain knowledge. The English obelisk, like that still left standing
Mr. Dixon, the able engineer entrusted with the in solitary state at Alexandria, is of that hard,
transport of the English obelisk, knowing that these compact red granite known as Theban stone
monoliths were frequently supported at their base which was obtained from the quarries at Syene, on
by feet of metal, obtained the sanction of the the Nile, and consists, roughly, of 70 per cent of
Khedive to examine the buried base of the still feldspar, 20 per cent, of quartz, and 10 per cent, of
erect needle, in the hope of discovering some clue mica. As has been already stated, it is covered
ARRIVAL OF THE OBELISK AT GRAVESE.NU.
to the date of its erection.After the removal of on every side with hieroglyphics, a description and
the accumulated sand and debris, it was found that translation of which have been already published
the obelisk was supported upon its plinth to a by Dr. Birch, the well-known antiquary of the
great extent by rude and insecure masonry, but at British Museum. With this, however, we have no
one corner was seen a bronze crab, on one claw of concern, but must pass on to consider the skill
which, after careful examination, a Greek and a displayed by the engineer in the removal of this
Latin inscription were deciphered, which finally immense block of solid granite from its place in
decided the question so long in dispute amongst Egypt to its so far final destination on the banks of
archieologists. As each of these inscriptions, the English Thames.
which were impressed upon the surface of the The obelisk was first acquired for this country by
metal, was to the same effect, we will transcribe Sir Ralph Abercromby in 1801, at which time it had
only that in Latin : been long embedded in the sand and mud of the
Anno viir. shore. Not being removed at that time, it was
Augusti Caesaris. again offered to the English by Mehemet Ali,
Barbarus Praef[ectus]. the first Khedive of Egypt, but was still permitted
Aegypti Posuit. to remain buried in its sandy bed. On the 1 5th
Archetectante Pontio. March, however, the present Khedive re-
1877,
Thus, as Augustus Csesar was prefect of Egypt newed the offer made by his predecessor ;
and
from 29 B.c. (the year following the death of Professor Erasmus Wilson having most liberally
R
undertaken to pay all the expenses of its removal, was present to float it, and after it had travelled in
itwas at length resolved to bring it to this country, some 650 feet of sandy shore, an unseen
safety across
Mr. John Dixon, the engineer, taking upon himself stone pierced it just beyond the extremity of the
the immense responsibility of its safe transit. wooden casing. Though already partly submerged
Of course, many and various schemes were not in water, the calm weather fortunately enabled the
wanting, when its removal was finally decided engineer to repair the damage without much diffi-
upon and one of the projects discussed by Mr.
;
culty ;
but the delay thus caused prevented the
Dixon and his brother and coadjutor was the cutting presence Khedive when the Cleopatra
of the
of a canal from the sea to the site of the buried was into deep water.
finally floated When fairly
obelisk but;
this he at length decided to be im- launched she was towed to the docks at Alexandria,
practicable. Eventually it appeared to Mr. Dixon and there fitted with mast, cabin, helm, and sundry
and his brother that the simplest method which other appliances which might render her passage
could be adopted for the removal of the Needle safer and more expeditious. On the 21st Septem-
would be to allow it to remain where it lay on the ber, 1877, she finally left Egypt, accompanied by
shore, and to construct around it a strong iron the Olga^ and all went well until the Bay of Biscay
cylinder, in which it could be completely enclosed, was reached. There, however, the Cleopatra and
and of sufficient strength to permit of its being her convoy encountered bad weather, during which
rolled, with the obelisk inside it, from the place of they became separated, and after six lives had been
its erection down to the water’s edge. In pur- lost in the effort to recover the Needle, the Olga
suance of this plan excavations were made about finally abandoned her charge, and the Cleopatra
the Needle, and the cylinder was gradually built up was left to the tender mercies of the waves.
to enclose it. Having carefully calculated what vol- Later, she was found by the English steamer Fitz-
ume of air would be sufficient to float the weight of Maurice^ and was by her towed into the harbour
the cylinder and the contained monolith, Mr. Dixon of Ferrol, for which service the owners received
constructed his vessel accordingly and when com- ^2,000 as salvage.
; On the i6th January, 1878,
pleted it was about fifteen feet in diameter, and the Cleopatra left Ferrol in charge of the steamer
about ii6 feet in length, while the Needle Anglia, and without further mishap reached
measured sixty-eight feet five and a half inches London eleven days later.
from base to point, and about seven feet seven Arrived in London, a site on the Thames Em-
inches in width at the base, and weighed no less bankment was, after considerable differences of
than 1 86 tons 7 cwt. i qr. 11 lb. The cylinder opinion, selected for the Needle, and here, with no
was divided into ten water-tight compartments, so small engineering skill, it was finally erected on the
that in the event of accident to one portion of the 1 2th September, 1878. Within the pedestal was
shell the vessel might still retain sufficient buoyancy placed a collection of the productions of the nine-
to prevent it from going to the bottom on its passage teenth century, including a “ Bradshaw,” some
across the ocean. newspapers, and articles of clothing, which may
The labour of rolling this cylinder down to the percfiance, after the present metropolis has been
water was immense, and the engineer found his submerged and again raised from beneath the
difficulties not a little increased by the fact that he waters, furnish either infonnation or matter of
had only foreign workmen to assist him, to whom argument to future generations of savants ages after
it was impossible to convey his orders with prompt- the greatness of London has passed away.
ness and decision. In spite, however, of this
difficulty his operations were conducted in a most
masterly manner and though he judged that some CURIOSITIES OF
;
COURT
ETIQUETTE.
slight injury was done to the air-tight compart- j
ments during the works, it was not of a serious Everybody has read, perhaps, and most people
character, and was unattended by injurious results. incredulously, the story of that royal lady of Spain
One of the dangers to be guarded against during (she was Charles II.’s wife) who, falling from her
the course of the cylinder from the place of its
,
horse, caught her foot in the stirrup, and, being
construction to the sea was the chance of piercing unable to extricate herself without assistance,
the metal by stones lying on the line of its passage. remained in her ignominious and indecent position
To prevent this risk all the stones which could be until the grand equerry, whose duty it was to assist
seen were carefully removed, and the vessel was the royal lady on such occasions, could t>e dis-
further enveloped in a coating of wood, which covered and brought to the spot, although some
covered that part of it which it was judged would forty or fifty of her attendants stood by, none
press most heavily upon the ground. Notwith- daring to violate the etiquette of the Court by
standing these precautions, however, an accident laying hands upon the royal foot. Or rather, we
occurred. When the cylinder was within about should s.ay, she would have so remained if a by-
sixty-five feet from the place where sufficient water i stander had not released her. He received a
WONDERS OF SPONGE-LIFE. 131
money but was not allowed to

reward, escape WONDERS OF SPONGE-LIFE.
punishment for his “ crime,” being exiled.
Another, but more tragical story of this wonder- Time was when a sponge was regarded as be-
ful kind of etiquette, and one almost as well known, longing to the domain of the botanist, and as
is that of Philip III., who, finding himself uncom- representing a group of lower plants. It was not
fortably hot in the presence of too fierce a fire, wonderful that the sponges should be regarded
requested the Marquis de Pobar to extinguish it. as plants. They are plant-like in form they grow ;
The Marquis dared not obey, because the Duke in a rooted and fixed condition and they are, lastly,
;
d’Useda claimed that privilege, and the Duke destitute of all the visible and apparent signs by
was absent in Catalonia hunting. The result was which we are accustomed to detect and recognise
that the monarch “ endured ” what could not be animal life. But the deeper investigation of the
“ cured ” without a violation of Court etiquette ;
sponge tribe afforded a rich harvest of curious
and erysipelas being thereby caused, he died ! facts to the naturalist. It was discovered, firstly,
Because it was Court etiquette for no subject to that in all their essential features sponges were
sit or lie down while the king stood or sat, not plants, but true animals. Next, the history of
Louis XIII., when he visited Richelieu at Tarascon, their development was studied, and the facts
had a couch placed beside the sick bed of his therein disclosed were found to bear out the idea
Minister, upon which he could repose while the of the animal nature of the sponge in the fullest
interview lasted. Louis XIV. did the same when possible manner. As time progressed, new facts
he visited the wounded Mardchal de Villars, after concerning sponge-history were brought to light,
Malplaquet. Napoleon the Great’s Book of Cere- and the class has now taken a stable place in zoo-
monial was as exacting as the Court etiquette of the logical systems as a low, but, at the same time,
last-named monarch, on which, indeed, it was based. very distinct group of the animal kingdom.
In 1808 all the copies of the famous Almanac To enable us perfectly to comprehend the won-
de Gotha were seized directly they were issued, ders which lie hidden within the compass of a
and suppressed, because, as had before been sponge, we must, firstly, endeavour to understand
usual, the reigning Sovereigns were printed in the relationships and nature of the substance used
alphabetical order, and therefore began with the in our households, and familiarly called “sponge.”
Anhalt Duchies, and not with the Emperor Napo- !
This consists of a horny matter, known to the
leon. The book was consequently reprinted, with scientist as keratode. It is made and manufac-
the great little Corsican’s name placed first. tured by the living parts of the sponge just, ;
Cyrus beheaded those who, when they had the indeed, as a shell is made by the snail or oyster
honour of saluting him, failed in their obedience that inhabits it ;
so that, in this first plain observa-
to Court etiquette in not placing their hands within tion, we upon a wonder of sponge-life. The
light
their sleeves. I
secret of the manufacture of the sponge is still

When Sully (then Rosny) came from
called hidden from us. We do not know how the living
France to King James on
formally compliment matter elaborates, forms, and builds up the horny
his accession to the throne of England, some skeleton we use in our homes. All that we do
gentleman of his suite killed an Englishman at know is really limited to the observation that the
a tavern brawl, under circumstances which col- manufacture of this skeleton is characteristic of
lected a mob and created a riot. The man who sponge-life, as much as to make bones is a feature
killed the escaped to the house of the
native of our own existence.
resident French ambassador, from which Sully But it is very important that we should not
had him taken, and finding on investigation that startupon our journey in search of the wonders
his countryman’s crime was murder, he gave him of sponge-life without bearing in mind that the
up for trial to the Lord Mayor, in whose court horny sponges form only one group of their class.
he was speedily condemned to death. But the Imbedded amongst the horny fibres of the sponge
French ambassador, the Marquis de Beaumont- we find needle-like bodies, formed of mineral mat-
Harlay, obtained for him a free pardon signed ter— —
usually flint which serve to strengthen the
by King James, and within five minutes of his horny skeleton. There are a few sponges known,
execution obtained his freedom. This created an to which, in all probability, the popular observer
immense amount of anger and indignation at the would deny the name of “Sponge” altogether.
French Court, as a breach of royal etiquette which We know of true sponges which thus possess no
grossly insulted the King of France, who alone skeleton at all, and which present the appearance
had the right to pardon a French subject con- —
of masses of living jelly or protoplasm per- —
demned by French authority. He had been forated by the canals and tubes so well seen in a
condemned by Sully, and, as the French monarch common sponge, but showing no traces of firmer
sent him no pardon, it was said he should, as a parts. We have just seen that in the commoner
matter of etiquette, have been hanged. types of horny sponges the skeleton is strength-
ened by flinty particles. In another prominent rayed or pointed, and the meshes of the net formed
group of sponges, the skeleton is wholly of limy by their union are of many-sided shape. When the
nature, and does not include any horny matter “Venus’ Flower-Basket” is young, the whole skele-
whatever in its composition. It seems strange, with ton is flexible but, as time passes, the flinty
;
our conventional ideas of a sponge, to apply that elements predominate, and the skeleton becomes
name to a mass of limy matter but these calcareous
; rigid and brittle. Above, the “ basket ” ends in an
sponges are amongst the best known of the sponge- aperture, which is covered by a network-like lid
—
;
class. The limy framework which in these sponges and below we see the wisp of flinty fibres, depend-
is, of course, made by the living parts of the animal ing like a beard from the sponge, and by means of
— consists of beautiful mineral particles, which, which the sponge anchors itself in the mud of the
under the microscope, exhibit varied and charac- sea.
teristic shapes. Thus, there are many three-rayed We shall presently endeavour to note the charac-
—
spicules as the limy ters of the living
particles are named, parts to which we owe
but few four - rayed the manufacture of
ones ;
whilst others this strange and ele-
exist in the form of gant frame. But,
needles or rods of viewing the “ Venus’
limy matter. Fig. i Flower-Basket” merely
shows a calcareous as a dead and formed
sponge. piece of life’s handi-
Naturalists have re- work, we may justly
cognised another rank its manufacture
group of sponges in among the wonders of
the shape of those sponge-life. Side by
which have skeletons side in the illustra-
of flint. The com- tion with the “ 'N’enus’
mon horny sponges, Flower - Basket” is
as we have seen, pos- another sponge^
sess flinty particles im- Alcyottcellum of —
bedded amongst the nearly related nature,
horny fibres, and we but which hardly
can thus readily see equals the former
that the “flint” organism in the ele-
sponges are closely gance of its form.
related to the horny “ Sponge ” is thus
ones. If we imagine seen to vary in nature,
the horny skeleton to and to present us with
become rudimentary, horny, limy, and flinty
or to disappear alto- guises. The living
gether, and to give Kig. I. — COLONY OF CALCAREOUS SPONGES. matter of a sponge,
place (Ascandra pinus).
to the flinty however, is alone that
element, which would in which the person-
thus come to the front, we may readily conceive ality of the sponge, so to speak, resides.This
how the flint sponges are really connected with living matter consists of —
protoplasm a jelly-like
the horny types by close ties of relationship. substance —
which, under one form or another,
Amongst the “ flinty ” sponges we find several is found wherever life exists. We may easily
forms which, for elegance of outline, and for their enough see this living matter if we take a sponge
innate beauty of form, outrival many other groups from its native waters. In the common green
of much higher animals. A glance at the full-page freshwater sponge —
Spongilla —
which grows in
illustration will show two of these elegant forms. the locks of canals, and is found in our rivers, the
That on the left is the beautiful “Venus’ Flower- living matter is readily seen as a glairy substance,
—
Basket Sponge ” or Etiplectella a sponge found — resembling white of egg in appearance. This is
in the Philippine Islands. This elegant organism the liv’ing protoplasm of the sponge, which manu-
well merits its somewhat poetic name. It is com- factures the skeleton, and which carries on all the
posed of an intricate series of flinty particles, functions which characterise and distinguish sponge-
woven together so as to present us with a network ;
life. It covers the external surface of the sponge,
arrangement of great complexity. The separate j
and lines the canals that ev'erywhere riddle the
particles which compose this skeleton are six-
j
sponge skeleton. When the microscope is brought
SKELETONS OE SILICIOUS OR FLINTY SPONGES (NATURAL SIZE).
I. AkyoncellHin speciosum. 2. Enplectella aspergi/litni.

4
WONDERS OF SPONGE-LIFE. 133
to bear on the nature of this “ sponge-flesh” —as the oscula. Manysponges have but one large aperture
living matter is also called seen to— that “flesh” is or oscichtm, and the “ Venus’ Flower-Basket ” and
be disposed in a very defined fashion. It is seen the “ Cup Sponges ” exhibit this latter peculiarity.
to be made up of small masses of protoplasm, each When we reflect that the sponge-canals are lined
possessing a kind of distinct individuality of its with living particles, and that these living beings,
own, although merged, more or less closely, with members of the sponge-colony, require to be fed,
the substance of its neighbours. In many cases, the reason for the circulation of water that is e\’er
the living units of the sponge can be distinguished passing through the sponge is not far to seek.
to exist in the likeness of masses of protoplasm, But the fact that this constant circulation of
water
which continually alter their shape, like the animal- is required to bring food-particles and oxygen gas
cule known as the A niaba. In other cases, the sepa- to the little individuals of which the sponge is com-
rate living particles re- posed does not ex-
semble other animal- plain how the circu-
cules, which possess a lation itself is carried
curious collar and a on. To discuss the
whip-like lash or a- means whereby the
lium, which is in con- sponge carries on its
tinual movement. A circulation requires

sponge, as to its living that we should make
parts, in fact, is thus the acquaintance of its
seen to be a colo 7iy oj internal structure. In

animals, and not a an ordinary sponge,
single animal. The and lining the canals
members of the colony here and there, we can
constitute collectively detect little groups of
a mass of living proto- the living particles be-
plasm. In its simplest fore mentioned, and
guise, the living colony which possess the lash-
is a mass of minute like cilia already al-
particles of protoplasm, luded Imagine a
to.
aggregated together, canaf, and suppose

and connected by the that on each side of
skeleton they secrete. the canal a half-moon-
A curious feature 01 shaped space was ex-
sponge-life is therefore cavated. Then, if we
found in this latter further suppose that
fact : since we dis- this space was lined
cover that we are with lash-like threads
dealing, in the case of attached to particles
Fig. 2. — VOUNG SPONGES.
a sponge, with no or- I. Verongia rosea (horny). 2. Halisarca lohtdaris (gelatinous). growing on the sides
dinary or single being, 3. Isodyctia rosea (flinty). 4. Sycandra raphanus (limy).
we may
of the space,
but with a colony of form an idea of the
curious forms or, indeed,
;
it may be with several so-called “ found deep down within
chambers ”
colonies united to form one living mass (Fig. i). the substance of the sponge. It is by the move-
Viewed from the outside, a living sponge seems to ments of these “ lashes,” acting like so many
present po sign of active life. It may be torn in brooms, that the currents of water are swept into
pieces without showing the slightest sign of sensa- the sponge, and swept onwards and outwards as
tion, not to speak of “ pain and, to all appearance, well. This curious disposition of matters, then,
none of the characteristics of animal
are to be life seems to remind us that a sponge is by no means
seen in its history. But if we strew some particles such a simple organism as many persons might be
of coloured matter in the water in which a living led to suppose. On the contrary, we see that in
sponge resides, we may readily discover that the the sponge there are certain of its living elements
ways of sponge-existence are, after all, not quite and such a feature fore-
set apart for special duties,
so silent and inactive as we might be led to suppose. shadows the same kind of “division of labour”
We then become aware that ceaseless currents of which we see represented in higher life.
water are drawn into the sponge, and that like cur- One of the most convincing proofs that a sponge
rents continually issue from it. We further notice isa true animal is to be found in the manner of its
that the currents enter the sponge by the small development. Like other animals, the young
Eoles, called pores, and leave it by the large holes, or sponge arises from an egy;. Deep down in the
—

substance of the sponge these eggs are developed,
each egg appearing to be formed by some special
THE “STONE RIVERS” OF THE
process from an ordinary living particle of the FALKLAND ISLANDS.
sponge. This egg soon divides into a great num-
ber of small particles, or “ cells,” and these arrange —
In the Falkland iskinds East Island especially
themselves ultimately to form a double layer or skin, many of thevalleys are occupied by pale grey glisten-
enclosing a central hollow (Fig. 2). The young ing masses, from a few hundred yards to a mile or
sponge in this way comes to resemble a cup, and even more in width. At a distance, these hav'e all
in the so-called “cup sponges” it roots itself to a the appearance of glaciers coming down from the
rock, and “pores” being formed in the walls of the heights above, and gradually increasing in volume
cup, water passes into its interior and escapes by as they are fed by smaller glaciers from the side
the mouth, the little lashes, or cilia, discharging valleys until they reach the sea. When the
their brush-like duty as already described. But traveller closely examines them they are found to
new sponges also grow from what are called consist of vast accumulations of blocks of quartzite,
“ sponge germs,” in addition to arising from eggs. some of these blocks being small, whereas others
A sponge-germ is a curious little body, enveloped are ten and even twenty feet long, by about half
in a peculiar case, and developed within the sub- that in width, and of a thickness corresponding to
stance 'of the parent sponge. This germ appears the strata of the same rock in the ridges above,
to remain imbedded in the parent-substance during whence they have undoubtedly been derived.
the winter, but when spring-time arrives it ascends They are found to be slightly worn at the points
to the surface of the water, and allows the little and edges, but their upper surfaces are smooth and
particles, or “germs,” to escape, each becoming polished, and overgrown with a very thin, hard,
converted by growth into a sponge. white lichen, which gives them the appearance of
Sponges possess a wonderfully curious history, being covered with a thin layer of ice. As the
both as regards their habits and as regards their visitor stands on these he can hear far below the
first life on the globe. Certain sponges bore into sound of running water. As usual, the formation
the substance of shells by means of their little of these wonderful features has been attributed
flinty particles. All sponges, except the solitary to the all-powerful action of ice, but it is now
Spongilla, are inhabitants of the sea. Most of generally attributed to another cause, which, until
them inhabit deep water, sponges in
and the flinty recently, has not been much taken into account by
particular are only met with in the abysses of the those who have investigated the causes of the
sea, whence the dredge of the explorer has recalled changes in the earth’s surface.
them to the knowledge of mankind. Very interest- It seems now to be pretty generally agreed that
ing is it also to discover that in the oceans of the wherever there is a slope, be it ever so slight,
past sponges lived and grew much as they exist to- there is necessarily a movement of the vegetable
to-day. It probable that the familiar horny
is mould, or soil-cap, towards the lower part of the
sponges of our houses are a newer race, but incline. Traces of this have been found in the
this is at the best but supposition, for these Highlands of Scotland and elsewhere. And it is
soft sponges have left no traces of their history fairly concluded that, as the dreaded avalanche is
as fossils in the rocks. To-day, around our coasts, the final catastrophe of ice movement, so the land-
pieces of horny sponges are dredged in consider- slipis usually the final catastrophe of the movement
able numbers, although it is to the warm and of the soil-cap.

tropical seas that we look for the sponges which In the case of these “stone rivers” the process
are serviceable to us in our households. The seems to have been as follows. The beds of
Syrian sponge-divers are amongst the most noted quartzite in the hills are found to be of very
of sponge-finders, and the Greek divers are also different degrees of hardness. Some' are soft,
famous. The Bahama sponge-banks are well approaching a crumbling sandstone in their nature ;
known as a fertile field for sponge-fishing. Again, others are of extreme hardness. The softer kinds
from minute sponges to the great “ Neptune’s Cup ” are worn away in process of time, and the harder
Sponge, we have every variety of size represented quartzites are left as long projecting ridges along
in this class. So that, turn where we will, we find the crests and ridges of the hill-ranges. The
sponge-history to be full of interesting and wonder- process of disintegration having attained a certain
ful details.It is immaterial whether we think of a point, these overhanging masses give way in the
living sponge as a kind of “submarine Venice,” direction and the fragments fall
of their joints,
with its curious canals and waterways, or whether gently ov'er on the slopes and become
slight
we study the development of the sponge each — covered with vegetable mould. Once entombed
detail but adds to the interest with which this in this soil, there ensues ;n the spongy mass a
group of beings, low in the animal scale, must be constant expansion and contraction, as it becomes
regarded by all who study its history. saturated with water or becomes comparatively dry.
—
EFFECTS OF MUSIC. 135
When the expansion takes place the blocks slip to him with pleasure, desired his presence, bade
down — through an infinitesimal degree perhaps him ask from him anything in reason as a reward,
but they slip through some distance, and the subse- and at the request of the singer consented to be
quent contraction is insufficient to pull them up shaved, washed, and to appear in public. Both
again, owing to their size and weight. The rain- Bruckman and Hufeland relate instances in which
water trickling down the slope gradually removes music cured cases of St. Vitus’s dance, and Becker
every movable particle from before them. The and Schneider demonstrated practically its influ-
vegetable soil on which they rest is also under- ence in different hypochondriacal and hysteric
going a perpetual process of decay in the interstices, cases.
and is in time removed. In this way, then, the A very strange story of the wonderful power of
blocks are borne down the slopes and piled in the music is told by Roger. A
criminal dying on the
valleys beneath. The stream, altering its course wheel in great torture met the pleadings of the
from time to time, has removed all traces of earth priest by a fierce outburst of blasphemy. Some
from their under and upper surfaces, and left them itinerant musician passing by was requested to play
bare. In this way, then, it is probable that these to the sufferer some solemn air, and, doing so, ren-
grand “ moraines,” or “ stone rivers,” have in the dered him tranquil, and so changed both his feel-
lapse of ages been formed, and to-day they consti- ings and senj^nents that he entreated the forgive-
tute a veritable “ wonder ” at all events they are a
;
ness of the priest, and begged that he would receive
very exceptional and very interesting phenomenon. his confession.
It is a curious fact, we believe, that musicians
who have gone mad often recollect and can play
EFFECTS OF MUSIC. perfectly the airs they knew when sane, although
every other memory and acquirement has passed
Medical investigations have been frequently from them.
directed to the powerful influences music exer- Sir Henry Halford has chronicled the case of a
cises through the mind upon the body. By in- mad Yorkshireman who was restored to sanity by
creasing mental energy, or by its depressing the use of a violin.Six weeks after its introduction
influence upon the feelings, begetting despondency, he was cured.
music affects the health to a very considerable Mr. Nathan has recorded the curious fact that a
extent. Many instances might be quoted from pug dog in his possession would frisk actively when
ancient history and from the sacred writings, but light, merry music was performed, sit perfectly still
it will suffice to mention the record of songs de- when a slow melody was heard, and howl and yell
voted in ancient Egypt to the promotion of virtue piteously if a certain discord was struck. East-
and morality in the education of youth to the ;
court says when some choristers were singing on
records which attribute the barbarism of Cynoethe the banks of the Mersey, a hare was seen to steal
to the neglect of music, and the refinement and from its retreat and listen, retiring as the voices
purity of Arcadian manners and customs to a love grew silent, and reappearing directly the singing re-
of music ;
and to point out that a cure was sought commenced. The story of Bossuet about an officer
for the derangement of Saul by David’s playing imprisoned in the Bastille whose flute-playing
upon the harp. Pythagoras commended music in brought out mice and spiders and rendered them
the treatment of the insane and Thales, when a
;
tame, is well known. Chateaubriand describes
pestilence ravaged Sparta, found in music his most rattle-snakes in Upper Canada which were kept
powerful means of combating it. Xenocrates under control by musical sounds.
soothed maniacs by it, and Theophrastus held that
even the bites of venomous reptiles were rendered The First American Silk Dress. One of the —
less mischievous by subjecting the victims to the most remarkable silk dresses on record was on ex-
influence of melodious remedies. When physicians hibition at Philadelphia in 882, and was afterwards1
recognised evil spirits as the causes of disease, presented by the American Women’s Silk Culture
music was held to be curative, and Luther ex- Association to Mrs. Garfield. It was the first silk
pressed the same belief when he wrote, “ Music dress made from the cocoons of American silk-
is one of the most beautiful and glorious gifts of worms. The raw silk was grown in fourteen .States
God, to which Satan is a bitter enemy.” of the Union by twenty-six families. It was reeled
When Philip of Spain was in so morbid and on a Yankee reel, and manufactured in New Jersey.
desponding a condition that he neglected his In the quality of the silk and the manner of manu-
persop and refused to see or be seen by his sub- facture it is said to challenge comparison with the
jects, Farinelli, the vocalist, was sent for by the products of Lyons looms. Already there is growing
Queen, with a party of musicians, to sing and play in America a demand for duty on raw silk high
in the room which adjoined that of the King. The enough to protect the American silkworms against,
effect was a speedy and rapid cure. Philip listened the competition of China and Italy.
A WONDERFUL AGATE. of the present Archimandrite that the stone has
been closely examined out of its setting by various
The stones known as agates are in reality com- skilled mineralogists, both native and foreign, who
posed of layers of flint or quartz deposited in have pronounced it a purely natural growth".
more than usual tranquillity, and consequently with This remarkable agate was found in Siberia in
greater regularity. The stratification shows chiefly the eighteenth century, and presented to the
how layer has been added to layer, and the result Empress Catherine II. of Russia, who in turn
Fig J. — MOSS AGATE.

Fig. I. — AGATE.
is usually amore or gave it to her fa*

less banded or varie- vourite, Platon, Me-
gated pattern, as in tropolitan of Moscow.
Fig. I. Occasionally The latter wore it as
filaments ofmoss or a sort of image or
other vegetable charm, suspended
growths are embed- round his neck by a
ded in a more or gold chain such as
less clear stone, which is worn by bishops,
is then called a together with a cross,
“ moss-agate.” Such very much in fact
an agate is shown in as now shown in the
Fig. 2. Both of these illustration. On his
kinds of agates are death, in 1812, Platon
occasionally found in turn bequeathed
exhibiting figures of the stone to the
great complication monastery, of which
and beauty, and are he was titular Archi-
often set in brooches MOSS AGATE IN THE MONASTERY OF TROITSKY SERGIVSKY. mandrite, and upon
or used for other or- which he had spent
namental purposes. much money in vari-
Probably the most wonderful variegated or moss ous ways, which has caused his memory to be
agate in the world, however, is that shown in the cherished with much veneration, his rooms being
illustration above, which is drawn from a photo- still preserved in the same state as when he
graph, and represents a sacred jewel preserved in last used them. The monastery dates from the
the famous old Troitsky Sergivsky monastery at beginning of the fourteenth century, and Platon’s
Moscow. The centre-oiece is a moss-agate of the apartments contain the best and most authentic
size shown, the pattern of which shows with won- series of portraits of the imperial family, which
derful clearness the figure of a monk kneeling in invests it with considerable interest. But of all
adoration before a crucifix. So striking is this the articles given during his life or bequeathed
natural picture, that has been suggested it may
it at his death by their former superior, none is
have been a little heightened by artifice but there
;
held in such veneration for its own sake as this
are no signs of this, and we have it on the authority wonderful stone.
OUR GREAT GUNS. 137
OUR GREAT GUNS. *

invented by Thouvenin, and consisted of a short
(hence named the “ pillar ride ”),
pillar of steel
Gunpowder, guns, and the rudimentary mecha- concentric, with the barrel screwed into the
nical forces were no new things, yet in their dex- breech of the gun, round which the powder was
terous manipulation, improvement, and application, disposed. The practice made by this rifle esta-
it was reserved for the nineteenth century to accom- blished the vital excellence of the conical form of
plish the most astonishing combination of these ball. The later invention of M. Minie consisted of
forces for practical purposes which the world has a conical bullet expanding into the grooves of the
ever seen. This remarkable state of things was barrel on the gunpowder exploding, and not, as
not, however, brought about at a bound. Carron- in the first essays in rifling, being forced into the
ades which would carry 2,000 yards are spoken of grooves by the soldier’s ramrod.
THE WOOLWICH 81-TON GU.\.
by Eldred in “The Gunner’s Looking-glass, 1644.” The efficiency of the Minie rifle having been
The idea of rifling cannon is by no means new. A became apparent that improvements
established, it
German experimentalist, Riitter of Nurnberg, more in heavy ordnance must of necessity follow the
than three centuries ago (1520), invented a kind of small arms. Private firms began to make experi-
rifled artillery with spiral grooves, and Robins, the ments, notably Messrs. Morgan and Holroyd of
inventor of the ballistic pendulum for determining Bristol, and Mr. Armstrong of Newcastle. In
the relative velocity of experimented
projectiles, 1854 the latter gentleman placed his proposal for
on rifled field-pieces in England as far back as the improvement of artillery' before the Minister
1745. But the practical outcome of these inven- of War, and during the succeeding four years
tions was nothing. he was permitted, as an indulgence, to carry on a
During the exhaustion which followed the great series of experiments at his own expense (in the
struggle of the French wars, nothing much was first instance), the results of which were simply
done, nor until after the siege of Antwerp, in astounding. Merely in the matter of range (which,
1832. Then the first improvements were effected it must be remembered, is nothing without its con-
in France. The first rifle in vogue there was comitants, precision and penetration)^ he made and
THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
sent to Shoeburyness a gun carrying a shot 9,000 The Government has probably secured a good
yards, ormore than Jive miles. Armstrong manu- gun but the main question is. Will one descrip-
;
factured his gun of ribbons of carefully-prepared tion of gun answer for every description of work '
metal, wound spirally round a mandrel, and A breech-loading Armstrong presents an external
welded by being struck perpendicularly in the peculiarity which has struck most people, namely,
direction of the barrel. Sometimes the mandrel the thickness of the gun at the breech. The reason
was replaced by a steel cylinder, which formed for this happens to be a reason which is obvious
the centre, and the outside was reinforced by one to the untrained eye, namely, that there should
or more cylinders shrunk on and welded. 'With be the greatest strength where the projectile re-
some modifications (for the most part intelligible ceives its first impulse, and where the gas is
only to the artillerist), the guns now manufactured generated which propels it. When firing at long
at Woolwich are types of the above weapon. ranges, with large charges of powder exploding,
Other inventors moved up as competitors, but none it was found that there was great strain upon
of them held their ground. There was Lancaster, that part of the gun, and the inventors had con-
with his elliptical bore ;
Whitworth, with his hex- sequently to provide for the greater material
agonal bored steel guns wdth cylindrical bullets ;
strength of resistance being lodged there.
Palliser, Scott, Boxer, and others of lesser note. Early inventors had a very imperfect knowledge
The powder to be used wdth these guns had to of the correlation between the gun, the shot, and
be of a very superior quality to that known as the explosive. recently it has been found
service powder but this fact was for a long time
;
that the velocity imparted to a projectile depended
ignored by the English gunners, wdiich tended to upon the rapidity with which powder disengages its
retard the perfecting of the new system. Slow-burning powder, surprising as it may
gases.
Whitworth’s theory was, that difficulties which better than quick
sound, and there is no more
is ;
arise from the length of the projectile are over- wonderful process in science than that by which it
come by giving sufficient rotation, and that any can be ascertained that an 8-inch gun firing a
weight that may be necessary can be obtained cylindrical shot of 180 lb. with a powder-charge of
by adding to the length of the gun and reducing 30 lb. R. L. G. (large grain powder), that starts
the diameter, thus obtaining a comparatively low the shot with a spring, imparts a velocity of 360
trajectory (or curve described in the passage of feet per second, whereas the pebble powder, a very
the shot) he laid great emphasis on the effect of a superior description, imparts a velocity of only
;
proper rifling turn, and the consequent rotation 80 feet per second in the first inch, but in the
given to the shot, on which its power and penetra- course of forty inches the pebble powder is found
tion very much depended. At first, several guns driving its projectile with greater speed, so that it
constructed on the Whitworth principle burst on finally leaves the gun at a velocity of 1,580 feet in
test the same thing happened to many of the one case, and 1,320 feet in the other.
;
It has also
steel guns manufactured by Krupp, the German been found that the power to resist with safety
gunmaker, of Essen. Whitworth, however, claimed the sudden application of a given pull requires
that the superiority of his steel gun over the iron twice the strength that is necessary to resist the
guns was that a gun of a given calibre was more gradual application of the steady action of the
effective than a service gun of larger bore in fact, same pull
: hence a rapid explosive occasions more
;
that his three-pounder muzzle-loading gun was strain upon the chamber of the gun than the
superior to the service six-pounder breech-loading slower one.
gun. These details are necessarily given with The W'oolwich guns on the whole answered
some prominence, because the contest for supe- admirably. From weapons of 7 tons, rapid strides
riority or Government favour has been really were made to 9, 12, 18, 25, 35, 80, and 100 tons, all
narrowed to Messrs. Armstrong and Whitworth, of the finest fibrous iron. In 1875 we find an 81-
who are at the same time eminent engineers, and ton gun in course of manufacture at the Royal
it is well to bear in remembrance the points of .A.rsenal, Woolwich. The rifling of the bore was
difference between them. There are still differ- carried out at the boring-mills the whole process,
;
ences of opinion amongst professional men and down to the shrinking on of the trunnion-ring, was
specialists as to the best methods of constructing any accidents, except fracturing
effected without
guns the best metal, or combination of metals
; ;
hammer in welding together
the face of the 40-ton
whether a gun should be formed of cast tubes of the breech-coils. Yet the machinery was con-
steel pressing one on the other, or of a tube of fessedly adapted only to a gun of half tne weignt.
wrought-iron strengthened with an outside coating This gun is shown in the illustration, but in
of steel, or with an interior formed of massive steel point of size it was entirely eclipsed by the artillery
enclosed in rings of steel, or an iron interior en- monster, the loo-ton muzzle-loader gun of 1881.
closed in hoops of steel. It can hardly be said These latter guns, it is scarcely necessary to remind
that the whole of the points have been yet solved. the reader, are not intended to be moved from
5
OUR GREAT GUNS. 139
place to place, but to occupy fixed positions on larger than the other, so that the coil may slide off.
forts, and other fortified places.

castles, Con- The heated bar is withdrawn from the furnace, and
sidering theirenormous weight, it would be utterly by means of a hole fitted on to a pin in the side of
impracticable to do so. the mandrel, which is set in motion, the bar is
In September, i88r, we witnessed the test of the rolled up, and becomes a cylinder. In order that
guns of this calibre which were about to be sent on the bar may coil properly round the mandrel, it
service to Gibraltar and Malta. On account of passes along and over a rest between the furnace
the expense, the test was limited by the War De- and the machine, so close to the latter that the iron
partment to the firing of five rounds the powder- ;
is forced to bend in the direction of the coiling a ;
charge on that occasion consisted of 448 lb. of the few blows on the end from the hammer, and the
most recently approved (powder) pebbles, each about coil is complete. The mandrel is then hoisted on
one inch diameter, and systematically arranged in end, and the coil runs off if it were allowed to:
four cartridges, with means of communication at cool on the roller, it would probably adhere to it.
the end. The projectile was a flat-headed proof The coiling is the principal feature in the manu-
shot of 2,000 lb. weight, or about four-fifths of facture of the gun. The method
of arranging the
a ton. The concussion is tremendous, but not so iron so that its be in the direction of
fibres shall
hard to be endured as might be supposed, nor so the circumference imparts a strength that could
bad as the ring of a brass gun, which sometimes not be attained by cast-iron. The next operation
caused blood to start from the men’s ears. This is that of welding the spirals of the coil together,
gun is 34 feet in length, and tapers down from 6i so as to form a cylinder, for however close it may
feet at thebreech to a diameter of 2^ feet at the be coiled, the coil shows shrinkage and interstices.
muzzle. The diameter
of the bore is lyf inches. The coils are taken to another workshop, and then,
The price paid for each of these guns is ^16,000 ;
when nearly at a white heat, are shifted from the fur-
for the manufacture of the prismatic kind of gun- nace, placed on end beneath a powerful steam
powder the Government pays one shilling per hammer, and by rapid blows the whole of the spirals
pound. The total cost of each round is in the welded until they become one. The coils thus
sg&regate .£30. Some conception may thus be forged are taken to the turning-lathes, smoothed,
formed of the outlay of treasure which anything and finished both inside and out. Two or more
“ strong ”
like a protracted siege of our places coils are required to finish the inner tube.
will in future involve,and even furnish some poli- Now commences what is termed technically the
tical reasoners with a new argument against their building-up of the gun. The inner tube is left rather
retention. Although on the occasion we are refer- too large for the outer, but the outer one heated
is
ring to one hour was consumed in firing three until it is expanded sufficiently to let the first one
rounds, yet with a well-drilled gun detachment pass into it ;
when cold, both are so firmly joined
it considered that the operations could be per-
is together that it is impossible to separate them, and
formed in about twenty minutes. The projectile thus each successive coil is “ shrunk on ” until the
used (a proof shot) was fired at a velocity of 1,570 building-up is complete. The breech-screw is a
yards, and struck with an energy of 33,500 per solid forging, bored out to the requisite diameter,
foot-tons at the muzzle, so that at a mile range it and turned with a screw on the interior. The vent-
would destroy armour.
three-foot There was piece is a block of wrought-iron, with a neck to it,
very little strain upon the gun, the pressure created which serves as a handle to lift it out the reason ;
by the improved powder being uniformly below 1 of making the vent-piece thus is that it is the part
tons to the square inch. of the gun which sustains the most wear and tear,
The manufacture of the rifled guns is a very and it is now the part most easily replaced under
complicated process. The bars of iron which are thisarrangement of construction.

used are long the transverse section is not rect-
;
Whilst we write there are some new breech-
angular, but wedge-shaped, with the apex cut off. loader guns being manufactured at Woolwich of
The bars are converted into cylinders. The inner 43 tons (12-inch), 26 tons (io'4-inch), 18 tons (9'2-
tube, which is the first part made, extends the inch), with others of smaller dimensions. All these
whole length of the gun, and is composed of guns are “ built up ” according to the most improved
several cylinders, called in the factory coils, each system of construction, steel being liberally used.
coil being made
of a single bar, cut to the required The guns are rifled on the “polygroove” system,
length. A
long low furnace is heated, and the bar the “twist” being partly increasing and partly
placed in it when it has attained a red heat it is
;
uniform. All the guns have enlarged powder-
passed to the coiling-machine, erected conveniently chambers capable of burning heavy powder-charges
close to the furnace. This is a solid mandrel, or of slow-burning powder, and very high muzzle velo-
roller, revolving on pivots in the head of two cities are realised.The entire series of these new
upright posts, and it turns by machinery one end ;
type guns will shortly be issued to the naval and
of the roller is slightly “ coned,” z.e., one end military services. The weapons that are turned
140 THE WORLD OF AVONDERS.
ArroRV
THE POWER OF IMPUDENCE. 141
out, whether the mammoth ordnance of 100 tons Russia, and struck Joseph that a Russian prince,,
it
or the 9 and lo-inch guns, are of tested value. especially he happened to be nephew to the
if
At the recent bombardihent of Alexandria, we —

Emperor Alexander I. the great champion for
are told that the old smooth-bore guns did little popular rights in all countries except his own, and
but rattle their shot against our ironclads, but the —
not excluding Poland would create a sensation in
rifled guns pierced the armour in many places Europe, and especially in France. He knew a little
wherever was weak. The Armstrong rifled pieces
it German, had fought in the Russian campaign, and
hit the ships severely between wind and water. had an amazingly large amount of impudence why —
Krupp’s gun-works, which stand to the Germans should he not become that Russian prince 1 Seeing
in the same relation as Woolwich factory does to no reason why, he took up his abode in the house
us, are situated at Essen, and are carried on upon of Galisen, the traiteiir of the Boulevard du Mont-
an enormous scale they occupy about 450 acres
;
Parnasse, as Baron Count Komburnski Kanduruski
of ground, one-fourth of which is covered. Some Padoroski, a colonel of Cossacks, commander of
time ago (and we are not aware of any great the chasseurs of Frieldberg, and aide-de-camp and
changes) he employed 8,000 men, besides 2,000 in nephew of the Emperor of all the Russias, newly
the coal-mines at Essen. At the blast-furnaces on arrived in France. He was so condescending, sO'
the Rhine, at the iron-pits on the Rhine, and at patronising, so ready to promise protection and
Nassau, he produced in i860 61,000 tons of metal honour to those who proved themselves either
by means of 112 smelting and cementing furnaces, pleasant or useful him, that his fame sprang
to
195 steam-engines from 2 to 2,000 horse-power, rapidly into being and spread with proportionate
49 steam-hammers with blocks of from 10 to 50 speed. He hired a carriage while his own was
tons, 1 10 smiths’ forges, 1 1
1
planing-machines, being built' ;
he gave hatters, tailors, and even
and 61 cutting-machines. Most of the guns pastrycooks and confectioners orders on his
made there are from 4 to 300-pounders. At treasurer, instead of money, in return for the
the Paris Exhibition he exhibited a 1,000- goods they were eager to supply. He dressed
pounder weighing 50 tons, and a 330 -pounder with simple elegance, and never was vulgarly
weighing 12J tons, breech-loaders. The 1,000- ostentatious, commonly in a green riding-coat,
pounder was afterwards presented to the Emperor, and was dispensed with in order that
his retinue
then King of Prussia. It was a type of many, his Highness might be waited upon solely and
having a forged inner tube strengthened with exclusively by a single favourite attendant.
three layers of rings over the powder-chamber, When it was announced at the Hotel des In-
and two layers over the muzzle portion. The rings valides that the great Russian prince then travel-
were forged from ingots, without welding. The unceremoniously through France was coming
ling
manufacture of this gun would appear to have been on a certain day to visit that asylum of the brave
quite a sensational matter, as it occupied sixteen and honourable, it was determined there that he
months day and night, and cost about the same should be greeted with such a reception as was
price as was allowed Sir W. Armstrong for his 100- due to the nephew of so popular a ruler. He was
ton guns, or 5,750. The loading arrangements received with all due state and ceremony, shown the
are very complicated quite unsuited to the ordi- dome and the sacred military relics, and a repast
—
—
nary English gunner and a great deal of time is was prepared for him in the decorated refectory, at
consumed in going through the various parts of which the health of his imperial uncle and his own
the loading. were solemnly proposed and enthusiastically drunk.
The “ prince ” took one of the decorations from his
button-hole, and with much feeling persisted in
THE POWER OF IMPUDENCE. bestowing it upon the officer who had organised
this grand reception, but who hesitated in accepting
—
A C.'VSE of swindling brought before the Assize it the brave man was so modest. Another officer,
Court in Paris on September 21st, 1814, is worthy of who presented the prince with his silver snuff-box,
record as an instance of daring impudence wonder- was not a little gratified when the royal Russian re-
ful in every way, whether regarded in connection quested leave to retain it “as a memorial of these
with its perpetrator or his victims. From the trial brave men and this memorable visit,” and in order
we glean the following particulars. A young Jew, that he might replace it with one made after it in
named Joseph Wallerstein, eighteen years of age, gold. He also expressed a very urgent desire to
and a sergeant-major of sharp-shooters in what was leav'e with these brave old warriors, whose blood
then called “ the Old Guard ” and had previously had enriched so many soils, some token of the
been known as “ the Imperial Guard,” after the honour and reverence with which he regarded
battle of Bricnne procured his discharge, and went them but as this was expressly forbidden in the
;
home to live with his parents at Paris. At that laws of the institution, he was compelled, with pro-
time the attention of all Europe w'as attracted to found regret, to abandon his generous intention.
Before he left he remembered certain purchases he again on the evening of the same day, when, in
had make, and inquired where he could obtain
to company with his newly-made friend St. Cyr, he
change for some Russian notes. The General who strolled into a cafe. The* sceptical one was in con-
had been prominent in welcoming him to the holy versation with the watchmaker, whose looks as he
soil of France in the name of the people and hurried up to him and said he must have back
Liberty, regretted his inability to definitely answer there and then either his money or his watch
that question, but begged that his Imperial High- were most alarming. He preferred, he loftily said,
ness would condescend to make use of his purse returning the watch, and desired the tradesman not
and its contents, to do which his Imperial Highness to visit him Meudon, and not to betray his incog-
at
at last reluctantly consented. “Unfortunately,” nito. He hastily bade M. St. Cyr adieu,
then
said the General, “it contains but twenty gold mounted his horse, and galloped away to Meudon.
pieces.” The sceptical military man also mounted his horse,
The prince resided for some time at Meudon, and followed him.
where he lived on the best and kept an excellent At Meudon a grand banquet had been prepared,
table, to which all kinds of distinguished people and many guests were assembled awaiting the
were welcomed, and all at the cost of a credulous arrival of “ the prince.” Having ascertained this,
innkeeper, who was delighted and proud and the sceptic grew puzzled and retreated.
greatly honoured in being permitted to provide Some days after, the Mayor of Pont Saint Louis
with such princely liberality. was visited by the illustrious stranger, who gravely
Entering" Versailles, he perceived an old soldier desired him to collect forage and provisions neces-
wearing* two orders, and, dismounting from his sary for the arrival of the Emperor of Russia at
horse, embraced him. Asking what orders he St. Maur at ten o’clock that evening. His uncle, he
wore, and learning that they were those of said, would bring a guard of eight hundred cavalry.
St. Lazarus and St. Louis, he explained to the He had already been to seek the Mayor of the
old soldier of the king his own name and rank, commune Saint Maur, but unluckily that worthy
overpowered by which, M. Behnare de St. Cyr, the citizen was from home. The Alayor of Saint Louis
soldier in question, invited the prince to his house, asked for a written requisition, which was given
where he entertained him at dinner, after which he without the slightest hesitation. The prince after-
was solemnly created Grand Commander of the wards dined with the Mayor, and having eaten and
Order of Malta, and was duly adorned with a blue drunken his fill, did him the honour of borrowing
ribbon. It was not until long after that the gallant his watch, having left his own, he said, with his
old chevalier remembered that there was no such friend, St. Cyr. He then accompanied the Mayor
dignity as that he had received, and that the cordon to the estate of M. Mallet, at La Garenne, where
'
of Malta is black Madame de Behnare was arrangements were made for the accommodation
! !
highly delighted with the young stranger, and of sixty of the Russian guard with lodging and
finding that he was slightly inconvenienced by rations, and rode about with him in other direc-
1
the difficulty of procuring change for Russian tions to hasten on suitable preparations.
f
But
paper money, pressed upon him, as a trifling before he left M. Mallet he looked at his watch
loan, a purse containing one hundred francs, (that he had borrowed of the Mayor), and with an
|
humbly apologising for the smallness of the sum. air of great vexation said it was out of order and
;
He solicited the honour of presenting this lady to had ceased to go. M. Mallet politely offered the
his imperial uncle, who had, he said, just arrived in loan of his w’atch, which was as politely accepted
Paris. with gracious condescension. As the required sup-
Speaking of French and Russian watches, the j
plies were not obtainable in the given time, at the
prince expressed his surprise at the superiority of ! suggestion of the Mayor he wrote to General
French time-keepers over those of his own country, |
d’Aumesil, Governor of Vincennes. While he
whereupon M.de St. Cyr introduced him to his own [
was thus engaged home came the Mayor of
watchmaker, of whom the supposes! Russian pur- St. Maur, who, being less credulous and more
chased a costly watch and chain, smilingly directing curious, soon grew suspicious, and finally, worming
the tradesman to come to him at Meudon on the out the story of the watches, gave an order for the
following day for the money, and to bring with him arrest of the pretended prince. He was first
other watches, for which he pleasantly said he would examined before General Sacken and afterwards
undertake to find purchasers. On this occasion he by Count Rochechouart, who pronounced him an
spoke of himself as Governor of Meudon. impostor, and delivered him into the hands of
j
Just before he met M. de St. Cyr he had encoun- '
justice.
tered and entered into conversation with a military |
He was tried for forgery, but his counsel set up
officer who heard of his name, rank, and lofty i successfully a very ingenious defence, proving that
pretensions with evident scepticism, and refused to the documents he had signed were not such as
be patronised by him. This gentleman he met came within the legal definition of forgery. He
A LETTER THREE THOUSAND YEARS OLD. M3
was accordingly acquitted But being tried on the
! wards, when a new king arose (Rameses II.,
second charge of swindling, he was less fortunate, “which knew not Joseph,”), the Israelites were
and was sentenced to five years’ imprisonment, a compelled to make the bricks wherewith to build
fine of three hundred francs, and to pay all the the city of Rameses, and also of Pithom (Exodus i.
legal costs of his trial. ii). This Rameses, built by forced labour,
appears to have been a pleasant city for the
Egyptians to live in, even if we make every' allow-
A LETTER THREE THOUSAND ance for the hyperbolic language of Panbesa, who
YEARS OLD. informs us that “ the lesser folk are there equal
with the great folk ” that its maidens were “ in
;
In the an Egyptian
fifteenth century before Christ, holiday attire every day,” with locks “ redolent of
clerk or scribe, Panbesa by name, wrote a letter perfumed oil,” and they stood in the doorways with
to a brother scribe, Amenemapt, which is now nosegays and green boughs during the Royal visit
generally referred to by the learned as “ the letter to the city. It is a sweet picture of more than
of Panbesa.” There is a copy of it in the British thirty centuries ago, but it is unfortunately marred
Museum, forming part of the collection known as by the thought that this very king, Rameses II., to
the Anastasi Papyri, a set of documents so called whom they were doing homage, although clever
on account of their having been purchased from and prepossessing, and the builder of several cities,
M. Anastasi by the Trustees of the British Museum. was a cruel despot, who had inflicted on the sub-
These papyri, of vast age, time-worn and mutilated, ject Israelites the severest pain and suffering. He
are in rolls formed of slices of the papyrus plant, ascended the throne of Egypt B.c. 1410, when he
and the enigmatical characters on them have been was only ten or twelve years old, and remained on
translated by several learned men during the pre- it sixty-seven years.
sent century. Panbesa’s letter was partly trans- The citizens of Pa-Rameses had their drinks ;
lated in 1855, by the Rev. J. Dunbar Heath ;

and there was “ sweet wine of Khemi,” “ pomegranate
since then more completely by Chabas and wine,” wine “ from the vineyards,” and last but not
Maspero into French, and by Goodwin into least, “beer of Kati.” It is strange to hear beer
English. an extremely interesting letter, not

It is mentioned in so ancient a document, and these are
only on account of its antiquity, but also because probably the earliest secular references one can find
it deals with a period when the Israelites had to wine and beer. In this respect the letter is
probably not as yet escaped from bondage, and it highly curious and interesting. Nor was there
speaks of the very Pharaoh (Rameses II.) who is music wanting, Pa-Rameses had its sweet singers
for
thought to have been their oppressor. of the school of Memphis.
In old-world characters, Panbesa “greets his Such is the general nature of Panbesa’s won-
Lord, the scribe Amenemapt, to whom be life, derful letter, as presented to us. on the Anastasi
health, and strength ” A commencement for a
! Papyrus HI. It is apparently a poem composed
letter not very unlike that now commonly employed in celebration of the Royal visit to Pa-Rameses,
by the rustic letter-writer, who “ hopes to find ” his and we have in it a picture of a civilised city,
correspondent “ in good health and strength.” I
I
which existed on the confines of Egypt and
Panbesa’s letter, however, is more of the nature Canaan more than three thousand years ago,
of a literary production than of a private com- before the western nations of Europe were founded.
munication, and he accordingly gives an ornate It is not the least wonderful part of the matter that
description of the city of Pa-Rameses, where the has been handed down to us, not
this poetic record
letter is presumably written. He speaks of its on hard granite monuments with their everlasting
fields “ verdant with grass ;
” of its threshing-floors graven characters, but on perishable papyrus,
full of barley and wheat ;
of the grapes, olives, and which has at last told its tale to our nineteenth-
figs in the orchards ;
daily market, and of its
of its century scholars.
fish and water-fowl. Pa-Rameses was evidently
a city built in a land flowing with milk and honey,
and from the topographical details in the letter, SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.
Egyptologists have identified it with the Rameses
of the Bible. It thus affords strange secular In the article on the “Rainbow and the Spec-
testimony to the fact that this part of the country trum ” (page 40) it was explained that when a very
must have been a fertile one before the new city narrow slit or slice of daylight is allowed to pass
of Pa-Rameses was built, as mentioned in Genesis through a triangular piece of glass called a prism,
xlvii. II : “And Joseph
placed his father and his the various colours (seen in the rainbow) of which
brethren, and gave them a possession in the land the sun’s light is made up are separated from
of Egypt, in the best of the land, in the land of each other, and spread out into a brilliant band
Rameses, as Pharaoh had commanded.” After- of colour called the “ Solar Spectrum,” which was
—

first discovered by Sir Isaac Newton. Now, this leisure, or if necessary photograph on the same
prismatic analysis (or pulling to pieces) of light plate.
may be applied to all kinds of luminous rays, It maybe as well to point out here, as no further
whether they proceed from the sun, stars, comets, allusion will be made to the fact, that a photo-
or nebulce, or from any terrestrial source of graphic plate gives a much more complete record
illumination and the series of coloured bands
;
of spectra than that which is perceived by the
(either distinct from each other, or more or less human eye or, in other words, that the photo-
;
overlapping) produced by the passage through a graphic spectrum is much longer than the visible
prism of a narrow slit of light from any given one. To understand how this can be, let the
light-sender, is called the “ spectrum ” of that reader recall the well-known fact that the human
light. For accurate and delicate -observations, it ear varies considerably in its power of perceiving
is found better not to receive the spectrum upon a musical tones. Certain notes are inaudible to some
screen, as Newton did, but to put one end of a people, while others hear them distinctly an :
small telescope on that side of the prism from observation which applies especially to notes at
which the rays emerge, and to apply the eye (or a the extreme ends of the scale, and more parti-
photographic plate) to the eye-piece. Such an cularly to very high notes —a has
subject which
instrument is called a Spectroscope, and the been specially investigated by Capt. Douglas Galton,
simplest form, of it C.B., F.R.S., &c.
is shown in Fig. I. In the case of the
It is usually sup- lowest note which
ported on a tripod we can appreciate
stand, T, with two as music, the vibra-
branches, A A, one tions enter the ear
of which carries a at the rate of i6^
tube, C, at the outer per second, while
end of which is a the highest appre-
slit, D (the jaws of ciable note (which
which are adjust- is not audible to
able by a screw, so every one) is caused,
as to give any de- according to Helm-
sired width), in holtz, by 38,000
front of which is vibrations per se-
the light - sender. cond. The air is
At the other end probably teeming

of the tube is a with sounds both
lens, which causes above and below
the rays from the slit to fall exactly parallel upon that range. The roar of Niagara is probably
the prism (or set of prisms), E, and the light one of the while the sounds of cer-
latter class,
after emerging from this is examined in the tele- tain insects belong to the former. In a similar
scope, B. In practice the prisms are enclosed in way, therefore, it is possible to conceive of va-
a box, and the whole instrumentis so arranged riations which are too rapid to produce in the
that no light can reach the eye of the observer except eye the sensation of light (or of colour) and are
that which has passed through the slit, D. When therefore invisible, while they may still have power
the light-sender is a celestial object, the spectro- to effect that change in the sensitive silver salts
scope usually attached to a telescope, but this
is necessary to permanently record their existence.
application of it must form the subject of a sepa- Let us pursue a little further this analogy be-
rate article. good spectroscopes a provision
In all tween sound and Both are propagated by
light.
is made for throwing two spectra .into the field of I wave-motiott—\h2L'i beautiful disturbance which we
view at the same time, in order to compare them can study at leisure in masses of moving water
accurately. This is done by fixing close in front and in both cases can the size of the waves be
of either the upper or lower half of the slit a very measured, as well as the rate at which they are
small reflecting prism, so arranged that while the moving. Throw a stone into a mill-pond, and
rays from one light-sender pass directly through notice how that disturbance is propagated all over
the slit, those from the second, which necessarily the pond by the tiny wavelets that move upon its
occupies a different position from the first, are surface, and mark how each particle of water
reflected on to the slit, and both sets of rays pass simply moves up and down (as evidenced by a
on prism to be simultaneously analysed, and
to the floating leaf or bit of stick) while the disturbance
to present to the eye of the observer two spectra moves a horizontal direction.
in So, exactly, is the
which he can compare and measure at his propagation of sound and of light. Sound-waves
I
— —
SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 145
travel through air at about 1,140 feet per second, light, the oxy-hydrogen light, gas, candles, or oil
and the length of those that produce audible lamps of any kind, are all of one general character,
sound varies from 70 feet to 3J inches. Light- and consist of an unbroken gradation of coloured
waves travel through the air (and through inter- bands, ranging from the red to violet, thus (No. i,
stellar space) at the enormous velocity of 186,000 Fig. 11 .) Art 1 !C red, D yellow, E F green, G blue, H
miles per second. The length of the longest wave that violet and we shall be gradually led to the conclusion
;
we can see, that all solid

which produces Red. Orange. Yellow. Green. Blue Indigo. V'iolet. and liquid sub-
red light, is stances (melted

about the metals, for ex-
ssWnth of an ample), when
inch, and the heated hot
length of the enough to give
shortest wave out, approxi-
that we can mately, white
see, which pro- light, yield
“ continu ous
duces violet
light, is about spectra ” un-
the ^rJirsth of distinguishable
an inch. (Note, from each
in passing, what other. M'hen,
a much less however, we
range the eye pursue our li- i
has for light- ve stigat ions

waves than the further, and ex-
ear for sound- amine the spec-

waves.) From tra of the ligh
these figures it given out by
follows that gases, or va-
392 billions of pours, which
waves enter our are either burn-
eye each se- ing, or are by
cond in the any means
case of red made hot
light,and 757 enough to glow
billions per and so give out
second in the light, we shall
case of violet find that these
light. The ul- spectra differ
tra-violet por- from each other
tions of the very materi-
photographic ally, and in-
spectrum are stead of being
due to even continuous
more rapid Fig. 11. CHART OF SPKCTRA. bands ofcolour,
vibrations than consist of iso-
1. The Sun. 4. Magnesium. 7. Blood.
these. It will
2. Potassium. 5. Hydrogen. L < hlorophyll.
lated bands,
be readily in- 3. Sodium. 6. ,, compressed. 9. Litmus, various thicknesses. separated from
ferred from an each other by
attentive consideration of these facts that a spec- intervals of darkness. Yet more, if we carefully
troscope separates the complex wave-systems of note the composition of the light-sender, whether,
light into their various constituents, and that, as a for instance,
it be burning hydrogen, or (as in
matter of fact, the wave-length corresponding to Fig. a colourless Bunsen gas-flame tinged with
1 .)
any particular portion of the spectrum may be the vapour of some metallic salt, a small particle of
accurately known and measured. which may be inserted in the flame, we shall find
Let us now examine various light-sources more that each simple substance (or element, to use the
closely, with the aid of the spectroscope, and note language of the chemist) yields a spectrum which
the results. The first thing that we shall observe is, is peculiar to, and characteristic of itself, and of
that the solar spectrum, the spectra of the electric no other substance whatever. It follows that any
elementary substance may be recognised with whose “absorption-spectrum ” it is desired to
absolute certainty by putting it (or one of its com- examine. This substance may be either a trans-
pounds) into a flame hot enough to volatilise, or parent solid or liquid, or a gas. As an example of
vaporise, small portions of it, and observing by a the latter, the orange fumes produced when strong
spectroscope the light so produced. Hence the name nitric acid is poured upon copper may be men-
given to this branch of physico-chemical research, tioned. Glass of various colours, and solutions of
Spectrion atialysis. Consequently, as the mere ex- metallic salts, or of various dyes and colouring-
amination of a light-sender by a spectroscope is matters, either in water, alcohol, or some other
sufficient to show (i) whether the light is derived solvent, are examples of the former. When such
from glowing solids or liquids on the one hand, an absorber is thus interposed, dark bands or lines
or glowing gas on the other, and (2) if it be from make their appearance in the continuous spectrum,
gas, what is the nature of (the substance produc- telling us of certain waves or sets of vibrations
ing) that gas, it is obvious that much may be of which those substances have robbed the light in
learnt about the chemical and physical constitu- its passage through them. These absorption-bands
tion of even the heavenly bodies by the application are, as a rule, characteristic of each substance,
of the spectroscope to the telescope. and by applying the spectroscope to the micro-
Without the aid of colour it is impossilrle to give scope Mr. Sorby was able to recognise with cer-
more than a very faint idea of the spectra of terres- tainty the absorption-bands produced by the
trial elements ;
but the annexed chart (Fig. II.) may colouring - matter of a single blood - corpuscle.
serve our present purpose, if the reader will kindly Examples of these absorption-spectra are seen on
colour it and imagine for example
in imagination, the chart. Fig. II. The shading on No. 7 shows
the whiteband in No. 3 to be a brilliant yellow, the position of the absorption-bands produced in a
the bands in No. 4 to be green and blue, and so continuous spectrum (either of solar or lamp-light)
on, as indicated by the “ colour words ” at the top by diluted blood. No. 8, those caused by a solution
of the chart. of chlorophyll (obtained by' macerating green
There are two other important points to be leaves in ether or alcohol), and No. 9, those due
noticed in connection with the spectrum of any to a solution of the vegetable colouring-matter
given terrestrial element, which have an important litmus. This last diagram shows clearly also the
bearing upon its physical condition. The first is, effect produced upon the spectrum by increasing
that the number of bright bands increases with the the quantity of absorbing-material, either by using
heat of the vapour, or, in other words, that the a stronger solution in the same space, or a greater
complexity of the spectrum increases with the length of the same solution.
temperature. The spectrum of a metal taken by It may be well to conclude the present article
the electric spark, for example, contains far more with this remark that a gas or vapour at any —
bright lines and bands than that of the same metal given temperature absorbs rays whose wave-
in a Bunsen gas-lamp. Hence the complexity lengths correspond to those which it is radiating,
of a spectrum gives a clue to the teuiperature of and hence that whether the lines in its spectrum
the substance. The second point is that the are seen bright upon a dark ground, or as dark
pressure to which the luminous gas is subjected absorption-lines upon a lighter ground (that of a
causes great alterations in the width of the bands faint continuous spectrum for example), is a mere
characteristic of that gas so that, within certain question of temperature.
;
It follows from this
limits, that pressure can be ascertained merely by that the dark absorption lines and bands seen
spectroscopic observation. This is illustrated in in the spectra of the sun and stars, are due to
Nos. 5 and 6, where the spectra of hydrogen at comparatively cold gases in the atmospheres of
different pressures are figured. A third point, those bodies. The precise connection between the
applicable not so much to terrestrial as to celestial bright lines of the spectra of terrestrial elements
physics, and deferred to another article, is that a and the corresponding dark lines in celestial
minute displacement of one or more of the spectra must, however, be reserved for separate
coloured bands characteristic of an element treatment.
is certain evidence, to the spectroscopist, as to
whether the light-sender, be it sun, star, nebula,
or comet, is moving from or towards the earth, MENTAL DELUSIONS.
and at what approximate rate in the line of
sight ! The variety of diseases which arise from dis-
Another class of spectra are called absorption- ordered or morbidly sensitive imaginations are
spectra, and are produced as follows A con- :
— innumerable, and develop themselves sometimes
tinuous spectrum is thrown into the field of view in the most astonishing ways. Their most melan-
of the spectroscope, and there is then interposed choly feature is the fact that they are really in-
between the light-sender and the slit the substance curable under any form of medical treatment, and
—
GLASS-ENGRAVING. 147
seldom give way any moral influences that arc been hanged and only partially restored to life by
to
brought to bear upon them. Dr. Wadd says —
galvanism his desire was to be fully restored.
:
“ Every medical practitioner must have seen or Jacobi mentions a lunatic confined at Wurtzburg,
—
heard of persons fancying themselves made of whose belief the absurdity of which he was often
glass ; I once had occasion to visit an earthenware perfectly aware of was that another man was —
patient. A fat gentleman sent for me to treat him alive in his stomach and talked to him. An at-
for an accident not serious in its nature, but very tempt was made to cure him by pretending to
painful. Lotions, bandages, and plaisters were remove a figure from his body after the application
applied, secundem arteni^ and the case went on of a large blister. He was delighted, and for a
most prosperously but : in proportion as he got on while did really appear to be cured but in a little ;
surgically, he fell off and instead of time the old insane belief returned, and with tears
physically,
being pleased and thankful, he became querulous and sobs he told how another man had cruelly
and morose.” At last the patient’s valet explained taken the other one’s place and talked to him
that his master was suffering from hypochondriasis, in the same way. There is an account extant of
and fancied himself an earthenware tea-pot The a nobleman at
! the Court of Louis XIV. who,
famous Dr. Watts, shortly before his death, although under the impression that he was a dog, would
he was a very little man, firmly believed that no station himself at an open window to bark at the
door in his house was large enough for him to pass passers-by. Dr. Calmet speaks of some nuns in
through. Dr. Millengen mentions the case of a a German convent who believed that they had
patient who, believing he was a fragile glass all been transferred into the bodies of cats. They
vessel, would not sit down for fear of cracking wandered restlessly about the building mewing,
himself that of another, who was convinced that and sometimes spitting at and scratching each
;
his skull was perfectly empty and speaks also of other. Boerhaave relates the case of a man who
;
“an intelligent American, holding a high judicial believed his legs were made of straw, until his ser-
seat in our West Indian colonies, who could not vant, while sweeping, struck his shins accidentally
divest himself of the occasional conviction of his with her broomstick.
being transformed into a turtle.” Dr. Walderstein,
of Gottingen, recorded in his professional diary the
case of a deformed gentleman, of great learning, GLASS-ENGRAVING.
who could not shake off an absurd belief in all
kinds of purely imaginary evils. At one time he There are several means adopted for ornamenting
felt intensely wretched because he could not sneeze glass by operating on portions of its surface so as to
three times in succession, although he was at the give it a frosted appearance. Perhaps the simplest
same time perfectly conscious of the idea being a way of doing this is to adopt what may be de-
ridiculous one. At another time he believed his scribed as an etching-process.

house was on fire, and felt the scorching heat of In etching upon copper and other metals, the
the approaching flames the ringing of a fire-bell
;
artistcovers the plate upon which he is about to
adding greatly to his terror and suffering, which work with a layer of wax or composition, which he
were real enough, although he knew the cause removes in lines, as his etching-needle gradually
would presently be known as an imaginary one. scratches out the details of the drawing. The
He once dreamt that he had been condemned metal underneath is by this means exposed, and
to be burnt alive, and was in a perfect agony can be eaten away by the after application of
of terror lest his imagination should inflict upon certain acids. In this way the plate is bitten
him the actual tortures of that horrible death. in so as to receive the printing-ink, and to furnish
Dr. Rush has recorded the case of a man who as many impressed copies as desired.
believed he had a Caffre in his stomach tor- Glass can be etched in very much the same way,
menting him, ever since he was at the Cape of and those doorplates of ornamented glass which we
Good Hope. Pinel relates a case in which a now so commonly see in public buildings are pro-
Frenchman believed he had been guillotined for duced by the aid of a chemical compound known
a crime he had not committed, and that, his inno- as hydrofluoric acid. The process can be imitated
cence having been made manifest, his head, or on a small scale with the greatest ease, as follows :
rather another man’s head, had been fastened —Take a small glass plate, say four inches square,
upon his shoulders, greatly to his annoyance, as and cover it with an even coating of wax, by heat-
he preferred his own. Esquirol mentions some ing it before the fire and rubbing it with the end of a
young men who believed they were women, and wax candle. Now sketch the design required carefully
says one, who had been in the habit of playing through the wax, by means of a needle, taking care in
female parts on the stage as an amateur actor, drawing each line to expose the glass surface beneath.
would wear no clothes but a woman’s. Dr. Conolly A tray must now be bent up from a piece of sheet
speaks of a patient who was convinced that he had lead, a little smaller than the glass plate. Place in
this tray some powdered floor spar, and pour upon a set of twelve discs of different diameters will
it some common sulphuric acid, so as to form a thin answer for every purpose likely to be required but ;
cream. Now place the glass on this tray, waxed if it be desired to cut cameos, or extremely hard
side downwards, and support the whole so that a stones, a far smaller-sized disc is employed, which
spirit lamp can be placed below. The heat will is made of steel. A little consideration will show
quickly cause fumes of hydrofluoric acid to attack that a smaller disc
must be employed for designs
the glass, and the design will be permanently etched which have many sharp turns, than would suffice
into its sur- for a pattern
face. The wax of simpler cha-
can be easily racter.
removed with The speed at
a little turpen- which the lathe
tine. must be run
When a flat to execute this
surface has to kind of work
be dulled all can only be
over, it can be learnt by ex-
better and more perience, and
evenly done the tyro would
by careful do best to
rubbing with practice the
another piece execution of
of glass libe- straight lines
rally supplied and curves of
with flour various kinds
emery and before he ven-
water. But tures upon
where only cer- more impor-
tain portions of tant work.
the glass are The appara-
required to be tus described
engraved, the forms a most
emery must be interesting ad-
used in another junct to the
manner. This ordinary lathe,
is depicted in and by it a
the illustration, mere amateur
which shows worker can
how any one execute very
possessing an ENGRAVING DESIGNS ON GLASS. beautiful de-
ordinary foot- signs. Such
lathe can adapt designs may
it without much trouble or expense to the beautiful be traced upon the glass in the first instance by
art of glass-engraving. It will be seen that the means of Chinese white as a guide to the engraver.
picture almost explains itself : stillit may be ne-
cessary to point out its principal features. The

mandrel, it will be seen, is replaced by one placed THE BOILING LAKE OF DOMINICA.
at such an elevation that the article to be engraved,
in this case a glass tumbler, can be easily manipu- As the sailor cruises along the southern shore of
lated. Attached by a chuck to the mandrel in the the island of —
Dominica perhaps the loveliest of
usual manner is a disc of copper well supplied all the Antilles — and looks upwards to the forest-
With a paste made of olive oil and emery. Above covered heights towering some 3,000 feet above
this disc is seen a piece of metal which rubs against him, he notices a thick, white cloud ever hovering
it. This serves a double purpose in causing the : over the highest summit, and which, if scattered
emery to be evenly spread over the circumference for a moment by the powerful trade wind, soon
of the disc, and in shielding the operator’s eyes from collects again and broods as before. Close to the
any particles which might fly upwards. This shield Mulatto Point on the eastern shore, a mountain-
slides on a rod, so that it may be adjusted at dif- torrententers the sea its milky colour, its sul-
;
ferent heights for different-sized discs. As a rule, phurous smell, and its more than tepid waters
THE BOILING LAKE OF DOMINICA. 149
intimating that in the highlands above an active the last expedition. After toiling for nearly an
soitffrilre exists. Finally, when the wind blows entire day through an almost impassable tropical
from the south-east a strong smell of sulphur is undergrowth, the explorers, as the sun dipped into
carried from these heights to Roseau, the capital, the western sea, stepped, with hardly a warning,
about miles distant, bearing witness to the
fifteen out of the continuous vegetation, right on to the
great extent and present activity of the souffriere edge of a vertical precipice several hundred feet in
(sulphur-mine or lake) whence it came. height. Below them lay extended the huge gulf of
And yet, until the year 1875, no man could speak the great souffriere^ reeking in its every part with
definitely of what lay concealed amid those moun- thick white sulphur vapours, that rose from its
tain-heights. An old French tradition indeed surface and curled up the sides of volcanic rock
asserted that somewhere in those hills a boiling and hardened ash which surrounded the abyss.
lake existed, but it was too indistinct for much Holding on to each other’s hands and to the
IHE BOII.I.NG LAKE OF DO.MIMCA.
reliance to be placed in it. The native Caribs knew shrubs which grew nearest to the edge, the travellers
nothing, or, at least, would tell nothing, and so for leaned over as far as they dared, and gazed down
long years the mountains kept their grand secret, into the steaming chasm beneath them. “From
until in January, 1875, tLe first successful ascent innumerable orifices, large and small, some en-
in history was made. After three days the two crusted with bright yellow sulphur, others blood-
explorers brought back a thrilling account of the red with iron oxide, or white with magnesium, there
difficulties which met them in their search, and of gushed up a mixture of boiling water and steam,
the wondrous scene which awaited and rewarded amid a constant tumult of noises, hissings, bub-
them when these had been overcome. They spoke blings, and explosions, here more, there less,
of the grandeur and awfulness of the spot which, throughout the whole extent of the gulf. The
as far as we can tell, had not until then been waters, white, red, and black, rushed out in a strong
gazed on by any civilised human eye. torrent, scalding hot, and steaming as they went ;
A second successful ascent was made early in in many places the vapour-cloud formed a thick
the summer of the same year and a third the impenetrable veil no plant but an ugly bluish-
;
following spring. A most interesting and graphic coloured broad-leaved clitsia grew for some dis-
description of the scene was given by a member of tance from the blighting fumes.”
But grand and weird as this scene undoubtedly was, scattered now and
then by a stronger breath than
a much grander object awaited their inspection on usual of the powerful trade wind coming up from
the following day. Turning to the north-east they the sea. These are, however, soon replaced by
made their way, as best they could, across the floor others which brood as before over the wild and
of a second but smaller soiiffriere^ a silent burnt-out troubled scene below. We
need have little doubt
region of ash and sulphur, surrounded by high that above that scene a similar steam-cloud has
bare walls of pumice and volcanic crag. In front stood as sentinel for ages.
of them rose a bare ridge of heaped-up pumice and
ash, a dividing wall or partition shutting off the
southerly segment of the crater. From behind BURIED UNDER THE SNOW.
this, vast columns of steam arose, .which to
the travellers as they breasted On the dark wild evening of February 2nd, 1799, a
the ridge ap-
peared white as snow against the dazzling blue farmer’s wife named Elizabeth Woodcock, aged
of the West Indian sky. On the summit of the forty-two, was returning from Cambridge, where
ridge they stopped suddenly, appalled by the it had been market-day, to her own house at
strange and awful sight which lay below them. Impington, on horseback. By about six or
Fenced in by steep, mostly perpendicular banks, seven o’clock she was within half a mile of
varying from 6o to loo feet high, cut sharply in her home, when a sudden light, probably a
the mountain, the waters of a lake about 200 meteor, startled both her and the horse. The
yards long by 100 yards wide rage and roar and latter reared and was backing through the deep
toss themselves. “ The surface resembles that of snow into a ditch, when she suddenly dis-
a giant seething caldron, covered with rapid steam, mounted and tried to lead the animal. But he
through which, when the veil is for a moment again reared, and breaking from her, swerved aside
blown apart by the mountain breeze, appears a into a field. She followed him, losing one of her
confused mass of troubled waves, crossing and shoes in the pursuit, and greatly impeded by the
clashing in every direction, a chaos of boiling weight of the heavy basket on her arm, filled with
waters. Towards the centre, where the ebullition various articles of domestic consumption. She
is at its fiercest, geyser-like masses are being con- struggled on through the snow for about a quarter
stantly thrown up to the height of several feet, not of a mile, keeping the steed in view all the time,
on one exact spot, but shifting from side to side, but growing rapidly breathless and exhausted. At
each fresh burst being preceded by a noise like last she recovered the beast, and was slowly lead-
that of a cannon fired off at some great depth ing him home, when she was overcome by fatigue •,
below while lesser jets often make their appear- her numbed hands could no longer hold the bridle
; ;
ance nearer the sides of the lake.” the heavy basket was perforce abandoned and she ;
At a couple of yards from the shore the depth sank down in the snow, saying, “ Sinker, you must
of the lake was found to be sixty feet, but no one go home without me I can’t walk any farther.”
;
has yet been able to test the depth farther out. Unable to move, she sat under a thicket facing
The temperature of the water where it beats the south-west, with the rapidly-falling snow accu-
against the cliffs is 185° Fahr., a few feet farther mulating about her so fast, that when Chesterton
out it is nearly 200° Fahr. church-bell struck eight o’clock it was probably
The cliffs surrounding this strange scene are more than two feet above her head. She was in
everywhere vertical, but gradually diminish in fact buried beneath it. She slept but little during
height towards the southern extremity, where a the night, and in the morning discovered a hole in
sharp gate-like rent cuts against the sky, and the snow about half a foot in diameter, through
through which the boiling waters of the lake rush which she contrived to thrust a branch of the
out in a scalding torrent, and carry their heat with thicket behind her with her handkerchief fastened
them far down the mountain-side, until they enter to the end of it. In thrusting out her improvised
the sea at Mulatto Point. No vegetation save the flag of distress, she broke the film of ice which had
clusia already mentioned, a dingy moss, and cheer- covered its outer opening, some two feet or more
less specimens of Pitcairnia^ exists within the from the inner one. In consequence of this she
immediate vicinity of the heated sulphurous va- suffered terribly from the cold, which decreased at
pours, but the which form the background
hills a later hour, when the ice re-formed.
to the northward are covered with a dense tropical There she sat helpless and foodless, unable to
forest of splendid trees. To the south-east the move or make her voice heard all through the
ground drops rapidly away, height below height, Sunday and the following night, all through the
each covered with luxuriant woods. Above is the day following, and again through the night of
deep azure of the tropical sky, veiled ever and Monday. She heard the church-bells ring for
anon by dense wreaths of steam which rise night church and the hours, the passing of carriage-
and day from the boiling lake and which are ;
wheels and horses upon the road, the barking of
;
THE DIAMOND-FIELDS OF SOUTH AFRICA.

ILL
dogs, lowing of cattle, and bleating of sheep. She after the return of her horse, he and another took
contrived to get her snuff-box out, and took two out lanterns and explored the neighbourhood,
pinches, but they afforded her so little gratification going as far as Cambridge, where they ascertained
that she did not repeat the operation. Day after the hour of her departure. They searched un-
day, night crawled on.
after night One day she ceasingly for four days, visiTing the gipsies, whom
overheard some gipsies talking about a donkey they they suspected of having robbed and murdered her,
had and the gipsies afterwards remembered and leaving no probability uninvestigated.
lost,
talking of their loss close by where she was found. When the doctor came, he found the poor
At another time, finding her left hand beginning woman in a fearful condition her feet mortified, :
to swell in consequence of supporting herself with and all her toes but one had to be removed in ;
it for a considerable time, she took her two mar- many places the bones were laid completely bare.
—
riage rings and keeper for she had been married Death put an end to her sufferings on the 13th of
—
twice from the fingers, and put them with the little July following.
money she had into her snuff-box. She shouted
whenever she heard steps passing near, but without
once making herself heard. THE
DIAMOND-FIELDS OF SOUTH
On Friday, the 8th of the month, a thaw set in AFRICA.
;
her dress became heavy with wet her strength had

gone so that she could no longer move her limbs The story of the finding of the first diamond in
;
and she began to abtindon all hope of being found South Africa has, at first sight, so much more
alive. On Sunday, February lo, Joseph Muncey, a romance about it than reality, that in telling it one
young farmer, passing on his way to Cambridge, is almost tempted to commence in fairy-tale style
at about half-past twelve o’clock, very near where with “ Once upon a time.”
—
But as the tale is no
Mrs. Woodcock lay, saw her handkerchief attached make-believe, but actually true, the time at which
to the top of the twigs above the snow, and went the incident occurred must be stated in a some-
up to it. He looked into the aperture from which what different manner. It will suffice for our
it projected, heard the sound of hard and difficult purpose to fix it in the year 1866.
breathing within, and saw dimly a woman’s form If we look at a modern map of South Africa, we
under the snow. He recognised her at once, and shall see a certain district situated between Cape
knew that she had been missing some days. He Colony, The Free State, and Batlapin territorj',
ran to a farmer and shepherd standing close by, which is called Griqua-land West. At the period
and brought them back with him, full of incredu- just mentioned a certain Mr. John O’Reilly, who
lous wonder. The shepherd shouted into the was a hunter and trader, called, in the course of
aperture :
— business, upon one of the principal settlers there
,
“ Are you there, Elizabeth Woodcock ? ” named Van Niekirk, and accepted his hospitality
And she replied in a faint, scarcely audible for the night. One of the Dutchman’s little girls
voice, “ Dear John Stittle. I know your voice for happened to be playing with a number of pebbles
;
God’s sake help me out.” which she had picked up on the shore of the neigh-
They began hastily to remove the snow, and bouring (Vaal) river, and in the course of the even-
when John Stittle gave her his broad warm hand ing O’Reilly’s attention was attracted by the
she clung to it eagerly, and implored him to stay sparkling appearance of one of these stones. He
with her. “ I’ve been here so long, so long,” she remarked upon it to his host, and speculated as to'
feebly wailed. “Yes,” said he, “ ever since Satur- what it might be, offering to buy it. But the
day.” “ Since
Saturday week,” she replied. I simple Dutchman could not believe that a pebble
heard the bells for church on two Sundays.” picked by a child hap-hazard from the sand
Mr. Muncey had hurried away to fetch the poor could have any possible value, and told his guest
soul’s husband, and he came quickly with a number to put it in his pocket. O’Reilly accepted the
of excited neighbours, and the means proper for pebble on the understanding that if it proved mar-
wrapping her up warmly and taking her home a : ketable the Dutchman was to share the proceeds.
horse and chaise, blankets, food, and spirits. The stone travelled with its new owner to
Before lifting her up, at her own particular request, Colesberg, and while at the hotel there he showed
they gave her a small piece of biscuit and a little other travellers what he had discovered, and how
brandy. The stocking of her left leg, being frozen with he could scratch his name on a glass tum-
it
to the ground, came off as they lifted her in their bler. He was
ridiculed for his pains, and one of
arms, and she swooned. When she recovered they the guests laughingly threw the thing out of the
placed her in the vehicle, which quickly conveyed window. But O’Reilly recovered his property, and
her home. sent it through the post to an expert, who at once
The husband had been seeking for her in every pronounced it to be a veritable diamond. Even-
direction. On the night of her disappearance. tually the gem found its way to London, and was
valued by Messrs. Hunt and Roskell at ^500. coveted gems. 'I'henews of their success soon
Mr. O’Reilly was not long before he began looking spread, until hundreds followed their example.
about for more diamonds, and many smaller ones I
Among the first to arrive were some who had had
rewarded his labours. The news of these dis- experience of gold-washing in California, and the
coveries quickly spread, and there was great ex- soil was now searched in the same manner for
citement all through South Africa. Van Niekirk diamonds. Fortunes were then quickly made. In
remembered having seen in the possession of a many cases men who were penniless when they
native some time back a stone which he believed to commenced, were at the end of a few months in
be a finer one than any yet found. But the native possession of vast sums of money. Canvas towns,
alsohad some idea of the worth of his possession, with thousands of inhabitants, sprang up like mush-
and would only part with it when \'an Niekirk rooms in the favoured localities. Means of trans-
offered him pretty well all his goods. But the port were soon arranged, shopkeepers and store-
speculation proved a successful one, for this keepers became plentiful, and the general prosperity
beautiful diamond was ultimately sold for more once more revived trade in the South African
than eleven thousand Colonies. That this
pounds. was so, and that the
It is noteworthy prosperity was of a
that these events hap- permanent character,
pened at a time when may be judged by a
commercial affairs in glance at the customs
South Africa were at returns for Cape
an extremely low ebb. Colony. In 1869 the
Indeed it seemed that import duties were
the various colonies under two millions
were almost on the sterling. In 1879
eve of bankruptcy. they amounted to
The many reasons more than seven mil-
which led to this state lions.
of things we need not That the valuable
here enumerate, ex- diamond is the same
cept to say" that a long in composition as a
series of droughts had piece of charcoal is
had much to do with proved by the che-

the general depres- mist ;
for when burnt,
sion. Public works the two substances
had been stopped, will yield exactly the
throwing hundreds of same products. But
A DIAMOND IN ITS MATRIX
labourers out of work ; the chemist cannot
farmers were ruined tell us how the carbon
on all and every one was naturally more or
sides ;
has been made to assume this crystalline form.
less straitened in his means by the crisis which Neither can he nor the geologist tell us how the
seemed to be imminent. gems have been placed in the gravel of this African
But the discovery of these diamonds caused the river. From the appearance of the stones they
most despondent to rise from their lethargy. At seem to have been water-borne from some far-off
first they expressed doubts as to whether it was all region, but that the river always carried them is
true. They had lately' grown so sick of their proved by their presence in terraces of gravel
adopted country', that they could believe nothing which were deposited ages ago when the water
to its credit. They thought that, perhaps, some flowed at a much higher level. These terraces
needy landowners had pretended that diamonds are now dry', but being parallel with the river, have
were found there, or had actually planted imported been clearly deposited by it in bygone times.
stones, in order that their property might rise in And now let us turn attention to what are called
value. Their doubts were almost confirmed by an the “ dry' diggings,” where diamonds have been
expert, who travelled over the district and asserted found in abundance many miles from the banks of
his conviction that no diamonds ever were, or the Vaal. The discovery of gems in such a lo-
could be, obtained from such a soil. cality was also due to accident, and to the sharp-
At last a party of explorers in 1869 determined ness of another Dutchman named Tan Wyk. This
to survey the Vaal river, to find out the truth for man lived in a farmhouse on the road to the
themselves. Ridiculed by' those who stopped at Orange River Free State, about twenty-four miles
home, they proceeded on their way, and found the from the river Vaal. The walls of this house had
I'HE DIAMOND-FIELDS OF SOUTH AFRICA,
DIAMOND-MINES AT KIMBF.RI EY.

been built of mud obtained from a neighbouring town of Fauresmith, and is known as the Jag-
pond, and in these walls the Dutchman noticed gersfontien diggings. Although at first the dia-
some little sparkling atoms, which he quickly as- monds found here were so few in quantity that
certained to be diamonds. the workings were relinquished, operations have
We may feel quite sure that no time was lost in since been resumed with astonishing success.
examining this pond and the soil surrounding it. The diamonds found have been of splendid quality,
It was dug up and turned over in every direction, and the prices of the claims have run up to a
and the gems were found in plenty, the spot being fabulous amount. It may be mentioned, in con-
rendered famous for the quantity yielded under the clusion, that the finest diamond which South Africa
name of “Du Toit’s Fan.” Another neighbouring has yet yielded was found by Mr. Porter Rhodes
farm named Bultfontein also became no,ted for the in the Kimberley Mine. It was exhibited a few
presence of diamonds, and eventually the two months ago in London uncut. It had then the
mines became the property of the London and appearance of a piece of alum about the size of a
South African Exploration Company, by whom chestnut, embedded in earth like the stone shown
they were worked with immense profit. in our other illustration. It is valued at one
The labour needed in the dry diggings is much hundred thousand pounds.
easier than in the river-bed, where huge rocks and
stones have often to be removed before the
diamond-bearing gravel can be placed in the wash- ANCIENT FLINT IMPLEMENTS.
ing-cradle. In the dry diggings the soil is soft, and
readily yields to the pick and spade. When dug From the earliest historic times in Europe, some
out it is on to a sorting-table, and the
sifted knowledge has been possessed of the existence
diamonds picked from it. At first these dig- in the surface of the earth of more or less large
gings were confined to holes in the ground a fragments of flint, and similar stone, shaped into
few feet in depth, but when it was found that the resemblance of axes, arrow-heads, and other
diamonds could be obtained from the soil below, it weapons. Mr. Evans, in his work on the “Ancient
was pierced, until now some of the diggings are Stone Implements of Great Britain,” has collected
three or four hundred feet deep. It is curious to together many references to these worked flints
stand at the edge of one of these artificial craters, in the ancient authors of Greece and Rome and ;
and look below on the human ants who are so busy in the more modern literature of other parts of
seeking treasure below. Here are representatives Europe similar references are frequently to be
from every nation under heaven, and if we were to -
met with. These variously-shaped flints were,
inquire further we should find that every rank and however, regarded until recently, not as weapons
profession also found examples in the diggings. of human handiwork, but as objects of natural or
The most famous of the dry diggings is known as supernatural origin, to which, amongst others, the
the Kimberley Mine, shown in the illustration. terms “ Thunder-bolts,” “ Elf-arrows,” and “ Pierres
This,* like others, was originally divided into dif- '
de Tonnerre'‘'‘ were applied. That such super-

ferent claims, where each man could work on a stitions should ever have been entertained is the
j
given space on payment of a certain fee. This more remarkable when it is remembered to what
]
mine is about 400 feet in depth, and covers about :

varied uses flint and stone have been applied by
seven acres of ground. It is now almost entirely highly civilised peoples. For ages our ancestors
worked by companies, whose aerial cables for raising were indebted to the flint and steel for their means
loads of soil to the top of the mine by steam-power of obtaining fire, and the flint-locks of fire-arms
are seen crossing and re-crossing each other like the have only passed away from amongst us ;
just
strands of some gigantic spider’s web. This result while Sir William R. Wilde tells us that in some
has been brought about by various causes, the i
remote parts of Ireland blacksmiths may even at
chief of which was the necessity for steam ma- the present day be seen working with a stone ham-
chinery as the workings became gradually deeper, mer, and sometimes upon an anvil of stone. As
which naturally caused those diggers who did the knowledge of prehistoric archmology increased,
not possess the necessary capital to fall back in these ancient flint weapons and implements came,
the race for wealth. The machinery was not however, to be regarded in their true light.
only required for digging operations, but in Considering the hard and apparently intractable
order to pump out the vast quantity of water nature of flint, it may at first appear strange that
which flooded the workings when they reached this should be the material in preference selected
a certain depth. by primitive man for the manufacture of his tools.
Although the principal diamond-diggings have This selection is accounted for partly by the fact
been enumerated, there are others of more recent that only some peculiarly hard material was
discovery which are fast coming into prominence. adapted to stand the wear and tear to which these
One of these is in the Free State, near the tools must of necessity be subjected but even ;
— :
ANCIENT FLINT IMPLEMENTS. 155
more by the circumstance that flint (and its allied progression in the history of human races^ which
minerals) is, in fact, from what termed its con-
is may, and contemporaneously in dif-
in fact do, exist
choidal or shell-like fracture, worked into certain ferent parts of the globe. Sir J ohn Lubbock, however,
shapes more easily than any similar substance. By applies the terms strictly to Europe alone, though
striking a block of flint in a certain manner, the of opinion that they would apply also to Asia and
acquisition of which, however, requires consider- North Africa. The pre-historic Stone age in
able practice, successive flakes may be detached Europe he divides into two periods de convcmmce
which are in some cases at once fit for use, either the first, that of the “ Drift ” period, characterised
as knives or scrapers, and may at all events be by the presence of rough, little-worked implements,
easily fashioned by further chipping and splinter- he calls the “ Palaeolithic ” the second, the later or
;
ing of the edges, into almost any shape desired. polished Stone age, characterised by the presence
That great skill would be necessary, more par- of more artistically and perfectly worked flints,
ticularly with the primitive tools at the command he terms the “ Neolithic ” period.
of early man, is of course unquestionable ;
and it The most ancient record of the existence of man
will be seen that this skill was not at once acquired, upon the earth of which we have, so far, any know-
Fig. I. Fig, 2.
SCRAPER OF SINGLE FLINT CORE FROM WHICH FLAKES
FLAKE. WERE CHIPPED.
but probably went on increasing through a great ledge is afforded by the discovery of flint implements
number of during which the races of
years, of the PaltEolithic period in what are termed the
Western Europe were without the use of metal. River Drift gravel-beds of England and France.
The period during which man has existed has The flint implements of the Paleolithic period
been divided by Sir John Lubbock and others into are distinguishable, as has been said, by their
the three ages of Stone, Bronze, and Iron. In the extremely rough workmanship, and, it may be
last we may ourselves be said to be still living. added, by the comparatively limited number of
The Bronze was a pre-Grecian age, during which variations in form which occur. Amongst them
the use of iron was yet unknown to man, arms of the most numerous, perhaps, are flakes of various
bronze having as early as the time of Augustus shapes and sizes. While many of these, from
(b.c. 30 A.D. 14), been regarded as antiquities ;
their appearance, were doubtless waste pieces
and the Stone age was an age anterior to that of struck off from the external surface of the block,
bronze, during which the use of metal was entirely in preparing it for the manufacture of more
unknown, and primitive man was dependent for finished implements, yet some even of these
his weapons and implements upon such fragments appear to have been occasionally used for scraping
of stone and flint as his intelligence enabled him (Fig. i). The more finished flakes, struck from
to fashion to his uses. The better to explain a prepared “core” (Fig. 2), have been described
these terms, however, should be observed that
it as arrow-heads and knives (Fig. 3). Some of
these three ages do not describe three periods in these are flat, and some of a polygonal form,
the earth's history, but only three broad stages of the latter being those found in greatest abun-
:

dance in the River Drift. From the .“extreme seem to have been used for chopping, others
rarity of any light, sharp-pointed flakes, and for boring, others, again, for digging in the
the absence of any evidence that those who ground, and perhaps some were employed for cut-
fashioned them were ting fishing-holes in the
acquainted with the ice. Another form of
use of the bow,” Mr. pointed, though not
E\ ans considers it im- tongue-shaped, imple-
probable that they were ment is found with
used as arrow-heads. only one sharpened
That they may have edge, the other edge
been used occasionally being left thick, and
as points to spears and frequently unworked.
javelins is, however, These implements are
far from impossible ;
supposed to have
but their general use served as knives.
was most likely for Lastly, amongst these
cutting and scraping, primitive Drift imple-
not alone flesh from ments, certain “sharp-
the bones of wild ani- rimmed ” objects occur
mals, but also pieces in very large numbers.
of wood and bone for These are of all
such purposes as might shapes and sizes, some

suggest themselves to being almost circular,
these primitive peo- others heart - shaped,
ples. Certain flakes lozenge-shaped, more
of this period have or less triangular, or
been found to which almond shaped. -
the name of “scraper” Though possibly some

has been applied of these, particularly
these have been pro- those of almond-shape,
duced by trimming the may have been used
end of the flake into as heads for javelins,
a more or less semi- Fig. S. —TONGUE SHAPED IMPLEMENTS. or even arrows, there
circular edge (Fig. 4), can be little doubt
and are very similar to some of the “scrapers” that majority were employed for cutting
the
still in use amongst the Esquimaux. Another and scraping nor does it appear to be generally
;
form of implement, often of

this believed that more than two di-
large size, appears to have been visions of these Drift implements
used for cutting and chopping, —
can be made the “ pointed iin-
as well as for scraping. Pointed plements for piercing, digging,
implements are of very common and boring, and sharp-edged
occurrence in the Drift deposits. implements for cutting or scrap-
They vary greatly in shape, ing.” Their edges are never
and are therefore difficult to found to have been sharpened
classif>c Some have been called by grinding, which was an art
“ pear-shaped,” but these Mr. of altogether later invention.
Evans has, for obvious reasons, It is interesting to observe
re-named “ tongue-shaped ” im- the very wide-spread localities
plements, though they are “as from which these primitive im-
varied in their form as the plements have been obtained.
tongues of the different mem- While England and France may
bers of the higher orders of the still be regarded as their head-
animal creation. A characteristic 6. — CELT WITH GROUND EDGE, quarters, yet almost identical
feature of these tongue-shaped specimens have also been found
implements (Fig. 5) is the thickened and frequently in Italy, Greece, Spain, and other parts of Europe,
untrimmed form of the base, from which it is in Egypt and even in Southern India and though ;
believed that they were held in the hand by the latter were of quartzite instead of flint, the
this part, though possibly they may occasionally form exactly corresponded with that of some of
have served as spear or javelin heads. Some the Drift specimens of Western Europe.
ANCIENT FLINT IMPLEMENTS. 157
Of the forms of implements of the Neolithic or sometimes with the stone celt still in situ (Figs.
Later Stone period it is possible only to give the 7 and 8). Implements almost identical in form
briefest account for objects of this age are so
;
are still in use amongst many uncivilised races.
numerous, and are distributed so widely over the Besides these we find, though less frequently, axes
surface of the earth, that to enumerate even a tithe perforated for the reception of a wooden handle,
of the varied shapes met with would fill a volume. possessing sometimes one and sometimes two
Some of these have been found in ancient tumuli, cutting-ends (Fig. 9).
some buried with the remains of ancient lake- Flint-flakes in this, as in the former age, served
dwellings in Switzerland and elsewhere, and some, as knives, and many very beautiful specimens are
again, in those huge piles of shells and refuse met with. They frequently resemble very closely
found chiefly by the sea-shores of Scandinavia and those cutting-implements still used by the savages
of Oregon, to which the Danish name of “ Kjokken- of America and Australia, and were doubtless used
mddding,” or kitchen middens, has been applied. for the same purposes, amongst which shavitig is
The greater number are, however, found in more to be included. They were also formed into dag-
or less isolated positions scattered about beneath gers, sometimes of most artistic form and work-
the surface of the alluvial deposits, while not a few manship (Fig. 10), and are occasionally found with
similar implements are still in use amongst various serrated edges which served probably for sawing
Fig. 7 — HATCHET IN HANDLE OF STAG-HORN AND WOOD. Fig. 8. — HANDLED HATCHET. Fig. g. — POLISHED AXE.
savage tribes throughout both the Old and New small articles of wood, horn, and bone (Fig. ii).
Worlds. Though it can scarcely be said that the The primitive “scrapers” also
occur in the
still
transition from the Pateolithic to the Neolithic European Neolithic age, and differ little except in
flint implements can be distinctly marked in finish from those earlier ones which have been al-
Europe, yet some of the flints of the latter period ready described. Some could, however, hardly be
are unquestionably of rougher and more primitive distinguished by their form from those similar
workmanship, and indicate a greater antiquity than implements still used by the Exquimaux for knives.
others. Thus some of the so-called celts (Latin, They were probably often used, together with
celtis, a chisel), or axes, are of exceedingly coarse pyrites, for obtaining fire, and to some forms is
form, and present surfaces roughly chipped, with- therefore applied the term “ strike-a-light.”
out any indication of grinding or polishing, ex- While it is doubtful whether the early inhabitants
cept on the edge (Fig. 6). Others are still more of Europe during the Pateolithic period were
highly finished, until at last specimens are found acquainted with the use of bows and arrows, there
the whole surface of which has been ground can be no doubt that those of the later Neolithic
smooth, so that no indication remains of the period made large use of these weapons. Not
chipping process by which the original form only have fragments even of wooden bows been
was at first obtained. These celts must have discovered in the lake-dwellings and shell-mounds,
served as axes, hatchets, and adzes, either for war, but innumerable arrow-heads of flint have also
the chase, or for domestic purposes, and were no been found, sometimes but little more finished than
doubt generally fixed in a wooden or stag’s- mere flakes, at others mostand some-
carefully
horn handle, of which several have been dis- times elegantly worked into various forms. While
covered in a more or less perfect condition. from their size there can be no doubt that some
of these heads were for arrows, others were pro- SOME WONDERS OF VISION.
bably javelin-heads all were apparently fixed to the
;
shaft by twine or fibre of some kind, in a manner When a pigeon has been taken fifty miles away,
similar to that now used amongst savages. Other in a basket, without any chance of seeing the way
implements met with in the European Neolithic it has been led, and has then been thrown up to
period which are not known to occur in the earlier find its way home as best it could, it has been a
Palaeolithic age are stone hammers and hammer- matter of no small surprise how soon the bird has
stones, sling-stones, and grinding-stones, the last reached its cote, showing clearly that it has not
of which were doubtless used in working the more hesitated long as to which way it should take.
finished polished implements. Certain implements A mountain-top has been seen ninety miles away
having somewhat the shape of sharks’ teeth, which when the atmosphere has been clear, which means
are also frequently found, have been described as that if the observer had been stationed on the
“ borers,” and were perhaps used for drilling holes
mountain-top, with an equally clear atmosphere all
in wood or bone, or possibly even in stone. around him, he would have been able to command
a view of a vast circle of land and water with a
diameter of 180 miles, or, roughly speaking, a range
of horizon of over 560 miles. Even in our not very
clear air Glaisher has seen the Dover cliffs when
in a balloon a mile above London and if he had
;
been in the habit of making daily ascents like a

bird, it is certain that he would have been able to
familiarise himself with the peculiarities of stream
and river, wood and forest, hamlet and city, which
presented themselves within the circle of seventy
miles’ radius which he could command with a
sweep of his eyes. It will be readily seen, there-
fore, that if a man with such a knowledge were led
away blindfolded to some place fifty miles off, and
then sent up in a balloon, he would instantly
recognise the landmarks, and if the air-currents
favoured him he could make straight for home. A
bird like the pigeon is more favourably situated
still, for if it be sent up even a hundred miles from
home, it has only to fly round in a great circle until

it recognises some distant peculiarity of hill or
river, then its course is determined on at once.
But although here strength of vision evidently
depends on the sensitiveness of the retinas, elevation
Fig. 10. — FLINT DAGGER. Fig. ji. — FLINT SAW.
of the observer, and clearness of the atmosphere, it
is a wonderful thing indeed that the images of things
Thus, though containing but an imperfect record, in a landscape —

meadow and river, hill and valley,
these ancient flint implements nevertheless give us —
&c. are all thrown on to the cup-like expanse of
no little insight into the manners of our most retina (r) in the eye (Fig. i), about an inch in
remote ancestors in Europe, and enable us to diameter, with such faithfulness that one can make
conceive with some approach towards accuracy out particulars which are truly' surprising. There
what must have been the life of the inhabitants is the church-spire yonder, three miles away. It is
of Western Europe many centuries before even 300 feet high, but it covers on the human retina
the first glimmer of authentic history. However only just about i-iooth of an inch. As the church
rude these early tools may have been, we see that is approached, the image on the retina grows bigger,
they are still essentially tools. They show man so that at a distance of one mile the length of the
standing even then as clearly above the brutes as image of the spire is now about the i-33rd of an
he does to-day, by that very fact. The animal inch. Hence, if one were carried silently towards
constructs habitations, but never a tool ; it can it without any sign of motion this increase of the
only make the best of its natural conditions, which size of images on the retina would be a sure sign
it often does in a truly wonderful way. But man, that the objects they represented were being
from the very first, however primitive, we find bend- approached.
ing what Nature offers him to his own purposes, There is a however, to the sensitiveness of
limit,
and so no longer subject to her, but raising him- the retina. A few miles away the telegraph-lines
self above the conditions which surround him. are invisible, showing that a wire so thin cannot
CURIOSITIES OF PATENT-LAW. ^59
be discerned at a great distance. The breadth of like those in the feather of a peacock’s tail.” Flere
so thread-like an image not sufficient to cover
is the sensation of light is produced by a mechanical
one of the constituents of the retina known as agitation of the- retina, and many people refer the
cones, and cannot e.xcite the sensation of sight phenomenon neighbourhood of the retina,
to the
unless the distant wire is itself a source of light. and even see the phosphene moving up and down
Then if the wire be a bright source of a direction contrary to that of the moving finger.
light, like a in
white-hot thread of platinum, it appears to be very would appear, however, that there are others
It
much thicker than it really is, being an example of who can by an effort of imagination transport the
what is known as irradiation. images of these phosphenes into space.
a lens, c (Fig. i), wonder-
Inside the eye there is There are other cases of pictures formed within
fully clear and known as the crystal-
ice-like. It is the eye, unlike ordinary images that are referred
line lens. This lens projects the picture of the without any trouble to the outside of the eye.
landscape on to the retina upside down. An idea Perhaps the most remarkable example is that of
ofwhy it is so may be obtained by experiment. Purkinje’s figures. Go into a dark room with a
Some evening take a spectacle-glass, one which is left eye, and work the flame of
candle. Close the
thicker in the centre than at the sides, and holdand downwards close to and on
it the candle upwards
in front of a sheet of white paper, say a few inches the right side of the open eye, wKile you gaze into
away, while the gas cr candle light is shining in the gloom of some dark corner. There is clearly
the middle of the room. The image of the flame seen, as if outside the body and somewhere in front
on the paper is upside down. It is the same in of it, a complicated branching pattern, which is
really caused by the shadows of the branching
vessels in the fore part of the retina falling on its
sensitive hind part.
CURIOSITIES OF PATENT-LAW.
A MOST extraordinary decision was giv’en by Lord
Ellenborough in 1817, in the case of Metcalfs
the eye ;
the crystalline lens acts like the spec- patent for a tapered hair or head brush. The
tacle-glass, and the retina the images
receives invention was a very ingenious one, which has
like the sheet of white paper. appears some-
It since been generally adopted but rival brush-
;
what extraordinary at first sight that we should see makers having applied for a repeat of the patent.
things upright so long as their images are inverted Lord Ellenborough decided as follows “Tapering :
on the retina. But in itself the retina has no means means gradually converging to a point according ;
of telling one which of its parts are at the top and to the specification, the bristles would be of an
which at the bottom, and all its indications have unequal length, but there could be no tapering. If
from our earliest years been coupled with other that word be used in its general sense the descrip-
sensations. Thus, let us suppose you have reached tion is defective if the term has by the usage of
;
the spire we were speaking measuring it with

of, in
^
trade a different meaning, it may be received in its

your eyes you slowly lift your head up, and here, |
perverted sense but I cannot hold out any pros-
;
in obtaining the idea of top and bottom, the pect that the difficulty arising from the grammatical
muscular sensation arising from the action of the co?istruction (! ) can be removed.”
1 The verdict
muscles of the neck has taken an important part. was accordingly given against the patentee, and a
From experiences like this and others we have motion made next term for a new trial was refused.
come to judge of the position of things by putting The brush was allowed to be a perfectly new
them down at one end of the rays which come invention, and was really and literally a tapering
from the external body, and then enter the eye, and brush, yet the case was decided upon a grammatical
pass through its centre to the retina. quibble.
The peculiar phenomenon ofphosphenes presents In 1778, when an action for infringing Sir
an exception sometimes to the latter statement. Richard Arkwright’s patent for spinning machinery
We will first describe how a phosphene may be was tried in the King’s Bench, the imperfect word-
seen. Shut, say the left eye, and with a finger ing of the specification was urged, and because
applied between it and the nose, press the eyeball certain workmen declared they could not make the
and work the finger up and down. There then machine from such a description, a verdict was
appears a small circle of light called a phosphene., given against the patentee. But in 1785, a verdict
which in some cases is of a dark green, or blue in was given in another trial for the patentee, on the
the centre, with a whitish border. Sir Isaac ground that witnesses had made the machine,
Newton has spoken of it as “a circle of colours from instructions given in the specification.
;
i6o THE WORLD OF WONDERS.

STINGING ANIMALS. bag, filled well-nigh to bursting with a fluid, and
possessing, coiled up within this fluid, a thread-like
There are comparatively few animal forms which filament. from the presence of this thread that
It is
do not possess some means or other whereby they the cell derives name. The sac existing, as just re-
its
can readily escape from their enemies, or whereby marked, in a state of extreme tension, the slightest
they can defy the attacks of their natural opponents. pressure, such as may be exerted by contact with
Nature, in other words, rarely, if ever, leaves her a foreign body, is sufficient to rupture the sac. The
creatures absolutely defenceless. Some of the fluid and the contained thread together escape
most interesting discoveries of late years in natural and as the thread can in this way be projected to a
history have been made in the direction of showing distance from the sac, it may be regarded in the
that very frequently a defenceless animal will derive light of a dart, whilst the fluid itself is undoubtedly
protection from the resemblance it develops to of an irritating and poisonous nature.
another and well-protected form, or from the ac- The nature of the thread-cells is well seen when
curate fashion in which it mimics its surroundings. we study under the microscope the life of some of
For example, a sole or flounder so closely approxi- the animals which possess them. The common
mates the colour of the uppermost side of its body hydra, or “ fresh-water polype ” of our pools, is
to the line of the sand on which it lies, that until furnished with a very perfect armature of these
the fish begins to move it can cells. When a water-flea or
hardly be detected by the worm approaches the hydra,
most acute vision. Every it isgrasped by the tentacles
one knows how the speckled of the latter. At first the
hue of the partridge and prey struggles violently
grouse mimic the heather against its fate, but it soon
amidst which they live and ;
ceases its and be-
struggles,
the woodcock was declared comes apparently paralysed.
of old to be recognisable to The explanation of the ces-
the sportsman only by its sation of movement is by
flashing eye —so perfectly do no means a difficult matter,
its surroundings conceal it. when we discover that the
In such ways, then, does hydra’s tentacles literally
Mother Nature often protect bristle with thread - cells.
her children. But the mi- When one of these tentacles,

micry to which we have therefore, touches the body
alluded is by no means the of the prey, it liberates its
only protective means seen hundreds of thread - cells,
in the animal world. On each po'ssessing its dart and
THE HYDRA
the contrary, the list of its poison - fluid ;
so that
animal defences waxes very we perceive in such a me-
large when we take a wide survey of the fields of chanism a powerful means for ensuring the
animal life. Animal armouries almost without end paralysisand death of prey which otherwise
rise before our view when, led by the zoologist, we might tend to escape the grasp of the tentacles
make the “ grand tour ” of the world of animal life. alone.
Defensive and offensive weapons, also, are very The most of the animals which
thread-cells of
common in well-nigh every grade of animals, from possess them do not appear to possess any decided
the lowest to the highest ;
and, in truth, it is not action on the bodies of man and higher animals
always the highest tribes of animals that possess generally. But, at the. same time, there are one
the most complex of weapons. We also notice or two notable exceptions to this rule. Every
that the animal armouries are each contrived so as bather has learned, by the experience either of
specially to affect the particular organisms with others or of himself, to avoid the jelly-fishes as
which their possessors naturally come in contact ; decidedly unpleasant marine neighbours. These
and this relation between the means of assault and animals have obtained an evil repute on account
the assaulted forms one of the most interesting of their stinging pow'ers ;
and there is no doubt
features of the topic under discussion. that the tropical species sting very severely, and
The best examples of animal weapons in lower that certain British kinds also possess virulent
life are found in the jelly-fishes, sea-anemones, properties as regards the human skin. To thread-
corals, and like animals. In these beings we find cells of powerful nature the jelly-fishes owe their
the body to be plentifully provided with curious offensive peculiarities.
“stinging cells,” named “thread-cells.” Each of Long ago, Aristotle called these animals Aca-
these cells consists essentially of a minute sac, or leph(p, or “ nettle-stingers,” from their well-
STINGING ANIMALS. i6i
known powers of attack. The poet Crabbe speaks amputated weapons, severed from the parent body,
“ Those living jellies which the flesh inflame,
wreak vengeance on the cause of their destruction,
Fierce as a nettle, and from that its name ;
and sting as fiercely as if their original proprietor
Some huge masses, some that you may bring
in itself gave the word of attack.”
In the small compass of a lady’s ring.”
But a tropical form, the Pkysalia^ or “ Portuguese
Professor Edward Forbes, long ago, gave a glow- man-of-war” of sailors, is even more terrible in its
ing word-pic- o ff e n s i V e
ture of the phases than
attack of the the jelly-fish.
j
elly - fish This beauti-
when he said ful organism
of the species consists of a
that “ it is a bladder - like
most formid- “ float,” on
able crea- the under
ture, and the surface of
terror of ten- which are the
der - skinned numerous
bathers. little beings
With its that compose
broad, tawny, the living co-
fest o o ned, lony. Con-
and scallop- tact with this
ed disc, often creature is
a full foot, or of a highly
even more, injurious na-
across, it ture. One
flaps its way observer de-
through the scribed the
yielding wa- effects of its
ters, and thread - cells
drags after it on his body,
a long train as if he had
of riband- plunged his
like arms and arm up to the
seeminglyin- shoulder in
terminable boiling water.
tails, mark- Another
ing its course speaks of the
when the pain as so
body is far intense that
away from us. he nearly
Once tangled fainted. Mr.
in its trailing Bennett, a
‘
hair,’ the well - known
unfortunate naturalist,
who has reck- tells us that
lessly ven- not merely
tured across was the pain
the graceful he experi-
mons t e r’s enced after
path too contact with
soon writhes in prickly torture. Every struggle the Physalia very acute, but a great deal of irri-
but binds the poisonous threads more firmly round tation prevailed through his system generally.
his body, and .then there is no escape for when ;
Fishes coming in contact with the offensive ten-
the winder of the fatal net finds his course impeded tacles of the “ man-of-war ” are paralysed, and it
by the terrified human wrestling in its coils, he, is said that a Physalia the size of a walnut will
seeking no combat with the mightier biped, casts readily kill a fish the size of a herring.
loose his envenomed arms and swims away. The In animals of higher grade than the jelly-fishes
V
i 62 THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
and their neighbours, we find many excellent species as the cobra of India, or the death adder,
examples of “stinging” and offensive apparatus. or rattlesnake tribe, is very fatal, and rapid in its
The centipede class presents us with such illustra- action. Serpent-poison seems to kill by rendering
tions, for we find these familiar animals in pos- the reception of oxygen by the blood impossible.
session of a poison-apparatus, in the form of a pair That we require a constant supply of oxygen,
of the jaw-feet, which constitute “fangs,” and obtained from the atmosphere, is, of course, well
which communicate with a poison-gland. In all known. Any cause, therefore, which prevents the
stinging animals of higher grade, we find the pro- free circulation of oxygen through the body must,
vision for attack to be of a similar nature. There of necessity, involve a fatal issue.
is firstly the “ fang,” or weapon, and this may be Very recently there have come to hand the
a tooth, as in serpents part of a jaw, as in the
;
details ofa new stinging animal, in the shape of
centipedes and spiders or a modified tail-appen-
;
a poisonous lizard f^Heloderma suspectum) from
dage, as in bees and scorpions. Then, secondly, Arizona (U.S.). A specimen of this new and inte-
we note that this fang communicates with an resting scientific curiosity was sent to the London
internal poison-gland, in which the poison is manu- Zoological Gardens in the year 1882. Until re-
factured, and from which it is expelled, when cently, no poisonous lizard was known ; but there
required for use, through the fang, and into the is now no doubt that the Heloderm tribe is
body of the attacked animal. The stinging-appa- invested, like the with grave powers of
snakes,
ratus in the bee and wasp is of an extremely inte- inflicting evil on other animals. These lizards have
resting nature. The “sting” consists, in reality, of not only grooved teeth communicating with poison-
the same organ which glands, but all the
in other insects is teeth are thus rendered
called the ovipositor^ “ stings,” and the
and which is used, as “ glands,” like those
its name implies, in of the serpents, are
depositing the eggs. modified salivary
It consists essentially glands. The Helo-
of a sharp-pointed, derm’s bite is certainly
lancet-like tube, care- fatal to small quadru-
fully protected by ad- peds and birds and ;
jacent parts, and com- amongst the natives

municating with the of Mexico it has long
poison - gland within HEAD AND FANGS OF A SERPENT. held an evil reputation
the body. Special as dangerous to man.
muscles are devoted to the movements of the One American naturalist relates that he was bitten
sting, and to the compression of the poison-sac. in the hand by one of these lizards, and that in
In the scorpion, as every one knows, the sting is a few moments he suffered from severe shooting
placed at the tip of the tail, and is a hooked, pains, which ran up his arm, and from swelling of
sharp-pointed “ fang.” A curious feature has been the limb. For several hours the pain was very
noted to occur in the scorpions, and one which severe, but gradually lessened in intensity. From
may be termed a tendency of a suicidal nature ;
this recital there would appear to be good cause to
for when
irritated, these animals have been seen fear that even if the Heloderm lizards do not pos-
to plunge their sting into their own bodies, and sess poison of sufficient virulence to cause the
thus to cause death. death of man, they at least possess a power of
It may be said, however, that the perfection of causing him severe pain and annoyance for many
a stinging-apparatus is found, without doubt, in hours.
the serpent-tribes. In a poisonous snake we The fishes, as a class, are singularly destitute
discover two hollow, or grooved, teeth (b), often of examples of stinging animals ;
but there exist
capable of being erected or lowered in- the mouth, one or two cases in which means of defence of
and springing from the upper jaw. These teeth a very curious nature are found within the limits of
are in direct communication with the poison-glands the group. The “ sting-rays ” are skates in which
of the snake (a), which, by the way, are simply the the tail is armed with strong spines, which are
animal’s salivary glands modified and altered for capable of inflicting a very nasty wound, and
a destructive function. Hence, when a snake which, although not of a poisonous nature, neverthe-
“stings,” the fangs make the wound, and at that less seem to possess very irritating properties. In
moment the poison is squirted into the wound by the “ weaver fishes, the spines on the back and
”
the forcible and muscular compression of the gill-covers are similarly very sharp and offensive,
poison-glands. As is well known, the poison of and the spines are further covered and charged
a healthy and fresh snake belonging to such a with a glairy mucous fluid, thus presenting a like-
;
THE SENSE OF SMELL. 163
ness to the serpent’s apparatus. In one fish {Synan- MAGNETO-ELECTRIC MACHINES.

ceia) of the Indian Ocean, there exist regular poison-
glands, and spines, or fangs, placed on the back In a former -article we have described Faraday’s
of the animal. The native fishermen avoid these great discovery of electric induction, by which he
fishes, as a fatal issue of their sting is not unknown. proved that a current flowing in a wire aroused
But in another fish group {'fhalassophryne), a or induced another current in a neighbouring
still better-developed stinging-apparatus exists. conductor. The same busy experimenter made
The two back “ spines ” and the gill-cover spines another greater discovery in pointing out an
constitute the weapons of attack. Each spine is entirely new method of evoking electricity. The
hollow, like the fang of a snake, and each has a importance of this latter discovery will be under-
poison-gland at its base. These fishes inhabit the stood when we assert that the recent excitement
Central American coasts, and their “ bite ” is re- concerning electric illumination, as well as the
garded as highly dangerous. marvellous applications of electricity to tramways,
and to the transmission of power from place to
place, owe their origin to two apparently simple
THE SENSE OF SMELL. experiments on Faraday’s lecture-table (Fig. i).
A hollow coil of wire has its ends (_/_/) connected
James Mitchel, who died in or near 1833, in
the county of Nairn in Scotland, and was born
blind, on November nth, 1795, recognised dif-
ferent persons by smelling. The famous Mr. Boyle
mentions a blind man at Utrecht who could dis-
tinguish different metals by the different odours
and Martial records the case of a person named
Mamurra, who could tell by smelling whether
copper was true Corinthian or not. Indian trav'el-
lers have recorded that certain natives who habitu-
ally abstain from animal food have a sense of
smelling which is so exquisitely delicate that they
can tell from which well a vessel of water has
been obtained. It has been related that by smell
alone the negroes of the Antilles will detect the
footsteps of a Frenchman from those of a negro. Fig. I. — Faraday’s experiment.
Marce Marci has left an account of a monk at
Prague who could tell by smelling anything given with a galvanometer. Placing a magnetised steel
to him who had last handled it. The guides who bar (a b) within this Faraday noticed that
coil,
accompany travellers in the route from Aleppo to the galvanometer needle was deflected, showing
Babylon will tell by smelling the desert sand how most conclusively that the simple approach of the
near they are to the latter place. magnet was sufficient to generate an electric
Nathaniel Wanley, in his “Wonders of the Little current in the coil. Upon withdrawing the magnet,
World,” a famous old book, gives a particularly a current is again rendered evident by the move-
full account of a man, called John of Liege, who, ment of the needle, but in the reverse direction.
when a boy, flying in terror of soldiers in a time of Again, if the coil enclose a bar of soft iron, the
war, passed many years alone in the depths of the magnetism induced in such a core by the approach
forest of Ardenne, where he lived upon roots and to or recession from a magnet will cause similar
wild fruits, the presence of which he could at last results. These two experiments comprise Faraday’s
detect from a great distance by the smell alone. In marvellous discovery of magneto-electric induc-
the same way he detected the presence of men long tion.
before they came in sight. He was caught, and a It is not surprising that such a discovery
woman took charge of him, of whom he grew very should arouse great attention from all classes of
fond, and would follow her scent as readily and society. The scientific world, of course, took
with as much certainty as a dog could. Return- absorbing interest in it for its own sake, as a
ing to the manner and customs of civilisation, this wonderful contribution to knowledge but there ;
extraordinary power of smelling deserted him. were others who looked upon it rather in a com-
The same authority mentions as within his own mercial aspect, and who saw that if the costly
personal observation the case of a man who battery hitherto in use could be superseded by
was very temperate and fed sparingly, and who the magnet, the strange power called electricity
could detect by smell many things which were would no longer be limited in its applications, but
perfectly without odour to others. could possibly be made of immense service in
-

many fields of labour. We know how this dream I such as silver-plating, the current must maintain
has been realised to a marvellous extent, although one direction, and be similar in that respect to
it is the opinion of most of us that electrical {
the current furnished by a voltaic battery. To
science is even now in its correct the continual reversal
infancy. of the current given by this .
Pixii’s machine was the and other early machines, a

first attempt to utilise Fara- simple arrangement called a
day’s discovery. It consisted commutator was attached.
of an inverted horse-shoe It consisted of a little cylin-
magnet, which, by multiply- der formed of some non-
ing gear and a handle, was conductor, and having upon
made to revolve rapidly. it two half-cylinders of metal
Above the poles of this — metallic springs, or friction-
magnet were placed two pieces resting alternately
coils of wire, so that as the against these half-cylinders
magnetic poles alternately turned the alternate currents
approached to and receded intoone direction. The com-
from the coils, currents were mutator, marked yj will be
generated in them. observed in Fig. 2, which
From what has been al- represents the next improve-
ready said relatir’e to the ment in Magneto- Electric
behaviour of Faraday’s coil Machines which is worthy
when a magnet was ap- of notice. This machine,
proached to or re- contrived by Clarke,
moved from it, it will at once be re-
will be understood cognised as a great

that the currents improvement upon
obtained from such that of Pixii, al-
a machine as that though in principle

of Pixii must be in it is identical-
directions. Kig. 2.— CLARKES MACHINE. Here we have a
For electric lighting bundle of horse
Fig. 3. —THE “ ALLIANCE," THE FIRST ELECTRIC-LIGHT MACHINE.
purposes this would be no objection, for a slight shoe magnets (b a) not in movement but fixed
Clarke saw with
j
modification of the lamp or regulator would meet rigidly on a wooden upright.

the difficulty.. But for electro-chemical purposes, the eye of a clever mechanic that it would be
j
—
MAGNETO-ELEC'rRIC MACHINES. 165
much more and economical of power

conv'enient ments, was adopted for the electric illumination of
j
to rotate the coils t t than the heavy magnet, several French lighthouses. The same machine
as did his predecessor. So by means of a fly- was also introduced to light the two beacons
—
wheel and a handle shown at the back of the which stand on the South Foreland, just above
figure —
he was enabled to rotate these coils at a Dover. A glance at the illustration will explain the
great speed in front of the poles of the magnet, and general scheme of this machine. A cast-iron
by the attached commutator to turn the alternate frame supports eight series of steel magnets in
current so obtained into a current having one con- parallel rows, so arranged that their poles point
stant direction. Such a magnetic machine is now in one direction. In this focus, so to speak, re-
commonly employed for medical purposes, and can volves a horizontal iron axis furnished with bobbins
be seen in of w'ire.
most chem- From what

ists’ shops. has gone
A peep before it
inside its will be

containing- readily un-
box will de r s t ood
show the
Fig. 4. —siemens’ armature (external appearance).
how these
horse - shoe Fig. — END SECTION. coils of wire
5.
magnet at must gene-

the side, r a t e an
and the electric cur-
double coil, rent as

which can they are
be rotated rapidly car-
by the han- ried past
dle attach- the mag-
ed. These netic poles.
experimen - It need
t a 1 m a - hardly be
chines were pointed out
soon fol- that this
lowed by imm e n s e
others of a machine re-
larger and quires the
more pow- aid of steam
erful kind to put it in-
impos-
It is to motion.
sible to 1 ndeed, a
notice all visitor to
these in de- the South
tail, but the Forelan d
most prac- Lighthouse
of
Fig. 6. —LABORATORY GRAMME MACHINE.
t i c a 1 who is ig-
them was norant of
that invented by M. Nollet, afterw-ards knowm the history of these machines is struck with sur-
as the Alliance Machine (see Fig. 3). This ma- prise at theponderous gear necessary for pro-
chine was first constructed in the endeavour to ducing each of the two lights employed there.
carry out one of those chimerical ideas which (
A notable advance in the history of these
now and again come before the public, and are machines was made in the introduction by Siemens
speedily forgotten. The idea in this case was of a new form of coil, or armature, which is still
to decompose water into its constituent gases known by his name. In this armature the wire,
hydrogen and oxygen which gases were to be — instead of being wound on the core like a reel of
used for heating and lighting purposes. Much cotton, is wound longitudinally, like a weaver’s
capital was sunk in the experiments by which the shuttle. The way the wire is w ound is shown in
promoters of the scheme hoped to attain their pur- Fig. 4, but the nature of the armature is better
pose, before they found out that gas so produced shown by the cross section in Fig. 5. Here A B
cost a fabulous sum. But the Alliance Machine represents what is left of the iron core after the
was born of these experiments, and, with improve- deep channels have been cut for the wires, which
are shown in section. The whole revolves between In the Gramme machine the rotating coils give
the hollowed cheek-pieces, N A and S A, which are place to a new form of armature, consisting of a
in contact with the north and south poles of the ring of iron, or rather, a bundle of iron wires of
magnets and the effect is that the sides A B of the
; annular shape. Insulated coils of copper wire are
armature, whenever they come into the positions wound upon this ring in sections, their
ends being
shown in Fig. 5, are strongly magnetised, and send brought together to the axis, on which the ring
currents through the wire, which are reversed in turns between the poles of a powerful electro-
direction when the armature is rotated a quarter of magnet. As the ring turns it is magnetised induc-
a circle. The length of the armature enables it to tively by the electro-magnet, and
the currents
be rotated between long cheek-pieces connected generated in itsare collected by metallic
coils
with as many magnets as may be desired ;«and its brushes, which rub against the shaft on which it
compact shape renders it easy of revolution. turns, and to which the terminals of the coils are
Celerity of rotation is a very important factor in carried. The ring armature was first invented by
the efficiency of these machines, the strength of the Pacinotti, in i860, and a rough machine in which it
current depending largely on the suddenness with
was employed was exhibited at the Paris Electrical
which the core of the armature Exhibition of 1880, where it attracted much atten-
is magnetised or
demagnetised. tion. But in the Gramme machine, whose inventor
Next came an improvement from Wilde, of may be said to have re-discovered the principle of
Manchester, who caused the ring armature, it was
a Siemens’ armature to first made a practical suc-
be rotated in the jaws cess, and adopted in prac-
of a compound magnet, ticaldynamo machines.
consisting of anumber of Let us first glance at a
horse shoes bolted to-
- small Gramme machine,
gether. The current thus as constructed for lec-
obtained was conveyed ture-table demonstration
to a large electro-magnet, (Fig. 6). Such a ma-
and between the poles chine is a boon to lec-
of this second magnet a turers, for with it the
larger armature revolved. chemical, calorific, and
The strength of the ori- magnetic effects of the
ginal current was, of current can be exempli-
course, much reinforced fied by the turning of a
by this double arrange- handle, thus obviating
ment. The next ad- all the trouble and mess
vance made in these incidental to a voltaic
machines was comprised battery. A number of
in a suggestion simultaneously made by .Siemens permanent magnets are bolted together (o), and
and Wheatstone, that there was sufficient re- are so fixed on a base-board that their poles
sidual magnetism in soft iron to initiate a cur- (n and s) are vertical. These poles are furnished
rent, without the intervention of a permanent with cheek-pieces, which form semicircular jaws
magnet. This suggestion was made in 1867, and in which the ring rotates. The effect is that as the
has been acted upon in all machines, with hardly ring is rotated, every portion of the iron core be-
one exception, which have appeared since that comes strongly magnetised in succession as it
date. These machines are now known as dynamo approaches the positions A and B, while it is de-
machines, to distinguish them from those which magnetised at the neutral positions, M M, between
have permanent magnets, although both kinds are the poles. Thus currents are produced in the sur-
dependent upon the dynamical power of a steam- rounding wire, and the rest follows as before.
engine or other motor to rotate their coils. The Gramme machine for commercial purposes
The introduction of these machines led to the (Fig. 7) is, of course, of far larger size and of greater
adoption of the electric light in several lighthouses, power, and cannot be worked without a steam-
but the cumbrous nature of the plant, together engine or other motor. Here the permanent mag-
with the steam-power required to set it in action, nets are superseded by electro-magnets, which form
prevented its employment in positions where horizontal bars above and below the ring (r). The
expense had to be considered. A new era dawned cheek-pieces (N and s) are retained, and the brushes
for electricity with the invention of the Gramme (« «), for gathering the current from the ring, are
machine, which is now commonly used not only in seen on each side of it. It is this description of
France, but also in this country, for lighting, and for machine which has been in use for many months
electro-plating purposes. for furnishing the current required for illuminating*
CRIMES DISCOVERED THROUGH DREAMS. 167
Thames Embankment and it was the same surprise they had not received a letter
that
the ;
machine which, by its use in Paris to light up the which daughter had written to them and
their
Place de TOpera with Jablochkoff candles, led to the posted. These things oozed out, and were talked of
magnificent French Electrical Exhibition of 1881, and amongst the neighbours. Maria’s brother Thomas
gave such an impetus to electric lighting generally. also remembered seeing Corder walking towards the
These machines are placed in a shed erected for Red Barn with a pickaxe over his shoulder about
the purpose near Charing Cross Railway bridge. three o’clock on the afternoon of the day when his
In another article we shall give a description sister went off to be married.
of the dynamo machines which have come into On the 19th of April in the following year
prominence within the past few years ;

and we Mrs. Martin persuaded her husband and son to
shall then be able to see how
the simple experi- apply for permission to search the Red Barn, on
ment with Faraday’s magnet has led up to im- the pretext that Maria had left the clothes in
portant results, which even that great scientist, with which she went from home there. The grain had
all his foresight, could hardly have imagined or by that time been removed. Mrs. Corder did not
object, and the search began, Mrs. Martin pointing
believed possible.
out the spot she had seen in her dream, and w’here
in that dream she had seen the body of her mur-
CRIMES DISCOVERED THROUGH dered child buried. There, on the 19th of April,
DREAMS. 1828, the body of the missing woman was dis-
covered, buried under the flooring in a sack. No
MARI.\ MARTIN. marks of violence were, however, at first visible.
Maria Martin was the daughter of a Suffolk Corder was soon after arrested at Grove House,
mole-catcher, who resided at Polstead. She had Ealing Lane, near Brentford, w'here he was living
a very pretty face and a beautiful figure, was simple in apparent happiness with his newly-made wife,
and artless, and readily fell a prey to the insi- [

who was conducting a school for young ladies.
dious advances of William Corder, a wealthy The officers took him back to Polstead, where he
farmer’s son. On the i8th of May, 1827, he was committed for trial on the charge of murder.
promised the father of Maria that he would marry His wife refused to believe him guilty, and visited
his daughter privately by licence, and for this him almost daily. He was tried in the Shire Hall
at Bury St. Edmunds, in the midst of the most
|
purpose she was to b in readiness to go with him

to Ipswich, dressed in male attire, which she could extraordinary excitement, and on the way to
exchange on the way for her own clothes in one ;
trial was assailed on all sides with a ter-
of his barns, known as the Red Barn. They met rific uproar of abusive shouts and groans. He
secretly at some distance from her father’s house, made a very elaborate and ingenious defence, in
and walked on together. From that time forth she which he attributed Maria Martin’s death to
was never seen again alive. Her mother questioned suicide, in consequence of his refusal to marry her ;
Corder, who said she was alive and well, in hiding but was found guilty, and sentenced to death.
to prevent his friends discovering the marriage, Before being executed he confessed the justice of
which they had strongly opposed. his sentence, stating they had quarrelled in
that
Soon after, he left England for the Continent, to the barn, w'here he shot her, the ball entering her
benefit his health, as he said, expressing curious brain through the right eye.
anxiety before he started to see the Red Barn well
filled with grain. He
wrote to his widowed mother, AN IDIOT DETECTIVE.
dating from the Isle of Wight, saying he was Modern criminal cases have shown us that we
staying there for a time with Maria but the letters ;
are not entirely wanting in idiotic police detectives,
always bore the London post-mark. but we have not at present, perhaps, many of an
The Martins were, however, very anxious about actual idiot playing the detective’s part. The follow-
their daughter, the mother having dreamed on three ing case is related in an old number of the Dublin
successive nights that Maria had been murdered Penny Magazine, which ceased publication many
and buried in the Red Barn. It was remembered years ago. Ulick Maguire, a farmer, had given shelter
that on the morning when she met her lover at her and food for some time to a poor cousin, who was
father’s cottage, and they went out by different an idiot. One night Ulick’s wife dreamed that her
doors to meet again at some appointed spot, husband was murdered, and the dream was asso-
Corder carried a gun, and that when Maria asked ciated with the house of a rejected lover of hers,
him if it was loaded, he said, “ Yes.” His eager- named O’Flanagan. She told this to a neighbour’s
ness to fill the Red Barn with grain, and his work- who soon after heard the
wife, idiot, to whom it had
ing himself to get it so filled before he left home, were not been told, chanting the strange incidents of
also remembered as something strange. He wrote that dream in doggrel rhyme. On the following
to the Martins, and in one of his letters expressed night the husband actually was murdered, and
when the idiot awoke in the morning, he cried out Stockton re-appeared to the woman in a third
in terror, “ Shanus dhu More O’Flanagan (big dream, carried her in imagination to a house she
black James) has and buried him
kilt Ulick, had never before seen in Old Street, and told her
under the new ditch back of the garden. I
at the that one of his murderers lodged there up a pair of
dhramed it last night, ivry wurrd of it.” Search stairs, which he also showed her. Inquiries being
w'as made at the spot the idiot indicated, and the made, the house was found, and it was ascertained
body of poor Ulick was found, with the skull cleft that Marsh (who was soon after taken in another
in two. It was soon found that O’Flanagan had place) was a frequent visitor to it.
absconded. He enlisted, but being traced and Then Mrs. Greenwood dreamed yet another
arrested, he confessed the crime, and was executed. dream. She thought that Stockton carried her
over London Bridge into the Borough, and showed
THE CASE OF JOHN STOCKTOIvT. her a man and his wife in a large yard, telling her
John Stockton was a victualler of Grub Street, that they were Bevel and his wife. Following up
in the parish of St. Giles, Cripplegate. In the this clue, the authorities found them in the yard of
night of December the 23rd in the year 1695 h's the Marshalsea prison, to which Bevel had been
house was broken into and he was murdered, it committed for coining. Mrs. Greenwood went
was believed, by three robbers, one of them being, with the officers to identify the man, and did so.
as was suspected, a man She saw the woman first,
named Maynard, who on and directly pointed her
the day after the murder out as Bevel’s wife, but
was known to be in pos- did not at first recognise
session of money in gold the man, because she
and silver, which he had said he wore his wig,
not previously had, and which was off when she
was in need of. war- A saw him in her dream.
rant was issued for his Mrs. Greenwood had
arrest, but the man had yet another dream, in
escaped and could not be which Stockton appeared
discovered. for the last time and
A woman named Green- thanked her.
wood soon after had a One thing is particu-
dream in which her late larly noted as curious
neighbour, the murdered in this most strange and
man, appeared, took her wonderful story: the only
to “ a house in Thomas man who escaped was
Street near the ‘
George,’ one named Mercer, whom
and told her that his it was shown protested
RHABDOSPHERE. murder,
murderer was inside it.” against the re-
On the following morn- fused to take part in it,
ing she went to the house she had seen in her and once saved the life of a Mrs. Footman, who
dream, taking a neighbour with her and, asking to ;
was Mrs. Greenwood’s friend, and her companion
see Maynard, was told that he was no longer there, when visiting the various places pointed out in her
and had gone abroad. The murdered victualler dreams.
appeared to the woman again, and showed her An account of the above extraordinary case was
Maynard’s face, which she had never seen made ;
published in 1689 by the curate of the parish in
her notice that he had a flat mole on the side of his which the crime was committed, and its truth was
face and told her that he was to be taken through
;
vouched for by the Dean of York, the Master of
a wire-drawer, and would be conveyed to Newgate the Charter House, and Dr. Alex, together with
in a coach. Making further inquiries, she found the various persons who took part in its action.
that there was a wire-drawer with whom the sus-

pected man had been on
the most intimate terms,
and he, for a reward of ten pounds, lured Maynard THE BOTTOM OF THE ATLANTIC.
from his hiding-place and betrayed him. After
being taken before a magistrate for committal, he During the voyage for purposes of
scientific
was conveyed to Newgate in a coach. There he H.M.S. Challenge}-, a very important line of sound-
confessed and gave up the names of his accom- ings was run across the widest portion of the
plices, the chief being a villain named Marsh. Atlantic, from Teneriffe on the eastern side to the
Neither h" nor another named Bevel could be island of Sombrero on the western. This distance
discovered. is about 2,700 miles, and the course followed may
THE BOrrOM OF THE ATLANTIC. 169
be considered as coinciding very approximately immense stretch of 1,050 miles of the now famous
with the Tropic of Cancer, or latitude 235^^ N j“Red Clay”; then follows an interval of 330
Along this line twenty-two important sounding and miles of Globigerina Ooze, succeeded by another
dredging operations were successifully accomplished. great section of 850 of Red Clay, and the last forty
The average intervals between the “ stations ” was miles before reaching Sombrero are Globigerina
120 miles. At each at least one sounding was taken, Ooze. Thus there is a total length of 1,900 miles of
and ample specimens of the bottom were brought up Red Clay, and 720 miles of the Globigerina Ooze.
in the dredge for examination. The greatest depth It was also noticed that wherever the depth in-
found was 3, 1 50 fathoms, i.e., nearly 19,000 feet. The creases from 2,200 fathoms to 2,600 fathoms, the
special objects sought were, to ascertain the depth Globigerina Ooze passes into the Red Clay.
of the water, to discover the nature of the bottom, The former, or “ modern chalk,” is found to con-
to find out the temperature at each 100 fathoms of sist first of all of a creamy surface layer composed
depth down to 1,500 fathoms, and the temperature of shells, mostly unbroken, of Globigerina, Pulvinu-
at the bottom, to test the specific gravity of the ocean Una, and Orbulina, with a small proportion of the
\
at various depths, tests and spines of

and to inquire most surface creatures,
particularly into the and fragments of
nature of animal the spicules of
and vegetable life sponges. Mingled
at all depths. In with these are
every instance care- found' many shells
ful observations of pteropods in a
were made of the more or less mu-
temperature of the tilated condition.
air with both dry Annexed are illus-
and wet bulb ther- trations of ex-

mometers, and of tremely beautiful
the state of the at- little bodies {Rhab-
mospheric pressure dospheres) which
by a standard ba- live abundantly on
rometer. the surface of warm
The bottom was seas, and whose
found to be a skeletons, falling on
plateau with com- the bed of the
paratively gentle ocean, enter largely
undulations, but of into the composi-
great extent. About tion of the recent
two-thirds of the deep sea calcareous
way across a re- formations. They
markable elevation are taken by per-
KHABDOSPHERE.
of the bed of the mission from “The
ocean occurs. This Voyage of the
has been called the “Dolphin Rise,” after the United Challenger." Below this layer there is another, an
States surveying vessel, from which its position iirch or two thick, of greater consistency, in which
was first determined. The depth of water on it is are found broken shells of great variety cemented
about 2,000 fathoms, whereas in the troughs to together by a calcareous paste, and below this again
east and west of it there are depths exceeding 3,000 there exists a nearly uniform calcareous paste,
fathoms. coloured grey by decomposed organic matter, but
The average temperature at the surface along containing very few shells of any kind.
the section is 71° F., at a depth of 500 fathoms it As the depth gradually increases down the slope
is 44" F. at a depth of 1,000 fathoms it is 39° F.
; ;
of one of the undulations above referred to, there is
at 1,500 fathoms it is 36jr F. and at the bottom also a gradual change in the nature of the bottom.
;
it is only 3^° above the freezing-point of water. The calcareous deposit slowly passes into and is at
The nature of the bottom was found to be of last replaced by an extremely fine and pure clay.
very unexpected interest. After a space of eighty This clay has the colour of chocolate, and is so smooth
miles of volcanic mud and sand, obtained from that, when sifted, not the least grittiness can be de-
the volcanic rocks and mountains on the eastern tected if rubbed between the fingers, and if shaken
side, there comes a length of 350 miles of what in a glass bottle containing water, several days
is called “ Globigerina Ooze ” next follows an elapse before it is precipitated on the bottom.
;
w
; ! —

It is found to consist very largely of red oxide of dous of all our manufactures and trade cotton —
iron and alumina but sometimes are found mixed
;
have been the most remarkable. In 1781 the
with it particles of manganese, and, in volcanic quantity of cotton wool imported into Great Britain
regions, fragments of pumice. As the depth in- was about 5,000,000 lb., and twenty years before, the
creases from 2,200 fathoms, the shells of the mol- entire value of all the cotton goods manufactured
lusca, which are constantly falling on the bottom, are for export and home consumption in a year was
found to be more and more decomposed, they valued at £2.00,000. In 1829 the quantity imported
40.000.
become brown and worn, and finally break up into was upwards of 2 1 8,000,000 lb., of which about
fragments. Now a considerable portion of the 000 lb. were exported in yarns valued at
fine molecular matter of this “Red Clay” is the in- 500,000 sterling. Ini844 thedeclared valueof cot-
soluble residue, or, as it may be termed, the ash of ton goods for export alone amounted to ;£25,8o5,348,
calcareous organisms which form the Globigerina and the quantity retained for home consumption
Ooze, after the lime, which forms about ninety-eight |
was estimated at the value of ^10,000,000 sterling.
per cent, of the latter, has been removed by some 1.400.000. before the civil
In i860, war broke out between
North and South America, we imported about
'
means. In all animal tissues there exist, besides

the salts of lime, various other inorganic salts, and 000 lb. of cotton. In 1784, when the
it isprobable that in the decomposition of these |
first eight bales of American cotton arrived in
tissues by salt water and the various chemical sub- I
Liverpool, they were seized by the custom-house
stances therein contained, these salts may pass into officers as contraband. The first steam-worked
j
the form of silicate of alumina and sesquioxide of English cotton-mill was erected in 1790, and in
iron. 1840 there were in the United Kingdom 2,500 such
As an important gain from
to science resulting factories.
this series of soundings, we may mention on that [
This enormous trade began where its great
one occasion when the dredge was recovered from centre still is, in Lancashire, and made its
a depth of 3,000 fathoms, there were found entangled wonderful progress despite the greatest difficulties,
about its mouth long cases of a tube-building anne- and in despite of the most desperate opposition
lid^ evidently formed out of substances which are from every conceivable kind of restriction. Before
[
found in the “ Red Clay.” The worms contained in i 1790 America did not export a single pound of
these cases were very carefully examined by the and our supplies were derived from Smyrna
cotton,
and Turkey, from Brazil, from the British West
j
competent authorities on board the Challe7iger, and

the conclusion arrived at has very materially j
Indies, and from the colonies of France, Spain,
changed the prevalent opinions about the possi- and Holland, while the cotton manufactures of
bility of animal life at vast depths. The little Hindustan and China defied opposition. For
creatures were found to be closely allied to the a century after the French Protestant emigrants
Clymenida;, a well-known shallow-water group of introduced it, the manufacturers of silk and wool
high organisation. The largest specimen dredged employed every species of antagonism and unfair-
was only 120 millimetres long and two wide, and ness for its restraint.
consisted of only twenty segments, the first few of In 1712 an e.xcise duty of threepence per yard
which were three times the length of the others. was imposed, in 1714 it was raised to sixpence,
The head was round, with a lateral mouth. It was and in 1721 the manufacture of cotton was abso-
fortunate in possessing attributes which made it lutely forbidden, a penalty of £20 being inflicted
simply impossible that it could have been cap- for selling it, and one of £l upon all persons
tured during the passage of the dredge to the convicted of wearing 1736 the making of
it. In
surface. It appeared a conclusive proof that the calicoes was again permitted, but on the condition
conditions of the bottom of the sea to all depths that if the woof was cotton the warp must be en-
are not only such as to admit of the existence of tirely linen ;
was not before 1744 that these
and it
animal life, but are such as to allow of the widest restraints were removed, and the earliest founda-
distribution of animals high in the zoological tions laid for this wonderful branch of trade and
series and in close relation with the faunm of manufacture.
shallower waters.
The Peels of MA^'CHESTER.
William Peel, who set himself up as a farmer
A ROMANCE OF THE COTTON near Blackburn in the year 1600, came of an old
TRADE. Yorkshire family which had settled in Craven,
and been driven away by troubles arising out
History furnishes few greater wonders than those of religious convictions, as tradition asserts. 'The
which are connected with the rise and rapid growth spot he selected was one amidst lands formerly
of our great manufacturing and commercial houses owned by some of his ancestors, called, from the
and of these, those connected wkh the most stupen- lowness of its site, the Hoyle Farm and there, with;
—
A ROMANCE OF THE COTTON 'I'RADE. 171
his aged father and three brothers, he settled down been the founder of our family ;
and he so
to a life of steady industry, his landlord being the accurately appreciated the importance of com-
Archbishop of Canterbury. mercial wealth in a national point of view, that
His grandson, Robert Peel, deserted farming he was often heard to say that the gains to
for weaving, or, perhaps, in a way then common, individuals were small compared with the national
carried on both trades, manufacturing, in 1640, gains arising from trade.”
common woollen cloths, the patterns on which He who wrote thus of his namesake and pro-
were printed from coarsely-executed, rudely- genitor inherited all his father’s good qualities,
designed wooden blocks, which were long after and about 1774 (some authorities say 1770),
in or
in the possession of the family. He prospered when the cotton manufacture was at last freed
in trade, and left two sons, Robert and Nicholas. from its harassing legal restrictions, he and
One became a clergyman, and was curate of Black- —
James Haworth his uncle on the mother’s side
burn, while his brother, Robert, carried on the and William Yates, the landlord of a little inn
cloth-making, and soon after 1736 entered into at Blackburn called the “ Black Bull,” put what
the cotton trade, by manufacturing the newly capital they could command together ^500 to — —
legalised mixture of linen woof and cotton warp, start business as calico-printers. Robert was
in
which became known as Blackburn greys. Be- then a young man, who lodged with Yates and
ginning to prosper, he bought an estate called paid eight shillings a week for his board and
The Crosse, afterwards known as Peel Fold, lodging. His share of the capital of which —
which he settled by deed upon his son William, Yates’ was the largest —was
advanced by his
who was to become its owner after his father’s father. The partners began work in the ruins of
death. Robert bore the character of an enter- an old corn-mill and the field belonging to it,
prising, hospitable man. William Peel was a in which sheds were erected. It stood close by
sickly man, wanting in energy and vigour. The the then small and obscure town of Bury, and
business he inherited from his father was not was long after known as “ The Ground.” Mr.
developed while he had charge of it. His wife Samuel Smiles tells us that the eldest daughter of
was a Miss Ann Walmsley, of Upper Uarwen. Yates was at this time a child who became a great
His son, named Robert after his grandfather, favourite with Robert, used to sit upon his knee
was a shrewd, quick-seeing, active man of business, and prattle to him, and promise to be his wife.
although shy and reserved, who carried on the In due time the firm of Haworth, Peel, and Yates
cotton-weaving with great industry, energy, and per- began to flourish, and established a warehouse in
severance, after he had removed from the unhealthy, Manchester for the sale of their printed goods, effect-
low-lying Hoyle Farm to a house in Fish Lane, ing considerable improvements in their spinning
Blackburn. He was born at Peel Fold, and was machinerj", greatly benefiting the people of Bur\,
married to Elizabeth Haworth, of Lower Darwen, and establishing other and more extensive works on
whose father, Mr. Edmund Haworth, of Walmsley the Irwell and the Roch, winning the goodwill of
Fold, was a descendant through a junior branch of all they employed for a time. All went well until
the Haworths, of Haworth. His third son, the first the firm began to improve their machinery, which
Sir Robert Peel, was born in the Fish Lane farm- “gave offence,” says Sir Lawrence Peel, “ to the
house, and he, writing of his father, said, “ He hand-loom weavers of the neighbourhood, and
moved in a confined sphere, and employed his was not looked upon .altogether with a friendly
talents in improving the cotton trade. He had eye by some in a superior station. A skilled
neither the wish nor the opportunity of making mechanic, whom the firm employed in working
himself acquainted with his native country, or out their inventions in machinery, was kept for
society, far removed from his native county of a time concealed in the private house of Mr.
Lancaster. I lived under his roof until I attained Haworth, and worked there in secret, as if he
the age of manhood, and had many opportunities were engaged in some mystery of wickedness.
of discovering that he possessed in an eminent In the course of their experiments in printing,
degree a mechanical genius and a good heart. they introduced some improvements also in that
He had many sons, and placed them all in situa- art, but I know nothing as to their nature or
tions where they might be useful to each other. degree of importance. One story of several
. . .
The cotton trade was preferred, as best calculated which are in print I am able to confirm. Mr.
to secure this object and by habits of industry,
; Peel was in his kitchen making some experiments
and imparting an intimate know-
to his offspring in printing on handkerchiefs, and other small
ledge of the various branches of the cotton manu- pieces, when his only daughter, then a girl, after-
facture, he lived to see his children connected wards Mrs. Willock, the mother of the post-
together in business, and, by their successful master of Manchester, brought in from their
become, without one exception, opulent
exertions, ‘garden of herbs’ a sprig of parsley,” the beauty
and happy. My father may be truly said to have of which she enthusiastically pointed out, and
thought would make a good pattern. A pewter of his family saying, “ He understood thoroughly
it I
dinner-plate, such as were then in comiwon use, was every branch of the cotton trade. He instructed
taken down, and on it the outlines of the leaf were his sons himself he had no drones in his hive. ;
scratched, and the indentations being filled with He loved to impress upon their minds the great
colour, it was taken by Robert to a young woman national importance of this rising manufacture.
named Elizabeth Milton, who occupied one end He was a reflecting man who looked ahead a ;
of the Fish Lane farm-house, and worked a plain-spoken, simple-minded man, not illiterate or
calendering machine, by the aid of which an vulgar either in language, manners, or mind, but
;
impression was obtained from the pewter upon possessing no refinement in his tastes, free from
the cloth. From this exjieriment came roller- affectation, and with no desire to imitate the
printing on calico. Sir L. Peel omits this portion of manners or mode of life of a class above his
the story, which rests upon the statement made by own.” Describing his personal appearance, the
Elizabeth Milton’s daughter. The popular parsley- same author said, “When he walked the streets
—
1
leaf pattern Nancy’s pattern, as it was called in of Burton he used to look downwards, and seemed
1
her family —
became historical, and gave the in- to ever be calculating some stiff question
!
ventor a nickname which he never lost, that of He stooped a little in his latter days in his youth ;
“ Parsley Peel.” he had been remarkably erect. He wore a bushy

When James Hargrave, of Blackburn, a weaver, Johnsonian wig, was dressed in dark clothes of
invented the spinning jenny, by which several ample cut, and leaned as he walked upon a tall
threads were spun at once instead of separately. gold-headed cane.”
Peel’s firm was amongst the first to adopt it, and Other great cotton firms were established while
thereby drew down the vengeance of the riotous Sir Robert’s attained its dominant greatness, by
weavers, whose destructive work and deadly threats members of the same remarkable family, at Burnley,
drove Robert Peel from Blackburn to Burton- hbxhill-bank, and Altham in Lancashire, and at
upon-Trent, in Staffordshire, where he erected, Salley Abbey in Yorkshire.
near theRiver Trent, three mills, to supply
one of which with water he cut a canal at the cost
of /^go,ooo. From that time forth he pursued a THE CAVES OF BELLAMER.
career of uninterrupted and wonder-moving pros-
perity, and in process of time the entire town of |
To the eastward of Havana, on the north coast
Bury became, says the author of “The Romance of Cuba, is situated the large and handsome city
of Trade,’’ “a sort of appendage to Peel’s fac- of Matanzas. The rocks in the neighbourhood are
tories, and, consequence of his great success,
in principally Guines Limestone, so called by
the
its population steadily advanced from about 2,000 Humboldt to distinguish it from a much more
in 1773, to upwards of 15,000 in 1831.” modern formation in the hills near Trinidad, on
I
It will add interest to the story of this wonderful ,

the south coast of the island. In this rock, about
uprearing of a mighty fortune and a great family, two miles to the south-east of the town, are situated
if we add that pretty little Nelly Yates, who, when the famous caves of Bellamer.
a child, sat upon the knee of Robert Peel and These were discovered by an accident about the
prattled tohim so freely, and promised to become year i860. Some workmen were engaged in a
his w'ife the young lodger would wait for her,
if ;
field when the crowbar of one of them suddenly
as he said he would, really was waited for, and disappeared through a hole which he had just
really did become his wife. When they married made. This led and the
to a further investigation,
he was thirty-six years of age and she seventeen, interesting result was the discovery of another
and her father, the once poor innkeeper, was “wonder” in Nature’s inexhaustible store.
rich enough to give w’ith her a large dowr)c She Access to the caves is had by a wooden staircase.
lived to become Lady Peel, and the mother of Each visitor supplied with a torch in the form
is
one who became Prime Minister of England. of a huge bees’-wax candle attached to a short
For many years after her marriage she pla)’ed a stick. The guide, or muchacho^ leads the way,
prominent part in advancing her husband’s for- the visitors following the narrow path in a long
tunes, being his amanuensis, and conducting the procession. The greater part of the caves, which
principal part of his business correspondence, have so far been explored for nearly three miles,
for Mr. Peel was himself an almost unintelligible is dry under foot in most places, and their varied
writer. She died in 1803. It is said riiat London beauties can be seen under unusually favourable
fashionable life, so unlike her old life at home, conditions. Crevasses, some of which are of great
proved injurious to her health, and that her father depth, are spanned by carefully constructed wooden
used to say, “If Robert hadn’t made our Nelly a bridges, and wherever necessary steps have been
lady, she might ha’ been living yet.” cut in the solid rock.
Sir Lawrence Peel writes of the first Sir Robert The first open space is reached about forty or
CULTIVATED AND WILD FRUITS. 175
fiftyyards from the foot of the staircase above CULTIVATED AND WILD FRUITS.
mentioned. To this the not inappropriate name
of the “ Gothic Temple ” has been given. The As fallible human beings we are accustomed to
chamber is about sixty yards long by twenty yards take our lessons from Uame Nature, and to look
wide. the visitor stands at its farther end and
As upon her and her works as things which are beyond
looks towards the entrance, the effect is very fine, our rivalry, and which cannot be improved. We
and especially so when blue lights are held in rightly “ consider the lilies of the field ” as the type
different parts. roof sparkles with thousands
The of simple, unadorned beauty ;
and we well know
of crystals, and gloomy and fantastic shadows are that the endeavour to improve those by a coat
lilies
cast by the columns and irregularities in the sides. of paint is the proverbial expression of wasted
Here are three solitary energy, and very bad
stalactite^ known as taste. We have seen
the “ Three Apostles.” in a former article how
We next pass on to the work of man,
the finest
“ Saloon,” and then when placed on the
arrive at the “ Bishop’s stage of the micro-
Court,” or “ Throne.” scope side by side with
In the passages from some similar forms
one to the other, the borrowed from Na-
guide points out the ture’s workshop, look,
“ Mantle of Colum-- in comparison, rough
bus,” the “ Organ,” the and ill-shaped. So

“Altar,” the “Mon- the law has been by
key’s Seat,” the common consent laid
“Guardian Angel,” the down — that we must
“Fountain of Snow,” look to Nature for our
and the “ Cloak of instructions in excel-
the Virgin.” When a lence of every kind,
light is passed to and and that we need not
fro before the “ Man- try improve that
to
tle,” it sparkles and which, by Nature’s
glitters asthough it God, has been so
were adorned with bountifully placed be-
many jewels. The fore us.
term “Cymbal” might Like all laws, this
with some reason be one has its exceptions.
given to another sta- A little consideration
lactite on account of will teach us that man,
the rich musical note insignificant as he is
which it gives out if when contrasted with
struck with a wooden the grand scheme of
pole. When the 7hu- the universe, is capa-
chacho held several ble, to a large extent,
torches behind the CULTIVATED AND WILD CHERRIES. of improving natural
“Cloak of the productions. The first
Virgin,” the colours thus produced were very fine, example of his work in this respect may be taken
passing according to the varying thicknesses of from those cereals which form the most necessary
stalactite from grey into a pure white, and then part of his food. Originally growing wild, but at
through rose and pink into a lovely amber or blue. a period so remote that the country of their origin
Remarkable as these more prominent objects cer- is unknown, these grasses have been so carefully
tainly are, we must not close this notice without tended and cultured by human hands, that the
mentioning the rich and extremely delicate appear- weeds which once were their fellows would now
ance of the tracery on the roof in many places not recognise them.
from the intertwined stalactites. Without attempt- Our most cherished flowers have in like manner
ing to assert any close resemblance, we would say been brought by high culture to a perfection which
that to those who have seen both, the roof of never could have been obtained without that culture.
Henry VI I. ’s Chapel in Westminster Abbey and Our fruits, if we look into their pedigrees, have ex-
some parts of the caves of Bellamer will help to tremely vulgar ancestors, and they owe their present
recall each other to the mind of the traveller. size, appearance, and flavour to the finished educa-
— ——
»74 I'HE WORLD OF WONDERS.

tion received at the hand of man. Compare, for with surprise than those which, under the one
instance, the two fruits shown natural size in our name of “ plants,” present us with forms which,
illustration. One is the wild cherry of the woods like the great Sequoia or Wellmgtonia of Cali-
the vulgar ancestor just referred to ;
the other is its fornia,tower for several hundreds of feet above the
improved and refined descendant. The first is earth-level,and also with beings so minute that
almost flavourless, and of such a size that the little thousands of them will people a water-drop, and
flavour it has can hardly be distinguished ;
the millions be included within the compass of a
other is the luscious and highly-prized cherry known square inch. Yet such are, in truth, the two ex-
as Belles de Montreuil. We know well enough tremes of the plant-world. The mighty tree and
that art cannot create ;
nor can science and art put the minute organism are alike included within the
together e.xplain the secret of that vital principle botanist’s domains, and the microscopic plant may
that exists in the meanest vegetable growth. But present to the scientific eye and understanding
the two have worked hand in hand in improving by mind as high a degree of interest as the giants of
careful culture, and the cherries form a remark- the forest themselves.
able example of the success of their labours. The
lowest and most minute of plants live in the
—
water the sea and fresh waters possessing each
their tenants. Their colours are very varied.
DRINKING EXTRAORDINARY. They present us with green, bluish-green, and
brown masses, often of considerable size. Some of
There no telling what a man’s stomach will
is the sea plants are thus of very large extent, others
stand it seems to adapt itself, along with the other
;
again are excessively minute. But one and all are
j
organs, to any excesses he may habitually indulge composed of the small bodies known as cells,
j
in. The Eskimo eating his ten pounds of flesh and the variations in form and size are due in
daily in addition to other odds and ends, or the reality to the manner inwhich the cells are ar-
brewer’s —
drayman imbibing his gallon of beer both ranged. The lower plants, as a class, are named
become accustomed to it, and can carry it on for a Alga. The simplest of them exist as single cells ;
time with impunity. Great drinkers were known and these often produce other cells which repeat,
in ancient times, fellows like the as plants, the single and solitary state of their
Jolly old toper ! who at a pull,

parents. Others again form great masses of cells,
Could drink a postillion’s jack-boot full, and thus show us the power of numbers and the
And ask with a laugh, when that was done. strength of little things. One of the most curious
If the fellow had left the other one 1
plants with which the world of minute life is

Longfellow’s “ Golden Legend."
peopled is the well-known “Yeast-plant.” Each
Such a man was Torquatus of Mediolanum, who j
“ yeast-plant ”a microscopic cell, about the
is
lived in the reign of the Emperor Tiberius. On ^gôth part of an inch in diameter that is to say, ;
the authority of Pliny, it appears he was able to it would take 3,000 yeast-plants placed in single file
drink off at one draught three gallons and three '
to make up the length of one inch. Yet humble as

pints of wine, and with it all attend to his duties ,
this plant is, the effects of its growth are highly
as a soldier and servant of the state. Of a lesser important. Whenever any fluid containing “ yeast ”
stomachic capacity was M. Cicero, the son of the is added to a solution of sugar, the process called
famous orator, who was able to drink off two “ fermentation ” is set up. In other words, this
gallons and two pints of wine at one draught. fermentation is to be regarded as the natural result
One is strongly inclined to think that there must of thegrowth of the yeast-plant. The action causes
have been some jugglery practised by these men, alcohol to remain behind, whilst bubbles of a gas
for perhaps the most e.xtraordinary feat of the (carbonic acid) are given off. When yeast, pos-
same kind performed in modern times is that of sessing this singular power, is examined under the
the drinking of only a gallon and a half of beer in microscope, the characteristic little plants in the
half a minute, by one Farbaugh of Cincinnati It ! form of cells are seen floating therein. Reduced to
seems somewhat odd that this modern toper a dry powder, yeast will retain all its fermentative
unequal as he is to the foregoing should be also — powers for a considerable time. The little plants
connected with a place bearing a classical name. appear when dried to preserve their vitality, and
are capable, when added to a sugary fluid, of pro-
ducing fermentation. If the yeast or the sugary fluid
THE WORLD OF LOWER PLANTS. be boiled, fermentation does not occur. In the
one case, the boiling kills the plants, in the other
The world of plants includes within its limits verj’ the chemical composition or nature of the fluid is
varied beings, both as regards size, form, appear- altered. If we strain the yeast by passing it
ance,and beauty. Perhaps of these varied aspects, through a fine filter, we prevent fermentation ;
however, none are better calculated to strike us in other words, we keep back the “plants” from
THE WORLD OF LOWER PLANTS. OS
And, lastly, if, afler boiling we find amongst the Diatoms equally interesting
entering the fluid.
and wonderful facts of plant-life. Swarming in
the fluid, we prevent any air from coming in con-
the air through cotton
we filter
both fresh and salt water, the Diatoms are to be
tact with it, or if
It is thus found, often clustering on the stems and leaves of
wool, we again prevent fermentation.
water-plants, and forming a plant-family to which
clear that the small solid specks we name ±e
attaches an interest of a very high order— a remark
“yeast-plants” are the cause of fermentative
which equally well applies to a closely-related family,
action. What, it may be asked, is the nature of
producing such that of the Uesmids. The Diatoms are repre-
these plants, which are capable of
sented by minute plants, each of which exists as a
marked effects ? I
yeast-plant seen single cell. Each consists of a little mass of

Under the microscope, each is
wall or envelope, formed of living matter, enclosed between two cases formed
to consist of a little
These living specks not merely possess
or starchy substance, familiar enough
of flint.
rellulose,
The substance of the plant the power of taking flint from the water amidst
in higher plants.
matter, or protoplasm^ and it is which they live, but are also able to elaborate their
•consists of living
this matter that all the powers
coverings therefrom, and to construct cases which
unquestionably in
reside. Usually the exhibit, as the accompanying illustration shows, a
and properties of the plant I
but many '
very high complexity of form and structure. The

yeast-plants float singly in their fluids ;
halves of the flinty case in which the living parts of

specimens may be seen aggregated in groups, or
These conditions are produced the Diatom reside fit into one another like the
forming chains.
two halves of a pill-box. When young Diatoms
are produced, the two halves of the case split
asunder, and the wall or case of the new plant
is seen within the rim of the parent. As in the
yeast-plant therefore, new Diatoms are produced
by the division of the parent plants.
Nothing can exceed the beauty and delicacy of
the markings which the surface of the flinty cover-
ings of the Diatoms exhibits. Microscopists have
made these markings the subject of special study,
and the various species are recognisable by the
special features noticeable on the wall of the
A. Single Yeast-cell at re t ;
one with two vacuoles. cases. Many of the Diatoms exhibit curious
B. Chain of cells produced by budding. movements. The motion appears to consist of a
C. Cell containing spores.
jerking progression which seems to cause the Dia-
by the plants giving origin to fresh plants by a tom to move backwards and forwards without
process, either of budding — new plants
being pro-
'
actually advancing. The causes of the movement

duced as “ buds ” by the parent plants or of — of these minute beings are very obscure ; but it is
internal division. A single plant is seen in this commonly referred to the behaviour of the living
latter process to divide into several masses, each of matter of the plants, which is believed to be
which encloses itself, like its parent, in a distinct I protruded from between the halves of the case.
wall or envelope. The parent plant next ruptures, Some authorities appear to regard the motion as
and the young plants escape, several new plants dependent on the admission and escape of water to
being thus formed by the division of one. and from the case.
When a sugary fluid exposed to the air “fer- Diatoms, curiously enough, make their appear-
ments,” we know that there must have dropped ance in very strange places, and in situations in
into it from the air, in which these organisms float which their presence would be least suspected.
as so much dust, some yeast-plants. It may be For example, the beautiful species {Arachnotdiscus
;
that only one plant has gained access to the fluid. Japoniciis) figured in the accompanying illustra-
Such a result is equivalent to the thorough impreg- tion has been found amongst sweetmeats. The
nation of the fluid with its species or race. For, three specimens in the plate are represented
on the principle of the little leaven which leavens attached to a piece of seaweed, and as the seaweed
the whole lump, the single yeast-plant produces in is used by the Japanese in making soup, it must
time a progeny, and as the progeny in turn produce follow that this latter fluid will contain many
others, a short time alone will suffice to people a specimens of these Diatoms. The species figured
fluid, and to produce all the characteristic traits of also occurs in guano. It derives its name from the
fermentative action. We thus discover how marked resemblance of the markings on its surface to the
a power resides in plants of a very low grade, the filaments of a spider’s web. Each half or valve of
yeast-plant being ranked as one of the fungi. the Diatom consists of two layers and it is the
;
Turning now to a different group of lower plants. outer layer which bears the web-like markings.
176 'I'HE WORLD OF WONDERS.
There exists in various quarters of the world a known as berg-niehl or “ mountain meal,” and is
peculiar earthy deposit, known as Infusorial earth. used to mix with the dough from which bread
DIATOMS {Arachnntiisais Japonicus) FOUND I.N FRUIT PRESERVE.
This dust is common at Oran in Algeria, in is manufactured. On examining these earths

Bermuda, at Richmond, and in Ireland and else- under the microscope, they are found to consist
where. In Sweden and Norway similar dust is ,
of collections of fossil Diatoms and of the shells ot
THE DIAMOND ROCK. 177
certain low forms of animal-life. The extent of THE DIAMOND ROCK.

these deposits may be gathered from the fact that
at Richmond (Virginia) the “earth” there exhibits To an English sailor there are few objects in the
a thickness of eighteen feet. The number of West Indies of more stirring interest than the
diatoms, &c., required to form such a deposit is, of small isolated rock, which stands about three
course, beyond any powers of imagination, even the quarters of a mile from the south-west point of the
most vivid. French island of Martinique, and about six miles
There remains, however, one aspect of lower south-east of the entrance to Fort Royal harbour.
plant-life which presents features of far higher No captain of an English man-of-war hesitates to
practical import than are exhibited by the history turn aside in order to give his officers and ship’s
of the diatoms and their allies. It is a notable fact company the opportunity of gazing on the Diamond
THE DIA.MOND ROCK.
that all grave diseases that affect humanity and Rock, the scene of as gallant an exploit by their
animal-life at large — such as fevers, &c. —are now j
predecessors as any of those deeds for which the

known to be caused by the propagation, within Royal Navy of England is so justly renowned.
the bodies of the affected animals, of these lower It appears that toward the end of the year 1803,
forms of plant-life. Thus a study of the minute the line-of-battle ship Centaur, carrying the broad
vegetable world, and a knowledge of what happens, pendant of Captain, afterwards Sir Samuel Hood,
for example, when a grain of yeast is sown in was blockading Fort Royal.
Finding that vessels
an appropriate soil, in reality forms the best pre- frequently escaped capture by running inside the
paration for the understanding of the problems of DiaTnond Rock, the Commodore determined to oc-
disease. To the lower plants it is now certainly cupy and to fortify it in fact, make it a stationary
;
known that we owe many of our ailments and it “ man-of-war,” whence boats could be detached to
;
is no small triumph of scientific inquiry that we harass the enemy’s trade.

are able to trace, even imperfectly, the causes and The Rock is about a mile in circumference at the
origin of many of the troubles that afflict us. This base, and it rises to a height of 600 feet above the
aspect of the matter will be the subject of a sepa- sea. The south side is quite inaccessible, being a
rate article. wall of rock rising sheer out of the water, but
X
s !

sloping inwards near the top. The eastern and 1804, hoisted hispendant “ on board” the Britis
south-western sides are also impregnable, but in sloop of war Diamotid Rock, five guns, and
the face of the latter side are several caves or crew all told of 120 men and boys! and in th
grottos of considerable extent. The western side official Navy List, the Rock was entered as on
has a reef running into the sea, and here is the of His Majesty’s ships in commission !
only landing-place on the whole rock. The land- For more than a year the “vessel” so improvise
ing is sometimes very dangerous, and even at the persisted in firing at and annoying every Frenc
best of times one must creep on all fours through ship which passed within range of its heavy gun
the crannies till he winds carefully round to the and sufficiently carried out the intention of th
north-west side, as a false step might prove fatal. commander-in-chief The crews of the ships corr
When this position has been reached, a grove of posing the squadron eagerly sought to do work o
green wild fig-trees on the slope mounts upwards the Rock. They regarded it as “ going on shore ;
towards a good-sized cavern. and although the labour was heavy, the duti(
A landing was effected, and in January 1804, exacting, and food often limited, yet they worke
with incredible difficulty, five of the Centaur^ guns, more willingly in quarrying, blasting, buildini
three long 24-pounders, and two 8-pounders, were and mounting guard, than in their own propc
1
landed. A cal)le was made fast by one end to the duties on board. Several were known to kee
rock, and the other end was secured on board. back the fact of their being ill, in order to remai
Along this was passed a “ traveller,” or running in their new craft. A hospital was built, tanks coi
loop. To this the gun was secured, and, by suit- structed to save the rain-water, the caves were slur
al)le tackle, was dragged by the sailors up the round with the men’s hammocks. A delicious wil
sloping cable to the summit of the rock. “ Were spinach was greatly appreciated by men who ha
you to see,” writes a private gentleman who was for months been cooped up on board ship. Snak(
permitted by the Commodore to spend the first and lizards were in abundance. The sailors ha
few weeks on the island, “ how along a dire, and, I as usual, their favourites, a dog, a cat, and a kitte:
had almost said, a perpendicular acclivity, the Fish and fruit were occasionally brought off
sailors are hanging in clusters, hauling up a four- shore boats, the owners venturing to approac
and-twenty-pounder by hawsers, you would wonder either for gain or through curiosity. Things wei
they appear like mice hauling a little sausage. on thus until the summer of 1805, when the Frenc
Scarcely can we hear the Governor on the top Admiral, Villeneuve, made his famous expeditic
directing them with his trumpet, the Ceyitaur lying to the West Indies in order to baffle Nelsor
close under it, like a cocoa-shell, to which the designs. While he lay at Fort Royal with h
hawsers are fixed. Believe me,” the writer adds, large squadron, he determined to capture tl
in his enthusiasm at the ingenuity displayed in “ Diamond Rock.”
overcoming the many difficulties which presented In the evening of the 29th May, he despatche
themselves, “ I shall never more take my hat off the Phttoji and Berwick, both 74-gun line-c
for anything less than a British seaman.” battle-ships, the Sirene, a 36-gun frigate, tl
In front of the slope referredand projecting
to, Argus, a 16-gun corvette, the Fine, an arme
somewhat into the sea, the Queen’s battery was schooner, and eleven gunboats, having on boa:
built amid the breakers. Here a 24-pounder on between 300 and 400 troops of the line, under tl
a pivot carriage commanded the entrance and command of Commodore Cosmao, to attack tl
nearly the whole of the bay. From this point a “King’s ship.” Captain Maurice had anticipate
covered way was made to another battery called such an event, and seeing the squadron sail out,
the Centau 7 -; this fronted the north-east, and com- once guessed its object, and made his preparatioi
manded the other side of the sea. It was exceed- to repel the attack. As it was impossible to d
ingly well built, and was mounted a second
in it fend the lower works, he spiked the guns in tl
24-pounder. A rope ladder was fixed between these Queen’s and Centaur Batteries, and withdrew tl
batteries, and was called .the “ Mail ” by the ammunition to Hood’s. On the morffing of tl
sailors, as by its means all stores were taken to 30th May, the ships had made but little progre:
the middle portion of the island. Here was but by the morning of the 31st, they had worke
situated Hood’s battery, and in this the remaining so far to windward that at 7 a.m. they bore dow
24-pounder was fixed. On the summit, which was and at 8 a.m. they opened fire. This was at on
reached through shrubs and crags, the two 18- returned by the 24-pounder in Hood’s battery, ai
pounders were mounted in Fort Diamond, and the by the two guns in Fort Diamond. The bor
Union Jack was hoisted. bardment continued throughout the whole of th
As soon as the guns were duly mounted, and a and the succeeding day, and did not cease un
sufficient quantity of powder, shot, and stores had four o’clock in the afternoon of the 2nd June, whi
been landed. Lieutenant James Wilkes Maurice, the ammunition of the gallant defenders was e
with the rank of Commander, on the 19th May hausted. Captain Maurice hoisted a flag of tru
DYNAMO-RLRCTRIC MACHINRS. 179
at that hour,and the same evening, between five having expired first. The trial lasted some time,
and six, terms most honourable to the defenders and the judge entered into the arguments on both
were granted by the enemy. In their defence the sides very learnedly, so far as its curious legal
English sustained a loss of only two men killed aspects were concerned, and also as to the natural
and one wounded. The French estimated their facts of the case. He thought, although strong and
own loss at fifty killed and wounded but the;
active, the wife would be timid and that the hus-
;
English commander considered that the loss sus- band, although weak, had been courageous and
tained by a landing party alone was at least thirty accustomed, being a soldier, to face death in
killed and forty wounded. Three of the gun-vessels different shapes. In conclusion, the administra-
and two of the squadron’s boats had also been sunk tion was granted to the husband’s next of kin.
by the from the Rock.

fire
By the custom of the service. Captain Maurice

was afterwards tried by court-martial for the cap- DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINES.
”
ture by the enemy of one of His Majesty’s “ ships
commanded by him, but was, of course, most The celebrated “Gramme” dynamo - electric
honourably acquitted. He was, at the same time, machine — which has already been described in
highly complimented for his skilful defence and —
a former article marked, as we then indicated,
courageous conduct. the commencement of a new era in the history of
It maybe mentioned that the famous rock, which electrical science. Its compact form and small
has such an interest for all Englishmen, belongs to size were in such favourable contrast to the bulky
the island of Martinique. This large and beautiful and clumsy arrangement of bobbins and magnets
island was discovered by the Spanish at the end of which it superseded, that manufacturers could con-
the fifteenth century; was colonised by the French sider the question of electric illumination without
about forty years later was captured by the English
; the thought that its introduction meant the advent
in 1762, and restored again by the Treaty of Ver- of an immense bulk and weight of apparatus into
sailles. After suffering severely in the Great War, their premises for which they could afford no
it was finally ceded to the French by the Treaty room. But the little Gramme machine could be
of 1815. placed in any corner near the engine, and would
furnish light with very little trouble. It is not,
A SINGULAR TRIAL. therefore, a matter of much surprise that a

demand quickly arose for these machines, and
On April 15th, 1815, a curious case was tried in the that they were disposed of as fast as they could
Prerogative Court before Sir J. Nichol. A man be manufactured. In spite of the proverb, M.
named Job Taylor, staff or quarter-master in the Gramme found himself honoured in his own
Royal was drowned, through the sinking
Artillery, country, and it is probable that many hundreds
of a vessel in Falmouth harbour, together with his of his machines were in actual use in different
wife Lucy, whom his will had appointed sole exe- parts of France before one of them found its way
cutrix and residuary legatee. His property was to England. This one, we may mention as a matter
valued at four thousand pounds, and the trial was of historical interest, was employed to cast a beam
to decide whether it belonged to the next of kin of of light from the summit of the clock-tower at
the husband, as dying intestate (his wife not having Westminster.
survived him to render his will good) or to the The success of the Gramme machine had the
representative of the wife as residuary legatee, she natural consequence of such successes it drew the—
having survived him so as to become entitled to attention of electricians to the possibility of im-
that position in favour of which view it was urged proving upon it.
; There seemed to be a brilliant
as presumptive proof that she had the stronger and future for anything of the kind, and inventors
more robust constitution, and that he was weak worked hard to realise their hopes. The first rival
and afflicted with asthma. It was urged that the of the Gramme machine was that of Siemens (illus-
principle of the Roman civil law, which had been trated in Fig. i), whose armature long ago had, as
adopted into the code of this country, ruled that already explained, marked a stepping-stone in the
where two perished together in a common calamity, history of these machines. This rival of the
and it became a question which of the two was the Gramme', however, did not employ the celebrated
survivor, in the absence of direct evidence, the armature, but a modification of it, to be presently
decision should always be in favour of the one described.
with the more robust constitution and the greater The machine itself is singularly compact, as may
strength. On the other hand it was urged that the be judged from our illustration. As a matter of
husband plunged into the water to save his wife, fact, one which will furnish a current giving a light
and that although their bodies were found close of 1,200 candle-power can be packed in a box
together, the probability was in favour of her measuring two feet square and one foot deep.
i8o THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
The arrangement of the machine will be readily of the armature is a hollow iron cylinder ;
and the
understood by reference to the cut. Four flat wire coils, instead of being wound shuttle - like
electro magnets are so fixed on a strong iron
- one plane, are so placed that that plane
parallel to
frame that the upper pair have their N poles facing gradually revolves. So that, although there are
one another, and eight distinct
the under pair coils, they are
have their s not wound upon
poles so placed. the core in one
The poles of plane, but in
each pair are such a manner
united byarched that each con-
pieces of iron, volution differs
which form to- slightly in direc-
gether a hollow tion from that
in which the ar- which has been
mature rotates. wound before it.
In the original The commutator
Siemens arma- is a tube split
ture page
(see into eight parts,
165) there were which commu-
in its revolution nicate with each
two dead points, other through
so to speak, at the coils, and
which no cur- from which the
rent passed. Of current is drawn
course in actual off by brushes,

practice the re- tig. I.— siemens' dynamo machine.
as in the case of
volutions were other machines.
so quick that The Siemens
Fig. 2. THE BRUSH MACHINE.
this was hardly noticeable, but it represented an in- machine has now for some years been employed at
equality which might be remedied by more studied the Lizard (Cornwall), to furnish the double light
arrangement of the armature wire. This was done on that important headland, and has also come
in the machine now under consideration. The core into general use in a variety of ways.
^ •
»
JV
-
f
. V
i88i.
of
exhibition
electrical
paris
the
at
machine
dynamo-ei.ectric
great
Edison's
.
DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINES. i8i
Next in order must be mehtioned the dynamo formed partly of half-inch bars and partly of discs,
machine invented by Mr. F. C. Brush (Fig. 2). which serve to connect opposite bars together the —
In the Brush machine we find a modification of current first traversing a bar, then a disc, to an
the Gramme ring. This ring is made of cast-iron, opposite bar, crossing a disc again, and so on.
deeply grooved, to save weight and admit cool These discs, insulated from one another by plates of
air, and with eight discontinuous coils wound upon mica, form two solid cylinders at either end of the
it, in spaces cut away for their reception (see armature the hollow space between them forming
;
Fig. 3). These coils are connected in a different the core, by being fitted in with innumerable discs
manner from those of the Gramme machine of very thin iron, each being separated from its
:
that is to say, instead of being connected succes- fellow by silk. The object of this latter arrange-
sively, opposite coils are connected. The inventor ment is to promote rapid magnetisation and de-
claims by this arrangement, and by the position of magnetisation. In the Gramme ring this is at-
the field magnets, to produce, from a given amount tained by using a bundle of wires instead of one
-of power, a larger available current than can be solid core. In the induction-coil the same end
obtained by any is attained by
other means. It the same means.
is certain that The thinner the
the Brush ma- iron the more
chine is most rapidly can it be
extensively em- magnetised, and
ployed both in the more rapidly
this country and can that state be
in America, one again destroyed.
of its chief re- Another advan-
commendations tage gained by
being that se- cutting up a core
veral powerful in this way is
lights can be that iron —a

served by one natural conduc-
machine. tor of electricity
A further mo- — has, when
dification of the moved in a
Gramme ring is magnetic field,
found in another currents gene-

machine — that rated in it which
ofBiirgin, which are not wanted,
has been intro- Fig. — RING ARMATURE OF THE BRUSH MACHINE. because they in-
3.
duced recently, terfere with the
and is manufac- work of the
—
tured in England by Crompton forming the foun- machine very’ seriously : they consume power in
dation of Crompton’s system of electric lighting. their production, and give out this power as
The ring here is no longer single, but is composed heat. Now, by partitioning off the iron core
of several individual rings mounted on the same into differenttendency to gene-
segments, the
spindle. The winding on each ring is discontinu- rate currents on its own account is stopped.
ous, a space of bare iron being left between each This machine may be said to be still on its trial,
coil. These bare places as they pass the poles of for it has been but recently introduced but the ;
the magnets cause intense magnetisation of the name of Edison —

who is looked upon by the
ring, besides which they afford such ready access American public as a magician is sure to get —
of air-currents that the machine has no tendency it attentive consideration where electric energy is
to get unduly heated. required.
The largest dynamo machine hitherto constructed Another very large dynamo machine has been
is that of Edison, in which the magnets alone weigh constructed by Mr. Gordon, Secretary of the
several tons. The general size of this gigantic British Association for the Advancement of
machine can be understood from our full-page en- Science. Its main object is to reduce the high
graving of the one shown at the Paris Electrical speed of revolution which has hitherto been
Exhibition. Here we have no Gramme ring, but a deemed necessary in order to secure rapid mag-
peculiar modification of the armature in Siemens’ netisation and demagnetisation in the armatures.
machine— an armature four feet long and two feet By placing numerous armatures round a circle of
in diameter. Its coils are not of wire, but are several yards diameter, Mr. Gordon secures this
i 82 THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
with a very moderate speed of axial revolution ;
or some portion of it, might be made to actuate
and the principle will probably be applied in cases dynamo machines, and by means of metallic con-
where large quantities of current are required. The ductors the electricity thus obtained could be made
last important modification introduced has been in to give motion to other dynamo machines at a
a machine patented by Mr. Ferranti and Sir William distant spot. We already know that these machines
Thomson, in which the armatures consist of copper will carry energy for the electric light to consider-
ribbons instead of wires, and contain no iron cores, able distances, and such energy could be turned
thereby saving much weight and cost. into motion as easily as into light.
Having thus briefly described the old magneto- Ur. Siemens, on the same occasion, pointed out
electric machines, and the principal* dynamo that in this country, although we have no Niagara,
machines which followed upon them, and which there are many places where water-power is allowed
are now competing for public favour, it remains to run to waste. This is especially the case in
to be considered for what purposes these remark- Scotland, with its elevated lands and heavy rain-
able contrivances can be employed. We have most fall. Other scientific men maintain that the tides
of us had optical proof that they will furnish a bril- might even be enlisted in the service of actuating
liant light, but this application of the electric cur these machines, but they do not point out a
•
rent will form the subject of future treatment. An practical method of accomplishing it. Even wind-
ecjually important application of them is the pos- mills may be used indirectly. They certainly
sibility of transmitting energy from place to place represent a somewhat uncertain form of power, but
by their aid. Ur. Siemens suggests that they might be employed
To understand how this can be done, we must in raising water to high reservoirs, which might
first recognise the fact that the dynamo machine afterwards be utilised by the help of turbines and
will not only give a current when its armature is dynamo machines.
rotated, but that if a current be sent through it Another ingenious application of the dynamo
from some independent source, its armature will machine is for agricultural purposes. Uwellers in
be caused to rapidly revolve. Thus, supposing country places know well enough how the steam-
that we attach to the terminals of a hand Gramme
engine has invaded the corn-fields. The old-
machine, such as is made for fashioned reaper and haymaker have given place
lecture-table demon-
stration, the terminal wires from a battery of to machinery which cuts, reaps, and binds into
thirty or forty Bunsen cells, the handle of the sheaves automatically. Even the plough is now
machine is violently rotated by invisible means. worked by a stationary steam-engine, which, by
It need hardly be pointed out that in the same means of wire ropes, hauls the ploughshare through
way the current from one. dynamo machine can the soil. It is to this latter purpose that the
be used to turn another into an electro-motor. dynamo may be applied, the drums upon which the
The late Professor Clerk Maxwell is said to have wire ropes are wound being actuated by electricity
given it as his opinion that this reversal of the instead of by steam. The new motor has also
Gramme machine was one of the greatest dis- been lately experimentally applied to gathering
coveries of the age. He, of course, alluded to the in the long lengths of cloth from the bleaching
anticipations that such a discovery was likely to grounds, a steam-engine being inadmissible here,
arouse. The possibility of thus conveying energy by reason of its grimy belongings.
from place to place by means of stationary wires In transforming electrical into mechanical energy,
opens up a vast field of labour, if the work can be there is, of course, some loss, owing to friction, heat-
done economically but like most questions which ing of wires, &c., but Ur. Siemens maintains that
;
affect vast commercial changes,

this one is depen- in a properly-constructed machine this loss need
dent upon the three letters £ s. d. not exceed ten per cent. Then there is a similar
Mr. C. W. Siemens, the inventor of the Siemens loss in once more turning the current into mechani-
machine already described, was, we believe, the cal effect,and a further loss by reason of resistance
first what a wonderful aid to progress
to point out offered by the conductors or wires. Altogether, we
this transmisson of power by electricity might must consider that in this form of transmission of
become. Four years ago, at a lecture in Glasgow energy, the loss at present amounts to nearly one-
given by him “On the Utilisation of Heat and half. With regard to its advantages, we must
other Natural Forces,” he pointed out how much look to the small space occupied by a powerful
force is allowed to run to waste at the Falls of dynamo machine, and its absence of dirt and waste
Niagara 100,000,000 tons of water fall there every
;
products but as we before pointed out, its general
;
hour from a height of 1 50 This represents an

feet. adoption will depend upon the price at which its
expenditure of 16,800,000 horse-power, the only labour can be employed. In another article we
result produced being a slight elevation of the will describe what has actually been accomplished
temperature of the water at the foot of the fall. in the actual application of electricity as a motive
By the aid of turbines, or water-wheels, this force, I
power.
MAN-EATING TIGERS IN INDIA. 183
MAN-EATING TIGERS IN INDIA. are homeless outcasts. The position ot these poor
creatures is the more pitiable from the tact that
English engineers have now laid down some they are defenceless. Ever since the Indian
thousands of miles of railway in Hindustan, and Mutiny they have been forbidden to carry arms,
have thus helped to bring its inhabitants into but by special permission a license can be obtained
closer relationship with those who govern them. by perhaps one or two head men to possess anti-
But the country is of such vast extent, that many quated fowling-pieces. These obsolete weapons
years must necessarily elapse before millions of the are of about the same value as pop-guns ;
they
natives can be influenced by such civilisation as we serve to frighten birds away, but are good for
can offer them. There areinnumerable de-

still nothing else.
tached villages in the wildest parts of India where Of course there are many districts where the
the rude dwellings of the natives are surrounded people are in a much better position, having in
by tangled jungle and fever-breeding swamp. But their midst some sportsman, or local officer, who
fever is, unfortunately, not the only danger to which will soon take measures to destroy any man-eating
the people are subject. According to the annual tiger which comes into the neighbourhood. The
report published by the Indian Government a vast creature is full of cunning, but is generally such a
number fall victims to snake- bite and the depre- coward that he can, when found, be easily des-
dations of wild beasts. The best endeavours have patched. The sportsman greatly prizes the tigers
been made to remedy this fearful state of things, skin, which, however, has not always an intrinsic
and that the precautions taken have proved suc- value for often it is poor in quality, and some-
;
cessful is evidenced by the steady decrease in the times absolutely mangy. But the courageous
number of deaths from such causes which are hunter values it for its own sake, as a soldier prizes
recorded year by year. Still the loss is awful, his hardly-earned medal. It serves to remind him
amounting as it has in a single year to twenty of an exciting and dangerous episode in his career,
thousand lives ! Unhappily we may feel certain and it is the witness of a great service rendered to
that the official returns do not comprehend all the his fellow-creatures.
casualties, for it is obvious that many deaths must
occur in out-of-the-way regions which are never AN INGENIOUS STRATAGEM.
known to the outside world.
Although poisonous snakes are credited with by The accidents to which physicians of eminence
far the greater number of these deaths, the man- have owed their prosperity are in many cases
eating tiger a terrible reality which claims a
is still exceedingly curious, and many have found it
number of victims every year, and is far more necessary to resort to a species of quackery and
feared by the villagers than any number of veno- imposture to give publicity to their actual ability.
mous reptiles. The man-eating tiger is fortunately In this way the famous physician Portal com-
not commonly met with, and we are thankful to menced his career of success. Having been long
think that, owing to the way in which he is hunted in Paris without patients, and observing with bitter-
down, he is getting scarcer every day. The ordi- ness that fashion, rather than scientific acquirements
nary tiger is common enough, but he is not formid- and sound practice, made the fortunes of his most
able unless provoked for like most other creatures,
; prosperous rivals, he at last determined upon a
he is cowed by the approach of man, and will slink bold stroke, and spent every coin he had in the
out of the way rather than attack him. But once purchase of a very handsome equipage, which
let the tiger taste human flesh and, so it is believed, appeared day after day as if waiting for him out-
he will never afterwards care for other food. He side the doors of people of the highest rank and
has been known to prowl for weeks in the neigh- fashion, especially such as he knew
be sick or to
bourhood of a lonely village, stealing out from his ailing. Curiosity being aroused, inquiries were
hiding-place from time to time to pounce upon made as to who was the owner of this imposing
some man or woman working in the fields, or to equipage, and the doctor took care that such
carry off a child which may have wandered a few curiosity should be promptly gratified. The result
yards from home. In vain the poor villagers bar was that the marchioness determined to have the
their houses at night, and take care to wander not far physician of the duchess, and the commoner
away, until fancied security tempts them to imagine became anxious to secure the physician of the lord ;
that the danger is past, and that the destroyer so that in a short time Portal received invitations
has sought fresh pastures. Another victim seized to give advice in far more cases than he could
plainly tells them that their enemy is still near possibly attend. His talent, handsome person,
them, and in despair they leave the village in a and elegant manners did the rest. He achieved a
body, carrying with them such goods as they can fortune almost as great as his reputation, and of
carry, to find a fresh abiding-place. Their crops all the physicians in Paris was the most fashion-
they leave to rot in the fields as they stand they — able.
ANIMAL COMPANIONSHIPS. work of another form. There is a curious his-
tory attached to associations of this kind, for we
Amongst the many curious j)hases of animal-life, discover that many parasites, although rooted,
none are more striking than those which deal with fixed, and destitute of eyes, sense-organs, and legs
the phases of what may be called animal friendships when adult, arc free-swimming, and possess sense-
and associations. It is organs and legs when
a notable fact of natural young. This fact alone
history that in certain seems to show us that
cases animals which do these fixed parasites
not appear to possess were originally as free-
the slightest relationshij) living as their hosts, and
with one another in any that they have adopted
normal or ordinary sense the lower life of the
may, nevertheless, pre- parasite as a secondary
sent evidence of asso- SKA-CL'CU.MBKR, and acquired feature of
ciation of the most their existence.
fixed and con- But far more
stant charac- curious are
ter.That there those cases of
are various association in
phases of this \\hich appa-
association Ije- rently no ad-
tween living vantage ac-
beings is evi- crues from the
dent from the companionship.
most cursory Take as an ex-
view of the ample of this
subject. For latter phase of
example, there animal-life, the
isacompanion- association of
•
ship amongst certain small
animals the corals found in
reverse of trojjical seas,
friendly, and each of which
which is named gives shelter to
parasitis ni. a worm. The
One animal coral is never
lives in or upon found without
another ani- its w o r m -
mal, living as a tenant ;

and as
“ guest ” at the there are many
expense of the species of the
latter, which coral in ques-
acts as its tion, the con-
“host.” Thus, stancy of the
a tape - worm association is
dwelling in the one of its most

digestive sys- remarkable fea-
tem of another tures. One re-
animal offers sult of the
an instance of association of
this “para- the coral and
sitic” friend- Fierasfers, ful'.mj in interior of sea-cuccmbek. the worm ap-
ship and the
; pears to consist
“ fluke ’’-worm, wliich infests the liver of sheep, in the modification of the coral itself Its growth is
and causes the disease known as the “rot” in affected somewhat by the presence of its worm-
that animal, also illustrates this form of associa- tenant, and peculiarities in shape are induced
tion. In parasitism we see how an animal gains thereby. No group of animals afford more frequent
an easy livelihood by sultsisting on the gains and and constant shelter to other forms than the sponges.
ANIMAL COMPANIONSHIPS. 185
Within these organisms a whole host of animals mere presence of the fish, it might be thought,
the
are constantly found. F'or example, certain worms
would serve to cause contraction of the host’s body,
are guests of the sponges, and crabs, shell-fish, and consequent ingestion of the fish. But that the
and even small fishes, may be’ found in constant friendship is of the most fixed character is evident
association with the sponge group. from the observations of naturalists. The fishes
The sea-cucumbers, or Holothurians, are near have been seen to swim in and out of the mouth of
relations to the star-fishes and sea-urchins. An the anemones, and the latter have also been ob-
ordinary sea-cucumber in shape is not unlike the served to close around the fishes, and, as has been
familiar vegetable from which it derives its name. remarked, to practically enfold the fish in a living
It possesses an elongated body, and a mouth sur- tomb, unclosing again, and permitting the exit of
rounded by a circle of feathery tentacles. One of the fish. In the same way a fish has been seen to
the curious facts inhabit a species
of sea-cucumber of tropical star-
existenceconsists fish.
in these animals The “ Portu-
giving lodgment guese man - of -

to other forms, war,” or Physalia^
which have there- has been already
fore been called noted (page 161}
“ messmates. ” for its stinging
It is interesting powers. Very-
to note that cer- curious, there-
tain small fishes fore, is it to dis-
appear actually cover that certain
to live in the fishes allied to
inside of the sea- the mackerel
cucumber’s body, group seem to
and to swim in live in constant
and out of that association with
body at will. the jelly - fish,
Fishes known as whose tentacles

Fierasfers thus literally bristle
live in the in- with stinging
terior of tropical weapons of the
sea - cucumbers, most terrific cha-
and appear, in racter. Some of
some way not the jelly-fishes,
quite deter- which are com-

mined, to benefit mon in British
from the associa- seas, have been
TUBE-WOR.MS ON SHELL OF HERMIT-CRAB.
tion. The fishes ascertained to
in this way, at act the part of
least, avail themselves of welcome shelter, and “ hosts ” to fishes. One {Caranx) lives
fish
possibly also obtain food-particles from the sea- associated with a beautiful jelly-fish {Chrysaora
cucumber’s own digestive system. isoce/a), and appears to be on the happiest of terms
More wonderful still is the companionship of with its strange companion. The mussels, those
fishes with sea-anemones. Every' one knows that the most familiar of shell-fish, and their neighbours
sea-anemones possess cylindrical bodies, attached give'shelter and food to certain small crabs, named
by one extremity to a rock, and having a mouth “ pea-crabs.” Pliny of old speculated on the utility
surrounded by tentacles, or feelers, at the other of the crab, which he supposed served to warn
extremity. When a crab or other animal stumbles the mollusc of danger. But this theory is, of course,
against the outspread tentacles of an anemone, it utterly untenable, and the crab lives in the interior
is at once seized, and dragged into the mouth and of the mussel-shell simply in virtue of the same
stomach-sac of the latter. In this way the anemone “ law of association ” through which other and as
procures its food and its sensitiveness is, of varied animals are united in zoological companion-
;
course, the means whereby it is enabled to seize ship. There is no doubt that the crab will devour
its prey. The puzzle of the anemone association the food-particles which may be swept into the
with fishes is therefore extremely complex, because mussel-shell by the currents of water which are
with the sensibility of the anemone to outward touch, continually passing to and from the animal, and
Y
which are wafted into the gills of the mussel for fluid,of which ants are very fond, and by stroking
purposes of breathing. the backs of the plant-lice with their “ feelers,” the
Probably one of the best-known cases of animal ants cause them^ to emit the honey secretion.
association is that which e.xists between a species The operation is shown in the illustration. The
—
of hermit-crab dwelling in the cast-off shell of the nature of the secretion is not positively known,
whelk — and a sea-anemone ;
whilst installed within some considering it to be of the nature of excre-
the shell of other hermit-crabs certain worms are ment, while others believe it to be rather a surplus
invariably found. Thus, a Mediterranean hermit- of products secreted by the aphides for their own
crab possesses, ad- benefit. But in any
herent to its shell, a „ .. ,, ,
case it is most re-
species of anemone, markable that whole
whose mouth is placed races of ants should
just opposite that of have discovered the
the crustacean, so that possibility making
of
the morsels which es- the aphides yield more
cape the claws of the of the exudation by
hermit - crab become an operation as strictly
available for the ane- artificial as the milk-
mone. An ing of a cow ;
and
species of hermit-crab that certain colonies
possesses a similar should regard the in-
messmate adherent to sects on certain plants
its shell, and when the as their own property,
hermit - crab changes and resolutely drive
its shell, it detaches off all invaders. Nay
the anemone, and more : it is now well
shifts it to its new established by the re-
abode. This latter searches of Sir John
feature would appear Lubbock and others,
to show that the asso- that many ants actually
ciation is of a character keep plant-lice quite
which seems to merit away from their natural
the term “ friendship,” food, as we keep cattle
in respect of the care in stalls, bringing them
which the hermit- food, tending them,
crab exercises over and, of course, “milk-
its “guest.” ing” them sedulously.
Hermit - crabs are Also found in the
also often found, nests of ants are cer-
as depicted in tain species of beetles.
the illustration, Over 584 species of in-
bearing an im- sects are known to live
mense load of in association with ants,
tube - worms, and of these 542 are

which have beetles. One kind of
grown so enor- these beetle friends of
mously since the the ants {Claviger) is
ANTS AND PLANT-LICE.
crab took pos- blind, these beetles
session of the being actually depend-
shell, as to constitute a considerable burden. ent on the ants for food. A seems
claviger beetle
Though no mutual benefit has been traced
direct actually to have lost the power of feeding and itself,
in this case, suppose the crab would

it is difficult to it is fed by the ants, just as these insects feed one
not change his shell for one less weighted unless another. The remarkable fact has also been noted
there were some benefit from the companionship. that if one of these beetles be transferred from the
Amongst the insect hosts there occur certain nest of the particular ant species which harbours
examples of very remarkable associations. Best its kind to the abode of another species of ant, the
known of these are the friendships of ants and the beetles will be attacked and eaten by the stranger
aphides, or “ plant-lice,” so common in all our ants. M. Lespes, who has made these beetles and
flowers and shrubs. The plant-lice secrete a sweet their ant friends a special study, infers from this fact
EPICUREAN WONDERS. 187
that the intelligence of the ant races is not equal by the foot of a mule, and declared that he could
throughout, and that those species of ants which distinctly recognise the flavour they received after
harbour the beetles are more advanced in intelli- being so, crushed.
gence than the species who do not entertain beetle Not less wonderful an epicurean was John Hay,
guests. The precise benefit from this companion- Earl of Carlisle, who lived in the time of James the
and was called “ The Scottish Heliogabalus.”
ship remains to be ascertained but from the value
;
First,
set upon it by the ants it is almost impossible not was said of the dinners he gave, that by keeping
It
to suppose that some is derived, as in the case of envoys and plenipotentiaries in good humour, he
the aphides. did more for maintaining the peace of Europe than
As a final feature in these curious histories, it all the diplomatists of his day put together could
may be remarked that the companionship, which accomplish. One of his contemporaries says he
begins as a mere association, may in animals won the royal favour and friendship by giving the
“ a most strange and feast,” which other
become better developed, and initiate the con- king costly
dition of parasitism itself. The accidental associ- contemporary historians also speak of. It is also
ation, if of benefit to the animal which ranks as asserted that the jealous dislike with which the
the “ guest,” may become of closer nature. From English nobility regarded the Scotch was softened
being simply a “lodger,” like the pea-crab inside and subdued by the influence of feasts prepared by
the mussel, the “ guest ” may become more and the Earl for bringing them together. King James
more dependent upon the “ host,” and may in time made him first Lord Hay, then a gentleman of the
exhibit a complete dependence on the latter. It bedchamber, and then he procured him a rich wife
is probably in this way that the parasites of to- in the person of Lord Dennys’ sole daughter and
day originally began their altered existence. One heiress. He received a grant of the island of Bar-
proof of the correctness of these deductions is I
badoes, was made a Knight of the Garter, and was
seen in the fact that there exist in nature all created successively a baron, Viscount Doncaster,
stages, leading from the pure and simple associ- j
and finally Earl of Carlisle. His second wife was
ation to the condition in which the parasite, the Earl of Northumberland’s daughter. With
degraded and lowered in the scale, has become every fresh accession to his wealth and dignity the
permanently attached to its “ host.” rarity and costliness of his great feasts increased.
Osborne, one of his contemporaries, speaks of little
tarts made, amongst other things, with “ amber-
grease, magisterial of pearl, and musk,” each of
EPICUREAN WONDERS. which tarts cost the then enormous sum of ten
pounds. When this epicurean earl travelled, he
The Count du Broussin boasted that he never carried with him a little army of cooks, and sent
passed a day without adding something new ! couriers in advance to make preparations for them,
to his gastronomical knowledge and that he
;
1 converting every roadside into a teinjAe of
inn
could so disguise the natural taste of fish, flesh, choice and costly gastronomy. Clarendon wrote of
or fowl that no one could distinguish one from him, “He was surely a man of the greatest expense
the other. He devoted the whole of his time to i in his own i)erson of any in the age he lived in ;
gastronomical experiments, and when he had dis- j

and introduced more of that expense in the excess
covered a new dish or a new sauce he invited all the of clothes and diet than any other man, and was
great epicurean celebrities within his reach to I
indeed the original of all those inventions from
meet at his table, where it was as solemnly tested which others did but transcribe copies.” For thirty-
and as learnedly criticised as if it had been the two years, i.e., from 1604 to 1636, his life must have
last production of a great poet. Amongst those been one continuous feast and in the year last
;
whose judgment he most anxiously consulted were named he died, tranquil and resigned, like a man
the Duke de Lesdignieres and Count d’Olonne. who had fulfilled a goodly mission.
On the day of such a repas ci'ertidition, he always That Admirable Crichton of the kitchen, M. de
arose at four o’clock in the morning to join his Careme, who was chef de cuisine of the Baron de
cooks, and, although a good-natured man, should Rothschild, was the descendant of the famous
the chefgarrion de cuisine or any of his assistants French chef who, under Pope Leo X., received the
appear neglectful or inattentive his rage was like brevet of immortality for a sotip maigre which
that of a madman. The pillory and loss of ears gave him his surname Jean de Careme, or Jack of
were then amongst the mildest of punishments the Lent which name his descendant bequeathed
;
threatened. He believed that the flavour and famous sauce., which bears it still.
to the not less
delicacy of his dishes were so subtle that even if the His fame spread fast, and at last all the sovereigns
surface they rested upon was not mathematically in Europe were in eager rivalry to secure his
horizontal they would be affected. He held that services. One of the highest bidders was the
mushrooms were best after they had been crushed Emperor of Russia, but he gave the preference to
our English monarch, George IV., who was, how’- after to the wretched garret in w'hich the ruined
ever, then but Regent. But the great man soon epicure had found refuge, discovered him roasting
relinquished his post on the plea that Carlton an ortolan ! A few days afterwards he shot himself.
House was a menage bourgeois unworthy his great
reputation and, at a salary far beyond any a mere
;
sovereign could offer, he devoted his art to the THE MAGIC MIRRORS OF JAPAN.
service ofM. le Baron Rothschild. It was said
that immense sums were offered for his second- The Japanese have long been famous for their
hand pates after they had been taken from the curious metal-work, and many a first-rate English
table of the Regent. A contemporary describing workman w'ould be puzzled to state how some of
one of his dinners, said, “With less genius than the inlaying peculiar to Japanese work is accom-
went to the composition of this dinnermen have plished. Among the curious productions of this
written epic poems and
crowns were distributed
;
if kind must be numbered the so-called magic mirrors.
to cooks as to actors, the wreath of Pasta or Sontag, At first sight these mirrors seem to have nothing
divine as they are, were never peculiar about them. Composed
more fairly won than the laurel of a mixture of lead, tin, and
w’hich should have graced the copper, in certain proportions,
brow of Careme.” The same they exhibit at one side a bril-
author, speaking of the eminent liantly polished surface, rather
chef himself, says, “He was a convex, while the reverse (see
w’ell-bred gentleman, perfectly Fig. i), or back of the mirror,
free from pedantry, and when is ornamented with those fantas-
we had mutually complimented tic, but artistic representations
each other on our respective of natural objects which we are

works, he bowed himself out accustomed to in anything of
and got into his carriage, which Japanese origin. Minute ex-
w'as waiting to take him to amination of the polished sur-
Paris.” face, even with a strong magni-
Amongst other deifiers of fier, will detect no flaw' or break
the palate whose extraordinary in its even texture. But strange

doings give them a right to be to say, if the mirror be used to
placed amongst wonders, stands reflect a beam of light on to a
one named Rogerson, w'hom flat surface, such as a white wall,
Meg Dodd in her amusing book the pattern at the back is ren-
on cookery calls “a martyr.” dered distinctly visible in the
He was a native of Glouces- Fig. I. — JAPANESE MAGIC MIRROR
projected image. Hence the
tershire received his education
;
Chinese call these mirrors by a
at one of the universities, made “ the Grand name which signifies “ Mirror which lets the light
Tour” after the fashion of his day, and con- through.”
centrated the whole of his attention upon gas- There has always been a great deal of mystery
tronomical art. His fathePs death placed a large attached to this curious mirror, and many scientific
fortune in his possession, and he devoted it to men have at different times endeavoured to explain
the palate keeping no one in his house who
;
the cause of the phenomenon which it exhibits.
W'as not an accomplished cook butler, foot- : Some have thought that the pattern is stamped
man, housekeeper, coachmen, grooms, all were upon the back, and that therefore the metallic
cooks while for cooks proper, he had three whom
;
particles, where heavy pressure has been applied,
—
he brought from Italy each a famous one one — have assumed a molecular change which penetrated
who came from Florence, another from Sienna, and to the other side, although that change is not
a third from Viterbo, w'hose duty was confined visible until the light is reflected from it in the way
to the preparing of one special dish, the dolce already described. It is quite certain that, what-
ficcaîte of Florence. He had a messenger con- ever the makers may pretend, the J apanese them-
stantly on the road between Brittany and London selves are not aware of the cause of the pheno-
to bring him the eggs of a particular kind of plover menon ;
and that the strange property is conferred
found near St. Malo. It is recorded that one upon the mirrors by an accide7it of manufacture.
dinner which was prepared exclusively for himself, It is accordingly found that all Japanese mirrors do
and consisted of but two dishes, cost fifty-eight not act in the same way, some refusing to show
pounds. In nine years he dissipated his fortune of any pattern whatever.
1 50,000, and was found starving by one of his That the reflected image is not due to any stamp-
friends, who gave him a guinea and going soon ;
ing process is proved by a description of the way
—
THE MAGIC MIRRORS OF JAPAN. 189
in which the mirrors are made, which was read this occasion once more produced, and its reflected
some time back before the Asiatic Society of Japan. pattern was projected on a screen, as shown in the
From this account we gather that the metallic alloy cut, by means of the o.xy-hydrogen light. From
is melted and is afterwards poured into
in a crucible, that paper we quote the following explanation of
a mould madetwo halves put together a mould
in — the phenomenon :
made of dried clay and placed in wooden frames “ The magic of the Eastern mirrorarises, not as
such as a brassfounder would use in this country. has been supposed from a subtle trick on the part
When the metal is cooled, the moulds are broken of the maker, nor from inlaying of other metals,
up, and the rough casting is scoured and filed into nor from hardening of portions by stamping, but
shape. The reflecting surface is then carefully ;
from the natural property possessed by certain thin
polished, and receives an amalgam of quicksilver, 1 bronze, of buckling under a bending stress, so as to
tin, and lead, which is rubbed in with leather until remain strained in the opposite direction aftei" the
it becomes as bright as a looking-glass. Before stressis removed. And this stress is applied by
this amalgam is applied, the surface is worked into the viegebo, or distorting-rod, and partly by the
shape by the application of an instrument called a subsequent polishing, which, in an exactly similar
megebo, or distorting-rod. way, tends to make the thinner parts more convex
A great many ingenious theories were advanced than the thicker.”
by scientific men to account for the mysterious re- The magic mirror in Japan has a mystic signifi-
flections of theJapanese mirror, when that curiosity cance which places it far above an ordinary looking-
was first imported to this country. But like a nine glass in the popular estimation. Indeed, it is looked
days’ wonder, it was dismissed to oblivion, when upon with the reverence that Europeans would
each one had to his own satisfaction given a learned attach to a religious syanbol. It forms an important
opinion upon the matter, till the subject was renewed part of the regalia of Japanese sovereigns; anyone
two or three years back, and the problem finally of whom would consider his feelings outraged if
solved in a paper read before the Royal Society by told that its wonderful powers were due to “thin
Professors Ayrton and Perry. The mirror was on , bronze buckling under a bending stress.”
190 THE WORLD Ol^ WONDERS.
REMARKABLE DISCOVERIES OF with something under his arm. He heard of the
CRIME. murder on the following day, but the mate refused
him permission to come ashore, and in a few
we have mentioned days he sailed for Leith, was captured by a French
In a previous article (p. 167)
privateer, and did not regain his liberty before
some extraordinary cases, well authenticated, in
which crimes have been brought to light by dreams.
the war was over. The description of the man
in black corresponded exactly with that of James
There are many other cases on record, in which
Mackoul, a London criminal of great daring and
crime apparently hidden, and sometimes long
ingenuity, who resided in Edinburgh at the time
hidden, with success, has been discovered in very
of, and close by, the scene of the murder, which
remarkable ways. A few such cases we propose to
describe in the present article.
he could reach swiftly and secretly. When
Mackoul was under sentence of death for a rob-
WILLIAM BEGBIE OF LEITH. bery committed in 1820, Denovan mentioned this
fact to him, upon which, in a paroxysm of terror,
William Begbie was a porter at a bank in a
street of Old Edinburgh, called the Netherbow, in he vehemently denied it, and stated that about
that time he won at gaming / 10,000, and had no
the year 1806, when on the 30th of November he
was sent out with a bundle of notes to the value occasion to rob any one, but at the same time mak-
of more than £/^,ooo. There was a long, narrow, ing other statements which left little doubt that at
last the murderer of poor Begbie was actually dis-
dark passage, leading from the bank to the street,
and there he was stabbed to the heart and the covered, although it was for another crime that he
notes stolen. The knife was left in the body. suffered death.
It was one of the kind used for cutting bread, HANGED by A GHOST.
•with a long thin blade, with a newly-made sharp An old volume of the Quarterly Review mentions
point, and a wooden handle which had been
a crime discovered in a most extraordinary way in
thickly covered with paper to preserve, as it Australia in the year 1830, of which a public record
seemed, the hands and clothes of the murderer is preserved, and which figures with full details in
from being blood-stained. the journals of that period. The confidential steward
Although large rewards were offered, with a of a wealthy settler near Sydney stated that his
pardon for the murderer’s accomplices, and a master had suddenly been called to England on
thoroughly exhaustive search instigated throughout important business, and that during his absence
the city, no single suspicious house remaining the whole of his immense property would be in his
unvisited, not a clue to the perpetrator of this
exclusive care. Some weeks after an acquaintance
awful crime could be discovered.
of the absentee settler riding through his grounds
At last, after a number of evil characters had was astonished to perceive him sitting upon a stile.
been taken up, examined and discharged, a carrier He strode forward to speak, when the figure turned
between Edinburgh and Perth was arrested. He from him with a look of intense sorrow and walked
was a strong powerful fellow, known as a despe- to the edge of a pond, where it mysteriously disap-
rate, dangerous evil-doer, irregular and dissolute
peared. On the morrow he brought a number of
in his habits, and he had been seen near the
men to the water to drag it, and the body of the
Canongate, which was close to the scene of the man supposed to be on his way to England was
murder, about the hour of its committal. After
brought up. The steward was arrested, brought to
some long time he was discharged, no evidence trial, and, frightened at the story of his master’s
justifying his detention being forthcoming.
ghost, confessed the crime, stating that he did the
On August 10, 1807, a journeyman mason and murder at the very stile on which his master’s
two of his companions found in the Bellevue ghost had appeared. He was duly executed.
grounds near Edinburgh a hole in a stone en-
closure, concealed by a hedge and accidentally A GUILTY WOMAN AT THE THEATRE.
revealed, and in it a parcel of bank-notes which The Gazette de France, of November i8th, 1815,
had evidently been there a long time. These contains the account of a woman, the mother of
were the missing notes, and the men were re- three children, who while witnessing a play by
warded with £200 for their honesty. Beaumarchais called “The Guilty Mother,” in
In 1822 a well-known Bow named company
Street officer with her husband, became strangely
Denovan discovered in Leith a man who told agitated. While the fourth act was in progress,
him that on the morning of the murder he was her emotions of agony and terror were so powerful
a and that coming ashore he saw a man
sailor lad, that she had to be removed and taken home, where
like William Begbie, followed by a genteelly- she confessed to her husband a crime of which
dressed man in black. He lost sight of them, but she had never been suspected, and of which he made
when he was opposite the narrow passage spoken of no revelation until after her death, which followed
above, he saw the man in black running out of it within three days of her visit to the theatre.
REMARKABLE DISCOVERIES OF CRIME.
EUGENE ARAM. afterwards shared with Aram the plunder taken
One of the most wonderful discoveries of crime on from the body, and escaped with it. into Scotland,
record was that which led to the conviction and while Aram took his'share to London and disposed
execution of Eugene Aram, a learned man, who of it to a Jew. Aram defended himself with great
came of an ancient, highly respectable family, power in a clear, logical, and most impressive
which had been reduced by time and successive speech, full of learning but the jury pronounced
;
misfortunes to the humblest rank. In the year him guilty, and he was condemned to death.
1745, and in the month of February, Daniel Clarke, Before he was executed on the i6th of August,
a shoemaker, living at Knaresborough, in Yorkshire, 1759, at York, he confessed the justice of his sen-
who was newly married to a woman through tence, and on the morning of his death he made a
whom it was reported he had received large sums desperate attempt upon his life with a razor which
of money, suddenly disappeared. This was he had concealed in his cell.
acc()«nted for by the fact that he had bought on
credit plate, jewellery, watches, &c., and, being
JAMES GREENACRE.
unable to pay for them, had carried out his ex- In December, 1836, the mutilated remains of an
pressed intention of going to London, where it was old woman were found in a partially-built house,
believed that he disposed of the dishonestly ac- one of a row called Canterbury Villas, in the
quired property. About the same time Eugene Edgeware Road. The head and limbs were miss-
Aram left the same neighbourhood, and went to ing, and the trunk was wrapped in old rags and a
London, where he had formerly been employed as piece of sacking. At the inquest, a verdict of
usher in a school. wilful murder was returned against some person
Fourteen years after, when it was supposed that or persons unknown. On the 7th of the following
Aram was dead, as nothing had been heard of him January, a human head was discovered in that
all that time, a labourer named Jones, digging for portion of the Regent’s canal which ran through
stone amongst the rocks, in a field close by Knares- what was then called Stepney Fields. The body
borough, called St. Robert’s cave, found, about two previously found was exhumed, and the head was
feet under the soil, a human skeleton, which, when found to fit it. On the 2nd of the succeeding
closely examined, led to the belief that it was February, the limbs of the same corpse were re-
that of a murdered man. The disappearance of covered from a drain in the neighbourhood of Cold
Clarke was recalled to mind, and it was also re- Harbour Lane, Camberwell. On the 20th of the
membered that the wife of Aram, whom he had next March, a barber named Gay, residing in
quarrelled with and separated from, might give Tottenham Court Road, recognised the head, which
evidence of her husband’s connection with Clarke, had been preserved in spirits, as that of his sister,
and with another man named Richard Houseman, Hannah Brown, as afterwards others who had
who, twelve months after the shoemaker’s dis- known her did also. It was then found that this
appearance, had also left the neighbourhood. It woman had been on the eve of marriage to a man
was also known that Mrs. Aram, at the time of named James Greenacre, to whose house in Car-
Clarke’s disappearance, had suspected that he penter’s Buildings, Camberwell, she had gone
was murdered. with all the property she possessed, and with
Aram and Houseman were sought for, and the whom she had last been seen. He was taken into
latter being discovered seemed overwhelmed with custody a few days after, at his lodgings in St.
terror and confusion. Being compelled to take Alban’s Street, Kennington Road, together with a
up one of the bones, he said, with strange confi- woman named Sarah Gale, with whom he co-
dence, “This is no more Daniel Clarke’s bone than habited, and with whom he was upon the eve of
it is mine,” and when sternly questioned as to how emigrating to America. In the station-house he
he could be so sure of that, grew bewildered attempted to strangle himself. Some of the mur-
and terrified to such an extent that he confessed, dered woman’s property was found in his pos-
turned king’s evidence, and pointed out the spot session, together with some rags corresponding
where the body of the missing man really was with the pieces discovered with the mutilated
buried, having been murdered by Eugene Aram. remains. Bit by bit the evidence accumulated,
Aram was soon after discovered at a school in and the trial satisfied both the jury and the public ;
Norfolk, where he was usher, and there arrested. the man and woman were both pronounced guilty.
According to Houseman’s confession, on the night Greenacre solemnly protested that Gale was “ as
of February the 8th, he and Aram persuaded innocent as any lady or gentleman in this court.”
Clarke to go out with them for a walk. They He was condemned to death, and she was trans-
went through the hedge into the field and towards ported for life.Before his execution he made a
the cave. When within six or seven yards of the full confession, giving as the cause of his crime
cave he saw Aram in the moonlight striking at Hannah Brown’s having deceived him as to the
Clarke, who after receiving several blows fell. He amount of her property.
THE CHEMISTRY OF THE STARS. of higher temperature than itself are passing, is
opaque to the particular rays in that light which
In the article upon Spectrum Analysis (page 143), j
the gas itself would give out when heated ; or, in
itwas shown that the examination of the rays pro- other words, that a gas absot bs those precise
ceeding from any light-source, with an instrument rays which it is capable, under other conditions,
called a spectroscope, enabled the trained observer of itself emitting. For example, the bright yellow
to assert with certainty whether the light-source was line in the spectrum of sodium (page 145, No. 3)
solid or liquid on the one hand, or gaseous on the was found to coincide exactly with Fraunhofers
other and if it were gaseous, the examination fur-
; dark line D (Fig. i). Now, if the rays from the
I
nished him with the means of deciding, in the case electric light are passed through the vapour of
of terrestrial elements, what was the nature of the sodium, the spectrum of the voltaic arc will be
found to be crossed by a da 7'k line, exactly where,
I
with hotter sodium vapour, a bright line would be
I
seen. This is what is known experimentalh as
Fig. I. — Fraunhofer’s map of the spectrum in 1814.
substance producing that gas, and also, approxi- the “ reversal ” of the spectrum of sodium. The
mately, of determining the te^nperature and pressure same process and line of argument may be repeated
to which the gas was subjected. in the case of other metals, the whose
lines in
In approaching the study of the results obtained spectra (that of iron, for example) are numbered by
by the application of hundreds. Hence the
RcU V’iolel
the spectroscope to the conclusion is irresisti-
telescope, it is desir- ble, that in the sun’s

able that we should atmosphere there are
have a clear concep- many terrestrial ele-
tion of what is known, ments, such as sodium,
as Kirchhoff’s “ Law iron, calcium, magne-
of Exchanges.” We sium, nickel, cobalt,
have seen already (see chromium, manganese,
the “ Rainbow and the titanium, and hydrogen
Spectrum,” p. 40), that Fig. 2. — F, LINE DISPLACED IN THE SPECTRUM OF A SUN-SPOT. in a state of vapour.
the solar spectrum, in- The dark lines in
stead of being a continuous band of colour, is the solar spectrum, then, tell us of certain vapours
crossed at intervals by dark lines. These were through which the sun’s light has passed in its
first mapped by Fraunhofer, who measured and passage to the earth some of them, beyond doubt,
;
drew 576 of them in 1814, and they are usually being due to metals volatilised in his atmosphere,
called after him. They are clearly seen in the while others are caused by various substances,
annexed woodcut of Fraunhofer’s original map notably aqueous vapour, occurring in the earth’s
(Fig. i). atmosphere. Careful observations upon these
A more minute examination of the solar
spectrum, latter lines, or bands, in an instrument specially
by Bunsen and Kirchhofif, revealed the existence of constructed for that purpose (called the Rain-band
many hundreds of such lines, and it was presently spectroscope), afford meteorologists the means of
noticed by these observers that the bright lines in foretelling rain several hours before its occurrence.
the spectra of some terrestrial elements coincided Another remarkable set of absorption-spectra are
exactly in their position in the spectrum with afforded by the sun-spots. The cavernous nature
groups of dark lines in the solar spectrum. It was of these appearances was first noticed by Wilson,
next shown experimentally by Kirchhoff that a gas, of Glasgow, early in the present century and the ;
or vapour, through which rays from a light-source periodic time of their return (eleven and one-third
CHEMISTRY OF THE STARS. 193
years) was formulated by Schwabe. Their size is light is known by its position in the spectrum, it
enormous into the smallest of them several of our

;
follows, when any line, or portion of a line, in a
earths might be dropped, while across the largest spectrum, is displaced from its normal position (as
yet measured (1858) eighteen earths could readily in Fig. 2), that this displacement, if towards the red
be set in line. Combined observations of the end, indicates that the light-source moving
is
telescope and spectroscope have incontrovertibly the observer (or the observer from it), and if
established that these sun-spots are really cyclones towards the violet end, that the observer and light-
in the sun’s —
atmosphere down-rushes of colder source are approaching each other.
vapour towards his centre, while the more intensely- The argument here used in the case of sun-spots
heated vapour is brought to the surface at some applies equally to the spectra of the fixed stars,
other spot. Hence, the appearance of these whose motions in the line of sight can thus be de-
spots is an indication of very great solar activity, termined.
and of increased rather than diminished supplies Let us now see what explanation is afforded by
Fig. 3. — HYDROGEN FLAMES, SEEN DURING TOTAL ECLIPSE.
of energy being radiated from him. The fact that the spectroscope of the remarkable red flames
they are down rushes — />., that the vapour is (Fig. 3) which have for many years been noticed
moving away from us — is shown by the displacement on the occasion of every eclipse of the sun. Tele-
of certain lines in the spot spectrum, as seen in scopic and photographic observations had shown
Fig. 2. For, recurring again to the analogy between with tolerable certainty that they were solar and
light and sound, let us consider our own observa- not lunar appendages, and the spectroscope at once
tion that “pitch” of a locomotive whistle
the revealed the fact that they were enormous masses
rises as the engine comes near to us, and falls as it of incandescent, or glowing, hydrogen gas, since
recedes from us. The reason is that, as the their spectra presented the bright lines characteristic
whistle approaches, the number of impulses per of that element. By a very simple modification of
second that fall upon the ear must be greater the combined telescope and spectroscope, it is now
than when it is stationary or recedes, and I’ice possible to observe these prominences at any time,
versa, while the pitch of a note depends on the even when the sun is visible, and a careful study of
number of such impulses per second. Now, since them has brought out some very marvellous results ;
the number of waves per second entering the eye especially in regard to their enormously rapid
defines the colour or wave-length of light, and as change of state, and the extent of the motion of the
the wave-length corresponding to each kind of gas, which amounts in some instances to 120 miles
z
per second. An inspection of the two following {z.e.,at other than eclipse times j, and this new
illustrations (Figs. 4 and 5) will give some faint method of approaching its study cannot fail to
idea of the magnitude of these changes. largely increase our knowledge of it.
It may be asked whether there are any other Let us turn now to the spectra of some of the
bright lines than those of hydrogen visible either in other heavenly bodies. The spectrum ot the moon
these prominences, or in the lower portions of the as well as of every planet in the solar system,
sun’s chromosphere (as that portion of his atmo- shining as it does, not by its own light, but by light
sphere is called where all phenomena are most reflected from the sun, naturally presents but few
vivid), fr o m points of interest,
which these pro- and spectrum ob-
minences arise. servations upon
The reply is, that the moon and
the bright lines planets are
of several of the chiefly devoted
more easily va- to the detection
porised terres- of the presence
trial metallic of watery vapour
elements are not therein, as shown
unfrequently by its absorption-
seen there, al- spectrum. When
though, being so a star is occulted
much less volatile by the moon, the
than hydrogen, star-spectrum is
their promin- carefully watched

ences do not at- for evidences of
tain nearly the aqueous vapour
same height.
Fig 4. —A FLAME OBSERVED BY ZOLLNEK, IN ib&g, AT 10.22.
in the moon’s at-
The bright lines mosphere, which,

of the spectra of if present, would
sodium, magne- cause the charac-

sium, and less teristic absorp-
frequently of tion-lines to ap-
iron, and a few pear in the star-
other metals, oc- spectrum just
cur in this way. before occulta-
Of the spec- tion. Such ob-
trum of the serv'ations are al-
Corona, that \’ery most invariably

marvellous solar negative in their
appendage (Fig. results.
6) which is visi- In the case,
ble only during however, of the

an eclipse, and fixed stars, which
which was seen to shine by their
extend through own light, the

Fig. 5. —THE SA.ME FLAME AT 11.20.
12,000,000 of results are very
miles at the 1882 different ;
and it
eclipse by the observers stationed in the exceed- may be stated broadly that in general constitu-
ingly clear atmosphere at the top of Pike’s Peak in tion and character the fixed stars resemble our
the Rocky Mountains, it is difficult to speak with own sun, their spectra presenting a continuous
certainty, since the observations are so few. The band of colours crossed by dark absorption-lines.
most probable supposition is that the Corona is At the same time, while many of the lines are
really an extension of the higher regions of the identical with those shown by our own sun, many
sun’s atmosphere ;
and, according to the latest others are not Just as in the sun, also, many
so.
hypothesis, that its spectrum is due to an integra- of these absorption-lines do not coincide with those
tion of all the radiations and absorptions these of any known terrestrial element, so is it with the
excessively complex layers. Recently Dr. Huggins star-spectra. Further, as far as is at present known,
has discovered a method of photographing the the same elements are not present in all stars. We
Corona whenever the sun is visible in a clear sky have long known that “one star differeth from
THE CHEMISTRY OF THE SPARS. 195
another star in glory we now know that they necessary width of band for a spectrum, the image
differ more or less in general chemical constitu- of the star is elongated by the use of a cylindrical
tion, and in the proportion of the elements that lens and this elongated image is thrown upon the
;
compose them. For instance, it is remarkable that slit of the spectroscope. Since, even with sensitive
Betelgeux and another star differ from our sun and dry plates, an exposure of frequently an hour or
all other stars so far observed, in showing no signs more is necessary, the greatest perfection of ap-
of hydrogen and the puzzling nature of this fact paratus is needed to keep this line of light always
;
will be understood from what has been said before upon the slit, in consequence of the earth’s rotation,
concerning the prominent part which the combus- and hence some of the difficulties that have been
tion of this gas evidently successfully overcome by
plays in the economy of Dr. Huggins may be re-
the sun and other stars. alised. It is an overpower-
Aldebaran, again, is re- ing thought that, notwith-

markable in another way. standing the enormous
There is a metal, tellu- velocity of light (about
rium, very rare on this 180,000 miles per second)
earth, from which it is the waves that produce
named and of which no
;
these changes on the pho-
trace at all can be found tographic plate were set
in our own sun, belonging in motion at the star’s
to our own system; yet surface decades of years
the lines of tellurium are ago !
very prominent in Alde- The results of the spec-

baran. troscopic examination of
May,
In 1866, a very nebulce are very interest-
remarkable phenomenon ing. The telescope has
was noticed in the variable been able to resolve many
star T Coronae, which of them into star-clusters ;
Fi'. 6.— SOI-AR CORONA, AS SEEN DURING THE
seems in part to explain ECLIPSE OF 1860. but of those which have
some of those long-observed phenomena of varia- hitherto eluded this analysis, the prismatic ex-
bility in theamount of light given out by some amination of their light has shown that they are,
stars. The phenomenon really was a gigantic in the main, composed of glowing hydrogen, their
outburst of glowing hydrogen gas, and the bright spectra consisting of a few bright lines, as seen
hydrogen lines appeared superposed upon the in Fig. 8. The resolvable nebulae giv£ a more
ordinary spectrum of the star (Fig. 7). To this or less continuous spectrum, indicating glowing
phenomenon the title of a “ world on fire ” may liquid or solid substances, or matter in a more ad-
indeed with truth be applied. vanced stage of condensation from the universally-
The study of star-spectra has been greatly facili- diffused fire-mist, which, on the nebular hypothesis,
tated by photography, but the difficulties in the way was the antecedent of all the heavenly bodies.
of obtaining successful photographs are very great, The spectra of meteorites also give evidence of
owing to the small quantity of the light. To obtain the presence therein of several terrestrial elements,
a spectrum at all, a special contrivance has to be and notably of hydrogen, which has been actually
resorted to. Since the telescopic image of a star is discovered by laboratory analysis to exist in them
a point, the elongation of this by the prism gives in the free state amongst the pores of the metallic
merely a line, and hence, in order to obtain the j
substance of the meteorite. This affords a striking
and tangible confirmation of the results of spectro- and there are no land springs in this locality,,
scopic research. which is probably the hottest and driest region
Of late years cometary spectra have absorbed on the earth, exceeding in that respect even
much demonstra-
attention, with the chief result of the thirsty plains similarly situated between the
ting the presence in comets of certain gaseous com- Andes and the Pacific but springs having their
;
pounds of carbon and hydrogen. On one of the origin in the hills of Oman, five or six hundred
most recent of these wandering visitors, however, miles distant, here rise in the salt waters of the
the exceedingly interesting observation was made, gulf. From these the people of Bahrein draw their
that as the comet approached the sun, certain other water-supply after the following remarkable fashion,
substances, such as sodium, presumably existing in as narrated in a recent work.
its nucleus, were volatilised by the sun’s heat, and A winding a great goatskin bag round
diver,
their bright lines appeared in the comet’s spectrum; his left arm, one hand grasping its mouth, takes
only to disappear again as the comet receded from in the other a heavy stone, securely held by a
the sun. strong line which is tied to his boat. Plunging
with this, he reaches the bottom quickly. Instantly
WATER FROM SUBMARINE WELLS. opening the bag over the strong jet of fresh water,
he springs up in the ascending current, at the same
The water which supplies our wells frequently time closing the bag. The stone is then hauled up,
comes from a considerable distance. That which and the diver, after taking breath for a few minutes,
rises in the artesian welis of London is gathered by repeats the process.
KOCKS AND CORAL SAND. GLACIS OF .MASS OF MOVING SAND.
the Thanet sands at their outcrop to the north and A “SAND GLACIER” IN BERMUDA.
south at a distance of from thirteen to twenty
miles. Ears of grain and other vegetable products On the south shore of the main island in Bermuda,
observed in an artesian well at Tours were traced at a spot called “Elbow a very re-
Bay,” there is
by careful investigation to the department of markable instance of a “sand glacier.” It has long
Ardeche, above 250 miles away. In the Sahara been one of the “ lions ” of Bermuda, but seems to
wells of this description have been successfully sunk have been brought forth from its hiding-place most
where there is no rainfall for hundreds of miles. In prominently by the late Sir Wyville Thomson, in
the great desert of Southern Africa there are ex- his “Letters from the Challenger^ At the point
tensive tracts without a drop of surface-water. The mentioned the shore is exposed to the full force of
population feed their cattle on water-melons, and all winds which blow from the southward, and the
draw the water they require for domestic use by surges beating continually on the friable coral rocks
sucking it through reeds from a soft cavernous and reefs which fringe ^he coast, have reduced their
limestone which underlies the soil, and allows the upper surfaces to a fine powder. This sand, driven
flow of copious subterranean streams from the by the wind, has entirely filled up a considerable
north. Our army in Abyssinia supplied themselves, valley, and is now steadily advancing onwards and
it will be remembered, by a similar, but less primi- upwards in a mass about twenty-five feet thick.
tive, apparatus. If the wind is at all fresh, a light haze or dimness is
But by far the most remarkable source of the observed over the entire surface of the land, and
supply of potable water is that drawn upon by the on holding a sheet of paper perpendicular to the
comparatively numerous population of Bahrein, on surface and transverse to the direction of the wind,
the shores of the Persian Gulf. There is no rain, the fine white sand is seen to fall rapidly from its
WILD HUMAN BEINGS. 197
windward side bank up before it.

and to The WILD HUMAN BEINGS.
advancing embankment, is
glacis, or front of the
very regular. The deluge of sand has already par- In the year 1749, on the 15th of March, a couple
tially overwhelmed a garden which unfortunately of Hungarian fishermen, named P'ranz Magy
lay in its course. and Michael Molnar, captured, in a wild, desolate
One owner succeeded, by planting cedars and morass called Hansag, a strange creature, whom
oleanders, in diverting its it was
direction just as they at first took for some wild animal, but found it
on the point of engulfing his home and land but ;
human. It had the form of a boy of about ten
a neighbour appears not to have been so fortunate, years of age, with limbs of unusual length and
because to the visitor’s eye nothing remains to mark strength, and fingers and toes of about double the
where his cottage stood except a solitary chimney. ordinary length, peculiarly strong and pliable. The
STRATIFICATION OF SAND-BLOWN LI.MESTONE.
which projects above the ground, and over this a skin was hard and scaly, with peculiar knots or
lovely oleander weeps. During its progress inwards wens in parts and the head was perfectly
of it,
from the beach the “ glacier ” has completely over- round. The eyes were small, bright, and sunk, the
whelmed a wood of cedars, the bare stumps alone nose hooked, and the mouth very large. They
testifying to the former existence of the trees. contrived with some difficulty to lodge their prisoner
It would appear indeed that the only way of in attempts were
the castle of Kapuvar, where
stopping this destructive invader is to cover it made
and educate him, but with very
to civilise
with vegetation. In Bermuda the oleander already little effect, as he seemed unable to understand
mentioned grows in great profusion, and it is said their language, and could not articulate a single
that if watched and watered for some time it will syllable. It was twelve months before they could
take root and flourish even in pure sand. If this induce him to wear clothes, but he became gradually
precaution is adopted, as we believe is now the reconciled to them, as he at last did to cooked food
case, the motion of the sand will be completely instead of that of which, at first, he alone would
—
checked at no distant date. Meanwhile the wear- partake namely, grass, hay, and straw. His chief
ing effect of the loose sand dashed against the delight was plunging in the castle moat, in which
rocks by the force of the wind, even in the interior, he dived and swam as if it were his native element,
I
is very surprising. and from which it was always difficult to induce

j
him When it was supposed that he
to emerji'e. again entice her down, a woman and child were
was perfectlytame and reconciled to his new life, directed to offer her food. Presently she came
he was given his liberty and the first use he made
;
timidly down, took the food, and was caught. She
of it was to escape. He was seen afterwards by struggled to escape with frantic desperation, but
some fishermen in the morass where he was first vainly ;
and being carried to the house of the Vis-
discovered, and to which it was supposed he had count, was taken into the kitchen, where some fowls
returned by swimming down the river Raab, which were being prepared for the fire. One of these she
ran close by Kapuvar. On that occasion he immediately seized, and, tearing it into pieces, ate it.
evaded capture by running into the reeds and An unskinned rabbit being given to her, she tore
rushes to a small lake called Konigsee, into which off the skin, pulled it to pieces, and devoured it also
he dived, and remained under water so long that his with extraordinary speed and voracity. It was
pursuers never saw him again. Although watched found that she was able to speak only a word or two
for, he was not again seen until after the lapse of in some foreign tongue that she would allow no one
;
several years, when the party who saw .him once to touch her without uttering a strange, harsh shriek
more failed in his capture. This attempt was duly of fear and anger ;
that her skin was really white
recorded (Amts-Kanzley Kapuvar, Schloss Kapu- and delicate, but had been stained or painted black
var, August 2 St, 1753); and from that time no
1 over the hands and face. She had unusually
reliable account of his reappearance seems to have large thumbs, supposed to be due to her habit of
been given, although all kinds of strange rumours climbing.
were current concerning him amongst the pea- M. d’Epinoy placed her under the care of a
santry. shepherd, who found her a very troublesome charge.
In the year 1781 a wild man was
captured in a She dug holes in the room that she was confined in,
forest near Kronstadt in Transylvania. He was ex- and when she could escape made recapture very
hibited for several years in different parts of Germany difficult by the speed with which she ran, the
and Hungary : but although induced to conform to height she could leap, and the facility and swiftness
the habits of civilisation, he never seemed to possess with which she climbed trees, or got to the house
the faculties of speech and reason. He was ex- roof At first she would feed upon raw flesh, fish,
hibited for many years, and finally died at an roots, fruits, leaves, and even branches, swallowing
advanced age, in a small village, where his occu- meat whole without chewing ;
and after a time,
pation was that of drawing water for the inhabitants, when the desire to escape had died away, she was
upon whose charity he subsisted. permitted to cater for herself in the fields and
In 1731 the village of Songi was startled from its ponds. She swam and dived like a duck, and was
propriety by a strange creature with the form of a extremely dexterous in catching fish, which she
child of nine or ten years and the aspect of a wild brought ashore in her teeth to gut and eat. Frogs
animal. Her hands and face were black and were dainties for which she had a special liking,
strangely stained she was clothed in skins, with a
;
and on one occasion she made her appearance in
few old rags, and carried a thick iron-spiked stick. the dining-room of the Viscount with her apron full
Those who saw her, overcome by superstitious fear, of frogs, which she gleefully and rapidly distributed
regarded her as a “devil” and one man let loose a
;
more upon the
before the guests, placing one or
bull dog at the child, which she killed with a single company, ladies and gentlemen
plate of each of the
blow of her stick, and then jumped on the carcase alike, whom she had previously amused by exhibit-
as if with delight. She tried in vain to find a way ing her powers in chasing and catching rabbits. The
confusion, alarm, anger, and laughter which ensued
into one of the houses, and at last ran off into a wmod,
where those who cautiously followed and watched when the frogs began their leapings may be easily
her said that she climbed a tree, in which she ap- imagined. Her fearlessness was remarkable, and
peared to go to sleep. she would fight a wolf or wild cat with her stick
The Viscount d’Epinoy, hearing this, w'ent with shod with iron and spiked, which, she said, came
a number of the villagers into the wood in search of from “ the hot country.”
the wild girl. They found her in the tree, and it She was gradually civilised, and, learning to talk,
being supposed that thirst had brought her into the told her story. She and another girl somewhat
village, they placed a pitcher of water at its foot, older, she said, were once together. They had
retired a little distance, and concealed themselves. escaped to the shore from a ship by swimming.
After a time she came slowdy down, watchful and They had wandered together away a great distance,
cautious, and pausing every now and then to listen and crossed a river supposed to have been the —
and glance keenly around at last she eagerly grasped Marne, three leagues from Songi travelling by day,
;
—
the pitcher, and took a hearty draught, being sleeping by night in trees, and living on wfild fruits
evidently extremely thirsty. A motion of the on- and animals. Once they had a desperate quarrel,
lookers startling her, she darted, with the nimbleness fought savagely, and parted. That was all she
and swiftness of a squirrel, up into the tree. To could tell.
;
EXTINCT BRITISH REPTILES. 199
Search was made for the other girl, but in vain ming it a long time, and is not easy till he is master
although it was said some time before the body of of it.”
a girl, with the hands and face painted black, had In the spring of the year he was always merry
been found not many leagues from the spot where and happy, loved to bask in the sun, and stare at
the first was taken, but no one knew whether the the moon and stars. In cold wintry weather he
body had been buried or not. Putting together all grew peevish and irritable, but was generally not
the vague disconnected statements made by “ The easily provoked, although his anger, when it was
Wild Girl of Champagne,” as she was called, it aroused, was very fierce, and while it continued he
was conjectured that Le Blanc, as the Viscount would gnaw his hand. He was strongly attached
named her, had been kidnapped and carried to the to his master, and pleased to be useful, but required
West Indies, where her face and hands were watching. Being once instructed to fill a dung-cart,
blackened for the purpose of selling her and her he did so with great speed and vigour but in his ;
companion as black children that the trick was

: desire to please, went beyond that, for while the
discovered, and the children again carried away in men’s backs were turned, he just as rapidly and
the slave-dealer’s vessel, from which they escaped energetically emptied it. Peter died in 1785 at a
by swimming when olT the French coast. farm in Hertfordshire.
Le Blanc spent her after life partly in the hos- In 1798 a wild child was captured in the woods
pital at Chalons, partly in a convent, where many of Caine. He had been seen several times before
curious people of high rank saw her and were kind scratching up roots and eating acorns, and was
to her, the Duke of Orleans amongst others. In caught by some sportsmen while in the act of
1765 she was in Paris, where it is believed she climbing a tree to escape them. He was about
died. eleven years of age, and the scar of a large wound
In November, 1725, a wild boy, apparently about in the throat indicated that an attempt had been
thirteen years of age, without clothing, who walked made to kill him. There were as many as twenty-
on both hands and feet, climbed like a squirrel, three other scars on his body, some of which were
and fed on moss and grass, was captured in a wood supposed to be those left by the teeth of wild
near Hameln. The superintendent of the House animals, and others those caused by thorns and
of Correction at Tell brought the strange creature deep scratches. It was believed that at least
to Hanover, and presented him to King George I., seven years of the boy’s life must have been
who was then there, while he was at dinner. The passed in absolute solitude. He lived for some
king made him taste every dish, and gave instruc- time on raw acorns, potatoes, and chestnuts, eating
tions for him to be tamed and civilised. Soon after husks and all made frequent efforts to escape, was
;
he escaped, and being tracked to a wood, sought at first unwilling to sleep in a bed, appeared to be
refuge in a lofty tree, from which, as the surest and deaf, uttered only guttural, unintelligible noises, and
quickest mode of re-capture, he was dislodged by had lost the power of smelling. After he had
cutting down the tree. In the beginning of 1726 escaped and been re-captured several times he was
he was brought over to this country, where he was taken to M. Itard, of Paris, who pronounced
first called by the name he ever after bore —Peter, his senses not dead but dormant. It is said that
the Wild Boy. during captivity his paroxysms of rage increased in
Peter had neither words nor ideas, wore clothes violence and frequency, rendering him very trouble-
with great reluctance, and could never be induced some but not dangerous, inasmuch as they were
to sleep in a bed, preferring to crouch down in a directed rather against inanimate than animate
corner of the room, as if sitting on the branch of a objects, which he seemed to have a vicious pleasure
tree with his back against its trunk. He was placed in destroying. These paroxysms generally ended
under the care of Dr. Arbuthnot, whose efforts to in convulsions resembling those of epilepsy.
teach speech or promote thought were equally vain.
He was afterwards confided to the care of a Berk-
hamstead farmer, who received from the king a yearly EXTINCT BRITISH REPTILES.
pension for his support.
In 1782, when the wild boy had become an old It appears a strange and wondrous thing when
man. Lord Monboddo visited him, and wrote: “He one is time that in this country
told for the first
retains so much of his natural instinct that he has i

there was once a kind of crocodile somewhat
a forefeeling of bad weather, growling and howling similar in size and nature to the gavial of the
j
and showing great disorder before it comes on. If Ganges ;

that on the land huge beasts, bigger than
he hears any music he will clap his hands and anything now living, either at home or abroad,
throw his head about in a wild, frantic manner. He roamed in palms, and
forests of tree-like ferns,
has a very quick sense of music, and will often coniferous trees, until they died out while strange ;
repeat a tune after once hearing. When he has creatures flew through the air or shuffled along the
heard a tune which is difficult, he continues hum- ground which were neither birds nor bats, but
— — —

more like the horrid and tanciiul harpies Flaxman tions, would form a limb sev'en feet in circum-
has sketched in one of his illustrations of Homer’s ference. The hinder extremities, in all probability,
Odyssey. That there were such creatures in the presented the unwieldy contour of those of the
land millions of years ago, in what geologists hippopotamus or rhinoceros, and were supported
have termed mesozoic times, is now a demonstrated by very strong, short feet, the toes of which were
fact. It was the age of gigantic and remarkable armed with claws, like those of certain turtles. The
reptiles. fore legs appear to have been less bulky, and were
One
of the earliest crocodile skeletons found was furnished with hooked claws resembling those of
unearthed from the alum shale (lias) of the York- the iguana.” It was a gigantic but inoffensive
shire coast about half a mile from Whitby, and was reptile, living on the vegetation of the country
subsequently described in the “ Philosophical Tran- about the Wealden. Its mode of living is attested
sactions ” for 1758. Incomplete as it was, it by the nature of its teeth, which resemble those of
measured fifteen feet two inches long, and when the iguana hence its name iguanodon.
;
The
entire was probably about eighteen feet in length. hylasosaurus, or wood lizard, which lived in the same
T wo more have been found since. The teleosaurus age and roamed in the same forests, was probably
— the name which has been given to this ancient as harmless as the iguanodon. It was a herbi-
—
crocodile must have been a rapacious brute, for- vorous reptile, from twenty to thirty feet in length.
midable even to some of the terrible reptiles that Its probable form, with short thick limbs and tail,
then lived, as it had and back bristling with
long jaws for seizing its thick spines, is well
prey, filled with danger- shown in the restora-
ous-looking teeth, and tion of its form, by
its whole body was Mr. Waterhouse Haw-
enclosed in natural ar- kins, which is to be
mour - plates. These seen at the Crystal
cuirassed creatures Palace, Sydenham,
dwelt on the banks of London. The passen-
rivers, but probably ger from London to
kept more to the sea Brighton seldom gives
than the modern croco- a thought to these
dile, and must have creatures of the past ;
been well acquainted he is, however, passing

with the ichthyosaurus over the lands where
and plesiosaurus, which their fossil remains
are elsewhere described IGL'ANUDON. have lain preserved for
in this work. What are ages. Quarries along
supposed to have been the eggs of a teleosaurus the roads leading from London to the south-
were found near Cirencester some years ago, being eastern coast are numerous, and one may safely
round oval bodies, an inch and three-quarters long say that there are few which have not yielded
and one inch wide. their share of these remains, especially in the
There were huge herbivorous reptiles living on area of Tilgate h'orest.
land contemporaneous with the teleosaurus. They But these fearfully great lizards (Dinosaurians)
were of such a size that their living representatives were not all vegetable-eaters. 1 here was one
lizards like the iguana of .South America— are small well called megalosaurus, on account of the size of
indeed in comparison. The iguanodon was one of its fossil bones whose curved serrated teeth (com- —
them. It was twenty feet long, on Professor binations of sabre, saw, and knife) were used for
Owen’s very moderate estimate but there have remorselessly slaying, tearing, and cutting up its
;
not been wanting geologists to declare that its prey. Its head was five feet long, while the whole
length must have been as much as seventy-five body, from head to tail, was about thirty feet in length.
feet. Its remains were first found in Tilgate One can imagine that a piece of hylteosaurus or
Forest by Dr. Mantell. This geologist remarks iguanodon would be no unwelcome meal for such a
'
that “ the body of the iguanodon was equal in monster, although it may have regarded as daintier
' 1
magnitude to that of the elephant, and as massive morsels the smaller denizens of the water. Phillips
;
in its proportions for, being a vegetable feeder, a

;
remarks on this point “The remains (of megalo- :
large development of the abdominal region may be saurus) are found scattered in a lagoon, or shallow
inferred. Its limbs must have been of a propor- estuary, and it is conceivable that the fishes which
tionate size to sustain so enormous a bulk one of abounded in that water were the favourite food of
;
the thigh-bones (in the British Museum) if covered the carnivorous reptile. One seems to behold him
;
with muscles and integuments of suitable propor- wading by his long legs, or svnmming by help of
j
EXTINCT BRITISH REPTILES. 201
the tail, a gigantic triton among not inconsiderable would lead equally to each one of these con-
cephalopods, whose tough muscles he shared with clusions.
the frequent voracious sharks.” And now we come to a more e.xtraordinary
In this age of ours it is the rule for a bird to be form of than any we have so far described so
life —
a bird and a beast a beast, with well-marked dis- extraordinary that one has a difficulty in drawing
tinctness in the wondrous times of which we
;
a mental image of it. Let us picture a crow
write an animal might unite in itself the pecu- stripped of all its feathers, and with a long, tapering
liarities of both, even if it had no wings. Thus, the tail ;
with sharp fangs projecting from its jaws ;
megalosaurus had a sort of kinship to the ostrich with four legs, and wings stretching from the two
in the structure of its pelvic girdle it was allied to
;
fore legs. Of some such form was the 7'hampho-
the crocodile in having a somewhat similar back- 7 -hynchus, a flying reptile akin to the pterodactyle.
bone, while in the form of its teeth it claimed It was a member of a race of predaceous tyrants
kindred with the monitors. In the essential which ruled the air, when birds such as we have
arrangement of its parts, however, and other now were of rare occurrence. It is thought by
characteristics, it was a true reptile. The remains some to have been competent to dive its structure ;
RHAMPHORHYNCHUS. (n) TOOTH, NATURAL SIZE.
of this great fish-eating lizard have been found at showing it to hold the same relation to its contem-
Lyme Regis, Weymouth, Malton (Yorkshire), and poraries the ichthyosaurus and plesiosaurus that the
other places in England. It has no rival among pelican and the tern hold to the dolphin to-day. It
carnivorous reptiles. is not surprising to find some divergence of opinion

In 1870, portions of the ribs, shoulder-blades, as to the form of so extraordinary an animal, and
and thigh-bones, &c., of a giganticanimal were the picture we have drawn of it is what Professor
found in the excavations of Enslow Rocks, Kirt- Phillips imagines to have been its appearance.
lington Station, north of Oxford. A critical exam- Such are the strange beings that geological re-
ination of these bones has led to the inference that search has made known to us, rivalling in fantastic
the full-sized animal was fifty feet long. It has [
forms the dragons of romance. Since they
fiery
been named the ceteosaurus, or whale-lizard, but I
lived therehave been great changes in animal forms,
one is able to form but a dim and uncertain picture and it may also have occurred to the reader that
of this extinct monster. It was one of the largest there have been other changes also for surely if ;
reptiles on land or in the sea, standing not less than crocodiles, and tree-lizards, (See., lived here in past
ten feet in height, and being of a bulk in proportion. ages, there must have been a w'ondrous change in
It rivalled the largest of living whales in size, and the climate. Geological facts show that the
is supposed to have had webbed feet and a broad climate was then tropical, and that the distribution
vertical tail. It is not known for certain whether of land and water was different so that we do not
;
it lived in the sea, in fresh waters, or on the land

;
know whether our country was then an island or
for its bones have been found in places which only part of a continent.
A A
—
THE SLEEP OF PLANTS. j
sects ;
but not quite satisfied on that point, on the
next evening he examined the plant carefully, leaf by
The phenomenon popularly known as the sleep he discovered the blossoms quite hidden
leaf, until
of plants, and first so named by

Linnteus, had by the drooping foliage. It is possible that
been observed long before his time. Theophrastus, this folding of the leaves round the flowers
an ancient Greek botanist, born about 350 B.C., answers the subsidiary purpose of sheltering them
describes the flower of a species of water-lily as from the dew, which is of considerable importance
closing and sinking under the water in the evening, economy of the plant.
in the
and rising and expanding in the early morning. The cause of the sleep of plants has been the
The common water-lily of our ponds closes its occasion of m.uch controversy among vegetable
flowers in the afternoon, and lays them down upon physiologists. Many motions of plants, such as
the surface of the water till morning, when it ex- the twisting of the stems of the hygrometer
pands and raises them, often, in a bright day, to moss, are more or less mechanical. Neither,
several inches above it. Regularly recurring periods apparently, are those under consideration altogether
of seeming repose are common to many species of owing to the action of light, although a flower
plants, generally during tne night-time, although taken from the dark will often expand beneath
there are many exceptions, some going to rest early a lamp. Lindley indeed contends that it is obvious
in the day ;
while the night-blowing cereus, the there must be some cause beyond light, seeing that
cenotheras, or evening primroses, some silenes, or many flowers will close in the afternoon while the
catch-flies, and several others unfold their blossoms light of the playing upon them, and the
sun is still
in the evening or night-time, their flowers closing up under a bright illumination.

petals of others fold
or withering away at daybreak. The great He concludes that the cause may be reasonably
majority of plants, however, that have been supposed to be an excitable vital fluid yet it ;
observed to “ sleep ” take their rest in the night. is, on the whole, probable that these periodical
The flowers of numerous composite plants, such as movements depend mainly on the action of light.
the daisy, marigold, sunflower, &c.. display this There are numerous allusions to the sleep of
peculiarity conspicuously. The leaves of plants are plants in the poets. Shakespeare, for example,
affected in the same way as the flowers, as may be refers to
distinctly observed by examining a field of clover in “ The marigold, which goes to bed with the sun,
”
the evening, and the action is very noticeable in And with him rises weeping ;
the leaves of the Robinia pseud-acacia^ the acacia of while Withers, with a quaint pathos, details how,
our shrubberies, and in its frequent companion, the “ duly every morning,” the same flower displays
laburnum. The leaflets of the acacia are extended
“ Her open breast when Phoebus spreads his rays,”
nearly in a horizontal direction at sunrise, but as
the day advances they gradually rise till they
and how she
” her flowers when he is gone.
veils
become almost again as the day
vertical, falling
As ifshe scorned to be looked upon
declines. In a field of corn, the leaves may be By an inferior eye
”
;
seen to become flaccid, and the ears to droop,

and the Ettrick Shepherd sings of the “ gloam-
after nightfall. Curiously enough, also, but easily
”
ing
intelligible, when by an eclipse darkness is spread “ When the blewart bears a pearl,
over the face of nature, the flowers and leaves of And the daisy turns a pea.
night-sleeping plants rapidly close up and if, on And the bonnie lucken-gowan
;
Has faulded up her ee.”
the other hand, the light of a candle be introduced
during night, plants then asleep will be prematurely The “blewart ” is the beautiful Veronica chamo’drys,
roused, or they may be kept dormant by shutting ornament of the waysides in summer, the
that
out the dawn. circumstance which led flower of which folds up in the evening into a
The
Linnaeus to the investigation of this peculiarity of circular glossy bluish-white ball, aptly compared to
plants is worth relating. A correspondent had a pearl.
sent him the seeds of a new species of Lotus (bird’s- who has treated this subject at length
Linnasus,
foot trefoil). The red flowers which sprang from in “Amoenitates Academics,” constructed a
his
them, we are told, excited his admiration, and as Horologium Flors, or floral dial a table of the —
his gardener was absent when they came into hours at which forty-six plants open and shut their
bloom, the great naturalist took him into the green- flowers in the latitude of Upsal. He divided
house immediately on his return to show him this flowers in this relation into three kinds —meteoric,
new floral treasure. To his surprise and ve.xation, which, being dependent upon the moisture and
however, he found that the flowers had disappeared, other conditions of the atmosphere, are not punctual
although on the following day they reappeared in all in their periods of expansion and closing tropical, ;
their pristine beauty. He at

supposed that those
first which, opening in the morning and closing when
he had previously observed had been eaten by in- the sun goes down, close earlier or later as the
—
A FROZEN CREW. 203
length of the day increases or declines and ;

and on entering the principal cabin found on a bed
which unfold regularly at a stated hour,
equinoctial, the dead body of a woman, with all the freshness
and have generally also a determinate hour for of seeming life in her attitude and expression and ;
commencing their periodical sleep. The following seated on the floor, holding in his hands the flint
is a floral dial composed of plants, the greater and steel, which he seemed to be in the act of
number of which are either wild, or cultivated in striking, the corpse of a young man. Neither pro-
England, and covering the period from three in the vision nor fuel could be anywhere discovered.
morning till nine at night —
Goats’-beard ( Trajfo-
: In the periodical from which the above facts
pogoti pratense) opens at 3.5 a.m., shuts 9.10 p.m. ;
have been gleaned, the writer says, on returning to
hawkweed picris {Picris echioides), 4.5 a.m., 12 England Captain Warrens made various inquiries
noon Alpine hawk’s-beard {Crepis alpi/ia), 4.5 a.m.,
;
respecting the vessel, and by comparing these
12 noon wild succory or chicory {Cichormm
;
results with the log-book he had brought home,
intybus), 4.5 a.m., 8.9 p.m. naked-stalked poppy ;
ascertained the name and history of the imprisoned
(^Papaver nudicaide), 5 a.m., 7 p.m. ; blue-flowered ship, which for thirteen years had drifted in the
sow-thistle {So?ichus alpitius), 5 a.m., 12 noon ; calm and storm of the Polar sea, with its dead
field bindweed {Convolvulus arvensis), 5.6 a.m., navigators within its tomb-like hull.
4.5 p.m. common nipplewort {Lafisana communis),
;
5.6 a.m., 10 p.m. ;

spotted cat’s-ear {Hypochcsris
mac2ilata) 6.7 a.m., 4.5 p.m. ;
white water-lily DUST EXPLOSIONS.
{Nymphcea a.m., 5 p.m.
alba), 7 ;
garden lettuce
(Lactuca saliva), 7 a.m., 5 p.m. ;
mouse-ear hawk- The word “ explosion ” is so identified with gas,
weed {Hieracium pilosella), 8 a.m., 2 p.m.; pro- gunpowder, dynamite, and fireworks, that those
liferous pink {Dianthus prolifer), 8 a.m., i p.m.; who have not, during the past ten years, watched
fieldmarigold {Calendjila arvettsis), 9 a.m., 3 p.m. ; the published reports of certain disasters both at
purple sandwort {Arenaria purpurea), 9.10 a.m., home and abroad, will peruse the heading of this
2.3 p.m. chickweed {Stellaria media), 9.10 a.m.,
; paper with some surprise. To imagine that dust,
9.10 p.m. which meets us at ever>' turn in our homes, in our
workshops, and in our streets, can represent a
A FROZEN CREW. dangerous explosive, will seem to them to be a
statement hardly worthy of serious attention. But
In 1774 a deserted ship of an uncouth form was we shall presently see that under certain favourable
discovered in the arctic region strangely encum- conditions, which can easily occur, dust is not only
bered with ice and snow, the yards and rigging inflammable, but will actually inflame with explo-
dismantled, the sails strangely disposed, and the sive violence. Indeed, it is not too much to assert
hull terribly battered and weatherworn. The dis- that it would be safer to carry a naked light
coverer was the captain of a Greenland whaling- through a gunpowder magazine, than through the
vessel named Warrens, who, on boarding her, passages of a building where dust is flying in the
found in one of the cabins (into which he first air unchecked.
peered through the porthole), the corpse of a man Let us first remember in what ordinary combus-
perfectly preserved by the frost, with the exception tion consists. It is the union of the oxygen in the
of a slight greenish mould which appeared about air with a so-called combustible, one of the first con-
the eyes and on the forehead. The body was ditions being that the oxygen must have free access
seated in a chair and leaning back, a pen was still to the substance burnt. A servant who knows
in its right hand, and before it was the open log- how to build a fire in the grate is careful that the
book, in which the dead man had been writing wood and lumps of coal are so arranged that many
when he ceased to breathe. The last complete air-spaces remain between them. She will place
sentence of the unfinished entry ran as follows : the fuel bit by bit in its place with her hand, in
“November nth, 1762. We have now been preference to throwing it into the grate en masse.
enclosed in the ice seventeen days. The fire went She knows well enough that were she to do that,
out yesterday, and our master has been trying ever the fire would, as she would say, be smothered.
since to kindle it again, but without success. His Let us take another illustration. If we take a piece
wife died this morning. There is no relief” of inch board, and try to inflame it by ordinary
A strange feeling of awe crept over those who means, we shall have the greatest difficulty in
thus broke in upon the loneliness of the unburied doing so, for it has, roughly speaking, only two
dead, the unconscious explorer of this Polar sea, surfaces exposed to the action of the air. But if we
and the only real solver, perchance, of that mighty take a carpenter’s plane, and reduce the board to
problem of the North Pole which has so long and shavings, the oxygen can play on a hundred dif-
fearfully baffled human skill and courage. Captain ferent surfaces, and the application of a flame will
Warrens and his men retired in solemn silence. reduce the whole very quickly to ashes. The same
thing holds good of many other things. A bound led to the stone becoming highly heated and strik-
book, for instance, is a hard thing to burn, but if ing fire. That the fire thus generated inflamed
2.
its leaves are separated it will be very quickly con- the finely-divided dust which was diffused through
sumed. We shall now understand how dust, the air in the exhaust-conduits, and then passed on
harmless when lying undisturbed, can, when raised to the exhaust-box. 3. That the sudden combus-
in clouds in the atmosphere —so that each particle tion of the dust diffused through the air would
is wrapped, as it were, in an envelope of air —
con- produce a very high temperature in the gaseous
stitute a combustible mixture of no mean order. products of that combustion, and this would neces-
We will now proceed to give a brief account of sarily be accompanied by a great and sudden
several disasters which have been traced to explo- increase of pressure and bulk constituting, in fact, —
sions of different kinds of dust and firstly, those an explosion.
; 4. That the first effects of this
which have occurred in flouring-mills. explosion would be to burst the exhaust-box, and
In September, 1864, at the Stow flour-mills at allow of the diffusion of the dust and flame through
Illinois, a miller found part of the machinery had the atmosphere of the whole mill. 5. That this
become clogged in the process of grinding flour of communication of inflammable dust and flame
a second-rate description called “middlings.” He throughout the atmosphere of the whole mill was
found the place of stoppage, thrust in his shovel, the cause of the second explosion, by which the
and sent the flour down in a mass. A cloud of gable walls were blown out, the mill reduced to
dust followed, which took fire at the lamp which he ruins, and the woodwork set on fire. 6. That the
carried. A sheet of flame rushed through the stores or granaries were set fire to partly by the
mill, and the building was destroyed. flame and fire from the mill travelling along the
Four years later a mill at St. Louis was de- gangways, and partly from the burning materials
stroyed in much the same manner. falling through the skylights. 7. That no explosive
In September, 1869, at Berchay’s mill, Milwaukee, or other foreign material was used in the manu-
a candle was held near the spout through which facture of the flour, and that we found the steam
the flour was passing. The dust ignited with a boilers uninjured. 8. That we have not been able
fkish, which travelled through the mill so quickly, to trace blame on the part of the proprietors of the
that every part of it seemed to be on fire instan- mill, or of any one in their employment, as every
taneously. j
precaution known time was used.”
at the
In July, 1 872, the Tradeston mills, near Glasgow, j
So much now let us mention
for flour-mills ;
suddenly exploded, and were destroyed in a general a few dust explosions of a more general character.
conflagration which followed. This disaster may In 1873, a factory was started at San Francisco
be said to have been the first which aroused for pulverising brimstone for the use of sheep-
scientific attention to the matter. It was at the farmers. It was financially a great success ;
but
time considered so inexplicable, that the fire-offices one day, just after the machinery had been stopped,
interested set on foot an exhaustive inquiry. To a terrible explosion occurred, followed by flames
the results of this inquiry we shall presently call which quickly destroyed the building. The follow-
attention. ing year the place was rebuilt, and the manufacture
In May, 1878, a still more disastrous explosion once more resumed, when a similar disaster occurred,
occurred at the Washburn mills, Minneapolis, one and the building was once more reduced to ruins.
of the largest establishments of the kind in the No larmp was allowed in any part of the works, and
world. By explosion the building was de-
this the men were forbidden to smoke. The cause of
stroyed as had been blown up by gunpowder
if it ;
the explosion was never ascertained, but the pro-
the city was shaken as if by an earthquake win- ;
prietors had had lesson enough, and the industry
dows were broken, and property destroyed in every' was not renewed.
direction, the total loss being estimated at nearly a At Chicago in 1874, a man cleaning a portion of
quarter of a million sterling. the machinery of a large fertiliser manufactory-
The Committee appointed to inquire into the noticed that a quantity of dust had settled on his
circumstances which led to the destruction of the lantern and obscured the light. He opened the
Tradeston mills examined many witnesses, and lantern in order to cleanse it, when he was aston-
also inquired into accidents of a like nature before ished at an explosion which almost knocked him
they gave in their report. In a paper bearing upon over, but did no further damage. The workman
the subject, and recently read before the Society of did not seem to profit by his experience, for he
Arts, we find a condensed account of this report, repeated his performance a week later, with the
which gives so much practical information that we result that the building was burnt to the ground in
—
reproduce it. The Committee stated that “ i. The the fire which followed.
primary cause of the fire and explosion was the At Messrs. Allsopp’s brewery, Burton-on-Trent,
accidental stoppage of the feed of one pair of an explosion occurred in 1877, which was traced to
stones engaged in the grinding of sharps, which the dust arising from pulverised malt. Bearing
DUST EXPLOSIONS. 205
upon this section of our subject, we may quote a have recently been on view at more than one
correspondent of Nature^ who writes ;
“ There have electrical exhibition.
been three explosions of malt-dust in our mill With regard to candy factories, we also find an
within four years, not due to any carelessness in agent which very possibly has been instrumental
allowing flame to approach impalpable dust, but in first giving the starch-dust its flame. At many
ignited from a spark from a piece of flint passing of these factories those Christmas crackers, which
through the steel rollers, or from excessive friction are so much relished by the juveniles, are manu-
in some part of the wooden fittings.” factured. These contain a small portion of ful-
In December, 1877, a wholesale candy factory at minate of silver, or mercury, which only requires
New York was completely destroyed by explosion. a mere touch to explode it. We need hardly point
Two years later another candy factory in the same out how the flash from such a source, harmless in
and a third is recorded as
city suffered a like fate, itself, might be productive of harm in a dust-laden
having happened at Kansas city, when seven atmosphere.

persons were killed, and much property destroyed. From some unknown cause, possibly the greater
In a great many of these terrible disasters, while dryness of the atmosphere there, these dust explo-
sions seem to be far more common at the other
side of the Atlantic than they are here. It will be
noticed that a large proportion of the examples

cited, which unfortunately do not represent nearly
all the disasters of the kind known, have occurred
in America. The millers at Minneapolis, Minne-

sota, were so impressed with the importance of the
subject, that in May, 1878, they invited Mr. L. W.
Peck to lecture to them upon dust explosions, with a
view that they might understand them theoretically,
and do their best to avoid such lamentable occur-
people have learnt the cause of explosion, they have rences in future. The lecturer seems to have
been quite unable to understand how in the attacked his subject with great skill, and to have
absence of flame the dust has received its initial illustrated it with experiments which do great
combustion. We venture to think that in the case credit to his ingenuity. The first of these is shown
of flour-mills thisis not far to seek. Most grain in Fig. I, and although of a simple character, is
has mixed with it particles of iron, which it has highly suggestive.
picked up during its various stages from the field Two boards were so placed that they form an
where it grows to the mill where it is ground. acute angle just inside the point where they meet,
;
More especially has this been the case since the a little pile of dust, such as can be scraped from
introduction of agricultural machinery, and notably the corner of any carpenter’s shop, was allowed to
since automatic reapers and binders have been in rest on the table. Just at the other side of the
use. These machines tie up the sheaves with wire, boards was placed, as shown, a Bunsen burner, fed
and it is easy to understand how small pieces of by a gas-pipe from below the table. A vigorous
the metal become mixed with the grain. When puff from a pair of ordinary household bellows
such metal gets between the mill-stones fire is the caused the dust to rise in a cloud, which imme-
natural result. The admixture of foreign metallic diately took fire, throwing out an intense heat, and
particles with grain is such a well-known evil, that raising a flaming column fifteen feet in height.
magnetic screens are now commonly used to purify The same experiment was repeated with starch and
grain from them. These, together with large sugar, to show how it was possible for candy
bowls full of the iron rubbish collected by them, factories to prove bad investments to insurance
I
2o6 THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
companies. Next came buckwheat, which burnt Through this orifice the flour, or other dust, was
and many other
well, flour, rye-flour, fine oatmeal, placed in position, together with the Bunsen burner
organic substances, which inflamed with various to inflame it. The nozzle of the bellows was inserted
degrees of rapidity. in a hole provided for the purpose, and when the
The second experiment, shown in Fig. 2, was of air from it aroused the dust, the cap of wood was
a still more startling nature, for it gave evidence violently driven into the air, and would have
of the explosive violence which these apparently injured the ceiling of the lecture-hall had it not
harmless dusts will exhibit when mixed with a been controlled by a cord, twelve feet long, which
certain quantity of air. A box of two cubic feet held it captive.
capacity has a loosely -fitting lid, upon which an One more experiment, intended to show the
disruptive action of a dust explosion, is illustrated
in Fig. 4. Here we have a box made of ij-inch
wood on all sides but one. This last was only a
quarter of an inch thick. The dust, bellows, and
burner are arranged as before, and when the blast
came it tore out the weak side of the box with
explosive force, and a tongue of flame shot out of
the opening to a great distance.
One curious effect of these explosions is, that they
have led to an entirely new theory concerning those
catastrophes in coal-mines, which have in some

cases numbered their victims by hundreds. The
scapegoat for these calamities is generally the
poor miner, who is credited with such callousness
that he will force open his safety-lamp to get a
light for his tobacco-pipe. In other cases we are
told that the mischief wrought by blasting with
is
gunpowder, the flame from which ignites the marsh-

gas, or fire-damp as the men call it, present in the
mine. The new theory is, that coal-dust in dry
workings will, when mixed with a certain propor-
assistant took up his position. It had been pre- tion of air and fire-damp, constitute a most explo-
viously charged with a small quantity of flour, by sive atmosphere. When once alight, it will fly
the side of which a Bunsen burner was placed. along the workings and deal death and destruction
The puff from the afore-mentioned bellows was in its path. The remedy is, in dry' mines, where the
sufficient to fill the box with a cloud of dust, which passing of a few men will raise clouds of dust,
exploded, and raised lid, man and all, a perceptible to keep the ground well watered, as we water our
distance from the box. roads above ground.
In the light of this experi-
ment easy enough to understand how a build-
it is In conclusion, let us remark that many people, in
ing charged v.ith inflammable dust can have its their ignorance of the risk which they run, will allow
roof bodily lifted from its walls. dust to remain in their workshops, to cover neglected
Fig. 3 is explanatory of the third experiment. A cobwebs on their walls, and to accumulate in every
box of three cubic feet capacity had a kind of nook and corner. Should a fire occur, this dust,
chimney attached to it, in which is fitted a cap roused to sudden activity, will most surely carry
of wood. This box had a kind of manhole in the flames far from their original starting-point. A
it, like that found attached to a steam boiler. word to the wise is enough.
;
MUSCULAR POWER. 207
EX'l'RAORDINARY PREDICTIONS. I
should be paying our strong friend a higher com-
pliment than if we compared him to one of the afore-
When the late Countess of Moray was twelve said vertebrate animals, for it has been found by
years old, and a Miss Lockhart, of Carnwalt in careful experiment that in the life on our globe, with
Lanarkshire, a gipsy foretold that she would have few exceptions, the rule prevails that the smaller the
two husbands, and that just before her death she creature the greater the effective force. In other
would pass through a newly-felled wood, and be words, inuscular force is in inverse ratio to size.
drawn in a carriage by a piebald horse to the house How many men have lost their lives in the vain
from which she would never come alive. The attempt to fly by means of attached wings, like those
prophecy was very strangely realised. Miss Lock- ol a bird A little reflection will show that they
!
hart’s first husband was the Earl of Aboyne her : failed from the want of that muscular power which
second the Earl of Moray shortly before her i
is so enormously developed in the breast of a
;
death she visited the Highlands of Scotland, and i

bird. We are all familiar with the appearance of
passed through the forest of Glenmore, then in a fowl when it comes to the dinner-table — the
process of removal, and on the following morning pectoral, or breast muscles, being so much
the coachman came to say that one of her four developed as to extend nearly the entire length
horses had died suddenly in the night, and that he of the body. It is clear that if men were fur-
had therefore borrowed another. It was a piebald I

nished with such power they might soon devise the
one !She went on to Culloden House, where she means for flight. Without giving any attention to
was taken ill, and after a short time expired. these considerations, people are apt to imagine that
It is recorded of the poet Dryden, by Charles because little insignificant insects are able to fly
Wilson, in his “ Life of Congreve,” that having, about with the greatest ease, man should, with
strange to say, belief in astrology, he was careful his knowledge of mechanics, be able to do the
to ascertain to the second the time at which his same. They altogether lose sight of the fact that
son Charles was born. He then calculated the !
insects, in proportion to their small size, are gifted
boy’s nativity, and was alarmed to discover that with far greater muscular power than we can boast
evil influences prevailed in the heavens : Jupiter, ]
of The common flea, for instance, has been shown
Venus, and the sun being below the earth, and the by experiment to be capable of jumping two hundred
lord of his ascendant afflicted with a baleful square times its own height. Now suppose a man six
of Mars and Saturn. He concluded that in his feet high were endowed with proportionate power,
eighth year, and on the day of birth, his son’s life why, he would be able at one bound to leap over
would be seriously endangered if not lost and ;
a building three times as high as St. Paul’s
that if he lived, thesame danger would exist when Cathedral. At the same time this is only one way
he attained his twenty-third birthday, and again on of looking at it ;
for if we calculate the weights
his thirty-third or fourth. On the boy’s eighth which these small creatures have to propel, com-
birthday, despite every precaution to keep the
boy pared with that of a man, the sum would often
from every possible danger, he was nearly killed come out the other way.
by the fall of a wall. On his twenty-third A some very curious experiments
short time ago
birthday he was seized with giddiness and fell were made by M. Felix Plateau in order to test the
from an old tower belonging to the Vatican at muscular force of different creatures. He had
Rome and he was drowned at Windsor while
; observed how the busy ant could drag to her home
swimming across the Thames in his thirty-third the remains of some insect far larger than herself
year. how the horse-fly could rival the pace of the
swiftest horse and how the common house-fly
;
MUSCULAR POWER. '

—
could keep on the wing sailing round and round
some central point for hours together without show-
In speaking of any one who shows unusual strength ing any signs of fatigue. Some of these experi-
inmuscular exertion, or in bearing up against long- ments, as our illustration indicates, were of the most
continued fatigue, we are apt to describe him as ingenious kind. We see a dragon-fly burdened
being “ strong as a horse,” or as an elephant, or as with a ball of wax, in order to see what weight it
a lion always comparing him to some creature could carry without quickly sinking to the ground.
;
which from its size is calculated to give the idea of This experiment, tried over and over again with
immense power. If instead of likening him to different creatures and varied weights, indicated in
one of these beasts we were to say that he was its results that insects which expend much power
strong as a cockchafer, or as a bee, we should be in rapid flight are not capable of bearing much
exposed to ridicule, or the charge of ironical and additional weight to that of their own bodies.
rude banter. But as a matter of fact, in thus Some were found which could carr)' a weight equal
endeavouring to find a parallel in the insect world to their own but as a rule none could fly away
;
for the abnormal muscular power exhibited, we with anything heavier than itself
Another class of experiments were to prove how received a consignment of ten of these unwieldy
much these little creatures can drag along when creatures, some of them ten feet long, and weighing
harnessed to waggons filled with weights or, as 1 54 lb.,
proceeded to experiment upon them, with
shown in the cut, how much weight
they can lift a view to finding out the power developed in the
from the ground. M. Plateau found that a cock- snap of those terrific jaws. Aglance at the picture
chafer can draw fourteen times its own weight, will show how the ferocious brute was tied down, a
and that a bee can draw twenty times its own weight. martyr to science, on the operating-table. His four
plateau’s experiments with insects.
From this he argues — from calculations which we limbs and his were tightly secured. His lower
tail
need not quote — that a cockchafer is, weight for jaw was also firmly tied down. His upper jaw was
weight, twenty-one times stronger than a horse, and fastened by a cord to a beam in the ceiling of the
a bee thirty times stronger than one. room, and interposed just above the creature’s
Researches of a somewhat similar nature, but snout was a dynamometer. This instrument is
with a very different class of subjects, were made familiar to every one, for in a modified form we
by another Frenchman, M. Paul Bert. We have often see it at places of public resort. There it
all heard of the proverbial “bull in a china shop takes the form of a dial with a pointer, and a
”
but that instance of “ matter in the wrong place handle above it. On pa^mient of a penny any one
is matched by the introduction of a large
certainly can test his strength by pulling at this handle, when
crocodile to a chemical laboratory. M. Bert having the pointer indicates the muscular force exerted.
DERANGEMENTS OF VISION. 209
In the case of the bound crocodile the dynamometer show a true result it
the creature’s jaw, and that to
was so arranged that directly the creature en- should have been nearer the muscles acting upon
deavoured to close his jaws, the pull upon the the jaw. It also appears that the reptiles experi-
instrument would show the force expended in the mented upon were fatigued with their journey, and
attempt. invery different condition from crocodiles in their
To make
the reptile interest himself so far in the natural haunts. A dog, experimented upon in the
experiment as to close his mouth when required to same manner, showed that weight for weight its
do so, a little gentle persuasion was necessary. muscular power was less than that of the crocodile.
This was provided by the stimulus afforded by a .A.ny one who has heard a dog cracking thick bones
slight electric shock, which not only was calculated with his teeth as if they were biscuits must
to anger the subject, and therefore to make him snap acknowledge that human beings are far behind so
his teeth, but also acted upon the muscles of the far as strength of jaw is concerned.
EXPERIMENT TO TEST THE MUSCULAR FORCE OF A CROCODILF.’S JAW.
jaw so as to compel them to act. Referring once DERANGEMENTS OF VISION.

more to the picture, we see that one operator is
about to apply the wires to the crocodile’s head, .Some remarkable cases of derangement of vision
while the other has his finger upon a bichromate are recorded in medical annals. The following
battery, ready to put it in action by the depression was communicated to a collection before us by
of a knob. Connected with the battery' is a small Dr. Otto, Professor of Medicine in the University
induction-coil — seen on the left-hand side — to give of Copenhagen. In February of 1837, a
the
the necessary intensity to the electric current. labourer had a severe fall upon the ice and was
It was found from this curious experiment that a removed in an insensible condition to his home.
crocodile weighing 120 lb.exerted a force of 308 Returning to consciousness, he complained of a
lb. in closing his jaw. The results obtained were slight pain in the right super-orbital region, where
not considered conclusive, for it is clear that from the blow caused a tumour to arise equal in size to
the position of the cord bearing the dynamometer a closed fist. Both the pain and swelling disap-
it was really at the end of a long lever formed by peared in two days, and on the fourth day he
B B
2 lO THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
returned to his work. But he soon found himself describes a very singular case of tnis species of
unable to calculate distances, tumbling over things affection. “ A
man about forty years old had,
which seemed to be some distance from him, and in the spring, a tertian fever, for which he took
omitting to descend steps down which he fell too small a quantity of bark, so that the returns of
because he thought he had not reached them. it were weakened without being removed. Three
An object within a foot of him appeared to be six days after his last fit, being then employed on
feet or more away, and a man forty paces off had board a ship in the river, he observed at sunsetting
the appearance of being distant about a quarter of that all objects began to look blue, which blueness
a German mile. Colour and form he perceived gradually thickened into a cloud and not long ;
accurately enough in objects which he believed after he became so blind as hardly to perceive the
he was near, but those which he was actually light of a candle.. The next morning about sun-
near, but which he conceived to be distant, had rising his sight was restored as perfectly as ever.
their forms less distinct and their colours faint. When the next evening came he lost his sight
By closing the left eye objects were made to again in the same manner, and this continued for
appear, as they actually were, near or distant ;
twelve days. He then came ashore, where the
but they retreated immediately when he opened disorder of his eyes gradually abated, and in three
it, and after looking at them for some time their days was entirely gone. A month after he went on
outlines became doubled, worm-like spectra began board another ship, and after three days’ stay in
to appear with moving lines, and his ideas became it the night-blindness returned as before, and
strangely confused. At the same time he expe- lasted all the time of his remaining in the ship,
rienced a tingling in the ears, and grew giddy. which was nine nights. He then left the ship,
Closing the left eye immediately removed such and while he was on land his blindness did not
uncomfortable effects. The only outward sign of return. Some little time after he went into
deranged vision was a slight squint in the left eye another ship, in which he continued for ten days,
when it was turned upwards. His sight was worse during which time the blindness returned only
m dull and heavy than it was in bright, fine two nights, and never afterwards.” In addition
weather. A curious sensation of hollowness in we learn from another medical source that this
the right side of the head arose when he made patient had previously suffered from the use of
a false step. His health was otherwise perfect. lead, which it was thought may have been con-
Dr. Fleischam, of Erlangen, attempted to explain nected with his mysterious malady.
the case in Hufelatid’s Medical Journal, of July, Dr. Heberden mentions also another extraor-
1838, but with very little success. The poor fellow dinary case of defective vision in the case of an
was long under medical treatment without bene- old lady, lodging on the east coast of Kent, in a
fiting by it. house commanding a view of the sea, and exposed
Lucifuga is a curious form of sight derangement, to the full glare Vf the sun. Her window-curtains
the persons suffering from which are unable to see were white, and added intensely to the strong
except at night or when in deep shade. Two in- light. After being there about ten days, one
stances of this extraordinary disease were oljserved evening when the sun was setting she noticed
in 1789, in prisoners liberatedfrom the Bastile, when that the clouds were curiously fringed with red,
it was attributed had passed
to the years that they which colour gradually overspread every other
in the darkness of their dungeons. Ramazzini object, the lightest most thickly. This lasted until
describes some cases of it which he met with sunrise on the following morning, when, as in the
among the peasantry of Italy, due, however, in other case, her sight, was restored apparently
his opinion, to the other extreme, that of being unimpaired. This alternation of sound and morbid
always in too bright a light, and consequent debili- sight prevailed while she occupied the same
tation of the iris with over-excitem nt of the retina. lodging, but suddenly disappeared ten days after
Those suffering from it, he says, were unable to find she had removed.
their way through the fields in the glare of daylight, The author of “ Curiosities of Medical Expe-
although they could see perfectly during the night. rience ” says, “ I had a patient in Lisbon who
The disease was cured in their case by remaining fancied that all the horses he saw carried horns,
excluded from daylight for a few weeks. Curiously or extensive antlers. A young lady whom I
enough another disease of the eye, called by attended beheld every one of a gigantic height.”
medical men “day-sight,” has been also attributed Dr. Priestley mentions five brothers and two sisters,
to excess of light, although its effect is the diiect all adults, whose vision was curiously defective.
reverse of the above, sufferers from it being unable to One could not perceive colours, another perceived
see when the light begins to lose power. Hens are them imperfectly, a third only recognised them as
subject to this, and unable to
in the twilight are light or dark, and so on. Colour-blindness, how-
pick up their food, hence the complaint is some- ever, is well known, and in one form or other so
times called “ hen-blindness.” Ur. Heberden common as not to fall within the scope of this article.
— —
THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 2II
THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. like carbon, either obtained direct from the gas-
retorts or manufactured specially for electric uses)
If we would trace the brilliant light which is now the light is extinguished, and cannot again be estab-
becoming so common in our streets and large lished unless the carbons are once more brought
buildings to its birthplace, we must go back to the into contact. Secondly, the carbons gradually waste
year 1809, and watch in imagination an experiment away, so that they must constantly be moved for-
going forward in the laboratory of the Royal Insti- ward towards one another and thirdly, one carbon,
;
tution. We
see arranged there a huge battery, con- the positive one, consumes far more rapidly than the
sisting of 200 clumsy-looking vessels, packed with other one. This must be the case with a battery
plates of metal, and giving off a visible vapour from current, and with the current from any dynamo-
the action of contained acids. The cells are all machine giving, like a battery, a continuous cur-
connected with one another, and the two terminal rent. Alternate current machines, on the other
wires from them are held by a grave, thoughtful- hand, where the current is being continually re-
looking experimenter, who is busy attaching to each versed, would cause the carbons to waste equally.
terminal a stick of charcoal (Fig. i). When that is We shall presently see that in one form of electric
done he brings the charcoal sticks gradually together, light such a machine is indispensable.
until they touch. Upon once more separating them We may then sum up the requirements of an
a brilliant light seems to spring between them, and electric arc lamp, or regulator, in the following
to cover a space of about four inches in an arch-like terms. The carbons must touch and be auto-
form. The experimenter then introduces into this matically separated whenever the circuit is estab-
arch of light pieces of platinum the most infusible— lished, and they must be moved towards one another
of metals —fragments at different rates of
of lime, magnesia, speed. When these

quartz, and all the conditions came to be
most refractory sub- understood, inventors
stances he can think were not slow in
of. They all melt like contriving regulators
wax in the flame of a which would fulfil
common candle. The them. In most regu-

operator notes with lators we find a simi-
extreme interest that larity of construction.
this wonderful light Two pencils of carbon
the like of which he are placed vertically,
has never before seen and made to approach
— is quite different one another by wheel-
from ordinary combustion, for it is independent of work or clockwork. Most arc lamps take this form
air. This experimenter was Mr. —afterwards Sir even up to the present day. But it must not be sup-
Humphry Davy. — posed that inventors have slavishly followed one
Davy’s experimental light did not create much model. A glance at the records of our patent office
general interest. The battery was not only so to say nothing of the specifications abroad willshow —
crude in structure that its power would soon depart, those curious in such matters that electric carbonf
but it was in those days of little electrical know- have at different times assumed every imaginable
ledge a very expensive thing to build up. The form and position with regard to one another. Nor
improved batteries of Bunsen and Grove, coming has carbon itself always been the material chosen
forty years later, rendered the production of the for these terminal points between which the electric
electric light a comparatively easy matter, and in arc is to play, but as it is now universally used, we
an experimental form it was used at most lecture- may consider it a good example of the survival of
halls in the kingdom. But before the advent of the the fittest.
new batteries, Faraday had made his grand dis- In 1844, when improved came to be in-
batteries
covery of magneto-electric induction, which, as we vented, the first serviceable lamp or regulator
have pointed out in a former article, offered a new that of Foucault — was devised. To him the credit
source of electricity, and eventually led to the con- of bringing gas-retort carbon into use instead of
struction of the modern dynamo machine. soft charcoal must also be given. His regulator
be seen from Davy’s experiment that no
It will was of simple construction, and the carbons were
’•'rht occurs until the carbons touch and have been held vertically, but it required a certain amount of
again separated, when the arch or arc, as we call — help to keep it in action. In 1848, more than
it now —
is established between them. If from any one inventor hit upon the expedient of causing
irregularity of the carbon points (we may here men- the current itself to regulate the distance between
tion that charcoal has long given place to a coke- the carbons, and in nearly every form of arc regu-
lator invented since that date this plan has
been two carbon rods which had not previously been
adopted by means of an attached electro-magnet. patented. In the Jablochkolf candle these rods,
The first lamp of this sort to come instead of being placed one above
into general use was that of Du- the other, stand side by side, not
boscq, shown in Fig. 2. The carbon touching, but separated by a strip
poles are moved up and down by of non-conducting material— china
the separate racks a b, one worked clay or plaster of Paris, for instance
by the small wheel E, and the other '"Fig. 3). The two carbons, with
by the wheel F' of twice the dia- their plaster partition, are manu-
meter, both working on the same factured so they form one
that
axle, and moving together by fric- piece, the carbons bein bridged
i,
tion only. This provides for the over at the top, with a junction
double wasting of one pole, while piece of graphite. At the lower
yet either carbon can be raised or part of the “candle”
lowered separately by the handle. the two carbons ter-
D, and a similar one on the other minate in brass tubes,
side of the instrument. The whole which can be readily
is driven by clockwork, regulated fixed upon terminals
by the fan, G, but which is stopped placed for them in the
while the current passes properly lamp in which they' are
in the manner.
following The used. In action the
current passes through the coil, current traverses the
L, the core of which when magne- rods, quickly destroys
tised draws down the iron ring, the graphite connection at the top,
rt, which by a lever raises the rod, and an arc light is established
K, so as to catch in the teeth of between them. Ascarbons
the
a wheel under the fan and so stop waste away the plaster partition is
the clock. When the current fails vitrified, so that it also wastes at
the clockwork operates, and the pol es the same rate. In this way the
slowly approach till the current is re- “ candle ” in about one hour and a
established, when again
the ring H is half is burnt out, to give place to a
drawn down, at once stopping the second,a third, and fourth placed in
clock and separating the poles suffi- the same lantern, and brought auto-
ciently to give a brilliant light. After matically into circuit one after the
the Duboscq lamp came those of Siemens and I other. If this ôrm of regulator were attached to
Serrin. The last named is perhaps the most re- a battery', or to a dynamo machine giving a con-
|
liable of any ;
and those tinuous current, one carbon
who have tried most fall would soon waste below the
back upon the Serrin as the level of the other, and the
most trustworthy and con- maintenance of the arc would
stant in its behaviour. Un- become impossible. So for the
fortunately', being of com- Jablochkofif candle machines
plicated construction, its arranged to give alternating
expense is a great obstacle currents are used, that both
to its use, a single lamp cost- carbons may waste at the same
ing nearly twenty pounds. speed. The wonderful exhibi-
In the year 1877, reports tion of electric lamps on the
came to hand of the inven- bridges and the Thames Em-
tion, by a Russian engineer bankment in 1882-3 was due
named Jablochkofif, of a to the Jablochkofif system, the
lamp that be pro-
could necessary current being fur-
duced for few shillings.
a nished by Gramme machines,
It quickly earned the name placed in a building close to
of the electric candle, be- CharingCross railway-bridge.
cause it stands upright, and Fig. 4. — GRAMME ALTERNATE CURRENT MACHINE. When the Jablochkofif candle
slowly consumes from top to was first tried in London,
bottom, until it is burnt out. The inventor must the promoters had to depend upon the services
certainly be credited with wonderful ingenuity, if of an antiquated machine of the “ Alliance ” type,
it is only on account of his finding a position for for no modern dynamo would furnish anything
THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 213
but a continuous current. But the success obtained concealed in the stand of the lamps, causes the
seemed so promising, that M. Gramme produced a carbons to meet, should they from any cause cease
new machine on purpose to furnish the alternating to give light, and a knob at the side regulates the
current required. This machine is shown in section distance separating them from one another. The
at Fig. 4. The Gramme ring is advantages claimed for this form
still retained, but it is stationary, of regulator are i. The produc-—
whilst the magnets, eight in num- tion of the current by any descrip-
ber, are caused to rotate upon a tion of dynamo machine, whether
central shaft. The coils, abed, it give a continuous or an alter-
on the ring are so placed that nate current 2. The complete

;
each section of the wire is wound independence of each lamp, the

in an opposite direction to its them
possibility of using several of
fellow. The coils of the electro- in one and the very long
circuit,
magnets show also, by the letter- life of the carbons employed and ;
ing N s, that alternate poles are 3. The great ease with which car-
presented towards the ring. For bons can be replaced by fresh

exciting the magnets, an ordinary ones without extinguishing the
Gramme machine and at is used, light —a
change which can be
the Embankment Station the two made by an unskilled hand. M.
forms are seen side by side, with Rapieff has
their leather bands over the shaft alsocontrived
which supplies both with motion. a “ candle ” '
This machine is also known as of the Jab-

the distributor, for it fulfils the lochkoff type,
office of splitting up a main current without the
so that it may feed several circuits. intervening
While the Jablochkoff system plaster. In
represents a wonderful simplicity other words,
when compared with the intricate he places two
details of a Serrin or Siemens carbon rods
lamp, we must remember that al- side by side
though the first cost is less, the and about a
expense in the matter of “can- cjuarter of an
dles ” must be considerable. Then, inch apart.
again, one globe cannot well be So long as
made to contain more than four no current
candles, which will only afford passes, their points lean towards
light for six hours —a very short one another, and they touch ;
but
allowance for a ,
long winter’s directly the circuit is established,
night. If one “candle” on a they fly apart, and the arc of light
circuit by any means becomes burns brilliantly between them.
extinguished, the rest on that cir- There is something extremely
cuit follow suit, and they cannot canny in this idea of re-patenting
be again put into action until the the “ candle ” without its most
two carbon points are momentarily distinctive feature. It is only due
bridged over. to Mr. Wilde, of Manchester, to
A still more recent advance is say that he was the first in the
represented by another Russian field with a contrivance of the
—
invention the regulator of Rapieff, kind,and showed that the carbons
shown in Fig. 5. This regulator can be more economically used
has been in use in the composing- Fig. 5. — RAPIEFF LAMP. when merely separated by a strip
room and offices of the Times at of air.
Printing House Square, where its brilliant light and M. Werdermann made another new departure
steadiness gave much satisfaction. Here, instead when he introduced an arc lamp, in which the nega-
of two carbon rods, we have four all pointing to a tive carbon took the form of a convex or flat block,
common centre, where the light is produced. Each B, whilst the positive in contact with it was of the
carbon has attached to it a fine cord in connection ordinary pencil shape, (Fig. 6). By simple means
with a weight, so that they are urged forward as the one was constantly pressed against the other, so
their points become consumed. An electro-magnet. that, in addition to a luminous arc, the positive car-
bon gave out an extra amount of light, due to its thiswas found out, and the men paraded, scarcely
own incandescence. The
given by this system
light a soldier had his complete set of buttons. The
was soft, perfectly steady, and very agreeable it ; Duke, half angrily, half jocularly, shook his fist at
was also capable of great subdivision. But it them, and called them a rascally lot, saying he
required a great expenditure of power. AI. Werder- believed that they were everything that was bad,
mann has more recently produced a lamp of modi- except cowards. Being discharged, he went home
fied form, which gives far better results than the ,
and lived with his parents at Caistor, in Lincolnshire,
j
early model described. until that place was invaded by the press-gang, and
A still better known arc lamp is that of F. C. he was driven away by them to enlist in the 3rd
Brush, whose patents not only cover a machine, but Regiment of Guards, in which he was often on
a lamp, and specially-made carbons for use in that sentinel duty outside the palace, and was several
lamp. To the extreme purity of this carbon may times addressed with unaffected familiarity by King
probably be traced the very steady light afforded George HI. and Queen Charlotte.
by the Brush system, which is now in use in nearly When the rebellion of ’98 broke out in Ireland
every country. The regulator itself has the old he was there with his regiment, and actually wit-
form, with the carbons placed vertically one above 1
nessed the wonderful ignorance and daring of a
the other, but it is extremely simple, appearing to j
rebel who thrust his wig into the mouth of the
be little more than an iron frame. It has no clock- cannon, crying, “ Come on, me boys, I’ve spiked
work or other elaborate mechanism, and is inde- him,” and was at once blown into atoms. Maxwell
pendent of other lamps on the same circuit which : mentions the fact in his History, and one of the late
means that if one lamp of twenty be extinguished, George Cruikshank’s most powerful etchings repre-
the other nineteen will continue to glow, but with sented the mad action. He was with the troops
The who
j
slightly-increased brilliancy. various other fought and endured so desperately against the
forms of arc lamps now competing for public favour French in Egypt, and well rememljered the indomit-
are too numerous to mention, and every electrical able pluck and daring of the landing from boats in
exhibition brings out some Those of
fresh one. the front of the enemy, when shot and shell ploughed
Crompton and Pilsen are well known. up the sea about them into one continuous sheet of
There are other familiar names in connection foam. While landing and swiftly forming into line
I
with electric illumination Edison in America and under fire, he was knocked down by a musket-ball,
:
Swan in England, to wit. But they are identified, which tore open his scalp, but, as the old veteran
not with the arc form of light, but with its yoke- would say when telling the exciting story, “ I jumped
fellow, known as the “incandescent lamp.” To a up and fired twenty-five rounds after that.” He
consideration of this important phase of the subject when the French had
fought in that awful struggle
we shall devote a separate article. upon them through the mist, and were slash-
stolen
ing and cutting them down as they fought in twos
and threes back to back amongst the tents. There,
too, he saw Abercromby receive his death-wound,
A REMARKABLE LIFE. and would tell, with tears in his dim old eyes, how
Sir Ralph, remounting with his white hair bare and
Some years since a weekly illustrated paper pub- the blood running freely from him, cried out, “Stand
lished an excellent portrait, from a photograph, of firm, my lads, and I shall die happy.” How firmly
John Gilliatt, of Brigg, in Lincolnshire, taken by they stood and how well they fought (with stones
Mr. Empringham, the master of the Union. He when their ammunition was exhausted) and at last
was then over a hundred years of age, and so hale drove their foes before them, history will tell. He
and hearty that he seemed likely to last some years was invalided and sent home, after being nearly
longer. He was born on Plough Monday in 1761, blinded by the heat and sand. He was discharged
as he asserted. In his early manhood he fell, as in 1801, and his paper then stated that he was forty
many other unfortunates did, into the hands of the years of age. He next returned to his old trade,
press-gang, and served, as was easily proved, on that of a fellmonger, and was in the employ of Mr.
board his Majesty’s ships Dictator, Trusty, and Harrison, of Sleaford, forty-two years. He married
Formidable. In 1791 he enlisted into the 7th and had two children, who died young. When too
Dragoons, and endured all the fearful hardships old for work he had no refuge but the Union, in
of the campaign of 1793 in Holland under the Duke which he lived eleven y'ears, after which time he
of York. On one occasion, fighting single-handed received a pension, not from the State, but from the
against a French trooper, he lost the middle finger private purse of the Earls of Yarborough. When
of his left hand. At another time he used to tell in his prime he stood five feet eight inches in ;
how the men of his regiment traded upon the old age he did not measure more than five feet two
ignorance of the country people by passing their inches. He always led a healthy, sober, industrious
regimental buttons ofif as English money. When life, and was very proud of his medals.
;
THE SCULPTURES OF CENTRAL AMERICA, 215
THE ANCIENT SCULPTURES OF between the interstices of the walls or of the mag-
CENTRAL AMERICA. nificent flights of steps, have eventually forced the
stones in their vicinity far from their positions,
Stories of the splendour and solidity of the towns bringing about a state of desolation greater than
of Central America were lavishly spread by the could have been produced by the hand of time
Spanish soldiers of Cortes and of Pizarro, but their alone. Nevertheless, these ruins remain in sufl'icient
accounts were vague, and perhaps contradictory completeness to prove that when erected they must
and it is, therefore, hardly to be wondered at that have possessed striking majesty and, as one of
;
PYRAMID SURMOUNTED BY TEMPLE IN YUCATAN.
Dr. Robertson, in his “ History of America,” should their earliest explorers observed, some are “ in
have concluded that these reports were wilful fabri- workmanship equal to the finest monuments of the
cations, and that no such sculptured cities ever Egyptians.”
existed as had been described. Possibly there was Indeed, some of these American monuments bear
some correctness in this conclusion ;
for though, a curious resemblance to those of Egypt. The
undoubtedly, the ruins of vast buildings are yet to be severity of the main lines of their edifices, the
seen in Mexico, Peru, Yucatan, and other parts of grand and impassive character of many of their
South and Central America, it is, nevertheless, far images, remind ns most forcibly of the sculptures of
I
from improbable that many, though certainly not all, ancient Egypt and it has even been supposed that
:
had been deserted long ere the .Spaniards set a foot America was, in fact, colonised by a branch of that
upon the soil. The ruins are buried, as they have great Cyclopian family whence was derived the
probably been for centuries, beneath dense forests race of .Shepherd Kings who at one time ruled the
of timber and often huge trees, springing at first
;
destinies of the Egyptians. By those holding this
216 HE WORLD OF WONDERS.
opinion, a wonderful inscription, discovered en- account for the utter extinction of a race of people
graved upon a rock in Massachusetts, and which so highly cultivated as were these strange builders.
closely resembles the Phoenician character, is ad- It has been supposed that, enervated by a high, but
duced as almost positive proof of this emigration. ultimately unprogressive civilisation, the dwellers in
The fact that maize occurs in North Africa is also the cities became at length the easy victims of im-
curious and significant. migrating barlrarians, and were, in no long space
It is remarkable that at the time of the discovery of time, utterly exterminated by warlike hordes
of Mexico by the Spaniards the natives were from the north. It has also been surmised that
entirely ignorant of the use of metal, and were their culture, having reached a certain point, again
TEMPLE AT CHICHIN-ITZA.
dependent upon flint for their arrow and javelin gradually declined, until the remnant of the popu-
heads, and for their other implements. It has, lations forsook the cities which they were no longer
however, been conclusively proved, by the dis- able to maintain, and merged in the surround-
covery of many well-fashioned implements, that the ing tribes ; but this view is hardly supported by
ancient inhabitants of these now ruined cities of the fact that the people now inhabiting Central
Central America were well accpiainted with the America are utterly without traditions of such a
use of copper, and that they even tempered this former state. The fact would seem to be, how-
metal to considerable hardness by a judicious ever, that the present barlrarous Indians are the
admixture of tin. The remains of ancient copper descendants of the original city-builders, but that
mines have also been discovered in the neighbour- they have become degraded to their present level
hood of Lake Superior. How such an art, when once by the persistent and systematic oppression of their
acquired, should have so totally disappeared, it is Spanish conquerors, whose aim, as they acknow-
difficult to conceive, but not more difficult than to ledged, was to eradicate from the minds of the
;
THE SCULPTURES OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 217
natives every recollection of the original greatness the gracefully-adorned temjjles, the pcoi)le them-
of their people. However this may be, the inhabi- selves were content to live in the most fragile of
tants of all these old cities have now completely huts, which have long ago disappeared, leaving not
disappeared, leaving not a vestige of authentic a trace behind.
history, or even of less reliable tradition, to tell The palaces and temples are mostly, if not
the stor)' either of their origin or of their decay ;
always, erected upon “ truncated pyramids,” often
and our knowledge of them is derived alone from of enormous extent, and the labour of constructing
IDOL AND ALTAR AT COPAN, IN GUATEMALA.
their architecture, and from the sculptures which which is almost incalculable. Generally these pyra-
they have left to us. midal structures were in the form of terraces rising
Though usually referred to as ruined cities, it one upon another, and were mounted by massive
should be observed that all the edifices of which flights of stone steps, many of which are still stand-
the remains now exist are of the most sumptuous ing, almost as perfect as when first laid down cen-
and magnificent character, and could only have turies ago. In the architecture and sculpture, the
served as temples or as palaces. Not a vestige of utter dissimilarity to anything in the Old World is
any less imposing structure remains and it must what first strikes the beholder. As has been said,
;
be supposed that while the kings or rulers were there is much resemblance in “ feeling ” to the
housed in these stately mansions, and the religious Egyptian style, but this is neither frequent nor
worship, with all its hideous concomitants of human striking in detail. The general effect of some of
sacrifices and cannibalism, was conducted within the numerous bas-reliefs is occasionally Oriental
r r.
—
2i8 THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
but a closer and more extended examination of the that these ornaments may have been intended as
ruins removes this impression, and at last the hooks for a similar purpose, but in the absence of a
whole character of the remains assumes a quaint single recorded instance of such an occurrence, it
singularity, with which no parallel is to be met in would be hardly safe to assume that such was the
any other part of the world. case.
The American builders seem to have been quite Though, as has been said, the surface of these
without a know'ledge of the true arch, though they American buildings was generally plain and mas-
were accustomed to contract the upper part of a sive, yet some few instances of the use of
doorway or ceiling by laying the successive courses pillars, or pilasters, have been met with, and
of stone jutting towards the centre, and finally though they are generally of clumsy and some-
completing the false arch by laying a single broad what heavy appearance, yet occasionally they have
slab of stone upon the top. In the absence of the been employed to give an airy gracefulness to
arch, their doorways and windows were, however, the exterior which compares favourably with the
generally square, the top being bridged over by a more sombre character of the more usual style.
single large stone, often of great bulk» This style In one case these pillars are slender and symme-
necessarily imparted to their architecture a hori- trical, rising from a slightly expanded base, and
zontal character, similar to that adopted by the terminating in a similar expansion above, while
Egyptians, though the surfaces of the buildings between each pair of pillars is a row of lozenges,
were generally covered with quaint sculptures, which add to the plain, but pleasing, lightness of the
which gave a lightness to the effect which they whole.
would otherwise lack. The sculptured ornaments But we must turn from the architecture to con-
generally offer a most marked contrast to anything sider the sculptured beauties of these I ndian temples.
to be seen in other countries. Occasionally, in- There would seem to have existed, side by side,
deed, a line of zig-zags, or of small circles, formed j
—
two schools of art^ the hieratic and the profane.
by the interlacing of two continuous bands, will The former, though not without skill and some
j
remind us of the conventional ornamentation of rude artistic merit, maintains a certain uniformity of
the East but such familiar patterns are the excep-
;
quality, which was probably the conventional result
tion, and serve rather to emphasise the strangeness The
j
of religious influences. idols are almost all

of the accompanying designs. Amongst these,
j
upon one plan,and the sculpture upon them differs

grotesque human heads, probably representations little in character, however much it may in detail.
of heathen deities, decorated with still more gro- [
The front generally represents a human figure,
tesque head-dresses, are very numerous while one ; ,
which occupies about two-thirds of the length of
of the most favoured decorations is a row of the stone, and is covered with grotesque carvings,
alternate death’s-heads and cross-bones, with which which perhaps represent the folds and adjuncts of
j
the fronts of many of the flights of steps were '
a sacred robe, while above the head is generally a

adorned. As a rule, the walls of the palaces are of group of carvings, without apparently any object
solid masonry, decorated, or not, with sculpture ‘
but ornament, though occasionally a second human

which has no part in the construction of the edifice, j
head makes its appearance amongst them. On the
and surmounted by a kind of “ frieze,” sometimes —
back and sides of these idols which, except in front,
several feet in depth, which projects some distance I
are without definite form— are carved innumera-
beyond the lower walls of the building, and is . ble figures and patterns, *which are sometimes
usually elaborately carved, and enriched by in- I
perhaps genuine hieroglyphics, but more often what
numerable grotescjue projections. Amongst these are termed picture-writings. Besides these idols,
”
is one to which the name of “ elephant’s trunk !
there are, however, other representations of the
has been applied, and the curve which this favourite heathen gods, of a massive solidity, strongly resem-
ornament assumes certainly justifies the name. bling some of the sculptures of Egypt, notable
Starting from the wall in which its base is embedded, amongst which is a figure of what has been deemed
—
i
it first projects in an almost horizontal line, then the Indian Bacchus Tezcatzoncatl, or Izquitecatl
curves gently downwards, and again re-curves up- which was found only a few years ago at Chichin
wards, thus having exactly the form of the ele- Itza, in Yucatan. This figure, like others which
phant’s trunk when in the act of bellowing. This is have been recently described, is reclining upon its
very remarkable in connection with the “elephant back, the knees being bent and the soles of the
mounds ” and other representations of the animal, feet resting upon the ground, while between the
which have been referred to in a former article hands rests a vessel, supposed to represent a wine-
(page 84), and with the fossil remains of the animal bowl. It is probably of comparatively modern
which have been discovered. date, and has been first rough hewed, and after-
From the fact that immense stone annulets were wards ground smooth with stones, so that there
occasionally suspended from somewhat similar can be doubt that it belongs to that period
little
projections in some of the buildings, it is possible when the Yucaticans had lost the art of tempering
;
WONDERS OF SPIDER-LIF?:. 219
copper, “ and when, as at the period of the conquest, i
marked characters, and that in the possession of

they had arms only of obsidian and other hard these characters they differ from insects and like
stones.” Comparatively few specimens of the pro- animals. An insect, for instance, has only six legs ;
fane art of the Indians have hitherto come to light, the spider-tribe have never fewer than eight and ;
but these seem to be of a character far superior to the latter are never winged, although of course
A tiger’s head, found at
those inspired by religion. many insects {e.g.^ the ants and fleas) do not pos-
Mitla, hasbeen described as equal to “a European sess wings. Spiders, again, have no “ feelers,” as
work of art,” while a man’s head, from Yucatan, such, whilst insects have a pair of these organs.
“ though damaged, would bear comparison for finish In spiders, the feelers are regarded as being repre-
and modelling with the works of the ancient sented by a pair of the jaws. Insects breathe by
Greeks.” air-tubes, that branch everywhere throughout their
It has sometimes been affirmed that the inscrip- bodies. Spiders may breathe by such tubes, but, in
tions of Central America were not true hiero- addition, they possess curious breathing-sacs, to
glyphics, but invariably picture-writings. This be hereafter noted. In an insect we can discern
would, however, hardly seem to be the case. It the head, chest, and abdomen (or tail), all clearly
may sometimes, perhaps, be affirmed that the separated one from the other. In spiders, mites,
sculptures are actual representations of important and scorpions, on the other hand, the head and
occurrences, though they are quite unintelligible to chest are combined to form one region of the body
us at present, but in other cases, as in that of the and precisely the same union of parts is seen in the
long line of nearly forty feet of hieroglyphics found lobsters and shrimps. It may thus be seen that
in a building at Chichin Itza, there can be little spiders form a highly distinct group of animals ;
doubt that the figures employed are truly hiero- and if, lastly, we think for a moment of their spinning
glyphic in character. Excepting here and there a powers and their many curious habits, we may
human face in profile, the figures represent nothing readily enough find ample reason for the practice of
comprehensible, and it is with a feeling of despair the naturalist in separating them from the insect
that American archaeologists see these long lines of class.
sculpture, and the innumerable similar characters The first illustration accompanying this article
on tablets, idols, and altars, and yet feel that they depicts one of the largest species of the spider-class.
are powerless to read the story which is so plainly It is named the Bird Spider {Mygale avicularia),
before their eyes. Nothing has yet been found to from its habit of seizing small birds and of sucking;
throw the first small beam of light upon the mean- their blood. One species {Mygale Ilentzii) is de-
ing of these silent records, and until that appa- scribed as ranging southwards from Missouri, and
rently hopeless time arrives, it is to be feared that it is in the tropical forests of the New World that
the true history of these long-ruined buildings must these curious beings lie in wait for and destroy their
remain completely unknown, or at least most imper- prey. The spider-group to which these giants of
fectly known, to us —
perhaps by no means one the spider-race belong, is known by their possessing
of the least of the many wonders of the world. hairy bodies, and by their having four lung-sacs,
and only two pairs of “ spinnerets,” or weaving-
organs. They possess eight “ occelli,” or simple
WONDERS OF SPIDER-LIFE. eyes ;
for all spiders want the great compound
eyes we see in insects. Most of these spiders do
Spiders, mites, and scorpions belong to a class of not spin a regular web, or net, as is the case with
the “jointed ” animals named Arachnida. The their more familiar brethren on the contrary, ;
origin of this name the old classic fable,

lies in they make
holes in the ground, which they line with
wherein Arachne, daughter of a Lydian purple-dyer, the silk secretion. Mygale nidijicans, literally, “ the
was believed to have challenged Minerva to a trial nest-making” Mygale of the West Indies, thus
of weaving. The goddess, enraged at being
skill in closes its nest-hole by means of a curious lid of
challenged by an ordinary mortal, changed Arachne earth, which is lined below with silk. It is
for her audacity into a spider, in which character this group which harbours the “Trap -door
she, of course, would have every scope for her Spiders” of the Old World. The “door” often
powers of spinning. Such was the legend. The fits the entrance of the pit or nest excavated by
name Arachnida indicates, however, animals which the spider in the most accurate manner; and
do not weave or spin nets. A scorpion, for instance, any attempt to raise the lid when the inmate is
is noted for its poison-gland and sting whilst the “at home” is strenuously resisted by the fabri-
;
mites are most remarkable for their minute size, cator of the ingenious abode. The Bird-eating
and for their ravages in our foods, in the furs of Spider of our illustration and its near neighbours
stuffed animals, and even in the bodies of other inhabit the bark of trees and similar situations, in
animal forms. But it is easy to show that spiders, addition to frequently forming nests in the ground.
mites, and scorpions all agree in certain well- .Some authorities state the number of eggs pro-
IHF, r.IRIi si'IIfl'.R {X,!//fra/

WONDERS OF SPIDER-LIFE. 22 1
duced by the females of this species at i, 8 oo or and from this main centre nerves are supplied to
2,000, the eggs being encased in a beautifully deli- the adjacent parts. The senses are represented
cate case of silky material. Mr. Bates, the famous much as in insects. Touch is very perfect in these
South .American traveller, tells us that on one animals, and is subserved by the “pulps,” or feelers,
occasion he found two small birds hanging in a connected with the mouth-parts. We may readily
damaged web which had been spun across a cleft enough conceive that in animals which construct
in a tree. One of the birds was dead, whilst upon dwelling-places of such complexity as the spiders
the other the great spider was crouched like a lion are in the habit of making, the need for a perfect
on its prey. This second bird was still alive sense of touch would be very great. Organs of
when it was first observed by Mr. Bates, but died hearing are not known to exist in spiders, but
soon after he took it into his hand to examine it. simple eyes are developed, as already mentioned.
Mr. Bates also tells us that he saw some Indian It is in the spinning powers of spiders, however,,
children in the Amazon territory leading one of thatwe certainly find their chief characteristic.
these great spiders about by means of a thread tied The weaving-organs, or “ spinnerets,” are situated
to the middle of its body. On more than one at the tip of the spider’s body. They consist of
occasion, live little projections,
specimens of which are per-
these huge spi- forated by aa
ders have been immense num-
brought to ber of minute
Europe. One holes, represent-
lived for some ing the ends of
time in the as many micro-
Zoological Society’s scopic tubes. The
Gardens in Lon- “silk” is secreted
don. This spider in special “glands,”
on one occasion in the shape of a
killed a mouse*; glutinous fluid,
another has been which becomes
known to kill frogs. more tenacious
The poison ap- when brought in
paratus of the spi- contact with the
der-tribe, like that air. Thus the
of the serpents, thread with which
naturally excites the a spider works in
interest of the reality consists of
zoologist. The poi- multitudes of finer
son-organs, or strands, united to
“fangs,” are repre- form the single fila-
sented by a pair of tarantula (

Natural size). ment. As the thread
jaws, or “ mandi- itself is of extreme
bles,” which naturalists regard as representing the may be
delicacy, the fineness of the separate threads
“ feelers ” of insects. The terminal joint of the more Very varied
readily imagined than realised.
jaw forms a regular “ fang,” and is perforated by a are the ways and means which spiders employ in
canal which leads from a poison-gland. Thus, the fixation of the web. The common garden
when a spider attacks its victim these “ fangs ” are spider {Epeira diadema) forms a web which must
plunged into the body, and the poison is thus con- certainly be ranked among the most interesting
veyed into the prey with a fatal effect in the case specimens of its class. The outermost lines are
of flies, and, as we have seen, even of small birds. first fixed, these lines forming the boundaries of the
Spiders, possessing as they do a large share of web. Between these lines the radiating cords are
cunning and intelligence, and excelling insects as a next stretched ;
then, beginning at the centre, the
rule in the complexity of their actions, might natu- spider attaches a series of short ladder-like threads
rally be supposed to possess a nervous system of between the radiating cords, and follows a spiral
high and specialised nature. We find, accordingly, course in this latter work. The curious fact has
that such is the case. Instead of the double chain been observed that the cross lines are of a wholly
of nerves which, in the insect, stretches along the different structure from the rest of the cords. They
floor of the body, we find the nerves of spiders to are very elastic, and are, moreover, covered with a
exhibit a high degree of concentration. A great glutinous secretion, that doubtless assists the reten-
mass of nervous matter lies in the floor of the chest. tion of any insect which may be entrapped. In the
—

centre of the net, the spider lies in wait, head down- CELLULOID.
wards, for prey. When the insect is entrapped, it
would appear that the spider will weave around it It next to impossible to point to a single manu-
is
fine threads, which limit its struggles, and which, in facture which has not been either greatly improved
the case of large insects, must effectually aid the or actually originated by modern chemistry. In
securing of the prey. his laboratory the chemist now and then hits upon
Some species of spiders, instead of making a web, an entirely new compound which possesses pecu-
or net, weave their silk secretion into a kind of perhaps resembles in appearance
liar properties, or
delicate cloth, with which a kind of tent is made. another substance of great rarity, or which may be
The water-spiders build a dome-shaped nest, or far more expensive to produce. One of the new
“bell,” below the surface of fresh waters. The air compounds is Celluloid, which bears so close a
necessary for breathing is obtained from the atmo- resemblance to ivory, that for many purposes it
sphere. For ordinary use, and while pursuing its can be used in its place. It can, for instance,
usual avocations in seeking prey, &c., the spider be employed for pianoforte keys, ornaments of all
depends upon the air adhering to the hairs on its kinds, handles of doors, billiard balls, frames,
body, which gives it a silvery appearance under combs, jewellery and fancy goods of all sorts. It
the water ;
but the nest itself is filled with air by can be dyed thoughout its substance so as to
a highly-ingenious process. The spider ascends imitate malachite, coral, tortoise-shell, &c. indeed ;
repeatedly to the surface, and then descends with it is difficult to enumerate the many useful pur-
an actual bubble of air attached to the posterior poses to which the new material can be applied.
part of its body and the extremities of its hind Recently a new employment has been found for it
legs. On arriving at the nest, the feet discharge in the manufacture of shirt cuffs and collars, which
the bubble of air into it ;
and thus in succession are subject to the dominion of no laundress, for the
bubbles are fetched down, until the stock of air wearer has merely to rinse them in water ev'ery
accumulated is sufficient to last the occupant for morning to restore them to their original white-
a greater or less time, or to fill the nest. Few ness.
operations of animal-life are more curious than Celluloid is virtually a mixture of collodion and
this nor are there many whose origin is more
;
camphor, but the varied operations necessary
difficult to account for. is produced will show
before the finished article
The breathing-organs of all spiders, it may manufacture is by no means a simple com-
that its
here be fitly e.xplained, consist of peculiar bags, pounding of two well-known materials. The
or sacs, called “lung- sacs.” Each of these process of manufacture, as now carried on in Paris,
—
sacs which may be accompanied by breathing- is briefly as follows Cigarette paper is soaked in : —
tubes similar to those found in insects— consists of a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids until it is
a bag, within which are contained an immense converted into nitro-cellulose. (This compound
number of delicate folds, on which the blood-vessels mixed with certain proportions of ether and
branch. By the multiplication of these folds, a alcohol will form collodion.) After thorough
large surface is provided for the aeration or ex- washing, to free it from the acids, the cellulose is
posure of the blood to the purifying influence of the dried, mixed with a certain quantity of camphor
air admitted to the sacs. and colouring-matter if required —and is passed
Spiders have played their own part in the pro- through a roller mill. The material is now pressed
duction of the myths and superstitions with which by hydraulic pressure, and is after-
into thin sheets
the literature of every country abounds. The most wards broken up by toothed rollers and soaked for
famous of the spiders which have figured in such some hours in alcohol. Once more the compound
records is the Taratthila {Lycosa tarantula), a is placed under heavy pressure, and after being
species common in .Southern Europe. In Southern submitted to a hot rolling process is finished. The
Italy the bite of these spiders is still believed to resulting material is celluloid, in the form of ivory-
cause a species of madness, of which the chief like sheets half an inch thick.
feature is alleged to be an insane and uncon- At a temperature far below that of boiling water
trollable desire to dance and to contort the body. celluloid becomes soft and plastic, so that it can
No evidence is forthcoming that any such effects are be moulded and will retain the finest impressions.
now experienced after the bite of these spiders, even It is soluble in ether and alcohol, and in this form
supposing, what is by no mean's likely, that they it serves as a cement to join pieces of its own sub-
are given to attack mankind. Probably, on some stance together. It is highly inflammable, and if
occasions, their bite may have caused disagreeable heated to about 350° will violently explode on
symptoms, and around this fact have been woven being struck with a hammer. WTien we remember
the mythical tales of the Tarantula’s powers but ;
that nitro-cellulose, which enters so largely into its
this topic may perhaps form the subject for an- composition, is identical with gun-cotton, we neêd
other short article. feel no surprise at this explosive tendency. This
— —
A MYSTERIOUS DOG. 22
property will naturally limit its employment, foi THE MOUNTAINS AND CRATERS OF
people may think, with reason, that a substance THE MOON.
so combustible might under certain conditions be
liable to decomposition which might lead to spon- The physical appearance of the moon is far more
taneous inflammation. But we understand that the satisfactorily discernible than any other that of
tendency to inflame can be altogether stopped by celestial body. This is owing to two causes
J
admixture during manufacture with incombustible j

namely,^ her nearness to the earth, and the fact that
earthy bodies. If this be the case, celluloid is a her surface is not shrouded in an atmosphere suffi-
material which must in time obtain a very exten- ! ciently dense to obliterate any of the details, which
sive use more especially because ivory which
;
— i
are invariably presented with a remarkably bold
resembles — becoming so scarce and distinct outline. \Ve are thus enabled to chart
'
it so greatly is
that its price prohibits its use for many purposes her leading features with great accuracy and there ;
for which it was formerly employed. can be no doubt that, as an interesting telescojfic
object, no other orb in the firmament can vie with
our satellite. The smallest instruments reveal at
A MYSTERIOUS DOG. once the fact that a great mass of detail is visible
About seventy years ago a lady living in Man-

chester had occasion to visit Blackley, a village
three miles distant. She started early on a sum-
mer afternoon, alone,and was somewhat frightened,
soon after leaving the town, by the sudden appearance
of a large and powerful dog, which seemed intent
upon attracting her notice, but in a very friendly
way. She endeavoured to escape it, but, her fears
gradually subsiding, she walked quietly on, the dog
gamboling and frisking about her. Reaching her
friend’s house, the dog, being shut out, waited for
her on the door-step. One of the family going out,
asked if the dog belonged to her. She said no,
and told the story of its following her, upon which, Fig. l .
THE CRATER ARCHIMEDES AT SUNRISE.
with some laughter, the dog was invited in and Showing also effect of the horizontal sun-rays on two small annular
mountains, known as Archimedes A and E.
made much of but still attached itself exclusively to
;
the lady it had followed, fawning upon her with

the greatest apparent affection. Returning in the on herdisc, and that these consist mainly of craters
cool of the evening, the dog accompanied her,
still and mountain-ranges, various in form and extent,
evincing every symptom of delight and satisfaction. and showing a very irregular distribution over the
In the midst of a narrow lonely lane, shut in on lunar surface.
each side by a thick thorn fence and lofty bushes, Let us view the moon when in a crescent phase,
the friskings, barkings, and playful fondlings of the for this is practically the most suitable time, though
dog ceased, and he kept nearer her, a little in many people naturally think that the full moon will
advance, sniffing now and then, but silent. Pre- be the best spectacle. But it is obvious that, as
sently he evinced every sign of anger, uttering low the chief features of the moon’s landscape consist
growls, with hair erect, and eyes fiercely aglow. of mountains and craters, these will be more favour-
The lady became frightened, and tried in vain to ably brought out during the time of first or last
quiet him with soothing words and by throwing quarter, for the following reasons The moon :
cake to him. The dog heeded neither, but ap- shines by light received from the sun, and the
peared to grow more and more excited, until at gradually-increasing breadth of the crescent really
last, through a gap in the hedge, a ruffianly fellow means that the sun is rising higher above those
sprang out with an open knife in his hand. The lady regions of our satellite presented to the earth. The
shrieked, and the dog, flying at the man, brought concave border (called the terminator) is the line of
him to the ground. The
fellow implored her to demarcation between lunar night and morning.
being ignorant of its name,
call off the dog, but she, The illuminated border contains objects which have
was unable to do so, and ran on as fast as she could, just come into sunlight, and the rays falling on them
looking for assistance as she went. Presently the being very oblique, they are made to cast a variety
dog overtook her, barking and frisking as playfully of shadows, which show their real characters in bold
as before and when they reached the spot where
; relief (Fig. i). But this effect is entirely obliterated
she had first seen the animal, it at once left her, at the epoch of full moon, because the sun is then
and she never saw it again. shining vertically over our satellite, and there are
no shadows to vary the scenery and indicate its The craters on the moon may be said to be in-
nature, in fact, the moon's whole surface at such a finite as far as our enumeration of them is con-
time is bathed in a flood of lustre which entircK cerned. There are many examples of large, deep
Fig. 2. — THE LUNAR APENNINES, WITH ANOTHER VIEW OF THE CRATER ARCHI.MEDES. (From Mr. De la Rut's Photograph.)
destroys the interesting contrast of light and shadow craters, but these are rare relatively to the smaller
forming so conspicuous and interesting an effect at ones ;
indeed, the numbers apparently increase
the crescent phase. with diminution in size. One of the most re-
— !;
MOUNTAINS AND CRATERS OF THE MOON. 225
cent and comprehensive lunar maps

* indicates the — 18,000 feet. This crater is 64 miles in diameter,
positions of no less than 32,856 of these crater- and has a central mountain about a mile high. The
forms, and this number probably represents but a region of the moon’s south pole is particularly rich
small proportion of the aggregate of such forma- in craters, much more so, indeed, than any other
tions existing on the surface of the moon. It must district of the visible surface. In the immediate
also be pointed out that one and the same hemi- vicinity of the pole there is Kircher, some 18,000
sphere is always turned towards the earth, so that feet deep, and Cassatus, which exhibits a dome-
we know nothing of shaped mountain upon
the moon’s hidden side its massive wall rising
more than inference to about 22,300 feet
teaches us from the and Newton, a per-
visible side. fectly marvellous ob-
But this visible side ject, on account of its
reveals many wonder- great depth and width,

ful structures, and an it being some 142
extent of detail which miles long, and its
exhausts the power of most elevated tower

the largest telescopes. nearly 24,000 feet
At the first glance we above the interior.
see that the moon- These objects are al-
scenery is vastly dif- together dissimilar to

ferent from that of the terrestrial formations,
earth. The surface of and must obviously
the moon is, in fact, a originate a very grand
complicated mass of and diversified extent
irregular formations. of scenery upon the

The craters are of moon, especially at the
immense extent in times of sunrise and

many cases. Amongst sunset.
the most notable is The lunar mountains
Tycho, which appears are equally remark-
to be an excellent able. The Apennines
sample of extinct lunar form an extensive
volcanoes. It is about mountain range of
54 miles in diameter, some 460 miles in
and its depth 17,000 length and some of
;
feet, or more than the various peaks are

3 miles. There is a of enormous heights
central hill about one e.g.-. Huyghens 21,000
mile in height, and feet, Hadley 15,000,
a massive wall sur- Bradley 13,600, Wolf
rounding it, outside of 1 1,000, &c. The Diir-
which are a vast num- fel mountains supply
ber of small craters. another instance of
Copernicus furnishes enormous elevation,
another fine specimen —
Fig. 3. VESUVIUS, WITH THE ADJACENT NEIGHBOURHOOD. the peaks of the
of the same class of (Photographedfrom a Relief-map by Messrs. Nasmyth Carpenter.) three leading ones
objects. some 56
It is being about 25,000
miles in diameter, and has a central hill with six But the most striking of the lunar
or 26,000 feet.
peaks rising to 2,400 feet above the bottom of mountains are, like the craters, situated on the
the crater, and the wall by which it is environed southern margin of the lunar landscape. Here
shows a very complicated arrangement of terraces the Leibnitz range attain enormous altitudes
and ravines, and reaches, in its more elevated por- above the average level of the moon’s surface,
tions, a height of 11,000 feet above the interior and are sometimes seen projected far beyond
cavity. But one of the deepest of all the lunar the regular curvature of the disc, thus destroying
craters is Theophilus, the opening in which, relatively the circular contour, and giving it a notched or
to the surrounding wall or ring, falls to some 14,000 serrated aspect. Several of the peaks of these
*
southern mountains measure 30,000 feet in altitude,
Schmidt’s map of 6-feet diameter, published by the German
Government, is here referred to. and one has been estimated to reach 36,000 feet
D D
Though the lunar craters differ from our own, method employed to reduce iron from its ores, to
not only in their size, but in their vast internal depth, point to the differences which exist between cast and
their floors being far below the surrounding surface, wrought iron, and to show how both from steel. differ
there is yet a strong general resemblance to terres- Iron is so abundantly distributed, that most minerals
trial volcanic districts, which would be still more contain it in some form or other. But our chief
marked could these be seen from a great height. supply comes from the clay iron-stone found in
This will be perceived irom Fig. 3, which is from a South Wales and in Staffordshire. This ore repre-
photograph, taken by Messrs. Nasmyth and Car- sents an impure carbonate of iron mixed with various
penter, of a map carefully modelled in relief of the other bodies, such as lime, clay, manganese, etc.
country round Naples. Its strong general resem- The clay iron-stone, after having been broken up
blance to the lunar photograph can be seen at a and roasted, so as to expel water and other im-
glance, though the terrestrial volcano is so small in purities, is placed in what is called a blast furnace.
comparison, that it would hardly be noticed on the This consists of a conical erection several yards
surface of the moon. high, with an opening at the top through which it
In order that the lunar craters may be advan- is fed with ore, together with the materials neces-
tageously viewed, a telescope of moderate power will sary for its reduction. The ore is placed in layers
be essential, though with small, inexpensive instru- with limestone and coal, and after this is ignited a
ments a very good idea of their appearance and blown through the furnace from
blast of hot air is
structure may be obtained in fact, some of the

;
below, thus raising the mass to a temperature
more prominent features of the moon may be dis- which reduces the whole to a liquid state. The
tinguished by the naked eye. But in a large tele-metal, by reason of its greater weight, sinks to the
scope the spectacle is one of extreme magniflcence. bottom, whilst the clay and lime form a liquid
The craters in their almost infinite profusion and white-hot slag, which floats on the top as oil floats
variety are well calculated to attract the observer to on water. Both are drawn off from time to time
a long and attentive examination and the result of by apertures arranged for the purpose, fresh
;
this examination must, we think, convince him that materials being constantly added through the
the surface of our satellite is probably that of an aperture at the top of the furnace.
extinct or exhausted world. There is no sign of Cast iron formed in this way is not a pure metal,
fertility of the soil —
no objects which can origi- for it contains a considerable quantity of carbon ;
nate the idea that animate creatures subsist there. five per cent., or even more. It also contains a
True, an atmosphere of extreme rarity and little small amount of calcium, aluminium, manganese,
depth may be suspended closely over the surface etc. After it is poured into the moulds prepared for
and prove sufficient to sustain certain forms of life it, and has become cold, its structure is found to be
;
but it must be admitted, from the conditions pre- crystalline —

that is to say, a fractured piece has the
vailing, that such creatures, if existing, must be of same kind of texture as a broken lump of sugar.
e.xtraordinary type. From the extremely precipitous Wrought or malleable iron, on the other hand, has
character of the lunar crust, and the indications more of a fibrous structure, like a piece of broken,
apparent everywhere of convulsions, resulting from stringy wood. To convert cast iron into malleable
a heated state of the surface at a remote period of iron, it is heated in a reverberatory furnace, and
its history, we conclude that probably the moon has submitted to an operation called “ puddling.” This
long since passed that stage of its existence suitable consists in turning it about whilst in the furnace
to habitation. by means of long iron rods, so that each portion of
the metal is successively exposed to the heated air.
The contained carbon is thus brought to the surface
BESSEMER STEEL. and partly eliminated, for it combines with the air and
forms carbonic oxide, which gas can be seen burning
Perhaps no kind of factory can afford such as a blue flame on the surface of the heated mass.
mighty sounds and grand spectacular effects as one As the process proceeds the metal becomes less
in which is carried on the modern Bessemer process and it forms a granular pasty mass.
less fluid, until
of converting iron into steel. A visit to one of these The heat then raised, so that the particles may
is
places is, to any one unaccustomed to the sight, to some extent cohere. The material is now
at once grand and impressive. The process affords gathered by means of the iron rods into large
a sood instance of the manner in which results masses, weighing about seventy pounds apiece, and
calculated and tried experimentally in the chemist’s these are withdrawn and submitted to the welding
laboratory eventually result in causing revolutions action of a steam hammer. After all this treatment
in modes of manufacture which affect vast industries the malleable iron still contains a small proportion
and great bodies of workers. of carbon —about one-half per cent. —but this is by
Before considering the Bessemer process in no means detrimental to it ;
it is considered, on
detailit will be necessary to describe briefly the the other hand, to be distinctly advantageous to
—
BESSEMER STEEL. 227
it. But some of the other elements found in cast fifty The entire arrangement, by
half-inch holes.
in connection with an
iron are very much the reverse. A small propor- means of a toothed wheel,
hydraulic ram, on the opposite trunnion to that
tion of phosphorus, for instance, will render the
useless for many fields of admitting the air-supply, can be made to assume
metal brittle, and quite
iron is employed. a horizontal or vertical position, or can be turned
labour in which wrought
completely upside down. It will be presently seen
To convert malleable iron into steel, carbon is
aâin added' to it, and the process commonly em- that these varied movements are necessary at
ployed is called cementation. The purest iron different stages of the process.
which it is possible to procure is employed for this A

charge of eight or ten tons ot molten cast iron
purpose. Bars of this best iron are placed in is poured into the converter while it lies in the
horizontal position. Its peculiar shape allows this
iron boxes filled with charcoal, and exposed to a
red heat for many hours. Although the heat em- to be done without any of the liquid metal touching
ployed is far too low to fuse the metal, the carbon the perforated bottom. The blast is now applied,
surrounding it in the form of charcoal slowly com- and as the great mass begins by hydraulic action
and fibrous structure into to move into the vertical position, the air under
bines with it alters its
one which hard and close-grained. It is now
is great pressure sweeps across the surface of the
called steel, and is distinguished from the wrought molten mass, and discharges a continuous rain of
iron from which it was formed, not only by its tex- scintillating sparks. Slowly the converter assumes
ture, but by its wonderful tenacity. It also possesses the upright position, the air all the time being’
the peculiarity that its nature forced through the perforated
can be modified by the process bottom with such force that no

called tempering, by which it metal can possibly enter the
can be made hard, soft, tough, holes through which it comes.
or elastic, according to the use With a mighty roar, and with a
for which it is ultimately des- light as glaring as any electric
tined. For special purposes in — lamp ever contrived, the fiery
making cutting instruments, for rain shoots in tangled masses

instance — the steel is melted, out of the mouth of the monster,
cast into ingots, and forged. and falls in golden flakes many
In this condition it is known yards in front of it (Fig. 2).

as cast steel. The most gorgeous fireworks
It will now be seen that cast ever exhibited pale before these
iron has a large proportion of wondrous and dazzling spangles
carbon wrought iron has but a
;
of ejected metal. The oxygen
small proportion of it whilst
;
of the air combines with the
steel takes an intermediate carbon of the iron, and passes
position between the two. It was natural to think off as gas. In a few minutes the spangles grow
that cast iron could be directly converted into steel few and far between —
the carbon and other im-
by abstracting from it the requisite quantity of purities have been eliminated from the metal the —
carbon, but this was found in practice till ver^' lately converter once more turns on its hinge to the hori-
to be next to impossible, for the right amount could zontal position, the air-blast is shut off, and all is
not be easily controlled. More than this, there are once more quiet.
impurities in cast iron which made the resulting But the operation of steel-making is not yet com-
steel, so far as it could be made, almost useless. The plete. The carbon and other matters have been
Bessemer process obviates these difficulties, and driven off, and the air-blast has caused the metal
—
produces a good steel much cheaper than others to assume a far greater heat than it before
which is extensively used for all manner of pur- possessed. It remains now to supply it with a
poses. definite amount of carbon. This is done by
The Bessemer process is conducted by means of a adding to it a charge of cast iron of a particular
huge egg-shaped vessel called a “converter” (Fig. i). quality, containing a known amount of carbon, with
It is made of wrought iron, and has a thick lining ten per cent, of manganese. This metal is kept
of infusible- cement, made of fire-brick, sandstone, already melted in a cupola furnace, close to the
and other materials. It is supported, like a big mouth of the converter, and the two are readily
gun, on trunnions, one of which is hollow, and connected with one another by a clay-lined channel,
communicates by means of an iron pipe with through which the molten metal pours into the
the bottom of the vessel. This pipe is to supply converter. The steel is now ready to be cast into
the vessel with air, which it does by means of an ingots of four or five hundredweight apiece, and
air-chamber separating the real bottom from the in that form is ready for the manufacture of rails,
earthy lining. This lining is pierced with about plates, etc.
Fig. 2. — BESSEMtR CONVEKTEK WITH THE BLAST TURNED ON.
In dealing with these enormous masses of emptied of its molten contents, a large vessel
mouth, and to receive the
metal man’s unaided strength would avail him rises to meet its open
When this vessel sinks to the
little. The operations are conducted as far as heavy charge. full
number of ingot-moulds arranged in a

possible by the mighty aid of the hydraulic ram. level of a
and turns from one to the other,
We have already explained how the converter semicircle near it, a sufh'
as it pours from a hole in under surface
itself is upturned, and its movements regulated by
its
each one. In a short time an

hydraulic power, and the same aid is employed in cient quantity into
Thus, when the converter is hydraulic crane swings over the pit, and by its aid.
various other ways.
RESTORED TO LIFE. 229
each mould is seized, leaving its core, the red-hot ficient to carry it through all operations until it
ingot, behind it. This is als« removed from the appears as a manufactured and saleable article.
pit by hydraulic agency, and before long the con- Even if the ingot be delayed in its passage to the
verter is again roaring away with the burden of soaking-pit, so as to lose much of its heat, the
a fresh charge of iron. sides, being lined with bricks, have absorbed a
It will now be understood that in the Bessemer quantity of heat which is given back to the com-
process of manufacturing steel the metal is con- paratively cool ingot in question. One more
verted without the expenditure of any more fuel advantage is gained by this An
soaking process.
than that used to bring it to a fluid state in the ingot re-heated as of old, in the furnace, is bound
blast furnace while it was yet iron. But the steel to lose weight by oxidation. This loss is of course
ingot, fresh from the mould, is not yet ready for saved by the new method.
the rolling-mills. Its exterior quickly solidifies, Such is, briefly, the Bessemer system of making
but the interior holds the heat, and remains fluid, steel, a process which, at the time of its first
so that even some time after it has left the mould, introduction in 1855, was welcomed in all parts
if were possible to knock a hole in it, the
it of the world with the greatest enthusiasm. The
fluid contents would run out, leaving a metallic impetus which it has given to the arts generally,
shell. If, on the other hand, the ingot be kept in the application of steel to purposes from which
until the interior has its cost formerly ex-
become solid, the excluded it, show that
terior will have be- this enthusiasm was
come too cold for not unmerited nor
working. For these misdirected.
reasons the custom
had obtained of leaving
the ingots alone for RESTORED TO
some and then
time, LIFE.
re-heating them in a
special furnace, so that Those appearances
the exterior might be which are popularly
brought to a sufficient received as the sure
beat to fit the metal and certain indica-
for the action of the of death have
tions
rolling-mills. But in been repeatedly shown
June, 1882, Mr. John Gjers, of Middlesbrough, intro- to be common to certain rare forms of disease,
duced, at the Darlington Iron and Steel Company’s and death’s counterfeit has been so exactly like
works, a method of working which does away with the real thing as to defy the most careful and ex-
this re-heating, and the process has been found perienced attempts to detect it. Some of the most
so successful, and economical of time, labour, and wonderful of these instances are the following ;
fuel, that it is coming into use in all the more im- others could be given.
portant steel-works of the country. A pamphlet on this subject, published many years
By this new system the ingots, C (Fig. 3), after since by Dr. M. B. Lessing, of Berlin, gives the
being stripped from their moulds, are dropped into following story as one for the truth of which he
receptacles in ground called “ soaking-pits.”
the could vouch. The daughter of a wealthy French-
These pits, each a little larger than the ingot man was married in Paris against her will. Some
itself, are carefully constructed of fire-brick, and short time after, she died, as her friends supposed,
•other heat-holding materials, B B, with a bottom and with all the usual forms and ceremonies was
bed of non-conducting sand, and double covers, buried in the family tomb of her husband. The
A A, of iron lined with fire-brick, one of which is man she had loved bribed the sexton to permit
placed on the ingot and the other on the mouth of him to have a last look at her body, the aspect of
the pit, with an air-space between. By this treatment which convinced him that she was not dead.
the heat from the interior of the ingot gradually Restoratives were applied, by which she was
gets distributed throughout the metallic mass, until recalled to life, and she fled secretly with her
•one part is as hot as another. After about thirty lover to England, whence some years after they
minutes’ “soaking” in this pit — which
all the time ventured back to Paris, where she was recognised
has been carefully covered to keep out the cold by her husband. Legal proceedings were instituted,
air —
the ingot is raised, and looks very much hotter to which the lady and her lover replied by asserting
than when first deposited. It is now ready for the that the moral and lawful claim of a husband to the
rolling-mills, the initial heat which it received as body of his wife ceased when it was entombed.
cast iron having been by careful management suf- A record of this extraordinary case, says Dr. Lessing,
;

still exists in the “ Parliamentary Register.” The gradually recovered, the warmth increasing slowly
case was going in the husband’s favour, when the during five days and nights. After other desperate
lovers again took flight to England. adventures and narrow escapes he reached home.
Dr. Macnish, in his work, “The Philosophy of Monsieur de Thou, who knew the gentleman well,
Sleep,” mentions the case of a young lady in the and received the story from his own lips, is the
royal suite who had been long confined to her bed authority given for this astonishing narrative. It
by a severe nervous disease, of which she ultimately has been somewhat differently related by others.
appeared to die. Her lips became white, the face The above case resembles one mentioned by
assumed every indication oi death, and the body Plato, in which a warrior killed in battle was left
was icy cold. She was carried from the bed, placed amongst the dead for ten days, and came to life
in a coffin, and on the day of the funeral her friends again on being carried away.
assembled, and according to the practice of the Pliny mentions two cases in which Lucius Aviola
locality, dirges were chanted before the house. and Lucius Lamia came to life while on their
Just as the undertakers were about to nail down funeral pyres, but were too much burnt to be saved.
the coffin-lid, some one noticed signs of perspiration, The fate of the famous Abbd Provost, author of
which rapidly increased, and were followed by con- “ Manon Lescant,” is another case worth mention-
vulsive movements of the feet and hands. She ing. While passing through the forest of Chan-
presently opened her eyes, and uttered a wail of
|
tilly he was seized with an apoplectic fit. Some
agony and terror. She was in a few days restored wood-cutters found his body on the following morn-
to health, and stated that she seemed to be in !
ing, and believing it to be dead gave it to the
a dream, and was perfectly conscious of what they i
village surgeon, who, proceeding to open it, was

were doing with her, but was perfectly unable either horrified by discovering that the man was restored
to speak or move. The horror of hearing the I
to life. He died in consequence of the injuries so
people outside singing her dirge, and the men 1 inflicted.
beginning to nail down the coffin-lid, at last restored woman, who, during
Cullen mentions a hysterical
the power over her corporeal functions, and saved six days,had every sign of death, and yet came
her from being buried alive. back to life and Licelus mentions the case of a
;
Another instance belongs to the time of Queen nun he knew in Brescia, who, after a hysteric fit,
Elizabeth, and is recorded in connection with the |
remained without apparent life ten days and nights
siege of Rouen by Ambrose Dudley, Earl of before signs of life returned.
Warwick. Francis de St. Civile, leading his com- In a local paper published in Lancashire is an
pany into fight, received in his right cheek a musket- account of a Mr. William Cowherd, of Cartmel, in
shot which, passing obliquely downward, was buried that shire, who died, apparently, on the first Tuesday
in his neck. He bled terribly, fell, was taken up in J une, 1 778. All the common forms of ascertaining
for dead soon after, and committed to the grave. the reality of his death were used
a mirror applied :
A faithful servant of his family, who had been to the mouth and His brother, in
nostrils, etc.
in attendance upon him, being greatly concerned consequence of something he had read, was the
that his dear master’s body did not rest in con- only person who was not convinced of the man’s
secrated earth, procured the aid of several soldiers death. He insisted upon both the room and the
for its removal. They reached the spot in the body being kept perfectly warm, and in about five
quietude and gloom of the evening, and opened hours he was rewarded by signs of returning
many graves with great dispatch and secrecy, animation. The man gradually recovered strength,
being within reach of the guns of the besieged, and was once more restored to his friends and
but without finding the right one. As they were family.
about to abandon their task in despair the faithful In December, 1795, a supposed dead body was
follower saw by the light of their torch something found in an open field, taken in an open cart to the
sparkling with great brilliancy near the ground. workhouse, and placed beside another body really
It was a diamond in a ring worn by a slain soldier lifeless in the dead-house to await the coroner’s
arm and hand remained
so hastily interred that the visit. Some children peering in soon after noticed
uncovered. Going near to examine he recognised that the body last found appeared to be breathing.
it as his master’s. The corpse was dug up, A surgeon was sent for, and animation restored
recognised, and carried away. The servant carried within a few hours.
the body, and remarked with astonishment that it A rare pamphlet in the British Museum, called
was still warm. Pausing to rest he looked tearfully “A Wonder of Wonders,” etc., describes the case of
into the still white face that had smiled into his a woman named Anne Greene, whose death, as was
own so often and so kindly, and as he did so, supposed, followed her execution by hanging for
noticed, with a strange thrill, signs of faint the murder of her infant, a crime of which she was
breathing. They hurried on and reached a house afterwards proved innocent. Her trial was con-
when, placed in a warm bed, De St. Civile very ducted in a hurried and shamefully careless way.
RESTORED TO LIFE. 231
and she was hanged at Oxford on the loth of January, one in his “Gleanings and Recollections,” and the
At the ladder-foot she earnestly and solemnly other in “ Personal
his Recollections,” both
1650.
protested her innocence and after she was thrust
;
mention as true the case of an Irishman named
off, her cousin, at her request, hung with all his Lonergan, or Lanegan. He was a well-educated
weight from her feet, and swung with her to ensure man, engaged as a tutor by Mr. Thomas O’Flaherty,
her quick and certain death, to hasten which one of Castlefield, in the county of Kilkenny, with whose
of the soldiers standing by struck her four or five wife he had a criminal intrigue. On June 8, 1778,
violent blows upon the breast. She remained O’Flaherty died under suspicious circumstances,
suspended for half an hour, and was then cut down. and warrants were issued for the arrest of both the
Her body, which had been stamped upon while in wife and the tutor. She escaped he was taken, ;
the coffin, was given up for dissection, and conveyed but remained untried until 1781, in consequence of
to the residence of an apothecary, where the doctors certain legal quibbles. On the 12th of November
and students met to witness the operations, and he was pronounced guilty, and sentenced to be
hear the usual lecture upon that process. The hanged and quartered, he having been arraigned
body being stripped and placed upon a table, all for what was then called “ petit treason.” Lonergan
present were startled to perceive faint signs of persistently declared his innocence. He was
breathing. One, Dr. Petty, took her hand, and, hanged on a severely cold, inclement morning,
placing his ear to the temple, declared that she was cut down twenty minutes after, and placed face
alive. She was bled, and placed in a warm bed with downward in the coffin, while the executioner, in
a woman who was induced to lie beside her to in- formal compliance with the sentence of quartering,
crease the heat. She was also rubbed with oils. made two incisions in the back of the neck with
After fully fourteen hours had elapsed she opened his knife, one crossing the other. The body was
her eyes and spoke. The pamphlet says — “ This then given to his friend McKenna, a priest, who
poor creature, whom God, of His infinite mercy, superintended its apparent burial in a very deep
hath evidently manifested love unto, is now grave, where a watch was kept for fear of body-
indifferently well recovered, and can walk up snatchers. But the real body, restored to life, w'as
and down her chamber but her neck is very sore
;
secreted in the priest’s house, where the father of
and black withal her breast and stomach much
;
Mr. Porter saw him. The man afterwards escaped
bruised yet her pains dissuage daily and divers,
; ;
to America, where, under the name of James
both in city and country, frequent hourly to behold Fennel, he became well knowm as an able school-
her. At her first recovery she seemed to be much master.
aghast, her eyes being ready to start out of her A man named Reynolds, condemned to death for
head but by the great pains of honest and faithful
;
pulling down Lothbury turnpike, was executed at
Doctor Petty she is miraculously recovered, which Tyburn in July, 1736. After hanging the usual
moved many of her enemies to wrath and indigna- time, he was cut down, and put into his coffin for
tion, in so much that a great man amongst the rest burial as dead but as they were about to fasten
;
moved have her again carried to the place

to down the lid, he thrust it aside and tried to rise.
of execution, to be hung up by the neck, contrary He would have been again suspended had not the
to all law, reason, and justice.” She was saved from spectators carried him off, after cruelly beating the
this end by the soldiers of Fairfax and Cromwell, executioner. He died from the injuries he had
who were then in Oxford. The author of the received very soon after.
pamphlet was, it is believed. Dr. Bathurst, after- On the 3rd of September, 1736, a man named
wards President of Trinity College, Oxford. Venham w'as executed with another, named
In the year 1350 a malefactor, named Walter Harding, at Bristol. Venham recovered in a similar
Wynkbourne, was hanged in Leicester, and after way, and was restored to life by the timely aid of a
being suspended the usual time, his body was taken surgeon, and he, like Reynolds, died soon after in
down for burial, and placed in a cart for conveyance great agony from the injuries received. The man
to St. Sepulchre’s churchyard. On the way it was who W'as executed with him was also restored to
discovered that he was alive, and a violent alter- life, and w'as visited by a large number of people
cation arose between the priests, who gave the at the Bridewell. We can find no record of his
criminal sanctuary, and the man’s prosecutors, who after fate.
demanded his life, and would have had him hanged man and a boy employed
In September, 1811, a
again. King Edward, who was then at the in fixinga pump on Beeston-hili, near Leeds, on
monastery, desired the man to be brought before descending w'ere overcome by foul air, and fell to
him, and after examination, granted him his pardon, the bottom. The boy was recovered first, and scon
saying in Latin, “ God gave thee life, and the king restored to animation, but the body of the man
gives thee pardon.” remained where it w’as three-quarters of an hour,
Frank Thorpe Porter, a once well-known and when brought to view life w'as supposed to
Dublin magistrate, and Sir Jonah Barrington, the be perfectly extinct. The body remained with
every appearance of death upon it nearly an hour, !!
his fancy had deceived him, when the eyes of the
and then suddenly began to display symptoms of supposed corpse slowly opened. The “ dead ”
returning animation. man soon after completely recovered, and stated
Amongst other numerous well-authenticated in- that every word of the quarrel between the two
stances of men pronounced dead by competent priests had been heard by him, and he remembered
authorities being really alive is that of Isaac enough to convince them that he had done so.
Rooke, who in
July, 1794, in a close was found Early in the commencement of the present
near Nottingham, to all appearance a corpse. He century Sir Hugh Ackland was a well-known
had been discharged from St. Bartholomew’s personage all through Devonshire. He had a
Hospital in London some few days previously, and favourite servant, whom he always called his
was on his way to Chesterfield, where he had a “ brandy footman,” and to whom, on his death, he
brother. The supposed body was placed on a left handsome annuity. The origin of this
a very
board and conveyed to St. Peter’s Church, where servant’s odd cognomen is thus explained Some:
—
it was seen by a medical man, who instructed the years before. Sir Hugh was attacked by fever, of
clerk to give notice to the coroner. Just as those which it was believed he died. He was “laid out,”
present were leaving the church one thought he saw and two of the footmen were appointed, with the
the stomach of the body moving, and another nurse, to watch the body. They all drank freely of
examination showed that the poor fellow was really brandy; and one of the footmen said that his
alive. He was removed to a neighbouring public- master so dearly loved brandy when he was alive,
house, put into a warm bed, and proper methods that he was determined to give him a drop now he
were used for his perfect recovery, so that in a few was dead. This fellow accordingly filled a glass
days he was again on the road to his brother’s with the spirit, and poured it down the throat of
house. He told the people at the public-house the supposed corpse. The result was a curious
that he was subject to fits, in one of which he had noise in the throat, followed by a desperate con-
once before been mistaken for a corpse, and actually vulsiv'e movement of the neck and chest. This so
placed in a coffin for burial, when he was seen to terrified them that the men rushed headlong from
move, and so rescued from the grave. It was the room, tumbling one over the other down the
always his practice, after the second escape, to stairs, and the nurse up such a terrific
set series of
carry a written paper in his pocket directing those shrieks that she aroused the whole house. A
young
who might find and suppose him dead in what way gentleman, who was the first room
to reach the
to act. they had so precipitately abandoned, started back
In a work by Andre, printed at Rouen
M. de St. with astonishment to find the supposed corpse
in 1700, and entitled “Reflections on the Nature sitting upright,and struggling for life. He was
of Remedies their Effects and Manner of Acting,”
;
removed to a warm bed, the doctor was sent for,
we find the following case of extraordinary resuscita- and in a few weeks Sir Hugh was up and about, a
tion :
—A gentleman sixty years
of age attacked by healthy, vigorous man.
a fever had, as was believed, died. As there was
something singular in the manner of his death, a
post-mortem examination was asked for, and per- TURQUOISE MINES.
mission given for its performance, the preparations
for the funeral going on in the meantime. It so From times of remote antiquity all nations have
happened that there was a dispute between two prized those minerals which from their rarity or
priests as to the right of each to conduct the beautiful appearance could be described as pre-
religious ceremony of the funeral, and watch and cious stones. Among these the turquoise has ever
pray beside the body for the departed soul. They held a foremost place, not only on account of its
met in the presence of the dead, began a dispute pure colour, which an old writer compares to “a
which ended in high words, and at last in blows. clear sky, free from all clouds,” but on account of
The father of M. Andrd was summoned to stop certain talismanic properties which it has been
this unseemly quarrel, and seeing that the face of supposed to possess. A Russian proverb tells us
the corpse had been uncovered, went to the bed to that the gift of this stone confers upon the recipient
re-cover it. As he did so, he saw, or fancied he saw, happiness and good fortune, and we are further
some sign of life, but on examination,' discovering no informed that the turquoise will pale in its colour
motion of respiration or pulsation, he concluded should the donor happen to be in any kind of
that he was mistaken. The impression remaining, trouble or danger. The Arabs have other super-
he, however, again applied his touch to the head, stitions connected with the turquoise, and will on
and fancied he felt a verj^ slight, scarcely perceptible, this account be content to purchase those less
pulsation. He called for wine, rubbed the nose, perfect gems, which, because of being covered
lips, and temple with it, poured a little sevêral with white specks, fetch a comparatively low price
times into the mouth, and had just concluded that in the market.
TURQUOISE MINES. 233
The true turquoise has a blue or greenish-blue over and over in the roughest and most primitive
colour, and is quite opaque, except in some in- way, in search of the coveted stone. One of these
stances where the edge of the gem seems to be mines is represented by a bed of light earth, full of
translucent. capable of receiving a high
It is pits, having quite a deserted appearance. Another,
polish, has a conchoidal fracture, and is of the known as the Black Mine, is crowded with dark
following chemical composition : — brown stones, which have from time to time been
Phosphoric Acid ... 30 '90 thrown out of the excavations. These stones and
Alumina 44 50 the adjacent rocks are full of crevices, in which
Oxide of Copper ... 375 appear veins of blue matter, presumably stained by
Oxide of Iron ... i 'So oxide of copper, from which the turquoise seems to
Water I9’5 be formed. Small nodules of the gem are here
TURQUOISE MINES AT KHOKASSAN.
The finest examples of the gem are procured found attached to fragments of stone, and appear-
from certain mines at Khorassan, a place south- ing like pimples of the finest blue. Part of the
east of the Caspian Sea, and about forty miles excavations are covered with a white efflorescence
west of the town of Nishapore, of which our illus- which the natives asserted to be alum, but this
tration is a general view. These mines were could not be determined by the traveller, because
visited by Mr. James Fraser, who has left an inte- the rocks where it occurred were quite inaccessible.
resting account of them in a book published in In the chief of these mines, from which the best
1826, “Travels and Adventures in the Persian stones were obtained, the rocks were more varied
Provinces.” in their tints, and consisted of a kind of clay por-
From this account we gather that the gem is phyry, the larger specimens of turquoise being
found in one particular hill, which has been exca- found in a yellow ochreous clay.
vated in different directions forming six distinct The
hill in which these
general mass of this
mines. Butit must not be thought that these have been made consists of
several excavations
diggings are mines in the English acceptation of porphyritic rock, intermingled with beds of clay
the word, for most of them appear to be simple and conglomerate tinged with iron, the blue veins
pits in the earth, where the soil has been turned already spoken of being disseminated throughout
E E
in an irregular manner. As already pointed out, the escape of heated air and other gases. The
the mines are worked in a slovenly manner, the turquoise here also found in veins, and small
is
right of working being purchased from the Govern- nuggets, large specimens being so rare that often
ment by the inhabitants of the adjacent villages. many tons of rock are removed without yielding
Parties of these workers combine together and a single stone.
divide the proceeds of their labours, the stones The
value of the turquoise varies so greatly that
being afterwards sold to travelling merchants, it is almost impossible to give a fair idea of the
who visit the mines at stated periods, or sent to price any stone will fetch. perfect specimen ofA
the town of Musked for disposal. They are sold the size of a shilling is said to have been sold
as single stones, or with part of the parent rock still some years back for £i,oo. Another, nearly two
attached to them, but in the latter case their value inches long, in the possession of a jeweller at
is of course much reduced. The stone-cutters Moscow, was valued at double that surn but its ;
live at Mushed, which in Mr. Fraser’s time repre- price was probably enhanced from having been
sented the chief seat of the trade. From this place engraved with a verse from the Koran, and having
the turquoises were sent to different countries, a history attached to it.
the finest finding their way, via Herat and Can- The true turquoise must not be confounded with
dahar, to India, whilst, by means of merchants what is known as the bone, or fossil turquoise. In
trading with Russia, others reached Europe. Siberia, and also some parts of France, this stone
At the Exhibition of 1851, Major C. Macdonald is found. It is supposed to be really the tooth of some
exhibited some turquoises which he had, two years fossil mammalia, which has become coloured by
previously, collected in Arabia Petrasa. His ac- long contact with metallic oxides. It is easily
count of finding these stones is interesting. He distinguished from the true stone by chemical
—
says “ In the year 1849, during my travels in tests. The turquoise can be readily imitated, but
Arabia in search of antiquities, I was led to ex- the factitious gem cannot be made to approach
amine a very lofty range of mountains composed the genuine stone in hardness.
of iron-sandstone, many days’ journey in the
desert. Whilst descending a mountain of about
6,000 feet high, by a deep and precipitous gorge, PHILOSOPHICAL ECCENTRICITIES.
which in the winter-time served to carry off the water,
I found a bed of gravel, where I perceived a great The names under which scientific societies arose
many small blue objects mixed with the other in Sicily in the latter half of the sixteenth century,
stones on collecting them I found they were tur-
;
when experimental philosophy was in its infancy,
quoises of the finest colour and quality. On con- are very curious. One was called “ The Drunken,”
tinuing my researches through the entire range “
another The Rekindled,” a third “ The Saddened,”
of mountains, I discovered many valuable deposits a fourth “ Sympathetic,” a fifth “ The Intrepid,”
of the same stones, some quite pure like pebbles, and others “The Della Crusca,” “The Inflam-
others in the matrix. Sometimes they are found mable,” “ The Pensive,” “ The Humorous,” “ The
in nodules varying in size from a pin’s head to a Sleepy,” “ The Unripened,” &c. Of one “ The Lyn-
hazel-nut, and when in this formation they are cean,” Galileo was a member. The Academy Della
usually of the finest quality and colour. The Crusca survived its fellows some hundreds of years.
action of the weather gradually loosens them from In its hall of meeting in the Palazzo Ricardi the
the rock, and they are rolled into the ravines. chairs for the members had their backs shaped like
In the winter season they become mixed up by winnowing shovels, and the seats were made to
the torrents with the beds of gravel in which they resemble sacks. On election each member as-
are found. Another formation is where they ap- sumed some name connected with the miller’s
pear in veins, and sometimes of such a size as to trade, and was awarded with all due business-like
be of immense value. They also occur in a soft form and stately ceremony a large estate in
yellow sandstone of a surpassing brilliancy of Arcadia.
colour. Another very common form is where As illustrative of the investigations pursued
they are combined with innumerable small coloured before these societies, one experiment may be
quartz crystals, and which has the appearance of mentioned which for long after was accepted as
a mass of sand, small pebbles, and turquoise, all conclusive, although now pronounced fallacious.
firmly cemented together. This formation is one A sphere of gold was filled with water, through
of the most peculiar in the whole collection. which it was forced by pressure, and this was held
More recently the turquoise has been found in to be sufficient proof that water was perfectly
Mexico, at a place about twenty-two miles south- incompressible. We owe, however, many useful
west of Santa Fd. The rocks where they occur hints and discoveries to these early investigators of
are of a white colour like China clay, and exhibit nature’s works. Our own Royal Society gravely
evidence of decomposition, due, it is believed, to discussed the most absurd pretensions and sup-
THE TALLEST TREES IN THE WORLD. 235
posed facts, such as were the questions Do THE

TAJ.LEST TREES IN THE
diamonds and other precious stones grow again WORLD.
after three or four years m the same places where
” “ What river is It is usually considered that this epithet belongs,
they have been digged out ?
that in Java-Major that turns wood into stone.?” par excellence, to the famous “ Big Trees ” m Cali-
“ Whether, in the island of Sumbero, which lyeth fornia, variously known by the names of Welling-
northward of Sumatra about eight degrees, northern tonia or Sequoia. These are, however, far surpassed
latitude, there be found such a vegetable as Mr. in height, and probably also in the total amount of
James Lancaster relates to have seen, which grows timber in a single tree, by the real giants of the
up to a tree, shrinks down, when one offers to vegetable kingdom, the noble Gum-trees of the
pluck it up, into the ground, and would quite genus Eucalyptus, which grow in the Victorian
shrink unless held very hard And, whether the State Forest, on the slopes of the mountains
.?
same, being forcibly plucked up, hath a worm for dividing Gipps Land from the rest of the colony of
its root, diminishing more and more, according as Victoria, and also in the mountain-ranges north
the trees grow in greatness and: as soon as the of Cape Otway, the first land which is usually
worm is wholly turned into the tree, rooting in the “ made ” by any vessel bound from England for
ground and so growing great ? And whether the Melbourne direct. As will presently be shown,
same, plucked up young, turns by the time it is dry there are only four of the Californian trees known
into a hard stone, much like to white coral ?” One to be above 300 feet high, the tallest being 325 feet,
of the papers actually published by this society and and only about sixty have been measured that
communicated by its president. Sir Robert Moray, exceed 200 feet in height. In the large tracts near
describes as seen by the writer in the western the sources of the Watts river, however, (a northern
Islands of Scotland shells adhering to trees, each branch of the Yarra-yarra, at the mouth of which
containing a perfectly-shaped bird of a small size. Melbourne is built j all the trees average from 250
In the minute-book of the old Philosophical to 300 feet in height, mostly straight as an arrow,
Society of Oxford mention is made of a hand- and with very few branches. Many fallen trees
kerchief brought from China made from the wool measure 350 feet in length, and one huge specimen
of the salamander {Linnm asbesti), which was was discovered lately which was found, by actual
placed before the members in a fierce charcoal fire measurement with a tape, to be 435 feet long from
without being burnt, and even when oiled and its roots to where the trunk had been broken off by
replaced in the fire remaining uninjured, the oil the fall and at that point it was 3 feet in diameter,
;
being burnt away and the handkerchief unchanged so that the entire tree could not have been less
'
save in the loss of weight to the extent of two than 500 feet in total height. It was 18 feet in
drachms and five grains, and in its becoming while diameter at 5 feet from the ground, and was a
hot, brittle. This was no doubt asbestos. Eucalyptus of either of the species E. obliqua or
In the Ashmolean Museum is figured the head of E. amygdalina.
a dodo, a dragon’s head, and two feathers from the It should be noted that these gigantic trees do
tail of a phoenix, together with the claw of a rocke, not, like their Californian prototypes, grow in small
a bird “ able to trusse an elephant,” an entire and isolated groves, towering above smaller speci-
dragon two inches long, a bird of Paradise “with- mens of the same, or of closely-allied kinds, but
out legges,” &c. that, both in the Dandenong and the Otway ranges,
One of the philosophers of the seventeenth nearly every tree in the forest, over a large area, is
century. Sir Kenelm Digby, a member of enormous scale.
the on this Although they are not 40
Royal Society, proceeded to apply science to the miles distant from Melbourne, and a coach runs
preservation of beauty in the person of his wife, from thence through the forest three times a week,
by feeding her upon capons fattened on a diet of the existence of these vegetable giants is scarcely
vipers. He believed he had discovered the unknown to Melbourne people and it was only after ;
known power which united men and things almost many fruitless inquiries among his Melbourne
in the way described in Youths’ Christmas story of friends, and a reference to Baron Von Muller, F.R.S.,
the learned professor who traced the same sym- the Government botanist, that the present writer
pathy, which he illustrated in the case of lambs and was put in the way of seeing them. A ready
green peas, and that of geese, sage and onions. means of reaching them is therefore here given.
Hardly less strange was Bishop Wilkins’s grand A Melbourne coach runs up the valley of the Yarra,
project displayed in his philosophical work entitled through the Victorian vineyards, where most excel-
“ The Discovery of a New Worlde or, a Discourse lent red and white wines are made, to Healesville,
;
tending to prove that it is probable there may be about thirty miles from Melbourne. From there, a
another habitable World in the Moone, with a splendid road, engineered on the side of the forest-
discourse concerning the probability of a Passage covered hills, leads to Fernshaw, seven miles dis-
thither.” tant, a small township beautifully situated in a glen
at the foot of the Black Spur, in the valley of Watts wonderful trees but no picture can convey a cor-
;
river. In December, 1880, the hotel was, and had rect impression of their enormous height.
been for the previous sixteen years, kept by Mr. These Eucalypti are in factmore remarkable for
Jefferson, the members of whose family are capital their height, and for their remarkably straight
guides in the forest, and point out all the finest trees. trunks, branchless for at least half their height, than
Fig. I. — AUSTRALIAN GUM-TREE (Eucalyptus). (From a Photograph.)
Continuing along the same road for three or four j

for their girth, inwhich respect they do not come
miles more, the top of the Black Spur is reached, ! up to the largest Wellingtonias. The largest one,
an ascent of 1,200 feet having been made, and in however, known as “ Big Ben,” cannot be quite
the course of this walk several of the tallest trees |
spanned by the outstretched arms of elevên men.
are seen quite near to the road. Some of them are One very striking feature in the scene is the
j
occasionally felled, and the manner of doing this is

|
exceeding size and luxuriance of the tree-ferns
shown in the annexed engraving, from a photo- |
which form the undergrowth in this forest of giants,
graph. The illustration gives some idea of the These are themselves about 50 feet high, occasion-
scale of the lower portions of the trunks of these j
ally even taller, and it is really not until a compari-
1
THE TALLEST TREES IN THE WORLD. 237
son is made between the height of a man and of those he is familiar with, to the standard of his
the tree-ferns, and of these again with the Eucalypti, own brackens or male ferns, and cannot realise
that the observer can form anything like a correct that some of them would stretch over the roof of
iwmm r II 1,
Fig. 2.— BIG TREE OF CALIFORNIA (Sequoia gigantea). (From a Photograph.)
idea of the scale of the scene presented to his a lofty church. Miss Marianne North’s draw-
astonished gaze. Looking at a photograph of the ings made near Fernshaw, and with exceedingly
whole scene, the European naturally refers all the great liberality presented, with several hundred
graceful ferns, similar in general appearance to other floral landscapes, to the nation, and exhibited
—
23 « 'I'HE WORLD OF WONDERS.

at Kew Gardens, fail to convey a correct notion of Palace at Sydenham, where it was unfortunately
the size of these trees, although the general char- burnt. The following table gives the measurements
acteristics of the vegetation of the district are most of some of the largest ;
faithfully rendered. Circum/erence

may be well now
compare with these
to Name. Height. 6 yt. above ground.
It
Keystone State ... 325 feet ... ... 45 feet
Eucalypti, the Wellingtonias, or, more properly,
General Jackson • 319 .. 40 >.
the Sequoias, of California, the only others which Mother of the Forest ... ... 3‘5 61 „
can compare with them. They were first dis- Daniel Webster ... 307 „ 47 »
P. StarrKing ... 283 52
covered in 1852, and were carefully described by ,,
Jas.King of William ... ... 274 > 51 »

botanists two years later, when seeds of them Mother and Son ... 261 ,, 51 »
found their way to Europe they are now known ;
Geo. Washington ... 256 „ 51 1.
Fig. 3. — IMPROMPTU BALL ON THE STUMP OF A Sequoia.
as Sequoia gigantea., 7mA are closely allied to the red- Most of the trees in this grove, and some in a
wood, or Sequoia sempervirens, both being Conifera. more recently discov'ered grove three or four miles
The latter is strictly a coast-range or seaboard tree, to the south of it, bear tablets of wood or of marble
while twin brother, the “Big Tree ” is e.xclusively
its inscribed with names. Some
of these are fanciful,
limited to the Sierra, and only occurs between 5,000 but others are memorable such as Lafayette, Sir
;
and 7,000 feet above the sea, and between 36'^ and John Franklin, John Bright, William H. Seward,
37'’ 15' north latitude. It has never been found Gen. Sherman, &c. Four, of white marble, bear-
out of California, and probably never will be. As ing the names of Humboldt, Agassiz, Charles Sum-
stated above, the “ Big Tree,” occurs in groves or ner, and Argyll, were put up in 1870 by two Boston
patches, of which there are eight, more or less gentlemen, the last-named tablet being in grateful
known, but only two are usually visited by travel- remembrance of the Duke of Argyll’s advocacy of
lers. That known as the Calaveras grove, the one the cause of Liberty and Law during the American
first of all discovered, is one of these. It occupies Civil War.
a belt 3,200 feet long by 700 feet broad, and con- The felling of one of the trees in this grove
tains about ninety large trees, from one of which occupied men, with pump augers, twenty-two
five
the bark was stripped for exhibition in the Crystal days. At 40 feet from the ground it was again cut
— a
TORPEDO WARFARE. 239
through, and 1,255 rings of growth w'cre counted ;

improvements they may be looked upon as mere
it is not known at present, however, whether the toys, they represent the type of one class of tor-
growth-periods so marked were annual or not. pedo i.e.^ that which is in a fixed position, anchored
The second grove, known by the name of Mari- to the ground, and intended only for purposes of de-
posa, is si.xteen miles south of the celebrated fence. The gunpowder with which they were charged
Yosemitd valley, and contains, in an area of 3,700 has now given place to the far more powerful gun-
feet by 2,300 feet, 125 trees above 40 feet in cir- cotton, dynamite, and other modern explosives of
cumference. None of them are as high as, though ,
the same death-dealing family and whereas the ;
those in the Calaveras “ infernal machine ” was hazardous to friends and

they are larger in girth than,
grove, as the following few measurements will show. foes alike —being quite uncontrollable —the modern
The tallest tree is 272 feet high, but there are stationary torpedo can be so controlled that a
two above 90 feet in circumference at the ground, friendly ship can pass unscathed above it, while an
seven between 80 and 90 feet, seven between 70 enemy’s vessel can by it be as easily sunk to
and 80 feet, and four between 60 and 70 feet. the bottom.
Through one of the dead trunks a road has been In the war between Austria and Italy, large
cut along which a carriage and pair can readily be torpedoes were used as a protection to the water-
driven and a ring of bark stripped from another
;
ways of Venice and although they were, like the
;
formed all but the roof of a good-sized shanty, and Russian “ infernal machines,” sunk under water,
was used as such. Perhaps the best idea of the they were under perfect control from the shore by
size of these trees will, how'ever, be gathered from means of electric wires. These torpedoes consisted
our third illustration, copied from a New York en- of huge barrels, each containing about 400 !b.
* graving, which represents an impromptu ball got of gun-cotton. Chained to a framework resting
up by a party of Arnerican excursionists on the on the ground, they floated a few feet below the
levelled stump of one of these forest giants, which surface of the water. In order that those on land
was found on measurement to be about twelve might know when an enemy’s ship passed over one
yards in diameter. of these submarine mines, a most ingenious plan
A number of these trees have been seri-
great was adopted. Most of our readers will know what
ously damaged by fire, both by the Indians and by a camera obscura is there is one at the Crystal
;
the white settlers. In one case, a tree of which a Palace, for instance. Entering a dark room, one
large portion of the bark had been burnt away still sees in the centre a w'hite table, upon which, by
measured 103 feet in circumference near the ground, means of a mirror and lens fixed in an aperture
and into the trunk of a prostrate one which had —
above the ceiling usually of a dome shape—
been burnt hollow three horsemen could ride picture of all that passing outside is visible.
is We
abreast for a distance of 30 feet, its height and see crowds of people, and can even recognise our
width being 1 1 feet. own friends, if any happen to be within reach of the
lens. Now,w'as this contrivance that was cleverly
it
applied by the Austrian engineers to the purpose of

torpedo warfare. When the torpedoes were first
TORPEDO WARFARE. laid in their respective places, the operation was

carefully watched on the white table of such a
Among engines of war which have lately attracted camera obscura. As each mine was sunk in its
attention, and which have formed the subject bed, its place was marked on the table, so that
of repeated experiments, are those explosive afterwards, if an enemy’s ship w'ere to sail over one
mines for use at sea called “torpedoes.” Their of these marked spots, the touch of a trigger,
origin is by no means modern, for floating structures making electric connection with a battery under
containing gunpowder were used by the English control of the observer, w-ould explode the torpedo
more than 250 years back, at the siege of Rochelle. and sink the vessel. As events turned out, it did
At the Crimea, the Russians, for the protection of not become necessary during the war referred to
their harbours, used iron vessels sunk below water, to test the efficiency of this system.
and filled with powder. These were so primed Later on, another very clever way of tracing a
with a chemical mixture that the blow from a ship’s course over sunken mines was elaborated.
passing vessel would explode the charge. In the This plan is available for a larger extent of sur-
—
American civil war, torpedoes as they were then face than that which could be correctly controlled
first named —
took a far more important part, for it by the former method. Let us suppose that a large
is on record that about forty Federal ships were bay is the piece of water in which certain torpedoes
blown up and sunk by their aid. are sunk as a protection, perhaps two miles away
The rough contrivances adopted by the Russians from land. On the shores of the bay two observing
in the Crimea just mentioned were called “ infernal stations are established, two miles apart from one
machines ” and although, in the light of recent another.
;
These two stations are connected by an
electric cable. Wires from each sunken torpedo ! of twenty-five miles per hour. They may be
are also carried to the shore stations, so that when divided into two groups : first-class and second-
j
the circuit is any one of the torpedoes can

closed, class. The second-class boats are small, and
be exploded at will. At each station there is a i
intended to be carried by ironclads, to be dropped
telescope, which is turned horizontally upon a kind into the water when required. The first-class
of dial, and the marks upon this dial show when the on the other hand, are large enough
launches,
instrument is pointing towards a torpedo spot. If to take care of themselves, and to undertake more
an enemy’s ship come within the field of view of aggressive duties. The part played by one of these
this telescope, the operator depresses a key, to make torpedo-launches is likely to be a very important
electrical contact with the e.xploding battery. But one in future warfare. Insignificant-looking in
no explosion will take place unless the operator at itself, it may be compared to a little snake whose
the other station has gone through a similar poisonous fangs are capable of killing a creature
experience. In other words, the approaching ship two or three hundred times its own size. Launched
must be seen by both operators through their under the cover of night, it can speed along the
telescopes, and each must depress .the electrical water almost silently, until it reaches an enemy’s
key under his control before an explosion can ship. A spar, having at its end a charge of
take place. It can be easily understood how a dynamite— a spar torpedo, as it is called— is thrust
ship, to one operator, might appear to be in the out from the little touches the side
vessel, until it
right place, while the other operator, having a side of the enemy’s ship, far under water, in a vulnerable
view, as
it were, would clearly notice that the place. A terrific explosion follows ;
the little
vessel was half a mile away from danger. vessel quickly glides away, and the wounded ship
The remarkable change which has taken place almost as quickly fills with water, and sinks.
in the naval armament of this and other countries, In order to be protected against these insidious
in the substitution of ironclad vessels for “wooden enemies, our ironclads are furnished with many
walls,” has stimulated inventors to contrive modes of defence. A powerful electric light, for
methods of destroying those massive men-of-war instance, is arranged so that it can sweep the seas
against which ordinary missiles are powerless. with its rays for many miles all round. By this
The submarine torpedo is, of course, effective means the smallest boat is quickly discerned, and
enough for this purpose, but such engines can only precautions against approach are speedily
its
be used near land and the modern ironclad is so

; organised. The can be protected
hull of the ship
heavily armed that it can throw its huge projectiles with a kind of crinoline of rope-work but this ;
from an immense distance while it is out of harm’s defensive armour is of a cumbrous and ineffectual
way itself These considerations led to the intro- nature. The powerful machine guns, placed in
duction of the torpedo-launch, a large number of different parts of the ship, can keep up a continual
which vessels are now attached to our own navy. hail of bullets of such a size as to easily pierce the
France, Russia, Italy, and even Norway and Sweden, thin shell which composes the hull of a torpedo-
are all furnished with similar vessels. In these boat. It also becomes necessary for the ironclads
launches the torpedo no longer appears as a themselves to carry torpedoes and the annexed ;
weapon of defence, but as an engine of offence cut shows the arrangements provided on board
of the most terrible character. Our torpedo-boats the Inflexible to meet this want.
are built of thin and furnished with such
steel, This sketch brings us to a more forward point in
powerful engines that rnany of them attain a speed the history of torpedoes, in the consideration of
TORPEDO WARI'ARR. 41
ERICSSON,
CATTAIN
OF
TOKTEDO-VESSEL
DESTROYER
IHli
F F
those which are not only locomotive, but contain necessarily be with the torpedoes which we have
within themselves their own motive power. Still described. For particular and
smooth
uses, in
referring to the figure, we can learn something
where there is little current to divert its
seas,
about the nature of these improved engines of course, the Whitehead is likely to hold its own for
destruction. Under the guidance of two sailors, some time to come, but for harbour defence, where
a cigar-shaped structure, having a screw propeller contrary currents very often abound, a more certain
at one end, is being wheeled on a truck, preparatory implement must be employed. Such a one is that
to being inserted in a hydraulic tube. The other contrived by Colonel Lay, which at present stands
end of this tube is, by means of a closed port, in by itself as a locomotive torpedo, and which can
communication with the sea outside. The cigar- be steered from a vessel or from the shore with
shaped body is a Whitehead’s torpedo, and by the such unerring certainty, that it can thread its way
initial thrust given to it by the hydraulic tube, as between obstacles until it reaches the object of its
well as by its screw propeller, worked by com- attack.
pressed air, it is urged through the water at great The Lay torpedo is a cigar-shaped steel structure,
speed, and will travel 500 yards at least before its measuring twenty-six feet in length by two feet in
motive power is exhausted. These torpedoes now breadth at the widest part. It is divided into three
form part of the armament of many other nations compartments the bow section containing the
;
—
besides our own. The objections to their use are explosive charge 90 lb. to 150 lb. of dynamite ;
the uncertainty of aiming them so that they will the middle section the motive power carbonic acid —
travel to their assigned destination, their liability to gas and the after section the steering apparatus.
;
be turned far out of the right track by strong tides The weight of the entire machine is a ton and a
or currents, and the loss of all control over them half. It is guided in its course by means of
when once they have commenced their Journey electricity, furnished by a battery at the starting-
through the water. We shall presently see that point, and the means of communication are pro-
these difficulties have been obviated in a re- vided by light wire, which is paid out by the
markable way by a more recent invention. torpedo itself as it proceeds through the water.
In the meantime, we will glance at a formidable By direction of the Turkish Government, this
torpedo-vessel invented by Captain Ericsson, the torpedo was lately submitted to a trial of the
Swedish engineer, which was built a few years most rigorous nature. A spot on the Bosphorus
ago in America, and very appropriately named was chosen where rapid and contrary currents
the Destroyer. Our picture of it will show that abound to an extent which would puzzle a skilful
its hull is almost completely submerged, a small oarsman. Two boats were moored close together
superstructure appearing alone above the surface about one mile from the shore, and when the
of the water. Its propeller and rudder are so torpedo was let loose it was steered from the shore
far beneath the surface as to be quite safe from shot so accurately that it ran between them, turned
and shell, and its engines and boiler are in like round, and came back to the starting-point. It
manner fully protected. The vessel is 130 feet will be seen from this experiment that the torpedo
long, eleven feet deep, with an extreme breadth of can no longer be regarded as a thing which may
twelve feet. It will be thus seen that its shape is hit or miss an approaching vessel, but it can be
extremely narrow for its length, so that while it trained, like some living thing, to go out to meet its
presents, end on., a very small point to aim at, it can enemy. The Lay torpedo represents the most
travel through the water at a tremendous speed. It perfect and most deadly engine of its class but ;
carries a special form of locomoljve torpedo, some- while we admire its ingenuity, we cannot help
what like the Whitehead and the sketch will regretting that so much skill should be employed
;
sufficiently indicate how the weapon is launched in compassing the destruction of human lives.
from a tube below the prow of the vessel. The
total cost of the Destroyer is £,20,000—a small The Growth of Coral. — After a cruise of a
sum when we compare it with the value of the few months in the South Pacific in 1881, a French
ships which it has been designed to annihilate. man-of-war was recently found to have specimens
There no kind of doubt that under favourable
is of living coral growing upon her hull. This in-
conditions it would be capable of sinking any iron- teresting discovery has thrown some light on the
clad afloat. question of the rapidity of growth of corals. The
Improvements in weapons of offence and defence evidence tends to show that the vessel on passing
come so quickly one upon the other, that any a reef of the Gambier Islands, against which it
particular invention has hardly been experimented rubbed, had picked up a young fungia, which ad-
upon and adopted before it is pronounced obsolete hered to the sheathing of the ship, and grew to the
by the introduction of some far more effective size and weight it had when observed —
a diameter
appliance. So it has been with our armour-plates, of 9 inches, and a weight of 2^ pounds in nine —
our big guns, and our small arms, and so it must weeks.
FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS. 243
THE WOODEN SENTINEL. FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS.

It is often a matter of wonder when we find what The footmarks of an animal on soft mud or snow
serious importance has been attached to mere | are objects people are quite familiar with, and they
forms and ceremonies, even when separated from ]
know how evanescent they are — here
and to-day,
everything that gives them meaning. Thus, in [
—
gone to-morrow a quality which the poet had in
1806, when the French were in Naples, and the mind when he compared the perishable worldly
Bourbon court had fled into Sicily, a superannuated 1
record of men’s deeds to “ footprints on the sands of

princess of that royal house, of illegitimate birth, ^
time.” It would then be a wonderful thing if foot-
half-sister to the old King Ferdinand, was left

j
prints could be found which have been preserved
behind uncared for. The new king, Joseph i
more thousands of years than such impressions

Bonaparte, provided her with a small income, |
usually last for hours that have, indeed, been kept
:
but made her utterly wretched by refusing to j

intact so long that the very kinds of animals which
continue the sentinel who had always mounted stamped them have died away and become extinct.
guard her door.
at Over and over again she And such is one of the wonders revealed by geo-
petitioned and passionately pleaded for this pri- logical research, for footprints have been found
vilege, the want of which was breaking her heart, which were made on the sands of sea-shores of ages
and injuring her health to a really serious ex- ago, the impressions having, by a favourable com-
tent ;
when some one proposed a wooden figure bination of circumstances, been preserved for pro-
in a soldier’s uniform, musket and all complete, to bably millions of years !
be mounted as guard at the inner door of her old The earliest discoveries of these long-hidden
house at Portici. The idea was adopted, and 1
footprints caused perhaps the most astonishment.
actually restored the old lady to health and cheer-
fulness, until the effect of passing it repeatedly
without receiving the usual salute began to prey
upon her mind, when she fell ill and soon after
died. years after travellers saw the wooden
Ten
figure standing sentinel by the outer door of
still
the apartments she had occupied.
STRANGE FULFILMENT OF A CURSE. Fig. I. — FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS.
For the following remarkable story we are in-

debted an old pamphlet and to Dr. Darwin, who
to ^
In this country they were first found at Storton
states that it was told of a young Warwickshire i

quarries, few miles from Liverpool, on the
a
farmer who lived in the seventeenth century. He Cheshire side of the Mersey. In the year 1838
concealed himself, to detect a thief who was break- the quarrymen found some singular imprints on the
ing his hedges for firewood, on a moonlight night whitish sandstone, which looked like the impressions
under a haystack. It was very cold and he felt of a thick, fat hand (Fig. i). There were the depres-
the frost severely, but patiently waited until mid- sions caused by the four fingers, and also accompany-
night, when an old woman appeared, evidently, as ing these, a remarkable mould of a thumb pointing
he believed, a witch, who made herself a faggot 1
inwards, just as one would suppose they would be

from his hedge, and was about to make off with it left by a man planting the palms of hands on a his
when he sprang out and seized her. A struggle yielding surface as he crawled along. This was
ensued, at the end of which the old woman stretched the idea the workmen had, for they took them to
forth her withered arms to the moon, and cried be the marks of “ some one crawling away from the
solemnly, “ Heaven grant that this cruel man may Deluge.” There were two sizes of footprints laid
never again enjoy the blessing of warmth ” The ! bare, the lesser being of about half the length and
half-frozen farmer was so terrified that he abandoned width of the larger and the geologists thought
;
his captive and hurried home. Day by day, and that they belonged to some four-footed creature
night by night, he grew colder and colder, and was up to then unknown, not a bone of it having been
never seen without several coats upon his back, discovered.
one over the other he was always shivering, and
; Similar footmarks had already been found at
always complaining of cold and although he lived
;
Hesseberg, in Saxony, on the surface of sandstone
for twenty years after, the popular belief was that slabs. The larger footmarks, which appeared to
the cold ever increased in intensity until at last it belong to the hind feet, were about eight inches
touched his heart and froze it. Dr. Darwin relates long and five inches wide, and one impression was
this as a curious illustration of mania arising from as much as twelve inches in length. There were
'
an overwrought imagination. also a smaller series of footprints here, of about

s

half the of the larger ones, which were at
size which is sufficient to tell the direction of the wind
regular distances of about an inch and a half from at the time !
them, and The unknown animal which

in front. With these convincing proofs of the genuine
made them was provisionally named the cheirothe- nature of the footprints made by some unknown
rmm, from its hand-like footmarks. creature ages ago, just as certainly as the footmarks
The cheirotherium had evidently a wide distribu- on the muddy street are made by the horse which
tion, as its footprints have since been found in has traversed it, geologists were not slow to specu-
numerous places in the Old and New Worlds. late as to its form. The cheirotherium was evi-
At Lymm, in dently an air-
Cheshire, they breath ing ani mal,
have been found otherwise it could
with those of not have made
birds and the the impressions,
small pointed im- for a certain
pressions of Crus- depth of water
tacea ;
they have Fig. 2. — LAbVRINTHODON AND FOOTPRINTS. would have
also been seen buoyed it up it :
in the coal-mea- was also an

sures of Greens- animal with its
burg, in West- fore feet con.

moreland county, siderably less
Pennsylvania, than the hind
and in other ones, and with
places. the inner toes
N ow, there can (thumbs and big
be not the slight- toes) directed in-
est doubt as to wards. These
the genuineness were the few
of these foot- facts on which
prints on the they based their
sandstone. Every s p e culation ;
circumstance of there was not a

their position and bone nor a tooth
accompanying of it found, and
impressions of it is not surpris-
other kinds go ing, therefore, tcy
to show that they find some diver-

were made when gence of opinion
the rock was soft as to what the
sand or mud, cheirotherium
which was after- was like. One
wards dried and had the idea that
hardened by pro- it was a kind of
cesses the geolo-

Fig. 3 . — LABYRINTHODON RESTORED.
kangaroo, as such
gist has familiar- an animal would
ised himself with satisfy most of the
as far as ascertained facts will permit. The required conditions, being an air-breather, having
Greensburg fossil footprints are even distorted smaller fore feet than hind feet, and having the great
slightly by the cracks made when the material toe (thumb) of the fore foot turned away from the
on which they were impressed afterwards dried others. Another supposed the tracks were made by a
and shrank. The footprints were evidently made, gigantic frog-like animal ;
while a third was disposed
too, on the shores of seas, and are often ac- . to believe they by a species of crocodile.
were left
companied by the ripple-marks one so often sees The frog-form hypothesis was subsequently favoured
left on the sands when the sea has receded. A by Professor Owen, who conjectured the cheiro-
wonderful record sometimes also accompanies them therium was one and the same as the labyrinthodon,
of the showers which fell while these creatures whose remains he had examined. The labyrintho-
were unconsciously leaving us the vestiges of their don was frog-like in general form, possessed teeth,
existence, for as each drop of rain fell it made a was an air-breather, and had its fore feet smaller
circular depression in the mud, the very shape of than its hind feet and to these latter facts we
;
FOSSIL FOOI'PRINTS. 245
have to add that it lived at the time when the :

distance from the others, and What corresponds to
footprints we speak of were made. It therefore ! the great toe is pointing inwards. The biped foot-
appears not improbable that the cheirotherium was prints are mostly of a three-toed character, and
the labyrinthodon and Fig. 2 is Professor Owen’s
; j
show the articulations wondrously well, although
idea of the creature as it crawled on the beach, and '
there are some where there is evidence of a fourth

produced the hand-like impressions which so sur- rudimentary toe directed backwards. Sometimes
prised the Cheshire quarrymen. Our third illus- specimens have been obtained in which even the
tration represents the creature more perfectly, as it impression of the skin of the foot has been retained^
may be supposed to have existed amongst the sur- and from the skin markings of one of these foot-
rounding scenery of its own geologic age. The prints Owen decided that it belonged to a bird of
teeth of the labyrinthodon, when examined in the ostrich kind, and not to a reptile. .Such a
transverse section, present a very curious and conclusion is, however, received with some reser-
tortuous pattern ;
whence the name given to the vation when the geologist remembers that the
extinct animal. It was one of the extraordinary iguanodon, although a reptile,had many ostrich
reptiles which once lived in this land. characteristics, and some large three-toed footprints
The cheirotherium, or labyrinthodon, is not the found in the Hastings beds near Cuckfield have
only animal which has left its footprints behind it. been conjectured to be the impressions produced by
Footprints of bipeds and quadrupeds have been an iguanodon’s hind feet.
found in great abundance at Turner’s Falls, on the Another fertile mine of footmarks of extinct
Connecticut River, Massachusetts, which have been animals has been found in the deposits of marl
identified as those of birds, lizards, tortoises, and separated by masses of gypsum in the valley of
frogs. The have been found north and
tracks Montmorency, in the neighbourhood of Paris.
south of Turner’s Falls for an extent of about eighty This marl, before hardening, is thought to have
miles, but the been the shore
Turner’s Falls of a lake, and
quarry is gene- there are foot-
rally regarded as prints on of
it
the great reposi- both bipeds and

tory of these geo- quadrupeds, in-
logical treasures, cluding tortoises,
and they are now Fig. 4. — BIRD FOOTPRINTS, FROM CONNECTICUT.
crocodiles, igu-
worked at ex- and geckos. anas,
treme cost and There are also
labour for the specimens. .Some of the slabs on the impressions made by a huge wading bird of
which the footprints occur are valued at ^100 to the size of the ostrich.
£, 200 The quarry has been visited by many
. It has been well remarked that these footprints
distinguished authorities, including Sir Charles give to us new and unexpected proofs that the
Lyell and Professor Huxley. Sir Charles Lyell animal life of what geologists term the Upper
was much struck with the general likeness of these Eocene period in Europe far surpassed in the
impressions to some of recent origin which he had number and variety of its kinds the largest estimate
seen on the shores of the Bay of Fundy. He had which had been previously formed of it. Indeed,
there minutely examined the pitted appearance they create the impression that our ideas of past
produced by falling raindrops, the ripple-marks life derived from the actual teeth and bones of
made by the wavelets, and the three-toed tracks animals which we have taken from their burial-
left by a sand-piper and here, in the Connecticut
;
grounds, the earth’s strata, may be very incomplete,
sandstone slabs, he saw the similar impressions and that in the ages past there may have existed
made by the raiiidrops of hundreds of thousands of as many different life-forms, since become extinct,
years ago the ripple-marks produced by a vanished as there are on the earth now.
;
sea, and the clean-cut and finely-moulded imprints

made by the feet of creatures which have been extinct Time-Keeping Extraordinary. The Swiss —
for ages. journals state that a watch and clock maker at
The bird tracks are of singular interest, and some Vouvry, having furnished two watches with mecha-
of them of such an extraordinary size that the bipeds nism invented by himself, placed them in a box,
which produced them must have had feet four times which he confided, on the i6th January, 1879, to the
as large as the living ostrich, and the animal may municipal authorities of that town, by whom it was
have towered to a height of twenty-five to thirty sealed and deposited among their archives. Upon
feet !In some of the lesser tracks there is great the official opening of the box, which took place
uniformity and singular delicacy of detail. If one two years afterwards, the two watches were, it is
follows a given track, each footmark is at a regular said, found to be still going regularly.
—
THE SAINT VINCENT VOLCANO. flying, asit seems, from the face of the storm fiend
;
light wreaths of mist still clinging to the rugged

The Caribbean Sea has been described by Hum- sides. The scene then changes. The cloud now
boldt as forming, in connection with the Gulf of conceals the higher edges, and leaves the Space
Mexico and the great plain of Louisiana, one below clear and distinct, a soft and brilliant light
great ancient basin. This basin is traversed being thrown on to the water far below. The
through its centre by a plutonic range of moun- sunlight struggles through the haze above, and a
tains from Cape Catoche in Yucatan to the islands shaft of golden light steals slowly across the silvery
of Tortola and Virgin Gorda. The range extends waters and up the weather-beaten cliffs.
through Cuba, Hayti, and Porto Rico and lying ;
A further walk of about two miles leads to the
parallel with it is the granite and gneiss chain of New Crater, formed
mountain-side by the in the
Caracas in the South. On the eastern side lie the “saddle ridge,” so narrow
eruption in 1812. A
Antilles, containing the large, but now extinct, that only a person of strong nerve would venture
volcano of Eustathius the active “ Souffri^res ” of on it, separates the old and new craters. The
;
Guadaloupe and St. Lucia, the “ Boiling Lake ” latter is not so grand and awe-inspiring an object
of Dominica, and the Volcano of St. Vincent. as that already described, but its sides are torn
These, whether active or quiet at the present and rent, and are rugged and appalling enough ;
hour, are witnesses of the mighty forces which in the bottom being covered with dark ashes, sand,
former times have wrought such changes, and and reddish water. It must also be remembered
which may in coming years prove once more how that its formation was effected not in the slow
powerless man is in the presence of nature working lapse of ages, but by a sudden and frightful con-
under its appointed laws. vulsion in the present century, the story of which
There are few objects in the West Indies of catastrophe may be told as follows :
greater interest than the Volcano of St. Vincent, On Monday, April 27th, 1812, men say that a
known locally as the “ Great Souffriere.” It is now sudden rumbling was heard in this part of the
quiet, and has remained so during seventy years. island. A huge column of smoke was seen to
The famous earthquake which overthrew Caracas, ascend from the mountain, and enormous quanti-
the capital of Venezuela, on March 26th, 1812, ties of volcanic dust and ashes were discharged.
found its vent at this spot in the following month. Next day the vapour which overhung the summit
Indeed, this volcano, with that of Guadaloupe, rose to an immense height, continually expanding
seem to have been for long ages the safety-valves as it rose, as though rejoicing to be free from some
of the immense area embraced by the plains of the intolerable confinement, while at the same time a
Orinoco and the entire Caribbean Sea. dense mist came down and overshadowed the
The mountain is situated in the north-west of mountain and north shore of the island. That
the island, about fifteen miles from the capital. night fire was observed glowing from the crater,
A walk of six or seven miles from the hamlet on and brightening the clouds overhead. The
the sea-shore at its base takes the traveller to the rumblings went on increasing, and strange vibra-
edge of the Old Crater. Standing here, the edges tions began to be felt. On the 30th April, these
rise as they recede to the right and left, until they noises became yet louder, and to persons at sea
meet on the opposite side at the distance of nearly they resembled the cannonade between two’
a mile. The walls of the crater are 500 feet above powerful fleets. As that night came on, sheets of
the waters below. The lake forms an almost per- flame burst upwards, followed by incessant thunder,
fect circle a few tiny headlands prevent the outline and electric flashes played amid the darkened
;
becoming monotonous. The waters of the lake vapour. At this time streams of fiery lava were
are bluish-green in colour, due to the cjuantity of vomited forth, masses of red rock were shot up-
sulphur with which they are impregnated, and the wards, and the lava, boiling over the edge of the
lake is 600 feet deep. In some places the walls crater, carried everything before it, until it plunged
rise sheer, in a few spots the descent is less pre- into a deep valley, and, thence gaining an outlet,
cipitous, but great caution must be exercised by it rolled its fier^- flood onwards to the sea, which
those who are ambitious to reach the surface of it reached in four hours. The confusion on land
the water. and sea and in the air that night, the thunderings
When clouds brood on the summit of the moun- of the mountain, the roar of the moving mass of
tain the grandeur of the place is very impressive. fire, as it scorched up the woods and split the
At one moment the dense mist falls into the crater, rocks in its onward course, and the hissing contact
as it were, by its own weight, and completely fills as it plunged into the ocean, became so fearful
the immense hollow. A great gust of wind now that despair seized on all.
sweeps down, and clears out the cavity in five or It was about this time that the earthquake first
six seconds the mist rises as though urged by

;
added its terrors to the other horrors. The part of
some force beneath, and is torn over the edge. the island where the mountain is situated seemed
—
ROMAN WAR-ENGINES. 247
to be in constant agitation, as though the land were partly from descriptions contained in the classic
swimming in a troubled sea. So passed that writers, and to no small extent also from an exam-
—
dreadful night, and day if day it could be called ination of the objects themselves, which, after an
in which no light of sun appeared broke on the — interval of more than one thousand years, have
troubled scene. and the sea for many
The island returned to teach us something of that old Pagan
miles around were overshadowed by a gloomy world. But besides these small arms, as they may
haze. The entire island lay covered with scoriae be called, the Romans possessed, as time went on,
and ashes, which lay in places to a depth of four- sundry more imposing weapons, to which doubtless
teen inches. In the afternoon the voices of the they were not a little indebted for their success in
mountain became gradually silent, and except when war, and particularly in the reduction of fortified
subterranean rumblings are heard in the stillness towns.
of the night, and terrify the inhabitants who dwell Amongst these various machines those to which
near its base, those voices have remained quiet for the name of tor7nentum was applied were perhaps
over seventy years. the most formidable. As a general rule the pro-
A remarkable circumstance occurred during this jectilesused by the Roman soldiers were thrown
eruption. So prodigious was the quantity of vol- by the hand, though the sling was a favourite
canic matter thrown out during its continuance, weapon, and bows and arrows were even more in
and to so great a height did it ascend, that it vogue. But such wêapons as these were of little
was carried eastward above the region of the con- service except in the open ground, and in the
tinuous trade wind, and fell thickly on the decks operation of a siege the tormenta were brought
of ships sailing 600 miles to the east of the island. into play with immense effect, if we may judge by
At Barbadoes, which lies nearly 100 miles dead the tales of historians. These tormenta were of
to windward of St. Vincent, it was deposited the kinds knowm as catapiiltce and balistce. The
in some districts to a depth of six inches and to ;
name was derived from the fact that the machine
the present hour the coloured population of Bar- was worked by means of twisted hairs, thongs, and
badoes are accustomed to date local events of inte- vegetable fibres. By means of the catapult volleys
rest as so many years before or after the “ Year of of darts and javelins, some of which, known by the
the Dust.” name of trifax^ were as much as 4J feet in length,
were hurled with great force and precision against
an opposing force while from the balista could
;
ROMAN WAR-ENGINES. be projected either similar darts of much greater

size, or huge masses of stone, sometimes reach-
No change could well have been greater than that ing as much as three hundredweight in weight.
by
effected in the nature of instruments of w'arfare The size and power of the balista, however, varied
the invention of gunpowder, but for which little greatly, and while the sizes apparently mostly in use
progress would probably have been made in the art were constructed to throw stones of half a hundred-
of killing, even to our own times. Before the weight, one hundredweight, and three hundred-
knowledge of the death-dealing powder came to weight, yet many smaller engines are mentioned,
the possession of Europe, the weapons in use were some of which threw stones of not more than two
generally such adaptations of primitive ideas as may pounds in weight.
yet be seen amongst savage tribes. Spears, javelins, Notwithstanding the many descriptions of these
bows and arrows, swords, daggers, maces, and axes instruments to be found in the ancient authors, and
these were the slow but natural growth of one thing that they are even to be seen depicted upon the
out of another, such as always going on both
is column of Trajan, some doubt seems to have been
among civilised and barbarous races
and but for ; entertained as to the exact mechanism by which
the invention of gunpowder, we might still be using the projectiles were hurled forth. While the late
weapons differing but little from those familiar to Emperor Napoleon was engaged upon his “ Life of
our ancestors at Hastings, at Cretjy, and at Ban- Caesar,” however, the matter was very carefully
nockburn. studied, bas-reliefsand all accessible information
Perhaps by no people was the art of war being consulted and from these studies models
;
better understood, or more perseveringly followed, w'ere afterwards constructed by M. Maitre, which
than by the bellicose Romans of old. That the have since been placed in the Museum of St.
arms which they habitually carried were very Germains. Two of these interesting restorations
similar to those also in use amongst the Greeks, are shown in the illustrations. The balista showm
ana amongst the Barbarians who ultimately
later in Fig. I and the catapult seem to have been very
overthrew the great Roman Empire of the west, similar machines, and to have been practically
we are well aware. Their swords and shields, immense cross-bows indeed, remembering how
;
their bows and arrows, their slings, spears, cross- long the Genoese were celebrated for the latter
bows and bolts, are more or less familiar to us, weapon, there is good reason to believe that they
may have inherited it in this portable shape from play, and a carefully-executed restoration of this is
their Roman ancestors. In M. Maitre’s balista also at St. Germains, and is shown in Fig. 2. A
the bow itself is however replaced by separate strong wooden lever. A, is fixed at one end, as
levers, M N, each fixed in a compact bundle of before, in a mass of tightly-twisted cords and ten-
intensely-twisted cords and sinews, O P. The cord, dons mounted in a massive framework, and twisted
C, cannot possibly be stretched by hand, but is severely so as to give an intense rebound whenever
drawn along the body, R, by a windlass, till fixed to released. 1 his twist is further increased by drawing
Fig. I. — BAI.ISTA, FROM THE RESTORATION IN ST. GERMAINS.
the hook of the trigger. The arrows (i, 2) are back the lever to the position shown, which is done
about 4i feet in length, and have been thrown by by a lever capstan, when it is held by the cord, C,
the St. Germain’s model nearly 400 yards, while a and hook-trigger, B. To the top of the lever is
wooden target has often been pierced through and attached the sling, F. After release the lever
through. The darts or arrows are guided by a strikes against the cushion of wool, shown at the
groove in the top surface of the stem or body but ;
other end of the machine. The balls thrown by
it is believed stones were laid on a broader sur- the onager ranged up to over 6 inches in diameter,
face. So great was the power of the larger balistas and ev'en the St. Germain’s machine projected
as perfected by the Romans, that large stones are them nearly 200 yards. The sketch at the top
said to have been thrown a quarter of a mile. represents part of another bas-relief from the
There was a smaller machine called the onaoêr, column of Trajan.
in which the principle of the sling was brought into These weapons do not seem to have been in-
ROMAN WAR-ENGINES, 249
vented until shortly before the time of Alexander no interruption should occurin the working of the
the Great (about 350 B.C.), but soon came to engines. Sometimes the catapults and the balistae
occupy an important place in the furniture of an were combined in the same engine, and of such
army, and were generally drawn up in the rear construction were the towers known by the name
of an advancing force, so that the missiles of Helepolis, or “ the taker of cities,” the first of
could be hurled at an opposing enemy over the which was employed by Demetrius Poliorcetes
heads of the forward ranks. They were also in the siege of Salamis. The Helepolis was a
sometimes employed in attacks upon maritime tower of several storeys, protected upon the three
cities, when they were carried upon the decks sides when facing an enemy by
open to attack
of vessels specially constructed for their use. which were sundry portholes,
plates of metal, in
Generally the various forms of tormenta were used which could be opened and closed at pleasure.
together, so that, while the balistm were reducing Hence were discharged the missiles of the cata-
the battlements of a beleaguered town, the catapult and the balista and in later times, under its
;
pults served to launch volleys of arrows against protection, the battering-ram was brought to bear
any of the besieged who might appear in the gaps upon the walls of a besieged city. It was by the
;
and Caesar tells us that, so great was the value of aid of such towers that the walls of Jerusalem were
the tormenta, when the supply of horse-hair and destroyed, when the Holy City was taken by the
other material failed, the women in some instances Romans.
cut off their own hair and twisted it into ropes, that The battering-ram above alluded to was a
G G
favourite and almost indispensable engine in the with the sickles with which they were purposely
hands of the Roman army. It was used to shake, armed. As a further defence, the besieged were
shatter, and destroy the walls of beleaguered cities, accustomed to fill sacks with chaff and other soft
and amongst the Romans went by the name of material, which they lowered down to intercept and
Aries, the Ram, from the resemblance of its action break the force of the ram but the ropes to which
;
to the butting of a ram, and also from the fact that the sacks were attached were of course cut by the
its head consisted of a mass of bronze or iron, sickles of the besiegers, and generally the walls,
which was generally fashioned into the figure of a once attacked by the plodding aries, were doomed
ram’s head. The aries consisted of a large beam, to at least partial destruction.
generally of fir or ash, headed, as has been said, There was of course no little danger in ap-
with a mass of metal, and in its simplest form was proaching the walls of a hostile city for the purpose
carried by a number of soldiers, and impelled by of gaining a footing on its ramparts, and the
human hands alone, being directed when possible besiegers were met by showers of stones, arrows^
against the angle of a wall, which would of course darts, and even more terrible missiles. To defend
be the most vulnerable point of attack. As time themselves from these, they were accustomed to
went on improvements were made in the construc- form with their shields a testudo, or covering, of
tion of the aries, and it was surrounded by iron the strength of which very extraordinary stories
bands in which rings were fixed, so that by means are told. The shields fitted closely together, and
of chains or ropes it could be suspended from a thus formed an unbroken surface, which was pre-
transverse beam above, and thus relieve the opera- sented to the enemy sometimes in a horizontal,
tors from the burden of its weight. Thus sus- but more generally in an oblique position. It is
pended it was easy to impart to it a quick and related that the testudo was so firm that men were
powerful motion backwards and forwards, and able to walk safely over its surface, and even horses
Josephus declares that “there was no tower so and chariots had at times been driven over it.
strong, no wall so thick, as to resist the force of As with so many nations, war chariots were in use
this machine, if its blows were continued long amongst the Romans from the earliest period. One
enough.” It must have been indeed a formidable of these, in a tolerably perfect state, is still preserved
engine, and was often as much as 8o, too, and even in the Vatican. It is, like all forms of the ctirrus
120 feet in length, frequently the frame on which or chariot, constructed to carry two persons, one of
it was suspended was carried upon wheels, while whom, standing, held the reins. The wheels were
it was protected by a wooden roof or testudo, over four feet in diameter, and were retained upon
which afforded shelter to the besiegers when bean oak axle fixed to the bottom of the chariot by
neath the walls of a hostile town. It might means of linch-pins. The stability of the chariot
seem that the great length to which the aries was often increased by lengthening the axle-tree,
sometimes reached would render it unwieldy to a and thus widening the base of the chariot. The
serious degree but in fact the longer rams had
;
horses, generally two in number, were harnessed
many advantages over the shorter ones. The by means of a yoke and should it be desired to
;
increase of weight and consequent power was of add to the number of horses, the additional one or
course to be considered ;
and, further, by means two were generally attached by means of traces only.
of the long ram it was possible to act across The Roman chariots do not themselves appear to
an intervening ditch, while in other cases those have been armed, though Ctesar describes those
who worked the machine were able to remain in of the ancient Britons, with scythes attached to the
comparative security at its farther extremity, and axles of the wheels but we can nevertheless
;
sheltered by the roof from the showers of stones believe a series of such chariots, drawn by
that
and other missiles hurled upon them from the spirited horses and manned by the flower of the
battlements. Upwards of ‘a hundred men were Roman legions, would create not a little havoc
sometimes employed in working a single ram, and amongst at least a barbarous and ill-armed enemy.
there can be no doubt that success ver>- generally
attended their efforts. But the besieged were not
without means of defence. They threw down A Remarkable —
Journey. An extraordinary
burning material, in the hope of setting fire to the tricycle journey was accomplished by the Vice-
ram, and also cast from the battlements huge President of the Lyons Bicycle Club, accompanied
masses of stone, wood, and metal, by which means i
by his wife, on a two-seated “ machine,” in May of
they endeavoured to break off the metal head which I
1882. The travellers went from Lyons, through
did so much damage to their walls. They some- !
Nice, Genoa, and Rome, to Naples, returning via
times succeeded, too, in catching the aries in a \
Florence and Turin, the whole journey, represent-
noose or a large forceps, and by this means over-
in ing a distance of some 2,300 miles, being accom-
I
plished at an average of about fifty to sixty miles

turned it but the besiegers generally contrived to
;
cut the ropes of the noose, before damage was done, I

for each day on the road.
—
ELECTRIC INCANDESCENT LAMPS. 251
ELECTRIC INCANDESCENT LAMPS. out a brilliance far too great to be of any service,
except for out-door use, or for the illumination of
There are now so many systems of electric illu- large areas. His lamp, as described in the patent
mination before the public, that the non-technical specification, dated 1845, consists of a couple of
observer is puzzled to understand in what features rods with forceps attached, between which is held
they differ from one another. Gas he is accustomed a narrow strip of platinum foil, which is rendered
to, and the manner of using it is so simple that he incandescent directly the current passes through it.
has little to learn about it. It represents but one By certain arrangements which need not be de-
system, by which the gas is conveyed to a burner scribed, the current is so adjusted that the melting
by a pipe, where it bursts into flame when a light is point of the metallic strip is never actually reached.
applied to it. But whatever the difficulty may be The platinum foil can be replaced by a stick of
in pointing out the different features exhibited by carbon, and the whole arrangement is enclosed in
competing systems of electric illumination, they a glass bulb, from which the air is pumped out.
can all be gathered together and sorted into two In 1846, Greener and Staite patented a lamp of
—
grand divisions arc lights, and incandescent lights. similar structure but they were very careful to use
;
The first of these we have already considered, and carbon of greater purity, and their specification
to the second we now direct our readers’ attention. gives directions how this can be attained.
Let us first of all imagine that we have before us For twenty-five years the matter slept, until, in
a small battery consisting of, say, five Bunsen cells, 1871, the incandescent system of lighting came to
joined up zinc to carbon in the usual way, with two. the front again, and a company was formed at St.
terminal wires from the first and last cell, for the Petersburg in order to give it success. Those who-
convenience of making a fe'./ experiments. If we are under the impression that incandescent lamps
connect these two electrodes by bridging them across are new contrivances will be surprised to learn that
with a couple of inches of thin iron wire, this will at this date 200 lamps were shown in action upon
by the resistance which it offers to the passage of one circuit. This remarkable and suggestive experi-
—
the current become red, and then white hot, and ment was carried out by M. Lodyghin, at St. Peters-
will fall down in melted globules. A platinum burg, with an Alliance machine (see p. 164) and it was
wire treated in the same way will last longer, and will thought so successful that the company just spoken
give out a brilliant white light for some time before of was formed to give it commercial shape. The
it actually fuses ;
or, if the length of wire, and the excitement at the time was extreme, and there were
—
strength of current can be nicely adjusted, it will no doubt many then as there have been since to- —
not melt, but continue to glow. A silver wire of prophesy that the days of gas were numbered.
the same thickness will not even get hot ;
it is such But the scheme failed. The money subscribed
a good conductor that it offers little resistance to disappeared in repeated failures but the lucky in-
;
the passage of the current. — —

A slender stick of ventor was voted all too soon a prize of 50,000
carbon will behave like the platinum wire it gets roubles by the Academy of Science.
;
white hot, and gives out, by its incandescence, a One year later we find another Russian, Konn,
brilliant light;
but, sooner or later, it combines who patented arrangements of a similar kind. His
with the oxygen of the atmosphere, forming the lantern he describes as being “ hermetically closed,
gas called carbonic dioxide, and crumbles away. and filled with nitrogen or other gas that does not
Now all systems of lighting by incandescence support combustion.” In this receptacle were so
can be readily understood by reference to these arranged little strips of carbon, that as soon as one
simple experiments. They depend upon the wasted away another became incandescent. This
fact that an imperfect conductor, placed in an lamp he afterwards modified into a form so like the
electric circuit, manifests its resistance by giving incandescent lamps of to-day, that it is a very in-
out light and heat. teresting thing to look back upon. It consists of a
All substances which show this action — as far glass globe exhausted of air, and having sealed
as we know at present — are however more or into it two wires, between which is supported a
less gradually affected by the oxygen present in carbon pencil, which the passage of the current
the atmosphere, and speedily waste away. With makes incandescent.
the aim, therefore, of keeping this oxygen from The incandescent method of electric lighting re-
them, they are protected by a vessel of glass mained without exciting any particular attention
from which the air has been withdrawn. Long until Dec. 12, 1879, when one of those startling
before the magneto-electric machine was brought telegrams, which we have learned to associate with
to any kind of perfection, a lamp on this prin- the name of Edison, was flashed to this country
ciple was patented by E. A. King. The object from New York. As this telegram marks an era in
which this inventor had in view was to produce an the history of electric lighting, we will reproduce
electric lamp, on a small scale, fit for domestic pur- that part of it bearing upon the subject under re-
poses. The arc-light he knew well enough gave view. “ Mr. Edison has perfected an electric lamp
; , —
2C2 THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
•ofextraordinary simplicity, costing only 25 cents, !
First, with regard to the thread of carbon, to the
with which he proposes a general illumination of incandescence of which the light is due. This may
the village of Menlo Park on New Year’s Eve. He j
be made either of some vegetable fibre in its raw
has discovered that a steady brilliant light is ob- state, or after it has passed through a process of
[
tained by the incandescence of mere carbonised manufacture. As we have seen, Edison, in his
paper, better than from any other known substance. !
first lamp, made use of paper; we believe that he
Strips of drawing-paper, in horse-shoe form, are has since found bamboo fibre to be more durable.
placed in a mould, and baked at a very high tem- We may also feel quite sure that eveiy^ material
perature. The charred residuum is then attached capable of yielding a thread after being carbonised
to the platinum wires, and hermetically sealed in a has been tried by that busy inventor. The car-
glass globe, from which the air has been exhausted. bonising is effected by packing the raw material
This, attached to a wooden stand, or ordinary gas with powdered carbon into a crucible, and exposing
fixtures, is the whole lamp. No regulating apparatus it to the heat of a furnace for a certain time The .
is required, the flow of electricity being automa- carbon filament is then, by some lamp-makers, put
tically increased and diminished * at the central through a further process. It is placed in an at-
generating station.” —
mosphere of some hydro-carbon such as gasoline
That this telegram made a great sensation there and while it is rendered white hot by the passage
can be little doubt, and most likely it had the effect through it of an electric current, an additional
which it was intended amount of carbon is
it should have, in af- deposited upon it. In
fecting the operations this way its thickness
of the Stock Exchange, may be accurately con-
but it is only fair to trolled, variations in
state that Edison him- its structure made
self had no hand in good, and its electrical
this, or in any of the resistance made equal
more wonderful tele- to a standard. The
grams which have re- thread is now attached
ported his doings. to its wire supports,
Another effect of the and is ready for in-
news was a rush to troduction into the
the Patent Office by little glass globe which
successful and non- is to serve as its pro-
successful inventors, tector from the air.
so that they might When sealed in its
search the specifica- place by the glass-

tions relating to incan- blower there is still
descent lamps to see how the ground actually stood an opening in the globe from which the air can be
from a patent agent’s point of view. The old exhausted by means of one of those improved air-
specifications of King, Greener, and Staite, already pumps, such as that of Sprengel, which are of such
quoted, with many others, were almost learnt by value to the modern inventor. Whilst the pump is
heart by those interested, but all acknowledged at work exhausting the air, the carbon filament is
that although Edison appeared to have achieved a rendered incandescent, so that the gas evolved by
success, there was nothing new in enclosing a carbon the carbon may also be drawn .away, and this, with
filament, and rendering it white hot in a vacuum care, is accomplished. But it is not uncommon to
the only difference in the merits of the case was see lamps which have been in use for some weeks
that he had succeeded where others had failed. It with a fine coating of carbon upon the inner sur-
is now well understood that these former failures face of the glass, showing that gas or air is causing
were due principally to a want of the means to a disintegrating action.
secure anything approaching to a perfect vacuum ;
Fig. I shows three of these lamps, which differ
and also, perhaps, to ignorance of the fact that from one another chiefly in the shape of the carbon
carbon contains within its pores large quantities of thread and this is, in point of fact, the only real
;
gas. This gas, when the carbon is rendered incan- difference which exists between the multitude of
descent, is evolved, and acts upon the solid in such pcUtterns now before the public. There would be
a way that it is worn to powder, only less quickly great difficulty in deciding to whom the patent
than if it had been rendered white hot in ordinari- rights belong, and inventors will probably be con-
air. We will now briefly describe the mode of tent to leave it an open question. Swan’s lamps
manufacturing the modern incandescent lamp, when are now in great demand in this country, and they
we shall see how this last difficulty is overcome. probably represent the most perfect form. The
ELECTRIC INCANDESCENT LAMPS. 25 .?
most usual size for domestic use is that affording a actual practice. As it has now been installed in
light of20 candles and, as a rough estimate, it is
;
many private mansions, we are able satisfac-
stated that every ten lamps require one horse- answer this inquiry. Among these in-
torily to
power, but this is, of course, greatly influenced by perhaps the most perfect is that of
stallations,
the number of lamps in use, as we shall presently Sir W. G. Armstrong, at Cragside, Rothbury.
see. As in the case of arc lamps, any source of This eminent engineer has the advantage of get-
power may be used to drive the dynamo machine ting his motive power free of cost, since this is
to feed incandescent lamps, brt with one exception, represented by a brook nearly one mile from the
gas engines cause a kind of pulsation in all the house. The brook is made to turn a turbine, which
lamps deriving their actuates a Siemens
energy from a machine dynamo-electric ma-
driven by one, and this chine. From this
pulsation not only af- machine wires are led
fects the electric lamps, into the house to feed
but will cause all gas the lamps. The num-
lamps in the vicinity ber of lamps is forty-
to jump in unison. five, and the force
This jumping is, of given by the distant
course, caused by the turbine —
estimated at
small explosions of gas six horse-power is •
—
and air which form the quite sufficient to light
leading feature of such them up to their full
machines. Verydiffer- extent, notwithstand-

ent from the arc lamp, ing the great length of
with its ghastly white, wire between machine
or rather, blue -white and lamps. A library,
glare, the incandescent 33 feet by 20 feet, is
thread gives out a well lighted by eight
clear and beautiful lamps, four being clus-
light, and one so soft tered in a central globe
that it can be looked suspended from the
at without distress. ceiling,and the rest
As the carbon is not placed on vases in dif-
in contact with air, no ferent parts of the
fumes are given off, room. The electrical
and, therefore, the air connections are so ar-
is not contaminated as ranged, that the re-
in the case of gas. moval of a lamp from
The incandescent sys- its vase immediately
tem lends itself wil- extinguishes it. A pic-
lingly to the needs of ture-gallery, also used
modern decoration, as a drawing-room, is
and the little globes lighted by twelve over-

can be crowded toge- head lamps, with eight
Fig. 2.— CANDELABRUM OF INCANDESCENT ELECTRIC LAMPS.
ther among artificial additional ones, to
and real flowers, and which the current sup-
in the midst of draped hangings, without any chance plying the lamps of the dining-room can be shunted
of accident from fire. Such accidents are, indeed, when that room is not in use. With this additional
with this form of lamp, quite impossible because, ; illumination, the pictures are as well seen as they can
should the glass globe by any means be broken, the be by daylight. It is estimated that each single lamp
lamp is extinguished. Perhaps the most magnificent in this country mansion is equal to a duplex kerosene
display of incandescent lamps ever seen was at the lamp well-trimmed, or 25 candles, so that six horse-
Electrical Exhibition at the Crystal Palace in 1882, power, in supporting 37 lamps (the 45 are never
where they were woven into designs of wonderful required in use at the same time) gives an illumi-
beauty. Fig. 2 shows a number of these lamps nating power of 925 candles. The same powei
arranged as a basket of glowing flowers. applied to an arc lamp would give far more light,
Perhaps the best way to learn the advantages but could not be made available for domestic use,
or disadvantages of the incandescent system of for that form of lamp is only divisible to a very
electric lighting is to inquire how it behaves in limited extent.
As to the durability of the Swan lamp, we can It was noticed that however the poor child’s fingers
obtain some information from behaviour at the

its strayed over the keys, cadences followed, broken,
Savoy Theatre, London, after an e.xperience of wandering, and startlingly full of beauty and
nightly use for many months. The lamps there pathetic feeling. The house servants used to
were found to have a longer life than was thought cluster about the doors to look in at the strange,
possible when the system first came into use. unsightly little face and figure of the black boy
—
Alter being in use counting only the time perched up before the instrument, from which he
during which they had been actually incandescent drew forth wild unknown harmonies, all touchingly
— four thousand hours nothing in their appearance expressive. From that time Tom was permitted to
was found to indicate that they might not yet have constant access to the instrument, and was so
double or treble that period. unhappy when once kept away from it, that his
health suffered. Old airs which people had forgot-
ten, and which Tom could not have heard more than
A MUSICAL SLAVE PRODIGY. once before, he recalled, and reproduced with every
0 •
note correct, together with entirely new combinations
Mr. Perry H. Oliver, a tobacco-planter in of harmonious sounds, quaint whims, and delicate
Southern Georgia, bought, in 1850, a negro woman subtleties, always sweet and tender, but always
with a blind baby, then a few months old. Mr. mournful, which breathed into the daily life of the
Oliver was a kind master, who owned a great old house a weird spirit of enchantment, generating
number of slaves, and had a large plantation. The even in the coarsest and most uneducated auditors
blind negro child, as he grew up, was apparently feelings of deep pathos and tenderness.
idiotic, but gentle and obedient. He was permitted No attempt was made to give the boy any teach-
TO squat about in the sun under the porches and ing or scientific training. At last some musical friend
verandahs of the house, and, out of pity for his for- suggested to Mr. Oliver that in Tom he had not
lorn and helpless condition, was treated as a kind of only a prodigy, but a fortune, and it was determined
pet dog. He grew up a boy of the lowest negro type, to make an exhibition of his talent in public. He
coal black, with projecting heels, ape-like jaws, thick first played before the American public in 1858, at
protruding lips, and a habit of throwing his head Savannah, in Georgia. From thence he was taken
curiously far back, which added greatly to his im- to Charlestown, Richmond, and thus, one after an-
becile expression. other, to all the chief towns of the Southern States,
One night, in the summer of 1857, Mr. Oliver’s everywhere awakening feelings of intense astonish-
family were awakened by the sound of laughter ment and admiration. Sceptical musicians were
and music, followed by applause, coming from the allowed to subject the child to the most rigorous
drawing-room. They listened with astonishment tests, and month by month his powers increased.
and wonder, full of strange feelings. Some player It was said, at the time he was twelve years old,
was evidently at the piano, and as evidently one that he possessed a wonderful memory, but it ap-
with no mean skill. The touch, although timid, peared to be for sounds only. He would repeat a
was singularly true and delicate. Who, or what long discourse he had once heard, word for word,
could it be.^ Mr. Oliver hastily dressed himself but evidently without any knowledge of its mean-
stealthily, stole down the stairs, and noiselessly ing. Songs he had heard sung in French or
opening the door of the drawing-room, peeped in. German he repeated in the same way, giving a
Then the first mystery resolved itself into one still curious imitation of each sound with perfect fidelity,
more extraordinary. The blind black boy Tom, although his voice was harshly discordant, and of
who had been left sleeping in the hall, much as a small compass.
dog or a cat might sleep, had got into the drawing- The concerts at which Tom played were excessively
room. He was the nocturnal musician He played popular, and it was usual to include in them themes
!
not only the songs he had often heard played on selected, at the suggestion of the audiences, from
— —
the instrument simple ballad airs but some of the Italian and German operas. With regard to the
most difficult exercises played by Mr. Oliver’s mastery of his instrument, two points were specially
—
daughters, evidently in an ecstasy of delight. At noted the unusually frequent adoption of tours
the end of each successive passage he burst into de force^ and the scientific precision of his touch.
shouts of laughter, kicking his heels, and clapping “ In the progression of augmented chords,” says one
his hands. He was playing the piano for the first musician who witnessed his performance, “ his mode
time in his life ! of fingering was invariably scholastic, and not that
Naturally Tom became a nine days’ wonder on which would appear most natural to a blind child
the plantation. He was brought in to play when who had never been taught music. Even when
visitors came. The story spread far and wide seated with his back to the piano, and made to
amongst the neighbouring planters, who flocked in —
play in that extremely awkward position a favourite
to listen, and went away wondering and perplexed. feat at his concerts — his touch is always accurate.”
A MUSICAL SLAVE PRODIGY. 255
Again it was said “ Placed at the instrument

: Being a slave, Tom was never, under the old
with any musician, he plays a perfect bass accom- regime, taken into one of the Free States, and for
paniment to the treble of music heard for the first the same reason, Mr. Oliver rejected all the offers
time while playing ! Then taking the seat vacated made to induce him to exhibit his musical prodigy
by the other performer, he instantly gives the entire in Europe. The outbreak of the Civil War, how-
piece, intact in brilliancy and symmetry, not a note ever, changed all this, and soon after i860 Blind
lost or displaced.” Tom was brought to England. Many will re-
The music by which Tom’s power
selection of member him as playing to crowded audiences in
used to be sometimes extended to the
tested St. James’s Hall, where he displayed the same
length of fourteen or sixteen pages. On one occa- wonderful powers, and excited as much astonish-
sion, when playing before the President of the ment among the many cultivated musicians of the
United States at Washington, after a long concert, metropolis as he had done in the Southern States.
he was tried with two pieces, one thirteen and the Occasionally Tom
was stubborn, and refused to
other twenty pages long. He reproduced both with play,and required be coaxed and petted before
to
perfect success ! he would take his place. He was always the first
Some of the newspaper critics called Tom “ The to applaud himself, and his loud, idiotic laugh,
Blind Black Mozart,” referring to Mozart’s won- “Yah yah yah ” would clearly bespeak a vacant
! ! !
derful infantile manifestations of genius in mind. On one occasion a local musician, who had
music. it may be remembered,
Mozart, at the expressed utter disbelief of the idiotic little nig-
age of gave an accompaniment, without
nine, ger’s musical powers, insisted upon Tom’s playing
notes, to an aria which he had never heard be- him a fantasia of his the musician’s own
after — —
fore. One writer on his playing said “ When composing. The boy had been severely tested in
:
the music to which Tom plays secondo is strictly the course of the long evening’s entertainment,
classical, he sometimes balks for an instant in pas- then completed, and was looking very dull and
sages to do otherwise would imply a creative
;
weary. Mr. Oliver refused to accede to the re-
power equal to that of the master composer but quest ; it would, he said, be cruelty.
; The musician
when any chordant harmony runs through it there sneeringly remarked that Mr. Oliver knew as well
are no false accords,’ as with the infant Mozart.
‘
I as he did, that when tried with a piece it was
wish to draw especial attention to this power of the absolutely impossible his “prodigy” could have
boy, not only because it is, so far as 1 know, unheard before, Tom would fail. Mr. Oliver then
matched in the development of any musical talent, permitted the test to be applied, although several
but because, considered in the context of his entire members of the audience protested against it.
intellectual structure, it involves a curious problem. Tom sat by the musician while he played, his
The mere repetition of music heard but once, even head rolling nervously from side to side, struck the
when, as in Tom’s case, it is given with such in- opening cadence, and then, from the first note to
credible fidelity, and after the lapse of years, de- the last, gave the secondo triumphantly. Springing
mands only a command of mechanical skill, and up, he then proceeded to play the treble with
an abnormal condition of the power of memory greater force and brilliancy than its composer dis-
;
but to play secondo to music never heard or seen played, yelling with triumphant delight as he struck
implies the comprehension of the full drift of the last chord, and crying, “Urn’s got him, massa !
symphony in its current, a capacity to c^'cate^ in fact. urn’s got him ” The audience rose in great excite-
!
Yet such attempts as Tom has made to dictate ment, and cheered him heartily, Tom’s voice rising
music for publication do not sustain any such in- with the loudest. It was an hour before the poor
ference. They are only a few light marches, negro’s hysterical agitation was calmed down.
galops, &c., simple and e.xpressive enough, but
with easily detected traces of remembered har- A Subterranean Forest. — During the pro-
monies, very different from his strange, weird im- gress of some excavations in 1882 on Lord
provisations of every day. One would fancy that Normanton’s near Crowland, Peterborough,
estate,
the mere attempt to bring this mysterious power the workmen exposed about three acres of a
into bodily presence before the outer world stulti- subterranean forest ten feet below the surface.
fied his idiotic nature, rendering it unable to utter Some of the trees are in an admirable state of pre-
its reproachful sweetness. Nor is this the only bar servation, and one gigantic oak measures eighteen
by which poor Tom’s soul suffers restraint. After yards in length. The trees are in such a con-
any too prolonged effort, such as those 1 have al- dition oak can be distinguished from elm,
that
luded to, his whole bodily frame gives way, and a while a kind of fir-tree seems to be most abundant,
complete exhaustion of the brain follows, accom- the wood of which is so hard that the trees can be
panied by epileptic spasms.” It is recorded that drawn out of the clay in their entirety. The sur-
the trial at the President’s house was followed by rounding clay contains large quantities of the
days of prostration and illness. remains of lower animal life.
THE “FOSSIL TREES” OF BERMUDA. trees. Sir Wyville Thomson offers the following
as the most probable explanation of their origin.
In many parts of Bermuda, and especially in Boaz In limestone caves, when once a thread of water
Island, may be seen, close to the roadside, and has found its way through the roof, single drops,
occasionally in the roadway itself, dark bodies of charged with carbonate of lime, will fall from a
J
a peculiar form. Until quite recently these were stalactite for ages on one particular spot on the
pointed out by the inhabitants without hesitation floor. The splashing water causes a ring-like
”
as the well-known “ fossil trees of the islands crust of lime to be formed, and this ring deter-
:
the roots, in fact, of trees which were overwhelmed mines the position of the wall bounding the little
with the “ blown ” sand, and whose vegetable lake, or pool of water. Gradually the floor of the
matter had, in process cave becomes elevated
of time, been replaced by the accumulation of
by carbonate of lime. sand and travertine,
In Fig. I annexed and, of course, succes-
(taken from “ The Voy- sive layers of stalagmite
age of the Challenger ”) cause the walls and
we have a very charac- floor of the cup to rise
teristic specimen. It is also. Moreover, the
about eight inches high, water percolating
and cylindrical in through the walls of
shape ;
the walls of the this cup into the softer
cylinder are rough, with limestone of the floor
transverse ridges and hardens the floor ;
the
grooves, which bear a latter, in fact, becomes
close resemblance to lined, and finally
the lines of insertion fig- i— “r ossiL THEE. ”
blocked with stalagmite.
of endogenous These tubes and
leaues. The threads of sta-
upper surface lagmite form the
forms a shal- “ rootlets ” al-
low depression, ready noticed.
surrounded by a The curious pat-
raised border terns often found
about an inch in these groups
high. The bot- are due
to the
tom of the basin drops falling
is level, and from closely as
pitted all over sociated stalac-
with marks like tites. Now, in
those made by Bermuda, denu-
rain on sand. dation of the
The cylinder surface has been
terminates a few very rapid and
inches below the Fig. 2. — CROUP OF FORMAT IONS. extensive, even
level of the sur- within recent
rounding limestone in a rounded boss, and all over years. Wherever in these islands is found a flat
this are small projections, resembling the origins of exposed surface of rock, there are traces of its
rootlets. having once formed the floor of a cave. The
These details certainly give strength to the wearing agencies of climate, wind, rain, sun, have
popular explanation of these very curious and in the lapse of time done their work on the
unique objects but there are reasons which porous “ l)lown ” limestone, and the walls and
;
seem fatal to their vegetable origin. In several have disappeared, the disin-
roofs of the caves
places groups resembling Fig. 2 (also from “ The being temporarily checked
tegration, however,
Voyage of the Challenger”') can be seen. In these by the exceptional hardness of the floors, which,
will be noticed the raised border, the horizontal as above explained, have been cemented into a
lines on the outer walls, the pittings on the upper nearly homogeneous mass by stalagmite matter.
surface, which have already been mentioned yet And then, as the wasting action of the weather
;
their shape and arrangement clearly preclude the proceeds, the old concretionary structures are once
possibility of their ever having formed the roots of more exposed the parts specially hardened by the;
THE PELICAN-FISH. 257
localised infiltration of lime resist the longest, and whence the fish was obtained
is covered by a chalky
project, as we have seen, above the general surface ooze, which, as elsewhere,found under the micro-
is
of the rock. Still, it must be confessed that when scope to be composed of the minute shells of
one is looking at a number of these singular objects Globigenncs, and other species of chalk-animalcules
grouped close together by the roadside, it is hard or Forarnitiifera, as they are technically
named. It
to resist the conviction that the popular account is was the same chalky ooze which, existing in the
the true one, and not to believe that long ago, when beds of past oceans, and elevated to the position
there was no one to see them, noble trees, either of rocks, formed the Chalk we familiarly see to-
palms or cedars, of which these are the fossil day in the south-east coast of England and else-
remnants, waved in the passing breeze. where. The fish taken from its deep abode has
THE PELICAN-FISH.
THE PELICAN-FISH. I received the name

of Eurypharynx pelecanoides.
The first names applies to the very largely
of these
There is no class of animals in which the weird developed mouth and “pharynx,” the latter cavity
and strange are better represented than the group being simply the hinder part of the mouth itself.
of fishes. One of the most singular species of these The term pelecanoides applies, as the name itself
animals has lately been procured by a French between the
suggests, to the likeness which exists
expedition, organised for the purpose of investigat- and the mouth of this fish.
pelican’s “ gular pouch ”
ing the sea-depths. This expedition has been In the pelican, as every one knows, the skin and
engaged since 1880 in its laborious work, the vessel tissues forming the floor of the mouth are greatly
in which the naturalists prosecute their voyage of expanded, and form a large pouch, in which the
discovery being the Travailleur. Mr. Milne Ed- bird places the fishes it procures. In the fish, the
wards, one of the staff on board, has forwarded the resemblance to the bird is well seen and the name ;
details of structure and habit which characterise which has been applied to indicate its species has,
the very curious fish depicted in the accompanying therefore, the merit of at least being suggestive and
plate. The weird aspect of the animal speaks for exact. For popular purposes we may, therefore,
itself. It was obtained from a depth of 7,080 feet, style the animal the “ Pelican-fish.”
near the Canary Islands. The bed of the ocean The fish described by the French naturalists
H H
belongs to a type differing materially from that of the entire organism. It would be surprising, for in-
any other known fishes. It is placed in classifica- stance, if in the case of the “ pelican-fish ” we found
tion near the group of which the cod and haddock the gills or organs of breathing naturally developed,
are familiar representatives ;
but it is needless to as in ordinary fishes. When we are presented, as in
add that in its conformation and structure it differs whose whole body
the case before us, with a creature
widely from these fishes. A fish known as the has evidently undergone great modification and
Gymnelis, which inhabits the northern seas, and change, we expect to discover that each system of
which possesses a long body of slender make, is organs and parts has participated in the work of
said to be the nearest ally to the pelican-mouthed change. Nor are we disappo’nted in our expec-
specimen of Milne Edwards. The mouth of the tations. For example, the fins are abnormal in
fish, as may be seen from the illustration, is quite their structure the mouth and digestive organs
;
unarmed save for two very small teeth which are are altered the teeth are of unusual kind
; and ;
set in the part of the lower jaw. The pelican-like we discover that the gills share in the general
fold of skin forming the floor of the mouth is of alteration to which the fish has been subjected.
very distensible and elastic nature. .In proba- all These latter organs, in ordinary fishes, are comb-
bility it serves to store the food on which the fish like in form, as any one may realisewho looks at
subsists. the red gills of a cod or herring. In the “ pelican-
But where mere suggestion fails in natural his- fish” the gills have become much reduced and
tory, analogy often appears before us as a useful modified. There are six internal branchial slits or
guide to a knowledge of facts. M. Milne Edwards openings through which is believed the water
it
remarks that possibly the “ bag ” of the fish may gains access to the from the mouth. Ex-
gills
serve some digestive process in addition to its ternally, there are a pair of apertures which seem to
being used for the storage of food and the very ;
exist in place of the gill-flap or gill-cover seen in
small size of the stomach renders this view in some ordinary fishes. By these latter openings the water,
degree feasible. Furthermore, there is a deep-sea after being used in breathing, escapes from the
fish known as Chiasmodus niger, which inhabits the gills. The fish, it may be added, is a
colour of the
North Atlantic Ocean, at great depths. This fish deep black hue. Other deep-sea fishes {eg., Chias-
also belongs to the cod-tribe, and is, therefore, modus) exhibit the same colour. The existence of
related to the “pelican-fish” of our illustration. In a well-developed colour in animals living so far
Chiasmodus^ which is found at depths of 9,000 feet, from the light in the sea-depths, constitutes a prob-
the stomach and abdomen can be distended to a lem, the solution of which has not yet been success-
literally immense degree. A large fish has been fully attempted by zoologists.
found to be enclosed in its stomach, having been The “pelican-fish” is not without company in
swallowed bodily by the Chias?nodus. What the respect of the slender conformation of its body.
extremely distensible throat and stomach are to There exist certain fishes, known as Band -fishes
this latter fish, it may be believed the throat or {Cepolida), in which the body is verj’ greatly com-
floor of the mouth is to the “ pelican-fish,” which pressed from side to side, thus reducing the thick-
may thus, in the large size of its “pouch,” find com- ness of the fish to that of a mere line. More not-
pensation for the evidently limited size of the able are the Ribbon-fishes, some species of which
internal organs of its frame. may attain a length of 20 feet. These fishes are
The fins of the pelican-fish are very feeble, and also of very thin conformation, and as their bodies
exhibit a rudimentary development. The back fin are of a tolerably uniform depth throughout, they
is a mere series of “ fin-rays,” without any connect- have been most appropriately named. It would
ing fin or membrane. The “ breast-fins,” seen in appear that these fishes, like the “ pelican-fish,” are
the illustration, beneath the eye, are likewise greatly of deep-sea habits. When they have been suddenly
reduced in size. These facts seem to show that the brought to the surface of the water the gases con-
“ pelican-fish ” is not an animal of lively habits, and tained in their bodies, released from the pressure
that it probably rests on the floor of the ocean, or of the water, loosen their tissues, and it is with
moves in serpent-like fashion over the sea-bed great difficulty that they can be procured as entire
where it procures its food. The fin of the lower specimens. A
long “ribbon-fish ” swimming near
surface or belly, like that of the back, is repre- the surface, or seen from a distance, might give
sented by a series of free and detached rays. The rise to the idea of a “ sea-serpent,” especially if
tail itself is finely drawn out into a mere thread-like viewed by persons unacquainted with zoology, and
extension of the body and the tail-fin appears as
;
who were unfamiliar with the peculiar form of these
a very small flattened disc at the tip of the thread- animals. One feature of the ribbon-fishes, which
like extremity. relates them to the “ pelican-fish,” consists in the
It is interesting to observe how, in living nature, marvellous development which many of

literally
modification and an animal

alteration of the type of The fins are often provided with
their fins exhibit.
or plant are well-nigh universal, and affect, as a rule, curious “lappet-like” expansions, and many of
FLAGELLATION. 259
their rays may be several times larger than the number, and came into Poland from Hungary.
body itself. Such delicate appendages seem to The first leader of this extraordinary sect was a
show that, in their natural state, these creatures hermit named
Rainer. His followers were of all
are intended to live in the quietude and silence of ages, and both sexes. They marched from place
the abysses of sea. The rougher life near the sur- to place two by two, naked to the waist, and with
face, as has been remarked, would at once be fatal crosses on their lower garments, their shoulders
to the delicacy of the appendages which form such and hacks frightfully disfigured with wounds and
characteristic features of these fishes. sores caused by the merciless whippings they gave
each other. Twice in each day, and once in the
night, did they inflict their terrible- penance, crying
FLAGELLATION. I
aloud for mercy to God all the while, sometimes in

the churches, sometimes in the public cemeteries.
A BELIEF prevailed anciently amongst and
priests When the flagellation was concluded they would
physicians in the efficacy of flagellation as a remedy suddenly throw themselves down, however great
for moral and physical ills, and was acted upon to the hurt they received from stone or flints, or how-
an extent, and in a manner, which we now regard ever muddy the spot on which they stood. Then one
as wonderfully strange. Doctors believed that it of their lay preachers would pass from one pros-
cured cutaneous eruptions, gave the blood a whole- trate figure to another, s.aying, “ God has forgiven
some and beneficial stimulus, aided digestion, pro- thee thy sins.” The Flagellants regarded thirty
moted absorption, and increased muscular energy. : days of such penance as full atonement for sin.
Galen recommended it to gweembonpoitit to the lean. They dispensed, therefore, with the sacraments, re-
Priests regarded it as a mortification of human garding them as abrogated. They preached
pride, and a species of religious discipline of the “ without shedding of blood there can be no remis-
body peculiarly acceptable eye of Heaven.

in the sion ;
” and making proselytes was
their success in
Amongst the monastic orders of both sexes, flagel- most extraordinary. Hungary, Poland, Germany,
lation was a regular form of discipline and penance, Italy, France, and England were soon overrun by
nudity being insisted upon in either case. The these strange enthusiasts. They disappeared after a
monks of Fonte Avellana determined that one time, but reappeared in the 14th century. In the 1 5th
hundred stripes, inflicted while a psalm was said or century their leader was Conrad Schmidt, who with
sung, if repeated thirty times, should be considered several of his followers were burnt by the German
as an equivalent for one year of purgatory after Inquisitors, about 1414. It appears that they still
death or the whole of the Psalter, with fifteen
;
exist in some parts of Italy, where efforts are again
thousand stripes, as equal to five years’ suffering in beingmade for their suppression.
the flames of purgatory'. These monks touched Amongst the monastic orders flagellation was of
neither wine nor oil, and for five days in every two kinds the upper,
;
inflicted on the shoulders,
week lived on bread and water only, flogging each and the lower the latter being
;
chiefly adopted by
other after service every day. One of their num- females to avoid the twisting thongs seriously in-
ber, now known as St. Dominic the Cuirassier, juring the sensitive bosom.
because he always wore an iron cuirass by way of Brantome speaks of flagellation as a common
penance for his parents’ sin in presenting a garment form of punishment inflicted by ladies of rank,
of rich fur to the bishop who ordained him, is said and tells how one of the Queen’s Maids of Honour,
to have also lashed himself every day with the rest, Mademoiselle de Limeuil, was so castigated for
but with increased severity, singing ten psalters, and having written a pasquinade, as were also all the young
inflicting thirty thousand lashes every day, supple- ladies who had been privy to its composition. The
menting this liberal supply during Lent by adminis- minions of Henry III. of France appeared in
tering thirty-four thousand five hundred lashes while ,
white robes, to be stripped and whipped in proces-
repeating two psalters and a half. St. Pietro sion for the mere gratification of their royal master.
Damiano — who was also a cardinal —records the Ladies sometimes combined to inflict flagellation
saint’s Lenten share of stripes as sixty millions ! upon men who had given them offence. In this
Arithmeticians have pointed out that, administered way Clopmel the poet was about to be punished
at the rate of two blows a second all through the for having written some lines libelling their sex,
four-and- twenty hours, the sum-total could only be when by some witty retort he saved his skin, and
one hundred and seventy-two thousand eight hun- was forgiven by the angry beauties, who, with
dred, so that the saint’s miraculous energy^ and rods in their hands, and arms uplifted, were on the
endurance in exceeding that number cannot fail to eve of inflicting a terrible castigation. Medical
be regarded as wonderful indeed. men were at one time of opinion that flagellation
During the reign of Casimir III., called the injured the eye-sight, in consequence of which
Great, last male of the House of Piast, the Flagel- opinion its modified form of birching became most
lants arose, a set of fanatics who grew rapidly in common.
26 o THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
WIND-CARRIAGES AND ICE-IACHTS. ward state of the arts of construction would for
many centuries have prevented him putting his
The ingenuity of man, long before it culminated in j
crude ideas to the test of experiment. This would
the invention of the steam- account for the comparatively
engine, was for many cen- late period at which such
turies busy with schemes natural forces began to be
for doing by automatic and recognised as valuable ser-
mechanical means the work vants, although they were
usually done by hand. If sometimes such cruel mas-
we look back to the records ters. Windmills for grind-
of natural philosophy as it ing corn were brought from
was understood only a cen- Greece to Rome about
tury back, we shall find 150 B.c. later on, the
;
plenty of wonderful contriv- Romans used water-power

ances designed as labour- for grinding their grain.
savers —many of them deal We learn that when the city
ing with that old belief in was besieged, a.d. 555, the
perpetual motion which the enemy cut the fourteen aque-
modern doctrine of conser- ducts which carried water
vation of energy has taught into Rome, and therefore
us to be impossible. stopped the mills, so that
We can easily understand the people were in great
how the terrific power exerted straits for food. In England,
by wind and water in storm became common
i'ig. I. —OLD WIND-CAKKIAGE. windmills^
Fig. 2- —WIND-CARRIAGE ON THE KANSAS-PACIFIC RAILWAY.
and flood would strike any man, even in a primitive about the twelfth century^, ifwe may judge from
state of existence, with the possibility of turning that the many references concerning them which appear
power to some practical account. But the back- in the records of the time.
WIND-CARRIAGES AND ICE-YACHTS. 261
At a far earlier date the force of the wind was but the projector has left some records as to the
—
employed for boats indeed, the floating tree-trunk, power expended, and so on, which, whilst not to be
which probably gave man his first notion of a boat, regarded as strictly accurate, are interesting as
might, without much stretch of the imagination, be concerning a means of locomotion now quite for-
crowned with a bough which pictured to him the gotten. Pocock estimates the drawing-power of a
advantages of a sail. But not only on water have twelve-foot kite in a moderate breeze to be equal in
such sails been in use in remote times, but they strength to one man. In a high wind that power
have been employed in propelling carriages on is about doubled. Two kites of twelve and fifteen
land. The Chinese have for centuries used a kind feet respectively will ensure a speed of twenty miles
of barrow drawn by a donkey, and furnished with per hour, and can be burdened with a carriage
a sail which can be raised aloft when weather and containing four or five passengers. This mode of
direction of wind permit. Another form of wind- locomotion, however, has lately become practically
car is described in old books upon Physics as con- impossible in England, owing to the intersection of
CANADIAN ICE-VACHTS.
taining sails like a windmill, which turn round and I

the whole country by telegraph-wires, which of
act by gearing upon the axle of the wheels. j
course cross the kite-lines, and so bar farther
Kites have also been employed as a means of !
progress.
propulsion, and have figured in other useful ways The venerable Bishop Wilkins, in his book on
on many occasions. We need hardly refer to the Mathematical Magic, dated 1648, gives some
kite with which Franklin drew lightning from the account of wind-carriages as then known. He tells
clouds, and thus identified it with electricity. On us that they were used in China, Spain, and other
many occasions kites have served to carry cords countries, but principally in Holland, in which
over high steeples and buildings when repairs to latter country they frequently surpassed in speed
weathercocks have become necessary. A still that of a ship. They carried from six to ten pas-
more notable service rendered by a kite was when j
sengers with very little trouble to the man at the
the wire of the Niagara Suspension Bridge
first helm, and represented by far the quickest mode of
was thus carried across the rapids by the wind. locomotion then known. Figure i is a representa-
But kite - carriages present, most
perhaps, the tion of one of these Dutch sailing-carriages, copied
curious adaptation of wind-power to which we from an engraving of the seventeenth century.
could point. In 1827 a carriage, invented by Mr. It is possible that these wind -carriages would
Pocock, with a couple of kites as its trusty steeds, have been greatly improved upon, had not the
travelled from London to Bristol. The time which introduction of railways taught us that a quicker
this extraordinary journey occupied is not stated,
|
and far less fickle servant can be found in steam.
!

But, strange to say, the railway itself has led to duties. Some
wonderful instances of this species
the revival of these old wind-carriages for special of imposture are on record. Cases of such decep-
uses. Our second illustration is from a photo- tion have been so cleverly contrived as to defeat
graph of a wind-carriage, or rather truck, which detection, and that so frequently, that Fodere
is now in actual use on the Kansas Pacitic Rail- believed it to be as difficult for a physician to
way. It is used as a means to convey work- detect a feigned as to cure a real disease. They
men and their tools to places far from the haunts are most common amongst criminals, and in the
of man, where the permanent way requires repair, army and navy, especially amongst recruits, some
or where telegraph-posts or wires have become of whom repeatedly received the money gratuity
deranged. This little truck is six feet long, and given on enlistment, and were as often discharged
has four wheels, each thirty inches in diameter. on the ground of their being afflicted with diseases
Its mast carries a sail fifteen feet long, which can which were at last discovered to be simulated.
be readily hauled down when required. Its speed Dr. Hennen says, “ Some soldiers appear
to
increases from thirty miles per hour in a moderate experience an unaccountable gratification in de-
breeze to forty miles when the wind is fresh. It ceiving their officers, comrades, and the surgeon.”
occasionally travels at a greater speed even than Marshall believed that in some instances these
this if the wind be favourable —
that is, right across cases really indicated insanity, and mentions the
—
the track and if the road is fairly straight and case of a man who divided the tendo A chiIlls
level. The car has the merit of cheap construction, with a razor, and did he could to prevent its
all
and is of such a weight that its occupants can lift re-union, although he was a good soldier and bore
it bodily from the rails if a train be at hand. It an excellent character. He had been in the ser-
serves a useful purpose on the broad prairies of vice twenty-six years, and might have claimed
Western America, but would be clearly out of both his discharge and his pension whenever he
place on the railroads familiar to British eyes. pleased
For another curious instance of modern propul- “The Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine ” states-
sion by the power of the wind, we must look to our that many cases exist to show beyond all doubt
Canadian friends. During their long and rigorous that diseases have been simulated where no mo-
winter, when the ice is for weeks as hard and safe tive could be discovered for their adoption, further
as a stone pavement, the ordinary pastime of skat- stating that in such cases they were the symptoms
ing is diversified by skating of a far swifter and of what is called “ moral insanity.” Overweening
more hazardous nature. In what is known as conceit and a consequent desire to attract atten-
the ice-yachts, we find a framework roughly tion has in some cases been the attributed cause ;
representing the outline of a boat, supported but by many recorded as characteristic

this also is
upon two elongated steel runners or skate-blades. of insanity. Both acute and chronic diseases are
A third blade behind answers the purpose of a so imitated.
rudder. This mode of travelling is very popular Dr. Gavin, in a work on the subject published in
in many parts of Canada, and its more enthusiastic 1843, mentions one case which for four years
votaries affirm that they can rival the speed of an baffled detection, and defied the investigative
express train. By reference to the illustration it efforts and experiments of the most scientific men
will be seen that the mast is placed in a forward in France, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland. This
position in the framework, but its rigging is so was the case of a man named Victor, who pre-
simple, and is under such ready con-trol, that the tended to be deaf and dumb, and to have been
sails can be lowered at a few seconds’ notice. The born so. It was soon believed that he could both
Americans, we understand, are more partial to ice- hear and speak, although every test adopted
yachts with only one sail with such craft they
;
proved a complete failure. He was put to the
think nothing of moving along with the velocity of most trying proofs. A young and beautiful woman
the strongest wind. We may also mention that made love to him. He affected not to hear. She
at the Naval Exhibition at the South Kensing- offered him her hand. He appeared to be quite
ton Museum there are, or were, models of some unconscious of her goodness. In the prison at
Finland ice-yachts propelled by two sails Rochelle he was never left alone, and a turnkey
slept with him every night. He was suddenly
awakened from his sleep and spoken to, but be-
FEIGNED DISEASES yond making a plaintive noise, he uttered no arti-
culate sounds, and even when dreaming only
A VERY curious and interesting chapter in human guttural sounds were heard. He never spoke.
history is that which deals with persons who, to He mingled with a hundred prisoners who were
quote Shakespeare, “turn diseases to commodity,” all upon making him speak or hear, in vain.
intent
simulating sickness either to escape punishment, He expressed all his wishes in writing; and having
appeal to the charitable, or avoid disagreeable so stated that he was an eleve of the Abbe Sicard,.
— :
FEIGNED DISEASES. 263
was by him exposed, for the Abbe pointed out that while contradiction,if skillully managed, has no
incorrespondence with him he wrote words as he such upon the pretender.
effect
heard them pronounced, not as they were spelled or Amongst the diseases most commonly feigned is
seen. The following extracts will serve as a spe- inflammation of the eyes, an appearance of which
cimen of his writing, and illustrate the ingenious is produced by the insertion of stimulants. The
manner of his detection : dilation of the pupil which generally characterises
Je jurde vandieiix j matneret ni en mintriche j amaurosis can be produced by the extract of bella-
qiihon duit (pour conduit) essepoise (pour espoir) donna, or of hyoscyamus applied to the skin round
torre (pour tort) ; ru S. Honoret ; jai tas praent the eye. In imitating diseases of the eye actual
(pour j etais present) ;
jean porte en core les niarque disease is frequently produced.
(pour fen porte enco7-e les marques'). Mr. Marshall, well-known work “Hints to
in his
It be seen that in his letter Victor uses q
will Young Medical speaks of a state re-
Officers,”
instead of c and from this the Abbe knew that he
; |
sembling fever, produced by swallowing small
had acquired by hearing the knowledge that the quantities of tobacco. Mr. Hutchinson met with a
j
sound of these gutturals was similar. |

case of affected disease, in which he found an
Dr. Cheyne mentions the case of a soldier pre- apparently unhealthy tongue owed its appearance
|
tending to be dumb, who w'as shot in the ear by to a coating of common brown soap and a case at
;
an awkward recruit, and restrained himself from Fort Pitt, where the tongue was made brown, dry,
uttering a cry of pain. This man remained in the and hard, in some way which was shown to be artifi-
army five years, and was always supposed to be cial only by too strongly marked a line of demar-
dumb, although directly after his discharge he cation between the affected parts and the parts not
began to talk. coated, which were perfectly healthy.
A seaman on board the Utile frigate pretended Cases are on record in which men have sat or
to be deaf or dumb, and the surgeon, confident in walked in the most painful positions for weeks and
his not being really so, determined to terrify him months, and others in which sores artificially pro-
into speaking. He began elaborate preparations duced have been regularly irritated so long, as to
for an operation upon the throat, w'hich he spoke end in the limbs operated upon being of necessity
of as one which was excessively painful. The man amputated.
however, displayed no signs of fear, and when the Chronic disease of the liver is often simulated,
surgeon applied a lighted candle suddenly to his and Mr. Marshall mentions the case of a soldier
fingers, without the patient’s knowledge of his who had grown w'eary of the army, assuming this
intention, the man still preserved silence. He complaint, who pointed out his left side as the
complained to the Admiralty, and the surgeon was locality of his liver. The medical officer affecting
dismissed the service for cruelty. Yet directly he to believe him, and to regard the case as a serious
found the purpose he had was not served, this one, put him into an empty ward, where in lone-
martyr of untruth gave in and confessed himself liness and miser)' he was kept on a very reduced
an impostor. diet, and treated with antim. tart, and mistura
Dr. Gavin speaks of madness as one of many diabolica (a mixture of salts, infusion of tobacco,
diseases feigned for fraudulent purposes ;
frequently assafoetida, &c.), exhibited in very small doses
as a means for extorting charity, by w'orking on with sufficient frequency to keep the horrible taste
fear and escaping from a prison into a lunatic always in the mouth. This martyrdom the un-
asylum ;
it is seldom simulated with suc-
but says happy wretch endured for a month, and then
cess. “We he says, “in more danger of sup-
are,” recovered with wonderful rapidity.
posing insanity simulated w'hen real, than of suppos- At another time a troublesome soldier went into
ing that disease to be real which is only pretended.” hospital stating that, in consequence of his loins
Raving madness is, we are told, more frequently having been hurt, he had lost the use of his lower
because more easily imitated than monomaniacal. limlDS. From the first it was believed that he was
" The mental and physical peculiarities of partial an impostor, but he persisted in his plea of being
mania,” says Dr. Gavin, “ are of a kind that do not unable to stand or walk, so that eventually, to save
obtrude themselves on the observation, and in.stead further trouble, he was discharged. On the day
of loudly proclaiming his crazed condition, and his discharge w’as made out he crawled into the
soliciting the attention of the beholder, some inves- office on crutches very slowdy and laboriously,
tigation is required in order to discover them. apparently with great pain and difficulty. When
This, however, is contrary to the purpose ol the the document was given him he respectfully asked
simulator, which requires an immediate and power- one of the officers present to read it to him. This
ful impression to be produced on the minds of done he threw down his crutches, and darted off,
his supervisors.” Marc sta.es that the real mono- overturning a couple of men who were in his wa\-,
maniac is obstinately prejudiced in favour of his and leaping over a car with a water-cask on it, as
opinions, an attack upon which excites his anger. he emerged from the door.
In 1821 or 1822 palpitation of the heart was epi- parasitic insects acquire the most singular resem-
demic among the men of the Marine Artillery. blance to the species on which they are parasitic,
This was traced to the use of the powder of white an arrangement the utility of which to the para-
hellebore, which not only increased the action of sites it is not difficult to see.
the heart, but occasioned distressing headache, The examples that we wish to bring under
nausea, vomiting, and sometimes violent purging. the reader’s notice at present belong to another
This had been introduced by a man who had been series of cases, in which the mimicry consists
a veterinary surgeon. He furnished doses to the in a disguising or protective resemblance in the
men at threepence each, or told them what it was appearance of the mimic either to the general
he gave them for three shillings and sixpence. character of its surroundings or to some special
In the police-force such cases also sometimes features of them. One of the best general cases in
occur, and the London street beggars frequently this class is presented by the colouring of the
produce appearances of the most terrible and animals inhabiting the arid deserts of various parts
repulsive diseases, and often actual diseases en- of the world (such as most of the birds, the rat-like
tailing a condition of constant suffering, to avoid jerboas, the lizards, and even the formidable lion)
work and to provoke the pity of charitable but which, as is well known, generally show brownish
credulous passers-by. or yellowish tints, assimilating them so closely to
the colour of the surrounding sand and rock that
it is with difficulty they can be discerned. Most
STICK -INSECTS.
interesting instances of a more special nature are
Amongst the services for which Natural History presented by the tiger, an inhabitant of the jungles,
has to thank Mr. Darwin, altogether apart from his whose skin represents the effect of strong sunlight
main theory, one of the greatest is his having barred by the shadows of canes and bamboos and ;
called attention to the importance of certain appa- the leopard and jaguar, which habitually reside in
rently minor facts, and thus led to a great number trees, and whose beautifully-spotted coats repro-
of most interesting oljservations and generalisa- duce most remarkably the flecked sunlight coming
tions. Questions which w'ould probably never have through the foliage from above. In this country
risen to any prominence but for the light suddenly we have in great abundance examples of this pro-
thrown on them by the Darwinian hypothesis, were tective resemblance to surrounding objects beetles —
all at once invested with an interest which no one resembling little clods of earth or the droppings
had suspected to belong to them and, whether the of animals moths which reproduce in the most
; ;
results of their investigation were favourable or not illusive manner the colour and texture of the bark
to the hypothesis, science undoubtedly was a great of trees, or of the lichens which grow upon them ;
gainer. Many new facts were discovered, isolated others closely resembling fresh or dead leaves in ;
well-known facts were shown to be connected with fact, we may find a host of more or less striking
others, and through these with each other, and the instances in which our native animals are assi-
purpose ofmany previously inexplicable pheno- milated so closely to their surroundings as easily to
mena became more or less clearly visible. elude observation.
Among these were the curious facts, many Amongst others may be instanced the caterpillars
of them previously known, to which the term of some of the moths, which are commonly known
“mimicry” has since been applied. In this sense Geometers or Loopers, from the
to collectors as
the word may be said to mean the simulation by peculiar mode of locomotion adopted by them.
an animal or plant, for some purpose connected These larvae have, on the three segments imme-
with its own welfare, of the characters presented by diately behind the head, the usual three pairs of
some other animals or plants, or by surrounding jointed legs, but then the whole of the succeed-
objects generally, a view of the matter which was ing segments possess no organs of locomotion until
no doubt previously taken, but which has gained we come to quite the hinder end of the body, where
enormously both in breadth and precision since the the last two segments bear each a single pair of
first appearance of Mr. Darwin’s works. In a host fleshy clasping organs (prolegs). By this arrange-
of cases it is found that otherwise defenceless ment of the limbs the caterpillar is made to walk
creatures show the closest and most deceptive by a series of steps the body being stretched out
;
resemblance to others which are .well armed, or to its full length, the true legs adhere then the ;
endowed with some property rendering them so hinder extremity is brought close up behind them,
disagreeable to the animals which would naturally the body being bent into a loop the prolegs then
;
prey upon them, that the latter, after one or two adhere, and the body is again stretched out so ;
experiments during the inexperience of youth, that as the insect advances it seems to be engaged
abstain from attacking them for the rest of their in measuring the ground it passes over. Some of
lives;
and this immunity is observed to be extended these caterpillars, which show a remarkable like-
to the mimics. In other instances we find that ness in the colour and texture of the skin to the
Keraocrana papuana, A stick-insect from new guinea (Natural size)
bark of the twigs of the trees and shrubs on which be found to assimilateadmirably with their sur-
they live, make use of the strong clasping-powers roundings. As an example of this apparent depar-
of their prolegs to mimic very strikingly those ture from the ordinary character of the group, we
parts of the plant. After stripping the real twigs have figured a most remarkable species from the
of all their foliage, they fix themselves firmly by Salomon Islands, in w-hich the edges of the different
these hinder claspers to the main branch, and then regions of the body, and of the joints of the legs,
extend their bodies stiffly at about the same angle are armed with numerous spines, which are particu-
as the real twigs, from which it is often impossible larly stronglydeveloped in the male (shown in the
to distinguish them without very close examination. foremost This insect belongs to a peculiar
figure).
To a certain extent, therefore, these caterpillars spiny genus {Eurycantha)^ species of wfliich occur
may denominated “ stick-insects ” but the
be ;
in several of the Eastern islands and in Australia,
curious creatures which are more properly known where they are described by the French missionary,
under that name belong to a very different group Pere Montrouzier, as living concealed during the
of the class, and are not mere isolated mem- day among the parasitic plants which cover the
bers of a family including many species which trunks of old trees. The' male, as will be seen
have no likeness to sticks at any period of their from the figure, has the hinder thighs very' much
existence. These true stick-insects form nearly thickened, and armed w'ith very powerful spines ;
the whole of a family of their own. according to Pere Montrouzier these spines are not
Of these remarkable insects about 600 species only employed by the insects for the purpose of
have been described, chiefly from the tropical and seizing the female, but also asweapons of offence,
sub-tropical regions of both hemispheres, although as by raising the thighs and then striking down-
a few occur in the w'arm temperate zones. Two w'ards and inwards, he is able to inflict rather
are found in southern Europe they are especially ;
severe wounds.
numerous in Australia and range in great variety
;
Both winged and wingless species vary con-
through the Eastern Archipelago, and in the in- siderably in the proportions of the body', some
numerable islands which stud the surface of the being excessively slender in proportion to their
Pacific Ocean, extending southwards as far as New length ;
others thicker, like the Keraocrana
Zealand. Mr. Bates, the species are
According to figured, which may be regarded as of average
not abundant anywhere but this scarcity may be
;
stature, although still much elong .ted and ;
only apparent, and due in part to their activity others considerably stouter in their form, as
being chiefly nocturnal, and to the difficulty of dis- shown in our figures of the spiny species {Eury-
covering them when at rest during the day, from catiiha calcarata). In nearly' all cases, however,
their resemblance to the parts of plants to which their resemblance in form to branches and twigs
they cling. Some species, at any rate, occur in of shrubs and trees, or to the stems of herbaceous
sufficient numbers to become formidable, as in the plants, is very complete, and is further aided by
case of one inhabiting many of the South .Sea the brown or green colouring which is characteristic
islands, which attacks the cocoa-nut trees, and of the different species. Mr. Wallace, who say's
often does great damage to them ;
and other that these insects are very abundant in the Moluc-
species are mentioned by travellers as making cas, descril)es them as hanging on the shrubs that
their appearance in great numbers. line the forest paths, and resembling sticks “so
One remarkable
of our figures, wfliich represents a exactly in colour, in the small rugosities of the bark,
species from New Guinea, noticed by M. Kunckel in the knots and small branches, imitated by the
d’Herculais under the exceedingly' uncouth name joints of the legs, which are either pressed close to
of Kei'aocrana papua 7ia^ will serve to give a general the body or stuck out at random, that it is abso-
idea of the structure of these curious by the eye alone to distinguish

creatures, lutely impossible
which belong to the order Orthoptera, a group the the real dead tw’igs which fall down from the trees
members of which undergo po metamorphosis, be- overhead from the living insects. The writer,” he
“
yond the acquisition of wings in the last stage of adds, has often looked at them in doubt, and has
their existence by most, but not by all, of them. been obliged to use the sense of touch to deter-
Hence, the young larvae w'hen just hatched present mine the point.” To add to the illusion, some of
especially
so close a resemblance to their parents, that the species have some joints of the legs,
judging of their rela- the thighs, dilated into leaf-like organs, while
there is no difficulty in
tionship and, in the case of the stick-insects, the others have leafy excrescences springing from
;
larvae are often more stick-like than the perfect various parts of the body, producing a resem-
insects. blance to portions of branches upon which lichens

Occasionally, however, these creatures would or mosses hav'e grown. There can be no doubt,
more or less from from the testimony' of all observers, that their like-
seem at the first glance to depart
the strictly stick-like form, although, probably', ness to vegetable productions serves as a protection
to these insects, which, although slow in
their
could we see them “ at home,” even these would
v
• ^
r
«
*
1
j:
f
ii
f I ‘
<
2 .'
1 ^- >•
f
size).
{natural
FEMALv
AND
MALE
ISLANDS,
SALOMON
THE
FROM
stick-insfxt
armata,
Eurycantha
DISEASE-GERMS. 267
movements, manage on in spite of the in-

to live can find them,* and there seems every reason to
sectivorous birds, with which they are a favourite believe that such sluggish and helpless creatures
article of food and Mr. ;
Belt records his having would long since have become extinct but for the
observed numerous ants running over a large stick- protection aftbrded to them by their remarkable
insect without attacking it, as they certainly would disguise. Even the species which eventually develop
have done had they not mistaken it for part of the wings have the full benefit of this mimicry through-
dead branch of a tree. out the greater portion of their existence, and only
These singular creatures were known as “ spec- lose it in part by the acquisition of the dangerous
tres to some of the older naturalists, and the faculty of flight, when they have nothing to care for
modern name of the family to which they belong, but the continuance of their race.
the PhasmidcE, is derived from a Greek word
having the same signification. To an imaginative
mind there is something spectral about them but, ; DISEASE-GERMS.
except for the damage that some of them may inflict
upon cultivated plants, they cannot be regarded as The gravest diseases which affect the human race,
fitted to inspire dread. Their most marked distinc- and those epidemics that sweep off their victims by
tivecharacter consists in the fact that the first the thousand, were fornterly regarded as possessing
segment of the body behind the head is very much an origin which was beyond the reach of scientific
shorter than the second (see figure), a peculiarity inquiry. By many, indeed, the source of these
which does not occur among any of the allied diseases was esteemed of thoroughly mysterious
families ;
and the long which are thus
fore legs, nature. They were often regarded in ancient times
brought very near to the head, have their thighs as solely representing the outcome of divine ven-
notched or bent at the base, to make room for the geance ;
an which
idea has been happily re-
head between, and enable them to be brought close placed by that which sees such visitations the
in
together when stretched out in front of the insect, clear results of infringements of the laws of health.
which is their usual position in repose. This pecu- But much more has been done than this. To-
liar formation also is well shown in the illustration of day science ison the track of epidemic
really
Keraocratia. The which in most
first pair of wings, diseases, and, like a skilful detective,
is slowly, but
Orthoptera entirely conceal the second pair, are, in surely, hunting them down. The gain, not only to^
the stick-insects, greatly reduced in size, so as humanity, but to lower animal life as well, from the
generally to cover only a small part of the latter ;
investigation of such diseases, is simply incalcu-
and these, which are elegant fan-like organs (as lable. When we discover the source of the diseases
shown in the small flying figure), are often beau- which and which decimate our race we have
affect us
tifully coloured, usually bright pink or yellow, acquired a touchstone that enables us to proceed a
sometimes banded or spotted with black. Along step farther, and, if not actually to exterminate
their fore margin, however, these gaily-coloured them, at least to modify and limit their now wide
wings are furnished with a leather}' piece of much range.
the same colour as the body of the insect in ; It may be stated that one idea has animated the
repose the wing folds up like a fan and lies snugly search after the causes of disease, and has proved
beneath this leathery margin, when the creature a beacon-light to investigators. This idea is im-
still presents its stick-like aspect, or looks like which spread
plied in the belief that the diseases
a twig with leaves lying closely pressed to its from one person to another, such as the contagious
sides. fevers, small pox, scarlet fever, &c., owe their
In stature many and their spread to the fact of their being
of the stick-insects are gigantic, origin
the females especially growing to a larger size than caused by the growth within the body of minute
any other insects. Our figures represent two of living germs. Of old, it was believed that these
them of the natural size, and a good many species diseases were produced by foul air, bad gases, and
equally large are known, while some of still greater emanations. To-day we know that these latter
length have been described. From ten inches to a are only the conditions or soils amidst which,
foot is generally the extreme length assigned to the diseases themselves grow and are propagated.
any species, although reports have been received The essence of the diseases is found in the living
of the occurrence of such insects from fifteen to germs, which spread from one person and place to
eighteen inches long. When molested they are another person or locality. The disease itself, in
said to exude a foetid yellow fluid, which has been
described as causing great pain and sometimes * According to Pere Montrouzier a species nearly allied to the
blindness, if brought in contact with the human spiny one here figured (namely, Eurycantka korridd) is a favourite
eye. Notwithstanding this disagreeable quality, article of food with the natives of Woodlark Island and another,
;
Platycrnnia edulis^ has received its specific name in allusion to a

however, these insects, as we have seen, are freely
statement made by the old naturalist, Valentinus, that it is eaten by
consumed by insectivorous birds when the latter the Malays.
;

this light, merely the result of the growth and
is to gain a footing in a flock, it, as a rule, decimates
increase of the germ which produces it. Just as the herd. Now, so far back as 1850 certain French
a seed springs up into a special and recognised observers had noted that, in the blood of animals
form of plant, so each fever-germ produces its own affected with splenic fever, multitudes of rod-like
and special disease. Scarlet fever breeds scarlet bodies of minute size could be seen on microscopic
fever small pox gives origin to small pox alone
; ;
investigation. At that time the relations or nature
typhoid or gastric fever similarly produces typhoid of these rods were utterly unsuspected but, as ;
fever ;
and cholera-poisoning is followed by cholera time passed, it was seen that the constant associa-
outbreak. Again, we see in the circumstances tion of the disease and the rods meant possibly
under which these diseases flourish or die, another something more, in respect of the cause of the
proof of their living origin. There are some fevers disease, than observers had hitherto suspected.
which only appear in the tropics yellow fever is ;
The appearance of these rods amid the cor-
such a disease. Ague has been banished from our puscles of the blood is well seen in the right-
land because we have drained our waste lands, and hand side of Fig. i their stages of development
;
«
"
6
*
« -
«
•
6
^ •
oo
%
m
'4 %
% s
• ^
% e
Fig. I. — BACILLUS OF SPLENIC FEVER. Fig. 2. —GERMS OF CHICKEN CHOLERA.
because the ague poison-germs can only flourish in being shown in the left-hand half of that illustra-
the malarious conditions present in damp places. tion. A German physician named Koch set him-
So, also, a fever has its incubation, its growth and self to discover the nature of these rod-like bodies.
maturity, and finally its decline and death. In all He cultivated them within the humour of the ox’s
of these features, the fever or disease presents a eye, a fluid closely resembling blood in its nature.
very striking resemblance to animal and plant Watching them carefully, he saw them lengthen,
growth. The analogies and likenesses of fevers to so that in three or four hours the rods increased
living growth are therefore of the strongest kind ;
from ten to twenty times in length. In a few hours
b)ut these alone would not suffice to prove that more they had formed filaments, or long thread-
disease-germs are really living animals and plants like bodies (see Fig. i) which were often bent or;
of microscopic kind. The germs themselves twisted as they lay in the field of the microscope.
must be traced and studied, and it is to the ques- Next, Koch observed little specks or dots to be
tion of these germs and their nature that we must developed within the substance of the threads.
next direct our attention. These specks increased in size and distinctness
There exists a curious disease to which cattle and they also became so numerous, that they filled the
sheep are especially subject, and which is named substance of each filament. The thread itself then
charbo 7t^ or splejiic fever. It runs a rapid and very fell to pieces, liberating the dots or specks, which
fatal course in these animals, and constitutes one of were recognised as the spores or germs of the rod-
the veritable “ plagues ” of the agriculturist. It is like bodies.
highly infectious ;
it passes from one animal to So far the proof appeared to be tolerably com-
another with ease and rapidity ;
and, once allowed plete, that the rod-like bodies were in reality living
j
DISEASE-GERMS. 269
beings ;
and it was rendered more probable still that bodies ;
that the spores of these rod-like bodies
they were miscroscopic formsof lower plant-life. The retain their virulent powers for years ;
and that the
next point, however, was equally important with the spread of splenic fever really means the diffusion
determination of their nature. This point included of the spores or rods from one animal or herd to
the demonstration of the relation or connection be- another. The rod-like plants received the name of
tween the rods and the disease. Koch inoculated and a study of splenic fever in
Bacillus anthracis
mice with the fresh blood of an animal suffering from the lower animals was thus seen to open up avenues
splenic fever, and found that invariably the mice of research into the diseases that affect mankind.
developed the fever and died. In such a case there Since the period of Koch’s discovery and re-
was no doubt he had sown, within the body of the searches, and, indeed, side by side with them,
mouse, the germs or rods which were present in Pasteur, the famous French scientist, and other
the blood of the fevered animal. But he did more workers, have added largely to our knowledge of
than this. Seeking to know how it was that this the “ germ ” origin of infectious diseases. Pasteur,
splenic fever was propagated, and how its germs for example, showed that where splenic fever broke
Fig. 3. —VIBRIOS FOUND IN DECAYING ANIMAL MATTER. Fig. 4. — ANIMALCULES FROM VEGETABLE INFUSIONS.
retained their virulence for long periods of time, he I

out in districts which had been free from it for
dried the blood of an animal infected with the years, the infection was conveyed to the flocks in
fever. Here, of course, there were only rod-like the soil above, by earthworms, which had brought
bodies, and none oftheir spores or particles. He the disease-germs to the surface from the diseased
found that the rods themselves did not possess animals which had been buried deeply ten years
very marked contagious or infectious powers. Five before. From the worms, he obtained the matter
weeks seemed to be the limit of the power of the rods lodged in their digestive System. Making an ex-
to infect a healthy animal. But with the spores or tract of this matter, he inoculated rabbits and
germs, which, as we have seen, were developed guinea-pigs therewith, and found that they developed
from the rods, the case was widely different. splenic fever in all its typical force, whilst their
Taking blood charged with the spores, he allowed blood contained the characteristic So also
Bacilli.
it to dry. It was thereafter wetted and dried again, in the disease known as “ fowl-cholera,” Pasteur
and otherwise manipulated. For four years it was found the blood of the birds to be loaded with
kept in this state yet, at the end of that period,
;
minute organisms (Fig. 2), resembling the bacillus
when injected into the blood of mice, these animals of splenic fever. Thus whilst one bacillus propa-
developed splenic fever with great rapidity. The gating itself in the blood of the ox and sheep
germs or spores of the rods acted, after four years’ produces splenic fever, another (Fig. 2) when intro-
drying, as powerfully as if they had been newly duced into the blood of poultry, produces the “ fowl-
taken from the blood of the infected animal. Thus cholera,” which the henwives of France and
was proved the interesting and all-important facts Switzerland know only too well. Many other
that splenic fever owes its origin to the rod-like forms of these lower organisms are also well known-
; 1

The lower plants or Vibrios found in decaying The germs of the disease are thus conveyed from
fluids, amongst putrefying meat, are shown in
or the diseased parts of the affected body into the
Fig. 3 whilst in Fig. 4 are shown the ani-
;
healthy blood, and therein work all their character-
malcules and other organisms which appear in istic mischief There seems thus opening out before
infusions of hay, leaves, etc. These latter arise our eyes a wide field of investigation, fraught with
from their germs, which drop into the liquid from the most beneficial results to mankind.
higher No
the atmosphere, and then spring into their adult power can certainly be placed within grasp human
forms of life. than that which is capable of limiting the range
An exceedingly interesting point in connection of disease, of saving human life, and of making
with the propagation and spread of these diseases, existence at once healthy and happy.
and one which also bears a distinct relationship to
their mitigation and abolition, concerns the possi-
bility of, firstly, rendering the germs innocuous, or REMARKABLE LAND-TENURES.
less potent and secondly, of protecting man and
;
animals against the diseases in question, by inocu- Some very remarkable tenures of land are pretty
lating them mildly with the modified disease. We notorious. The following are not so generally
know that the poisonous nature of the germs may known, and some of them are not only highly
be modified by one kind of cultivation, and intensi- curious, but have considerable value from an his-
fied by another kind of attention. If the germs be torical point of view.
cultivated artificially, that is, outside the body of a In the forty-first year of our third Edward, the
living animal, in such fluids as blood-fluid, or meat- manor of Overall, in the parish of Liston, was held
juice, they lose their potency in time so that an by Joan Liston, by the service of paying for, bring-
;
animal inoculated with the cultivated germs takes the ing in, and placing five wafers before the king
disease, but in a very mild and trivial form. Again, while he sat at dinner on the day of his coro-
after being inoculated with these milder germs, the nation.
animal found to be protected against the
is At the coronation of James IL, the lord of
serious malady. Twenty-five sheep were inoculated Liston, in Essex, claimed to make wafers for the
by Pasteur, with mild germs, on May 3rd, 1881, and king and queen, and serve them at the royal table,
again on May 17th whilst other twenty-five sheep
;
to have all the silver utensils and other metal used
were left untouched. The twenty-five which had at the same time, with the table linen, and certain
been inoculated exhibited slight symptoms of the of the ingredients and other necessaries, together
fever, but soon recovered completely. On May 31st, with liveries for himself and two men. His claim
all fifty sheep were inoculated with strong and was allowed, as it was when put forward by Wil-
potent germs. The result was very striking. The liam Campbell, of Liston Hall, at the coronation of
twenty-five which had been inoculated were un- George III.
affected ;
whilst the twenty-five which had been Keperland (or Coperland) and Allerton in Kent
left free and unprotected by inoculation, died of the were held by the service of holding the king’s
fever in its most virulent form. So also with the head when he was sea-sick.
chicken-cholera (Fig. 2). By inoculating fowls, George Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, received
Pasteur has proved our ability to protect these birds by royal grant in the thirty-third year of the
against a malady highly fatal to those which are reign of Henry VI 1 the site and precinct of
.
not inoculated. the monastery of Worksop, with its appurtenances,

Meanwhile research has been proceeding within in the shire of Nottingham to be held of the ;
the sphere of human affairs, in parallel lines to that king in capite, by the service of the tenth part of
which has effected such a wondrous change in the a knight’s fee, and by royal service of finding the
treatment of the maladies of lower life. Koch has king a right-hand glove at his coronation, and to
shown that in the lungs of consumptive patients a support his right arm on that day so long as he
bacilhcs, or rod-like organism, is present in quantity should hold the sceptre in his hand, and paying
but whether this bacillus is to be viewed as the yearly ^23 8s. o|d.
cause, or merely as the result of that distressing At the coronation of James IL, the lord of the
malady, remains an open and much-debated ques- manor of Bardolfe, in Addington, Surrey, claimed
tion. Marsh malaria has also been shown to be ac- to find a man to make a mess of grout in the
companied by the presence of lower organisms king’s kitchen
;
and, therefore, prayed that the
;
and typhoid fever, as well as other diseases, have king’s master cook might perform that service.
each been undoubtedly proved to be associated This claim being allowed, the lord of the said
with the appearance of living particles in the manor brought up his mess of grout whatever —
affected tissues. Tuberculosis, one of the most that —
might be to the king’s table.
serious maladies that attacks our lungs, brain, and John de Rockes held the manor of Winterslew
other organs, can be communicated by inoculation. in Wilts, by the service of making a pitcher of
REMARKABLE LAND-TENURES. 271
claret at the king’s charge, and serving the king PREMATURE GROWTH.
with a cup of it, taking the vessel, and any wine left 0
in the cup, for himself. In the record of the French Academy of Science for
Sir Osbert dc Longchainp, knight, held Oven- 1729, there is a description of a lad seven years of
helle, in Kent, by the service of following his lord age who was then nearly five feet high. His strength
the king in his army into Wales for forty days at at four years old was so great that he was able to
his own with a horse valued five shillings, and

cost, throw the ordinary bundles of hay into the rack of the
a sack, worth sixpence, having a needle in it. Stables, and at six years old he lifted as much as a
The manor of Brineston, in Chester, was held of strong labourer of twenty could carry. A similar
the king in capite^ by the service of finding a man account has been given of a child born in Bouzan-
in the king’s army
go into Scotland barefoot,
to quet, who, when four years of age, was four feet
clothed with a shirt and breeches, having in one and when six had attained five
three inches high,
hand a bow without a string, and in the other an and had a beard. His voice was. strong and
feet,
arrow unfeathered. manly, and he had all the appearance of a full-

'I'he manor of Finchingfield, in Essex, was held grown man. But while everybody was expecting
by one John Compes, of King Edward 111 by him to speedily shoot up into a giant, the signs of
.
the service of turning the spit at his coronation. growth ceased and those of age were as rapidly
The manor of Boston, in Devonshire, was held by developed his voice grew weak, and before he :
the serjeanty of finding “ for our lord the king, had attained the years of manhood he was an
two arrows and one loaf of oat bread when he should imbecile, and feeble as a man in the extremity of
hunt in the forest of Dartmoor.” old age. The old “ Paris Memoirs ” contain an
The manor of Chellington, in Shropshire, was account of a girl who was four feet six inches in
held of the king in capite by the service of finding height when four years old, with well rounded
one footman in time of war for the king’s army in limbs and bust, looking like a girl of eighteen.
Wales, with one bow and three arrows, and one
pale, and carrying with him one bacon or salted
hog, and when he comes to the army delivêring to A CITY SAVED BY MILKMAIDS.
the king’s marshal a moiety of the bacon, and thence j
the marshal was to deliver to him daily some of The City of Dort, in Holland, at the time when
that moiety for his dinner so long as he stayed in that country was invaded by the merciless and cruel
the army, and he was to follow the army as long as Spaniards, its safety to the presence of mind
owed
his half bacon lasted. displayed by the milkmaids of a prosperous farmer
The manor of Morton, in Essex, was held by residing on the confines to commemorate which
;
Henry de Averyng in capite by the serjeanty of event it was commanded that all the money of the
finding one horse worth ten shillings, four horse- city, dollars, stivers, and doights, coined after the
shoes, one leathern sack, and one iron jug whenever date of its extraordinary preservation, should bear
he was called upon, to march for forty days with the the image of a milkmaid milking a cow. Some
king’s army into Wales, at his own charges. thousands of Spanish soldiers had succeeded in ap-
Peter Spileman held lands of the king by the proaching the city unobserved, and were scattered
serjeanty of finding an esquire with a hambergelt about it in ambush, awaiting the signal for at-
(coat of mail) for forty days in England, and of finding tack, when a group of milkmaids came amongst
litter for the king’s bed, and hay for the king’s them, and saw them in hiding, but pretending
palfrey, when the king should lie at Brokenerst, in they did not, went through their milking in the
the county of Southampton. ordinary way, singing and chatting, and when
their tasks were finished, trooped merrily back
into the city, where they and their master at once
Given Back by the Sea. On the 26th of — spread the alarm. The Burgomaster of Dort sent
January, 1804, a ship of war, called the Plantage 7iet, out spies, and despatched messengers for aid ;
famous having blockaded the French fleet

for its while others, letting the river into a certain sluice,
for forty-eight hours, was caught in a terrific gale flooded the surrounding country. The aid sought
while working into Cawsand Bay. The mainmast rapidly came, and the Spaniards, attempting to re-
was swept away, and in falling struck one of the treat, were overtaken by the flood, and many were
midshipmen, who was standing on the main chains, drowned. The farmer who gave the alarm had
and precipitated him into the sea. He was re- his house, crops, and cattle destroyed by the water ;
ceived by a huge wave, which caught up his sense- but the States handsomely compensated him, and
less body and heaved it back upon the deck of the the milkmaid who first saw the Spaniards, and who
vessel, where it was at once laid hold of. He soon quietly put her companions upon their guard,
recovered, and laughed heartily when he heard the received a large sum of money, with a pension for
story of that benevolent wave. her life, and that of her heirs for ever.
THE HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY. drops of a solution of nitrate of silver dunar caustic).
A heavy, white, flocculent mass results from this
Among all the wonders recorded in the Arabian mixture, and soon settles to the bottom of the
Nights Entertainments, there is nothing to surpass glass. This compound is chloride of silver, wdrich,
the marvellous power wielded by the modern Pho- if exposed to daylight, will speedily darken. By
tographer. The very history of the art is a mi.xture covering a flat surface with this sensitive salt, and
of romance and reality, where accident has occa- allowing the shadow of a person's profile to fall upon
sionally come to it, the surface
the aid of ear- was blackened
nest research except where
and patient the shadow had
study. Photo- protected it, the
graphy found result being a
its first initia- white portrait
tion in those on a black
complicated la- ground ;
exactly
bours of the old the same eftect
alchemists, who as any one

might
hoped, by the produce by cut-
discovery of the ting out a profile
philosopher’s head in white
stone, to turn paper, and stick-
dross into gold, ing it on a piece
and so to make of black mate-
their fortunes in rial. Scheele
an hour. Their also noted that
work was not in the darkening
vain, for they action took
learnt to some place rapidly in
extent the na- white or blue
ture and pro- light, but was so
perties of seve- extremely slow
ral compounds, in yellow and
discovered red light as to
others, and in be scarcely per-
a way cleared ceptible. It is
the ground for for this reason

the birth of che- that photo-
mistry, a science graphers are
towhich we all able to deal
owe so much. with their sensi-
They found that tive compounds,
a certain white so long as they

salt, called the are protected by
chloride of sil- yellow or red
Ve r, would light.
blacken gradu- At the close

ally under the the past
of
influence of light. Like many other observations century two celebrated men, who have left
which they made, this did not seize their attention, theirnames on the scroll of fame in other fields
for it had little bearing upon the transmutation of the of research —
Davy and Wedgwood — turned their
metals, and their goal was that. So for two hundred attention to the possibility of procuring sun-
years this isolated fact regarding photography w'as pictures. Wedgwood, in 1802, brought before
allowed to sleep, until Scheele, the Swedish chemist, the Royal Society a new method of copying pic-
in 1777, first undertook an inquiry into this chloride tures, which covered much the same ground as
of silver and its behaviour under light. What is that previously traversed by Scheele. He brushed
this sensitive compound with which Scheele experi- salted paper over with a solution of silver nitrate,
.mented ? Mix a little common salt (the chloride of thus forming on its surface a coating of that sen-
vadium) with water in a wine-glass, and add a few sitive chloride already alluded to. Above this
the history of photooraphy, 273
paper he placed in any kind of an inverted position —for the rays of light in travers-
the sunlight
one another.*
opaquj olqects, so that the portions of the paper ing such a lens cross
which they cov'ered were protected from the in- A ready means of delineating natural objects
fluence of the light and remained white the rest such as —

the camera afforded, was, as may be
Here was imagined, not only adopted as a means of amuse-
of the paper was of course darkened.
ment, but was also enlisted in the service of artists.
repeated the effect previously attained by Scheele,
a white picture on a black ground. With this ex-
A little dark tent, with a lens and mirror at its
apex, and a
perimental pic-
table upon
ture closes the
which to stretch
chemical history
a sheet of paper,
of photography
comprised the
up to the com-
entire appara-
mencement of
tus. With such
this century.
an arrangement
But the art de-
the travelling
pends upon the
artist could
optician as well
cjuickly dot
as the chemist,
down the Imes
and to their
of a landsc;vpe,
joint labours it
with a correct-
owes its present
ness unattaina-
high position.
ble by any other
In the sixteenth
means. A scene-
century the Ne-
painter at one
apolitan, Bap-
of the Parisian
had
tista
already
Porta,
con-
theatres — Da-
trived the ca-
guerre — was a
constant worker
mera obscura,
with the appa-
by which the
and as he
ratus,
image of natural
objects could be
worked he con-
ceived the idea
thrown upon a
The of endeavouring
flat surface.
camera obscura to make these
fleeting sun-
is still afavourite
paintings into
piece of appara-
and when permanent pic-
tus,
used for public
tures. For
amusement — as something like
at the Crystal fifteen years

Palace, for in- Daguerre
stance — it takes worked at this
the form of a —
idea which his
darkened room wife looked upon
as a craze, as
having an open-
ing at the dome-
Fig. 2. — POSITIVE PRINTED FROM THE NEGATIVE. idle and useless
as the search
shaped top fur-
nished with a A
pivoted mirror outside this
lens. for the philosopher’s stone. Chloride of silver was
lens will reflect that portion of the outside view far too slow to be roused into action by the feeble
towards which it is turned through the lens on to a

whitened table beneath, or the lens and mirror are * It will perhaps surprise those unacquainted with optics to leam
more frequently combined in what is called a re- that an image can be obtained without any lens whatever. A card
with a pin-hole in the centre will, if held against a candle-flame,
flecting prism with one of its sides ground convex.
cause an inverted image of the candle to be thrown upon any white
A toy camera obscura can easily be made out of surface held near it. More than this, it is possible by such simple
any small box, by placing a suitable lens at one end, means to take a photograph. We have now before us
a picture of a
which is perfect in every detail. It
statue of the Prince Consort,
and a screen of ground glass at the other end. Any
was taken by a modern rapid process in twenty seconds, in an or-
object in front of the lens will be clearly depicted dinary camera but the lens was replaced by a metal plate bearing
upon the inside surface of the ground glass only in — a tiny hole.
;
J J
lightwhich reached it through the camera lens, so iodides and bromides. The object of this addition
Daguerre had to look for something more sensitive. was to impregnate the film with the bromo-iodide
Such a compound was found in the iodide of silver, of silver, which was easily done by immersing the
which Daguerre prepared by taking a silver plate collodionised glass plate in a bath of nitrate of
and submitting it to the fumes of iodine. This iodised silver. After being immersed in this bath, the
platewas then put into the camera so as to receive becomes intensely sensitive to ordinary
glass plate
the rays of light reflected from the objects before and therefore this immersion must only take
light,
it. Many times Daguerre tried this plan, but no place in a room in which the light is filtered
image presented itself One day, however, he through red or yellow glass. The plate so treated
happened to put away one of these plates which —
is then drained and placed in the camera to re-
—
had been tried in the camera in a dark cupboard ceive the image from the lens. Once more it is
where there was a bottle of mercury. The next removed to the dark room, flowed oyer with a
time he opened that cupboard there was on that solution of iron, which reduces the salts of silver
plate a picture. The mercury, a very volatile to the metallic state where they have been acted
element, had attached itself to all ‘those parts of upon by the light, and a negative picture is the
the plate where the light had acted, and a bur- result. From such a negative, after being dried
nished picture was the result. This lucky accident and protected with varnish, hundreds of positive
led to that mode of taking pictures which is now a prints may be obtained by allowing the light to
thing of the past, and which was known after its shine through it upon paper prepared with silver
discoverer as the Daguerrotype process. chloride. Such, briefly, is the wet collodion pro-
At the time that these events were passing in cess, which has given to us such brilliant pic-
France, a notable advance in the history of photo* tures, not only of scenery and still life, but of
graphy was made by Fox Talbot in England, who our relatives and friends. Its advent laid the
bad been experimenting with paper covered with foundation of photography as an important in-
silver chloride. He repeated Wedgwood’s method of dustry. Those who have merely paid a visit
obtaining pictures by intercepting the light which fell to a studio for the purpose of having a por-
upon the sensitive paper by pieces of lace, fern-leaves, trait taken can have very little idea of what
etc. But having done this, and “fixed ” his pictures importance this industry has reached. Special
by hyposulphite of soda, he made a new departure paper is manufactured for photographers. Certain
in using these white-on-black designs for producing chemicals are used, and are prepared exclusively
duplicate copies. With another piece of sensitive for them. They employ thousands of cabinet-
paper placed beneath one of these pictures, the sun’s makers in the construction of their apparatus-
light was made to blacken all those places where Opticians are kept busy in supplying them with
the white design allowed its rays to pass through. lenses, while a busy photographer will be sur-
Therefore the reverse effect was produced, namely, rounded by quite a little colony of employes, male
a black design on a white ground. The first he and female, who carry out all the details of his
called a Negative image, and the second he called work.
a Positive. It will be seen that by adopting this plan Up to about the year 1879, d was con-
any number of copies could be obtained from one sidered, by those best qualified to judge, that
negative but still the process was only applicable Archer’s process gave such perfect results, that
;
to such objects as could be represented in outline, it would never be superseded. It certainly had some
the results being black and white, with an entire disadvantages in the necessity, for instance, of re-
;
absence of half-tones. quiring a dark room and many chemicals, and in

Up to 1850 the daguerrotype was still the only necessitating the use of the silver bath. This stain-
process which would give a picture by means of ing bath of liquid caustic was the photographer’s
the camera but it was slow in its operation, and bugbear, and many experimenters soon began to
;
had the further demerit of being incapable of mul- consider whether they could not do without it.
tiplication, each picture requiring a separate pro- The first idea was to wash and dry the ordinary
camera before it was complete.
tracted action of the collodion plate directly it came out of its bath, but
In 1851 Archer what must be still
introduced the results are very unsatisfactory and extremely
considered as the most successful method of taking slow in actual practice. Another plan consists in
a photograph ever invented, namely, the wet collo- mixing the collodion with the sensitive chemicals,
dion process. Up to this time collodion (a mixture and to keep it in the dark ready for coating a
of gun-cotton, ether, and alcohol), had been used plate of glass when required. Such plates can
by surgeons in the treatment of wounds, as it be used dry, and in some hands give remarkably
afforded the means of forming a kind of artificial good results but it may be said that until the
;
skin. Archer conceived the idea of making this above year there was not one process of sufficient
delicate film the support of a photographic picture merit to be in any way a rival to wet collodion.
on a sheet of glass, but he mixed with it certain At last, about the year 1875, the virtues of
—
THE MONSTER SLOTH. 275
gelatine as an aid to the photographer began to be THE MONSTER SLO'l'H AND ITS
talked about, and experimenters succeeded
many CONTEMPORARIES.
in producing pictures by a process in which gela-
tine played a principal part. Still the process was In the year 1788 the remains of an animal of
only adopted by a handful of enthusiastic amateurs, gigantic proportions were found in a bed of clay
and the professional photographer still held to wet on the banks of the Luxor, about twelve miles
collodion as his sheet anchor. Five years thus W.SAV. of Buenos Ayres, Paraguay. They were
passed away, when suddenly a really practical evidently the bones of some extinct animal, for
recipe for making dry gelatine plates was published there was no creature living with such massive
by Bennett, and he showed such astonishing re- limbs. Its thigh-bone was twice the thickness of
sults from it in the way of rapidity, that the photo- the thigh-bone of the largest elephant ;
it had a
graphic world was forced to pay attention to the foot at least ayard long yet, singular to say, its
;
new method. One after another the professionals head was a comparatively small one. The bones
adopted the gelatine process, and now there is were brought to Madrid, and set up in the Royal
hardly a studio where it does not obtain. Cabinet of Natural History there. The accom-
Briefly explained, the new process consists in panying illustration is a representation of the
mixing a sensitive salt — the bromide of silver skeleton, which, it will be observed, is not quite
with warm gelatine, and spreading the mixture complete, as the inner portions of the pelvis, or
upon plates of glass, which are levelled unti- the haunch-bones, are wanting also the tail, portions
;
gelatine solidifles; when dry, these plates are ready of the ribs, and other parts.
for a,nd will keep indefinitely.
use, Moreover, What could the animal be ? Great mistakes
their development can be postponed for a long have been made in discussing the nature of extinct
period after their exposure in the camera, so that animals when the bones have been dug up for the
it becomes possible for a traveller to take a stock first time. Three hundred years ago such a “find” as
of prepared plates abroad with him, without being that of the great fossil animal of Paraguay would
burdened with a single bottle or chemical prepara- have been confidently taken for the bones of one of
tion. Such plates he can expose in his camera, the human giants which, according to tradition, lived
and can develop the latent image upon them on the earth in past ages and no attempt would
;
when he returns home, it may be months later. have been made to build them up in their original
Apart from this undoubted advantage, which positions. The discovery being made, however,
reduces a photographer’s kit from a tent con- when anatomy had already made important strides,
taining a laboratory to a packet which can be the savants confidently came to the conclusion that
carried in the hand, the gelatine process is so it was the skeleton of an extinct sloth an ancient—
rapid in its action, that pictures can be taken of all representative of the creature which at the present
sorts of moving objects. An express train travel- day lives in the trees of South America, suspended
ling at the rate of sixty miles an hour
is not quick from the branches by its claws, and feeding on the
enough escape the modern photographer.
to leaves and twigs. Cuvier christened it megatheriutn,
More wonderful still, a forked flash of lightning which means great monster. It was very evident
has more than once been made to stamp its image that the habits of the megatherium, weighing tons,
upon a gelatine plate. Special appliances are must differ from those of the modern sloth, which
necessary for this instantaneous work, and a de- is a comparatively small animal. It was absurd,
scription of them, and of some of the results for instance, to suppose that the megatherium ven-
obtained by their use, may form the subject of tured on to the branches of trees in quest of food ;
another article. for they would have been inevitably snapped off by
its weight. A close study of the structure of its
skeleton has enabled naturalists to form some idea

A Wonderful —
Rose-tree. A rose-tree, grow- of habits and this study has been facilitated in
its ;
ing at the New Gardens, Whitby, has justly attracted this country by the excellent specimens brought
a good deal of attention from florists and horticul- from South America and presented to the Museum
turists, as well as from the general public. The of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1832 by Mr.
variety is that known as the Marshal Niel. The (afterwards Sir Woodbine) Parish. These speci-
tree was planted about 1864, and the extremity of its mens were obtained under the following circum-
growth, horizontally, is no less than 102 feet 48 — stances : —
The river Salado in Buenos Ayres being
feet to the left, and 54 feet to the right of the parent lower than usual on account of continued drought,
stem respectively. The average depth of the tree is a large bone projected above the surface of the
In 1881 no fewer than 2,500 roses water. It was lassoed by some of the inhabitants,
5 feet or 6 feet.
were plucked from it, and this extraordinary quantity and brought to shore. It turned out to be a
was greatly exceeded in 1882, nearly 4,000 blooms or ring, formed by the haunch-
gigantic pelvis,
having been counted in that year. bones of some extinct animal. It was so large,
!

measuring five to six feet across, that two men
America. The mastodon, big and strong as it was,
'
could readily get through it. Sir Woodbine Parish

must have been a comparatively feeble animal by
obtained this singular fossil from the authorities of the side of the megatherium. The enormous
Buenos Ayres, and immediately set about to get the strength and weight of the hind-quarters have led
remainder of the bones which formed the other to the belief that the beast rested on its haunches
parts of the skeleton. The Salado was dragged, and tail while it used the arms and enormous claws
and in one part even dammed off and diverted with which the fore-feet were provided to tear down,
from its usual course. By these extraordinary branches and uproot young trees. It has also been
i
measures he managed to get the skull, bones of thought that it dug with its claws, working first
the spine, of the tail, of the hinder extremity, with its fore feet, and, after accumulating a certain
!
and the shoulder-bone, from which it was ascer- amount of earth, using the hind feet to clear it
tained that they belonged to the megatherium, away. When a large bony shell, or shield, as large
j
Curiously enough, the bones wanting in the Madrid as a brewer’s boiler, was discovered in the same
specimen were supplied by this discovery. district of Buenos Ayres, it was surmised that this-
I
THE MADRID SKELETON OF THE MEGATHERIUM. {Missing parts shaded dark)
That the megatherium was an animal of immense was a natural protection to the megatherium
strength is shown by the ridges on the bones being against the descending masses of earth which it
strong and projecting, which is only the case where was conceived it had the power to fling upwards
the muscles are powerful. The thigh-bone, for while digging. This hypothesis was dismissed,
example, which is two feet five inches long and however, when it was subsequenthy proved that
three feet four inches round its thickest part, has the carapace belonged to the glyptodon, another
ridges standing out from it for the attachment of giant of those times, which we shall presently have
muscles, which may be said to show that those to mention. To sum up the full -sized mega-
:
muscles were of extraordinary power. The bones therium was great, strong, and shaggy-coated it ;
of the leg are joined into one compact bone, instead was from six to seven feet high, twelve to thirteen
of being in two long pieces side by side, as is usually feet long, with a tail two feet in diameter it had a ;
the case. The heel-bone is more than a foot in sleepy, ursine face, and an elongated snout. The
length, and, therefore, was a powerful lever for the claws of its feet would appear most formidable
muscles which acted on it. Indeed, so strong must instruments, standing out like huge hooks from feet
the megatherium have been, that' although, as we a yard long and a foot broad. Yet the megatherium
shall presently see, it was an inoffensive animal, its was a harmless animal, for it belonged to an order
very strength would make it respected as it slowly of quadrupeds without front teeth {Edentata),
and ponderously moved about the pampas of South which includes the sloth, ant-eater, and armadillo.
THE MONSTER SLOTH. 277
To the naturalist, its kinship to the existing sloth is bones five toes on each fore foot and four on each
;
very apparent in the similar structure of its skull, hind foot, with the big toes and some of the others
blade-bone, and other parts ;
in both, the teeth are armed with great claws. The feet were hoofed. It
the same in number, kind, and structure, &c. ;
and may have climbed up the trunks of strong trees and
these are the facts which lead him to suppose the wrenched off the branches when seeking food, but
megatherium fed on leaves and succulent branches on to the branches themselves it probably did not
of trees, only it obtained them in a very different venture, on account of its weight.
way from the sloth of the present day. The great shell, or carapace, we just now men-
There were several other gigantic beasts living at tioned, is now known
to have been the shield of
the same time, and neighbours to the megatherium, the glyptodon, a contemporary of the megatherium.
not quite so big as it, but as remarkable in other It was an animal nearly allied to the armadillo, but
ways. Among them we may mention the mega- of a size which makes the armadillo of the present
lonyx, mylodon, and glyptodon. day look like a pigmy. Its body was protected by
The megalonyx had a general resemblance to a great shield, devoid of the bands or joints which
the megatherium, make it flexible in
but was of slighter the armadillo. Its
build, being about hind feet were

one -third smaller. broad and massive,
Like the larger and it had short,
animal, it was pro- thick, depressed
bably a harmless claws. With re-
•creature, although, gard to size, it must
when some bones sometimes have at-
of the legs, feet, tained to a length
and breast, toge- of ten or twelve
ther with three feet, or even more,
claws, were first as portions of cara-
discovered in a paces have been
cavern of Western found which would
Virginia, they were be this length when
supposed to be complete. The tail
those of some car- was enclosed in a

nivorous animal. bony sheath, and
President Jefferson the teeth had a
described it as a couple of deep
great lion, bigger grooves dividing
than our largest ox, them lengthways.
and probably the From the latter fact
enemy of the grand it has been named
mastodon and the MYLODON RESTORED. gly pt odo7i. An
other huge crea- approximate idea
tures which lived of this creature’s
then. But an examination of the bones connected general form may be
obtained by imagining an
with these claws led Cuvier to the conclusion that armadillo to be swollen out until it has attained
they were never used for any more hurtful purpose to a length of ten feet, with all its parts made of
than those of the megatherium ;
and he de- proportionate size.
monstrated that the megalonyx could not have These and other large animals lived on the pampas
been a lion, and that it was probably a peaceful of Buenos Ayres, and in other partsof the New World,
leaf and twig-eating sloth. The remains of the during the Pliocene age. One asks, with some curi-
megalonyx have been found along with those of the osity, What caused them to die out 1 There appears
megatherium at Punta Alta, South America. to be every reason to believe that they may have
The mylodon, also an extinct sloth of the pampas, succumbed to periods of drought, which, even in our
was smaller than the megatherium, and, like it, was own time, occasionally cause a vast loss of animal
a vegetable-feeder. There is a skeleton of one in lifeon the South American continent. It has been
the Hunterian Museum which measures eleven feet suggested as highly probable that, during prolonged
in length from the muzzle to the extremity of a com- droughts in the age in which they lived, they were
paratively short tail. It was of massive build, driv'en by thirst to the rivers in a weak and
having ribs as stout and broad as those of the emaciated state, and, sinking in the mud and clay
elephant. It had hind feet as long as its thigh- of their exposed beds, perished.
TOUGHENED, OR TEMPERED GLASS. assume the form of round drops with a long tail
attached ;
the least abrasion of this filament causes
The art of glass-making is so old that its first dis- the glass to fly to pieces.
covery, or the nation who first worked the material But even with the help of the annealing oven, we
into manufactured articles, are alike lost in obscurity. all know that glass is still one of the most brittle
Pliny says that its discovery was an accident. He substances we have to deal with. Mons. de la
then proceeds to describe how certain Phoenician Bastie was the first to endeavour to obviate this
merchants, lighting a fire to cook some food on the disadvantage. He considered that the fragility of
seashore, piled up some lumps of vitreous stone to the material was due to the weak cohesion of its
serve them as a fireplace. The heat melted the molecules ;
and his first experiments were under-
stones and the sand on which they stood, and so taken with the idea of subjecting the glass to
caused glass to be formed. This story has been compression while in a soft state, so as to bring its
handed down and repeated so often in various books, particles more closely together. These experiments
that it has assumed a position it does not deserve. seem to have been unsuccessful ;
after which the
Its truth must at once be called in question, when same investigator introduced a process of a practical
we remember that glass bottles with Chinese in- nature which he has patented.
scriptions have been found with many of the In this process, the glass, after manufacture, is
Egyptian mummies. We may therefore assume placed in a special form of oven where it can be
that the clever Chinese were the first producers of brought to a certain temperature, very near its
glass, as they were the first to discover the pro- melting-point. In close proximity to this oven is a
perties of the magnet, of gunpowder, &c., and that bath which may consist of wax, resin, oil, or any
glass reached Europe through a trade channel description of grease, also brought to a high tem-
which undoubtedly existed before the founding of perature. By simple mechanical arrangements,
Athens. the glass articles can be removed from the oven
Glass has been found in the windows at Pompeii, and transferred to the dipping-bath. After this
and we know, from specimens which are extant, treatment the glass is found to have lost its brittle-
that the Romans were well acquainted not only ness to such an extent, that a thin sheet of it will
with its manufacture, but they knew how to blow it, support a man’s weight and a basin, cup, or plate
:
to stain it, and to engrave it, so as to make it serve tempered in the way described, can be thrown
for purposes of ornament. Unfortunately, from its from one end of a room to the other without risk of
extreme brittleness, these specimens are very rare. Unfortunately sheet glass so treated
breakage.
Indeed, we may assume that the earliest workers has the peculiarity that it cannot be cut with a
of glass must have deplored, as we do in this present
diamond, the least scratch with that instrument
day, that things so beautiful should be so very causing it to fracture.
fragile. Of late years more than one process has It is the unfortunate lot of successful patentees
been invented to counteract this failing, and so to to find numerous imitators although imitation in ;
temper glass in its manufacture as to make it with- this connection can hardly be described as “ the
stand ordinary shocks without breaking. To a brief sincerest form of flattery.” After De la Bastie’s
description of the means employed to accomplish process became known, patents for tempering glass
this desirable end we will now direct the reader’s speedily multiplied. Siemens’ process is perhaps
attention. the most successful of these, as far as can be judged
In the ordinary operation of glass-making, by published reports of the results achieved by it.
certain silicates are fused together and blown or In this process the glass is placed in moulds and
moulded into shape according to circumstances. subjected to pressure the material of which the ;
Articles so made would, if at once lowered from mould is made depending upon the thickness of
their heated condition to the temperature of the the glass. Where it is necessary' to cool the article
atmosphere, be so brittle that a mere scratch would somewhat rapidly, the mould is made of copper,
suffice to reduce them to fragments. The exterior or of some material which, like copper, is a good
would harden before the interior had time to do so, conductor of heat. When the article is to be more
and the would be held by the outer
particles within slowly cooled, earthenware is employed for the
crust in a strained condition. It becomes neces- mould. But in the majority of cases, cast iron
sary, therefore, to avoid this strain by the operation is found to be the best and most satisfactory agent
called annealing, which consists in consigning the for the purpose. Liquid glass can be transferred
heated articles, directly they leave the workman’s direct to the mould, being lifted from the crucible in
hands, to a brick oven, where their temperature can the usual way on and shaped in
the blower’s pipe
be very gradually lowered. “ Rupert’s drops,” the mould But where
itself. articles are of such a
which can be purchased of most opticians, form nature that their shape might suffer under the
examples of unannealed glass. They are prepared pressure employed for the hardening process,
by dropping molten glass into cold water, and casings or shells of platinum are used, which, to-
A CATARACT OF OPAL. 279
gether with the glass, are transferred to the direction, three very distinct and uiverging “ lines
moulds. of fire ” may be one of which terminates in

traced,
rather startling, but successful, application of White Bay
of Plenty, on which,
Island, in the
Siemens’ process is the production of glass sleepers among other phenomena, occurs a crater-lake,
for railways. That these are tough enough to bear the water of which contains the unprecedented
the required strain is evidenced by certain trials quantity of 11,000 grains per gallon of free
to which they were subjected before being laid muriatic or hydrochloric acid.
down experimentally on one of the North London Almost due north of the volcanoes, and in the
Tramways. A square of tempered glass, little more centre of the island,lies the very large Lake Taupo,
than one inch thick, was laid on a bed of gravel. 1,250 feet above the sea, \vhich, there is very good
.\bove this plate was suspended an iron weight of reason to believe, supplies water to the in-
nine hundredweight. It was allowed to drop upon numerable hot springs, geysers, &c., along the
the glass from various heights, beginning at three “ lines of fire ” already alluded to.Between Lake
feet, and increasing the distance by about two feet Taupo and the coast of the Bay of Plenty is a
every time. It was not until the weight was territory known as the hot lake district, which
dropped from a height of twenty feet that the plate has hitherto been occupied solely by the Maories,
broke. but, under the “ Thermal Springs Districts Act of
It is evident that both processes have their draw- 1881,” has just been rendered available for settle-
backs. In the first described, the bath of hot oil or ment by Europeans and the colonists, and the
grease is apt to fire directly the heated glass is township of Rotorua has been laid out on the shores
plunged within it. In Siemens’ process the bath is of the lake of that name (Rotorua hole-lake, or —
dispensed with, but the employment of such a costly lake in a circular excavation), the largest in the
metal as platinum is decidedly a disadvantage. We district. In the immediate neighbourhood are a
may perhaps assume that both processes possess !
large number of mineral springs, very variable in
advantages in the production of certain articles ;
!
composition, but all more or less curative in their
the first being more suitable for ornamental manu- properties, ranging from the boiling cauldron of
factures, and the latter for rougher productions, Oruawhata and the scalding steam-jets of .Sulphur
such as sheet glass, and the sleepers already de- Point, to tepid lake-shore and cold sulphurous
scribed. springs.
One more method of tempering glass is that of A mile and a half from the town occurs the large
Herr Pieper, who submits the material while at a group of hot and boiling springs known under the
red heat to the action of super-heated steam. That '
general name of Whakarewarewa, with a large
the German glass-workers think highly of this geyser throwing boiling water high into the air, and
process proved by the large sum which they have
is depositing white silica all round, like a miniature of
paid for the right of using it. But we have no data the terraces of Rotomahana, shortly to be described.
at hand on which to base comparison with the older Of the many thousand hot and cold springs that
processes of De la Bastie and Siemens. I
bubble around in every direction, only a few have
been analysed and reported on, but enough has
been done to show that the different chemical
A CATARACT OF OPAL. combinations are practically without number, no
two pools being alike. Dr.Hector, F.R.S., Director
The features of the district which are about to be of the Geological Survey of the colony, classifies
described are, it is no other such them into saline (and ferruginous), alkaline, alkaline
believed, unique,
natural phenomena being known in any other part silicious, hepatic or sulphurous, and acidic. In fact,
of the world. It must be premised, however, that all the mineral waters of Europe seem to find their
no description can convey a correct idea of what representatives here, even to the rarest, and in
they are a day spent among them is a new addition there are countless mud-baths, mud-
;
sensation, and must be felt to be understood. The volcanoes, &c., in wandering among which the
nearest approach to such scenery occurs in the greatest care has to be taken by the pedestrian.
Yellowstone Park, near the junction of the Yellow As remarked by Miss Gordon Gumming, all the
River and the Missouri, in the United .States. ordinary cares of housekeeping are here greatly
Nearly the whole of the northern island of New facilitated by nature she provides so many cooking ;
Zealand is volcanic, which is easily seen by the pots that fires are needless, all stewing and boiling
numerous craters scattered up and down the does itself to perfection laundiy work is equally ;
country as many as sixty-five may be counted easy

;
certain pools are set aside m which to boil
within a radius of five miles from Auckland. The clothes, and the waters, being alkaline, produce a
centre of present volcanic activity lies near the two cleansing lather.
mountains of Pongariro and Ruapehu, 200 miles About twenty miles to the cast of Rotorua and
south of Auckland. From this, in a N.N.W. the famous old Maori Pa of Ohinemutu, is the
28 o THE WORLD OF WONDERS,
world-renowned Rotoinuiiana, “ warm lake,” which ;
the lake, and it is composed entirely of pure silica
is one of the smallest in the district, being barely and water, being, in fact, a hydrate of silica, resem-
j
a mile from north to south, and a quarter of a , bling closely in composition that beautiful precious
mile wide. The quantity of water running from stone, the opal. U nder certain conditions of sunlight
the ground, both on the shore and at the bottom the most lovely colours are seen in different parts
of the lake, is truly astonishing the whole lake is
;
of the terrace, which may therefore be not inaptly
heated by it, but the temperature varies in different described as a cataract of opal.
parts, according to the proximity of the hot springs, The Te Tarata, or white terrace, rises by a suc-
which must be avoided by the bather. Its mean cession of chiselled steps, till it attains an ele-
temperature may be taken at slightly aljove So'’ vation of about eighty feet above the lake. Here,
THE WHITE TEKRACE, ROTOMAHANA. (From a Pkotogt apk.')
Fahr. No fish or mollusca will live in it, but it is backed up by a semicircular wall of red rock, on the
a favourite haunt of countless water and swamp level plateau of the uppermost terrace, is the great
fowls, which have their brooding-places on its warm boiling the downward flow of whose waters,
shores, w'hile they seek their food in the neigh- impregnated with silica, has, in the course of
Ixiuring cold lakes. centuries, deposited the “ tattooed ” rockwork of
The unique and marvellous features of the lake, which the Tarata is composed, and from which its
however, are the celebrated pink and white terraces, name is derived. Upon the “treads” of several of the
whose general appearance is perhaps best conveyed steps (which vary in height from one to about seven
to the reader by asking him to conceive of a huge feet each) of the terrace have been formed beautiful
cataract or cascade of water rushing down into the |
cisterns, in which the water lies semi-transparent and
and suddenly turned into an immovable mass
lake,
j
still, of the most exquisite turquoise-blue colour, sur-
by some fairy power. The material of these \

rounded by a rim of beautifully sculptured, almost
terraces is a very light white porous substance, snow-white, opaque rock, from the margin of which
deposited from the overflow of huge hot springs, the most delicate stalactites hang down till they
some ninety or a hundred feet above the level of j
almost touch the lower stage. The contrast of this
A CATARACT OF OPAL. 281
colouring with the deep red of the rocks sur- Except in the particular of colour, which is
rounding the lake, the dark olive -green of the probably due to the presence of a very minute
lu.xuriant vegetation environing it, relieved by trace of iron with the hydrated silica, it is less
numberless white jets of steam from other hot remarkable than the Tarata, being decidedly
springs, and the intensely blue sky above, presents smaller, and presenting fewer facilities for bathing,
a picture unequalled by anything known to such although the same general characteristics of
experienced travellers and observers of natural structure occur in it.
phenomena as Mr. Alfred Russell Wallace. The It will now be desirable to describe more in detail
temperature of the water in the basins varies, of the hot springs that produce this remarkable phe-
upon the terrace and their
course, with their height nomenon, and especially the one at the top of the
distance from the spring-source, and accordingly Tarata, which a true geyser. The basin of the
is
the bather can choose that most suited to him, or spring is about eighty feet long and sixty feet wide,
enjoy a graduated succession, as may most please and filled to the brim with perfectly clear trans-
his fancy. The flat-spreading foot of the terrace parent water, of the same turquoise-blue that is
OEVSEK ON THE TOP OF THE TARATA.
extends far into the lake, the surface of which is ’

seen in the lower basins, and to a less extent in
studded with large and small detached pieces of the waters of the lake itself. The temperature of
the siliceous deposit, floating about like so many the water at the margin is 183° Fahr. ;
but there
miniature icebergs. Those who have visited the can be little doubt that it closely approaches, even
Marjelen Lake at the edge of the great Aletcsh if it does not exceed, 212" in the centre of the
glacier in Switzerland, with the tiny icebergs con- funnel-like basin, from which immense clouds of
stantly falling into it, will be able to realise this steam are constantly rising, obstructing the view of
effect. To various characteristically-shaped por- the whole surface of the water.
tions of the terrace names have been given, The level of the water in this natural cauldron
suggested by their fancied resemblance to different varies considerably at uncertain periods, and hence
natural objects. The whole neighbourhood is full the discharge of water down the terrace, which
of the remains of other terraces, which have existed arises from the overflow of the spring, is intermit-
at no very distant period, and their fantastically- tent, and subject apparently to no fixed law. It
shaped rock-masses add to the marvels of the occasionally happens that the whole mass of the
scenery surrounding the lake. water is suddenly thrown out with immense force ;
The other terrace, Otukapuarangi, commonly when this occurs, the empty basin is seen to a
known as the pink terrace, from its soft salmon- depth of thirty feet, but it fills again very rapidly.
colour, lies at the opposite end of the lake. This condition of things has been perpetuated in a
K K
;
282 THE W()RLD OF WONDERS.

photograph in the possession of the writer, and finestkinds of glass and porcelain, since it is ex-
usually occurs only during violent easterly winds. tremely difficult to get such entirely free from iron
The water, according to an analysis made in the and other metallic oxides, which are apt to colour
Colonial Government Laboratory, contains 153 the ultimate product ;
up to the commencement of
grains of solid residue per gallon, of which thirty- 1882, however, when the Thermal Springs Act, be-
nine are silica, si.xty-seven soda, and thirty-nine fore alluded to, began to come into operation, it was
chlorine. Hence it is practically a weak solution a tourist to obtain even a small specimen
difficult for
of silicate of soda and common salt. When it is of it. The reason of this was that, as explained
exposed to the air, and cooled, the silicate of soda is above, the whole district formed part of the Maori
decomposed, probably in great part by the carbonic reserve, and was inhabited by them they had pro- ;
acid of the air, and claimed the terraces

the insoluble silica tapu (sacred), and
deposited in a hy- forbade any tra-
drated condition veller to remove
upon whatever the portions of the ter-
water flows over in races. As it was
itsdescent into the necessary to obtain
lake. The deposit the services of
forms very rapidly Maori guides, to
a bird shot flying avoid accidents on
over the terrace, ground where there
and falling upon it, is only a fragile
was completely in- crust between the
crusted in a fort- traveller’s foot and
night. boiling water or
The pink terrace scalding mud, com-
has been built up pliance with these
round a great cir- regulations was
cular pool 180 feet almost unavoid-
in diameter, from able. At certain
which there is an seasons of the year,
almost constant too, the various
outflow of clear water-fowl fre-
bright water, at a quenting the lakes
temperature of 204 were also pro-
to 208°, containing claimed tapu, and
166 grains of solid the Europeans and
residue per gallon, colonists were then
of which forty-six prevented from
are silica, fifty soda, shooting them.
and fifty-seven chlo- It is not too much
rine. In conse- to say that there
quence of the is probably no
smaller proportions country in the world
of soda and the presence of sulphuric acid. Dr. where, within a small area, so many and so great
Hector considers that a large proportion of the a variety of facilities exist for bathing in, and
silica in this spring exists in the free state in solu- drinking, every kind of medicated water; and there
tion in water. are several localities which, from their wealth of
It is somewhat remarkable that these deposits hot springs and fumaioles, appear more particularly
should be so entirely composed of pure hydrated adapted for sanatory purposes.
silica, notwithstanding the large amount of common As remarked by the Hon. Sir W. Fox, K.C.M.G.,
salt in the springs according to an analysis by
;
the district might be, and is probably destined to
the writer, the impurities do not amount to one per be, the sanatorium not only of the Australian
cent. It would appear as though the water, in colonies, but of India and other portions of the
trickling over the terraces, aided, no doubt, by globe. The country in which the hot springs are,
occasional rain-storms, dissolved away all the is not attractive for agricultural or pastoral or any
extraneous salts. No doubt these beds of pure similar purposes ;
but when its sanatory resources
silica scattered over the country would have a high are developed it may prove a source of great
commercial value for the manufacture of the very wealth to the colony ;
and not only so, but it may
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 283
be the means of alleviating much human misery, magnets are made, if subjected to repeated
and relieving thousands from their share of the shocks against an armature, gradually changes
ills that flesh is heir to. What is wanted is simply its nature and becomes so like steel that it re-
enough to make water run in pipes

practical skill tains a certain portion of the magnetism, and its
where it is wanted, and accommodation for those power as an electro-magnet becomes considerably
who may desire to avail themselves of it. Both weakened.
these objects seem likely to be attained in some Jacobi soon abandoned the oscillating type of
degree by the proclamation of the whole district machine in favour of a new pattern (see Fig. i). He
under the “Thermal Springs Districts Act, 1881,” fixed eight electro-magnets on a disc with the same
and by the establishment of the projected town- number on a framework placed around it. When
ship of Rotorua, before alluded to. the disc was rotated the poles of the moving
magnets almost touched those which were station-
ary, and by an ingenious arrangement the magnet-
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. ism was cut off after each approach, to be renewed
again before the next magnet was reached. This
In the year 1833, Dr. Schultless, who had made engine was subsequently fixed on a boat and
several suggestive experiments with the electro- geared to a pair of paddle-wheels. The boat was
magnet with a view to its employment as a motor, twenty-eight feet in length, drew two and a half feet
wrote as follows :
—
“ If we consider that electro-
magnets have already been made which were
capable of carrying 20 cwt., and that there is no
reason to doubt that they can be made infinitely
more powerful, I think I may boldly assert that
electro-magnetism may certainly be employed for
the purpose of moving machines.”
There were many other clever men at that time
who held the same view. The marvellous power
of attraction exhibited by even a small electro-
magnet impressed their minds with the belief that
it might easily be made to actuate machinery.
Moreover, the magnetism can be destroyed and
restored with such ease and rapidity, by merely
making and breaking connection with the battery,
that it was seen that an armature could be made
to give alternate movements, which by suitable
gearing could turn a wheel. The piston-rod of a of water, and carried a dozen passengers. The
iteam-engine represents such alternate movements, electric current was of course supplied by battery-
ind we all know how, by the simple device of a power, and the energy obtained from that source
crank, the to-and-fro movement is changed to one was computed to be one horse-power for every
which is rotary. In the steam-engine there is no twenty feet of platinum exposed to chemical action.
difficulty about length of stroke, that is merely With increased battery-power the same boat ap-
governed by length of cylinder and supply of peared once more on the Neva, carrying fourteen
steam. But supposing that we wish to carry out people at the rate of three miles per hour against the
the same movements with a magnet and armature, stream. At about the same time that this electric
we are at once met with the difficulty that the boat was astonishing the people of Russia, David-
magnetic attractions decrease very rapidly with son, of Edinburgh, had contrived a locomotive
increase of distance, so that the length of stroke is electro-magnetic engine which was sixteen feet in
reduced to something infinitesimal. length,and weighed five tons. It was tried on the
In 1835, Professor Jacobi, of St. Petersburg, Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway, but as its highest
was, under the patronage of the Emperor Nicholas, speed was only four miles an hour it soon passed
employed in making a series of experiments in this into oblivion.
direction which were carried out regardless of Professor Page produced an electro-magnetic
expense. He began by employing magnetic bars engine on another principle, which bore a stronger
which by their attractive and repellant powers likeness to a steam-engine than those which had
were made to exert a rocking motion, which was —
gone before. He used a helix of wire which we
subsequently converted into a rotary one. He was —
may call the cylinder and in this hollow coil a
the first to discover a very important point, the kind of plunger or piston-rod, worked in and out by
non-observation of which had caused many other the magnetism induced in the wire. Professor Page
inventors to fail. The soft iron of which the estimated that he obtained from the battery con-
284 THE WORIJ) OF WONDERS,
sumption per day of 3 lb. of zinc, energy amount- which can only be appreciated by any one accus-
ing to one horse-power. But this estimate is, to tomed to battery work. But supposing all these
say the least, very doubtful. Bourbouze, in France, difficulties could be surmounted, a still more'
produced an engine on exactly the same principle ;
serious one is met with in the cost of zinc.
whilst another Frenchman, Froment, designed one Zinc is consumed in a battery much in the same
more on the pattern furnished by Jacobi. Parti- way that coal burned under a steam-boiler, and
is
culars and drawings of these engines may be found it is by no means difficult to see which is the more
in most of the French standard works on Physics. expensive way of obtaining a given amount of
Such has been the rapid progress of electrical energy. In the modern doctrine of “ consenâtion
science that the various ingenious machines just of energy,” we are taught by Joule that a certain
described, although not yet fifty years old, may be quantity of heat is always equivalent to the same
ijij i
Fig. 2. — ELECTRIC RAILWAY AT BERLIN, 1879.
said to comprise the “ ancient history” of electro- quantity of work does not matter a bit in what
: it
motors. We see that success to a certain extent manner If we endeavour to

the heat be produced.
was achieved, and many will wonder why, with ascertain the amount of heat obtained from burn-
such ingenuity and perseverance, this success was ing a pound of zinc and a pound of coal respec-
not more marked and more lasting. To answer tively, we shall find that the latter will give us
this question, we must take two or three things into about seven times more work than the former.
consideration. The first difficulty these inventors Now, as zinc costs about twenty-five times as much
encountered was the battery, which represented as coal, we have only to multiply that sum by seven
their sole source of electrical energy. A powerful to find out how costly an engine worked by battery-
battery,if required for regular work, is but a broken power must be. Motive power is as much in-
reed to depend upon. Uncertainty of action is fluenced by cost of production as the price of the
influenced by quality of zinc, amalgamation of the more tangible things which we see displayed for
plates, strength of acids employed, cleanliness of sale in our shops.
connections, which are constantly liable to corro- The modern history of motion by electricity is
sion, and many other matters the importance of comprised in the recent development of the
ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER. 285
'-‘Dynamo machine," and its germ lies in the cir- isobtained from a dynamo machine worked by ihe
cumstance that all machines which give continuous power of a brook a mile away. We are informed
currents are reversible. In other words, suppose that in the daytime wires from this first dynamo
we have before us a Gramme machine geared in are coupled up to another near the house, which is
the usual way to a steam-engine, to this first used to drive a sawing-machine and to do other
machine we couple another by means of copper work. This arrangement may be regarded as a
cables, which may be of any reasonable length. model of the way in which our electrical engineers
Directly the aumature of the first machine begins promise in the future to furnish us with light, heat,
second one will rotate in the
to rotate, that of the and motive power. The great idea is to generate
reverse direction. This discovery, which was pro- a current atsome fixed station where power can be
bably noticed by many, and regarded by them as had cheaply, or for nothing, as in the case of a
Fig. 3. — ELECTRIC railway-carriage, l8a2.
simply an interesting scientific experiment, was large waterfall ;

by means of turbines or
then,
declared by the late Professor Clerk Maxwell to water-wheels, the power can be made to dri\ e a
be the greatest scientific discovery of the past dynamo machine, which, united to a distant one by
twenty-five years. With wonderful foresight he wires, will, allowing for a certain amount of loss,
saw how the Gramme and other machines could be bring to our homes the force of the far-off torrent.
employed in quite a new service. Constructed At the Electrical Exhibition which was held at
merely to furnish a current which could be utilised Munich in 1882, this latest application of the
for light, heat, or other purposes, this same current, dynamo machine was shown in a complete manner,
by the agency of a distant machine and intervening and upon a scale sufficiently large to prove its
wires, could be made to tratis 7nit power to a dis- practicability and At Hirschaw, which is
value.
tance, the limit of which is not yet known. three and a half miles from the exhibition build-
Let us see how far Professor Clerk Maxwell’s ings, there is a locomotive factory at which water-
anticipations are being borne outby actual events. power is largely employed by means of turbines.
In an article on Incandescent Electric Lamps One of these was utilised to turn a dynamo
we showed how, at Sir W. G. Armstrong’s country machine, the current from which was conveyed by
house, where such lamps are in use, the electricity thin copper wires to the exhibition. Here, in the
daytime, it was made to work electric ploughs and is three miles in length. Mr. Edison estimates
other novel agricultural appliances, and at night that a central station will be required cn this
the current served to supply thirteen powerful arc description of railway for every ten miles of
lamps. It was estimated that the resistance of the track, to furnish energy for five miles
on either
wires caused a loss in transit of about one-eighth side. He believes that the system will be found
of the current generated. A
more interest-
still far more economical than propulsion by steam.
ing experiment was made same time and
at the Now it quite evident that this cannot be, if
is
place by M. Deprez, for the circuit he employed steam used to move the stationary generator
is
covered thirty-five and a half miles, and utilised of the current. It would be far better to use
the ordinary iron telegraph-lines between Munich the steam in an ordinary locomotive. But where
and Miesbach. The motor employed at the dis- water-power can be utilised, Mr. Edison’s figures
tant station was a steam-engine, whose energy was may possibly be borne out. We shall have an
conveyed electrically to Munich, where it pumped early opportunity of testing the matter near at
water. home, for an electrical railway is now being laid
Without attempting any complicated description, between Portrush and the Giant’s Causeway in the
itcan now be readily understood how a dynamo North of Ireland. This novel line is seven miles
machine may be made to actuate the wheels of a in length, and the power for it is to be derived from
locomotive, if by any the waterfalls which
means the current abound in its neigh-
from a stationary dy- bourhood. The cur-
namo can be con- rent isbe conveyed
to
veyed to it. The by an overhead wire,
metallic rails offer a for Messrs. Siemens,
ready means of doing whose machines are to
this, and, in practice, be used, consider this
one rail may be made the best way of apply-
to convey the current ing but the return
it,
through the travelling current will pass

dynamo, whilst the through the rails and
other one serves to earth. We may look
complete the circuit upon this railway as
with the stationary a test by which we
machine. This plan can really gauge the
was adopted in the success obtainable by
first electric railway the electric railway
made by Messrs. Sie- i'lg. 4. — THK GKISCOM MOTOR. system. Of its me-
mens and Halske for chanical success we
the Berlin Exhibition of 1879 (see Fig. 2). This rail- may feel quite sure, but whether it can be made
way, although but a toy (for it consisted only of a to pay is a question that can only be answered by
circular tramway fifty yards in diameter, while its actual experience of its working.
gauge was only about two and a half feet, and its A wonderfully perfect little machine is presented
carriages were mere seats to hold eighteen pas- in the “Griscom motor,” illustrated in Fig. 4.
It
sengers) clearly demonstrated the possibility of measures only a few inches in length, and is in-
locomotion by electricity. The same firm were tended to work sewing-machines, or for any purpose
soon busy upon another railway three kilometres where exceedingly^ light work is required. It is
long, and one of the carriages made for this service actuated by a simple form of battery which does
was exhibited at the Electrical Exhibition in Paris not lead to much trouble or expense. S is the
(see Fig. 3). At this exhibition of 1882 a railway also spindle bearing the rotating armature, at the other
was shown in operation, but Messrs. Siemens were extremity of which is a wheel to carry the belt, D,
obliged to convey the current, not by the rails, but over the wheel of the sewing-machine, B. P is the
by making connection with a wire running by the outer framework constituting the field magnets, A
side of the track. This modification was to pre- the armature, and M a clamp for readily attaching
vent any accident through horses crossing the rails, the whole arrangement to the sewing-machine.
and getting thereby an injurious discharge of elec- We may assume that any one using the Griscom
through their bodies.
tricity motor w'ill look forward to the time when electric
Of Mr.
Edison’s experimental railway at Menlo energy be supplied, as promised, from house to
will
Park little is known, but from the only short house. Then the battery can be dispensed with,
account accessible we learn that the total weight and the little machine can be run from the .house-
of the engine is four tons, and that the railway hold supply.
'S .
.«
v.'
‘:a f
J
I
\ >
.,i-
i:
THE GIANT CENTIPEDE {ScolopcnJra giganlea) OE INDIA. [Aa/inal size.)
9
A GIANT CENTIPEDE. 287
The reversal of the dynamo electric machine The “mouth” of the centipede, like that of the
opens out a vista of magnificent possibilities, the insect, is represented by certain paired appendages.
full extent of which it is very difficult at first sight There is, firstly, the “ mandibles,” or large jaws, a
to grasp. Transmission of energy is not possible lower lip, or “labium,” and two pairs of “foot-
by steam alone, because of the rapid condensation jaws.” It is the second pair of these foot-jaws
which must occur if any length of piping is em- which form the poison-apparatus. They possess
ployed. The hydraulic system permits us to convey each a hooked fang, and this fang, in turn, is hollow,
energy from a central engine to numerous points in and leads by a canal to the poison-gland, which is
a certain area around it, and such a system is seen situated within the body of the animal. When the
at work in great perfection at our numerous docks. prey is hunted, the poison-fang being plunged into
Compressed air will also convey energy to a cer- its body, the attacked animal is rapidly paralysed,
tain distance, but in both cases pipes are required, and finally overpowered.
and such pipes for hydraulic use must be con- In habits the centipedes are carnivorous. They
structed to resist a very high internal pressure. attack insects and allied forms, and live amongst
One of the greatest advantages of using electricity damp moss, under stones, amidst decaying vege-
is that the links of communication are simply wires. tation, and
in like situations. Curiously enough, this
We have seen how much has been done experi- group of animals includes representatives of very
mentally, and there is little doubt that in a short minute size, in addition to the giant form figured
time the system will have stepped out of the
experimental stage on to the arena of practical
employment.
A GIANT CENTIPEDE.
With the appearance of the ordinary centipedes,
most, if not all, readers are very familiar. The
names “ hundred feet,” “gally-worms,” and the like,
applied to the centipedes and their neighbours, PAUROPUS.
clearly show the public appreciation of characters
upon which the zoologist also relies for his distinc- in our illustration. The little Pauropus^ discovered
tion of the class from its neighbours. Centipedes, by SirJohn Lubbock, attains a length of only about
in one sense, may be described as worm-aristocrats. ûth of an inch. There are only nine pairs of legs in
They possess the long jointed body of the worm, this little form, which is of a white colour, and lives
and want that massing together of parts and seg- amongst decaying leaves. There is hardly any
ments, to form chest and abdomen, which we see feature in common, apparent to the unscientific eye,
in insects, and, in a certain modified state, in spiders between the minute form as above figured, and the
and lobsters as well. Then the numerous legs great tropical centipede ;
yet scientific investigation
appear to our common observation as a character proves their close relationship, and shows the two
of importance. There may be over 200 rings, or forms to be merely modifications of one great type.
joints, and well nigh as many feet, in some members
of this class ;
and the striking similarity of the
segments and legs forms one of the most salient AN EXTRAORDINARY BEDSTEAD.
features of these animals. They mostly have ocelli,
or single eyes, not the composite eyes of many In February, 1883, there was exhibited for a time in
insects. Paris, an extraordinary bedstead of rare costliness
The specimen depicted in our full-page illustra- if not of rare value, made for an Indian prince.
tion is the Scolopendra gigantea, or Giant Centi- The cost of its construction was between four and
pede, of India. It is depicted of the natural five thousand pounds. The canopy was supported
size, and it will thus be seen that
a it attains by four elegant and beautiful automaton female
length of nine inches, or even a foot. The true figures costumed in the national dresses of Spain,
centipedes seem to possess from twenty-one to Italy, France, and ancient Greece they waved
;
twenty-three joints, each bearing a pair of legs. fans to cool the air, and their eyes moved. The
There are very few of the ocelli^ or simple eyes, de- mattress was a huge musical box, which began to
veloped in this group, this character contrasting play a series of operatic airs directly any one lay
with the appearance of the huge eye-masses that upon it. To add to the apparent reality of the
decorate the head of most insects. In the structure moving figures, they wore wigs. With us, however,
of the centipedes there are many points of interest. bedsteads are intended to be slept upon and it is not
;
They are knowm, for example, to be poisonous, and very clear how moving figures around and operatic
the bite of the Giant Centipede is deservedly feared. music underneath would conduce to that object
FROST EXPLOSIONS. j
halves of the block will re-unite, and will show
no sign that they have ever been separated. We
The modern householder knows, to his cost, the shall now be understand the bear-
in a position to
difficulty of keeping his water-pipes from freezing ing of some very interesting experiments carried
when the winter temperature hovers between zero out to show the disruptive power of water in the
and 32° Fahrenheit. There is not only the incon- act of assuming the solid state.
venience to contend with of being without water, The first experiment of the kind was tried some
but the far more serious one of having the pipes years ago by Major Williams at Quebec, where, as
fractured by the cold —
an accident often not sus- we need hardly remind the reader, the winter frost
pected until a thaw sets in when the liberated — is of exceptional A 12-inch spherical
severity.
water pours in gallons from the broken pipes, and cast-iron shell was with water, and confined
filled
carries destruction in its path. Let us try and by driving into the aperture intended for the fuse a
answer the question why cold should have the wooden stopper. He could hardly have chosen a
strange effect of tearing asunder the thick lead or more effective cork, for the moisture, rising into the
iron piping by which water is conveyed into our pores of the wood, caused it to swell until it was
dwelling-houses. too tight to be withdrawn by any ordinary means.
It has been shown in a previous article (p. 15) The shell, with this novel charge, was then exposed
that water is somewhat ex- to the winter air, and al-
ceptional in its behaviour though not filled with an
when exposed to different explosive, in the usual sense
changes of temperature. of the word, it ultimatel)'
Many bodies, in passing gave a sharp report, and its
from the liquid to the solid wooden bung was projected
state, undergo a diminution to a distance of 100 yards,
of volume in other words,
;
just as if it had been fired
they shrink. But water (with from a musket. At the same

some few other bodies) ex- time, a cylinder of ice about
pands. In the form of ice, 8 inches in length was forced
its volume is much greater from the orifice. Another
than before. For this reason experiment was still more
ice floats on the surface of striking, for the wooden

water, being lighter, bulk for stopper, on this occasion,
bulk, than the liquid medium remained in its place, but
around it. It is this final ex- the shell split into two
Fig. PRESSURE MELTING ICE.
pansion, and the enormous and a sheet of ice
halves,
pressure exerted by it when was
squeezed out of the
confined in closed receptacles, which causes our fracture, forming a kind of ledge all round the
water-pipes to burst in the winter-time if they be middle of the sphere.
not properly protected from the frost. A strong During the severe winter of 1879 80, these ex-
wrought-iron tube filled with water, and closed with periments were repeated by M. Hagenbach one of —
a screw stopper, will, if exposed to sufficient cold, the professors of the University of Bale and the —
explode with a loud report and this means of;
curious effects produced were carefully noticed.
demonstrating the force of ice expansion is fre- The two shells experimented upon were subse-
quently adopted in the lecture-room. quently photographed, and our illustration is an
Another point must be noticed, and it is this the : exact reproduction of the pictures so obtained.
melting-point of ice can be considerably lowered by In the first case, a shell was filled with water, its
pressure. It has been proved by special apparatus opening being closed, not with a wooden plug,
that water can be kept liquid at a temperature but with an iron stopper, which was screwed into it.
below zero. But without any complicated arrange- It was exposed all night to a temperature of lo'^
ments it can easily be shown, experimentally, that Fahrenheit, and was found in the morning presenting
pressure does exert a liquefying action. If a large the appearance shown at A and B, views taken of the
block of ice be supported at each end, so that its same object from different points. At C and D we see
middle can be embraced by a thin wire, to which is the results obtained from the exposure of a second
attached below a heavy weight, the wire, by reason of shell to a temperature of about the same severity.
the pressure which it exerts, will gradually melt the ice It was placed in the open air at 10 o’clock in the
below it until it cuts its way through, and the weight morning, and exploded at 9 o’clock flie same
falls to the ground. If the experiment has been evening. It will at once be noticed that the two
conducted as it should be —
out of doors, in a shells, B and C D, present some peculiarities w’hich,
temperature below the freezing-point the two — at first, are difficult to comprehend. In the first
FROST EXPLOSIONS. 289
case, the screwed iron stopper has remained in its sumed that in each case congelation was almost
place, but the shell has been fractured in such a instantaneous, occupying but the fraction of a
way that a triangular piece has been forced away, second of time.
which is held to the shell by a mass of extruded If such effects can be produced on metallic ves-
ice. It will also be noticed that a bent needle of sels of exceptional thickness and strength, we can
ice is attached to the main mass. I he most easily understand how those minor effects can
probable explanation of the appearance is as fol- happen which cause us such inconvenience in winter-
lows : —
The shell time. The water
being entirelyfilled, in our household
the water within it pipes congeals with
had no room for the first frost of
expansion. No ice w interif those pipes
was formed imme- are in an exposed
diately, but the and unprotected

pressure exerted situation, and with
was sufficient to that congelation
affect the iron en- there comes expan-
velope, which, by sion and conse-
reason of its elas- quent pressure from
ticity, would, to a within, which the
certain extent, toughest metal can-
“give.” This ac- not withstand. But
tion caused a small we can also read
leakage through the from these experi-
thread of the screw ments a lesson of
stopper, and a thin wider import. We
jet of water was can learn that the
forced out there. force of gunpowder
Being released and dynamite in
from pressure this tearing rocks asun-
jet instantly froze, der is nothing to
and doing so fell
in the force which, in
over upon, and took nature, accom-
the same contour plishes the same
as, the outer sur- purpose on an
face of the shell. enormous scale.
The shell itself was Fissures in rocks,
then ruptured as which can hold in-
shown pho-
in the dividually but small
tograph, the curved quantities of rain-
filament of ice be- water, may become,
ing raised with the when that water
fractured part, and has turned into ice,
remaining attached the first elements
to it. of a gigantic land-
In the case of the other shell, c D, the pressure slip. We could not better illustrate the feebleness
from within also caused the thread of the screw to of man’s greatest efforts when contrasted with the
gape, and a liquid jet was forced out, continuing, forces of nature.
as it were, the spiral path of the screw thread out-
side the shell. This immediately froze, and re- FEATS OF ARCHERY.
tained its shape. When the actuai explosion oc-
curred, the stopper was so violently ejected from That most ancient of hunting and warlike imple-
the opening that its final resting-place was never — —
ments the bow although it is now only used for
discovered. At the same time, the threaded opening amusement, has played a very mighty part in the
of the shell was completely torn away, and several history of the world. In all ages feats performed
fissures radiated in every direction from it. As in with it of the most wonderful description are on
the old experiment at Quebec, a column of ice was record. Sir John Smith spoke of the bow as a
extruded from the opening, in this case crowned by gift from God to the English nation, to make it
the spiral jet which at first escaped. It may be as- singularly powerful in war and Bishop Latimer
;
L L
—
also said of it, in one of his sermons, “ it is a gyft never inflicted a wound. Commodus boasted that he
of God, that he hath geven us to excell all other never missed his aim or failed to kill the wild beast
nacions wythall.” Carew wrote upbraidingly of the he exercised his skill upon, each with a single shaft,
neglect of archery in his day, and giving the bow striking exactly where he had announced his inten-
words, makes it say :
tion of striking. He would set an arrow in his bow
“ As give you protection, so in peace I
in fight 1 as some wild beast was set free in the circus to
supply your pastime, and, both in warre and peace, devour a living criminal condemned to die, and just
to your lymmes 1 yielde active plyantnesse, and to when the furious and hungry beast was springing
your bodies healthful exercise yea, I provide you ;
upon its prey, would lay it dead at the criminal’s feet.
food when you are hungrie, and helpe digestion Sometimes one hundred lions were let loose at once,
when you are full. Whence then proceedeth this in order that he, with a hundred arrows, might kill
unkind and unusual strangeness ? 1 heavy for Am them all. With arrows, the heads of which were
burden.? Forsooth, a few light sticks of woode ! semicircular, he would sever the necks of ostriches
Am 1 cumbrous for carriage ? I canch a part of while they were in flight. Remembering the small
myself close under your girdle, and the other part neck and swiftness of the ostrich makes this feat
serveth for a walking staffe in your hand I ! Am appear the more astonishing.
unhandsome in your sight ? Every piece of me is It is said that an archer, named Aster, seeing
comely, and the whole keepeth a harmonical pro- Philip of Macedon among his troops, wrote upon
portion. Lastly, am I costly to be provided ? or , an arrow, with which he hit him in the eye, “ Aster
hard to be maintained? No! Cheapness is my sends Philip a deadly shaft.” Zosimus mentions
purveyor, easiness my preserver.” an archer named Menalus, who could discharge
Passing from this eloquent old tribute to the three arrows at once and hit each of three objects
virtues of the bow, let us note briefly a few of its he aimed at. He fell at last by the hand of a
wonders. general named Romulus, in the army of Magentius,
Some marvellous feats are said to have been per- whom he had previously shot at and wounded.
formed by the Cretan archers whom the ancient Chardian, speaking of the Persian archers, says
Greeks employed. Xenophon tells of a man whose they practised at a mark placed on the top of a
head an arrow passed quite through. The Persians, mast twenty-six feet from the ground. Towards
who boasted their descent from the famous hero this the horsemen rode, with bent bow, at full speed,
archer Perses, and the Scythians, descendants of and in passing the mark turned and shot at it back-
the great archer Scythes, were among the most wards, sometimes to the right, sometimes to the
skilful archers of the ancient world. It is recorded left, seldom missing. Mr. Tavernier, who witnessed
that the ancient Persians could drive one arrow out a review of Persian troops in 1654, describes a
of the hole it made, with another, at a long range, soldier on horseback who “drew two arrows from
and repeat the feat with several successive arrows, his quiver, and, holding one between his belt, fitted
when practising at their sand butts. We read also the other to his bow then forcing his horse vigor-
;
that they shot from horseback, hitting a mark on a ously across the plain till he passed the butt, he, in
post while galloping. Onearcher would gallop the Parthian manner, drove an arrow into the
past a butt at full speed and send two arrows centre of the target turning about he, in the same
;
through one hole while doing so. Homer tells how manner, shot his second arrow precisely into the
Penelope promised her many suitors that he only hole from which his first arrow had been drawn.”
should be favoured The Persian bow required a pull of five hundred
“ Who Ulysses’ wondrous bow shall bend,
pounds.
first
And through twelve ringlets the fleet arrow send.” The Turks are said to have been at one time very
skilful archers. An old traveller says that they
well knowing that only her husband could display
practised regularly with the bow from seven or
such power, in proof of which, when they failed he
eight years old, and upwards, to manhood. It was
re-won his wife, for, bending his bow,
a common feat for them to shoot several arrows
“The whizzing arrow vanished from the string, from the distance of ten yards into a mark not
Sung on direct, and threaded every ring.”
larger than a die. Lord Bacon said of the Turkish
Although the Roman legions discarded the bow in bow, “ it giveth a very forcible shoot, insomuch as
war, trusting entirely to the charge and hand-to-hand it hath been known that the arrow hath pierced a
fighting, feats of archery were displayed in the cir- steel target or a piece of brass of two inches thick.”
cus, and many of the Roman emperors were famous In July, 1792, Mahmood Effendi, secretary to the
archers. It is said that Domitian would place boys Turkish Embassy at London, shot an arrow four
in the circus at a considerable distance from him, hundred and fifteen yards partly against the wind,
and, as they held up their hands with their fingers and four hundred and eighty yards with the wind.
outspread,would send his arrows between them He did this publicly in the grounds adjoining Bed-
with such nicety and accuracy of aim. that he ford House. In 1798 the Sultan of Turkey shot an
FEATS OF ARCHERY. 291
arrow nine hundred and seventy-two yards, a feat At the battle of Cre^y it was found impossible to
scarcely surpassed by those attributed to Robin get horses to face the deadly arrows of the English
Hood. That famous outlaw’s existence is vouched archers.
for by such a mass of traditionary evidence, all of The feat of William Tell in shooting an apple
which is so strongly supported by local and archm- from the head of his son may be found related of
ological evidence, that it is almost as difficult to many other old-world heroes, as well as of the
understand why it has been denied, as it is to see a famous William of Cloudesley, who could split a
reason why Shakespeare’s plays should be attributed hazel wand with his shaft from a distance of two
to Lord Bacon. hundred yards. In the time of Henry VIII. a
Giraldus Cambrensis, speaking of the ancient curious archery feat was performed by a man who
Britons of Wales as famous for their dexterity was called from it ever after by the nickname of
with the bow in the time of our second Henry, says “Foot-in-bosom.” He shot “a very good shot”
“There is a particular tribe in Wales named the with one foot in his bosom. Mr. Barrington records
Venta a people brave and warlike, and who far
;
in the “ Archasologia,” a tradition of an attorney at
excel the other inhabitants of that country in the Wigan, in Lancashire, named Leigh, who shot an
practice of archery. During a siege it happened arrow a mile in three flights. It is reported that he
that two soldiers, running in haste towards a tower sat on a stool and had the centre of his bow
situated at a little distance from them, were attacked fastened to one of his feet, that he thus elevated his
with a number of arrows fromthe Welsh, which, bow to an angle of flve-and-forty degrees and pulled
being shot with prodigious violence, some penetrated the string with both hands. It is on record that
the oak doors of a portal, although they were the the Arabians performed simple feats of archery in
breadth of four fingers in thickness. The heads this way with the hands and one foot. Arrian
of the arrows were afterwards driven out, and pre- chronicled the fact that Indian archers used their
served in order to continue the remembrance of left feet in the same way and the same fact is ;
such extraordinary shooting with the bow. It hap- recorded of Ethiopian bowmen by Diodorus
pened also in a battle, at the time of William de Siculus and Strabo. The latter also tells us, that
Brusa, as he himself relates, that a Welshman when shooting elephants these archers employed
having directed his arrow at a horse-soldier, who bows which required the strength of three persons
was clad in armour, and had under it his leather to shoot with them two to support the bow by the ;
coat,. the arrow pierced through the man’s hip and aid of their feet, and a third to place the arrow and
also struck through the saddle, and mortally pull the string. Xenophon, speaking of the Car-
wounded the horse on which he sat. Another ducians, wrote, “ They had bows which were three
Welsh soldier, having shot an arrow at a horseman cubits long, and arrows of two cubits. When they
who was protected by stout armour in the same made use of these weapons they placed the left
way, the shaft penetrated through his hip and fixed foot on the bottom of the bow, and by that method
in the saddle but what is most remarkable is, that drove their arrows with great violence, piercing
;
as the horseman drew his bridle to turn round, he through the shields and corselets of his men.”
received another arrow in his hip on the opposite In 1801 Mr. Roberts says he knew archers who
side, which also passing through, he was firmly could put twenty arrows successively into a four-
fastened to the saddle on both sides.” foot target at one hundred yards, shooting at
In the memorable battle between the English each end twelve arrows within the compass of
;
and Scotch near Halidowne (or Halidone) Hill, in i

two feet at forty-six yards ten successive arrows
;
1402, the arrows of the English archers were so ! in an eight-inch paper at thirty yards fifty-two ;
strong and propelled with such terrible strength arrows out of a hundred into a four-foot target at one
that no armour could repel them, they “ ranne hundred yards and two successive arrows into an
;
through the men at arms, bored the helmets, j

eight-inch paper at one hundred and twenty yards.
pierced their very swords, beat their lances to the I
One of the Royal Scottish Archers could plant
earth, and easily shot those who were more slightly
I
three arrows in a circle of four inches diameter.
armed through and through,” says an old historian. I
It will give some idea of the extraordinary skill,
Philip deComines confessed that the English '
combined with strength, requisite to a proper use

archers in his day excelled those of all other
j
of the bow, if we mention, in concluding, that the
nations; and Sir John Fortescue wrote, “The I
famous modern Hercules, Topham, sneering at the

might of the realme of England standyth upon
I
long bow as a weapon of a child, in the presence of
archers.” The first Emperor Napoleon said that [
the Finsbury Archers after they had gone through
the old English archers were the best light infantry their customary exercise at Finsbury, one wagered
of their day. Each could discharge twelve arrows a bowl of punch that he, Topham, would not be
per minute, and send them from a distance of two able to draw his (the archer’s) bow two-thirds of its
hundred yards quite through oaken planks varying length. Topham accepted the bet with a scornful
in thickness from an inchand a half to two inches. laugh, tried, and to his great mortification failed.
A MYSTERIOUS CITY. marble doors of prodigious dimensions, windows
and niches bordered with exquisite sculpture, and
Among grandest relics of a great nation’s
the the fragments of beautiful arches, cornices, capitals,
vanished glory stands the ruins of Baalbec, or and entablatures, says: “The master-works of art,
Heliopolis, both names having the same meaning, the w'recks of ages, lay scattered as thickly as the
which is the City of the Sun. Its history is lost grains of dust beneath our feet. All was mystery,
in the thick obscurity of a very remote past, and confusion, inextricable w’onder. No sooner had we
even its existence was for centuries utterly unknown. cast an admiring glance on one side than some new
The extraordinary silence of the ancient Greek and prodigy attracted us on the other. Time . . .
Roman concerning a place so extensive,

writers carries his secrets away with him, and leaves his
human knowledge ”
wealthy, important, and magnificent is unaccountable. enigmas as sports for !
GREAT TEMPLE AND SIX COLUMNS AT LAALIiEC.
John of .A.ntioch is the only ancient author by Another modern traveller writes :
“So little i.5
whom it is mentioned. He says: “ Alius Antoninus known of the ancient Baalbec, that it seems more
Pius built a great temple at Heliopolis, near Libanus, like one of those cities of the ‘
Arabian Nights’ than
in Phoenicia, which one of the wonders of the
w'as a place for centuries of actual wealth, importance, and
world.” Oriental writers, speaking of it at the luxury. Perhaps it is best that it should be thus,
period of the first Arab invasion, describewere destined that the noble ruins should
it as as if it
being then one of the most splendid of Syrian the tale. Could any other story be so
alone tell
cities, having stately palaces adorned with monu- interesting, any other monument of the dead so
ments of great antiquity, abounding w’ith fountains grandly impressive ? ”
and artistic adornments of w'onderful richness, Baalbec stands on the road between Tyre and
variety, and beauty. Buckingham, speaking of the Palmyra. Seen from a distance as you descend
remains of its great temple, in which the sun was the last slope of the Anti-Lebanon, past the quarries,
worshipped, says: “I should conceive that in no it is not impressive. On the green expanse at the
country was to be found so superb a monument of mountain foot you trace six columns upon a square
the inimitable perfection of ancient architecture.” block of masonry amidst fallen walls. But when
Lamartine, wrapt in wonder as he surveyed the you stand amongst the Titanic ruins, and gaze with
A MYSTERIOUS CITY. 293
amazement on the torsos of the piled-upcolumns vellous precision that the junction-lines arc in-
at the feet of those still standing a hundred feet visible, and without cement or mortar.
or more above you, faultless in their proportions Maundrell, speaking of the temple, and of the
and majestic in their marvellous beauty, how wall encompassing it, made with stones so
different are your feelings Bayard Taylor says
! ; monstrously huge that the natives attributed its
“ I know of nothing so beautiful in all remains of building to Satanic
influence, says “ Another
:
ancient art as these six columns, except the colon- curiosity of this placewhich a man need be well
nade of the Memnonium at Thebes, which is of assured of his credit before he ventures to relate,
IMMENSE STONE AT EAALBEC.
much smaller proportions. From every position,

he should be thought to strain the privilege of
lest
and with all lights of day or night, they are equally credit too far, That which I mean, is the
his
perfect.” large piece of an old wall.” Three of the stones of
The ruins of Baalbec do not now cover any large this wall he measured, and says “We found them :
extent of land: we have, indeed, only the ruins of to extend sixty-one yards in length one twenty- ;
three distinct edifices standing, a little distance one, and the other two each twenty yards, and in
apart, the most remarkable of which occupies a breadth of the same dimensions. These three
circuit of more than half a mile. It consisted stones lay in one and the same row to the end. . . .
originally of a portico, an hexagonal court, and a That which added to the wonder was that these
quadrangle, with the peristyles, six Titanic highly stones were lifted up into the wall more than
polished pillars of pale yellow stone, with their twenty feet from the ground.”
cornice and entablature, each formed with but two At the bottom of one of the quarries already
or three vast blocks, fitted together with such mar- mentioned a single stone was found (shown in
our second illustration), seventy feet long, fourteen THE OLD DAYS OF TAXATION.
broad, and in thickness fourteen feet six inches !
Its weight must have been more than one thousand An eminent statesman and famous law lord gave
one hundred and thirty tons, and it has been cal- about fifty years ago as the most astonishing proof
culated that to raise it would require the strength extant of John Bull’s power of endurance, the
of sixty thousand men The stones at Baalbec are
! following list of taxes in a time of war: “Every —
indeed the largest that have ever been moved by article which enters into the mouth, or covers the
human power! and how they were so closely back, or is placed under the foot, has its tax. Taxes
fitted and conveyed to their places is to this day are on everything which it is pleasant to see, hear,
an insoluble mystery. It is not too much to say feel, smell, or taste we have taxes upon warmth,
;
that the task would be impracticable even in these light, and locomotion on everything on earth, and
;
modern engineering days. The difficulty faces us the waters under the earth on everything that comes ;
in relation to many of the immense stones in the from abroad, or is grown at home taxes on raw ;
buildings of antiquity ;
but in this case every con- material taxes on every fresh value that is added
;
jecture as to the mechanical means employed is to it by the industry of man taxes on every source ;
fairly baffled. They are cut with faultless pre- which pampers man’s appetite, and the drug that
cision, and so closely Joined that the finest needle restores him to health on the ermine which de-
;
could not be forced between them ! On this corates the judge, and the rope which hangs the
point M. Lamartine says “ When it is considered
: criminal on the poor man’s salt, and the rich man’s
;
that some of these blocks of hewn granite are spice on the brass nails of the coffin, and the rib-
;
raised one above another, to the height of twenty or bons of the bride at bed or at board, couchant or
;
thirty feetfrom the ground, that they have levant, we must pay. The schoolboy whips his taxed
been brought from distant quarries, and raised to top the beardless youth manages his taxed horse
;
so vast a height to form the pavement of the temple, with a taxed bridle upon a taxed road, and the
the mind is overwhelmed by the mere idea. The dying Englishman pouring his medicine, which has
science of modern times cannot help us to explain paid seven per cent, in tax, flings himself back upon
it, and we cannot be surprised, therefore, that it his chintz bed, which has paid twenty-two per cent.,
should be referred to the supernatural.” makes his will on an eight pound stamp, and ex-
When Dawkins and Wood visited Baalbec, nine pires in the arms of an apothecary who has paid
columns of the large temple were erect. In 1784 licences of .^100 for the privilege of putting him to
Volney found but six. There were originally thirty- i
death. His whole property is then immediately
four belonging to the smaller temple, now there
’
taxed from two to ten per cent. Besides the pro-

are but twenty. The granite of which they are bate, large fees are demanded for bringing him in
formed exists nowhere near them, and where it the chancel, his virtues are handed down to pos-
could have been obtained is unknown. terity on taxed marble, and he is at last gathered to
The interior of the chief temple, with its fine his fathers and taxed no more.”
Corinthian pilasters, is full of masterpieces of
Grecian sculpture. The platform of vast stones on
which it stands is a thousand feet in length, and INSTANTANEOUS PHOTOGRAPHY.
averages twenty feet in height. In the village is a
small circular Corinthian temple, of great elegance As indicated in a former article dealing with the
and beauty, about thirty feet in diameter, built, as history of photography, the so-called gelatine
has been supposed, for a tomb. process is so quick in its action that objects
After the capture of Damascus, Baalbec was in- moving with the greatest speed can be secured
vested by the Moslems, and, after a long and brave as pictures by its help. Indeed, it was found that
resistance, was captured. Its commercial im- an image could be obtained in such a small
portance was shown by the fact that during the fractionof time that mechanical appliances for
siege its enemies captured a caravan bearing four opening and shutting the lens aperture with ex-
hundred loads of silk, sugar, and other commodities; treme celerity must be employed, since no unaided
and its wealth by the ransom that was exacted, of hand could accomplish the movement quickly
two thousand ounces of gold, four thousand of enough.
silver, two thousand silk vests, and a thousand Shutters are most varied in form and manner of
swords, in addition to the arms borne by its de- working. Some are simple, some most elaborate ;
fenders. and like many other mechanical contrivances, the

In 748 it was sacked and dismantled by the simple ones are the best in actual use. A descrip-
Khalif of Damascus, and its chief inhabitants tion of one of these, known as the drop shutter,
slaughtered. In 1400 Timour the Tartar captured will be quite sufficient to indicate the purpose of all.
and plundered it and it afterwards fell into the
;
A piece of mahogany, about three inches by ten,
hands of the predatory Mootualies. and half an inch thick, has a hole — the exact size
INS'l'ANTANEOUS PHOTOGRAPHY. 295
lens— bored near its test of speed, the resulting picture will show, by a
of the outer rim of the camera
board are fastened on shadowy outline, how many
degrees of this circle
centre. In front of this
two grooved is covered by the image of the pointer.
Photo-
either side, so as to face one another,
graphs of the sun
pieces of wood.
have been taken
In these grooves
in twenty-
the
slides another
thousandth part of
board, or ebonite
a second.
plate, also with a
The new power
hole in it of the
thus placed in the
same size as the
hands of the pho-
other. A trigger,
tographer was
or catch of some
quickly taken ad-
kind, holds the
vantage of.
ebonite board in of
Mr. Bolas,
its place, and when
the Chemical So-
released it drops must be
ciety,
in its groove. As
credited with the
itsaperture passes of a
invention
the lens, the sen- most ingenious
sitive plate is, for
form of apparatus
about the fifteenth designed for police
part of a second,
use, and called the
exposed to the ac-
detective camera.
tion of the light,
Its design is to
and a picture is
lake portraits of
taken. F or ob-
suspected charac-
jects in quick mo-
ters without their
tion the drop
knowledge, so that
shutter is too slow,
if a constable ob-
unless furnished
serves a loiterer of
with an india-
suspicious aspect
rubber loop, fit-
in the streets, he
ting upon a stud can secure the
in the sliding-
man’s portrait as
screen. When a means of future
this elastic loop The
identification.
is stretched the
camera, in out-
shutter is ready
ward appearance,
for action, and it
is no camera at
pulls the screen
all. It is made to
across the lens,
look like a basket,
opening with a
a portmanteau, or
speed represented — USING THE I-HOTOGKAPHIC GUN.
Fig. I.
a shoeblack’s box,
by the two-hun- according to the
dredth part of a
taste of the ope-
second. The But what-
rator.
quickness with
ever the outward
which a photo-
form of disguise,
graph can betaken contains
inside it
may be noted by the means of tak-
simple expedients.
a most rapid ing
For instance, a photograph of any
Fig. 2.— THE GUN.
tuning-fork, giving
person or object
so many vibra- moment placed.
tions in a second, may be made to trace
these opposite whom it may be for a
more The results oljtained by such an apparatus are
far
vibrations on the falling shutter itself. A studio,
more valuable than if gained in an ordinary'
easily understood method is to employ a
dial,
where the model is fully alive to what is going
for-
round which a hand revolves in one second of
In the one case he looks as he is, and
in
as a ward.
time. If this moving object be photographed,
—
the other he is try ing to look like his own ideal of camera ;
its duty is merely to hold the lens, and it
himself. We
have seen results produced by the can be lengthened or shortened like a telescope, so
detective camera which show that it is no toy, but as to focus the image. At the rear end of the
an efficient piece of apparatus. barrel is a large and clumsy-looking breech-piece,
Another outcome of rapid photographic plates is which contains the circular sensitive plate, and the
an opera-glass, fitted up like a camera, which necessary mechanism for rotating it as it receives
can be taken out of doors, held against the breast twelve pictures in one second of time. The motive
for the sake of steadiness, while a picture of the power is clockwork which, on pressure of the trigger
size of a penny-piece is of the gun, causes a cen-
secured by touching a trig- tral axis to rotate twelve
ger. One barrel of the times in a second. There
glass is fitted at its larger are two discs which re-
end with a ground-glass volve on this axis : first,
screen, upon which the ob- an opaque one, with a slit
ject of attack is focussed. in it, whose duty it is to
The other barrel contains let a streak of light through
the sensitive plate and in- the lens on to the sensitive
stantaneous shutter. The plate at every revolution ;
perfection of detail secured and secondly, a disc

by this “opera-glass” is pierced with twelve open-
marvellous. We
have beings (see Fig. 3), against
fore us a photograph taken the velvet surface of which
by its aid, in which a life- is tightly pressed, by means
guard is represented on of a spring button {b. Fig.
duty in Whitehall. Stand- 2), the sensitive plate. At
ing by his horse’s head is every revolution of the
a policeman, whose figure first disc the second one
barely measures half an Fig. 3. CHAMBER OF THE GUN. offers one of its twelve
inch in height. Yet, by apertures to the lens.
means of a magnifying-glass the letter and number Thus, in one second of time, a bird gn the wing is
on that policeman’s collar can be plainly read. photographed twelve times, each picture giving a
Professor Janssen has contrived a species of different pose.
photographic revolver, with which he has been able As may be imagined, the pictures are extremely
to secure in- small ; but
stantaneous this is not a
pictures of point of
the sun and much mo-
other hea- ment in pho-
venly bodies. tography, for
This instru- the detail is
ment was so good that

used during they can be
the last tran- enlarged
sit of Venus. many dia-
On a some- meters with-
w'hat similar out suffering
plan Mr. any loss of
E. Marey Fig. 4.— UP-WING STROKE. Fig. 5. — DOWN STROKE.
sharpness.
J.
has CO n- Mr. Marey
structed a photographic gun, with which to obtain has examined some of these tiny pictures under a
pictures of a bird’s flight. The study of animal |
microscope, by which means he can count the
mechanics has of late years been pursued with great separate wing-feathers, and trace their overlapping
ability and such pictures as can be obtained by
;
distinctly. Figs. 4 and 5 are enlargements from a
this apparatus must help forward such a study in a set of pictures representing the flight of a sea-gull.
remarkable degree. The general form and manner One of them is remarkable for showing the wings
of using the photographic gun are shown in Fig. in the downward position. We may mention as a
I, but its various parts are detailed in Figs. 2 and curious fact that European artists never represent
3. The barrel may be compared to the brass tube this downward stroke of the wing, but that the
which projects from the front of an ordinary Japanese frequently do.
INSTANTANEOUS PHOTOORAPHY. 297
But of all men who have turned the art of |

stretches across the course, such threads being
photography towards the study of animal mechanics, |
distant twehe inches from one another. The
the palm must be awarded to Mr. Muybridge, of animal, in pursuing his way along the course,
California, whose trotting-horse pictures have now |
breaks these threads, putting each camera rapidly
become well known. Mr. Muybridge has recently !
into action one after the other, and having his
read a descriptive paper on the subject before our portrait taken in the particular position which he
Royal Society and from this paper, and from other
;
happens to be in when the thread is struck. Mr.
published accounts, we are able to learn the curious
j
1
Muybridge estimates each exposure to light to be
and ingenious method adopted to secure such Wooth of a second.
marvellous results. In the first place, let us call These photographs of animals in motion have
attention to the remarkable atelier where these given rise to much controversy. The first thought
Fig. 6. — MK. Muybridge’s apparatus for photographing animals at full speed.
pictures are taken. All pre-conceived ideas gleaned on looking at some of the attitudes portrayed is,
from an ordinary photographic studio must be dis- that they are unnatural and impossible. The next
missed if we seek to understand Mr. Muybridge’s thought acknowledges that the camera cannot be
arrangements. His operations are carried on in guilty of misrepresentation, and that some other
the open air, as shown in Fig. 6. On the right reason must be sought for these unfamiliar positions.
hand of the picture we see a long shed, under which The matter is explained when we remember that
may be discerned a row of twenty-four cameras. the eye, although the most perfect optical instru-
In front of this battery of lenses the ground serves ment towhich we can point, has a certain peculi-
as a diminutive race-course, along which the arity not shared by optical instruments made by
animal to be photographed can amble, trot, the hand of man. The impression of ever^^-
or gallop, according to pre-arrangement. The thing that we look at remains upon the retina
ground is covered with india-rubber, to prevent for about the one-eighth part of a second,
dusty clouds flying from the horse’s hoofs. Each although its existence, as in the case of a flash of
camera is fitted with an instantaneous shutter, con- lightning, covers really a far shorter period of
trolled by electricity. From each shutter a thread i
j
time. This being the case, it is obvious that a
M M
movement occurring in less time than the period feet. Then you find him entirely in the air, his
named cannot be appreciated by the eye. In feet doubled up under him
all he then comes ;
looking at a galloping horse we observe the general down on his hind foot. Then he brings the next
Fig. 7. — SUCCESSIVE ATTITUDES OF A GREYHOUND.
movements, and involuntarily commute

effect of the hind foot down, and leaves the ground again, so
them Such positions
into three or four positions. that he is in the air twice during a single stride
have been adopted by artists from time immemorial,
;
— once with his body curled up, and the other

and we have thus been when perfectly extended.
taught to regard them as I do not think that that
correct. Mr. Muybridge fact has ever been com-
proves that even the best mented on by a writer on
artists have in this way natural history.”
adopted attitudes which a It will thus be seen that
horse in movement never it is possible to analyse a
assumes therefore he ar-
: muscular movement, an
gues that artists are wrong. operation which may be
We are inclined to think, compared to that which a
in spite of these photo- chemist does when he sepa-
graphs. that they are right, rates a compound body into
were to adopt
for if they its constituent elements.
Mr. Muybridge’s new atti- The reverse of this is when
tudes, it is certain that their the chemist mixes elements
pictures would represent po- together in certain propor-
sitions that no human eye tionsto produce a com-
ever saw or will see in pound body, an operation
nature. called “synthesis.”Strange
The trotting-horse photo- can also be ac-
to say, this
graphs have been rendered complished with Mr. Muy-
so familiar by publication in bridge’s photographs.
various forms, that we ab- Placed in an instrument
stain from reproducing them. called a zoopraxi scope, he
But we give in Fig. 7 the was able before the Royal
presentment of a running Society to cast the images
dog, and the reader can of the different pictures so
follow the different attitudes consecutively upon a screen,
as he follows the description Fig. 8.— ZOETROPE. that they appeared to
of them given by Mr. Muy- coalesce into actual move-
bridge. He says : “The motion of the dog is ments. The possibility of doing this will be
very peculiar. Here (see the first attitude) he has more understood by
fully a reference to the zoe-
alighted on one foot, changed it to the next fore- trope in Fig. 8, which has now, for a long
shown
foot, and then he leaves the ground with the fore- i
time, been familiar in the shop windows. Two
THE FEDAVEES. 299
more pictures, copied from instantaneous photo- THE FEDAVEES.

graphs, Figs. 9 and 10, represent the human body
in attitudes secured during two ditferent forms of During the twelfth century there roamed over the
leaping. Human movements being less rapid face of the civilised world the most odious class
than those of the lower animals, these photographs — —
of beings we cannot call them men that had ever
differ less than the foregoing from what might appeared in human form. These creatures, known Ijy
have been expected, but, like them, they show the name of F edavees, were at once hated and feared
that there is really no limit to photographic pos- in every country, as well by the sovereign on the
sibilities. throne as by the meanest peasant. From one end

Recent photographic exhibitions in London of the earth to the other, we read that Caliphs,
have taught us that English workers are by no Emperors, Sultans, Kings, Princes, Christians,
means behind-hand in so-called instantaneous Mahometans, and Jews, every nation and every
studies. Among these e.xhibits we may call to and unerring stroke of
people, dreaded the secret
mind pictures of the Oxford and Cambridge boat- the Fedavee. Thus, Philip Augustus, King of
Fig. 9. — LEAP-FROG. Fig. 10. —JUMPING.
race, with the rivalteams in full swing a swallow ;

France, receiving a mistaken warning that he
above a secluded pool a dove pruning her
flitting ;
had been marked a victim by this lawless horde,
wings, with a truant feather sailing away upon the instantly surrounded himself with a body-guard of
wind a bather suspended in mid-air as he dives
;
chosen men specially armed, and never appeared
into a stream a boat in full sail with every rope
; without a weapon in his own hands. Perhaps,
reflected in the rippling waves, and many others however, nothing so strikingly exemplifies the
too numerous to mention. terrible power of these murderers as the answer
In one of the fables of Fenelon, describing a returned by their chief to a threatening letter from
voyage to an imaginary country, this passage the Sultan. Bidding the Sultan’s messenger follow
occurs “ There was no painter in that countr>',
: him, he ascended a high tower, whence he com-
but if anybody wished to have the portrait of a manded one of his subjects to fling himself to the
friend, of a a beautiful landscape, or
picture, ground. This order was at once obeyed without a
of any other object, water was placed in great murmur. He then bade another stab himself, and
basins of gold or silver, and then the object desired his submissive creature was a corpse next minute.
to be painted was placed in front of that water. “ Go,” said this autocrat, turning to the messenger,
After a while the water froze and became a glass “ tell your master that I have 70,000 men ready to-
I
mirror, on which an ineffaceable image remained.” I

do as much.”
We may surely, in reading this passage, exclaim 1 The head-quarters of this Ishmaelite brood was
that the romance of the past cannot excel the 1
amongst the mountains to the south of the Caspian
reality of the present. 1
Sea. The whole community was divided into
—
seven orders, or grades, all subject to the control of at all hazards to complete his murderous enter-
a grand master, known throughout Europe as “ The prise was the strange and repulsive process
Old Man of the Mountains.” The first Old Man whereby he was fortified before setting out on a
•of the Mountains was Hassan ben Sabah, who mission. He chewed the hashish (hemp-plant),
organised the society in the year 1090 A.D. into from which he was sometimes named Hashishim
the form in which it became known to Europeans. a word that became in Europe assassin. This
The members of the sixth and seventh grades were plant threw him into a stupor, and while he was in
strictly brought up to regard the teachings of the this state of unconsciousness he was borne to the
Koran as their rule in life. The other five grades, Garden of Alamoot, where, on awakening, accord-
which comprised the initiated, interpreted the ing to .Marco Polo, everything that could cause him
Koran to suit their own inclinations, and looked pleasure and everything that he could desire were
upon human actions as in themselves neither good administered to him. These pleasures, he was further
nor bad. An action was good if it were in taught to believe, were only a foretaste of the future
accordance with the wishes or the commands of bliss designed to the faithful. This future bliss
their leader the same action became bad when would be his if he fell in seeking to obey his
;
it was in opposition to these wishe 5 or commands. master, while he would lose it if he sought to shrink
Men with such a creed could be nothing else than from yielding a submissive obedience. Relying
the merest instruments of their chief upon such a faith, he set forth, cared not what
The Fedavees were the members of the fifth difficulties he might have to confront, and firmly
grade, and it was their business to carry out what resolved “ to do or die.” When we remember this,
may be called the foreign policy of the Old Man of we cease to wonder at the list of illustrious victims
the Mountains. This scourge to society derived that fell by the lawless hands of the Fedavee. Mos-
his revenue mainly from the secret pensions that he tarsched, the Caliph of Bagdad in its palmiest days,
received from even kings and other potentates, who the son of the powerful Caliph Mostali, and a
thus bought, by paying blackmail, safety to their distinguished Turkish vizier, Nizam ul Mulk, are
persons. Let one of these kings cease to advance mentioned amongst the great men who thus died.
his tax, and a Fedavee was forthwith despatched to These rulers possessed more power than the
take his life. Besides sovereigns, others occupying sovereigns of Europe in those days we are there-
:
a less elevated position were also tempted by their fore not surprised that the life of one of the
fears to contribute to the coffers of the Old Man. Edwards of England was attempted. The attempt
It is easy to see that a revenue derived in this way was, most likely, not a very serious one, as it is
would very soon cease unless an example were otherwise difficult to understand how he managed
—
made of all that sought to evade such payments to to escape.
furnish such examples was the duty of the Fedavee. The power of this awful society. Gibbon tells us,
These misguided creatures, often stolen or pur- was broken by the Mogul conqueror, Holagou Khan,
chased when young, were early trained in the belief in the year 1258 “and not a vestige is left of the
;
that their master was omnipotent, and that even to enemies of mankind except the word assassi?!,
attempt to disobey his most repulsive commands which, in the most odious sense, has been adopted
was a crime. At home they wore a white uniform in the languages of Europe.” Fit termination to
with red bonnets, and carried sharp daggers in their such a fiendish band.
girdles. When sent on a mission, however, they
assumed whatever disguises might seem best
adapted to elude suspicion. They would insinuate FLYING ANIMALS.
themselves into courts in the guise of minstrels,
and beguile the laden hours with wild and weird The term “flight,” as applied to animals, and to
melody ;
or perhaps as stranger-pilgrims they special groups of the animal world, is a very varied
would accept the hospitality which the weary step appellation, and one to which various meanings
and travel-stained garb prompted the generous to may be attached. In its most common acceptation
proffer. Then in the dead of night, clutching the we use the word “ flight ” to indicate that perfect
dagger that had been so carefully concealed, the freedom of movement in the air which is possessed
Fedavee, remembering nothing but the mandate of by the bird or by the insect. Amongst quadrupeds,
his master, would stealthily seek his victim, plunge or “ mammals,” the bats, as is well known, possess
the steel into his heart, and- disappear. It flying powers almost co-extensive with those of
mattered not how long the Fedavee had to birds. Most bats possess a very powerful flight,
wait for his opportunity ;
his patience and his and sweep through the air with rapidity and force.
resolution never gave way. He knew that if he Those extinct reptiles, the Pterodactyls (or “winged-
failed to fulfil his mission his own life would soon fingers), whose fossil remains are found in the
be taken. “Middle-period,” or Secondary rocks, must like-
Another powerful stimulus urging the Fedavee wise have possessed powers of flight allied to those
.
FLYING ANIMALS. 3CI
of the bats. Their flying apparatus was of similar |

sense in which we apply it to bats, birds, and
description to that seen in bats, and consisted of a insects. The
nearest approach to flight we see in
fold of skin, which stretched between the greatly living reptiles is found in the lizards known as
j
elongated finger, along the sides of the body and I

“flying dragons.” These inhabit the East Indies,
.‘i hv hf'e maa'UM
amr \
'•
JHBDBH
,^'.7 •
'
'
'
t:,' 10.1 .
TAGUAN {,Pteromys petatirista)
fore limbs, to the hind limbs and tail. In bats, as and are able to take flying leaps from tree to tree.
most readers are aware, four of the fingers are In these aerialjumps they are supported as by a
greatly developed, and support the wing-membrane, kind of parachute, by the fold of skin which is
which has a disposition along the body well-nigh borne by six of the front ribs, specially modified.
similar to that seen in the extinct reptiles. We can clearly see, however, that this membrane
No living reptile “flies,” using that term in the is not a “wing.” It is not moved as a wing is
302 'IHE WORLD OF WONDERS.
moved, and it cannot support its possessor in the air. THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA.
Of certain quadrupeds the same remark holds good.
All the “wing” can do is to prevent the animal Nicxt to the huge pyramids of Egypt, amongst the
from sinking to the ground for a good while, so wonders of the world ranks the Great Wall of
as to enable it to take a good long “flight” before China. Father Gerbillon, who had the opportunity
any single leap is exhausted. It is a sailing or of inspecting it, describes it as one of the most
floating along rather than flight. astonishing of man’s works, and states that from
Thus there are some members of our own class, the Eastern Ocean to the frontiers of the province
ranked among the “ marsupials,” or kangaroo order, of Chan-si, or for the distance of two hundred
which possess folds of skin stretching along the leagues, it is chiefly of stone and brick, with towers
sides of the body between the fore and hind legs, sufficiently near each other to be mutually defen-
and which are enabled, like the flying lizards, to sive. At every important pass it has a strongly-
take leaps from tree to tree. The flying lemurs built, ably-designed fortress. In many places the
{Galeopitheci) possess a well-nigh similar adaptation, wall is double, and in some
but towards the
triple,
these latter forms being allied to the insectivorous western extremity it is merely a terrace of earth.
animals, such as the moles, shrews, hedgehogs, and In parts it travels up and down, traversing the
others. steepest and highest rocks and Father Gerbillon
;
But perhaps the best known of the “flying confessed that he was utterly unable to conceive
animals ” belong to the race of “ flying squirrels,” how the materials were conveyed to these wild,
so-called. The best known species of these rugged spots, where, he adds, the boldest of our
animals is flgured in our illustration. This is the European builders would not attempt to raise even
Taguan {Pteromys petaurista). It isdepicted in the smallest building. It consists of an inner and
two of its familiar attitudes, firstly as reposing on an outer wall, each constructed of brick and stone,
the branch of a tree, and secondly running on the many feet apart, and not more than a foot and a
ground. Here the term “ flying ” is manifestly half in thickness, the space between being so filled
misapplied. The Taguan has no power of flight. in with earth that the whole appears one huge
It merely leaps from branch to branch, and the solid mass of masonry. For six or seven feet
membrane fringing its body, and which gives to its upwards the foundations are formed with great
body a great apparent breadth, assists it in its square stones, the rest being of brick. The top is
arboreal leaps. paved with flag-stones. The towers are each about
The Taguan itself is one of the larger forms forty feet high, and the height of the wall averages
included under the name of “ flying squirrel.” The about twenty feet. Both towers and walls are
tail inclines towards a bushy structure ;
and embattled, and the former are at the base about
exclusive of the tail the animal’s length is about two fifteen feet square. They diminish as they ascend.
feet. The colour above is a greyish-black hue, Nearly all the gates open into towns or villages.
whilst a lighter tint prevails beneath. The ears Mr. Barrow, writing of this wall more than half a
are pointed, and as is common with most nocturnal century ago, calculated that the materials of all the
or night-hunting animals, the eyes are large and dwelling-houses then in England and Scotland
prominent. The native lands of the Taguan are (1,800,000), averaging 2,000 cubic feet of material,
India, Ceylon, Siam, and Malacca. The nest is stone or brick, would be barely equivalent in bulk
made in the holes of trees, and at night it emerges to the material used in constructing this great
forth on its foraging expeditions. The food appears wall ! He did not include in his curious cal-
and seeds. The tail has
to consist chiefly of fruits culation the stone and brick used for the towers
been credited with acting as a rudder in its aerial and which alone, he added, would repre-
fortresses,
flights. sent as much material as would build another

It is interesting to note that “ flying squirrels
”
London A calculation which included the mass
!
with rounded occur in India, and also in China

tails filling in the space between the walls, as well as the
and Japan and we also know of another group in

;
walls themselves, showed more than sufficient
which the hairs of the tail are arranged in a double material to surround the globe, on two of its large
row, the tail itself being flat. But all of these circles, with two walls of two feet thickness, six feet
*
forms, however distinct they may be as species, in high !
the eyes of naturalists conform to. the general type The Great Wall has but two gaps, these being in
we have seen represented in the Taguan itself. places rendered inaccessibleby nature. It has
Just as the whale or seal is a quadruped modified numerous sally-ports,and each tower was used for
for a sea-life, or as the bat is modified for perfect a beacon-fire, to spread an alarm rapidly along ks
flight, seems the Taguan and its neighbours
so it entire length.
represent a peculiar development of movement In the vicinity of towns the top of the wall,
adapted to assist tree-living habits, rather than to which is reached at intervals by stone flights of
mimic true flying powers. broad steps, is used as a pleasant and healthy
—
EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS. 303
promenade. From the gate of Sining-fu to the interpreting these symbols, much, if not all, the in-
city of Lucien, before the desert, is a journey of formation they sought would be at their command.
eighteen days. The contrast between the cultivated It was supposed by the ancients that the knowledge
country within and the wilds beyond the wall is of these symbolical writings was confined exclusively
sometimes singularly striking on one side habi-
: to the priests of the Egyptians, and that with them
tations with fields and gardens, on the other a that knowledge expired, never again to be recovered.
desert untrodden by man, and given up entirely to And ô for some sixteen hundred years the innu-
savage beasts. The immense antiquity of this merable sculptured monuments, the carefully-drawn
mighty wall, striding over plains and mountains, papyri, and the equally delicate devices upon many
stretching over rocks and hills, sweeping down into of the cerements of the dead, remained, as it were, a
deep valleys, and travelling up the sides of almost sealed book to the historians of more modern times.
perpendicular precipices, is overpoweringly im- With innumerable records of a forgotten history
pressive. Kircher, the missionary, wrote of it : before them, in the form of inscriptions in what are
“ The work is so wondrous strong that it com- termed hieroglyphic characters, the learned of all
mands the world’s admiration to this day ; for countries were compelled to confess themselves
through the many vicissitudes of the Empire, unable to solve the problem thus presented and it ;
changes of dynasties, batteries and assaults, not appeared probable that the ancient monuments
only of enemies, but of violent tempests, deluges of would for ever remain a marvel and a mystery to
rain, fierce winds, and severe weather, it displays the world.
no signs of demolishment, and is neither cracked It must not be supposed that no attempts were
nor weakened by age, but appears almost in its ever made to arrive at a correct perception of the
first strength, greatness, and beauty. And well it meaning of these writings. Many great linguists
may be so for its solidity whole mountains, by had puzzled their brains to discover the hidden
:
ripping up their rocky bowels for stones, were value of the strange symbols before them but it ;
levelled, and vast deserts, covered with deep was probably an impossible task, or at least it
enswallowing sand, were swept clean down to the proved so, until unexpected help came to hand to
firm ground beneath.” aid in the labour of interpretation. Guesses had
The wall was erected, say the Chinese, two indeed been made, with more or less success, as to
centuries and a half before the Christian era com- the meaning of certain constantly-recurring signs,
,
menced, and occupied but five years of labour, every and amongst others the names of Ptolemy and of
third man in the Empire capable of work having Ale.xander were identified after some strange mode.
been engaged upon it, the greater number of whom, The names having been arrived at, M. Silvestre de
i
says tradition, sacrificed their lives in executing the Sacy was the first to conclude that the groups of
work, so arduous and fatiguing was it. It is dif- signs representing these names were letters, while
ficult to credit this tradition. Mr. Akerblad, a Dane, endeavoured, to some extent
successfully, to recognise and separate most of these
alphabetical elements from the proper names. Mr.
EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS. Akerblad, however, seems to have arrived at his
conclusions from the preamble alone of the decree
Egypt is a land of mystery to most of us, and its he was studying, and this being composed almost
history is so ancient, and apparently so utterly un- entirely of foreign proper names, he failed to dis-
—
connected with that of any other country^, that it cover a most important fact namely, that in common
seems to be a world apart from the rest of humanity, with most Orientals, and even the Hebrews, the
and to possess at best an interest only for itself. Of Egy'ptians were in the habit of suppressing all, or
the pyramids, the sphinx, and of the mummies nearly all, the intermediate vowels in their writing.
every one had of course heard, but they excited only Hence, though he had succeeded in evolving an
the curiosity of a few, and no one could explain the alphabet, which, as far as it went, was tolerably cor-
reason of their existence. Though some accounts rect, yet when he endeavoured to interpret other
of the habits of the Egj'ptians were to be found in inscriptions he found himself entirely at a loss, and
the classic authors of Greece and of Rome, these his troubles were not a little added to by the fact
represented a state of affairs so strange and incom- that no space was left to separate one word from
prehensible that little value was attached to them, another, but that the signs followed each other in
and they were in fact almost, if not entirely, dis- endless succession, without break or pause. One
credited. great result he had, however, reached he had :
Yet the archaeologist and historian, beholding the proved that sometimes, if not always, the Egyptians
stupendous monuments of this mysterious race, and employed hieroglyphics as letters, and that these
noticing upon many of them innumerable drawings letters bore no little resemblance to those of the
apparently arranged upon a definite plan, felt that, Hebrews. And here, perhaps, the discoveries would
could they but succeed in discovering a means of have stopped, but for a most fortunate and unex-
— —
pected aid — the tinding of the now famous Rosetta of times which they occurred, while a small group
Stone. of characters, which occurred very frequently in
This stone, which is now safely deposited in almost every line, was eventually shown to mean
the British Museum, is a block or pillar of black and. By such means as these sufficient points of
which many years before had been discovered
basalt, departure were at length obtained to enable the
by the French while disturbing some ground at indefatigable investigator to write the Greek over
Rosetta. On it are three inscriptions, one of which, the demotic or enchorial inscription with a tolerable
in the Greek language and character, wa^ compara- certainty of their general coincidence, and thus it
tively easily de- was clear that
ciphered,and at the intermediate
its conclusion parts of each in-
conveyed the inscription must
formation that also approxi-
the decree which mately corres-
it set forth had pond the one to
been ordered to the other. By
be engraved not this laborious
only in Greek, process the
but in the sacred meaning of most
and in the po- of the demotic
pular letters of
- M..-..ir./.>i.. ---,., yy-,.— - — £L^
characters was
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ancient Egypt. K 9-^t~ *

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i\^|:iT>«UIM«'IErs«i
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or, as they are
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with any parti-
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the remaining irfOXIll' it> ctK.MMN raiOTcM'OMtw.itvrMtx.ni.xH these being in
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two. The “de- ••.

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fact the true
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— —.
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l« pr ICAVIHl X NTNtr.t.fCA .•,p 4 V<iH
y -e f per ifcHNPkAaVAOOn YAV/
rPiSPiai>iNAViiti*n>./XPieFNi'Vi>4'.ÊE^r^ 1
the name of
kfni. "
rrti».»».pkniip» -I- •'•'“• aikiefarvy f IkIV XIAVktlX nv<iv
•
M M > Lk H t K A C Y OC-'O K M V f
»< ) W a •xMSO^?''%a
[ViPMOUVAi'k? »vx’i‘ri£i<rMee»i
I
lE'CiTk' AP ;j'*i:o'jiii rcni’*i>4TM'«r,p«ceN..av<uh “ hieroglyphics ”

was, however, .’K#l.k'<'T'H IM wo
va'iiaHN i.a.Aw
I
'
..
'.Kt'AiNiCtaaK* t a>->MFan«iJ^|^âSCLv:4iSa
-.^ftN-AAti
I
itman.n»rrng-«^^^KS>g|g»^^H
I'-JiPti.vsTx r iJaifPi>H> AOPia 6 fiPATfvA.JBTiigJgagS^g^
sufficiently per- should strictly
fect to at length apply. A dis-

enable some crepancy had
comparison to been observed
be made, and it the between
was found that Greek and the
THE ROSETTA STONE
where in the demotic inscrip-
Greek inscriptions which oc-
tion the names of Alexandria and of Alexander casioned their interpreters some little trouble. This
occurred, in the demotic inscription certain groups consisted in the fact that while in a certain passage
of symbols could be recognised wdiich unques- of the Greek inscription the name of Ptolemy oc-
tionably represented these names. By another curred but twice, in the corresponding demotic pas-
method it was found that a certain group of cha- sage it occurred three times. The difficulty was,
racters occurred in the demotic inscription some however, accounted for by supposing that while in
twenty-nine or thirty times, and that in the Greek the one case the king was referred to by name, in
no word was so often repeated, except that of Kinf^, the other his titles only were given. With this
which was met with, either separately or with its knowledge it was easy to select in the sacred in-
compounds, about thirty -seven times. In like scription three groups of symbols, which, by their
manner the names of Ptolemy, Berenice, and Egj'pt position and conspicuousness, would sooner have
were identified by their position or by the number 1
been identified with the name of Ptolemy but for
— — .
EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS. 305
this disagreement with the accurately deciphered cartouche wliich could correspond to it in the hiero-
Greek passage. Some further difficulty was found glyphics was the following ;
—
as to the direction in which the hieroglyphics were
to be read. In Greek and Latin the letters read
from left to right ; in Hebrew from right to left ;
in Chinese from top to bottom. It was only gra-
dually discovered that Egyptian hieroglyphics read Here were two names to work on and this was ;
all sorts of ways, and that the only general key to the method. Both names contained several similar
this was to read from the direction in which the sounds, and in Ptolemaios, if a were the first, that
animated ob- sign must re-
jects were present P. It
looking. It was found, as

was also found can be seen
that the at a glance,
names of so- that this same
vereigns were sign n did
distinguished occur fifth
by being en- (cleoPatra)

closed in a in the other
border or car- cartouche. So
iotcche. These far good. The
elementar y third sign in
discoverie s Ptolemaios,
formed the
foundations
upon which was probably
all else had O, and the
to be con- next one to
structed, and that,
it is very in- probably L,
teresting to most likely
trace the ge- from the

neral method initial of the
by which word which,
C hampollion as leo or
in France, lion^ occurs
and our own in so many
Dr. Thomas Ian g uages
Young, equal- These two did
ly celebrated come second
for his disco- and fourth in
veries about FRAN5OIS CHAMPOLLION cLeOpatra

the true na- —good again.
ture of light, by degrees got at the heart of the After a while another name, Alexander, was iden-
great mystery. tified in the following cartouche :
Condensing the account given by Dr. Birch of

it was found that in the
this interesting discovery,
Rosetta Stone the cartouche most often occurring
in the hieroglyphics, and which it was almost cer-
tain represented the Greek Ptolemaois, was that and from the
here represented : tified in
C
first sign in this, the
a
cleopAtrA was confirmed, as also the
A already iden-
L. This is quite sufficient to indicate how by

degrees the signs were tracked down ;
and when,
c Ci years afterwards, another stone was found, known
as the “ Decree of Canopus,” which contained a
Now happened that not long after another
it royal document in hieroglyphic characters and
inscription intwo languages was discovered on the demotic writing, also with a translation in Greek
plinth of an obelisk found in the island of Philas. (this inscription, unlike the Rosetta stone, is un-
Here the Greek name was Cleopatra, and the only mutilated) it was found that a translation mado
independently by Egyptologists, who had not seen their values, and are clearly traceable to the sacred
the Greek version, agreed almost exactly with the characters. And there are the demotic cha-
lastly,
latter. racters, which have been immediately derived from
Let us now glance at a few of the characters con- the sacerdotal, but in this nearly all figurative cha-
tained in Dr. Young’s vocabulary. The Egyptians, racters are excluded, and a rude and unwieldy
whose gods seem have been almost as numerous
to running hand is at length arrived at, for the de-
as the population, employed two signs to represent cipherment of which we are indebted to the collec-
—
God one, resembling a peculiar form of hatchet, indi- tive researches of a large number of men. At
cated thegodof power while the other, a figure either
; last we are able to claim what at one time was
seated or standing, without distinct arms or feet, and —
wholly despaired of the ability to interpret with
with the head either of a man or a hawk, represented tolerable, if not with complete accuracy, any of the
the god of judgment, and was sometimes, there- innumerable Egyptian inscriptions which may come
fore, employed to signify lawful. In the former into our hands.
case the plural was formed by increasing the number
of hatchets to three, while in the latter the figure
was followed by three small squares, one above
another — the usual method of representing plurality. THE ICE PALACE OF MOSCOW.
For goddess the same characters were employed,
“ Silently as a dream the fabric rose
followed by the symbols always used to denote the ;
No sound of hammer or of saw was there

—
feminine gender namely, a semicircle surmounting Ice upon ice, the well-adjusted parts
:
an obliquely placed oval. Were soon conjoined, nor other cement asked
Than water interfused to make them one.’*
Amongst the gods we find Phthar, the Egyptian ^
Vulcan, represented by a curious character, which These lines, taken from Cowper’s “Task,” refer to
would seem to have been intended for a plough, the wonderful freak indulged in by the Russian
and to allude to the Egyptian belief that Phthar Court during the reign of the Empress Anne. In
was the inventor of implements of war and of hus- the year 1732 a grand review was held upon the
bandry. Osiris, the principal deity of the Egyptians, frozen Neva, in which many thousands of Russian
is represented by a human eye surmounting the troops took part. An ice castle was reared and
rude figure of a throne, while his sister and wife, manned by soldiers artillery mancEuvred, and,
;
Isis, is depicted by the throne alone, followed by the indeed, all the military tactics of those times
feminine symbols already described. Joh, the moon, were gone through with as much freedom as our
is denoted by an upright crescent containing a small soldiers experience in careering over the solid
semicircle, while Phre is represented by a circle ground of Woolwich Common. The Neva, how-
—
with a point in the centre a sign which also de- ever (no doubt, at the suggestion of this review),
noted the sun, and which, passing from the Egyp- was destined soon to be the scene of a still greater
tians to the Latins, is even now, after the lapse of marvel, for seven years afterwards there arose
innumerable centuries, employed by our own astro- upon its banks what may appropriately enough
nomers with the same signification. From the be called the biggest plaything hitherto seen —the
names of sovereigns enclosed in cartouches, and a ephemeral Ice Palace of Moscow.
few other proper names, it is possible to trace the The winter of 1739 was remarkable all over
steps by which alphabetical writing has arisen out Europe for its severity in fact, our own Father
;
of hieroglyphics. The demotic or enchorial name Thames succumbed to the fierce grip of Jack
of Ptolemy appears to differ greatly from the hiero- Frost, and it has already been told how a fair was
glyphic. Yet by the help of innumerable “epistolo- held upon his ice-bound bosom (see p. 35).
graphic” manuscripts, a real resemblance and clear Into the mind of an idle Russian courtier there
derivation can be made out. entered a scheme which rivals the most fan-
Thus it will be seen that there are several forms tastical day-dream that ever beguiled the simplest
of hieroglyphics, the characters of which vary con- child. Toscheme the consent of the sovereign
this
siderably. In the sacred writing the symbols are was granted and as a sort of pretext for rearing
;
sometimes phonetic, as when a feather stands for so elaborate a structure as an ice palace, it was
A or E sometimes they are symbolic or emblematic,
; resolved to make it the means of commemorating
as, for instance, the hawk’s head, surmounted by a the marriage of Prince Galitzin with a peasant girl,
disc, standing for the sun and sometimes they are

;
the newly-wedded pair being, by way of frolic,
figurative or pictorial, as when the image of a man expected to pass the night in one of the rooms.
is employed to indicate man. There is another class Workmen were speedily despatched to the Neva,
of hierogI>q)hics, sometimes termed the sacerdotal, from which they extracted blocks of ice three feet
in which the signs are so abbreviated as to render thick, and conveyed them to the selected site, where
them difficult of identification, but which are never- they were placed one upon another, the only cement
theless both figurative, emblematic, and phonetic in being water, which froze the blocks together. Thus
—
THE ICE PALACE OF MOSCOW, 307
arose the fairy fabric, under the personal superin- These apartments, sumptuously furnished and
tendence of its original deviser, Alexis Danielowitch elegantly painted, contained nothing but ice.
Zatischchevv. “ Convivial table and commodious seat

According most authentic accounts, the
to the (What seemed at least commodious seat) were there ;
Sofa and couch, and high-built throne august.

length of the palace was fifty feet, its breadth
The same lubricity was found in all,
eighteen feet, and its height twenty-one feet. It And all was moist to the warm touch ; a scene
consisted of only one storey, and had no ceiling. Of evanescent glory, once a stream,
—
Its sloping roof all ice —
was ridged in imitation of And soon to slide into a stream again.*'
tiles, and mounted by chimneys. An ice balustrade, Yes : tables, chairs, statues, looking-glasses,
elaborately wrought and adorned in every way candles and candlesticks,
fireplaces filled with
that artistic taste could suggest, surrounded the logs of painted mantelpieces made to resemble
ice,
palace, enclosing also a garden, or court-yard, the glossiest marble, tea-dishes, tumblers, wine-
which was entered by means of two gateways in glasses, a state bedstead, with 'N2iwy-loo/cing curtains,
the rear. This garden was embellished by a bed, pillows, and snow-white quilt, two pairs of icy
profusion of tropical plants. Orange-trees, nearly slippers, and two icy night-caps all smiled, and ;
as high as the mansion itself, bearing fruit and all wereFine place this for Prince Galitzin
cold.
flowers, with richly-plumaged birds on the branches, and his peasant bride to spend their honeymoon
lured the fur-clad visitor as he approached into in We are not told that the prince availed him-
!
the momentary belief that he had suddenly come self of these vitreous apartments.
upon some enchanted castle smiled upon by Soon after it was all completed, the Empress and
the genial sun of summer. A nearer scrutiny, the whole Russian Court came in state to admire
however, dispelled the delusion, and the disap- the wonderful work of art. We r..ad that as the
pointed stranger found that the gay colours and cortege approached a salute was fired from the icy
brilliant verdure of this Oriental-like scene were —
cannons the balls being compressed tow the —
the result of the prosaic labours of the painter and mortars threw shells high into the air, and the
the delicate handiwork of the artificer the trees, — elephant discharged from his trunk a watery spray.
the flowers, the and the birds were all
fruit, The gay hues of the Court dresses sparkled and
chiselled out of the same cold pellucid marble of glittered on every hand in fact, the brilliancy of ;
the glassy wave ” ! the diamond was outshone. Experiments were

The front of the evanescent palace itself, which made with the cannons, and a real bullet was
glistened in the sun like a massive diamond, driven through a two-inch board at a distance of
invited entrance by a few steps leading up to an sixty paces, a quarter lb. charge of gunpowder b( ing
apparent door, surmounted by a Roman arch. On used. of the Court was made by night,
The nex,t visit
each side of the doorway, with its column-supported when was illuminated. For this purpose
the palace
portico, were three large windows, their framework naphtha was used and flaming streams issuing
;
of ice painted to appear like marble, and their from the mouths of the dolphins and the elephant
icy panes as lustrous as the finest plate-glass. In flashed upon the crystalline mass, and lit up the
front of each window stood a cannon regularly building with surpassing radiancy. It was like a sun.
turned and bored, and mounted on carriages with Inside the candles were smeared with naphtha, as
—
wheels all of ice. On the immediate right and were also the imitation logs these were lit, and ;
left of the doorway were two large mortars for helped to complete the deception. All this re-
shells of 80 lb. Beside each of the mortars splendent magnificence, however, was short-lived ;
was stationed upon a pedestal of ice an icy dolphin. and, although no labour had been spared, yet
Standing out a little into the garden, two colossal before the end of March not one vestige of all that
pyramids as high as the chimneys contributed toil remained.
towards the imposing aspect presented by a front Since the days of this ice palace, structures of the
view. On the left side of the palace was a life- same unstable material have now and then been
sized elephant, with a man dressed in the garb of a raised. None of them, however, have exhibited
Persian on its back two similar figures, one armed
;
any feature worthy of special note. It is a common
with a lance, stood near. Such was the external enough thing in countries such as Canada —
appearance of the ice palace. Everything was ice where snow is abundant, and plenty of skating
except the paint. Let us now enter the strange is to be had, to cut out labyrinthine aisles and
structure. snug grottoes to give variety to the skater’s course.

Admission was effected at the back, the front This, however, is not indulged in to any greater
door, already noticed, being only an imitation. A extent than compatible with the prevailing ideas
is
lobby ranging from back to front, and finished of economy these days of ours.
in It is, therefore,
with every appliance and ornament usually found extremely unlikely that the world will ever see a
in the royal mansions of those days, separated the rival to the Ice Palace of Moscow. As man pro-
two large apartments of which the palace consisted. gresses he directs his labours less and less upon
;

mere aimless magnificence, and more and more but it is obvious that this source of illumination can
upon the substantial and the useful. Hence it only be limited in its applications. A limelight is,
happens that there are in modern civilisation no at the best, a cumbrous affair, and must, on ac-
pyramids, no grotesque ice palaces, and none of count of its heat and necessary adjuncts, be kept
that barbaric splendour which we find associated at a respectful distance from the object illuminated.
with the courts of dusky princes and great Mogul Of what service, for instance, would the limelight
Emperors. At the time of the Ice Palace at be to the dentist, if he wish to examine the
Moscow, Russia was just emerging into a European general aspect interior of the mouth ?
of the
Power, and, like the rest of these Powers, she soon In asking this question we quite put aside the
found more practical and more profitable channels necessity for two gases under pressure, or one at
into which to turn her efforts. least, without which that form of illumination
LIVING FISH ILLUMINATED UY ELECTRICITY.
THE ELECTRIC LIGHT IN SURGF.RY. is impossible. To meet this want, M. Trouve

has designed a form of electric lamp, which, under
Although natural doubts exist as to whether the the name of the electrical polyscope, can be placed
electric light, in its present forms, will soon dis- inside the mouth, and which will shed a light so
place gas to any serious extent as an illuminant, brilliant that every detail is visible, and the teeth
there are various special uses to which it can be themselves are rendered quite translucent.
even now applied with great adxantage. Our We are apt to identify the electric light with
present purpose is not to enumerate these, but to dynamo machines and steam-engines, which would
point out how, in the surgeon’s hands, it can be be quite out of harmony with the delicate manipula-
made to render a service which no other form of tion represented by a dentist’s or surgeon’s wmrk,
light can render so well. In many surgical opera- but, in the present case, no such tremendous aid is
tions becomes necessary
it to deal withopen necessary. A batter)’ of simple and portable form
wounds, and natural cavities in the body where will render luminous a coil of thin platinum ware,
no, or little, light can be made to penetrate. In and to such a mode of illumination the polyscope
most of our hospitals, for this class of operations, ow’es its efficiency. The light given, feeble in it-
the condensed beam from a limelight is employed self, is quite sufficient to illuminate brightly any
;
MATTER AND ITS PARTICLES. 309
cavity in which it is placed, although it would be MATTER AND ITS PARTICLES.

quite insufficient to serve the same purpose for
the smallest room. may be
described as a coil
It To the careless observer who takes into his hand
of platinum wire fixed at the end of a convenient a piece of anything —
let us say a lump of sugar it —
handle, and furnished with reflectors of a parabolic appears so simple and tangible that it never
form, whose shape is altered for different purposes. probably occurs to him to think what it really is.
Sometimes, when the actual cautery has to be ap- If he thinks at all about it, he probably only thinks
plied, the platinum wire gives place to points or that it is a “ material substance ” but if he reflects
;
wires of other form, which become white hot when further what he ?neans by material substance, he will
the current is established. The wire may also be soon cease to wonder that the true nature of Matter
enclosed in an exhausted glass bulb like those of — the true essence of that Reality which lies behind
the well-known incandescent lamps, though, of —
the universe in which he dwells has exercised the
course, considerably smaller. But, for general most profound thought of every age, and that no
purposes, the instrument takes the form of a certain statement can be made about the problem
dome-shaped reflector of bright metal, in the focus even yet. Nevertheless, much in detail has been
of which the little coil gives out its light like a ascertained which it is of great interest to know.
brilliant glow-worm. We
lump of sugar, and easily
go back to our
In addition to the instrument itself, and its at- crush it into little lumps. With a pestle we grind
tached battery, a resistance-coil, or regulator, is it up into fine powder, so fine that no particle
placed in the circuit, whose duty it is so to control can be distinguished by the eye but we perceive ;
the current, that while the platinum coil is kept at that each tiny bit is still sugar, and the powder
white heat, and near its melting-point, actual tastes the same as the lump did, and behaves
fusion is rendered impossible. It should be here exactly the same in other ways. We throw it into
mentioned that, although the melting-point of water, and thus we divide it into smaller particles
—
platinum undoubtedly represents an extreme tem- still so small now that they become quite invisible ;
perature, the heat radiated from the little coil is so but still the sugar tastes sweet, and behaves
small that no inconvenience is felt from its presence chemically as sugar in every way. We thus
close to, and almost touching, the seat of operation. recognise that whatever matter is, its properties
It can, in fact, be introduced into the oesophagus, reside in almost inconceivably small particles, and
and in this situation will light up the cavity of the not in the great mass, as a mass. might sup- We
stomach. pose —and it was once supposed — that there is no
At a recent soiree in Paris, the inventor success- limit to this smallness of the particles ;
but there
fully demonstrated, in a popular and inoffensive we come face to face with another class of facts.
manner, the efficiency of this clever piece of The smallest bit of sugar we could get by crushing
apparatus. Our illustration will show the manner or pounding, or even by dissolving, was sugar
in which thiswas accomplished. A living fish, unmistakably. But let us carefully weigh a certain
swimming in a tank of water, had placed within it quantity of sugar, and add to it in a saucer a small
a closed transparent envelope containing the pla- weighed quantity of water, then finally a weighed
tinum coil. The operator’s hand grasping the quantity of pure sulphuric acid. Masses of a
holder, and making contact with his thumb, is porous black substance begin to heave and swell
shown on the right-hand side of the drawing. When out of the saucer, of much greater bulk than the
the room was darkened, those present could see sugar itself. When all is quiet and has cooled, we
every detail of the fish’s organism, and could count find that this black substance is neither more nor
the divisions (vertebrae) inits back-bone. The ex- less than charcoal but though so bulky, it weighs
periment was not only successful, but was, in its much less than the sugar did. We weigh the rest
way, unique. It showed that observation might be of the products,and we find the sulphuric acid is
obtained by the polyscope of interior conditions still and that the weight of the small
there,
which no other instrument can afford. Any one quantity of water is increased by e.xactly the
having only slight surgical knowledge will at once amount that the charcoal weighs “short.” Now,
see of what great use such a contrivance must be in we know that sulphuric acid has an intense affinity
special cases. for water, so intense that an egg can be cooked in
M. Trouve considers that his invention may be the heat produced by a sudden mixture ;
and we are
applied to mines, powder magazines, and diving obliged to conclude that the acid has seized upon
operations, including the coral and oyster in- this water when locked up in the sugar, and that we
dustries. Of these applications we have some have, in fact, simply divided the sugar into two sorts
doubt. Probably these operations need something of still smaller particles, which, when separated from
giving more light than the polyscope. But, as we one another, and combined by themselves into
have already indicated, that amount of light is mass, come out as charcoal and water. We may
puite enough for surgical purposes. go further, and subject the charcoal and the water to
; —

all sorts of processes ;
but therewe find a difference. I
and it has been found that for every combination
The charcoal, or carbon, we can divide no further. with a 7 iy other element, the combining weight of
We can combine it with other things, and thus
j
the same element remains the same. If 32 grains

obtain quite different-looking substances, which of sulphur combine with 56 grains of iron to form a
weigh 7nore but we cannot get out of it anything distinct substance,and 16 grains of oxygen gas also
which weighs less. The water, on the contrary, combine with 56 grains of iron to form another
we can easily divide by a galvanic current into two substance, then 32 grains of sulphur will also com-
gases, called oxygen and hydrogen, which, when bine with 16 grains of oxygen. So on with every
I
mixed together as gases, and exploded by the elec- !

other element. Sulphur and iron will combine
tric spark, will, on the other hand, 7nake water. '
with other proportions of oxygen as well, but then

Neither of these gases can be split up any further. these other proportions are all 77 iitltiples of the 32
Such things as the oxygen and hydrogen and j
or 56 or 16 respectively and so every combination

;
carbon are therefore called simple “ elements ” by of any element consists of some multiple of its
chemists, whereas bodies which can be divided into proper proportionate weight compared with that of
elements are obviously compounds. Of the simple the other substance. It is almost impossible to
elements about sixty-six are known, but many of resist the conclusion that each unit or ultimate par-
them are only found by difficult processes and in ticle of any “element ” of matter has its own proper,
extremely small quantity. The curious thing is, individual, specific proportionate weight, and that
however, that there is nothing in the colour or these facts are explained on the supposition, that
taste or weight, or any other tangible property, to in every chemical combination one or more units
tell us whether any substance is an “ element ” or of one combine with one or more units of the other.
not. Many elements, such as metals, are not only We have a great test of such a hypothesis. If it
much alike outwardly, but strangely alike in their be well founded, could we combine the units by
chemical behaviour while taking, on the other hand,
; I
cou 7iti77.g them instead of weighmg them, then the
a piece of pitch and a piece of sulphur, there is j
proportions would be very much simpler. Now, we
nothing but the result of our chemical processes to can do this by mixing substances which are in the
tell us that the a compound, and the
pitch is state of gas or vapour. Different substances, while
sulphur, so far as we know,
not. It is not to be
is in the fluid or solid state, expand very differently
wondered at if the old alchemists supposed that for the same degree of heat ;
but when in the
since they could so change the form of many sub- state of vapour, all substances expand alike for the
stances they could change all, and transmute the same increase of what is called “absolute tem-
baser metals into gold. The strangest thing, perhaps, perature,” and contract alike for the same increase
is that many modern chemists believe even the pressure. We know that vapour occupies
of
elements are different forms of some one primordial enormously more space than fluid or solid matter
matter, although they differ from the alchemists in a cubic inch of water expands into a cubic foot of
not believing man is ever likely to be able to trans- —
steam and the inference naturally is that its par-
mute one form into another. ticles are much farther apart, so far that they have
But these facts led to the knowledge of another lost their power of cohesion, and only obey general
concerning combinations of the elements. By pre- laws of heat and pressure. Moreover, into the
cipitating it in a peculiar way with the help of cubic foot of steam we can evaporate, in addition,
hydrogen, we can procure iron in powder so fine just as much alcohol vapour as if the steam were
that ere long it takes fire from exposure to the air not there and then, thirdly, into the same space
; ;
and we can also reduce sulphur to impalpable dust. as much ether vapour as if neither other vapour
We may mix these in any proportions, but the were there showing that there must be vast inter- ;
microscope will show us each particle of iron and stices between the particles. From these facts,
of sulphur unaltered. But now make a heap of the and some others, it can be almost proved mathe-
mixture, and apply flame to it it grows suddenly
: matically that equal spaces, occupied by different
—
red hot sure sign of che 77 iical mixture or com- substances in the state of gas or vapour at the same
bination — and forms a black mass, altogether temperature and pressure, contain the sa 77te 7iu 7nher
different from both the elements which have now of molecules, or separate smallest units which give
chemically combined. The remarkable thing is the vapour or gas its character. It follows that to
that this sort of mixture only and always takes measure eciual volumes, is to count equal numbers
place i7 i ceriam p 7'op 07 'iio 7is. In this case, if all of these units or molecules. Now, it is found
uncombined iron or sulphur be carefully separated, that all chemical substances, when in the state of
56 grains of iron will have combined with 32 grains gas or vapour, combine chemically in sbTtple
—
of sulphur neither less nor more. A more wonder- volu 77tes. By weight, one part of hydrogen com-
ful fact still has been discovered. By many careful bines with sixteen parts of oxygen to form water ;
experiments the “ combining weights ” of all the by measure, both being gases, we take two volumes
elements with each other have been ascertained of hydrogen and one of oxygen.
;
Sometimes sub-
;
I’ORTOISES.
stances in a state of vapour mix in equal volumes, much, that molecules fly off out of the sphere of
sometimes two to three, etc., but the proportion is attraction, when we say they “ evaporate.” Lastly,
always simple, just as we should expect. Not only in solid bodies, the forces of cohesion are so strong
so, the combined product, if measured in a gaseous as to prevent free motion, but the molecules still
state, also maintains a simple proportion, being move though preserving the same relative
rapidly,
usually two volumes, however many volumes one position ;
that
is, they vibrate about a fixed jjoint.
of the combining gases may be. The two volumes Here, again, an increase of heat, which simply
of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen do not means an increase of this molecular motion,
make three volumes of steam, but two. necessarily leads (as a rule) to expansion of the
Again, therefore, we are forced to distinguish be- solid body, since it must increase the distance
tween two sorts of the units of matter. The smallest between its molecules.
upit that can exist separately of any sort of matter, Such are the modern conceptions respecting the
simple or compound, so as to exhibit its separate general structure of “ matter.” So far there seems
properties, we call a molecule. But the ultimate nothing very mysterious -about them, or difficult to
unit of any simple element, to which belongs its conceive. Before we can understand where the
specific weight, and one or more of which combine inscrutable mystery really lies, we must consider a
with one or more units of some other element to little further the wonderful relations between atoms
form another substance, we call an atom and we and molecules, which we will do in another paper.
reckon the specific or atomic weights of all atoms
with reference to that of hydrogen, which is the
lightest body in nature. It may appear at first that TORTOISES..
every molecule of an “ element ” must be the same
as its atom and were this so the atomic weight of
;
Tortoi.ses rank certainly amongst the most
every element would be simply its specific gravity curious groups of the reptile world. Their pecu-
(in vapour) compared with hydrogen gas. But this liarities have attracted popular notice, as their
is not so. By checking numerous combinations more scientific aspects have secured for them a
against each other, it is found that the smallest large share of zoological attention. Enclosed in a
volume of hydrogen found in combination with bony box, from which head, limbs, and tail protrude,
other substances is only half the smallest volume the tortoises, and their neighbours the turtles, form
which can be obtained as a residue of hydrogen by an interesting study. In considering these animals
itself. It follows that two atoms of hydrogen two ideas may animate us. The first theory of their
combine to form one 7nolecule of hydrogen as structure is that they are built up, as regards their
hydrogen, although one single atom can combine bodily form, on special lines, such as are found in
with other atoms. The same is true of many other no other animals. The second idea is that which
elements, so that in their case the molecular maintains that possibly, after all, tortoises and
weight is not the same as the atomic weight. turtles may be only modified members of the
In this brief preliminary survey of the subject, we reptile group. Whether, then, do they owe their
have only finally to consider the solid, liquid, and peculiarities to absolutely new structures, unknown
gaseous states matter may assume. In a gas the in other reptiles, or to modifications of ordinary
molecules are at great comparative distances, reptilious bodies 1 This interesting question is
though in reality very small distances, and are easily answered. If we examine the skeleton of a
moving at tremendous velocity. In their motions tortoise, and look into the inside of its body, we
they encounter each other, rebound, and so change readily see the spine, or backbone, forming the
the directions of their motions, being supposed to central beam, so to speak, of the animal’s back.
be of infinite elasticity but the average bombard-
;
The spine, instead of beingmovable in the back-
ments upon the containing surface are equal, and region, has its joints firmly ossified together. No
determine the pressure of the gas. The velocity of movement is permitted between the separate bones,
their motion constitutes the temperature of the gas, and the first great demand of the animal — namely,
and hence we see why an increase of heat increases for stability of frame, is thus satisfied. The roof
the volume or the pressure, or may even force or back, formed of the ribs.
itself, is These bones
asunder the constituent portions of molecules apart are greatly broadened out, and instead of being
into atoms. In liquids, on the other hand, the mole- narrow bones, showing spaces between them, as in
cules are nearer, so that cohesion affects them : other animals, they are firmly united together. At
hence they do not fly off" into space as gas would do the sides of the body we see a series of plates, or
if unconfined. Yet they can move amongst them- pieces, called marginal plates. Below, and lying
selves, and do move hence a little colouring
: next the ground when the animal walks, is found a
matter of the same specific gravity diffuses through great broad bony plate, which, of old, was believed
a whole mass of liquid. Here, again, heat applied to represent a breast-bone. We know, however,
to a liquid may increase the molecular motion so that in these animals no such bone is developed,
and this so-called breast-bone, or plastron^ as it is intermediate in nature between the tortoises and
named, is found to be composed of bony elements turtles and some, such as the river and marsh
;
similar to those we see in the marginal, or side tortoises of .A.merica, are as freely aquatic in habits
plates. These latter are formed by the skin, and as are the turtles.
in one sense are therefore to be regarded as The best known
of the turtles are the Green
modified “ scales.” Outside, as we look at a living Turtle, which serves as the basis of the well-known
tortoise or turtle, we see the back to be covered with delicacy “ turtle soup ” and the ;
Hawk’s-bill
plates or scales. These also represent skin-forma- Turtle,” already mentioned, and which affords
tions ; —
and from one species of turtle the “hawk’s- “ tortoise-shell.” Of the tortoises, the common
bill turtle” —
tortoise-shell is obtained from the plates European tortoise, Testudo Grceca (Fig. i), is the
COMMON TORTOISE OF EUROPE {Testudo Cmca).
in question. Sometimes, as in the “ soft turtles,” most familiar form. As a garden pet this animal,
the back may
be covered with a leathery skin which inhabits the Mediterranean borders, is too
instead of scales. The whole body of a tortoise is well known to require description. The Matainata,
thus seen to represent simply a modification of an figured in our second illustration, one of the most
is
ordinary reptilian type. The body is that of a reptile, curious and weird of the tortoise race. It is found
modified and altered in a curious fashion to suit in South America, and belongs to a group of
the life and habits of the animals which exhibit it. tortoises which possess flattened heads and mobile
The tortoises differ from the having
turtles in necks. The feet are webbed, clearly indicating
bodies mostly of square shape, and of arched form, an adaptation to an aquatic life. The flesh of the
whilst the head and limbs can be withdrawn into Matamata is so highly esteemed that a scarcity of
the “shell.” In the turtles, the head and limbs these animals is now threatened from the rapidity
cannot be thus withdrawn; the body is oval and with which their numbers have been thinned.
flattened, and the fore limbs are longer than the When full grown, this animal attains a length
hind limbs. The feet in the turtles are, moreover, of three feet. The most singular feature of the
adapted for swimming, whilst those of the tortoise Matamata is its head. The head itself is much
are fitted for walking. Certain forms appear to be flattened, and a curious sharp-pointed snout exists.
—
STORAGE OF ELECTRICITY. 313
Above, the head bears two curious appendages, to say the least, highly singular that in the Eastern
resembling ears, and below the chin are two legends frequent reference is made to the tor-
similar projections, whilst the throat also possesses toises as possessing a share in the building of the
four filaments. The neck is further tufted in like world. The Hindu theory that a great tortoise lies
manner, and a short tail is dev'eloped. The shell beneath the earth, and keeps it from sinking in the
itself is keeled, the scales or plates which cover sea, is familiar enough. It may thus be probable
it having sharp edges. In habits the Matamata that these legends date from a far-back period,
is carnivorous. It feeds on fishes, and other when the primitive tenants of the Eastern lands
aquatic animals and by aid of its powerful jaws
;
may have beheld in the flesh, and been contem-
is enabled to snap and mangle, in a very decided poraries of, the great tortoise whose remains we
fashion, any prey which may come in its way. find in a fossil state to-day.
THE MATAMATA TORTOISE.
If the tortoises of the present thus include in STORAGE OF ELECTRICITY.

their ranks not a few strange creatures, the same
remark holds good of the tortoises of the past. A FEW months after the invention of the Voltaic
Fossil tortoises possess a history equally curious battery, two important discoveries were made as to
with that of the living members of the group and ;
the behaviour of the current which it afforded.
it is remarkable that, as the ancient geological The first of these was that the current was capable
sU-ata show us how both mammals and saurians of decomposing water into
its two constituents
formerly existed in gigantic forms, so it is also oxygen and hydrogen. The apparatus by which
with the class of qnimals before us. In the re- this can be done is of simple construction, and is
cent deposits of the Himalayas the remains of called a voltameter (Fig. i). It consists of two in-
a giant member of the tortoise race hav’e been verted tubes standing in a glass cup. Underneath
found. This form has been named the Colosso- the open end of each is placed a strip of platinum foil,
chelys Atlas. In length this large animal must which form electrodes when placed in connection
have measured at the very least twenty feet. It is. with a battery. Both tubes and cup are filled with
O o
acidulated water, and when the circuit is complete It was charged by an electric current of sufficient
decomposition commences. Bubbles of gas are power to overcome the affinity of the gases com-
given off from both electrodes, and as they rise in bined in the water, and these gases separate into
the tubes the water is displaced, and sinks into the the tubes, as in the case of the simple voltameter.
cup. One tube fills with gas at double the rate But in the compound arrangement the secondary
that the other does, and the contained gas can current was of great power, and with a battery
easily, by a simple test, be proved to be hydrogen. of fifty cells a small electric light could be produced.
In the other tube is just half It will, however, be seen that
the volume of oxygen. such a contrivance, with its
The other discovery with hundred glass tubes and
which we are here concerned acidulated water, requiring
is founded on the last. In most delicate manipulation,
i8oi Gautherot found that however valuable it might be
the two platinum electrodes, from a philosophical point of
after being used in the man- view, was quite useless in
ner described, possessed the any other way. Indeed, it
property of furnishing a tran- may quite safely be assumed
sient current on their own that its inventor constructed
account, forming, as it were, it more as an interesting ex-
a Voltaic cell. The current periment than for any more
so given was small, but it was definite purpose.
sufficient to cause muscular In the year i860 we find
contractions in a frog’s leg, and could easily be '
the record of any attempt to make secondary

first
detected when the wires were placed above and currents of sufficient strength to be useful, and
beneath the tongue. This secondary current, as j
this year may be regarded as that in which the
we may term it, was always found storage-battery was born. To M.
lo be in the reverse direction to the Gaston Plantd must be given the
primary, which gave it origin. Later credit of making the practical dis-
researches pointed out that this cu- covery. Not content with merely
rious reaction actually commences repeating the experiments of others,
before the primary current is broken ; he used many different metals for his
and in the first forms of batteries electrodes, noted their behaviour when
made, before it was understood, their exposed to the electric current in
performance was seriously affected by different liquids, and finally, as a
this opposing force. Under the term result of
these experiments, pointed
“ polarisation ” the reaction is now out that the most marked effect was
familiar to all battery-makers, and produced when lead was treated in
many ingenious plans have been dilute sulphuric acid. The so-called
adopted to nullify its effects. polarisation, which had so often
The phenomenon of the secondary formed a stumblingblock to the elec-
current obtained from the platinum trician, was encouraged by M. Plantd^
electrodes can be explained by the in order that he might turn it to prac-

curious possessed by that
property tical account. Each cell was com-
metal of absorbing upon its surface posed of a tall glass cylindrical vessel,
the two gases which have been sepa- full of dilute sulphuric acid. In this
rated from the water. These gases liquid are immersed two leaden plates,
form a filmupon the surface of the arranged so as to expose as much sur-
Fig. 2. — PLANTS CELL.
metal, that to which hydrogen adheres face as possible, and at the same time
behaving towards clean platinum to be distinct from one another (Fig. 2).
somewhat like zinc, or other metal which is easily This is brought about by rolling together two long
oxidised. Towards platinum which has absorbed strips of sheet lead, inserting between them a layer
a film of oxygen it exercises a still greater electro- of coarse cloth. (This, later on, was superseded by
motive force, and we may say that the energy strips of gutta-percha, which fulfilled the same
which has been spent in tearing the water asunder office.) From the exterior er^d of one sheet, and
to produce these gases is stored up in them. from the interior end of the other, a little strip of
Grove’s gas battery, which is figured in most lead is carried to the outside of the containing-
physical treatises, consists of what may be described vessel, for ready attachment to a battery.
as a row of voltameters, the hydrogen tube of one The cell as thus made is by no means ready to
being connected with the oxygen tube of the next. furnish a secondary current, except of a very
STORAGE OF ELECTRICITY. 315
transient and feeble kind. When an ordinary tion of charging occupies some hours, we can, by dis-
battery is attached — say, charging the Plantd cell, utilise that accumulated
three or four cells of
—
Bunsen or Grove the separated gases bubble up charge in a few minutes. In other words, by using
from the surface of the lead plates, but very little a secondary battery as the medium, we can for a
film is formed on their surface. As the operation short time obtain the power of thirty or forty
of charging progresses, the leaden plate by which Bunsen cells from two or three.
the current enters is acted upon by the oxygen, For more than twenty years the Plante cell has
and becomes covered with a layer of peroxide of been available, and has figured in the price lists of
lead, and this layer behaves towards the other lead dealers in electrical apparatus, but it has only been
plate, with its hydrogen film, much in the same way known to physicists and to a few surgeons, who
that the oxygenised platinum in the Grove gas have found in it a useful means of obtaining a
battery acted towards its neighbour. When the powerful electric current of short duration. The
charging-battery is detached the cell will now yield storage-battery may be said to have had its
a secondary current, and as it does so the brown firstintroduction to the general public two years
peroxide is reduced to the metallic state, which ago, at the hands of Sir William Thomson. That
assumes on gentleman
the surface of wrote a long
the lead a cu- letterto the
rious spongy Times, giving
form. The an account of
cell is now re- how he had
charged, but brought with
in the oppo- him by rail-
site direction, way from

so that the Paris to Glas-
other plate gow “a box
receives a of electricity.”
coating of per- He describes
oxide, and is it as weighing
afterwards re- 165 lb., and
duced to a having stored
spongy condi- up in its mys-
tion. This terious re-
charging and cesses two
cross - charg - tnillion foot-
Fig. 3. -PLANTS; CELL CHARGING FROM GRAMME MACHINE.
ing is perse- pounds of
vered in many energy, which
times, with frequent intervals of repose, until both had been put into it some days before at Paris. This
plates become eaten spongy transfor-
into by this letter, we need hardly say, caused immense sensa-
mation to a considerable depth. At the end of tion. Energy running to seven figures was, thought
some weeks they are in a condition to furnish the everybody, something very strong indeed and ;
best results, and are said to be “ formed.” The “ bottled lightning,” and other such terms, were
charging, when required, must now be in one used by accomplished leader-writers. When this
direction only, or there would be a risk of spoiling two million foot-pounds was found to accord with
the cell. one horse-power for one hour, the box was not con-
Aproperly-constructed Plante cell will retain its sidered quite so wonderful, after all. Still, there
charge for some days, and when discharged will was something in it. The “ box of elec-
really
afford for a short time a very powerful current. tricity ” was simply a modified Plantd battery
Several cells joined up together, so as to form a contrived by M. Faure, who very cleverly has
battery, will give effects of proportionate power, hit upon a mode of shortening and also simplify-
and it is possible with twenty cells to exhibit an ing the “forming” of the lead plates. He does
arc light for a few minutes. The charging must be this by mixing red lead with dilute acid into a
accomplished with at least two Bunsens if a bat- paste, and painting the surface of the plates with
tery is employed, for the simple reason that the the mixture. This induces a rapid formation of
electro-motive force of the Plante cell is more tlian that brown peroxide which in the Plante cell takes
that of a single Bunsen or a dynamo machine may
;
so long to form. But even in M. Faure’s modified
be employed, as in Fig. 3. The secondary battery cell the process of charging is at first tedious, and
slowly accumulates the energy represented by the the current from a dynamo machine must be sent
charging cells or machine and although the opera-
;
through it for several days before it is capable of
;

furnishing a return ;
nor does it exhibit its full by a dynamo connection with the axle of one
in
power until some weeks have elapsed. Of course, pair of wheels. Thenext application, which caused
when once formed the operation of charging is much interest, was the propulsion of a launch upon
accomplished in far less time —about half an hour the Thames, named the ElecU-icity (Fig. 4). This
with a dynamo machine —and as the current must launch carried two Siemens dynamo machines,
not exceed in force that of the cells, it can be split shown at A A in Fig. 5, one of which was geared to
up so as to charge a large number of cells at one the screw-propeller, or both could be driven by the
operation. The red lead, during this operation, same current. The latter was furnished by forty-
is reduced to the five accumulators
peroxide on the one of the Sellon -
hand, and on the Volckmar pattern,

other assumes the stowed away under
spongy metallic the seats in rows,
state. as shown at B B.
The Faure cell The forty-five cells,
takes the form of furnishing a good
an oblong box, con- speed for six hours,
taining flat plates were estimated to
coated with a thick give an effective
layer of red lead, force of four horse-
each pi e being power. The launch
separated from its Fig. 4. — THE “ ELECTRICITY.”
is twenty-six feet
fellow by a piece long, five feet wide,
of felt. The whole is charged with dilute acid, and draws about two feet of water. Lastly, at
At first the cell was made of spiral form, but Kew Bridge, an electric tram-car, owing its motive
this has been superseded by that just described. power t"! the same form of storage-battery, was
Comparisons between the Plante and Faure accu- successfully run. This tram-car raised hopes that
mulators have given rise to much discussion. The the system may be placed on a commercial basis ;
Plante, as we have seen, will give powerful effects and we believe that steps have been taken to secure
for a short time —
an invaluable a licence from the Board of
property for certain services. The Trade for the establishment of a
Faure is less rapid in discharge, regular line of such cars in a
and will, from the greater thick- London suburb. The rate at-
ness of its materials, take in, tained was six miles per hour,
and therefore yield up, a larger and the cost was estimated at
charge. Since the appearance, 6s. per day, or about one-
3d.
of the Faure battery many in- fourth of the cost of horsing an
ventors have been busy in the ordinary car. The batteries, as
same direction. The Faure cell in the case of the launch, were
itselfhas been greatly improved, disposed under the passengers’
and, under the name of the seats, and besides furnishing the
F aure - Sellon- Volckmar battery, motive power, supplied the car
has lately come into extended with light.
use. Brush, in America, has pa- But these applications, al-
tented a secondary battery Ue ;
though most interesting. are in-
Meritens, in France, has done the same and a legion
; significant when we review the marvellous num-
of less familiar names have followed suit. But to ber of services in which electricians believe the
Plante and his great researches, extending over a storage-battery can be employed. The tides in our
number of years, is due the invention of the system ;
rivers — —
can they tell us be made to store up by
and it is as well that, in reviewing recent modifica- day theirenergy (at present almost wasted), and to
should not be lost sight of.
tions, this give it back at night as light. One-tenth part of
The notable application of the Faure battery
first the energy which flows along the Avon could, we
was to light up by the incandescent system the are told, be made to light the city of Bristol. Boxes
Pullman train, which runs between London and stored with electrical energy may in the time to come
Brighton four times daily. These cells are charged be brought to our houses every day, as regularly as
by a dynamo for the day’s work before starting we are supplied with bread or milk. The energy so
on their first journey but as the system is
;
charged we can use up as light, heat, or for motive
gradually developed and improved upon, it will power. This is what the electrician promises
be possible to charge them as the train runs along. but we may assume that before this comes to pass
AN OLD VIKING’S SHIP. 317
the storage-battery must see several improvements. The relic referred to rested beneath a mound, or
It is farfrom perfect at present, and many tumulus, which had for many years excited the
scientific men have pointed out that it is far from attention of antiquaries, more especially as popular
economical in use. They also assert that the tradition asserted that beneath the hillock rested
power of storage is gradually lost as the battery the mortal remains of one of those kings who,
is charged from time to time. It is, however, pro- some centuries back, ruled over different divisions
bable that this and other difficulties are not insur- of Norway. At last a number of workers were
mountable. In fact some minor defect is being either enrolled,and they proceeded to dig down into the
ameliorated or remedied almost every month, and “ King’s Hill,” for such was the name by which the
better results than at first are already obtained. place was known. Their labours had a most suc-
AN OLD viking’s SHIP.
AN OLD VIKING’S SHIP. cessful result, and after several weeks’ toil they laid
bare the remains of a ship between 70 and 80 feet
On the rugged coast of Norway are found, as in length. This vessel had once belonged to one of
physical features of the country, immense arms those bold pirates of the sea, whose doings had
of the sea which penetrate inland for from 60 to caused that trembling appeal to be added to many
200 miles. These are known as fjords, answering an honest sailor’s litany, “ From the fury of the
to, and having somewhat the same appearance as, Norseman, good Lord, deliver us ” !
the firths of North Britain. On the beach of The period to which this ship may be referred is
one of these fjords there was discovered a few the later “ Iron Age, or Viking period,” which may
years ago a relic of the past which is of great be placed between the ninth and eleventh centu-
interest, not only to antiquarians, but to every one ries, A.D. At this time the custom of burning the
who has read of the Danes, those hardy Norse- dead, which once prevailed in Norway, had given
men whose ruling of the waves struck such terror place, among important personages at least, to
to the hearts of all whose countries were bounded burial in a war ship. Indications were not wanting
by the ocean. to show that the ship discovered beneath the King’s
Hill was one of these. Just behind the mast were MEDICAL SUPERSTITIONS.
the remains of the burial chamber, together with
remnants of a bed upon which the body had rested. Although the physician of to-day pursues his
Bones there were none, for the excavators found studies upon scientific principles, and builds up
that others had been before them (doubtless in his theories with thoughtful care upon facts
search of treasure), and had for some reason re- anxiously ascertained and verified, it was not always
moved them. But enough remained to reward the so. Time was when the grave doctor upheld his
workers for their trouble, for they found, among claim to dignity and learning upon no better founda-
other things, traces of a landing-stage, a number of tions than those which supported the reputation of
kitchen utensils, wooden plates and drinking-cups, alchemy, astrology, palmistry, and all kinds of su-
besides iron fish-hooks, and a number of miscel- perstition and quackery. The great court physician,
laneous articles. John de Gaddesden, who hung the room, bed, and
The ship, although of wood, was in a marvellous window with scarlet cloth to cure small pox in a
state of preservation, owing no doubt to the cha- child of Edward II., and thought sending a patient
racter of the soil in which it had laiij for 1,000 years. to hear high mass in church would cure epilepsy,
This soil was a species of blue clay, which by com- would be laughed to scorn as a quack by even the
pletely excluding moisture and air arrested decay. most ignorant quacks of to-day. Beating with a
The hill was about 1 50 feet in diameter, and the cane was once accepted as a sure cure for ague,
ship was deposited within it standing on her keel, and Galen recommended it as fattening Gordonius !
and decorated with shields hung close together thought such beating the proper remedy in certain
along each side. curious feature may be par-
One cases of nervous irritability, and himself prescribed
ticularly noticed, as giving the origin of a word it.* Mayern, a famous French physician, who at-
familiar to all, whose derivation might seem obscure. tended Henry IV. and Louis XIII. of France, and
The rudder consisted of a board hung by a rope on our English monarchs James I., Charles I., and
the right-hand side of the stern-post — a customary Charles IF, had great faith in the curative pro-
way of hanging it which prevailed up to about the perties of pulverised human bones and extolled !
fourteenth century. From this steering-board we the magic virtues of his popular gout powder, the
get the word “ starboard,” which still denotes the chief ingredient of which was, the raspings of a
right-hand side even of a penny steamboat. human skull which had never been buried He !
Our illustration will give a fair idea of the ap- also had faith in such medical remedies as “ adders,
pearance of this Viking’s ship when cleared of the bats, sucking-whelps, earth-worms, hog’s-grease, the
surrounding earth. Although other relics of the marrow of a stag, and the thigh-bone of an ox.”
kind have before been found in Norway, this is the “To resist sorrow, and recreate the heart,” the an-
largest, and from its perfect condition, by far the cient doctors administered the hyacinth and topaz in
most interesting. It is now added to the store of some liquid, or hung them as amulets about their
various antiquities belonging to the University of patient’s neck. To free the mind and mend the
Christiania. The good and thorough workmanship manners, or disperse “black choler,” the sapphire
of the vessel is remarkable throughout, and could was precious as a remedy as well as a stone. A
not be excelled in the very best of the wooden particular kind of onyx restored bodily vigour, and
walls of old England. improved the general health One learned !
To most people, the Danes and their affairs repre- physician made the wonderful discovery that in the
sent detached items learnt long ago at school, which body of the swallow existed a stone which he called
have almost passed out of memory. Even in the chelidonius, and which, extracted, wrapped in “ a
estimation of childhood such events seemed to be fair cloth,” and tied to the right arm, restored
too far away to have any reality about them. But lunatics to their senses, and calmed raving mad-
here, when we look at this old vessel, we have at ness Dr. Bulleyn, a great physician in the reign
!
once a chain linking us with the past, and recalling of Queen Elizabeth, prescribed for a child afflicted
to our minds the deeds of those bold freebooters by some nervous disorder “ a smal yong mouse
who used to rule the main. We can imagine how rosted ” For diseases of the lungs and coughs
!
this old sea-king, whose name has long Been for- this same learned gentleman he was a member of —
gotten, chose this romantic spot for his sepulchre. Queen Anne Boleyn’s family prescribed “ snayles —
The brave vessel which he had loved so well, and broken from the shelles and sodden in whyte wyne
which had carried him through many a fight, and with oyle and sugar.” Sir Kenelm Digby professed
had weathered many a storm, was now to be his to cure wounds with marvellous rapidity in the
coffin. There his body was laid by his sorrowing following way A piece of the apparel worn by : —
followers, close to the shore, and ready once more the wounded person, st-ained with his blood, was
to be launched on a new life whenever the sum- dipped in water in which one of the learned man’s
mons came. In all these ancient methods of burial
there appears the hope of a life to come. • See article on “ Flagellation, " p. 259.
MEDICAL SUPERSTITIONS. 319
^‘sympathetic powders” had been dissolved For ! every morning, you should put on your left shoe first.
blood-spitting, Ur. Hancoke very strongly recom- Boar’s suet seethed in water, and mixed with boar’s
mended stewed prunes, which he also prescribed foam was, according to Anglo-Saxon leechcraft, a
for curing other serious ailments. Nor are later sure remedy For weakness of the
for sickness.
times without such extraordinary beliefs, as witness joints, had been
the water in which a living fox
Sir William Read, Monsieur Thibaud, Ur. Simon seethed until nothing remained but its bones, was
Forman, and other astrologer-physicians of the 17th an excellent medicine. Excessive drowsiness was
century. At a later date, Henry Fielding and Bishop to be' cured by drinking wine in which a hare’s
Berkeley, as well as many medical men all over the brain had been put. The lung of a ram was a
country, were firm believers in the medical virtues remedy for ulcers, and the flesh of a lion was good
of tar-water as a great remedy for all kinds of for persons “suffering apparitions.” For low
diseases. spirits, a radish, eaten with salt and vinegar, was
The medicines of our Anglo-Saxon ancestors prescribed. To get rid of warts you were to write
were largely botanical, but many were extraordinary on seven little wafers, the following seven names :
and eccentric enough to move our wonder. A Maximanus, Walchus, Johannes, Martinianous,
favourite remedy was bull’s dung in hot water. Uionysius, Constantinus, Serafion, and sing a cer-
This was used for a large number of minor com- tain odd-sounding incantation, first into one ear
plaints. Stones from the maw of young swallows, and then into the other, and then above the patient’s
provided they were little, and after removal had poll, after which a virgin was to hang the incan-
been carefully preserved from contact with earth, tation round the patient’s neck. This cure is
water, or other stones, were used for pains in the described as a wonderful one.
head or eyes, typhus, nightmare, evil dreams, en- The Chinese boast works on medicine three
chantments, and temptations, &c., three being a thousand years old. They divide their remarks
dose. Whipping with a whip made of porpoise- under the heads of healing, cooling, refreshing,
hide was a cure adopted for lunatics. Stolen tur- and temperate. They embrace most of the known
nips were regarded as a cure for cripples. The medicines, together with mineral waters. Fire is
hot blood of a sheep was a preventive in cases an agent in which they profess to have great faith,
j
where a person had inadvertently swallowed any and the moxa is recommended in almost every ail-
j
foul creeping thing. Wives were recommended to ment. Animal magnetism is also practised. Their
|
take, as extremely beneficial, an occasional sup or physicians’ prescriptions are classified under seven
i
two of their husband’s blood. Sealskin soles to heads i,

: —
the great prescription 2, the little ;
the shoes drove away gout, they said. To cure the prescription ; 3, the slow prescription ; 4, the
bite of “ hunting spider,” the patient was instructed I
quick prescription ; 5, the odd prescription ; 6, the
to make five wounds, four round it and one on it, j
even prescription ; 7, the double prescription.
collect the blood in a spoon, and silently throw it These are applied under special circumstances and
over a main road or “ waggon-way.” To deprive conditions, which, in their turn, are classified.
wolfsbane of its consequences w’hen sw'allowed, The medicinal measures adopted by the priests
the patient’s legs w'ere held above his head, and l
of Greece were not less extraordinary, and the re-
numerous cuts made in them, out of wEich the j
sults credibly recorded to have followed them in
poison would, they said, escape without injuring the some instances show the power of strong belief,
patient. To cure tooth-ache, a candle was made which ‘has been similarly shown in many modern
of acorn mead, henbane seed, and white wax. cases. Caius, who w’as blind, was cured by car-
While this was burning the patient had to hold rying out the instructions given by the oracle.
his head under a black cloth with his mouth open He went to the temple, prayed fervently, crossed
above the flame, so that the “little worms” causing the sanctuary from right to left, placed five fin-
the pain might be suffocated, and fall out from the gers on the altar, and covering his eyes with
teeth. A more violent remedy to be adopted in them, was instantly restored to sight. On another
the event of this one’s failure was to say, “ Argidam, occasion the oracle commanded a blind soldier
margidam, sturgidam,” expectorate into the mouth named Valerius Apes to make an ointment by
of a frog, and drive it away from the house door. mixing honey with the blood of a white cock,
A mixture of yellow ochre, rock-salt, and pepper in and anoint his eyes with it for three consecutive
equal parts, strained through a cloth, was recom- days. This restored his sight, and he returned
mended as an eye-salve. Swollen eyes were to be public thanks to the gods. Another case was that
cured by placing on the neck a live crab with its of Julian, who was spitting blood and fast nearing
eyes put out, taken from water. For the bite of a death, when him to take from
the oracle instructed
mad dog you should remove from under his tongue some seeds of the pine, and eat them
the sacred altar
the worms to be found there, and take them after mixed with honey for three days. He did so, was
you had led them “round about a fig-tree.” To cured, and offered up prayers of gratitude in the
escape stomach-ache, it was advised that on rising presence of the priests and people.
—

ICE HOTTER THAN BOILING WATER. reason why what were called the “ permanent
gases ” resisted attempts to liquefy them by
all
In an article upon “ Frost Explosions,” it was pressure alone. Their critical point happens to
shown by a very simple experiment how the be a very low temperature indeed, very far below
melting-point of ice was lowered by pressure, so that of ice but when they were thus cooled
;
that a wire stretched by weights over a block of as well as compressed by Cailletet and Pictet,
ice gradually melted its way through (see p. 288), they yielded and became liquid. We thus learn
the ice freezing together again as the pressure that for every substance in a gaseous state there
was removed. In another article (p. 15) reference is a temperature, above which the liquid state
has been made to the fact that the boiling-point is absolutely impossible. It may be compressed
of water is also af- into a space as
fected by pressure. small as the liquid
This is so to such form would occupy,
an extent as to lead possibly into less ;
to some very ex- but liquid it wall

traordinary conse- not and cannot be-
quences, which come.
were first experi- The phenomena
mentally demon- are equally re-
strated by Mr. Car- markable if we ex-
nelly in 1880. amine the condi-
To understand tions under w'hich
these experiments the liquid form is
we must consider assumed from the
what boiling w'ater solid state and it ;
really means. Water is strange that this

is converted slowly also depends upon
and insensibly into the boiling-point.
vapour, at tempe- As we reduce the
ratures far below pressure, the boil-
boiling ;
but the ing-point falls with
process slow andis it. But naturally,
tedious, because the as we have seen
expansive force of that w'ith high
the vapour is coun- pressures the boil-
teracted by the ing-point gradually
pressure of the at- rises less a?id less,
mosphere. The ex- until at length the

pansive force is, “critical point” is
how'ever, increased reached so with ;
by heat until it is low pressures the

able overpower
to boiling - point falls
that pressure, and

Fig. I. —APPARATUS FOR HEATING ICE.
7 nore and mo 7 'e with
then the water equal diminutions
“boils.” we increase the pressure, therefore, the
If of pressure. It follows that at some given low pres-
vapour has a much greater force to overcome, and sure the boiling-point must fall below the melting-
the water wall not boil heated far above
till it is point of the substance and when this point is
;
the ordinary boiling-point. But in making such attained, therefore, again the substance ca 7 inot be
experiments a very singular fact was discovered liqnejied. There is, therefore, for every form of
viz., that as the pressure w'as raised the correspond- matter, a “critical temperature,” above which no
ing advance in the boiling-point becomes less pressure will liquefy it and at the other end of
;
and less, no increase of pressure

until at last the scale a “ critical pressure,” below which no
is able to raise the boiling-point any more. If, amount of heat can liquefy it, but must simply
therefore, w'e heat steam above that point, called convert the particles of the solid, still dry, directly
the critical point, and which is about 774® into vapour.
Fahrenheit, the most tremendous pressure is These remarkable facts are readily tested in
unable to reduce it to a fluid state. The same various substances whose critical temperatures or
applies to all other substances capable of assuming pressures are very manageable. Camphor and
the gaseous and liquid states ;
and that is the iodine melt very easily, but their critical pressure
ICE HOTTER THAN BOILING WATER. 321
IS not much less than that of our atmosphere. thumb and plunged into the bath of mercury, M.
If, therefore, either be heated in a vessel connected Of course, on removing the thumb the mercury
with an air-pump till they are fairly ^nelted, and falls to the point G, or height of the barometer, and
even begin to boil into vapour, a very slight by tilting the tube and flask all the mercury is run
rarefaction reduces them at once to a solid state, out of the latter and a Torricellian vacuum ob-
and no heat then melt them while the pressure
will tained. A tin case, F, filled with a freezing-mixture
is kept low. On the other hand, arsenic cannot be of pounded ice and salt, and fitted with an india-
melted in the open air, because its critical pressure rubber or cork ring at the neck, so as to slide tightly
is greater than that of the atmosphere but if the ;
on the tube, is then adjusted so as to surround the
air be condensed and heat is applied under space at the top of the tube, and some water boiled
pressure, it melts readily. It follows that if we to expel air is introduced into the tube at A, whence
could maintain and keep a perfect itpasses up through the mercury,
vacuum, where the pressure would being lightest, till it forms a column
be absolutely nothing, no substance G H, about two inches deep, over
could be liquefied at all, but must the mercury. The vessel, F, is also
exist either as a solid or in the filled with the freezing-mixture. All
state of gas. vapour given off from the w'ater is
The most demon-
remarkable now condensed in the flask, D, as
stration of these curious facts was fast as it is formed, and in this
accomplished by Mr. Carnelly in way the pressure is kept down to
the case of ice. The critical tem- about one-twentieth of an inch of
perature of H.jO (water) we have mercury, or less than what is re-
seen to be 774° its critical pres-
; quired. It takes usually about a
sure is found to be about that re- quarter of an hour before the flask
presented by one-fifth of an inch D is cold enough to effect this,
of mercurial pressure in the baro- which may be known by the height
meter, or about 1^5 the pressure of the mercury in the tube A B and ;
of our atmosphere. If we keep by this time the column of water,

the atmosphere round ice distinctly \ G H, has congealed to a mass of
below that pressure it must be im- ice.
possible to melt it, whatever the b Thus has been obtained the main
amount of heat applied, but the condition of the experiment, viz.,
molecules “dry” directly

will fly off ice under very low pressure less —
into steam. Now, it is easy enough than the “critical ” pressure with —
to get a vacuum much below this provision in the large condenser
with a common air-pump, but the for maintaining this. The case F,
steam is generated from the ice so with the freezing-mixture, is now
rapidly that it is impossible in this sliddowm the tube A B quite out of
way to maintain it : the steam the way, and a Bunsen gas-burner,
creates pressure a great deal faster which has been kept round the upper
than the pump can keep it down. Fig. 2. — HOT ICE is brought down so
part of the tube,
Mr. Carnelly was therefore obliged that its flame may surround the
to use other means, and resorted * column of water, G H, and lighted.
to rapid condensation of the steam by intense cold This arrangement is shown at Fig. 2, where bb is
in what is called a Torricellian vacuum, or space the top of the Bunsen burner, and IM the top of the
left empty by the subsidence of mercury to the column of mercur\', and T the thermometer, sus-
barometrical height in a proper vessel. pended some distance over it in the upper part of
The diagrams explain this beautiful experiment. the tube. At first the ice melts as usual, chiefly at
The tube A B c (Fig. i) is about an inch in dia- the bottom of the column, because the first steam
meter, four feet long from A to B, and open at the formed cannot escape, and so creates pressure.
bottom. At C it is fitted by a tight india-rubber cork The licjuid thus formed also boils violently, owing
well sealed with wax, or otherwise, into the large to the low pressure above. When most of the ice
flask or condenser which can be entirely embed-
D, has been melted, as at A, the Bunsen burner is
ded and salt contained in
in a freezing-mixture of ice extinguished, and the column of water tightly
the vessel, E. A thermometer, t, is hung by a wire clasped by the hand, the heat of which, owing to
in the centre of the upper part of the tube, A B. All the low pressure, is enough to make it boil so
this being arranged the tube and flask are com- violently as to splash up the tube, where it freezes
pletely filled with mercury, from which all air has on the sides and upon the bulb of the thermometer,
been expelled, when the end A is closed by the T. The Bunsen burner is then re-lighted, and the
”
flame applied rather higher than before, when the “ Leaf-rollers as they are often called, offer a
ice at first again slightly melts next the tube, owing, deceptive general resemblance to withered leaves ;
as at first, to the pressure of the steam ;

but as soon and a notr uncommon British moth of another
as this finds a free vent at the top, all fusion ceases, group, namely, the Oak Lappet Moth {Gastropacha
and the ice on the thermometer and sides of the quercifolia), in which the hind wings have the edges
tube remains solid, however great the heat applied ;
notched and projecting a little on each side beyond
it merely evaporates into steam without melting, so the fore wings when the latter are closed, might
long as the steam condenses in the receiver with easily be mistaken for a small bunch of dead oak-
sufficient rapidity. The chief point in the experi- leaves. There is no need to multiply instances, but
ment iskeep the ice from gathering too thickly,
to every collector of Lepidoptera must be familiar
so that the steam may have free vent into the with a host of moths which, without specially resem-
receiver too great a mass creates pressure, and
;
bling any particular leaves, yet, when in repose,
causes fusion by confining the steam between the escape observation from their general forrh usually,
ice and the tube. and the similarity of their prevailing brownish tints
In some of Mr. Carnelly’s experiments the ther- to those of withered leaves.
mometer whose bulb was covered with dry ice Many of these moths, such as the well-known
indicated a heat as high as 356°, much above the Yellow and Red Under-wings, have the hinder wings
heat of boiling water and yet no sign of melting
;
brightly coloured but when at rest these are com-
;
could be observed. To obtain this high temperature pletely concealed by the dull-tinted fore wings
the heat applied must be very great, or it is all ab- which cover them. In the butterflies, which carry
sorbed in converting the ice into vapour. From the their wings upright in repose, this arrangement is
degree in which water was warmed by dropping manifestly impossible and we find that protection
;
into it the “ hot ice ” off the thermometer-bulb, it I

is given to them by the dull colouring of the under
has been calculated that the ice itself must have side of the wings, this being the surface most
been raised to a temperature of 40° Fahrenheit exposed when the insect is resting from its flight.
above the heat of boiling water. Thus, the common and highly-coloured Peacock,
It must be remembered that the results of this Painted Lady, and Tortoiseshell butterflies show
startling experiment were all predicted beforehand chiefly different shades of brown on the lower sur-
from the considerations pointed out at the beginning face cf their wings.
of this article. It will be seen also that a fluid 1
Among tropical butterflies there are, however,
condition would be absolutely impossible for any ! some which not only exhibit a colour-resemblance
substance in a perfect vacuum, and that it requires to dried leaves, but also mimic them in a most re-
and presupposes some pressure, however small, of markable manner in other respects. Two especially,
vapour or gas. belonging to the genus Kallima, one common in
India and the other in the Malayan region, and
“ Stick-insects ”
therefore in localities where
LEAF-INSECTS. abound, furnish most singular examples of this
kind of mimicry. These butterflies are of consider-
Ix a previous article 'we noticed some remarkable able size and strikingly coloured, showing on the
cases in which insects of various groups present a upper surface a broad orange band on a deep bluish
more or less close resemblance to the twigs and ground. The under surface, according to Mr.
smaller branches of trees. The most striking of Wallace, who had many opportunities of observing
these, the so-called “ Walking Sticks ” of the orthop- these insects in the Eastern islands, “ is very vari-
terous family Phasmidas, and especially the wing- able in colour, so that out of fifty specimens no two
less species and the larvae of those which finally can be found exactly alike, but every one of them
acquire wings, were shown to be so stick-like in ap- will be of some shade of ash, or brown, or ochre,
pearance as to deceive not only human eyes, but even such as are found among dead, dry, or decaying
to escape recognition by the much sharper senses leaves. The apex of the upper wings is produced
of other animals. Imitation of the parts of plants is into an acute point —
a very common form in the
not,however, confined to these insects and if they ;
—
leaves of tropical shrubs and trees and the lower
”
so faithfully represent the stems and twigs of wings are also produced into a short narrow tail ;
shrubs, there are others which may serve to clothe so that when the wings are raised perpendicularly
them with an equally good imitation of foliage. over the back in repose, they present exactly the
”
The most remarkable of these “ Leaf-insects form of a sharp-pointed leaf with a short, slender
are found only in those warmer parts of the globe footstalk. The resemblance is increased by a dark
which are inhabited by the “ Walking Sticks,” and curved line, which runs directly from the sharp
the forms occurring in temperate climates generally point to the footstalk-like tail, and from which a
mimic only dead and dried leaves. Thus many of the few oblique lines are givên off on each side, the
small moths belonging to the group of Tortrices, or whole closely reproducing the midrib and side
LEAF-INSECTS. 323
veins of a leaf ;
and, what is still more extraordi- These leafy Stick-insects of the family Phasmidie
nary, the surface is blotched and marked in such a show great varieties of form, and in many cases
way as to produce the impression that the insect is become more or less flattened, leading by degrees
not only a dead leaf, but a dead leaf which has towards the creatures which are generally known
been attacked by mildew. as Leaf-insects or Walking Leaves. These curious
The mode in which this remarkable mimicry animals, of which over fifteen species are known,
acts for the protection of the butterflies cannot be are inhabitants of the East Indies and of the
better indicated than in Mr. Wallace’s own words. islands of the Eastern Archipelago, but extend
The insects, he says, “ frequent dry forests, and fly their range as far to the west as the Seychelles
very swiftly. They were never seen to settle on a Islands, and east as Mauritius and
and as far south
flower or a green leaf, but were many times suddenly the Fijis. They have a more or less flattened
lost sight of in a bush or tree of dead leaves. On leaf-like body, with a rather slender head and
such occasions they were generally searched for in thorax in front representing the stalk of the leaf,
vain, for while gazing intently at the very spot and during their earlier stages they so completely
where one had disappeared, it would often suddenly represent a rather thick green leaf, as to be quite
dart out, and again vanish twenty or fifty yards undistinguishable as they cling among the foliage of
farther on. On one or two occasions the insect was their favourite trees or shrubs.
Curiously enough,
detected reposing, and it could then be seen how the thighs and often some other parts of the legs
completely it assimilates itself to the surrounding are also dilated and leaf-like, and this seems to aid
leaves. It sits on a nearly upright twig, the wings in the deception. On maturity the
arriving at
fitting closely back to back, concealing the antennte males, which are lighter and more slender than
and head, which are drawn up between their bases. their partners, acquire a pair of fan-like hinder
The little tails of the hind wing touch the branch, wings, with the usual leathery front border, and a
and form a perfect stalk to the leaf, which is sup- pair of short fore wings which cover the bases of
ported in its place by the claws of the middle pair the former. The female, which is considerably
of feet, which are slender and inconspicuous. The larger and broader than the male, has no hind
irregular outline of the wings gives exactly the wings, but the fore wings are enlarged to such an
perspective effect of a shrivelled leaf. We thus extent as nearly to cover the whole of the abdomen,
have size, colour, form, markings, and habits all and in their structure they present in several cases
combining together to produce a disguise which the most singular resemblance to true leaves that
may be said to be absolutely perfect.” can be met with in the insect world, showing, when
We can hardly call attention to any other ex- brought close together, a representation of the
ample of leaf-mimicry so striking and extraordinary midrib passing down the middle, and giving off on
as the above but a good many insects belonging
;
the two sides the ordinary diverging veins, from
to the same order as the Walking Sticks (the which again finer and finer veins proceed until
Orthoptera) display a very' remarkable resemblance the whole green surface is divided up, like the
to leaves, in these cases generally to green foli- parenchyma of many leaves, into a great number
age. Thus and the leaves to
the animated twigs of small irregular meshes. This is well shown
clothe them somewhat nearly related nayq in
are — in our figure, representing the common Walking
many instances those insects which were Walking which seems to be
Leaf {Phyllium siccifoliian'),
Sticks in their younger stages, put on a leafy widely distributed in Eastern regions. It owes its
mimicry when they arrive at maturity, and thus, as name of siccifolium (dry leaf) to the change of
it were, play both parts. The wings developed by colour which it undergoes after death a change —
—
these insects at all events in the case of certain which gave rise to the fanciful notion that the crea-
—
known species present much resemblance to the ture changed its colour simultaneously with the
leaves of the tree on which they habitually live, leaves surrounding it, an addition to the marvel of
and thus the creature when resting, with its legs which there was certainly no need. In Java, as
stretched out, has almost exactly the appearance of Mr. Wallace tells us, these insects “ are often kept
a small tuft of leaves like those surrounding it. on a branch of the guava-tree and it is a common ;
Professor McCoy has quite recently described a thing for a stranger, when asked to look at this
large South Australian species under the name of curious insect, to inquire where it is, and on being
Tropidoderus rhodomiis (which may' be translated told that it is close under his eyes, to maintain that
the “ Red-shouldered Keel-back ”) w'hich, when at there is no insect at all, but only a branch with
rest, he says, “ agrees so nearly with the foliage of green leaves.”
the Eucalypti on which it rests, that the sharpest There are some other insects belonging to the
eye would miss it ” while the low'er surface of the same order as the Walking Sticks and Walking
;
leathery part of the wings is of a bright scarlet Leaves, but to that jumping division of the order
colour, which is also the tint of the under side of which includes the creatures well known as locusts,
the Eucalyptus leaves. grasshoppers, and crickets, which also merit the
—
of Leaf-insects. These animals form part of the
title with brown, thus again reproducing the characters-
family Locustids, of which the best-known English of dead and withered leaves.
species is the Great Green Grasshopper {Locusta It must be remembered in all these cases that, in
viridissi/na),an insect more than an inch long, estimating the protective action of such resem-
which occurs among herbage and shrubs, situations blances, we must consider the insect not as stuck
in which its long and somewhat leaf-like fore wings on a pin and arranged in a collector’s cabinet, nor
may serve, to a certain extent, the purpose of con- even as under observation alive in a show-case, but
cealment. In this insect, as indeed throughout the as placed in the midst of its natural surroundings,
family, the wings are so arranged during repose free to choose its own position on the plants or trees
that the hind wings are entirely concealed by the which it habitually frequents, and under the natural
fore pair, which rise over the back of the insect conditions of light and shade to which it will thus
like a more or less high-pitched roof. In most be subjected. Even in show-cases, when furnished
WALKING LEAF (ThylUum skcifolinnt), female. {Natural Size.)
cases these fore wings exhibit a veining very much with suitable plants, these Stick and Leaf Insects
resembling that of a leaf ;
but in a considerable escape observation a most marvellous manner,
in
number of species — especially belonging to the as may have been experienced by many of our
tropical parts of the world — they become nearly as readers in the case of the specimens which have
perfect representations of leaves as even those of been from time to time exhibited in the Insect-
the Leaf Insects par excellence. In evidence of house at the Zoological Gardens. Some have
this, we may take the names given by entomologists neither noticed nor seen anything at all but those ;
to many of the species, in which they are compared who have looked carefully for these remarkable
to the leaves of the laurel, lemon, citron, orange, creatures must have experienced more or less diffi-
camellia, and a number of other plants and trees ;
culty in finding them, even though they knew well
and the which we here give of a fine species
figures that they were there, and sought for them in a con-
from New Guinea, named Phyllophora armata tracted space. But in their native haunts, according
(“ the Well-armed Leaf-bearer ”) —
the specific name to the testimony of all observers, their withdrawal
being in allusion to the strong spines with which from sight, so long as they remain quiet, is most
the edges of the large prothorax are armed complete and there can be no doubt that in these
;
will serve to show how close the resemblance is. cases the mimicry of surrounding objects furnishes
In some cases also the fore wings, instead of being a most effectual protection even from the sharp
as usual of a green tint, are more or less variegated eyes of their natural enemies.
LEAF-INS Ed'S
Phyllolhora annala, A i.kaf-like locust from nkw ('.uinea (.male, and female),
—
REMARKABLE FALSE ACCUSATIONS. knifeand carrying a dark lantern, standing by the
bed on which, weltering in his blood, lay Mr.
Hayes. He was seized, disarmed, and recognised
J.\CQUES DU MOULIN.
as the landlord, Jonathan Bradford ! Persisting in
J.-\CQUES DU Moulin was a French gentleman who asserting his innocence, he was committed, tried,
sought refuge in this country when Charles II. pronounced guilty (the jury not even retiring
occupied ti e throne. He was taken into custody from their box), and executed.
on a charge of passing and coining bad money, and Eighteen months after, the real criminal was
the evidence against him was on his trial so con- discovered in the person of Mr. Hayes’ footman,
clusive that he was found guilty and condemned to who on his deathbed pronounced Bradford inno-
die. It was shown that he had the appliances for
cent. The landlord had, however, confessed that
coining locked up in a cabinet, of which he kept he had gone to the traveller’s bedside to do the
the key, and that he allowed no one but himself to deed for which he suffered, but had found it
open it. It was proved that he paid his trades- already done. In his horror he dropped the knife
people in bad money and some came forward
; on the bleeding body, and in recovering it stained
who swore that they had paid accounts to him in both his weapon and his hand.
good money, which he asserted was bad, and for
which he had substituted, and strove to force them WILLIAM SH.tW.
to receive back, bad money. A woman named WiLLi.tM Shaw, an upholsterer, lived in Edin-
Williams, widow of a coiner of false money, being burgh He haddaughter named
a
in 1721.
on her death-bed, sent for the wife of Du Moulin, Catherine, and she had a sweetheart named John
and one of a band of coiners with
told her that Lawson, a jeweller, a profligate, whom her father
whom her late husband had been connected had had commanded her to avoid. She, however, con-
been in her husband’s service, and that he, and not tinued to meet her lover clandestinely, and was
her husband, was the guilty party. These men consequently confined to the house. Mr. Shaw
were arrested, and convicted also. They denied then brought forward another suitor for her hand,
that Du Moulin was their accomplice, but the jury a young man named Robertson, commanding her
could see nothing in the facts proved that did not to accept him. She obstinately refused to do so,
strengthen rather than weaken the case against the declaring she would rather die, and a violent
Frenchman. The servant whom the woman had quarrel ensued, in which she loudly reproached
denounced was pronounced innocent and dis- him as barbarous and cruel, the word death being
charged. A further search was, however, made on frequently repeated. James Morrison, a watch-case
the premises, in deference to certain expressions
maker, who occupied the adjoining room, overheard
of public opinion, which ended in the confession the disturbance, and heard the upholsterer leave
of the servant. In a secret drawer of his chest the room and lock the door after him. For a time
was found an impression made in wax from the he heard nothing more, but was presently alarmed
wards of a key, and with it a key (on a bunch with by the sound of groaning. He aroused others
others) which fitted the wax mould, which key also
who lived in the house, who listened at the door
opened the cabinet, in which he had placed the and heard the groans also, and heard, more-
coining apparatus to divert suspicion from himself, over, the voice of Catherine Shaw say, faintly,
and from which he had taken good money to place “ Cruel father, thou art the cause of my death ” !
the bad in its stead. If the criminal had not pre- They knocked for admission, and, receiving no
served the wax mould, the innocent would doubtless reply, sent for a constable, who broke open the
have suffered for the guilty. door and found the wretched girl speechless,
bleeding, and dying, with the knife which had
JONATHAN BR.A.DFORD.
inflicted the fatal wound beside her. The uphol-
In the year 1736 Jonathan Bradford kept an inn sterer returned while the/ were there, and it was at
on the London Road in Oxfordshire, and was held once seen that his shirt was bloody. He was
to be a very respectable man of excellent character. arrested, tried, found guilty, and a few weeks after
One evening a traveller named Hayes put up at hanged in chains on Leith Walk.
his house and joined two other visitors at supper, In August, 1722, a man who had taken the
to whom he imprudently mentioned the fact of apartment Shaw occupied chanced to find in a
his having with him a large sum of money. The cavity on one side of the chimney a folded paper.
two strangers slept in a room adjoining that occu- It was a letter in which Catherine addressed her
pied by Mr. Hayes, and one in the night, hearing father, and announced her intention of committing
deep groans come from the next room, awoke suicide. The writing was recognised, and the inno-
his friend. They crept out into the passage, found cence of William Shaw admitted. The crime
the door of Mr. Hayes’ room open, and, by the discovered in this case was suicide, not murder
dim light of the candle, saw a man armed with a the homicide that of the law, not of William Shaw.
—
THE SUN IN TOTAL ECLIPSE. 327
THE TREASURE-FINDER OF MARSEILLES. consequence the case was again heard, counsel
In September, 1726, a young peasant of Pertuys, appearing on either side. Here for the first time
named Honore Mirabel, appeared before the the farm-labourer who had assisted in digging up
judicial authorities of Marseilles, demanding jus- the treasure, a man named Bernard, was brought
tice against a storekeeper in that named
city, forward. He deposed that he was taken by
Auguier, who had refused to give up a large sum Mirabel to dig for a treasure, which he said a ghost
of money entrusted to his care, for which he held a had pointed out twice, and on each occasion they
receipt. The he told to account for his
story found nothing He declared also that Mirabel
I
possession of so large a sum was, that going to a showed him a written paper which he said had
well to drink, he heard a strange unnatural voice, cost him a crown, and when the supposed receipt,
which told him that a treasure was concealed in a which Auguier was asserted to have written in a
spot upon which a stone was thrown by a hand disguised hand, was placed before him, he recog-
unseen. The voice bade him dig it up, and with nised it as the paper he then saw !
some portion of it pay for masses for a dead man’s After his evidence, the woman Magdeleine w'as
soul. He told this story to a neighbour’s farm- recalled, and, being cross-examined severely, at
servant and to his mistress, Magdeleine Caillot, last confessed that she had never seen any such
and they with him early on the following morning treasure as Mirabel spoke of— that she had lied at
dug on the spot indicated, and there found the his request. Evidence was also forthcoming to
money, more than a thousand large gold pieces of show that the receipt was a forged one, and that
Portuguese coinage He took these— he said to
! — on the day it was said to have been given by
Auguier, who told him the gold would be confis- Auguier he was eight leagues away from the spot
cated if the secret of how he got it oozed out, lent mentioned.
him money to spend, and took charge of the trea- Being threatened with torture, Mirabel confessed
sure. Not long after an attempt was made upon and was condemned to the galleys for life. He
his, Mirabel’s, life by an assassin in a lonely spot, denounced, as his chief accomplice, a man named
and, believing that was instigated by Auguier,
it Barthelmy, who was a personal enemy of the
he applied money.
for the return of his storekeeper, and who shared the fate of Mirabel.
The storekeeper denied all knowledge of the The false witness Ueleuil was punished by being
money, and officers were sent to search for it. pilloried in the public streets, suspended by the
They returned without finding it, but stated that arm-pits. The woman Caillot was compelled to
they had discovered just such a willow basket as pay a fine, and was then sentenced for life to the
.Mirabel said Auguier had put the money into, and galleys.
the gold-coloured ribbon with which the peasant
said he had tied it up. Auguier was arrested on THE SUN IN TOTAL ECLIPSE.
this evidence ! He stated that he had seen Mirabel
twice —once
in his own house and once at a certain Tot.^l eclipses of the sun afford phenomena of the
inn, thathe had lent him two crowns, and that he most striking character. Apart from this, they open
was told by him about the treasure, but had never up a number of important facts for investigation,
seen it.
and it is not to be wondered at, therefore, that they
As witnesses on the peasant’s side appeared command so much attention from the scientific
Magdeleine Caillot. She swore to the finding of world. It is unfortunate that they are only visible
the treasure, the gold-coloured ribbon, and that from small tracts of the earth’s surface, and thus
Mirabel had shown her a cut through his vest and are seldom witnessed except by those enthusiastic
shirtmade, he said, by a tall powerful man who savatiis who accompanyone of the expeditions which
had tried to murder him. A third witness, are usually despatched for the purpose of securing
Gaspard Deleuil, deposed that on the 6th of Sep- important observations. In England not a single
tember he saw Mirabel deliver a packet to a man total solar eclipse has occurred since 1724, and the
whom he was told was Auguier, and that the man next will not take place until the summer of 1927
gave in return a piece of paper, which he was also
told was a receipt for the treasure Mirabel had
—
an interval of 203 years so that the extreme rarity
of these phenomena, as observed from this country,
been lucky enough to find. He swore, moreover, is at once evident. This is to be regretted in many
that he had himself reproached the storekeeper respects. Had we occasional opportunities of wit-
for his dishonesty, and that when he did so he nessing a total eclipse of the sun without journeying
looked frightened, grew pale as death, and im- to foreign lands, it would afford considerable
plored him not to speak so loud. interest to the British public, who could not fail to
.•\uguier, persisting in his assertions of innocence, be struck with the imposing spectacle while our ;
was condemned to the torture, to avoid which the astronomers might pursue their critical investigation
wretched storekeeper appealed to the local parlia- with all the comforts and facilities afforded by such
ment of a neighbouring town, that of Aix, where in favourable circumstances.
THE ECLIPSE OF JULY 29, 1878, AS SEEN IN COLORADO, U.S.
One of the chief points of wonder connected with the moment of totality, bright flames and promi-
these eclipses is tlie supernatural darkness which nences are seen shooting from the edges of the
creeps over the face of nature, and makes the eclipsed sun. These vary in a singular manner,
observer involuntarily shudder as he becomes and are truly marvellous in their aspect, until, in a
enveloped in dark flying bands of shadow, which few minutes, when the total phase has passed, a
are unique, so far as his experience is concerned. narrow arc of light bursts forth, and the shadows
The sky wears a. remarkable appearance, and at rapidly begin to retreat. The observer cannot but
—
THE SUN IN TOTAL ECLIPSE. 329
feel relieved atthe reappearance of the sun, and immense clouds of dust as to effectually obliterate
the depression caused by the unnatural aspect of the sun. These fears were not realised, however,
the sky leaves him as the surrounding landscape is for the morning i)roved very clear indeed, there
;
bathed in a flood was not a cloud

of the returning to be seen in
sunlight, and na- the sky, and the
ture, animate and temperature was
inanimate, reas- cooler than usual.
biimes her wonted The storm of
appearance. dust which had
The last been anticipated
eclipse, with the as a possible se-
exception of that rious hindrance,
in April, 1883, did not put in
and one which an appearance,
appears to have and thus the
been very effec- astronomers were
tively observed, free to pursue
occurred on May their labours
17, 1882. An amid every fa-
English expedi- vouring condi-
tion was sent to tion. One of the
Egypt to obtain most noteworthy
ob servations ;
features of the
and amongst the phenomenon was
observers who that a fine comet
accompanied it was visible close
were several who to the sun. It
are well known was plainly visi-

as successful ble to the naked
workers in the eye at the time
department of of totality, and it
solar physics. is very distinctly
Fig. I. — THE CORONA ON JULY 29, 1878.
The duration of As seen at Central City, Colorado. shown on the
totality in this phot ographs
instance was only taken of the
seventy-two se- eclipsed sun and
conds, so that its coronal ap-
we can readily pendages, one of
understand the which is repro-
difficulty of an duced in Fig. 2.
inve s tigation Reference has
limited to so already been
short an interval, made to what is
and the anxious called the corona

desire of the ob- (see page 194),
servers to utilise and the great
every moment to importance of its
the utmost possi- careful study by

ble capacity ! means of the
The expedition spectroscope. A
Fig. 2. TOTAL ECLIPSE OF MAY 17, 1882. prominent aim of
left Gravesend
for Egypt on the expedition
•A.pril 19, and reached the station selected in perfect was to get more observations as to the form and pro-
safety. It was not, however, without some mis- bable nature of the corona by means of spectroscopic
givings that the eventful day was awaited, for apparatus and photography. This appears to have
though the weather offered a very fair prospect of been most effectively achieved, and some of the chief
success, the country was liable to be swept by results were detailed before the Royal Society on
oppressive south-east winds, carrying with them such June 15, 1882. This is all the more gratifying when
we consider how rare the opportunities are of THE GREAT LAKES OF CANAD.A..
studying the corona, which for many years was
rather supposed to be an appearance originated As the traveller on leaving the Atlantic enters the
from the moon, and due in some way to the action River St. Lawrence, he observes rising from each
of a lunar atmosphere. But the researches of bank two woody ridges of land. These ridges
recent years have unequivocally demonstrated the forking westward in irregular lines, and with an
solar nature of the corona, and prove it to be a increasing elevation above sea-level, enclose the
sort of outer luminous atmosphere of the sun, most diversified territory on the face of the globe.
probably of variable form, and shining partly by This territory excels in the fertility of its unnum-
inherent light, and partly by light received from bered acres of cultivable soil it excels in the rich- ;
the sun. The brilliant bands of light radiating ness of its mineral stores it excels, moreover, in
;
from the eclipsed sun sufficiently indicate that its the picturesque beauty and grandeur of its scenery ;
denser portions are arranged in streams, and the and it presents a water-system that in extent and
more diffused parts of this solar appendage are magnificence stands without a rival in the world.
probably tobe explained by a _more eveply This great water-system, beginning its giant career
scattered congregation of atoms in the vicinity of in the unpretentious streams that gush into Lake
the sun. Superior, bears their accumulated waters to the
The radial forms of the corona are very different south-eastern extremity of that lake, and thrusts
in successive eclipses. Of the eclipse of May 17, them down the narrow Rapids of St. Mary into the
1882, threephotographs were obtained by Mr. basin of Lake Huron. This lake receiving likewise
Lockyer’s party, and these proved that the corona the waters of the rivers that flow into Lake Michi-
on this occasion again assumed the form which it gan, and also fed by numerous streams of its own,
had in 1871, being but slightly extended away from drives this increasing load southwards into the
the sun’s equator, with no special structure at the River and Lake of St. Clair, whence it issues by the
poles, while during the total eclipses of 1867 and River Detroit into Lake Erie. Here, however, the
1878 the radiations showed a great elongation away flood is not allowed to stay so, wheeling towards;
from the solar equator, and the poles showed the north-east, it soon passes in a broad and
some brilliant radiations. An important fact is silvery expanse between the low banks of the Rh er
suggested from this, viz., that the coronal varia- Niagara. At this stage the mass moves slowly on.
tions coincide with the sun-spot cycle ;
for the years By degrees, however, speed quickens, as if in
its
1871 and 1882 are those of maximum solar disturb- preparation for the leap that must soon be taken.
ance, whereas in 1867 and 1878 the sun’s disc was At length it has reached the roar of the cataract ;
very quiescent. and, becoming restless, then uncontrollable, it
first
One of the French observers of the eclipse of tears through the Rapids, and bounds over the
1882 saw, several seconds before the end of the precipitous crag of Niagara. The troubled stream
eclipse, the moon’s limb projected on the bright next reaches Lake Ontario, where it regains com-
background of the corona, three minutes of arc posure, but not rest for this lake, conveying its
;
beyond the sun’s disc. This affords the clearest surplus waters to its north- eastern shore, pours
confirmation, if any were needed, that the corona them into the channel of the River St. Lawrence,
is something existing in the immediate region of which thus rolls into the Atlantic Ocean 4,512,000,000
the sun, and, in fact, purely a solar appendage. tons of water every day I
A very interesting fact in connection with the Having given this general, and necessarily brief
visibility of the corona is that Dr. Huggins has view of the water-system to which the great laflces of
lately discovered a method of photographing its Canada belong, we may proceed to point out the
spectrum without awaiting another eclipse. By a more striking features connected with the lakes
special arrangement of the spectroscope, an excel- themseh'es. Returning, therefore, up the St. Law-
lent series of photographs of the rifts and streamers rence, we receive the first intimation of our nearness
near the sun’s limb were obtained between June to Lake Ontario in the sudden expansion of the
and September, 1882, and the opinion of experts is river into a large basin, which, from the countless
that these are genuine views of the corona. If this multitude of its islands, is named the “ Lake of the
is accepted, and the new method found practically Thousand Isles.” The character of these islands
efficient to reveal the details of its structure from is as varied as their number is great. Some are
day to day, the discovery cannot but be regarded fertile, and clothed with the verdure of a luxuriant
as a very important one in allowing astronomers to vegetation others are barren and bare.
;
Some,
obtain photographic records of its diurnal variations. again, are low, while others are lofty. They also
In any case, the investigation of this wonderful exhibit the greatest variety in size. Indeed, as one
solar appendage, which is admittedly the most writer says, “ Nature seems here to have thrown
striking, and often the most startling, feature of a sportively from her hand a profusion of masses of
total eclipse, is of extreme interest and value. the material world, that she might perceive what
—
THE GREAT LAKES OF CANADA. 331
combinations of scenery would be produced when offers another impediment to the shipping. It is
they assumed their respective positions on the good natural harbours and anchor-
deficient, too, in
bosom of the waters.” To steer a boat through age. Not nearly so suitable for navigation purposes
this labyrinth requires a familiarity with certain as Ontario, it nevertheless bears more than twice
channels, for the view ahead is quite shut off by the number of vessels that are to be found on that
these myriads of islands. When at length the cur- lake. has become the main centre of
In fact, it
tain is withdrawn, there bursts upon the astonished inland navigation for being connected by means
;
eye a vast tract of rippling water, whose receding of great canals with the Hudson and Ohio rivers,
shores, displaying an endless diversity in form and it can conduct vessels to the Atlantic, to the
sweep from view beneath the horizon.
loveliness, Mississippi, and the Gulf of Mexico. Consequently
This magnificent scene, in earlier days unsealing its trade is comparatively immense and although ;
the lips of the taciturn Indian, made him exclaim, it cannot compare with Ontario in the fascination
—
“ Ontario ! ” which means “ The Beautiful.” of its scenery, still along its western shore there
Lake Ontario is, in point of size, the least of the lies the region that, from the richness of its soil,
four great Canadian lakes. Stretching in a south- is known as “ The Garden of Canada.”
westerly direction for a distance of 180 miles, it The banks of Erie, consisting entirely of clay and
separates the Canadian and United States frontiers. sand, have by the action of the water been cut and
Its breadth is fifty miles, and
an elevation
it lies at excavated into the most fantastic and curious
of 234 feet above sea-level. On account of its shapes. Bold and elevated in many places, they
great depth, it is not so easily lashed into violence form deep ravines of the wildest description. A
by storms as its more shallow neighbour. Lake Erie. numerous group of beautiful islands rises near
It is therefore well adapted for every kind of navi- itssouth-western extremity. Spread round these
gation, and for pleasure excursions is one of the most islands for a space of twenty miles is a large
pleasing in the whole range of Canadian lakes. Its quantity of water-lilies, which, viewed from a
shores, indented by a succession of fine bays, afford distance, present a more than usually inviting
landing-places and harbours, requiring little labour appearance. Closer examination, however, is said
to render them fit to receive ships of the largest to reveal the disappointing and horrible pre-
construction. Its surface, partly by reason of the sence of a numerous throng of serpents entwined
continual flow of its waters —half a mile an hour round these lilies hence these islands receive the
;
is never frozen over, and steamers make occasional name of Viper Islands. The largest island in the
trips during the finer days of winter from Toronto lake is Pelee, near the mouth of the Detroit upon
;
to Niagara. It is adorned with several islands of it is built a lighthouse, and it contains several
—
considerable magnitude especially at its north- farms. Close by is the entrance into this lake of
eastern extremity, where Nature seems to have the surplus waters of Huron.
spared no effort to produce the loveliest pictures. This vast sheet of water, presenting a very irregu-
The clear blue surface of the lake, the deep tints of lar outline, covers a much wider area than Erie
the luxuriant foliage, the flapping wings of some or Ontario. Situated thirty feet higher than Erie,
disturbed bird, the distant sound of the woodman’s Huron extends in a north-westerly direction for a
axe, and the curling smoke ascending from a cabin distance of 250 miles, and is 220 miles broad. Its
concealed amid the trees, fill the eye and the ear mean depth is 900 feet. From this great depth
with sights and sounds whose effect surpasses the there rise 32,000 islands, varûng in size from rocky
sublimest music. reefs and bare-pointed islets to extensive tracts
Coming now to Lake we
are 333 feet above
Erie, covered with the drapery of a luxuriant vegetation.
Lake Ontario, and consequently 567 feet above sea- The chief of these islands is the Great Manitoulin,
level. This lake, stretching in the same south- which, stretching along the northern shore for a
westerly direction as Ontario, is 220 miles in length, distance of seventy-five miles, struck the native
and about the same breadth as that lake ;
it thus Indian with superstitious awe, and made him assign
presents us with a much larger area. Being, how- it as the favourite abode of “ The Great Spirit.”
ever, very shallow — its mean depth does not exceed The banks of this lake are of an extremely diver-
120 feet — it is easily agitated by storms that render sified character. Occasionally low and sandy, they
its navigation exceptionally perilous. During these into heights of upwards of
are oftener broken
storms it is frequently enveloped in a thick mist, formed of clay, rolled stones, precipitous
too feet,
that makes it impossible to see to the distance of rocks, and woody steeps. The borders of the lake
ten yards from the shore. Caught in such a storm, are sparsely settled, and upon the north Nature’s’
a vessel depends very much for its safety upon wild reign may be said to be still unbroken. Its
chance, for it is liable to be driven upon reefs, waters contain an abundance of fish, the most re-
which are very numerous, or dashed against some markable of which is a trout measuring from four to
projecting piece of land. Owing also to its shallow- five feet in length, and weighing 70 lb. some say as —
ness, it becomes frozen over in winter, and thus much as 200 lb. This fish, known as the Michi-
—
limakinac trout, is said to afford a most delicious the world. Lake Superior, the queen of the whole
food of extreme richness. Near the outlet of St. group, covering an area of 32,000 square miles, is
Alary, at the north-west, are two fortified frontier as large as Ireland, and more than double the size
stations —one British, on Joseph Island the other,
St. ; of any of her great sisters. Magnificent in its immen-
on Drummond Island, belongs to the States. At sity, this lake is also magnificent in the wild gran-
this part of the lake Indians, laden with the skins deur of Its scenery. The grotesque shapes assumed
of beavers, martins, foxes, and other animals, by its rocky shore through the action of its waters
were wont to assemble in spring-time, to exchange resemble in many places mediaeval castles, temples,
their furs to the north-west traders for the colonnades, and other high forms of architecture
manufactured products of civilisation. Provided the whole presenting a merciless front to the storm-
LAKE ONTARIO
with the smoked flesh of the bear, of the stag, of driven barque. The most remarkable of these freaks
the buffalo, and of the elk, they would encamp here is “ The Grand Chapel,” which, standing fifty feet
for several weeks, drinking the fire-water that they above the lake upon two massive and symmetrical
had received for their skins, and would indulge in columns supporting a dome, exhibits all the regu-
the most frightful excesses and wanton debauchery'. larity of skilled workmanship. Scenes of softer
These orgies would continue until, their provisions beauty, moreover, are not wanting smiling islands
;
exhausted, hunger compelled them to return to the rising from the deep bosom of the lake present a
forest to seek for food. pleasing contrast to these frowning crags. The
From this lake many navigable streams ramify navigation of the lake is still in its infancy, and
throughout the country, affording an extent of its primeval solitudes may almost be regarded as
'water-communication that destines it to play an still undisturbed. Behind its rock-bound coast,
important part in developing the vast resourcer of however, are silver mines and deposits of copper,
the Far West. that make it, after California, the richest mineral
Coming now to the last of these inland seas, we district inNorth America. Upon its largest island
find ourselves, at a height of 627 feet above the ocean, — Isle Royale— and on its northern shores remains
face to face with the largest body of fresh water in of very ancient copper mines and mining tools hav'e
J
ATOMS AND MOLECULES. 333
been found, pointing to a former race well advanced ATOMS AND MOLECULES.
in civilisation having at some remote period occu-
pied this country. In an upon “Matter and its Particles,” (p.
article
Such, then, are the four great lakes of Canada, 309) we have very briefly summarised the general
frequently called, by reason of their magnitude, the grounds upon which the “ Atomic Theory ” of
“ Canadian Seas.” They are computed to contain, matter and its elements is now generally received
with their tributaries, more than half the fresh by physicists and chemists. Both believe in defi-
water on the globe they cover a space of 93,000
;
nite ultimate particles of every element, called
square miles, and drain 400,000 square miles of “ atoms,” of different comparative weights. These
country. A striking difference is observable be- eitherremain alone, or combine with one or more
tween their waters Ontario is pure and blue, Erie
: atoms of the same sort to form “ molecules ” of
pure and green, Huron and Superior clear and the element and with atoms of other elements to
;
KEU-y’s island, lake ERIE.
transparent. Sailing over the shallower parts of form molecules of compound substances. There
Lake Huron being in a balloon, so pure and
is like are many other marvellous facts about the relations
tinlless is the water that one sees quite distinctly of the atoms to one another which confirm this
the submarine mountains beneath, and feels giddy. theory in detail. We have already (p. 15) remarked
These lakes give evidence of having once been an upon the enormous “ specific heat ” of water, or the
arm of the Atlantic thus the bottom of Ontario is
;
large amount of heat required to raise a certain
salt„and marine forms of life have been found in a amount of water one degree in temperature, as com-
fossilised state as far west as Superior. Moreover, pared with other substances. Now the specific heat
the water appears to have been much higher than of ever}' solid element has been measured, and the
it isnow, and is even supposed to be still receding. figures differ as much as i to 30, bismuth being
Should these vast basins ever become emptied of •0308, and lithium, '9408. The atomic weights of
their floods, there will be revealed the most striking the solid elements differ, on the other hand, also as
phenomenon that the world has yet seen. Imagine much as i to 30. But when either of these numbers
some remote inhabitant of these regions looking for any element* is multiplied by the other, we get
from the rocky banks of Huron into its empty bed,
• Till very lately, carbon, silicon, and boron were believed to be
from the deep bottom 32,000 pinnacles ascending,
exceptions but the recent researches of Weber and Brodie have
;
and we shall have a faint idea of one of the possible brought the differences within the small limits which must be
wonders yet in store for the world ! allowed for errors in such delicate observations.
I
; —

the same number always or, in other words, the
: mistry so, representing atoms of hydrogen, which
;
“ capacity ” for heat of the single atom of every has one such bond, and o.xygen, which has (usually)
element is the same. two, and nitrogen, which has (usually) three, and
Again, the physical properties of the elements carbon, which has four, by their proper symbols,
seem to depend upon their atomic weights and ; H, O, N, C, we may represent the bonds by little
this fact comes out in several remarkable ways. strokes projecting from the letters :
Arranging them all in the order of their atomic

bond. Two bonds. Three.
weights (which, it will be remembered, represent
simply the proportionate weights of the atoms,
H— — O— i?;- O--, OC N=, or N—
|
starting from the hydrogen atom as i), we find the Four bonds,
properties gradually modified as the weights in-
—C —
I I II
crease. In the next place, the gradual increase of C=, or ,

or C
atomic weight was upon the whole pretty regular,
.
I I II
but still left some years ago several marked gaps. It willbe understood from these diagrams that
The most conspicuous of these gaps have been filled how strokes are attached to the symbols
the
up by freshly-discovered elements within late years does not matter all they mean is that their
;
and before the metal gallium was discovered its free ends represent points, or attractive forces,
density was foreseen. Yet again, and strangest of by which other free bonds of other atoms are at
all, the Russian chemist Mendelejeff has shown liberty to attach themselves. Also, two atoms can
that, after a certain number of elements in the be linked together by either one, qr more, of their
order of their atomic weights have occurred in suc- bonds which are then “ closed,” and so no further
;
cession, and their various physical properties been at liberty for the attachment of other atoms.* The
remarked, there is a strange repetition of another affinity of the latter may indeed be so superior
series with very similar properties and this is
; as to break up the combination, and form another ;
repeated again and again. In this way the ele- but in that case also all the bonds concerned in
ments seem grouped into families sodium and
; the most complex chemical combination have to
potassium, for instance, being next neighbours be “ closed.” This being understood, we can grasp
in one similar “ family,” and having very similar some marvellously interesting details of molecular
properties, though their atomic weights are no structure.
nearer than 23 and 39' i. The members of one We have seen that the hydrogen molecule con-
“family” being thus considerably apart in atomic sists of two atoms molecules of oxygen and
;
weight, strange to say their own atomic weights nitrogen are also diatomic. The hydrogen mole-
are usually found to show unmistakable signs of cule is therefore represented by H H, and no —
a definite arithmetical progression. Perhaps the other combination is possible. Similarly, the
most marvellous fact of this class is the relation of oxygen molecule is represented by 0=0, the two
atomic weight to wave-length. It has been shown atoms being united by both of their bonds, which
already, in articles upon “ Spectrum Analysis,” that are thus closed. Hence we understand at once
the “ lines ” of metals in the gaseous state, represent why the chemical affinity of these elements is so
fi.xed periodic vibrations of the atoms. We know much less in their free state, when their atoms are
very well also, by daily experience, that heavy united into molecules, than while the separate atoms
bodies vibrate more slowly than lighter ones, just are being liberated during chemical reactions. In
as we lower the note by “ loading ” a tuning-fork.
Now, taking the metals of a “ family” group, such * The atomicity of the elements is not invariable. Nitrogen is
as has been described, M. de Boisbaudran has generally tri-valent, but in some combinations unites by five bonds.
Chlorine is generally uni-valent, like hydrogen, but it is occasionally
very lately shown that as the atomic weight in- Other elements are bi-valent, quadri-
as high as septi-valent.
creases, as a rule, the period of atomic vibration, valent, and sexi-valent and carbon, almost always quadri-valent,
;
and consequent wave-length, increases, or the in its monoxide CO is bi-valent. The bonds almost always in-
“ lines ” of the metal approach nearer the red end crease or diminish by two at a time, so that elements retain in all
the degrees an odd or even number of bonds j hence it ha* been
of the spectrum. thought that the higher atomicity is the true one, but that many
The facts are equally remarkable concerning the atoms have a strong tendency to close two bonds between them-
selves, so that carbon monoxide would be represented thus <C=0.
chemical combination of atoms into either elemen-
The rule is not, however, quite universal, nitrogen appearing bi-valent
tary or compound molecules. It is found that inN=0. It has further been found that, taking the elements
every atom has a specific number of bonds, or comprising such a “ family group as has been already described,
’*
the atomicities gradually multiply with increase in the atomic

attaching-points, by which it links itself on to other
weight. This is a strange fact, which again brings the physical
atoms. Such capacity of a given element to attach properties of atoms into relation with their atomic weight thus :
a certain definite number of bonds of other atoms oxvgen almost certainly possesses six and not only two bonds,
to itself, is called “ atomicity,” or
“ quantivalence,” though only two are generally active j and six corresponds with its
atomic weight. But as a general rule, the facts may be taken as
or valency. It is important to understand this,
stated in the text, and sooner or later the explanation of the occa-
which is the very foundation of all modern che- sional changes in atomicity will probably be discovered.
H — —H — HHH H Ha
ATOMS AND MOLECULES. 335
the birth stage or “ nascent ” statej such unattached Now it will be seen it by no means
that, while
atoms attack other atoms with all the strength of follows that the strokes above diagrams in the
and so oxygen gas “ rusts ” metals
their free bonds, represent actual* positions in space, the idea does
than water does. Further, we can
far less rapidly necessitate an actual definite atomic structure to
see in a moment that the double bonds of oxygen every molecule. We can establish this a vast deal
atoms might be “ closed ” by a combination into further. For instance, let us take away from the
one molecule of three atoms, in this way molecules of methane, ethane, and propane de-
0—0 scribed above, one of their respective atoms of
ô/ hydrogen, let us say that on the right hand of each
What is known as “Ozone” is just this, and

diagram. This gives us one unattached bond —
combination which cannot therefore exist by itself,
nothing else it is ;
a gas composed of three oxygen
but which can be linked on by that bond to either
atoms in a molecule, a sort of hyper-oxidised
any other uni-valent element, or to any other atomic
oxygen. It will be observed that each atom is
compound having one bond similarly to spare.
only tied to its neighbour by one bond in this case ;
Such combinations with spare bonds are called
hence the molecule is less stable, and easily de-
compound “ radicles,” in this case methyl, ethyl,
composed, when two volumes of ozone expand at
and propyl.* Let us link on to each the other
once into three volumes of oxygen, proving what
has already been said about equal numbers of
radicle — O — H (called hydroxyl). Another hydro-
inolecules (not atoms) in equal volumes (p. 310).
gen atom would close making H O this, — —
(water) but as it is, there is one bond unattached,
The less strength with which the atoms are held ;
which is what we want and by this bond we sub-

together, also shows us why ozone is so very ener-
;
getic as an oxidising agent. Nitrogen molecules,

stitute — — O H for the — H we have taken away.
These are the results :
on the other hand, are held together by a triple

bond, thus :
— N=N
;
and the strength of this triple H H H
attachment shows us why it is such an inert ele- H— C— C— O—
I
H-C— 0 -H
I I
ment its two atoms are not easily forced apart to

:
I I
H H
I
form other combinations. H

now METHVLIC ALCOHOL. ETHYLIC ALCOHOL.
Let us consider carbon with its four bonds.
(Wood Spirit.) (Common Alcohol)
How would combine with hydrogen ? Obviously,
it
no other way for a single atom of carbon is pos- H H H

sible than this I
H— C—C— C— O—
I I
:
H H H
H— C— H
i
or C
X I
H H H
I
PROPYLIC ALCOHOL.
I
H H
^ \H
There are many more alcohols formed in the same
The carbon atom must have four hydrogen atoms
way. We may, of course, add more complex groups
to close its bonds, since the latter have only one
than — —
O H, provided only there be the one spare
bond, and no more. Suppose we add to the ethylic
bond apiece to do it with. This is the composi-
tion of methane, or marsh-gas. But if two carbon
radicle above, the radicle O
— C— O—
II
atoms are to combine with hydrogen into one

molecule, they must do so differently. If they the result is
combined with eight (z>., double the above), it H H O
would simply make two molecules, since each II
H-C— C— C— O—
I I
would be complete and its bonds closed it would :
be still marsh-gas. But they may combine as in

I I
H H
the first of the following diagrams ;
ACETIC ACID.
H H H H H And so we may go on. The whole system of
H— C— C— H— C— C—C—
I I I I I
* It
has already been seen that pairs of bonds appear to a certain
I I 1
H
I I
H. H H H extent capable of being self-closed ;

but it will be easily understood
ETHANE. PROPANE. that radicles with one or any odd number of free bonds cannot exist
in a free state. For instance, taking one atom of hydrogen from
where the two small carbon atoms bind each other, methane or marsh-gas (CH4) we get as above the radicle methyl
by one bond of each, so leaving bonds for six hydro-

( —
CH3). This does not exist, but doubles itself into the molecule
C2He, variously called ethane as above, di-methyl, or hydride of
gen atoms to attach themselves this is a molecule — ethyl. Taking away two atoms of hydrogen from methane we get
of ethane. Similarly, three carbon atoms can at methene (=CH2), which is of course bi-valent and taking away ;
three we get the tri-valent radicle =CH, which again cannot exist,
the most (/.^., if combined) only attach eight atoms
but which, when its three spare bonds are satisfied with three atoms
of hydrogen, which makes a molecule of propane. of chlorine, becomes chloroform.
C H

chemical reactions depends upon the substitution hand arches, pillars, balconies, doorways of carved
for any atom or group of atoms taken away, of work, and notice in the interiors of court-yards,
another atom or “radicle” group, •having the same halls, and saloons, tropical vegetation growing
number of spare bonds. luxuriantly, hiding with its kindly covering the
A little consideration shows us that if this theory desolation, begun by man, and completed by the
be true, while simple groups can only be put commotions of nature.
together in one way, more complex combinations During the troubles which befell the island after
admit of various groupings. For instance, the the declaration of independence, Christophe, ori-
next chemical combination C, Hg of the same ginally an African slave, soon succeeded in making
;
order as the last, can be grouped in either of three himself supreme over all competitors for the chief
ways so as to satisfy all the bonds accordingly, power, and on June 2nd, i8ii, he and his wife
;
three compounds have been actually formed as were crowned at Cape Fran9ois as King and Queen
underneath, possessing quite different properties, of Hayti. After the ceremony he gave a magnificent
though composed of the same elements in the very banquet, at which King Christophe proposed the
same proportions : , health of his brother, the King of Great Britain.
H H H O H H on
He next proceeded to create various ranks of
and
H- c—C—C— C— O-H
I
II II II
nobility, issued his royal edicts for the
H-C— C— O— C— C— II
I I I
establishment of a royal guard, an order of knight

I I I I I I
hood, and an ecclesiastical hierarchy. The body-
H II II H II II
guard consisted of 250 infantry and a company of
ACETIC ETHER.
BUTYRIC ACID.
light horse. The new military order the Order of —
II H II St. Henry —
was to consist of the king, the prince
royal, sixteen grand crosses, and thirty-two com-
H— C— C—C—
I I I
manders. The king had various residences in the

beautiful plain of the Antibonite, in the north of the
kingdom, such as the “ Queen’s Delight,” the
H-O— =0 “ King’s Beautiful View,” the “ Conquest,” the
ISOBL'TYRIC ACID.
“ Victory,” and the “ Glory.” But at the village of
Some more complex molecules of this class
of the Milot was his favourite dwelling-place, and the
comprise over a hundred atoms, and the possible head-quarters of the kingdom.
combinations are proportionately numerous. Many At the distance of half a day’s journey from Cape
of these “ isomeric ” compounds, as they are called, Haytien is the village of Milot, and here, on the
are already known and some one or other not
;
slope of a hill, the king built his palace of Sans
previously known is being discovered almost every Souci. “ Imagine,” writes one of the few travellers
day, the discovery being nearly always leased upon who have been permitted by a weak and jealous
the supposed atomic grouping, which enables the government to visit the place, “ imagine a long,
chemist to prepare reactions calculated to afford narrow, lovely valley, clothed in verdure, shut in by
the substitution of the desired radicle or sub-group high hills, and ending
one extremity in a gently-
at
of atoms by the necessary bonds. rising knoll, thatup the narrow ravine
blocks
An interesting illustration of the structure of between two grand, high mountains, the precipitous
molecules, here attempted to be described, and faces of which seem the walls of a natural fortress,
which will put these laws and methods of chemical and you have an idea of the natural location of the
combination in a striking light, may be found in place.” The site was well chosen in every par-
the peculiar hydro-carbon compound called Nitro- ticular. There was a superb view of the valley
Glycerine, which we accordingly reserve for a below and the hills around. The original plan of
separate article. the palace was primitive, but as the king’s power
increased it was being continually added to and ;
thus, when was very irregular in its

finished, it
KING CHRISTOPHE AND HIS PALACE. architecture. There was a basement, and then a
second storey, and above this a belvidere, or look-
On the north shore of the Republic of Hayti is out, whence magnificent views were obtained.
situated a town which, in the time of its greatest On the right was the throne-room, and in the
prosperity, was known as the “ Paris of the West basement was situated the circular church used by
Indies.” This was the original Guarico of the Christophe and his family. Upon the left was the
Spaniards, the Cape Francois of the French, Cape Caimito Terrace, so called from a large tree of that
Henry after King Christophe, and the present kind, which completely overshadowed it. There
Cape Haytien, or simply The Cape. To-day it lies were large buildings for the officers and secretaries,
mostly in ruins, and one may traverse the remains and adjoining these were other solid buildings
of what have been noble streets, and see on either for the king’s numerous carriages and state eq«i-
FHE PALACE OF KING CHRIS'FOPHE. 337
pages. Behind the palace were large gardens, solid masonry. .So great was the height above the
filled with tropical fruit, vegetables, and flowers, valley immediately beneath, that, standing upon the
and water from the neighbouring hills ran through battlements, there were few who did not feel dizzy.
the grounds in cascades, imparting a delightful From this spot many thousands of his unfortunate
coolness to the scene. Ranged above the main subjects were thrown by the king’s orders ;
in
palace were storehouses, arsenals, and barracks ;
fact, so numerous were the executions at this spot
and here, too, were found the royal printing-offices, that _theplace became popularly known as the
the Mint, and other official buildings. “Ravines have “Grand Boucan.” It is said that not less than
been filled up,” writes the king’s agent in England 30,000 workmen perished during the construction
at that time, “ mountains levelled, public roads laid of this citadel, through over-work and want of food.
out. This superb royal palace, its sumptuous The view from the summit was unrivalled in the
THE PALACE OF KINO CHRISTOPHE.
apartments, all with inlaid work, and lined through- whole island. On the left could be seen the island of
out with the most beautiful and rarest tapestry ; Tortuga, the favourite resort of the old buccaneers ;
all these combine to embellish the retreat of a hero. in front the city of Cape Haytien, with its fine
I know it to be the intention of our king to have the harbour and a wide expanse of ocean ;
on the
rotunda of his palace paved, and lined with quad- right, in the direction of the Dominican frontier,
ruples. Such a novel species of apartment will were La Grange, Monte Christo, Fort Royal,
reflect precious drapery, and be without a parallel Manzanilla Bay, and the surrounding hills.
in the world.” Here King Christophe ruled for fourteen years.
The citadel was constructed originally by the Seated on a throne placed under the Caimito tree
French upon a peak of a chain of mountains called already mentioned, he held his court. The fair
the “ Bishop’s Hat.” at a height of several hundred promise of his earlier years quickly vanished. His
yards above the sea. It was begun in 1804, and officers and people, it is said, dared not look him in
finished in 1820. The walls of the fortress were the face, but knelt before him as slaves. With a
built upwards from the solid rock, and were from wave of his hand he consigned to the dungeons or
fifteen to twenty feet in thickness, all of the most to death any who had displeased him. If he wanted
p R
a carriage or other article made, the artificer them. On the loth of November, 1850, Rose caused
would be brought into his presence. “ How long a picture of Christ taken from the cross to emit
will it take you to make one like this ? ” would be real blood. This miracle she performed in the
the king’s question. “ Three months,” the wretched little church of St. Saturnin, and thereby attracted
man replied. “If it is not here before me in two so much attention, that the French Government
weeks, finished completely, you will be thrown from sent a commission to inquire into her pretensions,
the battlements,” was all that Christophe said, and and duly report thereon. This consisted of M.
the doomed man would be led away. Grave, the sous-prefet of the department, M.
At length his intolerable tyranny provoked a Guillibert, juge d’instruction, M. Jacques, substitut
rebellion. The king’s troops were defeated in the du procureur de la republique, and others, and
civil
open country, and at last he was shut up in the military. Even Monsignor, the Archbishop of
citadel. He promised the most lavish rewards to Avignon, with the higher clergy of his diocese,
his soldiers to remain faithful, but in vain. When came forward to bear witness to and verify the
he knew that he stood alone, he withdrew to his miraculous power of saintly Rose Tamiser. The
own chamber, and blew his brains out'with a pistol. occasion was one which attracted thousands to the
After his death the citadel and palace were little romantic village, and those who were as-
plundered by the rebels, and many grew rich from sembled within the church, the great civil and
the treasures they had seized gold, silver, and
;
ecclesiastical dignitaries, appeared in their state
other precious things. Most of the buildings are costumes and insignia. At the bidding of Rose,
still standing, but since the great earthquake of blood again oozed from the painted flesh, and at
1842 they have not been inhabited to any great the command of his Grace the Archbishop, the
extent. As long, however, as a stone stands in picture was taken down from its place above the
these walls, so long there will exist on the earth a high altar, when lo to the astonishment of the in-
!
monument one of the greatest monsters that have

to credulous, who expected to see some kind of ma-
disgraced humanity. chinery,and to the glorification of believers, who
had denied any trickery, the back of the canvas
was found to be thickly covered with cobwebs, the
ROSE TAMISER. home of a colony of ancient spiders And still the
!
blood continued to ooze from the canvas as fast as

The European reputation which Rose Tamiser the Archbishop and the prefet could wipe it away
achieved by her supposed power of working from the feet, hands, and side of the painted figure !
miracles, is amongst the most wonderful things on These handkerchiefs were at once in such demand
record. She was a poor girl, who had been edu- that they were cut into shreds, and carried away to
cated gratuitously in a convent at Salon, Bouches- all parts of the country.
du-Rhone, where she became a nun, and announced Thus everybody was satisfied, or professed to
•
herself as in the habit of receiving the visits of be so, and the mystery remained a mystery to
saints and angels. At last she left the convent, all who were unwilling to accept it as a genuine
and returned to her native village, Saignon, where miracle performed by an inspired woman. The
she began to preach, asserting that it was her same miracle was repeated frequently both in 1850
divine mission to restore the Christian religion to and in 1851, when M. Eugene Colignon, a chemist
its primitive state of purity. In proof of her divine of Apt, announced, as the result of numerous
inspiration, was said she performed miracles. On
it experiments, that human blood disgorged by a
one occasion when the villagers were starving for leech, having lost its fibrin, might be made to
want of food, it was affirmed that she caused a single penetrate a painting, and then come again to the
cabbage to suffice for their support during several surface in small drops or globules. This he suc-
successive weeks, it growing when every other kind cessfully demonstrated before a large number of
of vegetable was killed by the prevalence of a wide- eminent scientific men and some public authori-
spread drought. She professed herself to be fed ties. In consequence of this being done. Rose was
with consecrated wafers, with which she was regu- arrested, and charged with imposture. Her trial
larly supplied by angels. She called down from took place at Carpentras, the chief town of the
heaven materials for mending the clothes of her district and the jury, on the ground that they were
;
cure, the Abbe Sabon. She was carried by angels incompetent to decide a question so obscure and
from Saignon to St. Saturnin one fine evening in complicated, refused to deliver a verdict. The
summer, and there her repute spread so rapidly case was consequently transferred to the assizes
and so far, that soon all Europe was talking of her at Nismes, where, in November, 1851, the supposed
and her miraculous doings. Figures of a cross, a saint was pronounced guilty of escroqueiie et out-
heart, a chalice, a spear, and sometimes those of rage d la morale p2iblique et religieuse^ and sen-
the Virgin and Child, appeared on her body as if tenced to six months’ imprisonment, and to pay the
drawn in blood, which sometimes exuded from costs of her trial, with a fine of 500 francs.
“
THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 339
THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. moving a handle attached to the case of the in-
strument. This handle is attached to the cylinder,
Long before electric currents were discovered, a d, of dry wood, supported at one end in the face
men had adopted means of signalling news to of the instrument, and at the other by the support,
distant places. Beacon-fires, which blazed on the a and b being metal rings insulated by the dry
hill-topsa warning of invasion, or other impending wood, and having metal studs projecting from
event, were the first telegraphs. These gave place them, one of which is shown at e. g h are bind-
to rude semaphores. Afterwards, this system was ing-screws connected with the galvanometer coils,
much improved, and the semaphore took much A, and the metal springs, c, /, k, f, are so arranged
the same form as one of our modern railway that as the cylinder with its studs are turned to
signal-posts with its movable arms. Things right or left, conducted by the metal
the current is
were in this state when, in i8i6, Mr. Ronalds strips, one of which is lettered d, from the positive
(afterwards Sir Francis Ronalds) showed that an pole C of the battery, either from g to h or in
electric telegraph was possible, and endeavoured the contrary direction. Although, as we shall
to persuade the Government of the importance presently see, other systems have come into use
of his system. The official reply to his appeal of late years, the needle telegraph is the cheapest
was as follows :
—
Mr. Barrow presents his com- and most simple form of all. It is considered to
pliments to Mr. Ronalds, and acquaints him,
with reference to his note of the third instant, that
telegraphs of any kind are now wholly unnecessarj',
and that no other but the one now in use will be
adopted. Admiralty Office, Aug. 5, 1816.’' The
“ one in use,” here indicated, was the semaphore as
above described, which, it may be mentioned, was
quite useless during the night, or when fog pre-
vented the signals being seen.
But even had Mr. Ronalds received a more
encouraging reply, his system was, although in- Fig. I.— NEEDLE GALVANOMETER.
genious, hardly practicable. In this system, the
current from a Leyden jar caused the divergence be the very bestfor railway work, and, as a matter
of two pith balls hung together at the farther of nearly 16,000 of these instruments are still
fact,
end of a communicating wire. In practice, each *

employed in that capacity. There are also nearly
letter of the alphabet would require a separate 4,000 at work for the Post Office.
wire, a complication which was common to Nearly all the different systems of telegraphy can
nearly all the first suggested telegraph systems. be grouped under two heads, i. Those that depend
I
In 1821, Ampere pointed out that a galvanometer I

upon the tendency of a magnetised needle to place
placed in a circuit would afford means for the itself at right angles to a wire conveying a current.
transmission of signals. A galvanometer (see And, 2. Those which depend upon the electro-
Fig. simply a magnetised needle, balanced on
i) is magnet. They might also be subdivided into
a point, and surrounded by a coil of wire (one can two more groups —
namely, those which give
be readily extemporised by winding a few layers of signals only translatable by a skilled operator, and
insulated copper wire across a common mariner’s those which utilise the ordinary letters of the
compass). If the instrument be so placed that the alphabet. The needle telegraph must of course be
direction of the coil coincides with that of the placed in the first subdivision, for its right and left
needle (/.^., north and south), the needle will hand signs are undecipherable by any but a trained
be deflected to the east and west position directly operator. To meet this difficulty, Wheatstone in-
a current is sent through the coil. If the vented his ABC

telegraph. In this instrument
direction of the current be reversed, the needle there is a dial, round which are plainly printed the
will move in the opposite direction. So that by letters of the alphabet, numerals, and other signs
rapidly changing the direction of the current, the in common use. A movable pointer can be set by
needle will be alternately deflected to the right and the operator to any letter required, and words are
left. quickly spelt out. In the meantime he turns a
Cooke and Wheatstone produced their
In 1837, handle with his other hand, which brings into play
firstform of needle telegraph (Figs. 2, 3) on the a magneto-electric arrangement for furnishing the
galvanometer principle, in which different com- necessary current. So it will be seen that the ABC
binations of the right and left movements of the instrument had two great advantages which recom-
needle indicate the various letters of the alphabet. mended it as especially available for private lines
The current is readily reversed, so as to give these where skilled labour was not obtainable or de-
alternate movements to a magnetised needle, by sirable. It could be worked by any one having a
— — , . —

knowledge of the alphabet, and it required no bat- A ^ J *
—— S ...
—
.
tery. It has been used for years in many warehouses A (ae) . — K T

and offices, and although now it is being rapidly B Xf • aM • • U ..—
supplanted by the telephone, there were still in C M tj (ue) .. __
1883 more than 4,000 instruments in use. D N V
In America, the Morse system of telegraphy is E . 0 ——— W
almost universal, and the same system is making F 0 (oe) ——— . X
rapid progress in England. In this method, the G P Y
electro-magnet is used in the following manner: H . . , z
At the transmitting station there is an instrument I .. £ Ch
Fig. 3. —BACK OF SINGLE-NEEDLE INSTRUMENT
called a “key” (Fig. 5) which consists of a little The Morse printing instrument just described
is a
lever with a knob at one end. When this knob beautiful, but rathercomplicated piece of mechanism,
is depressed by the operator’s finger, the line-wire for besides the printing and electric arrangements
is placed in contact with a battery. Now let us it is furnished with clockwork to keep the paper
see what happens at the distant station situated tape in motion whilst the message is being delivered.
at the other end of that line-wire. Directly the But lately these accessories have in many cases
current passes through the wire it afifects an been dispensed with, and the operator depends
electro-magnet (see Fig. 6). Above this magnet upon his ear for the translation of the message sent.
there is a lever, and as one end of the lever is The armature against the magnet is
click of the
attracted and drawn down to the magnet, the intelligible to the skilled worker and a far more ;
other end, carrying a little wheel charged with simple instrument, consisting of an electro-magnet
printing-ink, caused to press against a travelling
is and armature, and called the Morse Sonnde 7 is ',
strip of paper. In this way a mark- is left on the now coming into extensive use. The Morse system
paper, whose length is proportionate to the time can also, if preferred, be made to appeal to the eye,
during which the current passes and the magnet instead of the ear, by the attachment of a gal-
is in action. It may make either a long line or vanometer needle. In such case, the right-hand
only a mere spot. By combinations of short and movements will stand for dashes, or long signals,
—
long marks technically called dots and dashes and the left-hand for dots, or short signals.
the Morse alphabet is made up. Here it is ;
On long lines the current often becomes so re-
a
THE ELECTRIC 'rELEGRAPH. 341
duced by leakage, and from other causes, that it successfully done in the duplex system by which a —
is insufficient to work an electro-magnet, either to message is sent from either end of the same wire
mark paper, or give audible sound. It is therefore simultaneously in the diplex system
; in which —
usual on such lines to interpose an instrument two messages can be sent simultaneously in one
called a relay. A weakened by distance,
current direction and in the quadruplex system, which
;
although unable to work the receiving

effectively combines the two former methods, and by which it
instrument, may have enough force to cause a light is possible to convey four signals along the same
armature to be attracted wire at the same moment.

by a small magnet. This This last method was
movement may be made invented by Mr. Edison,
to bring a local battery whose name is now so
into circuit so as to familiar in the other
strengthen the current, branches of electrical
and such an arrangement science. It wosld be im-
constitutes a relay. possible to detail in a
A very ingenious form limited space the con-
of telegraph was in opera- trivances by which these
tion a few years back on Fig. 4. — MOKSE KEY. wonderful results are
the South Western Rail- achieved, but we may
way system between London and Woking — mention that there were in England, at the begin-
distance of twenty-six miles. This was Cowper’s ning of 1883, 319 duplex and 13 quadruplex circuits
writing telegraph, by which ordinary writing at the in use.
Fig. 5.— MORSE PRINTING TELEGRAPH.
transmitting station is accurately reproduced, line The last decade has seen a wonderful growth of
for line, at the receiving station. The process was submarine telegraphic lines, and now the world’s
however somewhat delicate and tedious, requiring ocean floor is covered with a network com.posed of
two wires, and hence this ingenious and thoroughly more than 80,000 miles of cable. In construction,
efficient mode of telegraphy has not come into these cables are very little from the first one
different
common use. ever made, which was laid between Dover and
The modern saying, “Time is money,” is in- Calais. But the manufacture is so improved, and
deed most of all true when applied to telegraphic demand has brought such good materials into the
signalling and many endeavours have been made,
;
market, that now a cable can be made of far
not only to transmit signals with celerity, but also greater strength and better quality. The Atlantic
to transmit more than one communication at the is now spanned by nine such links of communica-
same time along the same wire. This has been tion, the latest one having been laid in 1882 in
twelve days, without the slightest difficulty or hitch of the South Sea Islanders, who looked upon the
from the beginning to the end of the operation. palm of the hand, especially of a young girl, as the
Land lines are carried either above ground as — daintiest morsel, while the New Zealander gave a
we seethem at the side of the railway or under- — decided preference to the foot. At the royal feasts
ground by means of copper wires insulated with in Fiji the chief dish was human flesh. Slaves were
gutta percha, and enclosed in iron pipes. The also fattened up for the market, as the bodies of
latter means is most commonly adopted in towns, enemies slain were not sufficient to meet
in battle
where the smoke would have an injurious effect the demand. The women were prohibited from
upon the iron wires usually employed on over- eating this luxury, as it was considered too good
ground lines. A new material, called phosphor for them. There was a bravado about the
bronze, having the strength of iron, and the con- Fijian’s cannibalism, too, whatever may have
ductivity of copper, is now under consideration for been its origin, and they often made a boast of
telegraphic purposes, and is likely to come into the number of men they had eaten. Thus Ra
use. Undre-Undre, chief of Rakiraki, never tired of
According to Mr. Preece, the chief of the bragging about the 900 corpses he had put
British postal telegraph system, there are in himself outside of. The same bravado is seen
the United Kingdom 12,000 miles of under- in the case of the Red inhabitants of North
ground wire, and to lay the whole system under- America, who express their resolution of making
ground would cost twenty millions sterling. The war against an enemy in the pompous phrase,
money embarked in submarine cables is about “Let us go and eat that nation;” and in asking
^30,000,000, and a fleet of twenty-nine ships is the assistance of a neighbouring tribe, they invite
employed in laying, watching, and repairing such it to sup broth made of the flesh of their
lines. The growth of business since the Govern- enemies. These expressions would appear rem-
ment took the telegraphs into their keeping has nants of old customs, though cannibalism in the
—
been enormous 1 26,000 messages per week have ordinary way w’as regarded by the Red Indians
increased to 603,000. In press- work the increase with abhorrence. When Mr. Waddington’s men
is most noticeable, for 5,000 words per day at the were murdered by the Chilcoaten Indians on the
time of the companies have grown to 934,1 54 words Bute Inlet Trail in 1864, their hearts were however
per day now. On the submarine lines the increase torn out and devoured by the savages, who believed
has been equally great.
=
CANNIBALISM.
In 1871, the Eastern
Telegraph Company dealt with 186,000 messages
in i88i they dealt with 720,000.
r
V
that the courage of the white man was thus imparted
to them. Other tribes boil their enemies’ hearts
;
in a kettle with corn and in a kind of mock

fury drink ladlefuls of the soup
A
heart’s blood of the enemy.” The New Zealand
warrior, after killing his foe, would cut off the
head, and scooping up the warm blood that was
In considering the origin of a practice so odious as flowing from the dying trunk, turn to his enemies
;
“ drinking the
—
cannibalism, we must always bear in mind that a and drink with fiendish triumph. It is needless,
human life is not nearly so highly regarded amongst however, to add anything more to the sickening
savages as amongst the civilised. Thus, the natives horrors of cannibalism. To point out in a simple
of Tierra del Fuego, when starving in the winter- way the probable origin of the practice is what
time, would throttle and devour the oldest woman we are more concerned with here.
in the party rather than kill their dogs, because We must remember that in the savage state men
“ dog catch otters ” The Fijians thought nothing of are not so dainty as Europeans
! and, indeed, ;
a human life. Every undertaking, no matter how to such extremities are savages often driven that
insignificant, was preceded by human sacrifices. If nothing is too filthy for them to devour. A New
the king simply launched a canoe, its deck was bathed South Wales native, surprised on the banks of
in the blood of ten men. Murder amongst them the Hawksbury fiver by some of our earlier
was an exceedingly trivial offence indeed, to be colonists, launched his canoe and left behind
;
an acknowledged murderer was the object of the him a specimen of his food. “ From a piece of
Fijian’s ambition. For such a people to become water-soaken wood, full of holes, he had been
cannibals was a comparatively easy matter and so extracting and eating a large
;
worm. The smell
fond were they of human flesh that their greatest both of the worm and its habitation was in the
praise of anything was to say that “ it is as tender as highest degree offensive.” To people in this
a man.” They rather disliked white men, however, continual state of starvation the body of a man
because they savoured so much of tobacco, which in was a great windfall. Accordingly, when any
the case of sailors is probably true. Women were one fell sick he was put to death forthwith,
preferred, especially choosing the arm above the because if he were allowed to pine and die his
elbow, and the thigh. In this they differed from some flesh would be wasted. This was a very wide
!
CANNIBALISM. 343
custom, and is noticed by Herodotus as prevail- pened to be seen on the lowland on the reef,
ing amongst some ancient Asiatic tribes, who he was seldom ever seen again. It is eas)' to see
frequently accused a perfectly healthy man or that when a taste for human flesh in any tribe had
woman of being ill for sake of having a
the been developed to this extent, no sacrifice to the
feast, and, despite all protestations to the con- gods would be considered so acceptable as human
trary, hurried them off to execution. The same flesh. It was not the life of the victim that
goading spur of necessity has driven members —
was offered up a human life in the eyes of a
of even civilised communities to practices equally savage is not worth making an offering of it was ;
abhorrent, as is seen from the records of besieged the flesh. The gods were man-eaters, and
towns and of shipwrecks. Mothers have been descended upon the bodies of the human sacri-
constrained to take the suckling from their fices, and consumed them in the form of birds. In
breast to devote it to the satisfying of the many cases the priests, who represent the gods,
cravings of hunger, and all natural affection and consume this flesh, and indulge in rites too ghastly
friendship have been swallowed up by the prompt- for our pen to entrench upon. Suffice to say that
ings of self-preservation. the origin of human sacrifices seems to have been
Indeed, some competent authorities go so far as in cannibalism, for it ishuman flesh that is offered
to say that few races have been altogether exempt, up, not human life. When men offer up sacrifices,
at some period or another of their existence, from it is generally those things that are prized most
cannibalism. In our own island the archaeologist highly. A life to a Fijian is nothing, as we have
has found human
bones under circumstances seen ;
the flesh, however, is everything. Of course,
to be taken by many as
sufficiently suspicious at a later stage, when men have ceased to be
evidence that our forefathers were cannibals. cannibals, and yet continue to immolate human
On the authority of Diodorus and Strabo, the beings, these immolations have lost their signifi-
ancient inhabitants of Ireland are credited with cance, and very rapidly cease to be practised.
an affection for the flesh of their deceased rela- Facts might be adduced in abundance to support
tives. St. Jerome tells us,that he had
also, the view here laid down we have, however, dwelt;
himself seen the Attacotti —a

Scotch tribe— feed long enough upon this picture, which, though dark
upon human flesh, and with needless detail he and repulsive enough, is certainly not without
says that when he was a little boy living in Gaul, instruction for us whose necessities, fortunately,
he observed that the inhabitants often preferred a are not so urgent as those of many of our less
ham of the herdsman to a shoulder of mutton, the happy brethren.
daintiest morsel of all being a female’s breast fried
In so recent a time as the French Revolution, we A RAILWAY. MINIATURE
read that one of the mob plucked out the heart
of the Princess Lamballe, took it to a restaurant, A CURIOUS model of one of the characteristic fea-
where he cooked and ate it. And only five years tures of modern civilisation may be inspected in the.
ago the present writer met a sailor who, with four grounds of a Derbyshire justice of the peace, Mr. A.
others, had consumed —
under heart rending circum- P. Heywood, the occupier of Duffield Hall. The
—
stances certainly the dead body of a comrade. object is a miniature railway, over and under ground,
Necessity, then, may be taken generally as the where an example of every engineering difficulty
originating cause of cannibalism. But according encountered in the construction of an ordinary rail-
to a very widely prevalent view that the flesh of way system has been artificially created, so as to
animals becomes substantially less nourishing as we illustrate the working of this as completely as
—
descend in the scale mammals being more nourish- possible. In gauge, the line is but fifteen inches,
ing than fishes, whence arises the custom of eating and is laid partly with steel and partly with iron
fish amongst Catholics as being the next thing rails,of a rate varying from 9 pounds to 12
to fasting —
its votaries have gone so far as to pounds per foot. In length, it is a little short
allege that cannibalism confers a pleasure con- of a mile, and has many curves. On the way
nected with the sense of taste unknown to those there are the features of embankment, cutting,
that confine themselves to brutes. Bacon, speaking bridge, a viaduct 22 feet in height, a tunnel
of cannibals, says that “ they feed not ordinarily hewn of solid rock,
out points, crossings, and,
upon men’s flesh, but reserve it as a dainty.” Cer- lastly,a number of picturesque stations, named
tain it is that in many known cases the fondness according to the nature or position of the ground.
of savages for human flesh was so great, that kid- Passengers may get out at the Tennis Lawn, the
napping the members of one’s own tribe was not Wood, ^the Manor Copse, or other convenient
uncommon, and even members of the same family stations,the first named being the central one.
were scarcely safe from one another. There is Mr. Heywood is a skilled workman, and has
a tradition amongst the Papuans that if a fat accomplished the task of putting together the
man went to the island of Tapuaemanii, or hap- rolling-stock without much aid.
344 THE WORT.D OF WONDERS.
THE EXTINCT SEA-COW. of man. They appear to have been gregarious, and
manifested great attachment to each other. When
About midway between the Aleutian Islands and one was harpooned the others made almost
the coast of Siberia is situated Behring’s Island, a incredible exertions to rescue it.
locality which, with respect to both its geography Later travellers scarcely mention the sea-cow. In
and natural one of the most remarkable
history^, is an account of Behring’s Island, published in the be-
in the North Pacific. Here the famous voyager ginning of the present century, it is recorded that
Behring died, in the middle of the eighteenth though sea- cows were very numerous when the island
century, during his third and, as far as he was con- was first discovered, yet that none were at this
cerned, most disastrous voyage. A naturalist, time to be seen, the last having been killed in 1768.
named Steller, was one of the companions of the During the voyage of the Vega^ Professor Nor-
explorer, and to him we are indebted for a most denskjdld made special inquiries on the spot, and
accurate and complete description of an island on comparing the various accounts, he arrived at
which until then had not been visited by civilised the conclusion that sea-cows were killed as late as
man. Among the animals described by Steller as 1780 ;
that the heart only was eaten, and that the
abounding on the coasts, but no longer found there, skin was used for covering the “ baydars,” or
or anywhere else, is the sea-cow {Rhytina Stelleri). Russian coast-boats. The skin was so thick that
From his account it seems to have been generally the inhabitants were accustomed to split it in two,
of a dark brown colour, although some specimens and the pieces thus obtained were amply sufficient
had large white spots and streaks. The heavy to cover a “ baydar ” 20 feet long, feet broad,
leathery hide was covered with hair so thickly that and 3 feet deep. Two natives reported in 1854
SEA-COW (restored).
It had the appearance of an extra skin, Vvhich in

all that they had seen, on a retired part of the shore,
texture and feeling was like the bark of an old oak- an animal altogether unknown to them and their ;
tree. This when examined, was. found to be

hair, description, corresponding in many points with
alive with vermin. The full-sized animals were Steller’s, makes it probable that sea-cows were
from thirty to thirty-five feet long, and weighed really in existence at that time. The report stated
from three to three and a half tons. The head was that the animal was very thick before and small
small, the neck short, and the body diminished behind ;
that it had small fore legs, was brown in
rapidly behind, like that of a seal. The fore legs colour, and had lighter spots all over its exposed
were short, and terminated without fingers or claws, portion. It had no back fin, and when it raised
but were thickly overgrown with strong hairs the ;

itself to “ blow',” the ribs could easily be counted,
hind legs were replaced by a tail-fin, like that of a the backbone being especially noticeable, on account
whale. The mouth was prolonged, and instead of of the creature’s great leanness. seems then
It
teeth the creature had two large masticating plates. moist probable that these Rhytina were
herds
The udders of the female were placed between the driven away from their special pasture-lands, and
fore legs, and both flesh and milk resembled those were unable to maintain the struggle for existence.
of horned cattle indeed, in Steller’s opinion were
;
The unusual form almost indicates that this w'as the
much superior. It is evident that the animal be- last representative of a group destined to become
longed to the great seal family, though of the most extinct.
gigantic size. A large and nearly-complete collection of bones
The sea-cows fed on the sea-weed which grew was obtained from a bank about six or seven feet
abundantly on the coast. In feeding, they moved above the sea-level, and covered by earth to a depth
the head and neck like an ox on shore. Every few of eighteen inches. The ribs, on account of their
minutes the animals raised their noses above water fine quality, have been used for the runners of
to blow out air and a little water through the mouth. sledges and other purposes. From these bones
While pasturing they could be approached without there has not been much difficulty in reconstructing
difficulty, and were not frightened by the presence the annexed figure of this little-known animal.
THE AMERICAN CLIFF-DWELLERS. 345
THE AMERICAN CLIFF-DWELLERS. square miles in extent, which is remarkable for the
almost total absence of water, and the consequent
As year after year goes by, and as the footstep of stunted and sparse growth of the vegetation which
the white man penetrates farther and farther into it supports. Barren and desolate as is the land of
the terra incognita of the Western hemisphere, it the Cave-dwellers at the present day, however, the
becomes more indications are
and more evi- sufficiently clear
dent that the that it was not
continents of always so. The
America have country is
been the seat of broken up by
a civilisation al- immense cracks
most as ancient, and fissures,
if not so highly sometimes

developed, as is many thousands
to be met with of feet in depth,
in the so-called forming cliffs of
Old World. the most stu-
First, the stupendous height,
pendous ruins and of appa-
of the palaces rently inaccessi-
and temples of ble steepness.
Mexico and These cliffs are
Yucatan, and sometimes com-
then the mas- posed of lime-
sive and innu- stone, some-
merable mounds times of sand-
of the Mound- stone, with
builders, were alternate layers
described by en- of shale or clay.
terprising tra- The soft layers
vellers to an thus imbedded
almost incredu- in harder
the
lous circle of rock are gradu-
readers. And ally worn away
at length we by the action of
have descrip- the rain and
tions of the winds, leaving
remnants of hu- open caverns,
man handiwork the roofs and
as immense as floors of which
are any of the are formed by
remains of the solid stone
Mexican palace ledges above
or Mississippi and below. The
mound ;
while Cliff-dwellers
conjectures as were accus-
to the condition tomed to take
of the people CLIFF DWELLING ON THE SIDE OF THE CAlJoN OF THE CHELLY, A BRANCH advantage of
who once in- OF THE SAN JUAN. this natural for-
habited these mation of caves,
ruined dwellings are, if possible, more futile even the front of which they walled in, forming com-
than those concerning the other ancient nations fortable and sheltered, but often extremely diminu-
of America. tive, habitations.
The ruined habitations of the Cliff-dwellers are But the buildings were not confined to these simple
met with almost unexplored territory of New
in the edifices. Though such habitations are very numerous
Mexico, Nevada, Colorado, and Utah.
Arizona, upon the face of many of the cliffs, there are also to
Lying between the Rio Mancos, the La Plata, and be seen upon the terraces of the more open canons,
the Rio San Juan, is an area some six hundred buildings of a more imposing elevation, while in the
—
bottom-lands, just above the banks of the San Juan constructed is often still perfectly sound, for in
and the La Plata, are to be found the remains of the dry atmosphere of the San Juan there can
extensive towns, doubtless also the work of the Cliff- hardly be a limit to the duration of seasoned
dwellers. On a ledge of rock some thousands of timber. N or, on the other hand, can any very' con-
feet above the bed of the Rio Mancos is one
of clusive data be gained by a consideration of the
these settlements, where the houses are built as vegetation which now covers the ground, and has
closely together as the nature of the ground admits, in many overgrown the buildings of the
cases
and are in such numbers as fully to warrant the ancient Cliff-men. But when we consider that
name town which has been applied to it. There
of the land was once probably covered by well-
is no possible means of access to this ledge from grown pine-trees, which have slowly given place to
above, owing to the projection of the rocks while ;
the present scanty growth of pihon and juniper
from below, though traces still remain of rude foot- when we consider that the dwellings of the Cliff-
holes and sloping paths, no one would now venture men had to be erected, dwelt in, abandoned, and
to scale the dizzy heights presented by the almost forgotten, and then in turn buried beneath a
perpendicular face of the cliff. growth of stunted shrubs, after the lapse of
Among the earliest of the buildings* of the Cliff- —
probably many centuries it becomes indeed diffi-
dwellers described was one upon the banks of the cult in the extreme to form any estimate of the
River Animas, which contained no less than 500 probable date of the era during which they lived
rooms. The building was, of course, in ruins, the and flourished, and evolved their primitive, yet in
roof and portions of the walls having long since some respects advanced culture.
crumbled away, yet many of the apartments were As has been said, the houses are often gathered
still well preserved, and showed that they were together in large numbers on the elevated ledges
lighted by small windows, but possessed no ex- of the cliffs ;
one of these villages extended to a
ternal doors. Indeed, all the buildings of the Cliff- length of 545 feet, the greatest height of any of the
upon the rocky ledges of the
dwellers, whether built buildings being 40 feet. Single dwellings are also
canons, upon the bottom-lands by the river-side, found, like that shown in the illustration, which
or in the natural caverns already described, seem to explorers in the most
could only be reached by its
have been accessible only by means of ladders, which hazardous manner. Most of the houses comprise
no doubt rested on certain still existing ni hes, and a ground floor and a single raised storey, and
were drawn in when the occupants had reached the walls are usually of but insignificant thickness,
the shelter of their dwelling. This Animas build- some attaining nearly eighteen inches, but frequently
ing appears originally to have been of four storeys, not exceeding six inches. The walls are generally
and the floors were formed of massive beams of carefully plastered both on the interior and exterior
cedar, sometimes nearly a foot in diameter, the surfaces, and here and there the imprint of a small
interstices between which were filled up with extended hand remains to prove that this plastering
smaller branches and "wigs, while the whole was is really the handiwork of a long-forgotten race.
covered with a felt of cedar-bark. Nothing could Behind the houses were two reservoirs, doubtless
more clearly indicate than the size of these cedar- intended to store water for the use of the settle-
logs the change that must have come about in the ment while here and there traces can still be seen
;
climate of the country since the time of the Cliff- of small corrals, in the interior of which yet remain
dwellers. Not a tree now is to be found within small deposits of manure and other rubbish. The
hundreds of miles of the district of a size approach- presence of these corrals raises another question
ing to that of the logs so freely used in many of these which has hitherto bid defiance to archaeologists.
buildings, nor would the present soil and climate How were the animals which formerly occupied
support such vegetation as must have prevailed them carried up the steep sides of the cliffs and
during the period of these strange and now for- by what means were they supported when thus
gotten people. Within a few hundred yards of the removed from any but the most precarious pas-
above was a second large house, and between the two ture ? The first question appears insoluble.
were ranged a large number of small buildings, In the immediate vicinity of nearly all the cliff
which obviously had in happier days been a not in- settlements are found certain round towers, to
considerable village. These cottages were built of which the Spaniards have given the name of
small rounded boulders laid in a cement of sun- estufas. These towers are remarkable for the
dried clay, and were consequently in a more advanced solidity of their construction, being sometimes as
state of ruin than the larger buildings, which were much as sixty feet in diameter, and containing a
constructed of solid masonry. number of small cells, or chambers, which were
As with so many of the archaic relics of doubtless used as store-rooms, in which to place
America, it is almost impossible to estimate the treasure of the tribe, when attacked by an
the date of these ruins. Nothing can be based enemy. But the chief use of not a few at least of
upon the fact that the timber of which they are these towers seems to have been the protection of
—
REMARKABLE SEVENS. 347
the sacred fire, the extinction of which, even for homes, that their lives were to a great extent
their
the shortest period, was supposed to bring down agricultural.Holes in the w'alls show where the
the heaviest misfortunes upon the whole tribe. beams of their looms were formerly supported,
Accordingly a small chamber, partly sunk be- while in the central chamber of many of the
neath the level of the earth, is often met with houses may be seen a depression bearing the
in the very centre of the estufa, the entrance to traces of fire, and the flat stones upon which their
which is described as measuring only twenty- cakes were baked still lie amongst the refuse ashes.
two inches in breath by thirty inches in height. Sheep- they seem to have roasted in pits covered
That the Cave-men wire dislodged from their with hot ashes, and bones of these animals remain
apparently impregnable positions by incursions of in heaps, to prove that the Cliff-man was not alto-
barbarians can hardly be doubted and it is curious
;
gether indifferent to the pleasures of the table.
to observe that, according to more than one Notwithstanding the numerous remains of this
traveller, the ground in front of many of the build- ancient people, it cannot be said that a single
ings is covered with arrow-heads, the points of skeleton of a Cliff-dweller has ever yet been found.
which are almost invariably directed against the Here and there, indeed, a few human bones have
walls of the houses. Whether or not they are the been discovered, which at the first glance ap-
signs of the last fatal attack upon a peaceful people peared to belong to them, but evidence afterwards
previously driven to the shelter of these inacces- arose proving them of much more recent date,
sible rocks, no one can at present say. and we can only suppose that the habit of cre-
Strangely enough, not a trace has hitherto been mation, so universal amongst fire-worshippers, has
met with of the use of metal amongst the Cliff- effectually destroyed every record of the physical
men, though it is improbable that a people in characteristics of a people who at one time must
other respects so highly civilised should have have played a not inconsiderable part in the history
remained utterly ignorant of so invaluable an of their country.
aid to industry. Possibly their metal implements
and ornaments, if such they possessed, have been
removed from the ruins by wandering Indians REMARKABLE SEVENS.
during the course of ages, or were carried off by
those besieging barbarians to whose attacks the Much has been written upon the prominence
extinction of the Cliff-dwellers has been attri- which the number seven has had in human thought
buted. and history from the earliest times, and few have
The Cliff-men were by no means deficient in art, disputed that some primitive tradition must have
though this was of a rude and primitive type. The lain at the bottom of it. Without discussing this
walls of many of their houses, and even cave-dwell- point, it will be interesting to enumerate some of
ings, are covered with hieroglyphics, or at least the things, events, or ideas, which naturally group
picture - writings, which unfortunately are as a themselves with the mystic number. In one or
sealed book to us. It cannot be said that in these two cases, no doubt, the number is accidental, but
picture inscriptions any high degree of artistic they add to the interest of our catalogue. It is
excellence is displayed, yet it is easy to recognise almost needless to say that more could be added
many of the objects pourtrayed, though impossible to the list easily.
to interpret their signification. Their pottery is THE SEVEN DAYS OF THE WEEK.
often of good form and beautiful design.
Sunday. — From the worship of the sun.
It is
Mon-
and hard, and is decorated sometimes by
thin
raised ornaments, sometimes by painted patterns,
day. —Because on this day the ancients worshipped
the colours of which are as fresh and brilliant to-

the moon. —
Tuesday. From being sacred to
—
day as when originally manufactured who knows
Tuesco. —
Wednesday. The time appropriated to
Woden, the chief idol. Woden is another form of
how many centuries ago? The remains of this Odin, the principal god of the Scandinavians.
pottery are very plentiful, one traveller stating that
the fragments lie about in “ cart-loads,” while
—
Thursday. So called from Thor, who was the son
of Odin, and god of war. He was said to possess
Colonel Holmes tells us that within an area of ten
a belt which doubled his strength whenever he put
square feet he had gathered up the fragments of
—
no less than fifty-five different vessels vases, or
it on. —
Friday. From Friga, or Frea, the wife of
amphorte, bottles, and dishes. Strangely enough,

Odin. —
Saturday. From Seatur, thought to be
Saturn, the god of time.
pipes, which are so common amongst the Mound-
builders, are of the rarest occurrence in these SEVEN MONTHS HAVING THIRTY-ONE DAYS.
ruins. —
January. F rom J anus, god of the year. arch M .
As to the customs of the Cliff-men, it may be From Mars, god of war. May. Derived—from a
conjectured, from the remains of charred corn and Latin word, meaning — to grow. July. — From
maize-heads which have been found in the ruins of Julius Caesar. August. — So called to honour the
; —
Emperor Augustus I. October. So called from — THE SEVEN CELEBRATED CITIES OF ANTIQUITY.
being the eighth calendar month, according to the Rome — Built by Romulus, its first king. Athens
. .
Roman calendar. December. From Decern, tenth. — Founded by Cecrops. Athens was originally called
Cecropia, in honour of its founder. Cecrops intro-
THE SEVEN COLOURS OF THE RAINBOW.
duced agriculture, and the rites of marriage and
I. Orange ;
2. Red 3. Yellow ; 4. Green ; burial. Nineveh.WY\l\% city received its name
5. Blue ;
6. Indigo ; 7. Violet. These properly from Ninus, one of its kings. Ninus felt in love
mingled make white. with Semiramis, the wife of one of his generals ;
and after the death of her husband he married her.

THE SEVEN NOTES OF THE SCALE.
She is supposed to have afterwards poisoned Ninus.
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, in English ;
Do, re, mi, fa, He reigned fifty-two years. Babylon Called “the .
—
sol, la, si, in Italian. hammer of the whole earth.” ferusale^n. The —
THE SEVEN WONDERS OF ANTIQUITY.
ancient Jebus. Tyre. — Famed for its beautiful
dye. Carthage .
— Founded by Dido. Site of the
The Colossus. —This was at Rhodes, and repre- modern Tunis.
sented an image of the Sun, or Apollo, 126 feet high.
THE SEVEN KINGS OF ROME.
It was destroyed by the Saracens when they took
Rhodes. The Pyramids. Of Egypt, the largest — Romulus.—Worshipped as Quirinus. Numa
built by Cheops. Diana's Temple. At Ephesus, — Pompilius. — Introduced Termini, and a temple built
built by Ctesiphon. The Mausoleum of Mausolus, to Faith, and also the temple of Janus. Tullus
king of Caria, built by Artemisia, his queen. Hostilius. — Burnt to death his palace. Ancus in
Some portions of this sepulchre are now in the Martins. Tarquinius Prisons. — He built a mag-
British Museum. The Walls of Babylo?t and its nificenttemple to Jupiter. Servius Tullius. Slain —
Ha?tgmg Gardens. Statue of fupiter., at Elis, in by Tarquin the Proud. Tarquinius Superbus .
Peloponnesus, by Phidias, 50 cubits high. Pha?'os. — The last king of Rome.

A watch-tower of Ptolemy Philadelphus, on the THE SEVEN HILLS ON WHICH ROME STOOD.
small island of Pharos, in the Bay of Alexander
I. The Palatine 2. The Capitoline 3. The
(Alexandria). Pharos was built of white marble, ; ;
Aventine 4. The Ouirinal 5. The Ceelian 6.

seen 1,000 miles off fires were lighted on the top
;
; ; ;
The Viminal 7. The Esquiline.

to warn travellers of the difficult access to the bay.
;
THE SEVEN HILLS OF LONDON.

THE SEVEN WONDERS OF HISTORY.
Cornhill, Snowhill, Holborn Hill, Ludgate Hill,
I. The Coliseum at Rome 2. The Catacombs Tower
;
Fish Street Hill, Bread Street Hill, Hill.
of Alexandria ;
The Great Wall of China 4.
3. ;
Stonehenge ; 5.The Leaning Tower of Pisa 6. ;

THE SEVEN KINGDQMS OF THE HEPTARCHY.
The Porcelain Tower of Nankin 7. The Mosque ; I. Wessex. — Founded by Cerdic. 2. South
of St. Sophia at Constantinople. Saxony —
Founded by Ella.
.
3. Kent Founded . —
THE SEVEN SAGES OF GREECE. by Hengist. 4. East Saxony Founded by Ercen- . —
— Founder of the Ionic philosophy. vvin. 5. East Amelia. Founded by Uffa. 6. —
Thales. Born
—
Mercia. Founded by Cridda. 7. Northumbria. —
at Miletus, B.c. 640. He was the first who observed
Founded by Ida.
the apparent diameter of the sun. He also
observed the nature and course of eclipses. 2. THE SEVEN UNITED PROVINCES.
Solon. —
His advice was, “Consider thy end.” He Holland, Friesland, Utrecht, Guelderland, Gron-
was born in the Island of Salamis about B.c. 638.
ingen, Overyssel, Zealand.
3.Philo. —
He said “ Know thyself.” 4. Pittacus. —
Said “ Love your friend as if you expected him to THE SEVEN DIFFERENT L.\NGUAGES SPOKEN BY
be your enemy.” formed a code of laws in He QUEEN ELIZABETH.
form they might
verse, thinking that perhaps in this I. —The most copious. Greek —The
English . 2. .
be more easily remembered. 5. Bias. He said, — most sublime. Latin. — The most majestic.
3. 4.
“There nothing better than moderation.”
is 6. Erench. — The most elegant. Dutch. — The most 5.
Cleobulus. These — were his maxims; “Do good harsh. Italian. — The
6. Spanish. — softest. 7.
unto your friends that you may attach them to you The most pompous.
the more do good unto your enemies that you
;
may make friends of them. 7. Periander. It was — THE SEVEN FOLLIES OF SCIENCE.
by his flatterers that Periander is reckoned among I. The multiplication of the cube ;
2. The quad-
the “ seven sages ” he was a very cruel man.
;
He rature of the circle ; 3. The philosopher’s stone ;
put to death his wife, and then banished his son 4. The elixir of life ;
5. Perpetual motion ; 6
for mourning over the fate of his mother. Magic ; 7. Astrology.
LIVING BEINGS IN WATER. 349
LIVING BEINGS IN WATER. living beings appear within its limits. Occasion-
ally, also, in the sediment whichdeposited from
is
A POPULAR notion exists that the water we drink water in cisterns, lakes, and ponds, we may find
swarms with myriads of animalcules, and teems abundance of animal and plant life and, as will be
•
Fig. I. — SEDIMENT OF WATER FROM THE THAMES.

1. Daphnia pulex. 2, Chilodon. Paramoecium. 4. Acineria incurvata. 5. Paranema globulosa. 6. Cercomonas. 7, Actinophrys
3.
bul. 8. Amoebae, o. Amoeba 10. Protococcus pluvialis.
diffluens. ii. Diatoms. 12. Desmids. 13. Confervae. 14. Spores of
fungi. 15. Remains of vegetable tissue. 16. Large Amoeba. 1 Cyclops quadricornis.
’. i8. Cypris. 19. Anguillula fluviatilis.
with multitudes of beings, invisible to the naked shown in our illustrations, a very fertile field for
eye. As a matter of fact, whilst water of ordinary microscopic study may be found within the com-
kind may and does contain living forms, pure pass of such deposits. The living beings found in
water is very far from being an infusion of animal or water, it should be noted, are by no means invari-
vegetable life. It is when water has been allowed ably of the lowest grade. The lowest animals are
to become stagnant, and when vegetable or animal collectively named Protozoa^ and number amongst
matter has been located therein, that crowds of their ranks such animalcules as the Aivaiba (Fig.
I, No. i6), or the Infusorian animalcules (Nos. 2, 3, entered the river, literally swarmed with these
4, 5). Such organisms are often plentifully found organisms. At Kew, whei'e the water was free
in water sediments. But other forms of life, be- from sewage, they were almost entirely absent.
longing even to a class so high in the scale as the Although these observations would seem to asso-
Crustacea (or that including the lobsters and ciate the animalcules and putrescent matter, yet
shrimps, &c.), may be seen disporting themselves. it was not proved that their presence was indica-
Thus the Daphnia pJilex (Fig and the Cy-

i. No. i) tive of any power in the water to produce disease.
clops (Fig.I, No. 17) illustrate the latter class. These The fixed “bell animalcules” (Fig. 6, No. 5), may
beings are popularly named “ water-fleas,” and as be found in clear waters and as regards the water-
;
they are visible to the naked eye amidst the water, fleasalready described, their presence has even
their active movements in swimming can usually been held to indicate the purity of a water, inas-
be discerned with clearness. much as they occur in even the purest streams.
A natural inquiry may be raised respecting the As a matter of fact, however, it may be said that
power of contamination which such organisms may the freer from animal or plant life a water is, the
possess. It is an undoubted fact .that the minute i
greater must be its purity. It is in the sediment
Fig. 2. FROM THE SEINE AT PORT % l’aNGLAIS.
Bacteria, or organisms which cause fevers, &c., may |

I
especially,which accumulates where cisterns are
be,and often are, obtained by human beings from not attended to, or in water which contains decay-
impure water. It is extremely difficult, however, to ing vegetable matter, that both animal and plant
detect such minute beings in the water we drink ;
life flourishes.
and unless water has been contaminated from an Referring now to the illustrations, we find in Fig.
infected source, it may be doubted whether such I a microscopical enlargement of a small drop of
Bacteria are to be found at all in ordinary drinking sediment from London water. Here are seen, firstly,
or river waters. In ordinary waters there are the water-fleas, Daphnia (No. i), Cyclops (No. 17),
usually to be found crowds of the little plants and Cypris (No. 18). These active little beings
known as Diatoms, such as are depicted in Fig. 2, flit through the water, swimming actively by means
in large numbers, but these are absolutely harm- of their tail or feet. The females, as shown in No.
less to animal life. The Amoebae (Fig. i. Nos. 16 and 1 7, bear outside egg-sacs, in which the eggs are con-
9) show that possibly there may be some decaying tained and developed. In No. 18, the Cypris is
matter in the water but although they do not
;
seen to be enclosed in a kind of double shell,
occur in clear waters of first-class nature, their whilst the Daphnia (No. i) is known as the
presence has not yet been associated with disease. “ branched-horned water-flea,” from the divided
Infusorian animalcules, and particularly the character of its feelers or antentice. The Infu-
ParamcEciu 7n (Fig. i. No. 3), are often found in great sorian animalcules (Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,) belong to
quantities in water. In 1850, Dr. Hassall noticed the lowest animals. Here the body is fringed with
that the Thames below Brentford, where sewage the delicate processes called cilia, which possess
LIVING BEINGS IN WATER. 351
a power of incessant movement, and which thus by j

of the Thames, whilst in some regions the waters
their actions propel these beings through the water. exhibit special characters. In Fig. 2 the water of
These Infusorians vary from the jJ^th to the Et^nsth the Seine is shown at Port h I’Anglais. Here the
of an inch in length. The curious “ sun animalcules,” prevailing features are seen to consist of crowds of
or Aciinophrys (No. 7), are a near relation of the Diatoms (Nos. i, 7, 8, &c.) with Infusorian animal-
Amoeba, and throw out from their bodies stiff fila- cules (Nos. 19, 20 j, a water -flea (No. 23), a water-
ments of their living substance, a protoplasm., from worm (No. 17), lower plants (No. 10), and other forms
which peculiarity their popular name has been de- of vegetable life. In the waters of the Vaune (Fig. 3)
rived. The Amcebce (Nos. 8, 9, and 16) are amongst we discern an absence of animal-life, but instead we
the most interesting of all organisms, for they con- find a rich sediment of plant-matter. Diatoms (Nos.
sist each of a minute speck of protoplasm, which is I, 3, 5, 6) are abundant, the intricacy of the pattern
perpetually changing its shape, and which engulfs in the case of No. i being clearly shown. In Fig. 3
food-particles by throwing its soft body around part of a Conferva, in the course of reproduction, is
them. also seen, whilst the broken-down tissues of leaves

Lower forms of plant-life come next in order. and othfer plant-debris (Nos. 9, 10, 12) show this
Fig. 5.— FROM THE SEINE AT CHAILLOT.
The Protococcus pluvialis (No. 10) is a minute form water to be largely impregnated with plant-life.
of lower plants, which consist each of a single cell. The well-water of Crenelle (Fig. 4) is still more
The red snow plant, which dyes the snow of the distinctive, since we see therein the growth and pro-
Arctic regions of a deep red hue, belongs to this pagation of some lower forms of fungi. The long-
group. The Diatoms and Desmids (Nos. ii and 12) branching threads (No. 2) are highly characteristic of
are specks of living matter, which enclose their plant- life of this description, whilst scattered through
bodies in cases of flinty matter, and which often the water are the spores or germs, which are des-
exhibit sculpturing of the most beautiful kind on the tined in due time to give origin to other fungoid
outside of these cases. Theconfervce (No. 13) are The Seine water at Chaillot (Fig. 5)
growths.
represented by the lower plants, which, in the form resembles that depicted in Fig. 2. Animal and
of the “ green mantle of the stagnant pool,” so plant life are here found in abundance. The curious
commonly attract our notice in the warm months water- worm (No. 9) reappears here, making its way
of summer. The spores or germs of fungi are through a literal forest of vegetable matter, and a
figured at No. 14, and one of the curious “water-eels,” huge water-flea (No. 7), viewed from its under surface,
allied to the vinegar-eels (seen in sour paste and is also depicted. The Diatoms (Nos. 2, 3, 10) are
vinegar) is also shown at No. 19. These latter plentiful, and vegetable matters of higher kind are
forms belong to the group of curious worms named represented in this sediment. The water of Arcueil
Nematoids by zoologists. (Fig. 6) contains vegetable matter but, in addition, ;
The microscopical examination of the waters of we find the curious fixed “bell animalcules”
other countries reveals certain similarities to that (No. 5), which possess crowns of the cilia already
mentioned, and which sweep food-particles into their I
find its way. Here the contamination must have
mouths by means of the waving of these filaments. found its way either from the adjoining soil, or
Plant-spores (No. 1), and probably part of a curious
1 have been blown into the water from above. The
form of animal-life allied to the Sea-mats, or ;
vitality of these lower forms of plant-life is sur-
Folyzoa, is shown at No. 3 in Fig. 6. The water of )
prising even to those who are best acquainted
Fig. 7. — FROM THE MARNE.
Fig. 8. — FROM THE DHUIS.
the Marne brings us face to face with

(Fig. 7), with the nature of animal and plant life. But
curious rhizopods (No. 9), known as Radiolaria^ the examination of these waters may serve to show
while the Diatoms reappear (Nos. i 4) therein but — ;
us, besides, thewide variety of life which may
lower plant-life comes to the front in the Dhuis be represented in a water-drop, and which exists^
water (Fig. 8), wherein we find fungous growths as a rule, all unknown to and unsuspected,
and the budding branches of plants belonging to even by the world of thinking persons which
this tribe. Deep down water of an artesian
in the rightly regards water as a prime necessity of
well at Passy, near Paris, vegetable life seems to healthy life.
k'A-sVI\f7K
nP"
lAPT^TTVQ
FLOATING GARDENS AND FIELDS. 353
FLOATING GARDENS AND FIELDS. which are raised forthem under mats, and are
thus used when have four leaves. Three of
titey
Amongst the most remarkable illustrations of them are planted on the top of each of the hillocks
human energy, industry, and ingenuity are the which run in double rows along the sides and ends
floating fields and gardens which exist in the valley of the bed, separated with a distance of about two
of Kashmir, in Eastern Asia, and on Lake Tezcuco, feet between each. Tracts of these beds covering
in the valley ofMexico, America. from fifty to sixty acres are thus kept afloat. The
In the country separating India and China there depths of the mat of weeds and the soil range
is much that moves the traveller’s wonder, but from two to three feet, and they are capable of
nothing, perhaps, more interesting than the construc- bearing a man’s weight. It would be difficult to
tions shown in our engraving —
the floating gardens conceive a more expeditious or economical way of
on the lake, or Dol, by the little old city so famous raising cucumbers and melons than this represents,
for its shawls, called of old Srinagar, and now and the success of the growers is extraordinary.
known as Kashmir. The beautiful expanse of Moorcroft, in his “ Travels in the Himalayan Pro-
water is situated at the foot of the hill called the vinces,” says, “ I have never seen in the cucumber
Hari-parbat, or Kohi-maran.
about nine It is and melon grounds of very populous cities in
miles in circumference, and in shape almost cir- Europe, or in Asia, so large an expanse of plant
cular. Towards the hill it forms several canals, in a state equally healthy and he adds, “ This
of which the chief. Raini-war, flows westward, condition indicated the situation to be congenial to
Most
receiving the water of other smaller canals. the constitution of the cucumber, of which,.however,
of these canals have been faced with stone, and a more substantial proof was found in the very
a large portion of this material large number of young fruit set near the crown,
appears to have
been derived from ancient Hindu temples, the which certainly exceeded what I have before wit-
sculptured surfaces having been turned inwards. nessed in the usual modes of cultivating this vege-
The air and soil of Kashmir derive superabundant table. It has been noticed thai the top of each
moisture from the snows of winter and frequent mound is formed into a cup, or hollow, which is sur-
rains ;
hence the numerous rivers and canals. rounded by a circle or belt of weed. This prevents
In the formation of these floating gardens of the male dust from being dissipated, and causes
Kashmir, their owners avail themselves of the the fecundating process to be as complete as can
thick growth of grasses and aquatic plants which be wished.” The general arrangement is a line of
spring up from the bottom of the lakes, as water cucumber cones bordering each edge, and one of
lilies, confervse, sedges, reeds, &c., all intertwined water or of musk melons along the middle. The
and entangled one with another. Avenues are cut cucumbers are sold, three for a coin of which
amongst these by the boats, separating them into the value in English money would be about
angular sections of varying lengths and breadths. a halfpenny when they are dear, and when
The plants and grasses are then cut away from cheap the same coin will purchase from ten to
their roots at a depth of about two feet under the twenty. To prevent robbery, the gardens are
water. When so detached they retain their solidity, guarded through the night by watchmen in boats,
and are pressed somewhat more closely together. with the common mat-coverings, under which they
Sedges, twigs, reeds, and roots are next placed over sleep by turns. The floating gardens are generally
the patch lengthways, and over these mud is spread, shut in by a belt of floating reeds, which also serve
fished up from the bottom of the river. This to protect the cones from wind. The boatways
gradually permeates and binds together the matted through the fences are closed by twisted withes of
mass of twigs, reeds, and rushes, and when the willow twigs passing from one bed to another.
surface ismade, willow stakes are driven
thus In the environs, and on the banks of the lake,
through it and down into the bed of the lake, so are the remains of handsome summer palaces and
that the floating garden will rise or fall with the gardens, which belonged to the ancient princes of
rising or sinking water, but will not escape from its Mogul, with terraces, and fountains,
cascades,
place. By means of a long pole thrust amongst fruit and flower gardens, on a symmetrical
laid out
the weeds at the bottom of the Dol and twisted plan like that of the old French gardens, with
round several times in one direction, a quantity of alleys, or shady avenues, crossing each other at
plants are brought up and carried in the boat to |
regular angles in accordance with geometrical
the prepared platform, or raft, where they are j
designs. Of these famous gardens the most inte-
twisted into conical hillocks about two feet in resting is that of the Emperor Jehanger, which
circumference at the base and the same high. A was enclosed by a canal communicating with the
hollow place is made on the top of each, and this lake.
is filled with the soft river mud, to which is some- Floating gardens and fields, called Chinampas,
times, but not often, added wood-ashes. These are also exist in Mexico, where they were originally con-
for the reception of melon and cucumber plants, structed to afford the inhabitants protection against
TT
invaders. They are raised with reeds, bushes, turf, loger was a famous one (the Hidrophel of
and mud, and were sometimes big and strong enough “Hudibras”), William Lilly, the son of a
to support a small dwelling house. These floating Leicestershire yeoman, who had been taught the
garden beds are still to be found anchored upon art by another astrologer named Evans. When
the waters of the Chaleo canal, and, says a modern the king was confined at Hampton Court, and
traveller, “They look right cheerful, surrounded meditating escape, he sent secretly to Lilly desiring
with balsams, and pinks, and border flowers, and him to discover by the stars where the king could
planted with plump cabbages, lettuce, and pars- be most securely concealed. The King of Sweden
nips.” also employed Lilly, and on one occasion sent
him as an expression of gratitude a very hand-
some gold chain with a medal struck in his honour.
ASTROLOGY. When the Parliament met in London after the
Great Fire, Lilly was ordered to appear before the
When men, filled with awe and wonder, began to M.P.’s in the House of Commons to be exam.ined
guess wildly and vaguely at the deeper mysteries of as to his foreknowledge of that awful calamity, in
the universe, astrology came into being ;
when order that the authorities might be the better able
science arose, the chimerical speculations of the to trace it to its origin ! He answered as follows :
star-readers were displaced by clearly-demonstrated “ May it please your honours, — After the behead-
facts, and astronomy took its place. But the pro- ing of the late king, considering that in the three
cess of displacement was a slow one, and neither subsequent years the Parliament acted nothing
Tycho Brahe nor Kepler, eminent as they were in which concerned the settlement of the nation in
astronomy, altogether abandoned the fanciful pre- peace and seein’g the generation of the people
;
tensions of ancient astrology. The old Jews and dissatisfied, the citizens of London discontented,
Persians believed that Seth, son of Adam, was the and the was desirous,
soldiery prone to mutiny, I
first astrologer, and Josephus says that the Egyptians according to the best knowledge God had given
derived their first knowledge of astrology from me, to make inquiry' by the art I studied, what
Abraham, although the Egyptians themselves trace might from that time happen unto the parliament
it to Thoth or Solhus. The astrological em- and the nation in general. At last, having satisfied
blems of the Chaldean magi, and those of myself as well as I could, and perfected my judg-
the most ancient nations of whom we have any ment therein, I thought it most convenient to sig-
—
record Indian^ Chinese, Persian, and Egyptian, nify my intentions and conceptions thereof, in
together with the Greek and Roman were the — types, hieroglyphics, &c., without any commentary',
same, bearing the same or nearly the same that so my judgment might be concealed from the
names, those now in use as emblems of the vulgar, and made manifest only to the wise, I
seasons being Roman. The earliest ideas of which herein imitating the examples of many wise philo-
these figures and names were symbolical related to a sophers who had done the like.” He then goes on
son of the supreme Deity by a virgin, and a terrible to say that these types and hieroglyphics clearly
serpent or scorpion whom her son was destined to foretold to those who were as wise as he was,
destroy, and by whom, as was sometimes stated, he first the great plague, and then the great fire, of
was to be wounded in the heel. Each emblem was London.

supposed to have its prophetic bearing on the grand Hearing how he was so wondrously wise after the
problems of futurity, and in process of time, when event, one of the appointed special committee
the ancient meanings of astrology had grown uncer- gravely asked, “ Did you foresee the year ? ” “ I
tain and obscure, its professors applied it to the did not,” answered Lilly, “ nor was desirous of ;
future of individuals, and professed by its aid to that I made no scrutiny.” When asked how the
foretell all the chief events of other people’s lives. fire originated, the astrologer answered that it was
Before it became a mere tool in the hands of im- not man’s work, but God’s. The predictions he
postors it had been largely applied to other forms referred to were some woodcuts of burning houses,
of prophecy, viz., the weather, the coming political and figures in graveclothes, and graves but he ;
events of the new year, and the fortunes of men and had figures embellished in like way of most other
women. Its professors had, or were said to have, a calamities in the same book, all stated to be enig-
systematic form of investigation on which their pre- matical indications of future events, foretold many
dictions were based. Thus, in the case of fortune- hundreds of years in advance !
telling by the stars, or in other words casting any Astrology either still does, or until lately did, pre-
person’s horoscope, inquiries were made as to the serve its importance in Persia, where some thirty
exact time of birth, to ascertain what sign the sun years ago the Shah had his regularly-appointed
was in, and the relative positions of the planets. Royal Astrologer, without consulting whom no
King Charles I. was a strong believer in astrology, Persian Minister would venture to conclude a
as most persons then were. His favourite astro- political transaction, or even arrange a state cere-
.
ASTROLOGY. 355
monial. The warlike Khans and Begs of Khorasan greatness of Cosmo di Medici, when he was
and Kourdistan never started upon their murderous merely an obscure citizen, ranking him with
and plundering expeditions without consulting the Augustus Caesar and the Emperor Charles \
planets to discover what time would be most pro- Kepler, the astronomer, cast nativities, although
pitious, and even the wandering Pindarri and prowl- he sometimes confessed that nothing but mere worth-
ing Thugs were scrupulous in committingtheir crimes less conjectures could be advanced by such means,
in exact accordance with astrological indications. and hinted that his necessity but not his will con-
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries astrology sented when he performed such experiments.
was accepted as truthful by people of all ranks, and A Roman astrologer of the fifteenth centur)’,
was openly and magnificently patronised by the named Antiochus Tibertus, employed by Pandolfi
most powerful of European princes, especially in di Malatesti, king of Rimini, although he lived in
France, where kings, statesmen, courtiers, and even great honour, and acquired wealth, ended his days
priests, sought its aid regularly, and received its on the scaffold. It was said of him that long
prophecies with profound faith. Both Louis XI. before his end he confessed that the stars foretold
and Catherine de Medici had their private astro- that he would die as he did, for the crime of
logers, and it was in consequence of a prediction treason but this does not appear to have been said
;
of her death that the latter abandoned her new of him before the event had taken place.
palace, the Tuileries, directly after its completion, Up to the beginning of the present century the
the name of the parish in which it stood being “ science of astrology,” as it had been called, still
astrologically associated with that inevitable event. had a large number of believers, as may be seen
At the birth of Louis XIV. a celebrated German by referring to advertisements in old newspapers.
astrologer was consulted to cast his nativity, the Some of the newspapers used to publish weekly
result of which process was solemnly communicated astrological predictions, and we find as late as 1774
to the Court with formal state. The prediction was this practice still flourishing in the London Evening
briefly given it was, “ DU), dure, feliciter^' and a
;
Post, in a number of which J. Harman, of High
medal was struck to commemorate it. Street, St. Giles, foretells the election of Wilkes to
Astrology was a particularly lucrative profession the mayoralty of London, on the ground that the
in the days of Shakespeare and Queen Elizabeth, planet Saturn w’as just entering Libra. As a matter
although it was not honoured with such royal of fact the liverymen elected Aldennan Bull. In
patronage as it received in France and other the Universal Magazine of February, 1775, it is re-
Roman Catholic countries. The most famous corded that an astrologer in Fleet Street, while con-
astrologers of that time were Drs. Dee, Lamb, had his place robbed by thieves.
sulting the stars,
and Forman. It had very devout believers The growth of knowledge gradually and surely
amongst the Roundheads who fought with Crom- destroyed this folly and superstition, though it still
well, and on one occasion, on the eve of one of lingers among the ignorant and credulous here and
the Cromwellian battles, a soldier mounted an there. As a modern philosopher (La Place) wrote :
eminence and, as the troops filed past, cried out :

—
“ Equally deceived by the imperfections of his
“ So hear what Lilly sayeth. You are in this month senses and the illusions of his self-love, man long
promised victory fight it out, brave boys, and then
;
considered himself to be the centre of the move-
read that month’s prediction ” Neither history nor ment of the stars. And his vanity has been
!
tradition tell what Lilly paid for such a magnificent punished by the terrors to which they have given
advertisement of his prophetic book. rise. At length ages of labour removed the veil
The learned Elias Ashmole was one of William which concealed the system of the world from him.
Lilly’s former friends, and it was at his cost that a He then found himself placed on the surface of a
marble tomb was erected over the astrologer’s grave planet so small as to be scarcely perceptible in that
in the chancel of Walton Church. solar system which itself is but a point in the
The chief astrologer at the court of Henry 11 pf infinity of space. The sublime results to which his
.
France was a physician named Nostradamus, a discoveries have conducted him are fit to console
native of Provence and Charles IX., who consulted him for the rank which they assign to the earth.
;
him in 1 564, made him a councillor of state as well Therefore we should employ every endeavour to
as the royal doctor. His biographer says “ I preserve and increase these exalted sources of
:
should be too prolix were I to tell all the honours knowledge, the delight of all thinking beings. They
conferred upon him, and all the great nobles and have rendered important services to navigation and
learned men that arrived at his house from the geography but the greatest of all benefits which
;
very ends of the earth, to see and converse with they have conferred upon society must be found in
him as if he had been an oracle.” the removal of the fears excited by celestial pheno-
In the fifteenth century an astrologer named mena, and the confutation of error created by our
Basil, a resident in Florence, was greatly famous ignorance of the true relations which we bear to
all through Italy. It is said he foretold the future Nature.”
-

W H A EES. But the most important difference, and the
cold.
one which raises the whale to a zoological position
Any one having but a superficial knowledge of far higher than that of a fish, is seen in the fact
zoology, if asked to describe a whale, would most that the young of the whale is born alive, and is
probably say that it was a very large fish and if nourished by its mother’s milk. Fishes, as a rule,
;
the correctness of his opinion were called in ques- though with some exceptions that of the stickleback, —
tion, he might refer his inquirer to “Johnson’s Dic- for instance, as we have seen in a previous article
tionary,” where the creature is similarly defined. —
have not the advantage of parental care. They
This mistake is a not unnatural one. The creature are hatched and developed from ova, seemingly
GREENLAND WHALE.
has all the appearance of a fish, and is never seen without attention, and without any defender against
out of the water, unless by some accident its body their many enemies.
is stranded on the shore but a few considerations
;
There is another point which identifies the whale
will teach us why this giant of the seas should be with the Mammalia. The
is double, and
heart
classed among the Mammalia, and form a part of therefore capable of receivingand propelling the
the large sub-kingdom to which we as human beings blood throughout the system. Even in anatomical
also belong. To begin with; breathe by gills,
fishes- structure we can find a resemblance to man, and
obtaining the oxygen for their support from the water; that is in the pectoral fin. In the human arm we
whales, on the other hand, breathe by lungs, find the shoulder-bone, to which is attached the
coming up to the surface of the water periodically upper arm, then the radius and ulna, and lastly,
fora breath of fresh air, just as we should have to five fingers. In the whale we have a stunted copy
do if similarly circumstanced. A fish is covered of this arrangement, but the fingers instead of —
with scales a whale is not so covered and while
; ;
being so wonderfully gifted as those of man are—
the blood of the latter is warm, a fish’s blood is are covered with a thick skin, and serve much the
WHAT.ES. 357
same purpose that a balancing-pole docs to a the orifice is entirely tilled with this hairy curtain.
tight-rope walker, for the powerful tail is not only When mouth closes, the plates of baleen lie
the
a weapon, but the principal organ of locomotion. back, packed away in regular order, until the
The skin of the whale consists of cells filled opening of the mouth causes them once more to
\vith fat, and this dense covering serves the spring forward spontaneously (for the creature has
animal as a great coat in keeping its body no more muscular power to move them than we
warm in the cold seas which it inhabits. Un- have to move our teeth), ready for their work.
fortunately for it, this great coat, or blubber, is Thfs work is that of a sieve, or perhaps we might
valuable as furnishing used for burning, for
oil rather say a net, in that the baleen is used to catch
dressing jute, and other purposes and for this oil ;
the prey upon which the monster feeds. One
the creature is hunted down by its brother mamma- might naturally suppose that such a giant carcase
lian, man. The weight of a well-nourished Green- must be nourished by preying upon the larger kinds
land whale having a length of 6o feet is, according of fish but, strange to say, the food of the whale
;
to Scoresby, seventy tons. Of this vast weight the consists of minute creatures, with which the
THE SPERM WHALE.
blubber accounts for thirty tons, the bones ten tons, northern seas teem abundantly. At feeding-time
and the rest of the carcase the remaining thirty. the whale will swim lazily along to and fro, with
But the right, or whale-bone, whales which we — his capacious mouth wide open, to secure as many
fear are gradually becoming exterminated by the of these tiny creatures as he can. Then, closing
rapacity of whalers— is a much smaller animal, the mouth, the contained water is ejected, leaving
measuring generally 47 or 48 feet long. But it is the mass of living food caught in the meshes of the
very valuable, on account of the high price of the baleen, to be afterwards swallowed. As there are
so-oalled whale-bone, which, in reality, is not bone generally about 300 slips of whale-bone, or baleen,
at all. The bones of the whale are, in fact, almost on each side of the head, it will be readily under-
valueless, unless ground up for manure or put to- stood that a thicket is formed capable of securing
gether as museum skeletons. The so-called whale- very minute creatures. The whale-bone whale has
bone, used chiefly for ladies’ dresses, is, in reality, no teeth, nor does he require any, for his capacious
more like hair which has been glued into a com- tongue is quite capable of rubbing to a pulp any
pact mass, and it can be separated into what seem food which comes in his way. So we find that old
to be single hairs by hammering. This baleen, as was partly correct when he said that “ the
Aristotle
it is called, serves a very important office in the whale has hairs in his mouth like the hairs of a
domestic economy of the whale. It hangs like a pig.”
dense fringe from the upper jaw of the animal, so The whale has many enemies besides man, who
that when the creature opens its capacious mouth persecute him to the utmost of their power. It often
.

falls a prey to the sword-fishes, which attack him The whale-hunting and the methods
perils of
sometimes in regiments, and although he attempts by which the creature is killed are almost too well-
to ward by lashing about him
off their terrible stabs known to require anything but brief notice here.'
with his powerful they often succeed in killing
tail, Suffice it to say that as soon as a whale is sighted,
him. Another enemy is the Greenland shark, who the ship’s boats are launched, and approach their
will endeavour banquet on his huge carcase, living
to prey as noiselessly as possible. The harpoon is
or dead. The its two-edged weapon,
saw-fish, with —
thrown sometimes fired from a gun and directly —
also represents a deadly foe to the poor whale. A the monster feels its stab, it either dives or rushes
parasite (the whale louse) also does its best to make off at tremendous speed, until forced once more to
the life of the animal miserable, and the constant come to the surface of the water for
air. This
gnawing of these pests often covers the skin with moment looked for as the opportunity for
is
horrible sores. Barnacles and seaweed attach planting another weapon in the creature’s carcase.
themselves to the living carcase as they will to a Gradually his movements become more and more
floating log of wood. So we may conclude that languid as exhaustion comes upon him, until at last
the life of this monarch of the deep is not altogether he dies. The carcase is then lashed to the side of
an enviable one. the vessel, the blubber and baleen are removed,
Another species of whale is known as the Great and the rest cast away to form the food of the many
Northern Rorqual, which, although often greater in denizens of the ocean. Formerly harpoons were
length than the always thrown,
Greenland variety, there being no dif-
is not so bulky. ficulty in approach-
Occasionally these ing the whales but ;
monsters have been long persecution

stranded on the has so thinned their
coasts of North ranks, and made
Britain and such
; them so shy, that
an event occurred the gun harpoon
not many years ago has now become
in the Island of not only general,
Lewis, West Coast but almost a neces-
of Scotland. This sity of the whale
whale is reported fishery. As the har-
to have measured poon can thus be
105 feet in length, launched from a
HARPOONED WHALE “SOUNDING."
but there was some much greater dis-
difficulty in veri- tance, the boat’s
fying the statement, for of the
the inhabitants crew are also much less likely than formerly to fall
island quickly did their best to hack the carcase victims to the sudden attacks of the wounded and
to pieces, in order to secure the more valuable infuriated animal. Even with the aid of gunpowder,
parts. This species of whale is not nearly so however, it seems strange that so vast a creature
valuable as the whale the baleen is very
right ;
should be so easily slain.
much shorter, and of a coarser kind it is, in : A method of whale-killing peculiar to the fjords
short, adapted for a different kind of prey. Her- of Norway may not be familiar to our readers.
rings and mackerel form its chief food, and the When a whale finds its way through the narrow inlet
Scotch fishermen are rather inclined to protect than of one of these Qords, he often fails to recognise
to pursue it, because it shows them by its blowing the passage again. The inhabitants are all on
where to cast their nets with certainty of success. the alert to compass his destruction, and this they
In the southern hemisphere are found the whales manage without the smallest risk to themselves.
known as hump-backs and fin-backs, neither of They shoot an arrow high in the air, so that
which are considered valuable. But besides these, when it descends it will if aimed well bury it- — —
there is the spermaceti whale, which is hunted as self in the back of the whale. The arrow is a
industriously as those in northern seas. The short piece of iron, and the older and rustier it is
spermaceti, or “sperm” whale, is' outwardly dis- the better it fulfils its purpose. The iron works it-
—
tinguished by its enormous head equal to one- self down in the flesh to some vital part, or makes a
third the entire bulk of the animal — from which the poisoned wound that soon brings the whale to the
spermaceti is taken being in fact known as “ head- surface dead. A loose wooden shaft is fastened to
;
matter” in the early days of whaling. The sperm the iron dart, and marks on this shaft indicate to
w^hale is considered more savage than the Green- whom it belongs therefore no dispute can arise as ;
land whale. to the dealer of the fatal li'ow.

—
THE TELEPHONE. 359

THE TELEPHONE. thismeans, every time the battery circuit was
opened or closed by the vibrating membrane at
Of the many
wonderful scientific discoveries and the transmitting station, the knittir;g-needle (or
inventions which have made the nineteenth century electro-magnet, which in reality
it was) was caused
remarkable, certainly none is of more popular inte- sympathy. Now the difference between
to click in
rest than the simple little piece of apparatus known a mere noise and a musical note, although appa-
as Bell’s articulating telephone. By this instru- rently very wide, is not so theoretically. A tap,
ment it becomes possible to transmit ideas between a treat, or a click, sounded separately, is called a
if
far-distant places, not in the form of signs after- noise ; but if such noises be caused to be rapidly
wards to be deciphered, but as actual articulations,
an echo of those produced by the human voice
at the point of transmission. Hitherto the com-
mon speaking-tube was the only means by which
this end could be accomplished, and it is still of
great service as a means of communication be-
tween different rooms in the same, or adjacent
houses. But its range is limited to a fraction of a
mile. By the telephone, on the other hand, people
have been able to speak to one another although
separated by a distance of one thousand miles.
This distance at present represents the longest
telephone circuit yet established, namely, that
between Chicago and New York.
The word “ telephone ” was first applied by Reiss
of Germany, in 1852, to a piece of apparatus con-
trived by him, by which he was able to transmit
musical sounds, and, to a very limited extent, the
articulations of the human voice, but the words
transmitted were not distinguishable by the re-
ceiver unless he was prepared with a list of them,
or had been previously told what they would
be. Like all other telephones, this —the father
of them —consisted of two distinct parts, a trans-
mitter and
a receiver. The transmitter was,
in the constructed instrument, of a primi-
first
tive kind, for it consisted of a hollowed-out

bung, closed in at one end with a membrane (a
piece of German-sausage skin). In the centre of
this membrane, and attached to it with sealing-
wax, was a strip of platinum, so arranged that
when the skin was thrown into vibration that is —
to say, when it was made to move up and down
the platinum touched a wire, so as to open and
close a battery circuit. Now a membrane of the
kind described, stretched over an opening like a
tambourine, has the property of vibrating in unison
with any musical note sounded near it. Thus, sup- repeated many times in a second, a musical note
posing we sing to such a membrane a note having is the result. In Reiss’s knitting-needle receiver,
250 vibrations per second, the membrane will the clicks, as we have seen, were bound to follow
immediately vibrate in sympathy, and such vibra- one another at a speed in sympathy with the
tions will cause 250 battery contacts in a second. vibrations of themembrane at the transmitting end
Next us briefly describe the receiving instrument.
let of the line wire and as these vibrations agreed with
;
In 1837 an American physicist. Page, discovered those of the note sounded into the instrument, that
that whenever an electro-magnet was magnetised, note was reproduced by the receiver. Such was
or de-magnetised, it creak or click,
gave a little Reiss’s instrument, which must be placed in the
perfectly audible and unmistakable. Reiss took category of tone telephones, to distinguish it from
advantage of this magnetic click in the construc- the far more important articulating telephone.
tion of his receiver, which consisted of a knitting- In Graham Bell’s articulating tele-
Professor
needle surrounded by a coil of insulated wire. By phone we have a much more wonderful instru-
merit. The receiver and transmitter are identical, a vibrating membrane or diaphragm can be made
the operator placing the instrument to his mouth to reproduce speech in this way. Experimentally
or his ear, as the case may be. In actual practice it can be shown by means of a little contrivance
ithas been found an advantage to employ another known as the thread telephone, which is simplicity
form of transmitter so as to gain increased power ;
itself, and requires no electric current. Take two
but the Bell receiver still holds its own and is likely large pill-boxes and remove their ends, stretching
to do so. In form it has been compared to the handle over the openings thus formed a piece of bladder,
of a skipning-rope, and it is certainly not unlike one for each box. To the centres of these diaphragms
one. A wooden or ebonite case contains within it fasten a piece of thread twenty or thirty yards in
a bar magnet. A, about five inches in length (Fig. i.) length, so that you have a kind of tambourine
One pole of this magnet is surrounded by a coil of arrangement at each end of a long line. Two
very fine silk- persons can
covered cop- converse
per wire, B, with the
the ends of greatest ease
which are by means of
carried to this contri-
the posterior vance, each
end of the holding his
instrument little box, and
for easy con- taking care
nection with that the
the line wire. thread is
In front of kept tight

the coil, and between the
as close as two. In this
possible to simple form
the end of of telephone,
the magnet, the vibra-
is fixed a tions of the
very thin air caused by
iron plate, or the speaker’s
diaphragm ;
voice are
and in front taken up by
of this again the mem-
is screwed brane, and
the mouth- the commu-
piece of the Fig. 2. —Gower’s Telephone. n i c a t i n g
instrument. thread causes
This constitutes the whole of Bell’s celebrated the distant membrane to be pulled into the same
telephone. movements. How complicated these movements
We have already seen, in Reiss’s transmitter, are has already been shown in the article entitled
that a membrane will vibrate in unison with any
j
“Sound in Colours,” p. 112. These movements
particular sound submitted to it. The iron plate, ! affect the air, and the original sound is reproduced.
or diaphragm, in Bell’s telephone, acts in much the Instead of the thread, Graham Bell obtains an even
same manner. It is true that is not arranged so i better resultby varying the strength of a current of
as to make and break a battery circuit, yet its being brought about by the to and
electricity, this
movements have a great influence upon the cur- fro motion of the iron disc in front of the magnet.
rent which generated in the coil-wire by its
is Gower’s telephone (shown in Fig. 2) is on
magnetic core. As it vibrates it is of course alter- the same principle as Bell’s, although in out-
nately brought near to and away from the magnet, ward appearance it is entirely different. Its
and these movements cause undulatory currents power is very much greater, owing to the employ-
to traverse the wires leading to the' corresponding ment of a very much stronger magnet. In the
instrument, it may be many miles away. There annexed cut the complete instrument is shown
the currents set up influence the iron diaphragm on the left-hand side, with the tube attached,
to give exactly thesame movements as that of the which serves for signalling, speaking and listening,
transmitting instrument, and the original speech is as required. On the right-hand side we have a dis-
reproduced. sected view of the telephone. The magnet O is in
It may at first seem difficult to understand how form like the letter D, its two poles, N and s, being
THE TELEPHONE. 361
brought close together, turned upwards, and each instrument. 'I'he resistance of the carlron disc
surrounded by a coil of wire. The diaphragm (m) varies with the jjressurc applied to it by the vibra-
forms the lid of the instrument, and the attached ting diaphragm, and corresponding vibrations are
piece marked A (shown larger at T) is a har- ,
set up in the Bell receiver if one be used,
monium reed. By blowing down the tube of the ,
Edison has also invented a very novel form of
instrument this reed is made to sound a signal, ! receiver, which, under the name of the “loud-
which is easily speaking tele-

heard some yards phone,” caused
away from the re- much sensation
ceiving instrument. when first intro-
Attention is thus duced, though not
attracted when adapted for prac-
communication is tical use. un- To
desired ;
but in derstand the action
most forms of tele- of the instrument
phone the ordinary it be necessary
will
electric bell, placed to describe a sim-
on the same line ple experiment. A
wire, is found to be metal plate is con-
the most efficient nected with one
call. pole of a battery,
In Edison’s Car- the other pole being
bon transmitter, fastened to a strip
which, by the way, of flat brass about
acts most efficiently three inches long
with Bell’s receiver, and half an inch
we have an entirely wide. Upon the
different arrange- plate is laid a piece
ment. The instru- of blotting - paper
ment shown in
is damped with a so-
elevation and section in Fig. 3. Within an ebonite lution of caustic potash. When the brass sup is
ring contained a little disc of compressed lamp-
is dragged with some pressure across the surface of
black, one side being attached by a screw to the the wet paper, it naturally meets with some fric-
metallic frame of the instrument, and the other tional resistance ;
but, strange to say, directly the
side covered with platinum foil. On this foil rests current is to flow through the slip all
allowed
a plate of glass, to which is cemented a round apparent friction ceases, and the piece of metal
knob of metal. On reference to the section this glides ovêr the paper as over a sheet of ice. So
knob will be noticed lightly touching the iron much for the discover}' now let us see its clever
;
diaphragm, which is placed at the mouth of the application in Edison’s “ loud-speaking telephone.”
U u
In Fig. 4 we have the most essential parts of in use, but the original Bell Telephone, as we
the instrument. A cylinder of hardened chalk (a), indicated before, is still the best of all receivers.
in connection with one pole of a battery, is Although the telephone system is making good
moistened with the caustic potash. (This chalk so progress in England, it is far more largely used in
far resembles the blotting-paper in the above America. Our last illustration represents its ex-
experiment.) Resting upon it, and pressed down tended application m the streets of Chicago, where
by a spring is a slip of metal (c), the other end street accidents or fires are readily announced by
of which is connected with a diaphragm made of its aid, street stations like that represented being
mica (d). When the undulatory current, caused by liberally provided for communication with the cen-
a speaker’s voice at the distant station, reaches the tral and branch police offices.
1
1111 i.
iii nfUlii
STREET TELEPHONE STATION IN CHICAGO.
chalk cylinder, which is kept in rotation, the metallic CATACOMBS.

piece (c) is kept continually slipping on the chalk,
and so throwing the attached diaphragm into vibra- Thk various labyrinths, known as Catacombs, have
tion. Well may this instrument be called “ loud- originated in different ways. Those in Paris, for
speaking,” for under the best conditions it can be instance, were originally quarries, from which the
made literally to shout. We once had the opportu- material for building the city itself w'as taken.
nity of hearing its performance before an audience of The excavations thus made w'ere afterwards en-
2,000 people, the speaker being distant half a mile. larged, underground tunnels being dug
fanciful
Songs, speeches, a cornet solo, were all rendered as out, which naturally enough suggested themselves
loudly as if the performers had been in the same as suitable places of interment for the dead. A
hall. Unfortunately, the chalk cylinder is easily somewhat similar origin is attributed to the well-
by changes of w'eather, and although it
affected known Catacombs at Rome, and others much less
was attempted to render the instrument commer- pretentious in extent. Those in Egypt, which are
cially available, such efforts were speedily aban- reckoned by far the most extraordinary, are sup-
doned. There are various transmitters at present posed to ow'e their existence to the strange feelings
a
CATACOMBS.
with which the ancient Egyptians regarded the lengthwise, generally in three tiers, one above the
dead, and which also gave rise to the elaborate other. On the tile that closes the niche is en-
process of embalming the corpses of men and the graven sometimes the name of the deceased, some-
sacred animals. times the letters Xp, which are taken to mean
The most remarkable of the Egyptian Cata- pro Christo. In these damp and dreary caverns the
combs are those at Thebes, consisting of the bodies of more than 74,000 martyrs are said to
Necropolis —a Greek name, signifying “ the city of have been deposited, amongst the number being
the dead” — and the sepulchres of the ancient reckoned St. Peter himself. Paintings, in a re-
kings. These sepulchres are the oldest known markable state of preservation, have been found
Catacombs, and are traceable back 4,000 years. in them also. Some are evidently Pagan, showing
Notwithstanding their great antiquity, however, that the Christians did not have exclusive posses-
nearly all Catacombs have been rifled of sion
of these but others contain indubitably Christian
;
their contents and stripped of their treasures. emblems. At some places a depth of eighty feet
The mummies also have been abstracted and is reached, and so complicated and intertwined
experimented upon, for the sake of discovering are these gloomy passages, that without a guide
the secrets of the Egyptian art of embalming. An none who enter could ever find their way back.
1
idea of what these Catacombs once were may be There is little doubt that more than one rash
\
gleaned from the following extract, taken from a visitor has thus miserably perished of starvation.
|
description by an artist who visited them before At different times these mazes of gloomy passages
they had been completely dismantled “ I dis- :
— j
i
have furnished inaccessible retreats for gangs of
covered some little chambers, on the wall of which banditti, who have made them their home, or at
were represented all kinds of arms, such as least their abiding refuge.
panoplies, coats of mail, tigers’ skins, bows, arrows, The Catacombs of Paris are usually designated
quivers, pikes, javelins, sabres, helmets, and whips; the charnel-house, a name that from the usual
in another was a collection of household utensils, descriptions of the place seems scarcely strong
such as caskets, chests of drawers, chairs, and enough to suggest the horrors that it reveals. It
beds, of exquisite forms, and such as might
all contains the bones of 2,300,000 persons, arranged
well grace the apartments of modern luxury '
in a manner so grotesque as to make one stand
Besides these were represented various smaller aghast at the degree of levity or profanity that
articles, such as vases, coffee-pots, ewers with man seems to be capable of exhibiting. On each
their basins, a tea-pot, and basket. Another side of the visitor, as he advances, torch in hand,
chamber was consecrated to agriculture, in which through the dismal tunnels, are piled, beginning at
were represented all its various instruments — the bottom, first “ a row of thigh bones, with the
sledge similar to those in use at present, a man large round end outwards, as regularly as a piece of
sowing grain by the side of a canal, from the masonry, about the height of two feet a row of
for ;
borders of which the inundation is beginning to skulls, with the back part outwards, follows these ;
retire, a field of corn reaped with a sickle, and next the arm bones, in the same regular manner,
fields of rice with men watching them. In a fourth for two feet more and then another row of skulls
;
chamber was a figure clothed in white, playing on with the teeth outwards lastly, on these are placed
;
a richly-ornamented harp with eleven strings.” other bones, arranged as before to the height of
Next in importance to the Egyptian Catacombs, six or seven feet.” The remains of many of the
and possessing, perhaps, more interest for us as the victims of the great Revolution are here interred ;
reputed place of worship of the early Christians the chief reason, however, for the incredible
in times of persecution, and also their final resting- number of bones is the fact that the churchyards
place when dead, are the Catacombs at Rome. and other burial-places in Paris were, subsequent
The Catacombs, provided with wax
visitor to these to the introduction of extramural interment, emptied
candles, follows the guide down a rude staircase of their contents, which were removed to these
into a labyrinth of very narrow passages, wide dark abodes. The public are no longer admitted
enough to admit only one person at a time. to thischamber of horrors.
These passages, branching out in various direc- Besides the Catacombs noticed, there are others
tions, “like the veins in the human body,” con- at Naples, Palermo, and Syracuse in Greece also, ;
verge at irregular intervals, and expand into large and in Asia Minor, in Syria and in Persia at the ;
vaulted chambers resembling churches. Their old town of Citta Vecchia, in Malta, excavations of
length was originally twenty miles at the present; a similar kind are made in the rock upon which
day, however, not more than six miles of these that town stands. Indeed, so widely distributed
tortuous galleries admit of inspection. They are are these subterranean cavities, that men seem to
about five feet in width, and from eight to ten feet have constructed them wherever the nature of the
in height. Along the side walls of the galleries ground was favourable, and they themselves suffi-
are the niches where the dead were deposited ciently advanced to possess the requisite tools.
PROCESSIONAL CATERPILLARS, OR ARMY WORMS
ARMY WORMS. .3(^5
ARMY WORMS. habit of hunting for food has been engendered by

the immense number of larvae that are produced,
Probably the class of insects harbours a greater and by the consequent difficulty of obtaining suffi-
number of curious forms within its limits than any cient food near at hand. Be
may, myriads
this as it
other group of the animal kingdom. The term of these creatures march in squadrons in search of
“ curious ” may indeed be held to apply not only to food. They attack grasses of all kinds, and wheat-
forms of body, but to anomalies in habits, as well fields are ravaged as they march through them.
as to the marked deviations from a common The journeys are chiefly performed by night, the
type,which we may see represented even within caterpillars hiding themselves by day amidst the •
a very narrow family circle of the insect group. grass. Various expedients are resorted to by way of
Of the curious in insect habits, the processional exterminating these insects, or of prevênting their
caterpillars, or “army worms,” as they are often inroads. Thus the farmers ai'e accustomed to
named, present us with a remarkably interesting 1
burn over tli.e grass-lands in autumn. As they
example. Every one knows that in the life-history march ditches are dug in the line of the proces-
of the butterfly or moth there are represented three sion ;
whilst fowls and pigs are
turned into the
distinct stages. From the egg comes forth the fields in August, by way of repressing the insect-
caterpillar or larva. This, in due time, encloses invaders whilst they are undergoing their trans-
itself in a cocoon, and becomes the quiescent pupa formation, and with the view of preventing their
or chrysalis. From the cocoon, in turn, the butterfly next year’s development.
or moth comes forth, and this in turn, by laying A curious fact has been observed regarding
eggs, will inaugurate the life-history just described the “ army worm,” namely, that it is singularly liable
once more. to the attack of other insects. Ichneumon flies de-
Amongst the Lepidoptera., or “ scale-winged ” in- posit their eggs in the caterpillars, which are fed
and moths are named, the
sects, as the butterflies upon by the developing flies. Yet, despite this war
Leucania uniptinctala of North America is inwhich is waged both by man and neighbour insects
cluded. This moth presents us with an insect- upon these beings, their increase appears to be
type possessing short front win^s, with their outer well-nigh unlimited.
margin nearly straight. It is of a rusty or greyish- '
brown colour, with blackish scales, and having its i
wings spotted with white. From the egg of the NITRO-GLYCERINE.

moth or larva a caterpillar is in due time hatched
out. It may be remarked that the caterpillar pos- upon “ Atoms and Molecules ” (p. 333)
In the article
sesses an entirely different structure from the moth it will already have been, noticed that carbon, espe-
or butterfly. The latter feeds, as is well known, cially, of all the elements there mentioned, seemed
upon the juices of flowers. It drinks up these juices to have a peculiar power of combining with itself;
by means of a long tongue or proboscis with which a certain number of atoms being able to coalesce
i
its mouth is furnished, and its digestive system is into one molecule, and each additional atom being
'
adapted for the digestion of this liquid food. In the basis of a differing compound. Thus we traced
the mouth of the caterpillar, on the other hand, we the formation of methylic, ethylic, propylic, and
find jaws adapted for cutting and dividing the other alcohols. In truth. Carbon is a Protean ele-
leaves on which it feeds, and an organisation ment, capable of thus combining in all sorts of
adapted in turn for the assimilation of this kind of ways and it is even thought that this property may
;
nutriment. The destructive powers of caterpillars, account for the three widely different forms in
;
in short, are largely due to the leaf-feeding habits of which it is found. We know it as a black powder,
these forms, and the gardener knows to his cost like powdered charcoal we know it in hexagonal ;
how quickly and effectually his bushes are stripped crystals graphite., or black lead (Fig. i) we ;
of their leaves by the caterpillar’s demands for know it in clear octahedral crystals as diamond
nourishment. (Fig. 2). All these when pure are pure carbon ;
In the case of the Leucania., we discover that its yet they have entirely different properties in other
caterpillar is somewhat remarkable in respect to respects than in their outward form, and chemists
its destructive powers. It appears as a smooth believe this because the atoms are differently
is
cylindrical creature, tapering somewhat to either ex- grouped or bound together. Did space permit, it
tremity. The body is striped lengthwise with fine would be interesting to follow out one particular
dark lines. In the middle of August the eggs are combination of six carbon atoms, which Kekufo
laid, moth inhabiting the northern States of
the believes to be arranged in the following way :*
America, and itg caterpillar being there known as
*
the “ army worm,” from its processional habits. It is not meant that the atoms are arranged in a hexagonal
but that they are believed to be linked in a chain, so that each
Developed in great multitudes, the caterpillars set carbon atom is bound to carbon by three of its four bonds, arxi
out upon their foraging expeditions. Probably, the has one bond free.
—H H c H ; — H

\ / atom, as in the second diagram, we obtain the
C— well-known glycerine.
\\
—c c— Next suppose we treat this glycerine with strong
\ / nitric and sulphuric acids, the latter having an
c=c intense affinity for water, as we have already seen.
/ \ Nitric acid is known to have the composition
thus spare bond of each atom free
leaving one H N O 3 that is, a single hydrogen and nitrogen
;
for the attachment of other atoms or compound atom combined with three atoms of oxygen and ;
“ radicles.” We
can only say here, that if each of the structure of the molecule is almost certainly
the six spare bonds shown above is satisfied by a this
hydrogen atom, we obtain benzol, a product of O
coal-tar. If one of these hydrogen atoms be re- H— O— Nf
placed, in the manner now understood, by the O
NITRIC ACID.
radicle ethyl* we get another coal-product, toluol
and we substitute for that ethylic radicle, by the
if the nitrogenatom keeping the oxygen atoms apart,
spare bond of the nitrogen, the radicle* and forming, as it were, the Centre of the molecule.
What now happens
H— N— Three of these nitric
I
acid molecules seize

we get anilhie. Now, upon the three
three of such aniline hydroxyl (-0-H)
molecules can be, as radicles in the glyce-
it were, further linked rine ;
the atom of
together by these hydrogen in each
single nitrogen atoms, combines with the
one of which is con- hydroxyl (- -O-H) to
tained in each of form H — O — H, or
them and by then
; water, which is ab-
replacing one or more Fig. I. — GRAPHITE CRYSTAL. 2 —DIAMOND CRYSTA^. sorbed by the sulphu-
of the hydrogen atoms ric acid ;
and the rest
in this triple molecule, of the nitric acid
by different compound radicles, various sal s o molecules, now converted by
the spare bonds into
rosanilme are obtained, now so well known as radicles, attach themselves to the rest of the glyce-
dyes. In an analogous way are formed the whole rine, by these three spare bonds on each side.
immense variety of coal-tar dyes. The result, therefore, is
But we must go back to our orig nal form of
H H H
carbon combination. We have seen already how
H— C—C—C—
I I I
by substituting for one atom of hydrogen in pro-

pane the radicle —O — H
we got pro- (hydroxyl)
000 I I I
pylic alcohol. If instead of one only, we do this

1 I I
for two of the hydrogen atoms, we get what is N N N

called propylic glycol. (There are a whole series 11 11 hW
of glycols, just as of the alcohols and ethers.) The 00 00 00
NITRO-GLYCERINE.
atoms of this may be linked together in several
ways but for the sake of keeping all the subse-
; —
That this is the structure the way the atoms are
quent changes at the bottom of the diagram, we —
grouped of this terrible explosive, is almost cer-
will represent the glycol as in the first of the follow- tain, and we can readily perceive, on reflection, how
ing diagrams :
exactly this structure accounts for the peculiar
H H H H H H nature of its explosive effects.
For let us consider very briefly the nature of
H— C—C—C— H— C—C—C—
I I I I I I
combustion and explosion. Take, first, combustion.

OHO
I I I
I
000 -
I
Heat alone does not necessarily mean burning.
We can make gold red hot, but it does not burn.
I 1 I
H H H H H Burning is the co^nbination of two substances with

PROPYLIC GLYCOL. GLYCERINE. such intense heat as to give light. Mostly one of
the substances is oxygen and when anything else
Now by substituting hydroxyl for a third hydrogen ;
unites with this, with such heat as to cause light,

* The terms radicle, ethyl, and other technical words not ex-
we say it is burnt up. Many substances that
plained here have been made clear in the previous article. usually unite only slowly with oxygen, with con-
—
NITROGLYCERINE. 367
sequently little heat, will really “ burn ” if we supply oxygen. Each particle here, however, must be
more oxygen. The red-hot tip of an iron wire really a mass of many molecules. But in the Nitro-
will really “burn ” in pure oxygen gas and iron in ; Glycerine molecule we see all the elements of
impalpable powder will take fire of itself in the explosion inconceivably close together as close —
open air even filings “ burn,” so as to make bril-
; —
together as actual atoms in the most ticklish, arti-
liant sparks, if shaken through flame. Thus we see ficial,and unstable combination possible to con-
how merely to diminish the size of the combustible ceive. Observe that the composition is Cj NjOy.
particles, and supply more air to them, makes The three carbon atoms only need six oxygen
them burn much faster but still the iron filings,
;
atoms to burn them and six hydrogen atoms
;
however diffused through the air, would never one more than there are would only need the —
“ explode.” On the other hand, we have seen in the three other oxygen atoms to burn them and both ;
article upon “Dust Explosions” (p. 203) that carbon- these substances have the most intense affinity for
aceous dust of any kind, if sufficiently fine and dif- oxygen. Only get the nitrogen— a gas itself— out
fused, will explode. What is the difference ? Chiefly of the way, and these violent combustibles would
that when carbon burns up, the product is a gas attack each other with all the fierceness of “ nascent”
called carbonic acid, which takes up while hot a or as yet uncombined atoms, and all burn up into gas.
great deal of room while the product of the burnt
;
But the ox>'gen is divided, and kept away from the
iron is a solid— mere iron rust. Explosion, then, hydrogen in the most marvellous way by the inert
is a very quick burning which results in gas^ nitrogen atoms. Note again that these nitrogen
expanded by the heat, or otherwise, so rapidly that atoms exhibit here Jive bonds instead of the usual
the air cannot get out of the way. So it is that three two bonds having a strong tendency, prob-
:
lycopodium powder, properly diffused in air, goes ably, to close upon themselves, and all having a strong
off with a roar, almost like an explosion ;
while tendency to close in pairs into nitrogen molecules.*
finer dust actually explodes. We see at once how ticklish is the state of affairs,
But there is a further difference yet. Make a and how on the least disturbance of the dangerous
little heap on a stone or metal plate of iron filings, equilibrium, the oxygen atoms, kept apart at now
lycopodium powder, and loose gunpowder, and i one side of the molecule, will fling themselves upon
apply a lighted match to each. The iron will not the hydrogen and carbon atoms, and the whole
burn at all, and we need not further discuss that. “ explodes.” Here the oxygen is supplied in actual
The lycopodium or dust will, with care, take fire atomic juxtaposition, and hence the inconceivable
and burn slowly like a bit of wood. The gun- rapidity of the explosion. In gunpowder the
powder blazes up in one brief flash, and is gone. chemical union can only take place in successive
Now, why is this ? We know why the dust did layers of particles ;
in the nitro-glycerine, atom is
not go off was not diffused in the air. But

;
it 1 ready for atom in the very same molecule^ while
neither was the gunpowder why did that go off? — the gaseous volume of the products is three times
The whole explanation lies in the saltpetre, which greater than in gunpowder, as well.
contains an enormous quantity of oxygen gas, We also understand perfectly the different cha-
easily set free by heat. Each particle of ignited racter of the explosion in gunpowder and dynamite,
charcoal and sulphur in the powder, finds close to which is simply nitro-glycerine combined with fine
it particles of saltpetre, which supply it with all mineral dust into a paste. If we lay some gun-
the oxygen it requires. Thus each burning par- powder in a hole, or cup, cut in the top of a rock,
ticleof gunpowder, in burning, finds its o wn oxygen it may either flash off, or make a slight explosion,
in neighbouring particles, and so the powder can but will not split the rock having time to push;
explode, without any air at all, in the chamber of a aside the air, and finding that task, gradually
gun. That is why its explosion is so much more though quickly done, the easiest to perform. For
sudden and it is also more violent, because every
;
powder to “ explode ” powerfully, it must be there-
atom (except for impurities) is converted into hot fore confined as in a gun, when it propels the
gas, three hundred times more bulky than the solid bullet or the blasting-hole must be plugged up.
;
powder. We can easily see why, as explained in But the nitro-glycerine expands instantly into a
the article upon “Our Great Guns”(p. 137) powder space three times as great as the powder. Hence,
compressed into solid cubes explodes, or burns, it is actually less work to split the rock than to lift
so much more slowly, — the particles take longer to in an instant the surface of air (at 15 lb. per
fly off, and leave room for the heat to get to the square inch, the pressure of the barometer) sur-
next layer or particle of the saltpetre. rounding the volume of gas into which it expands.
And now consider our molecule of Nitro- Glyce- If it were exploded in a gun-barrel, even with no
rine. The lycopodium had to get oxygen from the bullet at all, it would burst the gun into minute
air. The powder got it more quickly, because near fragments. Its effects are terrific, but they are
every particle of carbon, as fast as ignited by the
sulphur, were particles of saltpetre, which supplied • See pp. 334. 335-
— ,

local, because so perfectly instantaneous. And all THE SMALLEST PEOPLE IN THE
is due to the curious separatmg effects of the inert WORLD.
atoms of nitrogen, keeping apart violently combus-
tible elements in the same complex molecule. On being asked why a certain Miss Davies should
It seems a strange step from Nitro-Glycerine to be so little and a Mrs. so large. Burns wrote
Life but there is a real analogy nevertheless.
;
the following lines upon a pane of glass in the
That Protean element. Carbon, which we have inn at Moffat :
found so interesting, is the basis of all Life on this “ Ask why God made the gem so small,
And why so huge the granite?
earth and is more or less in combination with
;
Because God meant mankind should set
this same nitrogen, as well as with oxygen and That higher value on it."
hydrogen. This may,
I'he four perhaps, be
form the a poetically
vast bulk of turnedcom-
all living p1 ment
i
bodies, and and in that

the nitrogen light maybe
in these also e xcellent
seems to enough, but
play the it can
office of scarcely be
temporarily accepted as
maintaining a good and
combina- sufficient
tions which explanation
are ever of the cir-
liable to cumstance
change. But in question.
the unfa- It is, how-
thoma b 1 e ever, very
mystery of odd that
Vital Force, whilst the
or Life, giants as a
whatever it rule seem
is, does to be weak,
gently and not over-in-
insensibly tell i gent,
what con- and short-
cussion can lived,dwarfs
only per- are often
form with well-propor-
catastrophe tioned, vi-
in the gorous in
deadly ex- intellect,
plosive we and reach a
THE MIDGETS.
have been good old
considering. age. It is
Imperceptibly the nitrogen is liberated in secre- possible that dwarfs receive, owing to their diminu-
tions which give off ammonia and oxygen and ;
tive size, more petting and kindly treatment, while
hydrogen combine into water gradually secreted, giants have rather been the subjects of fear and
or evaporated and the carbon and oxygen com-
; awe.
bine imperceptibly in breathing while on the ;
We do not propose here to give any general
other hand all these elements are taken afresh into catalogue of famous giants, or celebrated dwarfs,
the complex organisation, to be re-woven into its but merely to describe the two most diminutive
substance under the same mysterious control. We people that have ever yet been recorded, and who
have seen the delicacy of the problem. That it were, as “ The Midgets,” exhibited in London in
should be performed thus gently and insensibly 1882, as well as in almost every other part of the
every day, in every living being, is one of the most civilised world.
mavrellous mysteries of our World of Wonders. General Mite was then nineteen years old, two-
— ;
SOME STRANGE WILLS. 369
and-twenty inches high, and weighed only nine was morally vicious, being intended to withhold the
pounds. A German critic, who saw the Midgets enjoyment of property for almost a century, and
when they held a levee in Frederich Street, Berlin, politically mischievous, inasmuch as it would create
waxed eloquent upon their pretty looks and ele- a fund producing a revenue greater than the civil list,
gant proportions. He particularly mentioned the and rendering it possible for its owner to disturb the
General’s liveliness and fondness for jokes, and whole economy of the kingdom. It was, therefore,
also approved of the dramatic power with which asserted that the trusts were such as a court of
he sang, in pure and excellent voice, the “Watch equity could not execute. The cause was heard
on the Rhine,” the warlike spirit flashing the while in the month of December, 1798, before Lord
out of his “beautiful little eyes.” Miss Millie Chancellor Loughborough, in the Hall of Lincoln’s
who will, we hope, pardon our making public Inn. The devises and limitation were there held
secrets which the sex which she adorns are popu- to be valid, and directions given accordingly. An
larly supposed to be averse from disclosing appeal against the Chancellor’s decree, lodged with
was fifteen years old, nineteen inches and a half the House of Lords, was heard in June, 1805. The
high, and weighed seven pounds. She is a very unanimous decision of the judges, pronounced by
neat and pretty little lady, and the General treats Lord Chief Baron Macdonald, confirmed the
her with marked kindness and gallantry, and few decree.
things please him more than a polka with her. This decision occasioned the passing of an Act
—
They share one weakness a decided penchant for restraining thepower of devising for accumulation
chocolate. to twenty-one years, dating from the death of the
The Midgets, like other dwarfs of modern days, testator.
recall the Scottish proverb about “ Gude gear being In 1806 the eldest son of Mr. Peter Thellusson
little bookit.” It be seen that both of them
will was made Baron Rendlesham. On June 9th, 1859,
are considerably less in weight and stature than the question was at last decided, by the death of
Tom Thumb, who was twenty-five inches high and the last person of the nine during whose lives the
weighed twenty-five pounds. accumulations were to continue, and the entire
property was divided into moieties.
Another remarkable will was that of Theodore,
King of Corsica, whose romantic life and melan-
SOME STRANGE WILLS. choly end has often been described. He died in
extreme poverty in 1755, and bequeathed a king-
An affluent London merchant, named Peter Isaac dom, which he had long ceased to possess, to his
Thellusson, died on July 21st, 1797, leaving his creditors. It was all he had —
or hadn’t.
estate, and about one hundred thousand pounds, Sir Astley Cooper’s will bequeathed his body to
to his widow and children, and the remainder, the surgeons for anatomical dissection, but the be-
;^6oo,ooo, to accumulate in the hands of trustees quest was not, we believe, acted upon.
during the lives of his three sons, and those of their During the reign of the Emperor Charles V.,
sons and grandsons, with benefit of survivorship. the will of an attorney who died at Padua left all
If after a specified time no male issue survived, he had to the nearest relative, on condition that
the whole was to go towards paying the National every musician residing in the city, and within ten
Debt. This extraordinary will originated two miles round it, should be present at his funeral
chancery suits, one on a bill brought in by the that twelve young* women dressed in green were to
widow, her sons, daughters, and her daughters’ sing comic songs to the “ mourners,” and make
husbands, to invalidate the trusts and substitute them laugh, and that while his body was lowered
a resulting trust for the heir and next-of-kin and ;
into its grave, the Easter Mass with the Halle-
the other on a cross bill by the acting trustees lujahs should be sung. Permission to set aside
and executors, to substantiate the trusts in the these provisions was applied for, but the judicial
will and dictate the manner of their execution. authorities decreed in favour of the will, painfully
The property was more than half a million sterling absurd and derogatory as they were.
in personalty, and a landed estate of about four The will of Thomas 'Weston, a famous actor,
thousand per annum. The probable amount of who killed himself with drink, and who had always
the accumulated fund, it was stated, would be been deeply in debt and difficulties, bequeathed all
19,000,000, without considering contingent minori- the money he had to Garrick, on the ground that
ties at the end. Eight objections were advanced. he owed him some obligations, and because, as he
The first and' most important was that execu- wrote, “ there is nothing on earth he is so fond of,
tory limitations were originally illegal, and only and he will never know when he has enough.” Gar-
allowed in wills and as trusts in equity, v/hen rick was none the richer for such a bequest, for
adopted to enable reasonable and proper pro- poor Weston seldom was master of a spare
visions to be made and not allowable when a will shilling.
;
V V
— —
37 ° THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
1 he will of the Rev. Sir Richard Stagemore,
amongst the books sold were some volumes of
a rector in Leicestershire, who died in the reign of
Tillotson’s sermons, and that one of them might
Charles II., left to his heirs “fifty dogs of various have contained the money. They went at once to
breeds and colours, one hundred pairs of breeches, the bookseller, asked if he had sold the work, and
four hundred pairs of shoes, one hundred pairs of finding he had not, purchased the volumes and
boots, eighty wigs, eighty waggons and carts, carried them home, where, disposed in several
thirty wheelbarrows, two hundred spades and places singly between the leaves, they found
shovels, fifty saddles and harnesses, and seventy bank-notes for various sums amounting to £700.
ploughs. Another very remarkable fact connected with the
“ I/em
A great
. —
number of canes and little sticks story is this The books had been sent by desire
: —
to walk with, which have been valued at eighty to a gentleman at Cambridge, to whom the book-
pounds sixty horses and mares, two hundred seller regularly forwarded his catalogues, and, not
;
pickaxes and pitchforks, seventy-five ladders, and pleasing him, had been returned.
thirty bayonets, swords, and pistols. In an old volume of the Dublin University
“ Ite7n . —
A large waggon full of books in quires, Magazine a curious will is given, which was set
and a little casket in which there is one thousand aside on the ground that the testator was non
pounds in cash, and sundry trinkets.” co?npos mentis. It ran as follows :
The rev. gentleman’s heir proved to be a com- “ Convinced that my dog has been the most
mon London street porter, who came into posses- faithful of my friends, I declare him the sole
sion of the above, together with landed estates executor of this my last will and testament, and to
valued at seven hundred per annum. him I trust the disposal of my fortune. I have
A will made in favour of the wife of Dr. Martin great cause of complaint against the men : they
Van Butchell, who some sixty or seventy years ago are of no value, either physical or moral ;
my
was a well-known eccentric character in the streets lovers are fickle and deceitful ;
my so-called
of London, was very oddly worded. It entitled friends false and perfidious. Of all the creatures
her to an annuity so long as her body remained that surround me I have found none to possess
“ above ground,” and the Doctor, taking this in its good qualities but Fidele. I dispose of all my
literal sense, still claimed it after her death, on the property in his favour ;
and direct that legacies
ground that the body of his wife was preserved in a may be given' to all those on whom he voluntarily
glass case which he kept in his bedroom. After bestows his caresses, or distinguishes by wagging
his death the corpse of his wife was interred his tail.”
with his own, and the cash reverted to the heirs- The same authority speaks of the following as
at-law. a case on related to a gentleman
record.
It
A building curiously arranged to resemble the hull of good family and large fortune, whose sanity
of a ship, the rooms of which were made to look like no one had ever doubted, and whose habits and
its cabins, used to be pointed out for many years in ideas had never been regarded as eccentric, save
Wandsworth. Upon the top of it a small room, or on one occasion, when he purchased the fee of his
rather turret, used to attract special attention, for estate from the Crown, although he had a lease of
it contained the corpse of its builder and former the lands for 999 years. The manorial rights had
owner, an eccentric old sailor, whose will made never been disputed, and people were naturally
it a condition of inheritance that his body should astonished and perplexed to know why this was
be buried on what he called “the deck” of his done. However, he was generally so exceedingly
ship-house. The house was pulled down by a prudent and oracularly wise in his actions and
railway company about i860. speech, that it was set down to some good reason
A will, which complained that it had been of his own which he chose to keep secret. He
executed to escape the constant importunities of possessed a large handsomely-furnished family
the testator’s wife, was once set aside by the Eccle- mansion, and his estate, with the exception of a
siastical Court on the ground that it had been jointure settled upon his wife, was without incum-
executed under restraint. brance, and at his own disposal. He had three
In the year 1796 a gentleman died leaving a sons and as many daughters, with- whom he lived
large library, but, as was supposed, no money, on affectionate terms. His will neither mentioned,
although a memorandum made on the will was to nor in any way provided for, a single member of
this effect :
“ Several hundred pounds in Till.” the family, but ran as follows ;
The two executors searched in vain for this money, “ I being in a sound state of mind,
,
and books were sold and the proceeds

at last the and myheart overflowing with universal love and
devoted to paying the legacies in proportion to the philanthropy, do, in the name of brotherly love.,
sum realised. Seven weeks after, when the execu- and for the promotion of that object, give and
tors were talking of this mysterious memorandum, bequeath all my property, real and personal, of
it suddenly flashed across the mind of one that every kind and description, to the twenty-eight
—
'I'HK HOTTEST FURNACE KNOWN. .371
persons herein named as trustees, to be Ijy them In 1863 the newspapers gave currency to the
disposed of in the following manner, that is to say, statement that a well-known deceased banker had
that they do forthwith sell off all the large beds left a will assigning ^3,000 for the erection of a
and bedding in my house of and any ,

statue to his own memory in Norwood Cemetery.
articles of furniture which they may consider cum-
brous, or not suitable to my design, namely, the
promotion of brotherly love. And that they do THE HOTTEST FURNACE KNOWN.
forthwith re-furnish and re-appoint the said house
—
from top to bottom always reserving the kitchen When electricity is laid on to our houses and
and two parlours for refectories with single beds — factories, like water and gas
supplied to us is now
and bedding most comfortable, and such as pil- a state of things promised by sanguine electricians
grims would desire and deserve, continuing to — we shall find many uses for it which neither
abide together in brotherly love. 1 also will that water nor gas can afford, or can only give us at a
the outer gate of my lawn and the hall-door of prohibitory price. Electric illumination will natu-
my house be perpetually kept open for the recep- rally absorb first attention, but when we are sup-
tion of pilgrims and here I, once for all, declare
;
plied with the current for that, other applications
that there shall be no distinction of rank made, but will follow as a matter of course. Some clever
that all who come may be admitted, provided they people think that our cooking will be also done by
have in their hearts the divine principle of brotherly Such a
electricity, in specially-constructed furnaces.
love. And I further direct my

within-named trus- thing may be though hardly probable but
possible, ;
tees to see that there is ever at hand a sufficient an electric furnace of another kind has been pro-
stock of provisions, flesh, bread, and vegetables, duced already, and has proved itself to be capable of
for the refreshment of all the inmates, together very wonderful work.
with ale, beer, spirits, and wine (for such as may To understand this new application of electricity
have need of it), and that there be no stint, but we must once more to those early experiments
refer
that the pilgrims shall be satisfied to their souls’ of Sir Humphry Davy, which led to the discovery
content,” &c. &c. of the arc light between two carbon points. In his
This wonderfully strange will further provided “Elements of Chemical Philosophy” we find the
for themaking of a great g’arden, with lawns and following words :
—
“ When any substance was
flower-beds, fountains, seats, and arbours, fish- introduced into this arch it instantly became
ponds and plantations, for the further delighting ignited. Platinum melted as readily in it as wax
of the said “ pilgrims ” of “ brotherly love,” and in the flame of a common candle quartz, the ;
for the building of a yacht in which they might go sapphire, magnesia, lime, all entered into fusion ;
a-fishing, “ like the blessed Apostles,” or “ take their fragments of diamond, and points of charcoal and
recreation on the sea,” and moreover provided plumbago rapidly disappeared, and seemed to
for the employment of “ three able-bodied men,” evaporate even when the connection was
in it,
who were to occupy a tower he said he had built made in a Receiver exhausted by the air-pump.”
in Coleraine to “keep watch and ward,” armed Here, then, was a means of producing an intense
with muskets and provided with ammunition to be degree of heat, which, as seen by the concluding
used against all enemies “ to the divine principle words of the quotation, is unlike ordinary' com-
of brotherly love.” bustion in being quite independent of oxygen for
The twenty-eight trustees declining to act, the case its support.
was brought before the Lord Chancellor, and in The electric furnace of Dr. C. W. Siemens is
order that this might be legally done, one consented simply a modification of this arc light, confined
to appear as defendant in Chancery. The case was in a non-conducting crucible, as shown in the
heard before Sir Anthony Hart, and an issue to illustration. On the right-hand side is the crucible,
try the testator’s sanity was directed to the assize the lid of which the operator is in the act of
town of Carrickfergus. The curious thing was the raising. Through a hole in this lid slides one of
apparent soundness of the testator’s mind up to the the carbon points. The other one the positive —
date of his death, with the exception of his not pole — meets it inside the crucible, where it pro-
considering a tenure of 999 years sufficiently long, jects through the bottom. The negative electrode,
and the connection of that fact with a clause in his it will be seen, is hung on to a beam, to the other
will stating that its arrangements were intended to end of which is attached an iron cylinder, which
last “ until the day of judgment.” The charge of dips into a coil of wire. This arrangement acts
the judge was against the will, but so feebly so as a regulator, by which the distance separating
that the jury disagreed, and no
was given. verdict the carbon points is automatically adjusted.
However, when the case re-appeared at the next In a paper read before the 1882 meeting of the
assizes, the verdict of the jury was unanimous, and British Association a great many interesting par-
against the testator’s sanity. ticulars were given of experiments conducted with
this furnace by Dr. Siemens and Professor Hun- THE HEAD-HUNTERS OF BORNPIO.
tingdon, of The intense heat
King’s College.
obtained may be imagined when we state that The curious fondness exhibited by the Dyak
clay crucibles were melted away in a very few population of Borneo for human heads, resembles
minutes. Plumbago stood better than clay, but very much the affection of the North American
could not be used for certain experiments, on Indian for scalps. They are alike trophies, and
account of its alike signs of
tendency to af- the possessors
fect injuriously valour. As it
some of the is a weakness

metals experi- common to
mented upon. men in every
For these me- condition of
tals particular life to wish
p recautions to be consi-
had to be ob- dered brave,
served, and it is easy to
they had to be see how an
exposed to the opinion that
heat of the fur- judged a man
nace in beds of to be courage-
sand, lime, and ous according
retort carbon, to the number
representing of heads in his
the most re- possession, nO'
fractory sub- matter how ob-
stances which tained, might
it is possible to lead to the
obtain. Twelve most shocking
ounces of cop- acts of bar-
per were fused barity. The
for halfan heads only of
hour i,n a bed enemies were'
of carbon dust, pre s u m ably
with the result sought but
;
that the metal leta native be

was simply va- suddenly in-
pourised ;
it spired with
had almost en- jealousy of
tirely disap- some rival, or
peared. Eight with a wish to
pounds of pla- be famous for
tinum assumed his courage,
a liquid state in and he would
fifteen minutes. lurk in the
In addition to jungle, or by
these interest- the river-
ing tests of the banks, dealing
SIEMEN S ELECTRIC FURNACE.
power of the out murder
furnace there upon the un-
were many important experiments made with a wary^ man or maid that chanced to come within
view to determine the amount of carbon which the reach of his cowardly blows.
iron is capable of taking up, when a certain quan- The human heads was always present
desire for
tity of silicon is present. The behaviour of in the mind of the Dyak upon set occasions,
;
wrought iron when fused and cast in moulds also however, and during certain ceremonies, it was
came under consideration. Many other questions, absolutely necessary to have heads. Thus, when
the answering of which is of great moment to a young Dyak began to turn his thoughts to-
science, it is believed will receive answers under wards matrimony, he dared not venture to pay
the intense heat of this new furnace. his addresses to the object of his admiration
THE HEAD-HUNTERS OF BORNEO. 373
until he had captured a number of heads, and upon the neighbouring tribes, would cut off indis-
thrown them in a net at the maiden’s feet. These criminately the heads of males and females, of
ghastly symbols of her lover’s manhood the lady young and old. So urgent, in many cases, was the
guarded with great care, and bestowed upon them Dyak’s desire for a head, that, impatient of the
DYAK WEAPONS.
the unrelaxing attention which the excessive heat of difficulties that stand in the way of getting an
that climate rendered necessary for their preserva- enemy’s, he would take the head of a friend, and even
tion. It was necessary not only for the young man disinterring the remains of the newly-buried dead,
who was for the first time entering the hymeneal would perpetrate upon them the most disgusting
state to so attest his valour, but also for the widower. mutilations. No wonder that head-hunting began
All those wishing to marry would form themselves to be looked upon as a “ horrible disease ” over-
into head-hunting expeditions, and making inroads spreading that beautiful island.
Another encouragement to slaughter amongst head-hunting began to decline. The love for heads,
the Dyaks lay in their mode of deciding adverse however, continued, and was gratified when the
claims to the same property. Each party that chances of not being discovered were sufficiently
professed to be the rightful owner of the property great. Often would Sir James Brooke be petitioned
under dispute had to sally forth in search of a head, for permission to take just one head. Mr. Spenser
and whichever party first succeeded in securing the Saint John narrates an instance of this kind. Mita
object of his search, to him was adjudicated the —
was the chief of Siramban a small village. He had
property. No custom could be more inimical to estranged the feelings of his subjects by harsh
human safety than this. Excited with the passions treatment, and ruined his popularity. Casting
that mingle with every wrangle over doubtful about for some means to restore his prestige, he
ownership, fired with resentment towards his bethought himself that everything would be put
adversary, and urged on by the cupidity of a savage right by a fresh head. In petitioning for the right
beast, the wretched creature would face every to take this head he was accompanied by the elders
peril, and invent the most ingenious .stratagems to of the village, who showed the importance they
secure the head that was to establish his right in attached to the matter by joining their entreaties to
the eye of the law. Heads were also demanded by '
his, and by the serious expression of their coun-
the superstitious hopes and fears of these rude tenances. The permission, of course, was not
tribes. Misfortunes and fortunes alike were granted. As Mr. Brooke expressed it, they cried
recognised and commemorated by heads. A for heads like children for sugar-plums.
head-house was found in every village, and was The hand of civilisation is at work far and wide,
regarded with feelings akin to those with which if not ameliorating, at least endeavouring to amelio-
the devotee regards the most valued relic. To degraded and the ignorant. The
rate the lot of the
increase the grisly stock of these houses was the influence of that hand often appears to many to
j
most noble exhibition of publicspirit on the part of be of doubtful beneficence. The reason of this
the villager for according as the number of these
;
doubt is, because most people do not even yet
heads increased or diminished, so did prosperity or know tê awful gloom that surrounds the savage
adversity attend the fribe. Favourable weather mind.
was secured by heads, as were also good crops by ;
heads women were made fruitful, and marriage

unions happy by the same agency the spirits of
;
BLIND JACK OF KNARESBOROUGH.
the dead were appeased, and the gods made to
smile upon all their efforts. A head, in short, was John Metcalf, the son of labouring people,
the panacea for every evil, and being so, the demand was born in the year 1717 at Knaresborough, in
forheads was insatiable. Yorkshire, and when six years old the small-pox
With a Kayan tribe of Dyaks a few members of deprived him of sight. As a boy, blind though
a friendly tribe were staying, and to do honour to he was, he became a ringleader in all kinds of
their guests, as well as to entertain them, a head- mischievous pranks, and knew Knaresborough so
hunting expedition a hostile tribe was
against way to any part
well that he could readily find his
arranged. The eager
party, for the fray, set out of the town. He and delighted in a
learnt to ride,
with all the wild demonstrations of savagedom and gallop, hunted, and when a young man kept hounds
the pride of expected success. The warrior pom- of his own was an expert swimmer, and became
;
pously assured his mistress that he would return famous for the reckless daring with which he
and grace her lap with the heads of the enemy ;
undertook to perform dangerous feats. He was a
and the youth not yet privileged to enjoy female good player at bowls, and, strange to say (as our
society looked forward to a harvest of heads that authorities assert), at cards. He also attended
would enable him to win the favour of the maid for most of the neighbouring race-courses to bet,
whose love he was secretly pining. These great which he did very successfully. He began to keep
expectations, however, were not realised and the ;
horses, and with one of them rode a race on
party, dejected and ashamed to meet their women j
Forest-moor, men being placed with bells to indi-
without heads, were returning home in silence i
cate by sound the course, and where he would
their
through the forest. Suddenly a plan suggested have to turn. He was the winner. When in his
itself— they would have heads so they fell upon
;
twenty-first year, his height was six feet one inch
their guests, and, forgetting the ties of friendship, and a half, and he was broad in proportion. His
swayed only by their affection for heads, they great strength and pugilistic skill enforced respect
victimised their allies, and exhibited their heads amongst the roughest of his boon companions.
with the same vanity and complacency as if they After his marriage he purchased a house, and started
had been won in a fair encounter with enemies. vehicles for hire and when rivalry beat him at that,
;
After the influence of Sir James Brooke, Rajah of he took his carts and horses down to the coast for
Sarawak, began to be felt amongst these islanders. fish, which he disposed of at Leeds and Manchester,
—
BLIND JACK OF KNARESBOROUGII. 375

being generally alone. Finding the I had my doubts about.
profits of this !
1 place
was afraid 1 had
business too small for his been rather too sparing of my materials there.”
increasing family, he
took to music, in which he had received lessons as His next contract was one for building a bridge
!
a child, and obtained a situation at Harrogate as at Boroughbridge, and this also he carried out
violin-player. When the rebellion of 1745 broke satisfactorily. He continued bridge-building and
out, one of the gentry, Mr. William Thornton, of road-making for some years in Yorkshire, Lan-
Thornville, wishing to raise a company of volun- cashire, Derbyshire, and Cheshire. After some
teers at his own expense, solicited the assistance of unsuccessful speculations in cotton, he began to
Blind Jack — the name by which he was then well deal in hay, measuring the stacks with his arms,
known in most parts of Yorkshire. John, being and after learning the height, calculating the
made sergeant, exerted himself so vigorously that number of square yards contained each with
in
in two days he brought in 144 men, out of which unfailing accuracy up to the value offrom one to
the required sixty-four were selected. Metcalf five hundred pounds. In a similar way he occa-
marched with them, and fought with them, and was sionally dealt in timber.
at the battle of Culloden, after which he returned He would sometimes act as guide to travellers,
to his family. He
then began to deal in cotton and who had no knowledge of his blindness, and were
worsted goods, buying in Scotland and selling in astonished and incredulous when told that Jack
Yorkshire, and with his pack-horses was soon quite a could not see. On one occasion a stranger asked
well-known character on the road. He also did no him whose large house that was to the right, and
little business as a smuggler, smuggling being then was promptly answered. When Jack reached a
a crime which people of all classes secretly en- point at which the road was crossed by another
gaged encouraged, and in this, with numerous
in or going from Wetherby to Boroughbridge, beside the
strange adventures and narrow escapes, he re- lofty brick wall of Allerton Park, he knew there was
mained many years In 1751 he started a stage a road opposite the park gates. This he turned
waggon and goods between York and
for travellers into without the slightest pause, his only guide the
Knaresborough, driving it himself, tv/ice a week in fresh current of air which reached him through the
summer and once in winter. After some time he said gates ;
but bungling a
litKle in opening the
obtained an engagement in a different line he : gate, turned it off by a jest about the horse he was
contracted for road-making, to qualify himself for riding always going to the heel instead of to the head-
which calling he studied mensuration after a plan Presently the gentleman asked what light that was
of his own devising. His first attempt w'as the ahead. Jack knowing that a will-o’-the-wisp was
making of a road three miles long between Fearnsby often seen near that spot, where there was a patch
and Minskip. To obtain the materials from a of low swampy ground to the left of them, asked
suitable gravel-pit, he bought timber and boards, —
him which light he meant the one on the right or
erected a temporary house beside it, with stabling that on the left ? When the stranger answered that
for a dozen horses, and hired lodgings for his he only saw one, and that was on the right, he was
labourers at Minskip. He frequently walked in at once told, “ Oh that’s Harrogate.”
! They
the early morning from Knaresborough to join his reached Granby in safety, and Metcalf dismounting,
men, carrying on his shoulders four or five stones took charge of both horses and led them to the
of meal. He completed the work in less than the stables, being well acquainted with the place.
given time, and to the entire satisfaction of the Here he was afterwards found out, for the gentle-
surveyor and trustees. The feat created a great man offering him a tankard of negus. Jack took it
sensation in the shire and Dr. Bew, talking with
;
readily enough first, but when it was again offered
Jack, and expressing his astonishment to him, was him W’as not so successful.
answered thus : “ My guide’s been drinking, hasn’t he ? ” said the
“There’s nothing surprising in the matter. You stranger to the landlord.
“ No, sir w'hat makes you think so ”
can have recourse to your eye-sight when you want ;
?
to compare or examine anything I have my ;

“ The expression of his eyes — he don’t see
memory to trust to. You have no necessity to straight.”
keep the ideas of what you can easily see in your “ .See ” ! exclaimed the astonished host. “ Lor’,
mind, so the impressions are quickly obliterated ;

no, sir ;
how' could he ? — he’s blind !
”
but I, acquiring my ideas with difficulty, have The stranger was for some time incredulous,
them so strongly impressed as to be almost in- and thought he was being jested with, until
delible.” Metcalf, in response to the landlord’s appeal, con-
Dr. Bew says it was astounding to hear with fessed that he was “ stone blind.”
what perfect accuracy he described the course of “ Had 1 known that, I w'ould not have ventured
his road, and the different soils through which it with you for a hundred pounds.”
was conducted. When he named a certain boggy “ .^nd 1, sir. would not have missed my wây for
portion, Jack said quickly, “Ah that was the only a thousand,” said Jack.
! ,
Among the numerous roads made by Blind Jack THE RINGS OF SATURN.
of Knaresborough was part of the Manchester road
from Blackmoor to Standish Foot. As it was not Celestial bodies show a marked similarity of
marked out, contrary to expectation, the surveyor figure in being of spherical form, but one very re-
took it over deep marshes, out of which the trustees markable instance of departure from the general
concluded it would be necessary to dig in order to rule is evident as regards Saturn. This planet dis-
reach a solid bottom. Metcalf objected to this plays a globular figure, encompassed round about
plan on the ground of the immense expense and by a broad flat ring of highly luminous character,
loss of time, urging also other considerations which which finds no analogy in the case of any other
told against it, arguing the points very ably and bodies of the solar system. Saturn is therefore an
urgently with the surveyor and several of the object of peculiar attraction to those who investigate
trustees individually. But in vain ;
they insisted the wonders of astronomy; for his brilliant ring, or
upon itsbeing so done. At their next meeting rather system of rings, admittedly constitute not
Metcalf said “ Gentlemen, I propose that I should
: only an object of interest, but open up some import-
make the road my own way, and I will undertake, ant questions for discussion. What can have been
if I am unsuccessful, to afterwards make it again in the origin of this marvellous appendage ? Of what
your way.” His contract was to make nine miles is it is it meant to fulfil
formed, and what purposes
of road in ten months. One of the places was peat, in economy of Saturn ? These are questions
the
and Standish Common was a deep bog over which which come foremost to the minds of every one
any kind of road was thought to be impracticable. who views for the first time this beautiful planet,
John set to work in six different places with four and discerns, by means of a good telescope, some
hundred men, and where the bog and peat were he of the details of structure which the rings present.
cast the work fourteen yards wide, and raised it They form a phenomenon of such exceptional
in a circular form. The water which in many character, of such prominence, and of such at-
places covered the ground he ran off into the drains. tractive effect, that the observer who beholds them
His first great difficulty was found in conveying the can hSrdly fail to utter an exclamation of surprise
loads of stones over the soft ground. To effect this and delight, and, afterwards, to ponder much on
he levelled the end portion, and collecting heather the mystery of a spectacle absolutely unique in
from the common had it bound lightly in small the solar system.
bundles, each about a handful. These he laid in The rings of Saturn being invisible to the naked
rows, close together, one layer over the other, and eye, we know nothing of their history prior to the
having pressed them well in he covered them with invention of the telescope in 1610. Galileo failed
stone and gravel. People passing on the way to to see them with sufficient distinctness to enable
Huddersfield sneered at his progress, and said him to announce their real character, and was re-
it
dubiously or confidently the work would never be served for Huyghens in 1656 to do this. We have
completed. But when in this way he had finished no knowledge of any facts concerning the rings be-
about half a mile public opinion veered round, and fore that time. They may ever have been co-
the plan was pronounced a complete success. existent with the ball of the planet, orhave been
Dr. Bew said he had frequently seen Blind Jack, thrown off at some epoch when Saturn was in a
with no assistance but that of a long staff, traversing far different state from that we see at present.
strange roads, ascending precipices, exploring deep The exceedingly brief lapse of time during which
valleys, calculating their heights, depths, forms, the rings have been made the subject of telescopic
and situations, in the best manner. His plans and scrutiny has not given evidence of any changes of
estimates, made in his own particular way, although structure, and it is certain that such changes, if
he was never very successful in explaining them, occurring, are spread over vast intervals of time.
were nevertheless highly reliable. “ Most of the Let us consider for a moment the dimensions of
roads over the Peak in Derbyshire,” says the Doctor, these rings. Saturn himself is a large planet, being
“ have been altered by his direction, particularly more than 75,000 miles in diameter. The greatest
those in the vicinity of Buxton, and he is at this diameter of the rings is about 170,000 miles, so
time (when the Doctor wrote) constructing a new that it is about 2^ times the diameter of his globe.
one betwixt Wilmslow and Congleton, with a view The rings are entirely separated from the planet by
to open a communication to the great London an interval of some 18,000 miles, but covering a
road, without being obliged to pass over the portion of this space there is a dusky ring or faintly
mountains.” luminous appearance extending for some thousands
Blind Jack died at .Stopport, near Wetherby, in of miles from the innermost edge of the bright
the year 1802. His history furnishes a wonderful rings towards the planet, but not nearly reaching it.
example of the power of the human intellect, aided A small telescope shows merely one bright flat
by an indomitable will, to overcome infirmities, or ring, but greater power enables the observer to see
to supply the place of bodily organs. that it is really divided into two rings. The black,
—
THE RINGS OF SATURN. 377

curving line indicating this division is some 1,700 and they represent an elaborate mechanism which
miles broad, and is well shown in the figure. A is regulated with such extreme nicety that it is
much narrower division is suspected in the outer- enabled to preserve its integrity notwithstanding
most ring, but this is not always seen, and is the precarious conditions under which it exists.
probably variable in position. 'I'he rings are ex- The slightest difference of motion between the rings
tremely thin, being estimated at not more than and the ball of the planet must immediately bring
138 miles in thickness by two eminent observers, about a collision, and once in cohesion, they could
though they are fully 64,000 miles in breadth. never separate, but would thereafter be held together
The variable position of Saturn relatively to the by an immense force. Sir J. Herschel remarks that
earth, causes the rings to be presented edgewise their motions in their common orbit round the
to us once in fifteen years, and when this happens sun must have either been adjusted by an external
SATURN AND HIS RINGS.
their extreme thinness causes them to be invisible. power with the minutest precision, or the rings
At like periods we are enabled to view the rings must have been formed about the planet while
when considerably inclined to the earth, and it is subject to their common motion, and under the
then that they are presented under their most full and free influence of all the acting forces.”
favourable aspect. As to the composition of the rings we have some

It must be admitted that these rings of Saturn curious theories. It is supposed, on the one hand,
have offered some curious facts for the theo- that they are an aggregation of small satellites ex-
retical investigation of our savanis. Their phy- tended into a flat ring, but this assumption can
sical constitution has been often discussed, and hardly be said to recommend itself for adoption.
many efforts made towards a rational explanation Saturn, we know, is provided with a full comple-
of the phenomena. It has also been attempted to ment of ordinary' satellites — eight in number
show how the equilibrium of the rings is main- which conform to the analogies of the other
tained, for unless some special laws prevent such a planets. Another theory supposes the rings to be
contingency, they must fall upon the body of the formed of streams of fluid flowing around the
planet. The motions of the rings are doubtless planet. This, however, has its objections, and it
controlled by highly complex though efficient laws, must be admitted that, however well such theories
ww
conform with observed facts, we cannot definitely ments.” That notion gradually gave way before
accept either of them as reliable. An hypothesis, better knowledge, and by degrees these pheno-
though recommended by its probability, and seem- mena came be recognised as Forces of Nature,
to
ingly in close agreement with the prevailing con- and were so called. They were also called “ im-’
ditions, may nevertheless be utterly erroneous. ponderables,” because evidently not material. A
We cannot do better, therefore, than to look upon mass of matter when heated, or electrified, or in
such efforts distrustfully, for it would be rash to motion, did not weigh either more or less, by a
assume that we have bridged the vast interval of millionth of a grain. These forces also are so
more than 800,000,000 miles separating us from apparently distinct, and so well marked in their
Saturn, and learned the profound mystery of his effects, that it was thought they were separate,
rings. Whatever this mystery is, it lies hidden at many observed relations
distinct Forces, in spite of
present, for we can only survey it from our far-off between them. Thus, the sun illuminated a body ;
standpoint, and guess at the interpretation of so and also heated it and also, if it were a photo-
;
wonderful and stupendous a structure. The im- graphic plate (and probably whether it was that or
perfect view which —
by means of telescopic power anything else), produced chemical change in it.
— we are enabled to gather of its appearance, gives But it was thought that “light rays” and “heat
us a remote idea of its grandeur, but what must its rays,” and “ chemical rays,” were all bound up
effectbe to an inhabitant on the globe of Saturn ? together, as it were, in a sort of bundle, in the
From the equator of the planet, the rings will sunbeam. It was thought each was there indepen-
probably span the sky as a brilliant semicircle, dently, almost like the different elements of matter ;
while in higher latitudes, they will appear broader, and such was substantially the opinion until what
and even more conspicuous. Indeed, with every seems yet a short time ago.
difference of latitude, the rings will assume a vary- It would take too long to e.xplain how this belief
ing aspect, and a vast and gorgeous amount of was gradually destroyed by observation and experi-
scenery, of which we can have no adequate con- me^jt but the grand impulse towards the truth
;
ception. Moreover, the eight satellites which attend was undoubtedly given by researches into the effects
the planet will add greatly to the beauty and variety of heat, by Carnot, Rumford, and others in the
of the firmament. The miniature view which our early stages, and by Alayer, Joule, Regnault.
telescopes give of this wonderful planet is full of Tyndall, and others in living memory. Gradually
significance, if we make some effort to conceive its it was discovered that heat always did some sort
immense size, and the magnificent and elaborate of work. Then it was found that whenever motion
scenery which evidently form its special distinc- was stopped, or apparently stopped, heat was pro-
tion. duced as when a blacksmith makes a rod of cold
;
iron red hot by the suddenly arrested blows of a

hammer, or a leaden bullet is melted by its blow
THE MAIN-SPRING OF THE
UNIVERSE. upon an iron target. Then it was found that
whenever mechanical work was done, heat was
In considering briefly some of the facts known absorbed, or disappeared, or became latent, or was
about what we call matter, and about those used up in some way as when heat is absorbed ;
different forms of it which chemists call “ele- by a mass of melting ice, without raising the tem-
ments,” while we have found very many links and perature at all till all the ice is melted. And
relations between these elements, which seem to finally. Joule proved by the most rigid experiments
connect them together by wonderful general laws, that a given measure of heat produced an exact
so far as we know every element preserves its and invariable amount of work neither more nor —
identity under every possible process. Combine, less. Heat sufficient to raise a pound of water one
and recombine, and break up again ad infinitum, degree in temperature, is sufficient to raise about
we always get again the very same substance and 7722 lb. one foot high, neither less nor more.
no other and we always get, if our processes and
;
Thus there gradually grew up the clear idea that
measures are accurate, the verj'^ same weight of it. heat and mechanical work were correlatives, and
Besides this ponderable matter, however, philo- that either of them could be transformed into the,
sophers soon found there were other conspicuous other on certain invariable terms. Both w'ere,
phenomena around them, which were certainly not therefore, found to be different forins of a subtle
matter, and could never be weighed, but which and mysterious Energy, or Power of Doing Work.
were for all that easily recognised, and were very Rapidly it was discovered that the same was true
real. The light of the sun ;
the flash of the of all the rest of Nature’s mysterious Forces. The
lightning ;
the heat of any body ;
simple motion Light falling on a body, if at all absorbed, warmed
itself, — w'hat were these ? it, or was converted into Heat ;
the current of a
Fire at least appeared so real, that the ancient galvanic battery could produce Motion in an engine,
philosophers did reckon it as one of their “ ele- or Heat and Light, or chemical action in the
— ;
THE MAIN-SPRING OF THE UNIVERSE. 379

electro-plater’s trough.Any one form of Energy amount of the two added together must always be
could be transformed into any other form, by the same. It does not seem so in the pendulum,
proper means. And finally it was seen that all the which stops after a while but this, as every
;
Work going on in the universe, all the changes and schoolboy knows, is because part of the work in
phenomena around us, were simply due to constant swinging is expended in friction at the point of
transformation of one or the other form of Energy suspension, and part in the friction of the air, and
into some other form. part in compressing the air in front of it. If all
Take, for instance, one of those dynamo-electric these fragments of work could be collected, the
machines described in former pages, and see w'hat total result would always be the same.
its operation represents. Ages ago the energy of [
This brings us to a very important truth indeed,
the sun separated carbon from the carbonic acid of known as the dissipation of energy. All the forms
the atmosphere, and stored it up in beds of coal, of energy may be ranked in series as higher and
j
The energy of chemical action between this carbon lower, heat being the lowest and at every trans-
;
and atmospheric air, under the gas-retort, produced formation we cannot prevent some of the energy
heat, and this heat again did work in separating from passing into lower forms, and most of all into
gas and other products from other coal in the heat. The pendulum is meant merely to transform
retort. Chemical union of this gas with air once energy of motion into energy of position, and vice
more transforms the energy into heat again, which versa; but some of the energy will transform itself
is once more transformed into mechanical motion, into the heat of friction, and we cannot prevent
in a steam or gas engine. That motion is trans- this. It follows, in reality, from the fact we have
formed into electric current and that may be ;

already learnt, that heat is motion, distributed
converted into motion again or may perform ;
amongst the particles of matter. It is just as if a
chemical work in electro-plating or be utilised ;
large box were studded inside with small balls
once more as intense heat and light. This is fixed on elastic stalks any motion imparted to
;
a mere specimen of what is going on every- the box would be partly converted into individual
where around us and our very Life itself, in its
;
vibrations of the balls. Some of the motion of
physical aspects, is an example of the same trans- every whole mass must in this way be changed
formation of Energy. There is much in our lives into motion in the parts. Heat also tends to
that is not physical we know no physical equiva-
: diffusion in the mere using. To get work from
lents for consciousness or genius. But as regards heat we must have something more hot than some-
the objective phenomena of life, we are true thing else and in using the heat, both get more
;
machines. For us also the sun stored up food in nearly the same. But if everything were equally
plants, and through them in animals and the food ;
hot, though the heat would be as real as before,
is by vital processes converted into heat, and and would still represent actual motion amongst
muscular work, and mental energy or effort. the ultimate particles of matter, we could do no
We soon find there are two kinds of energy. Let more work by means of heat at all since all ;
us take a heavy pendulum and swing it. When at would be converted into equal motion of the sepa-
the middle of its swing, at full speed, it would give rate particles.* Now in every change, or act of
anything which came in its way a good hard knock. work done, some degradation of a part of the
But if the resistance was enough to stop it, there energy takes place, either into this actual form of
would be no more motion it would stop still for ;
diffused heat, or at least into some other lower
ever at the lowest point. That kind of power to do form of energ}' than that which is at work. This
work by actual motion is called kinetic or actual loss of the energy' actually available for mechanical
energy. Let the pendulum now swing on till it work cannot be recovered we cannot recover what
;
reaches just the highest point for one moment it is lost in our pendulum, transformed into heat dif-
;
has no motion whatever, and would give no knock fused in the atmosphere.
to anything it barely touched. But it has the That is the demonstrable process now going on
power of swingmg back again, owing to its elevated everywhere the energy, though its amount remains :
position. This form of the power to do work is_
use.*
called energy of position, or pote?ttial energy
because the energy is not in action, as it were, but
quietly stored up ready for * The two kinds
of energy are correlative, as will easily be seen
each diminishes as the other increases and the ;
called into action
therefore,
again by chemical combination^ which causes
intense heat or other effects. As in the case of the pendulum,
here also the difference between actual and potential
energy consists essentially in a difference of relative position com-
pared with other portions of matter.
* It may appear as if such a state of things denies the then
existence of energy, or power to do work, at all. This is not so,

* Other forms of kinetic and potential energy do not differ from however, since the keeping in motion of the particles of matter is as
these simplest mechanical forms so much as may at first appear. To real mechanical work as any other. The difference is simply that
force two atoms apart, is as much mechanical motion, or mechanical each particle of matter having at last obtained, as it were, its own-
work, as to split a rock by nitro-glycerine. It requires a vast amount equal share of energy, has no means of acting further upon any
of energy thus to separate combinations of elements. On the other other particle. It is simply that the larger exhibitions of work come
hand, when separated the energy is stored up in them, and can be to an end.
—

the same, is gradually working down into motion as most scientific men think they are. But gravi-
equally diffused amongst the ultimate particles of tation refuses to be brought into relation with any
matter and then, so far as appears, all transfor-
;
of these other forms. cannot be reflected, or
It
mation must come to an end, and no further change refracted, or in any way modified
all bodies are
;
can take place. But here we are confronted by absolutely transparent to it it never can be made
;
a necessary conclusion from the same facts. to apparently disappear, as can all other forms
Things cannot, for the very same reasons, have of Energy. So far as we yet know, it seems to
worked from eternity merely as they are working stand by itself alone, unaffected and unaltered by
now. If they had, an eternity ago the great clock all other operations of the mysterious agency we
must have run down. If purely physical forces, have been considering. That it is linked with
and physical matter, and nothing else, had operated them our pendulum teaches us hoiv* is linked
;
'\i
as they now are working, for an unlimited time, with them, has hitherto baffled all hypothesis
this must have been the result. As Professor Tait and experiment. It can only be mentioned here,
and Sir William Thomson both affirm, the state of that many have thought the amazing heat-radia-
science now “ enables us distinctly to say that the tion of our sun and of other suns is kept up by
present order of things has not been evolved compression, under the self-attraction by gravita-
through infinite past time by the agency of laws tion of his enormous mass and it has been calcu-
;
now at work, but must have had a distinctive lated that a compression of one mile in diameter
beginning, a state beyond which we are utterly every seven years would be sufficient for the pur-
—
unable to penetrate a state, in fact, which must pose, and would defy detection by the luost delicate
have been produced by other than the now visibly instruments. This is merely one hypothesis out of
acting changes.” F urther than this, physical science several as to the sources of the sun’s heat but if ;
does not presume to affirm. it should be the truth, Gravitation would be the
We find then a great distinction, according to central, primordial form (from the purely physical
present knowledge, between Matter and Energy. sid^) of all the energy in the solar system.
Both appear in many forms. But we cannot
change one kind of elemental matter into any
other kind, and can always recover exactly the THE WONDERS OF THEBES.
same quantity of it, after all changes. Energy, on
the other hand, can as a rule be changed into any Amongst the most extraordinary of the world’s
other form but we never can get back the same
; wonders are those gigantic and magnificent re-
amount of free or available energy in the higher mains of ancient art which arose in their full splen-
forms a proportion is always being degraded into
; dour in Egypt, while Europe was in the gloomiest
lower forms, less available for “ work ” in the depths of ignorance and barbarism. They were
common acceptation of that term. Thus it is that the pride and glory of a land in which civilisation
all the planets are cooling, and that the moon has and refinement reigned supreme, which was most
cooled into a frozen and dead world thus it is that
;
learned, powerful, and flourishing. They are vast
our own bodily lives, stamped with this same im- indestructible monuments of human power and
perfection, come to an end. ambition which overwhelm the mind with wonder,
Our remarks on Energy, brief as they are, would and almost defy the power of description. It is
not be complete without special reference to one difficult to imagine they are not the works left by a
form of it which so far has presented an insoluble race of giants extinct many ages ago. “ Bow
I
problem, viz.. Gravitation. Sir Isaac Newton down,” says an enthusiastic modern traveller, “ ye
!
is often said to have discovered the “law” of boasted edifices of Greece and Rome, bow down
gravitation he carefully disclaimed having done before the temples and palaces of Thebes in
:
any such thing. What he did was to discover and Egypt Its proud ruins are still more striking
!
verify the fact that every particle of matter did than your most pompous ornaments, and its
attract every other particle of matter with a force gigantic remains more sublime than your monu-
varying as the inverse square of the distance. ments in perfect preservation. The glory of the
Why it should, or how it does so, was as mys- most celebrated fabrics is eclipsed by the prodigies
terious to him as to us. That gravitation is a of Egyptian architecture, and to do justice to their
form of the universal Energy it seems, impossible to grandeur and beauty would require the genius of
doubt. We owe to it the very energ)^ of position those by whom they were planned and executed.”
in our pendulum which has been mentioned, and —
Thebes or, as the Greeks called it, Diospolis
which was capable of being converted into energy Magna, the great city of Jupiter is the most —
•of motion. And motion, we have seen, can be ancient city in the world. Homer sang of its
converted into any other form of energ^q if indeed glories as unrivalled, and called it
4vll these are not themselves mere for7ns of motion,
The world’s great Empress on the Egyptian plain
‘‘
or various states of strain produced by motion. That spreads her conquests o’er a thousand states.”
THE GREAT HALL OF KARNAK
;

It is mentioned in the Bible by the name of No vast labyrinth of wonderful edifices ; all conspired
and Ammon No. Tacitus says it was able, upon to isolate him from the present, and elevate his
an emergency, to place on the battle-field an army ideas into another and a greater world.
of 700,000 men. In it was founded the first college The Temple of Luxor, especially when viewed
and the first king’s palace.
circumference was
Its from the river which flowed through the city, is a
twenty-three miles. For 3,000 years the sand sight of supreme loveliness. It stands in a plain
has accumulated within it, burying some of its covered with palm-trees, with mountains stretching
largest monuments, and in some instances hiding away behind it, contrasting strangely with the
almost entire temples. Of its foundation we know wretched huts of a miserable village. Beside its
nothing and if its remains did not e.xist, all that
; portico stood two obelisks, each nearly eighty feet
we do know of it would be rejected by the incredu- high, and thirty-two in circumference, composed of
lous as mere old-world fables. a single block of beautiful rose-coloured polished
The observer who first approaches Thebes sees granite from the quarries of Syene,* and two
only a confused mass of vast obelisks, portals, and colossal seated statues, partially concealed by the
columns towering above palm-trees, but a closer rising sand, each carved from a single block of
and longer inspection awakens sensations of awe black granite. The propylon, which is 200 feet
and astonishment, by revealing more fully its many high, contains stone enough to build a cathedral.
wonders, of which the chief are the Palace-temple Inside it has 200 columns, varying in dimensions,
of Karnak, the Temple of Luxor, the Memnonium, most of which are entire. All its apartments are
the tomb of Osymandias, and the mountain tombs, covered with sculptured work, executed with
which last have already been referred to in the extreme care and delicacy, the work being as
article upon Catacombs. minute in parts as if it were that of a seal-en-
Karnak surpasses in its grandeur all the others. graver. Here it is traditionally supposed old
Itstands at the south-eastern extremity of the city, Homer studied the sculptured battles and triumphs,
and its name is derived from the village which has and gained inspiration for his most heroic strains.
sprung up on a portion of its site. The French The Memnonium is undoubtedly the oldest part
engineers, when Napoleon invaded Egypt, were of the city. The solidity and weight of the masonry,
one hour and a half riding round it. The temple the greater simplicity and irregularity of its design,
itself is 1,200 feet in length and in breadth 420. and the rudeness of its sculpture, all indicate its
It is appproached by a long avenue of enormous superior claim to antiquity. In one of the outer
sphynxes, the largest in existence, and by a succes- courts arethe broken fragments of a colossal
sion of gates and colossal statues, constructed of statue, covering a space sixty feet square, and
different stones and marbles. It presents an as- giving it the appearance of a quarry. This is said
pect of singular confusion, rendering it difficult to to have been the statue of Memnon, which was
separate its parts a medley of shattered and
; made from a single block of stone. According to
broken columns, statues, and obelisks, amongst Philostratus, it represented a human being in the
which some are prostrate, others majestically erect bloom of youth, with his face towards the rising
relics of immense halls, with a forest of columns, sun. When the first beams of the morning sun
portals, and propylea and in ;
its westfern end a fell upon it, we are told it emitted sounds, those
seemingly endless series of gates, portals, and halls, of the seven vowels, whence language sprung,
ranged one after another in a design which was ori- and these were regarded as symbols of the seven
ginally one of perfect and harmonious symmetry and planets, which composed celestial music, and in
beauty. Two of the sculptured obelisks are sixty- the dark made melancholy sounds. The breadth
nine feet, and one ninety-one feet high. What was of the shoulders of this statue is twenty- five feet ;
the chief 159 feet in breadth and 318 long, has

hall, the ear is three feet long. was overthrown very
It
for the support of its roof 134 grand columns, each laboriously by Cambyses, King of Persia, when he
seventy feet high and eleven in diameter. One long ravaged Egypt, and the excavations made for the
avenue of such pillars has fallen entire, and lies in wedges which were then used are still traceable.
rows at equal distances apart. All the sculptured At the entrance of the gate are the remains of a
work has been coloured, and still retains its smaller, but still colossal, statue, and in the plain
brightness. The avenue of sphynxes has now but adjoining are the hopelessly defaced remains of
fifty of its six hundred still standing. two other gigantic statues.
Belzoni asserts that the most, sublime ideas Tradition says the statue of Memnon, although
which can be formed from the finest and grandest broken and overthrown, did not cease to welcome
specimens of modern architecture, fall short of with music the first smile of its beautiful day-god,
that which these ruins convey. The great army nor to bemoan its absence during the night. The
of enormous columns, adorned all round with upper part of this famous statue, now mute enough,
beautiful figures and varied ornament, the lofty
portals going far away back into the distance, the * One is now in Paris.
THE VALUE OF A VOICE. .383
is,according to some authorities, now in the saying can be more literally applied. We mean
Egyptian collection of the British Museum. those who have been gifted with such charm and
The tomb of Osymandias was, as the historian power of voice, that they are able to name their
Diodorus informs us, at once a palace, a library, and own terms upon which they will consent to let
a tomb. It was a mile and a quarter in circum- their fellow-creatures hear them sing.
ference, and was adorned with sculpture of the As one example we might mention Jenny Lind,
greatest excellence and splendour. The vestibule who so delighted the ears of a past generation that
in front of the building was of various coloured her name still lives, and is remembered in all
stones, 200 feet long and 68 feet high. Adjoining English-speaking countries. But modern times
this was a portico 400 feet square, the roof of which furnish a still better instance of the marvellous
was supported by colossal figures of animals, each sums that can be obtained for their services by
27 feet high, and cut from a single block of granite. those few gifted ones who
possess the faculty
still
The ceiling was of marble, blue, and adorned with of holding their hearers enthralled by their sweet
golden stars. From this you entered a second notes. Many a professional man, whether he be a
court, more richly and elaborately adorned in the clergyman, a lawyer, a doctor, or what not, would
same style, at the entrance of which was a group of count himself fortunate if he could command for
from a single stone, the principal
ttiree statues, cut his yearly income the sum earned in one evening
being that of Osymandias seated, the other two, by one of these human nightingales. Let us make
his mother and daughter, each standing at his our words good by reference to a letter addressed
knee. The foot of this statue measured ten feet to one of the leading papers by Mr. Mapleson, the
and a half. On it was inscribed, “ I am Osyman- well-known entrepreneur of the Italian Opera Com-
dias, king of kings. Whoever will dispute with me pany. In speaking of the salary payable to
this title, let him conquer me in any of my works.” Madame Adelina Patti, during' a projected tour
The tomb contained also a separate statue of the of the company the United
States, he says,
in
mother, with the figures of three queens on her “ Madame engaged to me for six
Adelina Patti is
head, to intimate, says the ancient authority, that months, commencing in October next, to sing at
she was the daughter, wife, and mother of a king. least twice a week, for which she is to receive
After this you entered a peristyle even more beau- ^917 a night. The sum of has been
tiful, on the walls of which were sculptured scenes already placed to her credit at her banker’s in
from the king’s wars and victories. It was open New York, as a guarantee for the payment of
to the air, and in its centre was an altar of marble. the first ten nights’ services. In addition to this,
From here three gates led to an edifice 200 feet Madame Patti have her private Pullman
will
square, the roof of which was supported by mag- travelling-car, containing drawing and dining-
nificent columns. It contained carved wooden rooms, kitchen, and sleeping accommodation, for
figures, representing a court of justice. Beyond the whole of her servants, as well as two cooks,
this was a spacious avenue surrounded by splendid who
accompany the expedition.”
will
edifices,devoted to the banquet, the library, reli- is no doubt that Madame Patti stands
There
gious ceremonies, and retirement and at the end
;
alone in some respects. She not only possesses a
of it was the ascent to the royal sepulchre, the marvellous voice, but great musical efficiency, and
summit of which was crowned by a circlet of gold wonderful dramatic power and such a combination ;
365 cubits (the days of the year) in circumference of gifts is seldom found embodied in one person.
and one in thickness, on which were engraved She can therefore command the stupendous in-
representations of sunrise and sunset, and astro- come stated in the letter which we have quoted.
logical symbols. Such, according to historians, But we must all the same deplore the circum-
was the tomb of Osymandias in Thebes, before stances which compel the payment of such an
the Persian king came to slaughter and destroy. amount to a prima donna. It is a drain upon
Only the remains of two colossal figures indicate the resources of an opera company which affects
now the spot on which it stood these are believed others in no small degree. The minor singers
;
to be two of the group above mentioned. must, of course, be contented with far smaller sala-
ries therefore, the next best artistes can hardly
;
be induced to appear, and the prices of admission

THE VALUE OF A VOICE. to the audiences must be so high as to shut out
the general mass of the public, and so retard that
\ CERTAIN spoken of as being
class of persons are education of the ear without which the enjoyment
born with a silver spoon in their mouths. They of good music is impossible. The practical result,
have perhaps, inherited a ready-made fortune, or in fact, is to sacrifice all general interests, that a
have been so lucky or prudent in all their ventures few may have the pleasure of hearing one great
that they have quickly acquired one without much singer. But the pecuniary value of that special
trouble. But there is another class to whom the gratification is none the less remarkable.
3^4 THE WORLD OF WONDERS.
HAIRY HUMAN BEINGS. the Empire of Ava, which is- bounded on the north
by Tibet and Assam, on the west by Bengal, on
The quantity and kind of hair on the human body the south by the Gulf of Martaban, and on the
varies in different races. The Mongols, and other east by the Empires of Annam and China.
Northern Asiatics resembling them, are noted for Mr. Crawford, who first called attention to this
their scanty beards, and a general deficiency of wonderful family, says When we were at the
:
“
hair, and the same statements are made with respect capitalof Burmah, Aingwa, or Ava, in 1826, we
to the native tribes of America. In other races, heard of a native covered with hair, and havinu:
and notably in the Ainos, or in the Kurilian race, the appearance of being an ape rather than a man,
there are individuals who have hair growing down although there is nothing in him to justify a belief
their backs, and in his being other
nearly covering than human, or, as
their entire bodies ; some have ima-
they are, in fact, in gined, a missing
an extraordinary link. When we
degree, the most manifested a strong
hairy people in the desire to see this
world. “Their individual, theBod,
beards,” says La or Emperor, per-
Perouse, “ hang mitted us to do so :
upon their breasts, therefore Dr. Wal-

and their arms, lack and myself
necks, and backs were able to take
are covered with down from the
hair,” and he adds, man’s own lips the
“ I note this as a following particu-
general character- lars of this remark-
istic, for it is easy able case. The
to find individuals peculiar growth of
equally hairy in hair by which he
Europe.” Brough- was distinguished
ton describes them had also distin-
as “ having their guished others of
bodies covered al- his family in the
most universally preceding genera-
with long black tions. His name
hair,” and says this was Shwe Maon,
was the case with and he was in his
even some young thirtieth year. He
children. belonged to the
Miss Bird, de- district of Mae-
PORTRAIT OF SHWE MAON.
scribing her travels Yong-Gye, in the
in Japan, speaks county of Laos, by
of the Ainos as a people who are covered almost the river Saluen, three months’ march from Ava.
completely with hair, and have features resembling He had been given to the Emperor five years before
the European type. She says they number as many by Sambwa, a native chief, and had ever since re-
as twelve thousand, and live near the sea in a moun- mained at Ava. He is in height about five feet
tainous district of the country, of which they are three (about the average height of the Burmans) of
said to be the original inhabitants. She also affirms a more frail and delicate appearance than charac-
that physically and morally they are superior to the terises the Indo-Chinese race. His eyes are of a
Japanese. So thick and long is their hair, says dark brown, but somewhat lighter than is common
Miss Bird, that they need no other clothing either in Burmah. The entire face of this man mouth, —
for covering or warmth. nose, inside the nostrils, the forehead, cheeks, chin,
But the most astonishing growth of human hair &c., the lips only being excepted, are covered with
on record, is that of the family our engravings repre- a thick growth of fine hair, eight inches long on the
sent. The two persons represented both belong to forehead and cheeks, and about four inches long on
the same family, the second being Krao, a girl who the nose and chin, very smooth, silky, and straight,
was recently shown to the public at the Westmin- and in colour of a silver grey. The ears, inside
ster Aquarium. They were natives of Burmah, or and out, are covered in the same way. He has.
HAIRY HUMAN BEINUS. 385
properly speaking, no eyelashes, eyebrows, or beard, was of a pretty Burmese type, graciously showed
the hair on these parts being the same as that on us the two remaining children, the younger of
other parts of the face. The body and limbs are whom strikingly resembled her. The elder had
also covered with hair, least plentifully from the nothing unusual in her appearance. Her little
shoulder to the spine, where it is five inches long. sister is puny, and had, when born, hair growing
On the chest the hair is four inches long. It over the outside of her ears at six months she was
;
is less plentiful on the amis, legs, thighs, and entirely covered with a silkydown, and in a year
stomach. We inquired if the hair was shed her whole body was covered with shaggy hair, soft
periodically, but the
were assured
^ to touch,
and of a flaxen
that it was not. colour. At two
Although, as al- years she had a
ready said, he pair of incisors
was only thirty in the jaw, but
years old, he there are at pre-
had the appear- sent no signs of
ance of being canine teeth or
about double molars. Shwe-
that age. Ex- Maon assured
amining his us that he had
mouth, we found never known
a peculiar for- any family but
mation of the hisown having
lower jaw-bone, their peculiari-
and discovered ties.”
that he had but Twenty years
five teeth in the after the above
inferior jaw, four description was
incisors and one written. Captain
canine, on the H. Yule saw the
left side, and same family.
that the other “ The
younger
jaw had daughter was
but four then a woman,
teeth, and her entire
which re- body was co-
semb ed 1 vered with hair.
those of Her name was
animals. Maphoon. Por-
The motions of her
lars were cheeks and the
absolutely upper lip were
wanting, covered with
and the ki o- soft brown hair,
hard gums short in length ;
gave no indications of other sockets indeed, ;

the hair on the nose was about five inches long,
Shwe-Maon assured us that he had never had and at the sides of it very thick and bushy,
more. His milk-teeth were shed when he was her ears being also thickly covered within and
in his twentieth year. His proportions for a Bur- without, except on the upper portions, so that they
man were good, and he appeared to have great were completely concealed. The hair of her face
intelligence with much good sense by trade he is ;
and that of her head blended, the latter being
a basket-maker. At his birth, he told us, only his dressed d la C/ttnois, the hair on the nose was
ears were covered with flaxen hair about two inches longer than he had seen it on that part of any
long. This, when he was six years old, had covered other animal, falling in thick bushy divisions to the
his whole body, coming at first onl)' on the front right and left. The moustache resembled that of a
portion. In his twenty-second year he married a dog, and the dark hair on the cheek was soft, and
woman by whom he had four children, all girls. about four inches long. Her voice was feminine
The eldest died in her third year, and the youngest and pleasant, and there was nothing at all disagree-
eleven months after her birth. The mother, who able in her expression after the first glance, which
!

conv'eyed, somehow, an impression of her wearing life in 1787. She has a large l.eard. Another
a mask. Her throat, arms, and neck are over- woman with a beard of unusual length and thick-
grown with hair varying in colour as the light ness was painted by command of the Duke of
changes. When we saw proceeded to re-
her, she Sa.\ony, inwhose collection of pictures it was long
move some of her clothing, but without any loss of i
preserved. Charles XII. had a bearded female of
modesty, and not without a natural degree of great strength and courage who had enlisted as one
hesitation and shyness. She was accompanied by of his grenadiers. She fought at Pultowa, where
j
her husband and her children, two boys. The she was taken prisoner, and being carried to St.
eldest, about four or five years of age, had no un- Petersburg was, in 1724, presented to the Czar.
usual peculiarities, but the youngest, who was about Her beard was then a yard and a half in length !
four months old, and at the breast, evidently re- In 1726 a bearded female dancer was exhibited
sembled his mother. His head had but little hair, during carnival time in Italy. In the Trevoux
his ears were garnished with silken tufts of hair, Dictionary mention is made of a woman who had
and his baby face looked oddly with its military- a large beard, and whose entire body was covered
looking moustachios. The infant’s appearance with hair. Margaret, ruler of the Netherlands, had,
was,we were told, just that which his mother had at we are told, a long stiff beard, of which, strange to
the same age. Maphoon had the same dental say, she was verj' proud.
peculiarities that her father had, she was without Evelyn, writing in 1684, says he saw a hairy
canines and molars, and the gums had the same woman with beard, moustaches, and long locks
hard, unbroken surfaces.” of hair hanging from the middle of her nose.
Six or seven years after the visit of Captain She was, however, the Barbara Urslerin already
Yule, Captain Haughton visited the family and spoken of.
photographed them. Maphoon’s youngest child
was then near the adult age. Maphoon herself was
once courted by an Italian, who wanted to marr)» POISON-EATING.
and exhibit her in Europe, but she refused him.
Krao, who in 1883 was about eight years of age, is In the year 1830 Monsieur Chabert, known as the
covered with sleek, shaggy hair, and in many of her “ Fire King,” professed his ability to eat certain
ways resembles a monkey, being able to throw her- deadly poisons with perfect impunity, phosphorus
self from one place to another, suspending herself and prussic acid being taken in the presence of
by her feet, and to pick up the most minute objects medical men, invited to be present and detect im-
from the ground with great quickness and cer- posture if possible. The general belief was that he
tainty. But these peculiarities do not suffice to contrived to use the poisons first and antidotes after-
establish her connection with the much-talked-of wards, but how he administered the latter does not
and vainly-searched-for missing link between man appear to have been discovered.
and monkey. Mr. Keane, the anthropologist, has The learned Samuel Purchas has chronicled the
carefully investigated her case, and pronounces her case of Marchamut, a Moor, who, he writes,
to be most decidedly human and nothing else. “ deserveth mention for one thing, wherein the
He believes her existence gives certainty to the sunne hath scarce beheld his like. He so accus-
statements that in Laos exists a “very hairy” race tomed himselfe to poysons, that no daye passed
of men, resembling the Ainos of Jesso and Sacha- wherein he took not some for else he himself had
;
line. died, sayth Barbosa, as it fareth with Amfian, or

Instances resembling the above are not unknown Opium, the use whereof killeth such as never tooke
to Europe, where the extraordinary growth of hair it, and the disuse such as have.” (1612).
recorded at different times connection with both

in The same old writer says “ Coelius Rhodiginus
:
men and women is more curious

in the latter than in mentions the like of a maid thus nourished with
the former, and, strange to add, least rare. In 1665, poysons, her spittle being deadly. He cites a like
a woman named Barbara Urslerin, or Urselin, at the example of Avicenna, of a man whose nature, in-
age of twenty-two had her body entirely covered fected with a stronger venome, poysoned other
with light yellowish curling hair. She had also venomous creatures.”
tufts of hair pendant from her and a longears, In the course of a very interesting trial for
beard reaching to her waist. .She was exhibited murder which took place in Austria between thirty
for money in various parts of England and abroad and forty years ago, some curious evidence as to
by her husband, who had married her for that the existence of systematic poison-eating was pro-
purpose. duced. It was then pointed out that in some dis-
An old work, called “ The Book of Curiosities,” tricts of Lower Austria, and especially in Styria,
(1822), describes the portrait of a woman preserved arsenic was in regular demand for eating, mostly
in the Museum of Curiosities at Stutgard, in with a view to the improvement of the complexion
Germany, as that of Bartel Graetje, painted from and acquiring plumpness, but sometimes to im-
SUNSHINE RECORDS. 387
prove or strengthen the breathing powers and ;

trict, may be mentioned as subjects of careful
that' numerous deaths were caused by it, especially Within quite recent years a method of
scrutiny.
amongst the young. They began by taking a very- recording sunshine has also been contrived and —
minute portion several mornings in each week as an aid to weather wisdom perhaps these records
while fasting. The dose was very slowly and care- will eventually prove more valuable than any of
fully increased. One peasant, a hale strong man of the others. Let us endeavour to trace the me-
jI
si.xty, stated that he then took for a dose about four thods which have been adopted from time to time,
grains, and that he had eaten arsenic for more than and which have gradually- led up to the very per-
i
forty years, as his father had eaten it before him. It fect instrument called the Radiograph, which forms
is a curious fact that when those who have accustomed the subject of our illustration.
themselves to poison-eating are unable to obtain As far back as the year 1857 we find in a report
the arsenic, or are trying to do without it, they of the Meteorological Society the account of a
grow sick, and their sy-mptoms are those of ar- registering sun-dial by Mr. Campbell of Islay.
senical poisoning. In some districts corrosive This instrument was constructed to give in a
sublimate is used in the same wayc Dr. von rough manner a record of the amount of sunshine
Tschudi states that it is so used in the mountainous w-hich fell upon it. It consisted of a glass globe
parts of Peru and in Bolivia. —
Dr. Pearson says full of water like that used by- engravers to con-
that one-sixteenth part of a grain of arsenic may- centrate light upon their work which was fitted —
be taken with impunity, and it is often used in the into a hollow wooden bowl. It acted just like a
cure of agues, but the practice of taking it has burning-glass the wood inside the bowl being —
a tendency to create a morbid appetite which charred at the spot where the sun’s rays were col-
I
is sure to end in very seriously injuring the con- lected. This spot, of course, changed its place
j
stitution, and often kills. as the sun rose and fell in its apparent path
j
across the sky.

j
The result was that the record
took the shape of a charred line, with blank
spaces to represent the periods when clouds
SUNSHINE RECORDS. crossed the sun’s disc. The water globe was
afterwards replaced by a sphere of solid glass,
Two strangers meeting in a railway carriage and and for twenty years records such as they were —
wishful to converse with one another, invariably —were obtained in this primitive manner. The
break the ice with some remark upon the weather. next step in advance was to employ a stone
Farmers, builders, fishermen, sailors, and hosts bowl, covered inside with a black varnish, which
of others whose living depends upon the ques- was melted as the sun’s heat acted upon it. The
tion, discuss the chances of sunshine or rain with instrument finally was rendered more efficient by
still more intense and natural interest. In short,
I
employing a strip of paper ruled with the hours of
there no civilised being on earth to whom the
is
I
the day, upon which the sun could trace a scorched
word “weather” lacks meaning. The importance I
line. And in this modified form it has been in use
of the subject has now long been recognised by !
within quite recent years. It will be observed that
scientific men and as one result we have daily-

; the record obtained was merely one of duration,
forecasts of the weather that maybe expected and gave no indication whatever of the intensity of
during the next twenty-four hours —
such fore- sunshine.
casts being familiar items in our several daily A far more efficient and accurate recorder was
newspapers. -It is true that these returns from the later on invented by Mr. Winstanley-. This con-
Meteorological Office are often inaccurate, and per- beam, hung just like one
sisted of a balance, or
sons unaware of the care and labour bestowed upon in an ordinary pair of scales. This easily-oscil-
them are apt to regard them as altogether value- lating beam carried a glass tube charged with
less. But careful comparison of the forecasts with mercury-, and crowned at each end with a glass
the weather eventually vouchsafed to us will prove bulb full of air. One only of these bulbs was
that about 75 per cent, of the calculations come exposed to the sunlight, with the result that
true. whenever the sun shone the air within it became
This information is collected by- comparing the expanded and drove the mercury towards the other
barometers at different stations over the whole end of the balance. The weight of the mercury
—
country a work which is rendered possible by the thus forced the beam to descend, and an attached
electric telegraph. In addition to the barometer, pencil made a mark upon a horizontal and re-
we have many other instruments devoted to me- volving clock-dial. A pencilled record was thus
teorological research,and records from these are obtained of every- minute period of sunshine at the
noted each hour of the day. The pressure of the exact time of its occurrence. This instrument,
wind, the appearance of the clouds —
secured by- however, merely- noted duration, not intensity but ;
—
photography the amount of rainfall in each dis- the same inventor soon proceeded further and pro-
duced an instrument in the Radiograph, which even before sunrise, and that just after midnight
fulfilled in a most perfect manner both condi- its needle rises above a strict horizontal line. It
tions recording both. is difficult to account for this, but it occurs too
A glance at the illustration will show that the regularly to be ascribed to mere accident.
Radiograph so far follows its prototype as to possess In conclusion, we may refer to the attention now
a mercury tube with a bulb (b a) at each end. The being paid to solar physics, and more particularly
tube follows the outline of a circular frame, which to that branch which seeks to obtain evidence of
is balanced upon a knife-edge, so that it is free to the effects of sun-spot periods on our globe. That
sway from side to side as the weight of the quick- there is some influence exerted by these disturb-
silver is thrown one way or the other. One bulb is ances in the sun’s glowing atmosphere there can
blackened so that the heat is absorbed by it. On be little doubt. The Radiograph ought to prove an
the same principle a black coat in the sun is hot to efficient help in the endeavours that are being,
the hand, while a white one is quite cool. On the made to solve a difficult problem.
THE RADIOGRAPH.
right-hand side of the instrument is seen a drum PHARAOH’S MAGIC SERPENTS.

which revolves by clockwork, and on this drum is
bound a sheet of paper blackened in the flame of a A CHEMICAL always an attractive
experiment is
lamp. A
needle fixed to a projecting arm on the thing, even to those who know nothing
of chemical
balanced instrument is so adjusted that it justtouches science. The innate love of the marvellous, which
this blackened surface, and supposing that it kept still is common to human nature, is fed by watching
it would trace a continuous line on the moving such experiments, and the more they partake of
drum by scratching the lampblack from the sur- fire and smoke— to say nothing of noise and smell
face of the paper. But every gleam of sunlight —
•
the more popular they seem to be. A chemical
acts upon the balance by expanding the air in the experiment usually consists in putting together two
bulb B, and the needle is caused to trace a vertical different substances, which unite to form a new
line as it moves upwards. The most fleecy cloud body, generally quite different in appearance from
passing across the sun is noted, and the difference either of its constituents. Thus sulphur and mer-
in intensity of heat as the sun gains the meridian cury ground together, on the application of heat,
and begins itswestward journey is shown by the unite to form the beautiful pigment known as
length of the line traced. It is a curious fact that vermilion.In like manner a salt of iron carr
the Radiograph gives slight evidence of movement be made to combine with the yellow wax-like
—
PHARAOH’S MAGIC SERPENTS. 389
crystals of prussiate of potash to give us that lish its kinship to the reptile creation. From this
—
colour called from one of its parents Prussian — egg — little bigger than a pea— a brown snake-like
blue. And so on, with nearly all the colours to body emerges, coiling itself into wonderful con-
be found on a painter’s palette. We could, with volutions, until its total length amounts to perhaps
some profit, enlarge upon this theme, and show twenty inches or more. Its abnormal growth sud-
how, by other chemical changes, far more im- denly ceases, the lambent flame which played
portant results have been realised, and how around the egg during this hatching process has
many an industry — nay, many a large —
town owes now disappeared, and we can examine our serpent
its prosperity, if not its e.xistence, to chemistry. at leisure. We find it very different from the animal
From such results, it roughly represents,
which border upon for instead of being
the sublime, we can a lissom body, which

easily descend to mat- can be bent at will in
ters trivial in com- any direction, it is
parison, to show how extremely brittle the ;
chemistry may assist least touch will cause
the toy-maker. The it to crumble, and its
various kinds ot lightness suggests the

crackers, from the truth, that what we
vulgar “throw-down” have before us is
to the aesthetic sup- simply the ash of the

per - bonbon -
table original compound.
container, owe their We will now give
noise to one of the different formulae for
most powerful and preparing these in-
dangerous explosives teresting but

toys ;
known to chemistry, we must caution those

namely. Fulminate of who would make
Mercury. An ounce them that the serpent
or two of this com- egg and its product
pound would be suffi- are both poisonous.
cient to wreck a The vapour given off
house but a fraction

;
during combustion is
of a grain is suffi- also deleterious in its
cient for a cracker. nature, so that the

Another chemical e.xperiment should
toy, which was a great not be attempted in
favourite only a few a closed room, and
years back, and when concluded the
formed something residue should be
more than a nine thrown on the fire.
days’ wonder, I. Fuse in a cru-
is
named Pharaoh’s cible the following
Magic Serpent. This
A PHARAOH s SERPENT. mixture :
— Prussiate
littlecontrivance of potash, 46 parts ;
forms a capital illustration of the manner in which sulphur, 32 parts ;
carbonate of potash, 16 parts.
chemistry can be applied to toys and to the ;
The heat should not be allowed to go beyond a dull
method of its manufacture we will now devote a red, and the crucible should be removed from the
few lines. fire when the contained mass seems to be thoroughly
As bought in the shops, this chemical toy has the fused. When cold, the fused mass is dissolved in
appearance sometimes of a little pyramid (which, water, and the clear portion of the liquid filtered off.
perhaps, is its only point of connection with the To this latter is added nitrate of mercury, so long
Pharaohs), and sometimes of a white pill. It as a precipitate is thrown down. 1 his precipitate
would, perhaps, be more correct to describe the is washed in many changes of water, collected on
latter form as that of an egg, for it is more reason- blotting-paper, dried, and finally rolled into little
able to suppose that an egg should produce a ser- pyramids, or eggs, and covered with tin foil. They
pent than that a pill could do so. However, the are now ready for ignition. The mixture thus com-
egg, or pyramid, is put on a plate, a match is pounded is sulpho-cyanide of mercury’, which can be
applied to it, and the thing soon begins to estab- produced by the following method if preferred :
II. Metallic mercury is dissolved in dilute nitric i greatest of public achievements. Accordingly, we
acid, taking the precaution that there is present an i
shall endeavour to give the reader a slight idea of
excess of the metal. Decant solution, and add to 1 the elaborate systems whereby towns of the magni-
it a satur.ated solution of sulpho-cyanide of ammo- tude of Paris and London are kept not only clean,
nium. The precipitate which falls must be col- but are actually more wholesome to live in than
lected, washed in several changes of water, and many less densely populated places. Indeed, so
finally dried. Mix
a mortar this dried product
in necessary is good drainage now considered for the
with a little gum-water, so as to make a pasty i
happiness and health of man, that before a street
mass as dry as possible. This compound can now is built the drainage is first considered. Not
be formed into eggs or pyramids as already de- many years ago, however, the street was first built,
scribed. and the drainage was left to take care of itself.
As we have already indicated, the compound Paris being situated wholly within the valley of
produced in both cases is identical, and it is ex- the Seine, this river naturally became the recep-
tremely poisonous. We now give a recipe for tacle for the sewage, and its waters, once so pure
making serpent-eggs which have not this disadvan- that the fish might be seen speckling its white
tage, which do not give off mal-odourous vapour, sandy bottom, became, as the city grew, blacker
and which leave an innocent residue that may be and filthier than the horrid Stygian stream of
preserved for a useful purpose. For all these ancient fable. The gay city of Paris itself was
reasons it is to be preferred to either of the others : fast becoming one foul cesspool its subsoil was ;
III. Bichromate of potash, 2 parts saltpetre,

;
putrid odours of the most unwholesome descrip-
;
I part ;
white sugar, 3 parts. Pulverise these ingre- tion floated from the humble cot to the palace of
dients separately. Mix them thoroughly, and then the noble, until, at length, the dreadful ravages of
press the mixture into little cones, which have been cholera awakened men to the pressing necessity
previously formed out of thin paper. If not wanted for sanitary reform. The
result of this awakening
for immediate use, the cones should be covered was the projecting of a scheme for the thorough
with tinfoil, and then varnished after which treat-
;
drainage of Paris, which, completed in 1855, trans-
ment they will keep for a long time uninjured if formed the French capital, and led the Parisians to
placed in a dry situation. A little balsam of Peru say that another Paris had been created under-
added to the mixture before it is put into the cases ground.
will cause the serpent to give off an agreeable per- This subterranean Paris, which, from the fact that
fume during its production. The residue is a mix- the drains are named from the streets above them,
ture of carbonate of potash, oxide of chromium, |
may be regarded as an exact counterpart of Paris
&c., which, when pounded up and kept in a corked j
itself, and collectors. The sewers
consists of sewers
receive the street and house water, and conduct it
'
bottle free from moisture, forms an excellent

polishing-powder for various metals. to the collectors. These collectors, numbering
three in all, stretch along the lower levels of the
city, and thus receiving the natural drainage as
THE SEWERS OF LONDON AND well as the contents of the sewers, bear their strange
PARIS. freight to the Seine at a point below the limits
of the city. The size of these collectors seems to
Whenever great numbers of people are located be very little less than that of the tunnels of the
in one spot, cleanliness becomes a matter of underground railway of London, and of the two
the most serious concern. Armies encamped in the collectors would seem to be the more desirable
hostile countries have often suffered from the place to be in indeed, a visit to the sewers of —
ravages of disease, as in the case of our own army Paris is regarded as a pleasure trip. Upon the
^
during the Crimean war, purely from the absence edges of the side-walks with which the collectors
i
of some means or other for the effective removal of are furnished, are rails for waggons to run on.
the impurities that man, in common with the rest These waggons, consisting of a light frame, carry a
of animate creation, continually throws off. For board, which on being lowered into the channel
this purpose the Jews kept a furnace, called Ge- between the side-walks dams up the stream. The
henna, constantly burning in the valley of Hinnom. head of water thus formed being suddenly released,
Here they burnt all the refuse of Jerusalem every carries with it any obstruction in the shape of sand
day, and burnt likewise along with it the bodies of or mud that may have stuck in the waterway In
their criminals. In modern times few problems the largest channels boats are used instead of
have taxed human ingenuity so much as the sewage waggons. These boats, built of iron, carry a similar
question, and the works that have originated in dam-board, which is manipulated in much the
our large centres of population, from the pressing same way, and for the same purpose as the boards
necessity of effectually disposing of the waste pro- on the waggons. The rate of sailing is extremely
ducts of life, are to be reckoned amongst the slow, taking from eight to ten days to traverse five
—
THE SEWERS OF LONDON AND PARIS. 391
miles. In returning up stream, movable dams are the effect of a flood. When the river rose to more
placed in the channel about every 600 yards to than its usual height, it would choke the sewers
reduce the speed of the current. The smaller sized that discharged themselves into it, and the sewage
sewers are cleaned out with rakes and shovels. would in this way be backed right up into people’s
The cost of thus maintaining the cleanliness of houses, especially those situated in the lower levels
underground Paris is reckoned at ;^3o,ooo per of the town. This was altogether too much for the
annum. Several hundreds of workmen are con- wealthiest city in the world to put up with so the ;
tinually employed for this purpose, and there are intercepting scheme now in vogue, and designed by
thousands of safety chambers and points of egress Sir Joseph Bazalgette, was begun in 1855 ^just the —
to facilitate their escaping from the sewers in case year in which the scheme adopted for Paris was
of sudden flooding. In July, 1872, a storm broke completed.
over Paris the rain poured the water rose in the
; ;
The intercepting sewer-mains are six in number
sewers, burst through the street gratings, and swept —three on the north side of the Thames, and three
many of the workmen away. on the south side. They run parallel to the river,
These Titan tunnels, besides draining Paris, are and intercept the sewage as it flows along the
used for the water-mains, the gas-pipes, and tele- former'main sewers in the direction of the river.
graph-wires, and along their sides run the tubes of This is conveyed as far east as Barking and Wool-
the pneumatic despatch. This does away with the wich, where it is discharged. The reason for
necessity of continually ripping up the streets and making the outfall so far down the river is to pre-
interfering with the street traffic whenever any- vent the tide from bringing it back into the metro-
thing goes wrong with the water or gas-pipes. In polis. The length of the intercepting sewers is 82
the thickness of the wall of some of the sections miles, and the cost of carrying out the scheme was
are offices for clerks and lamplighters “ lights
; ^^4, 00,000. 1
enclosed within porcelain globes hang from the To give a proper description of the drainage of
iron columns rails and trams are seen through London would take up too much space
;
perhaps, ;
the long perspective of semi-darkness farther on, however, an idea of the magnitude of the works
;
boats and barges, manned by pilots of a singular maybe gleaned from the following facts There, : —
navigation, float upon a stream calling up Acheron.” are in all upwards of 1,300 miles of sewers in
The most repulsive feature about the sewers of London. In constructing the main intercepting
Paris seems to be the rats, which are here bred sewers alone 318,000,000 bricks were used 880,000 ;
in their worst and most ferocious form. These cubic yards of concrete were consumed, and
rats, moreover, long enjoyed the protection of the 3,500,000 cubic yards of earth were excavated.
officials for the sake of their skins, which afforded The flood that rushes through this vast network
a great supply to the kid-glove-making trade and of tubes is between sixty and seventy millions of
other industries of Paris possibly, also, the cook- cubic feet per day, which would form a lake cover-
;
shops of Paris now and then replenished their ing an area of 482 acres and 3 feet deep, or fifteen
larders from this source at least the Parisians are times larger than the Serpentine in Hyde Park.
;
said to have had recourse to these creatures during The coal annually consumed at the pumping
the last siege. *
stations exceeds 20,000 tons. We
have, surely,
Before London had acquired its present main- I
reason to expect better health than our ancestors
drainage system, it was drained directly into the after such an outlay as this and, indeed, recent
;
Thames. At first the ditches and brooks —such as i
figures show that the expectation is Justified.

the Fleet Ditch, Bayswater Brook, &c. — together
with cesspools, assisted the Londoner to get rid of
his sewage. These ditches, however, in process of
'
NEWT S.
time became a nuisance, for we read that

The animals known by this name, or often,
Drowned puppies, stinking sprats, all drenched in mud,
in rural districts at least, as “ efts,” are usually
Dead cats, and turnip-tops came tumbling down the flood. I
regarded as reptiles by those who are not versed in

The was that these natural streams, zoological lore. Scientifically, they are not “rep-
result of this
having been putrefied with filth, were next covered. tiles.” They are included by naturalists in the class
Improvements went on apace, and the Thames of “ amphibians,” or that which has the frogs and
grew dirtier, breathing forth sickness and disease toads as its most familiar representatives. These
upon those that lined its banks. None of the animals and the newts together, differ widely from
improvements were in the right direction, for, no true reptiles. Thus, if we look at the latter, we see
1
matter how rapidly the sewage was shot into the they' possess scales, or even, as in the case of the
'
Thames, the tide only kept it dancing up and down turtles and crocodiles, bony plates, as a skin-cover-
!
the stream, while it underwent putrefaction within ing. The newts and frogs, on the contrary, do not
the limits of the city itself. Another nuisance was possess scaly bodies. The newts are often mis-
i
taken for lizards, to which they certainly bear a ‘
‘
and the latter North America. The latter con-
in
resemblance in outward form but they may be
;
tinent may, in be viewed as the great head-
fact,
at once distinguished from these reptiles by the quarters of the newt race. One of the most note-
want of scales. There are other characters, how- worthy of the newt group is the Giant Salamander
ever, in which frogs and newts differ widely from of Japan, which attttins a length of three or four
all reptiles. Thus they begin life as gill-breathing feet. The name “ Salamander ” is in fact given to
tadpoles, and thereafter develop lungs ;
for the “ newts ” at large, the “ Land Salamanders ” and
although the newts mostly live in water, they have “ Water Salamanders ” being the two natural divi-
to come up to the surface to breathe air directly sions into which the group falls. The legend of
from the atmosphere. The gills disappear in newts the salamanders being able to live in fire probably
and frogs in early life, leaving the adult animal to sprang from a germ of truth, like most other
THE CRESTED TRITON (.MALE AND FE.MALE).
breathe by lungs alone. This curious feature of fables relating to the animal world. These animals
their early life, namejy, that of beginning e.xistence possess large skin-glands, from which, when irri-
as “tadpoles,” under a different guise from that tated, they give off quantities of a watery fluid.
they exhibit as adults, is highly characteristic of all more than probable, therefore, that, under the
It is
amphibians reptiles, on the other hand, do not irritation of fire or heat, some of these animals
;
undergo such a “ metamorphosis,"” as it is called. having been known to give off this watery fluid,
The changes they exhibit are all gone through the fact became in time exaggerated into a power
within the egg, and not outside the egg, as is the of quenching fire, or of existing amid the flames.
case with the frogs and newts. The newts are familiar denizens of our ponds
The newts form a widely-distributed group of and ditches, one of the most familiar species being
amphibians. Certain members of the newt group the Crested Triton, or Great Water Newt, the
retain their gills throughout life, and, as adults, thus male of which dev'elops a prominent crest during
come to breathe through gills and lungs together. the breeding season. The average length of these
—
Such are the Proteus and the Axolotl the former newts is between three and six Their
inches.
found in underground caves of Central Europe, colour is blackish brown above, and bright orange
NEWTS. 393
below, speckled with black. Amongst other fami- or their own young, and measures should be taken
are the Palmated Newt, which has tlie
liar species accordingly.
hind feet webbed in the male, and the Spotted, Amongst the most wonderful traits of newt-
or Marbled Newt. 1 he latter is found in the history are those which
changes relate to the
south of France in tolerable plenty. undergone by the Axolotl, an American newt.
A curious feature of the newt tribe is the apparent
This animal was long regarded as a mature form,
,
facility with which they reproduce lost limbs or It possesses gills and lungs in its adult state, lays
,
tail. New limbs, or a new tail, grow in place of eggs, and produces its like as if it were an adult,
,
lost or amputated members —

a process of repair Yet in 1867 Axolotls were seen to leave the water
I
•which possibly owes its characteristic chiefly in which they were confined in Paris, cast all their
|
to the fact of the animals being cold-blooded, gills, shed their skin and tail, and assume the
PAL.MATEI) NEWT AND SPOTTED NEWT.
and to an absence in them of the shock and '

exact likeness of another American newt, the Arn-
pain which such an operation would produce in blystoma. The explanation of this curious change
higher life. probably our recognising the fact that the
lies in
The eggs of these animals are deposited on the Axolotl simply the young, or tadpole form, of
is
leaves of water plants in a highly ingenious posi- the Amblystoma, and that it has become mature
tion. The leaves are doubled back by the mother- as a tadpole, and assumed the likeness and func-
newt so as to enclose the eggs, the edges of the tions of a full-grown species.
leaf being apparently glued together with some The Black Alpine Salamander is another newt
sticky secretion. This process can be watched possessing a highly curious historic This newt
without difficulty in a large fresh-water aquarium, lives in dry places in the Alps, and its young
of which either of the common newts of (Ireat undergo their metamorphosis whilst still within
Britain will be found amongst the most attractive the egg and enclosed in the body of the parent.
denizens. It ought, however, to be remarked that We see in this curious method of development
the larger newts have a great propensity to devour, another wonderful adaptation to the altered lite
if other food be short, either the smaller varieties and habits of the species.
Y Y
—
BEARDS. Thetis, supplicating his good offices on behalf of
her fiery son, Achilles, “ took hold of his knees
One Easter Sunday morning, Guillaume Duprat, with her left hand and his beard with her right ”
—
Bishop of Clermont a man sufficiently distin- a most insinuating attitude.
guished in his own day as an ecclesiastic to sit in The early literatures of ancient Greece and Rome
the Council of Trent, and whose memory has come show how highly the beard was esteemed by these
down through succeeding generations as the builder nations. In the Homeric poems those characters
of the College of Jesuits at Paris — entering the who are to be conceived as dignified and possessed
porch of his cathedral, found the inner door shut in of authority are presented to us with snoiv-udiite
his face, and three dignitaries of the chapter await- beards ;
and, in the case of Rome, we have it on the
ing him. In the hands of these dignitaries were a authority of Livy that the Conscript Fathers deemed
pair of scissors, a razor, a basin of warm water, a itan unbearable insult for a stranger to touch these
towel, and a piece of soap. On beholding these symbols of gravity and wisdom. When that
carnal weapons the Bishop retreated, and, escaping ancient city was forsaken by its panic-stricken in-
to his castle of Beauregard, two miles distant from habitants, and the Goths, dismayed would seem it
Clermont, fell sick from vexation, and died of a at their own prowess, walking stealthily through the
broken heart. The cause of all this was Duprat’s desolate streets, beheld the defenceless senators sit-
—
patriarchal beard a beard altogether too fine for ting in dignified silence at their doors, they were over-
a bishop and as the paramount opinion then held
;
awed one of their number approached to stroke
until
by the Church on the subject of beards was that the beard of an aged senator. The bearded legis-
pride was very apt to lurk beneath a well-developed lator instantly struck the rude Goth to the ground
appendage of this kind, a resolution had been — a blow that was immediately avenged for the ;
framed to the effect that the Bishop should be savages forthwith proceeded to despatch the un-
shaved. The result of this resolution was the armed Romans. It is just possible, though we are
incident just recorded, and the untimely end of a not aware that any historian has yet sought to
good man. The reader unversed in beard-lore may palliate the action of the Goth, that the senator
experience some difficulty in believing this melan- may have been mistaken for amongst many tribes
;
choly story. At the same time, however, it is there was no more impressive way of showing
quite true. respect for a man
than by manipulating his beard
us —
bustling sons of steam and
It is difficult for in some recognised way or other. A familiar in-
electricity — to
understand the high import attri- stance in point will occur in the case of Joab and
buted to the beard in former ages. A tradition, Amasa. When Joab approached the latter, he took
long extant, led men to believe that Adam was hold of his beard to kiss him. It was because of
created with a full-grown beard, and this belief in this mode of salutation that Amasa took no notice
many cases assumed the force of an article of re- of Joab’s sword, and Joab’s action in slaying him
ligion. The Jews were forbidden to cut off the was all the more treacherous.
corners of their beards, and until very recently the The Romans themselves soon began to discard
stricter observers of the law, even if they shaved the beard, and imported a number of barbers from
otherwise, accordingly left the sides of the whiskers Sicily about 300 B.c. They also it was who began
towards the ears, if not round the face. Aaron’s to apply the term barbariatis i.e.^ bearded to the — —
beard attracted the notice of his countrymen suffi- uncivilised thus clearly evincing
;
profound their
ciently to be commemorated in one of the Psalms, contempt for what their ancestors had considered
and enters into modern civilisation as the popular as at once an ornament and a sign of superiority.
name of a very familiar and luxuriant plant. Every Alexander the Great, the Conqueror of the World,
one knows that the favourite oath oP the Moham- was not too great to bestow his attention upon the
medan by the bea 7 'd of the Prophet, and, until the

is beard question. He compelled his warriors to
—
i6th century when Selim I. shocked the faithful shave, on the ground that the beard gave a handle
—
by shaving the cultivation of the beard was rec- to the enemy and thus through utilitarian conside-
;
koned an essential towards securing a safe passage rations, shaving was begun in Greece.
to “ the paradise of sherbet and ever-blooming It is curious to observe the different modes of
houris ” the main reason for this being the fact
;
treating the beard adopted by different nations.
that Mahomet himself never allowed a razor to The young Roman allowed the down to remain
touch his own hairy chin. The' gods of the upon his chin until there was a considerable
ancients, with the exception of imberbis Apollo^ are quantity of then upon a fixed day, and with
it ;
allrepresented as bearded Jupiter himself having

;
solemn ceremony, the razor was applied the youth ;
a regular Alpine forest, which was an object of great consecrating the tender sprouts to the household
admiration amongst the other gods and goddesses, gods, and receiving formal visits from his friends,
especially when they wished “ the father of gods who usually marked their sense of the gravity of
and king of men ” to grant them a favour. Thus the occasion by bringing presents. Nero, we are
— 1
BEARDS. 395
told, consecrated his first beard in this way to torian. The beard of our own King Harry the VI 1 .
Jupiter Capitolinus. h'rom Tacitus we learn that has found its way into a ballad that appears to have
amongst the ancient Germans, no young man was been produced about the time of Charles I. :
allowed to shave or cut his hair until he had slain “ But, oh let us tarry for the beard of King Harry,
!
an enemy. CiEsar tells us that the ancient Britons That grows about his chin,
shaved everything prater caput et labriim siipe- With its bushy pride, and a grove on each side.
And a champion ground between.”
rius” (“except the head and the upper lip.”) The
Saxons wore long beards, but on the introduction From Gibbon we are taught to smile at the beard
of Christianity it became customary for the clergy to of the Emperor who based his claims to be
Julian,
shave. This distinction between the clergy and ranked amongst philosophers upon the filthiness of
the laity lasted for some time, and we find a writer his person, and the disgraceful condition of his
of the seventh century complaining that the man- beard. King Robert I. of France also had a re-
ners of the clergy had become so corrupted that it markable beard, which, in the opinion of some,
was impossible to distinguish them by their actions, seems to have made him more renowned than his
but only by the beard. The Normans shaved the exploits. Indeed, his achievements were attributed
whole face, and when William the Conqueror’s in no small degree to his “ long white beard, which
army was first sighted by Harold’s scouts, they he allowed to hang down on the outside of his
brought back the intelligence that it consisted en- cuirass to encourage his troops in battle, and rally
tirely of priests. The early kings of France had a them when defeated.”
very curious way Perhaps this is not to be wondered at, for still
of ratifying important agreements ;
three hairs of the royal beard were affixed to the there seems something of dignity about a beard, as
seal. Evidence of the truth of this custom is found is conveyed by many a mode of speech. Many a
in a charter dated 1121, which declares that it had barefaced man, though nearly thirty, has been
been thus ratified. The beard continued to flourish twitted as “ beardless ” and we remember a story;
in France until the accession of Louis XIII., who of a smooth-faced ambassador who was despatched
was beardless the consequence was the courtiers to a certain king, who taunted the “ beardless boy ”
;
soon became beardless too. His successor was as unsuited to deliberate upon grave affairs of State.
also beardless, and this confirmed the custom of The ambassador replied that if his master had
shaving. Spain was perhaps the best country in known that his Majesty required a beard, he
Europe for beards, and the Spaniards were pas- would have accredited a goat to his court. Old
sionately fond of them. Philip V., however, had Fuller also has a word of comfort for those that
no beard beards accordingly disappeared from his have to face the world unfriended by a beard.
;
court. The contagious example continued to spread, “ Beard,” says he, “ was never the true standard of
until at last the people, much against their will, it of brains but it is plain some thought it was,
would seem, imitated the courtiers. Hence arose or such a remark would have been totally unneces-
the Spanish saying :
—
“ Since we have lost our sary and out of place.
beards we have lost our souls.” Amongst Asiatics the Persians have the finest
Peter the Great had perhaps more trouble than beards. In former times Persian kings interwove
any other man in connection with the beard ques- the hair with gold thread, as may be seen in
tion. The Russians prided themselves on their ancient sculptures, where their beards are stiff and
square-cut beards. These lieter was determined to matted, while those of common folk are simply
put down in his dominions. In the Russian’s mind, curled. Even to-day “ it is inconceivable,” says
however, beards were very closely associated with Mr. Morier, “how careful the Persians are of this
religion ;
indeed, the Eastern Church has always ornament.” All the young men sigh for it, and
been partial to beards, whereas the Romanists grease their chins to hasten the growth of the hair ;
have, in the main, been in favour of shaving. because until they have there a respectable cover-
Peter ordered his subjects to cut off their beards. ing, they are not supposed fit to have any place
This command met with violent opposition. Peter of trust.
persisted, and inaugurated a body whose duty it Germany has perhaps yielded the most luxuriant
was to cut off by violence whatever beards might beard on record. Its proprietor was Johann Mayo,
be still retained. To further aid the carrying out a painter, commonly known as “John the Bearded.”
of this reform, he imposed a tax upon beards. He was himself tall, yet when he stood up his
Those that were unable to pay, religiously preserved beard reached the ground, so he usually wore it
the shorn beard, which was encoffined with them fastened to his girdle. To untie it and let the wind
when they died, so that they might present it to St. toss it in the faces of the lords of his court was a
Nicholas, lest he should exclude them from heaven favourite pastime of the Emperor Charles V. Per-
as beardless Christians. haps the most curious anecdote to be found in beard
Individual beards have now and then appeared literature comes from Portugal. Juan de Castro,
sufficiently striking to attract the notice of the his- an admiral in the time of Catherine, Queen of
Portugal, had taken the Castle of Diu in India, but SAILING ON SKATES.
was sorely pressed for funds to maintain his fleet.
The consequence was he cut off one of his whiskers In the winter time, when northern ports, such as
and despatched it to Goa as security for 1,000 pis- ice, it is a very common
the Baltic, are closed by
toles which he wished to borrow, with the mes- thing for the sailors to pass the time in skating, or
sage :
—
“ All the gold in the world cannot equal the rather sailing upon skates. This pastime has a
value of this natural ornament of my valour, which charm of its own unknown to the ordinary skater,
I deposit in your hands as a security for the money.” and when practice has engendered confidence and
The simple inhabitants of dexterity in directing the
Goa, we read, were so much sail, the proficient may bend
affected by this chivalrous backwards and, as it were,
sacrifice that they imme- sleep upon the wind.
diately sent back the money Fig. I is a representation
and the whisker. of the used by Danish
sail
The literature of beards skaters itsand
dimensions
is by no means meagre. in English measure. The
From the very birth of civi- material of which it is made,
lisation almost up to our and the bamboo frame, are
own time, a large share of both very light so that the ;
men’s attention has been whole contrivance is no

given to this article. In more trouble to carry than
Asia wars have been waged, an umbrella. It is fastened
and in Europe theological Kig. 1.
round the body by a couple
Fig- 3 - Fig. 2. Fig. 4.
disputes ot considerable warmth have arisen out of straps crossed over the chest, and tied at the
of beards. So widely have these disputes ranged, back of the body. The skater holds in his hands
and so capriciously do men’s views upon the sub- two rather large cross pieces of wood attached to
ject seem to have fluctuated, that it is impossible the lower part of the frame, and adapted for
to seize clearly the chequered history of the bar- directing the sail in any way that he may choose
ber’s friend. Nowadays, the matter has ceased to to go.
trouble men’s minds ;
there are, however, many Fig. 2 shows the practised skater in full sail,
questions into which men enter with, perhaps, skimming over the surface of the ice. Figs. 3
too much zeal, that in the light of future days and 4 show him guiding his sail, and making pro-
will appear quite as frivolous as the question of gress, although not in the direction of the wind.
beards. When the wind is strong, it is necessary to lower
SAILING ON SKATES. 397
the sail, which can be easily done, as in Fig. 5. acquainted in a very small degree. They are,
When the skater wishes to go against the wind, the however, not so badly off in this respect as the
body must be bent forward, as in Fig. 6, so that natives of climes that present the doubtful blessing
the sail being horizontal, offers no resistance to of perpetual summer. Once upon a time, a mis-
the wind. The skater may thus return to the sionary vcj-y much damaged his cause by using an
point whence he and begin again.
started ill-chosen illustration for the purpose of impressing
This exercise is very agreeable, and not very the sluggish mind of the tropical heathen with the
dangerous the falls made by a learner in practising
; fact that there were wonders which he had never
at the beginning are not serious, as they generally heard of and could not understand. “ I n my country,”
take place backwards, and are thus modified by said the missionary, “the water becomes hard, and
the sail. A considerable velocity may be attained we can walk upon it.” After that unfortunate state-
by an experienced though less than what
skater, ment the heathen would listen no more to the
certain ice-boats by the wind often
propelled missionary, for he was convinced that the latter
arrive at. After using the apparatus, it is taken was only trying to deceive him.
Fig. 6.
from the shoulders, the sail rolled round the ALCHEMY.

bamboo sticks, and the entire concern is then no
trouble at all to When there is a good
carry. As astrology was the forerunner of astronomy, so
breeze blowing, by no means uncommon to
it is was alchemy the forerunner of chemistry. Its
meet groups of sail-skaters vieing with one another origin has been traced by its different disciples
in speed. Expeditions with this apparatus are back to the days of Adam, to those following the
often made on the frozen sea between Denmark flood, to the time of Diocletian, to Job, to Noah,
and Sweden, the Sound being entirely crossed in and to the ancient Egy^ptian monarch, Hermes
this way. The sail is refolded when the wind is Trismegistus, who, it is said, invented it. Pliny
contrary, and the skates used in the ordinary man- says the first alchemist was the Emperor Caligula.
ner. Danish hunters in search of wild ducks and The earliest well-authenticatedmention of alchemy
geese largely employ this means of locomotion, is, however, a treatise on “ The Divine Art of
which is certainly worth being developed, even as Making Gold,” written by Zosimus, the Panopolite,
a source of amusement. who lived in the fifth century. This ancient MS.
The great obstacle, however, to the Englishman was preserved among the treasures of the royal
m the matter of skating is the want of ice. Our library in France. The Romans denounced al-
rivers flow on with the same liquid ripple in winter chemy, and punished its professors. The golden
and summer alike, and are seldom seized by the icy age of alchemy existed amongst the Arabians. It
king. The consequence is that we shall most likely spread with their conquests in Asia and Africa, and
continue to be permitted to enjoy the sweeping and the superstitious Saracens practised it with implicit
semi-aerial flight of the inhabitant of the frozen faith, firmly believing in its power to create gold,
With the exhilarating
north only in imagination. raise the dead, restore to the aged their youth, give
effects games and exercises that are
of those the ugly beauty, and even, with the aid of certain
throughout the world so largely practised upon herbs and cinders only, to create human beings !
ice, the people of the southern part of Britain are It was honoured throughout the entire world of
Mohammedanism, and amidst the power and mag- refusing to go away he invented a bronze magic
nificence of such courts as those of Alamanazor, horse, which so terrified the real steeds that they
Haroun-al-Raschid, and Abdallah Almammon, obstinately refused to come near it.
professors of the Hermetic arts held high rank Raymond Lullius, a student of Arabic, became a
and were rewarded with great wealth. follower of Geber, and devoted the latter part of
Geber, in the eighth century, whose real name his life to a search for the philosopher’s stone. It
was Abou Moussah Djafar, a native of Mesopo- is said that our first or second King Edward
tamia, is said to have written more than five invited him to England, and that in the Tower
hundred works upon the philosopher’s stone, and of London he converted iron, quicksilver, lead, and
the eli.xir, or water of life. He believed in a pewter into gold valued at six millions. It was also
preparation of gold to cure all known diseases, and said that he worked in Westminster Abbey, and
in the course of his experiments discovered corrosive that, in the cell he there occupied, long afterwards a
sublimate, red oxide of mercury, nitric acid, and great quantity of gold dust was discovered. Lullius
nitrate of silver, without which photography could states in his Testa 7nentu 7n that he converted fifty
never have attained its present perfection and thousand pounds’ weight of the baser metals into
popularity. gold. Roger Bacon was another alchemist, who
Alfarabi, in the tenth century, was not only a sought for the philosophePs stone with a firm
wonderful musician, but a famous alchemist, who belief in its existence and marvellous powers.
devoted all his time and energies to discovering the Like Lullius, he was a man of great learning, and to
philosopher’s stone and the elixir oflife. After him we owe some of the earliest discoveries in
writing many learned works on alchemy, he was optical science as well as the discovery of gun-
murdered by some robbers in the year 954. powder. His treatise on the “Admirable Power of
Avicenna, whose real name was Ebn Cinna, Art and Nature in the Production of the Philoso-
Sultan Magdal Douleth’s physician and Grand pher’s Stone,” and his “ Mirror of Alchemy,” have
Vhzier, wrote several treatises on alchemy before been translated into several languages.
he died of premature old age and diseases created Artephius wrote two famous treatises on the
by debauchery, in 1036. The conquests of the preservation of human life to an extraordinary
barbarian Turks swept away alchemy from Egypt length, and the philosopher’s stone, in the thir-
and Syria, to rest briefly at Constantinople, and teenth century. His disciples said he was Apol-
be revived in the West. lonius of Tyna, who lived soon after the advent of
In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries Albertus Jesus Christ and he said at that time that he had
;
Magnus, Roger Bacon, and Raymond Lullius reached the thousand and twenty-fifth year of his
were famous alchemists, who interwove with its age He also stated that in search of the philo-
!
wild absurdities some valuable applications and sopher’s stone he had, by means of his magic art,
discoveries of real permanent value. Many learned descended into hell. Alain de Lisle, of Flanders,
ecclesiastics, influenced by their example, became known as the “ Universal Doctor,” claimed the
enthusiastic experimentalists, and Pope John XXI I. possession of the water of life, and Doctor Arnold
asserted that by the aid of alchemy he had himself de Villeneuve, who won immense fame as a
manufactured two hundred ingots of gold, each physician, was supposed to have also won the
weighing one hundred pounds Physicians prac-
! power of converting lead and copper into gold. He
as many
tised the art with a view to discovering — narrowly escaped punishment as a sorcerer. His
asserted they had discovered the great panacea,— recipe for prolonging life to the extent of a few
or universal medicine, whereby all diseases of hundreds of years has been published, and here it
whatever kind were to be immediately cured. is First, you must rub yourself well two or three
:
Albertus Magnus, who had been, it was said, times a week with the juice of cassia. Each night
miraculously endowed with wisdom by the Virgin you must place over your heart a plaster of Eastern
Mary, and was made Bishop of Ratisbon, was saffron, red-rose leaves, sandal-wood, aloes, amber
famous as an alchemist, and one of his pupils was dissolved in oil of roses, and the best white wax.
Thomas Aquinas. The latter devoted his main This is removed every morning, and preserved, for
efforts to the discovery of the philosopher’s stone use on the following night, in a leaden box. You
and elixir vitm. He and his master, we are told, must then take sixteen chickens, if you are of a
endowed a brazen statue with life to act as their sanguine temperament, and twenty-five if you are
servant, and Thomas is said to have destroyed it lymphatic, and, having confined them where the
because, while performing its various duties, it made air is perfectly pure, you must deprive them of all
strange unpleasant clattering noises which disturbed nourishment. When they are nearly starved you
him in his studies. Thomas strongly objected to proceed to feed them with a mixture of wheat and
noises. On another occasion, some grooms exer- bran steeped in abroth made of serpents and vinegar,
cising their horses before his door so annoyed him giving them to drink water which is perfectly pure.
by their shoutings and clatterings, that on their This must be done for two months. In making
ALCHEMY. 399
broth for the chickens certain mystic ceremonies at one time he was for three years incessantly
have to be observed. You eat one of these birds occupied in his laboratory, eating, drinking, and
every day for sixteen or twenty-five days, drinking sleeping in it. It is said that in his eighty-second
a moderate quantity of claret or other wine. If this year the labours of a long life were rewarded. He
diet, etc., is adopted once in every seven years, you died at Rhodes in 1490, leaving several treatises on
may, it was said, attain the age of Methuselah ! alchemy and chemistry. Trithemius, the son of
Another eminent physician, Pietro of Apone, a vine-grower of Trittheim, in Treves, and Abbot
born alchemy, and had the reputa-
in 1250, studied of St. James in Wurzburg, where he died in 1516,
tion of a magician. The money he paid away, was said to have made marvellous discoveries in
however securely locked up, flew back to him, so it alchemy, enabling him to create gold and raise the
was said. The Inquisition seized him, and put him dead to life. From him comes the story of Dr.
to the torture with such severity that he died before F’austus and the devil, for the truth of which he
he could be tried. He was a personal friend of Ray- solemnly vouches. Gilles de Laval, Lord of Rays
mond Lullius, and Pope John, already mentioned and a Marshal of France, attained fame as an
as a famous alchemist, was one of his pupils and alchemist in the fifteenth century. His wealth was
admirers. The famous poet, Jean de Meung, was a enormous, and his love of display proportionately
well-known disciple of alchemy. Nicholas Flamel large. When poverty began to threaten him he re-
acquired the art from a book said to be written by the sorted to alchemy, and, failing in it, to magic arts,
mighty P' ather Abraham himself in the Latin tongue ! in the pursuit of which murder on a wholesale scale
This book puzzled him half his life, but when eighty was adopted, leading at last to his arrest, trial, and
years of age he discovered a clue to its secrets execution. The great merchant Jacques Coeur,
whereby he was enabled to manufacture gold, and into whose long purse the royal hand was so freely
add five-and-twenty years to his span of life. and frequently dipped, to be generously welcomed,
Living meanly, and in apparent poverty, he certainly and who attained boundless wealth with the utmost
acquired great wealth, as the records of the hos- height of worldly power and grandeur, was popu-
pitals and churches he endowed survive to show. larly said to have made his position by alchemy,
He left behind him several works on alchemy and ;
but there is very insufficient evidence to support
a hundred years after his death there were those the idea.
who it, and resolutely affirmed
refused to believe in During the fourteenth, fifteenth, sixteenth, and
that he was and would be until he had seventeenth centuries, alchemists continued to play
still alive,
attained his six hundredth year. In 1404, some prominent parts, and to find both disciples and
rumour gaining ground of alchemists having found believers throughout Europe, encouraged by many
the philosopher’s stone, an English Act of Parlia- monarchs, some of whom regarded an alchemist
ment was passed declaring the manufacture of gold much as their predecessors had a wealthy Jew,
or silver felony. In support of this act it was urged subjecting him to prison and torture to compel him
that, supplied by alchemy with boundless wealth, to supply the royal purse with gold. Numerous
any tyrannically-disposed monarch might readily works on the subject continued to be written, and
enslave the country. Yet Henry VI. granted four many men attained the widest fame as alchemists,
successive patents and commissions to alchemists the stories told of their magical doings remaining
for their encouragement, as the patents say, “to as incredibly absurd and strange as they had been
the great benefit of the realm, and the enabling of in the earlier times. The eccentric Christina of
the king to pay all debts of the crown in real gold Sweden listened not incredulously to the alchemists,
and silver.” This king also appointed a commission and Frederick III. was their patron. Glauber, the
of ten learned and eminent men to investigate the inventor of the salts still bearing his name,
possibility of making the precious metals. established a school in Amsterdam for the study
George Ripley was famous as an alchemist in of alchemy, and lectured upon it. The Emperor
the fifteenth century. He was the Canon of Leopold of Austria was credulous enough to express
Bridlington, in Yorkshire, and at one time the his faith in it. Even in the eighteenth century
Pope’s domestic chaplain. He dedicated one of cheats and pretenders continued to call themselves
his many works on alchemy to King Edward IV., alchemists, and some infatuated self-deceivers still
and was popularly credited with the power of pursued its experiments. Nor has the present
making gold. Amongst the most famous German century been without its alchemy, one of the
alchemists were Basil Valentine, Prior of St. Peter modern alchemists being Baron Cagniard de la
at Erfurt, the Abbot of Trithemius, and Bernard of Tour, if we may so call a chemist of genuine scien-
Treves, the son of a physician, who wasted his tific acquirements, whose experiments on the real
entire life and large fortune in unavailing chemical nature and construction of diamonds appear to the
experiments, reducing himself to beggary in his unlearned almost as wonderful as those which were
struggles after riches. His chief inspiration was intended to lay bare the tremendous secret of the
found in the works of Rhazes and Geber, and philosopher’s stone.
THE MICROPHONE AND ITS ALLIES. keeping the attached ! telephone to his ear, the
I investigator was able
to note, every time the
The invention of Bell’s telephone opened a new connection with the battery was made good, a
chapter, both in the history of electricity and also !
curious rasping sound come from the telephone.
in the science of acoustics. Its intense sensi- The same thing happened every time the battery
tiveness to very feeble sounds showed it at once was detached. By tightening the wire forming
to be not only an instrument for verbal communica- part of the circuit, by attaching a weight to it,
tion between distant speakers, but indicated its and afterwards increasing that weight until the
usefulness as a detector of vibrations, which, with- wire ^roke under the tensile strain, it was found
out its aid, would be too feeble for apprecia- j
that the telephone gave forth a grating sound
tion. To Professor Hughes must be credited the just before the wire snapped, just as if the fibres
Fig. I. —TUUE KILLED WITH .METAL FILINGS. Fig. 2. —SOUND TRANSMITTED By NAILS.
greater part of the of the wire were se-

knowledge which has parated, and grated
been gleaned since the over one another be-
invention of the tele- fore giving way. Such
phone, respecting the a dragging apart of
connection between the fibres would cause
electricity and sound. a variation in the elec-
In his handj the tele- trical resistance of the
phone has been made wire, and such varia-
to reveal new secrets tion is audibly pro-
from the storehouse claimed by the highly
of nature and instru-
;
sensitive telephone at-
ments have been con- Fig. 3. —SIMPLE MICROPHONE.
tached.
trived by him to de- An interesting ex-
monstrate the nature of his discoveries to others. periment which bears upon this view of the phe-
To these new aids in investigation we will now nomena has been arranged by Professor Hughes.
direct our readers’ attention, as one of the last A glass tube, about three inches long, is plugged
and most important developments of electrical at each end with pointed pieces of carbon, which
science. are kept in their places by sealing-wax. The
It \yill be remembered that Bell’s telephone space between these two plugs is filled with me-
works by virtue of a contained magnet, which in- tallic particles, a mixture of tin and zinc. To
duces currents of electricity in a coil of wire the carbon points are fastened wires in connec-
around it, which currents are varied in strength tion with a battery and galvanometer, the whole
by the vibrations of a metallic diaphragm, set in forming a closed circuit. Upon taking the glass
motion by impact of sound-waves from the voice tube between the two hands, and pulling upon
or other source. It is independent of any battery it lengthwise as if one would try to pull it in —
power whatever. —
Professor Hughes, by way of half the needle of the galvanometer is deflected
experiment, attached a weak battery cell to the in such a way as to indicate that the current is de-
telephone circuit in order to note the results. By creased. By the opposite action of pressing the
—
THE MICROPHONE. 401
two ends together, the needle is deflected in the loose contacts. Strange as it may seem, this
opposite direction, the current being increased by simple contri\ ance will take up sonorous vibrations,
bringing the metallic particles, by this compression, and will make them loudly manifest in the at-
into more intimate connection. Thus the tiny in- tached telei)hone, even though that telephone be
crement which a glass tube can sustain by the mere placed at a great distance away. More perfect re-
pull of the fingers is manifested. By mounting the sults .are, however, to be gained from the form of
same simple arrangement on a resonance box instrument shown at Fig. 3, which is still so simple
as in Fig. I. —
it is found that sonorous vibrations that any child could make it. A base-board about
can be taken up by it, and that it will act in every three inches long, has fastened to it a little block of
way as an efficient transmitter of vocal and other carbon, D. From this block a wire, X, passes to a
sounds. The shaking caused by the sounds, brings ]
tele])hone. Also on the base-lroard, but more to-
the particles into periodically closer or looser con- I wards its centre, is a U-shaped piece of bra^s plate,
tact, and thus acts like the stretching or compres- ,
and hung in its embrace is a pencil of carbon.
THE MICROPHONE TRANSMITTING SOUND OF A FLY’S FOOTSTEP.
sion of the glass tube. The same end can be its lower end touching the block D. From the U-
.accomplished by taking a slip of charcoal, such as piece proceeds the wire Y, passing to the battery
artists use for rough sketches, and after heating it B, and finally closing the circuit at the tele-
to redness, plunging it into a bath of mercury. By phone, Y. To this instrument, in its various
this treatment its pores become filled with metal forms, Professor Hughes has given the name of
in a state of fine division, and it will act as a microphone, since it acts not only as a detector
transmitter nearly as well as the tube just de- of minute sounds, but as a magnifier of them. In-
scribed. deed, it may be said that it does for the ear what
Even the simplest mechanical arrangements will the microscope does for the eye. Sounds which
give much the same results, provided that they ex- otherwise would becompletelyinaudibleare rendered
hibit loose points of junction. Thus a chain pLaced so loudly as to at once attract attention to them.
heap will answer admirably. But perhaps
in a little With the microphone shown at Fig. 3, the writer
the simplest arrangement of all, is that shown at has been .able to magnify the rustle of a feather to
Fig. 2. Two French nails. A, are fastened or laid such an extent, th.at an audience of several hundred
upon a flat surface, their heads being connected people have plainly heard its movement. In that
with a battery, B, and telephone, by the wires X particular case the telephone was attached to a
and Y. A third nail is laid across the others, support, and was furnished with a long cardboard-
forming a bridge between them with two very trumpet mouth. The feather of a quill pen was
then lightly drawn against the block D, with the Moreover, they are
ber of these points of contact.
result stated. not dependent upon any apparent difference in the
i
Another form of microphone is that shown at bodies in contact, but the same body in a state of
Fig. 4, where two pieces of wood are fastened to- minute subdivision is equally effective
gether, so that one stands vertically. Upon the Molecular action alone explains to me all the effects
vertical piece is seen the microphone, consisting of produced. Size or shape does not affect them. A
two little hollowed-out pieces of carbon, c, with a piece of willow-charcoal the size of a pin’s head is
pencil of the same material. A, loosely resting be- quite sufficient to reproduce articulate speech. I
tween them, and forming the necessary imperfect regard the action as follows If we have two :
junctions. Upon the platform represented by the separate conductors joined simply by contact, this
other piece of wood, I), a watch or clock can be contact offers a certain resistance. Now, we can
placed, and every movement of its mechanism will vary or lessen the resistance by increasing the
Fig, 5. — SEARCHING FOR A HIDDEN BULLET BY THE INDUCTION BALANCE.
be plainly heard in the attached telephone. In the pressure, thus bringing more points in contact or
illustration an individual in another building is seen closer proximity.”
listening to the footfalls of a couple of flies which There are some people who will fail to appreciate
are walking across the instrument. For the sake a discovery such as that of the microphone, unless
of clearness, the experiment is shown thus, and the it is shown that some practical advantage is de-
microphone is for the same reason much exagge- rivable from it. In answer to the inquiry whether
rated in size. In actual fact the carbon rod need the microphone is anything more than an ingenious
not measure more than one inch in length, and and very interesting toy, we may state that it
the flies are conveniently confined within a match- already forms the transmitting agent in various
box furnished with a muslin top. systems of telephony. Another application of the
In a paper read by Professor Hughes before the microphone is its association with an instrument
Royal Society, he thus accounts for the action of also contrived by Professor Hughes, and called the
the microphone :
—“ It is quite evident that these induction balance. To understand its action we
effects are due to a difference of pressure at the must invite the reader’s attention to Fig. 5, which
different points of contact, and that they are de- illustrates its use in pointing out the position ot a
pendent for the perfection of action upon the num- bullet which the probe has failed to discover. It
THE MICROPHONE. 403
willbe remembered that the induction balance was operation will now be readily understood from
thus used at the sick-bed of the late President Fig. 6. A beam of sunlight is reflected from a
Garfield. heliostat-mirror, .M, into the instrument. A lens,
The instrument consists essentially of two dis- L, condenses it, and an alum-cell, c, ^filters out
tinct circuits, one of which acts inductively upon heat which might complicate the effects and the ;
the other. In the picture before us, the telephone beam then falls on the silvered mica, D, “ spoken
held to the surgeon’s ear is connected with two to ” by the mouthpiece, O. The beam thus varied
coils placed upon wooden drums, one of which is in intensity by the sound-vibrations is made nearly
seen on the table, and the other is in the operator’s parallel by a second lens. La, and so reaches the
hand. At the lower part of these drums are two parabolic reflector, R, which brings the light nearly
similar coils quite distinct from the others ;
and in to a focus on the selenium cell, p. This is joined
circuit with them 's a clock, giving almost imper- up with the battery, B, and Bell telephone, T.
ceptible ticks, a microphone, and a battery cell. The effects follow virtually as before. The sun-
The latter stands on the table, while the clock light, rapidly varied in intensity by the transmitter,
and microphone are on a shelf above it. Now
the coils are so wound on their drums, and other-
wise adjusted, that so long as they remain as they
are, the current flowing in one coil is exactly
neutralised by a contrary current flowing in the
other coil, so that, normally, the tick of the clock
is unheard in the telephone. But suppose that the
coil below the operato»'’s hand be moved near a
coin, a bullet, or any metallic mass, this balance is
at once destroyed, since part of the inductive action
is now employed in setting up currents in the
coin or bullet, as the case may be. The balance of
the currents is thus disturbed, and the overplus
suffices to work the microphone, and so make D, falling on the selenium-cell, P, causes the electric
audible the ticking of the clock. The surgeon, resistance of this cell to vary as the light of the
therefore, shifts the coil from place to place until he reflected beam varies ;
and this variation in resist-
hears the tick of the clock in the telephone, and ance is sufficiently rapid to reproduce the words.
by carefully noting the intensity of the sound he Speech has been thus carried upon a sunbeam for
is soon able to indicate the exact position of the a distance of 700 feet. While the photophone, how-
bullet. Another application of the induction balanceever, must be pronounced one of the most wonder-
is known as the audiometer. This instrument is ful and interesting discoveries of all from the scien-
used for testing persons’ hearing, and is likely to tific point of view, it is perhaps doubtful whether
prove of immense service in diagnosing cases of it will be of any great utility, from the difficulty
partial deafness. of reflecting light with sufficient intensity to any
In all these instrumentshave been noticed
it will very great distance. Should this difficulty, however’,
that sound has been transmitted by causing its be overcome in any way, its utility as a signalling
vibrations, in some way, to periodically vary the apparatus is too obvious to need remark.
resistance of an electric current. The last and
most wonderful application of this process is in the
photophone^ by which a beam of sun-light is made A SINGULAR COINCIDENCE.
the medium of conveyance, in a manner now easily
understood. There is a chemical element called On December 5th, in 1664, a boat crossing the
Selenium, whose electrical resistance varies enor- Menai Straitwas sunk with eighty-one passengers
mously, according as it is exposed to light or not, on board. Only one escaped, and his name was
and with enormous rapidity also. A “ selenium Hugh Williams. On December 5th, 1785, another
cell ” is therefore formed of alternate layers of boat was sunk under the same circumstances. It
selenium and metal, which comprises the micro- had sixty passengers on board, and all were lost
phonic part of the circuit. The transmitter is a except one. His name was Hugh Williams. On
very thin film of mica or glass silvered, the 1
the 5th of August, 1820, the Bristol Mercury
front of which reflects a sun-beam, and towards I
records another such accident. There were at that
the back side of which is fixed a mouthpiece. time twenty-five passengers on board. Only one
When this is spoken or sung into, the silvered face escaped, and, wonderful to tell, his name was Hugh
I
is made to vibrate, and the reflected beam of sun- Williams. We may add, however, that the name
light of course varies in intensity as the mirror is I
is a very common one in Wales and amongst people
convex, concave, flat, or varied in surface. The i

of Welsh descent.
I
SPECTRE BEETLES. to force their way with great agility beneath the
bark of the trees when disturbed or alarmed. Like
.•\moNGST the wonders of the insect tribes, the all the beetles, the Afomolyces undergo a perfect
curious Spectre, or Leaf Beetles, of the East Indies “ metamorphosis.” As in the butterflies, there are
{Monnolyce phyllodes) depicted in the accompany- three stages included in this process namely, —
ing engraving, appear as highly prominent figures. larva, “ chrysalis ” or pupa, and the “ Imago,'’ or
The appearance of one of these insects is weird perfect insect. The
larva, or caterpillar-stage of
and fantastic in the e.xtreme and their history ;
the Mormolyce, well-marked, as shown in out
is
likewise partakes of much that is curious and figure. It is of a brown colour marked with darker
interesting. They were first made known to orange spots. In from eight to nine months the
European science about 1820. It was then that larva becomes transformed into the chrysalis, or
Kuhl and Van Hasselt sent them to the museum pupa stage, in which the insect is quiescent, usually
at Leyden; and in 1825 they were figured in a occupying a hole in the ground, or some similar
memoir of Hagenbach’s. Formerly they were situation. From this stage the perfect insect in
esteemed so rare, that specimens have been sold due time emerges, all its characters being outlined
for a sum of or even more but with inas the chrysalis form gives place to the final and
;
creased facilities of travel and research, their complete stage of its existence.
value has decreased with the increased number of According to one observer, these insects unite
specimens which have been obtained. Again, offensive powers to their strange forms. It is said
through the efforts of collectors, the area known to that they secrete a strangely irritating corrosive
be inhabited by these creatures has been much en- liquid, such as disables for a space of time the
larged. Formerly they were believed to be confined fingers of the person who unwarily seizes them.
to the Eastern Archipelago, and indeed, the species But it is probable that this latter observation should
figured is found in Java, Borneo, and Malacca. be received with caution. In the dead and pre-
But allied forms occur throughout the Archipelago, served shape, at least, no traces of such offensive
and in Eastern Asia generally and the family powers remain.
;
has its allies in many insects inhabiting the latter

region.
These insects and their neighbours are notable OSTRICH STOMACHS.
for a feature well shown in our illustration, namely,
the curious form of he elytra, or wing-covers, Dr. Boehmen, of Wittenberg, described a man
which in the beetle tribes are formed by the first who on one occasion ate a raw sheep, a sucking-
pair of wings, which, being thus useless for flight, pig, and by way of dessert sixty pounds of prunes
become utilised as protective covers for the hinder without ejecting the stones and on another de-;
and useful pair. The margins of the wing-covers voured two bushels of cherries, several earthen
in the Mormolyces are thus seen to be expanded vessels, and chips from a furnace. He also ate at
and flattened out, and the animal appears under the same time, some pieces of glass, pebbles, a
a somewhat leaf-like guise — a feature which has shepherd’s bagpipe, rats, birds with their feathers,
given origin to the term phyllodes, applied to the and an incredible number of caterpillars, finishing
species. Hence these beetles are allied to some of his astonishing meal by swallowing a pewter ink-
the remarkable Stick and Leaf Insects which have stand, with its pens, pen-knife, and sand-box.
been described in previous articles. The head, as The doctor also informs us that during this mira-
is also shown in the figure, is joined to the chest culous deglutition he was generally under the in-
by an elongated “ neck,” and the eyes are large fluence of brandy, but appeared to relish his
and prominent whilst the “feelers” well nigh
;
strange food, and was a man of extraordinary
extend the length of the body itself. The first muscular strength, who died in his seventy-ninth
segment of the chest has a toothed edge on either year H el wig says he knew an old man whose
!
side. The inhabitants of Java call the insect by daily supply of food weighed eighty pounds Real !
the name of the “ viol,” since they not only re- Colomb mentions a gluttonous fellow, who, being
cognise in the form some resemblance to a musical very hungry, once devoured a sack of charcoal and
instrument, but believe it to be also capable of pro- the sack !
ducing independent sounds. In 1632 on record that a Lorrainer, named

it is
The natural habitation of these insects is in the Claudius, a man

of low stature and very thin, used
forests of the tropics, where, under the bark of, frequently to swallow with impunity glass, stones,
or the moss growing on, trees, they conceal them- pieces of wood, hares’ feet, hay, straw, and other
selves by day. Their appearance as they rest on strange articles, pieces of linen and woollen fabrics,
the trees, serves as a kind of “mimicry ” concealing and small living animals, including on one occa-
them from the observer. They are also extremely sion a couple of mice. The great philosopher of
agile in their movements, and appear to burrow or the seventeenth century, Robert Boyle, mentioned
I
SPFXTRR BERTI.KS 405
THF MORMOLYCE PHYLLODES AND ITS METAMORPHOSES (Nâiural Stze)

at the Royal Society an English soldier who used died in March, i8og, in extreme agony, under the
to eat stones, and a man named Lazarus wdro used care of Dr. Babington, of Guy’s Hospital, in the
to eat glass. records of which the case appears with all its
It is recorded of an official at the Botanical details. He was thrice admitted to the institution
Gardens in Paris, named Bijou, that in one day and twice discharged, and on his first appearance
he ate a dead lion. On opening the body of a there the doctors refused to believe his extraor-
convict at Brest, the surgeon found in his stomach dinary story of knife-swallowing.
about six hundred pieces of wood, pewter, and iron. In the same scientific journal another case of
Several eminent physicians and other persons knife-eating is recorded by Dr. Barnes, a physician
have given us the history of a man named Tarre, of Carlisle : that of a professed juggler, named
who was employed by a travelling quack as his William Dempster. This young man swallowed a
clown, after the fashion of his day. He swallowed knife by accident while exhibiting in a small tavern
with ease corks, pebbles, and large quantities of in Botchergate, in November, 1823. The weapon
apples. He afterwards became a soldier. In the was nine inches in length, and he was terribly
presence of Dr. Lorentz, this monster tore open a alarmed, thinking would surely kill him. Medical
it
live cat, sucked its blood, and devoured it. He assistance was at once procured, but no efforts could
would take living snakes, and eat them in the same recover the knife through the mouth, and he was
disgusting way, grinding their heads betw'een his long under treatment, during which time the extra-
teeth. Mr. Courville, a surgeon, once gave him a ordinary nature of the case attracted a great num-
w'ooden lancet-case to swallow, round which had ber of surgeons and physicians to his bedside. It
been placed a written paper. This experiment was submitted to two of the most eminent men of
was made with the idea of employing him to con- that day, Sir Astley Cooper, of London, and Mr.
vey secret information in this w'ay. It succeeded. George Bell, of Edinburgh. A report of the Car-
While so engaged, he was detected by the Prus- lisle Dispensary says “ The surgeons of the dis-
:
sians, and punished as a spy. He died in his pensary were unanimously agreed as to the best
twenty-sixth year in the hospital at Versailles. mode of treating this extraordinary case they ;
Apart from the feats of sword-swallowing per- were of opinion that nothing but an operation could
formed by itinerant jugglers, and similar feats by save the patient’s life, but he could not be per-
which the spectators are deceived, there exist suaded to submit to it.” He left the hospital on
properly authenticated and very extraordinary December 28th to return to his home in London,
cases of persons who have actually eaten knives, contrary to the advice of the surgeons, who con-
and paid the penalty of such a diet. In the Edin- —
sidered the act a fatal one as, indeed, it proved, for
burgh Philosophical Journal a remarkable case is he died on his road, at Middlewick, in Cheshire, oir
discussed that of John Cummings, an American
: January i6th, inflammation and gangrene of the
sailor, who swallowed at different times within the stomach having been produced by the irritation of
space of a few years as many as thirty clasp- the knife and the jolting of the waggon.
knives. It seems that when he was twenty-three Dr. J. G. Millingen mentions a man who died in
years of age, being ashore with other sailors, about a public-house, the examination of whose stomach
two miles from Havre de Grace, he witnessed the and intestines resulted in the discovery of several
feats of a conjuror who pretended to swallow clasp-knives, with their blades blunted and their
knives. When on board his ship, and drunk, he swore handles consumed. He was probably killed by
he could swallow knives as easily as the Frenchman these strange articles of food.
did, and being challenged, he took his own knife, Another similar case described by Dr. Daniel
is
and contrived to swallow it, as he said, easily. He Beckher, of Dantzic, Leyden, as occurring in
in
afterwards offered to swallow all the knives they 1836, in which the knife was extracted by an opera-
could bring him, and did in fact swallow three. tion, and the patient recovered. Other cases of
This feat, for the entertainment of different parties, more recent occurrence might be cited, but their
he often performed afterwards, and in March, 1805, details do not differ in any important particular
being in Boston, he swallowed on one evening and from those already given.
the following morning no fewer than fourteen Sword-swallowing differs from knife-eating, inas-
knives, after which he was so seriously ill that he much as nothing is permanently introduced inta
had to be taken to Charlestown Hospital. Being- the stomach, but is none the less marvellous.
some time afterwards taken with others —pro- Early conjurors appear sometimes to have used
bably for carrying on some illicit traffic —by the collapsible or telescopic swords but later per-
;
English Majesty’s ship the /.«>, again

officers of his formers undoubtedly possessed the power of intro-
while drunk, on the 4th December in the above- ducing a solid blade down the gullet into the
named year, he swallowed twelve clasp-knives, interior of the body. A sword-swallower who ex-
and these terminated his career, after a long and hibited in London in 1881 was carefully examined
terrible illness resulting from their presence. He by many medical men, and the general opinion was
—
PULSE RECORDS. 407
ihat the end of the sword pushed down the farther the air taken in with every breath. The left side
side of the stomach as if it were an clastic bag. receives the freshened fluid, and transmits it by
still more recent performer, named Frederick the arteries through the system. (.Sec “ Wonders
Smith, met with a serious accident in the spring of of the Heart,” p. 29). This circulatory system
1883. While swallowing a sword it became em- is kept up by the contractile power of the ven-
bedded in the gullet, and he by motions requested tricles, which pump the fluid blood through its
one of the audience to withdraw the weapon. The various channels. It is not a matter for surprise
man thus appealed to placed his hand on the hilt, that this pumping action should cause an impulse
causing the blade to penetrate the intestines, and to be carried through the various arteries, an im-
the juggler was removed to St. Thomas’ Hospital, pulse which can be felt if the finger be applied to
where he was for a considerable time in a very an artery lying near the surface of the body. By
dangerous condition. —
a simple experiment, this pulse as it is now uni-
versally called —
can be made to reveal itself as a
movement of the body. Let the subject of the
experiment sit down, and cross one leg over the
PULSE RECORDS. other, so that one knee is exactly below the other
one. The pressure caused by the weight of the
In the year 1616 Harvey made that grand dis- upper limb upon a certain artery will cause that
covery of the nature of the circulation of the blood, limb to excute a slight movement up and down
which has made his name famous. Before his with every beat of the heart. It is quite possible
time the science of Physiology, as we now under- that some such experiment as this suggested the
stand it, was unknown but this famous discovery
;
thought that, by suitable mechanical attachments,
was its foundation-stone, upon which, bit by bit, the pulse might be able to record graphically its
the modern science has been erected. True it is own movements. That this has been done in a
that before Harvey’s time isolated facts had been remarkably successful manner is evidenced by
observed and noted, and this is a feature of nearly that clever little contrivance, to be presently
every important discovery but these facts re-
;
described, called the sphygmograph.
mained for many years lying idle, like independent Doctors attach much importance to the fre-
links, waiting for a master-mind to forge them quency and general condition of the heart’s action ;
together in a connected chain. At that time so- hence their first operation upon seeing a patient
called physicians, who were often astrologers as is to feel his pulse, and to time its rate by their
well, reliedmore upon the influence of the stars, or watch. In the human adult, the pulse gives nor-
upon the use of certain herbs and simples, than mally about 70 beats per minute, in the female
upon any knowledge of physiology, which, indeed, from 76 to 80 beats, and in the child considerably
waa impossible until the phenomena surrounding more. It will be readily comprehended that a
the circulation of the blood were demonstrated and movement occupying only the seventieth part of
understood. a minute will not allow of close study. So that
Long before Harvey’s time it was known that experiments on the pulse have formerly been
the body contained two kinds of vessels ar- — performed upon some cold-blooded creature
teries and veins. The first, as implied by their —
such as the frog, for instance where the rate of
name, were believed to be in communication with movement, being only from 10 to 20 per minute,
the air-passages, and to contain air. By a few eives time for more extended observation. But in
simple experiments, Harvey showed the fallacy of feeling the pulse the doctor does not alone note its
this idea. He proved that the heart was a kind of frequency. He judges of the state of health quite
pump, receiving the blood from the veins and dis- as much by its nature, and will speak professionally
charging it by the contractile power of its ventricles of “a soft and compressible pulse, a wiry pulse,
through the arteries, to be ultimately carried all a hard pulse, a weak or a strong pulse,” &c., as
over the body. Harvey’s theory was accepted, describing in a manner, perfectly understood to
but it was reserved to others to actually see the himself and his brethren, various conditions of the
circulatory system. It is evident that if such varia-
blood in circulation, as Malpighi did in 1661 ;
and as we can any of us do now by watching the tions can be graphically recorded— photographs,
transparent webbing of a frog’s foot beneath the so to speak, of an unseen thing— such records
microscope. must be of immense service. The sphygmograph

In warm-blooded creatures the heart is a
all has been designed to accomplish this result.
double organ, having right and left sides entirely The first instrument of the kind was produced by
distinct from one another, but acting simulta- was most complex in construction,
Vierordt, but it
neously. It is the duty of the right side to receive and bears the same relation to a modern sphygmo-
the blood from the veins, and to send it to the graph as does
one of the old matchlocks to a
lungs, where it may be re-vivified by the action of modern rifle. The movements of the pulse were.
by means of a lever, transmitted to a point which furnished by different sulDjects. To one point
scratched a trace upon a revolving cylinder alone we will call the reader’s attention. The
covered with blackened paper. But such trace pulse does not in any case show a simple up and
was merely an up and down mark, representing down record. First, there is an elevation of the
only the amplitude of the beat. In principle its lever caused by a dilatation ;
this is more or less
construction sudden, as
was correct, indicated by
but as an in- the angle of
dicator of the the trace.
state of the Now follows
circulation it a contrac-
was value- tion, inter-
less. Other rupted by a
workers im- second ele-
proved upon v a t i o n ,
it, with the slighter by

im p ort ant far than the
THE SFHVGMOGRAPH.
aims, among first. This
other consi- second im-
derations, of making it more simple and compact, pulse issometimes, but rarely, capable of appre-
and more easy of application. Instead of the sim- ciation by the finger but when it can be detected
;
ple up and down movement, an instrument was it gives the idea of a double pulse. It is caused by
required which would an oscillation of the
note the various shades fluid contents of the
of dilatation and con- vessels between the
traction of the vessels, contractions of the
and these conditions heart.These various
were eventually fully movements have been
realised in the sphyg- studied experimentally
mograph of M. Marey, by M. Marey, by the
illustrated in action at lid of a simple appa-
Fig. I. ratus to represent the
This modern form fluid contents of the
of sphygmograph is, it ventricles and at-
will be noticed, quite tached vessels. With
self-contained, and is india-rubber bags to
readily attached to represent the former,
the patient’s wrist. A and tubes of the same
little adjustable pad, material to represent
pressing upon the ar- the latter — both filled
tery, causes a light with water — M. Marey

lever to rise and fall was enabled to repro-
with every beat of the duce the movements
pulse. 1 his lever has artificially.
at its end
a point We may mention
which touches a black- in this connection
ened card. By a sim- the recent invention
ple contrivance, this of an instrument
card is caused to somewhat like the
travel from right to sphygmograph, but
Fig. 2. — PULSE TRACINGS.
left, and as it does having attached to
so the lever, or style, it a microphone. By
draws upon it a graphic trace, giving far more means of this contrivance the beatings of the
information than could be obtained by simply pulse can be heard. The sounds given are loud
feeling in the ordinary manner.
the pulse In enough toa large room, and are so charac-
fill
Fig. 2 given a set of these traces, a detailed

is teristic that thestate of a person’s heart can be
description of which would only interest the pro- readily diagnosed by the experienced ear. This
fessional reader ;
but a cursory glance at them modification of the pulse-recorder is known as the
will show what vast differences exist in the tracings sph>’gmophone.
ASBESTOS. 400
ASBESTOS. bustible. Examined chemically, it is found to

consist chiefiy of silica, magnesia, alumina, and
Of all the disasters to which human natuhe is heir, oxide of iron ;
and is a variety of that group of
there is none which is so much dreaded, and which in- minerals, of which hornblende is the type. Originally
spires so muchhorror, as accidents or death by fire. thought to be scarce, it is now found to be plentiful
In all well-regulated public buildings, precautions inmany parts of Europe and America the modern ;
against fire are the first things to be considered, demand forit quickly meetingwithasutficient supply.
and since the recent occurrence of vast confiagra- But although the substance has only of recent years
tions, which the victims have been numbered
in been introduced commercially, it was not unknown
—
by hundreds not, happily, in this country oUr — to the ancients. Among those nations whose
authorities have been very careful to see that the practice it was to burn their dead, asbestos was
ASBESTOS AND ITS MANUFACTURES.
regulations made for public protection are rigidly used to separate the ashes of the departed from
enforced. Unfortunately, most substances which the coarser and valueless products of the funeral pile.
are in common use are combustible, and even those Still later tradition asserts that Charlemagne had a
which we usually look upon as being fireproof, table-cloth woven of asbestos, and astonished his
are melted and destroyed in the heat of a fierce guests by cleansing it in their presence, by throwing
conflagration. We have buildings of recent date it upon the fire.
which are called fireproof, but when we come to The comes from .America, and its
finest asbestos
e.xamine them, we find that their necessary internal quality determined by the length and strength
is
fittings and furniture would burn like matchwood ;

of the fibres which can be separated from it, and
indeed, a really fireproof building is— if it be fitted the fineness of that fibre. A piece measuring only
for occupation— almost an impossibility. two or three inches square, can by careful manipu-
There is one substance, however, which seems to lation be made to fill a half bushel measure with
resist all attempts at destruction by fire, and that is what appears to be the finest wool. It is this
the curious fibrous material asbestos, which takes similarity to wool that allows it to be woven into
ks name from a Greek word, signifying incom- cloths, ropes, felted and matted fabrics. Our illus-
A A A
tration depicts it in its natural state, and in some these blisters allowed the heat to get to the wood
of manufactured forms. Fig. i is a specimen of
its underneath, which was charred, although the
Canadian asbestos in its raw state 2, is Italian ;
painted shell remained unaffected. The concluding
asbestos. In Fig. 3, we find it manufactured into experiment was on a far larger scale, and gave a
rope 4, into
;
cloth and 5, gives us a sample of
;
better idea of the real value of the invention. Four
asbestos paper. timber erections had been built up, two of them
It is little more than twenty years since the varied being about 12 feet wide, by 8 feet deep, and 10 feet
uses to which asbestos could be put first attracted high, and made to resemble theatrical stages, fitted
attention. From that time to the present, its appli- with ropes, curtains, scenery, and effects all complete.
cations have been gradually extended, until now it One of these had been treated with asbestos paint,
ismanufactured into all kinds of different forms, whilst the other one was quite unprotected. The
and is used for many different purposes. In the other pair of erections were open timber sheds,
form of felt it can be placed between a ceiling and about 6 feet square, and 8 feet high, one painted
the floor above, so as to prevent the spread of fire. with asbestos, and the other not. These four
In the form of a closely can also be woven by means of shavings, naphtha, and
cloth, it erections were,
used as a safeguard against fire. Asbestos rope of ignited at the same instant. other combustibles,
loose texture is now largely used as a packing Those which were unprotected by the fireproof
for the pistons of steam-engines, whilst rope of medium, were reduced to ashes in about twelve
stronger make can be applied to fire-escapes, or minutes, the roofs and framework falling in with a
can be used in theatres, or in other buildings where crash, as they would have done in an ordinary
the fire risk is great. As a non-conducting covering conflagration. For half-an-hour the painted struc-
for steam-boilers, asbestos also holds a foremost tures withstood the action of the flames, when the
place ;
while it enters very largely into the com- experiment was terminated. A pair of steps which
position of cements of a fireproof and effective I
had remained right above the bonfire of shavings
character. Asbestos millboard is used for a roofing remained uninjured even to the ropes, for it bore
the stamping of a heavy man afterwards.
j
which is both waterproof and fireproof in another ;
form, the material finds a place in the chemist’s It may be mentioned in this connection, that
laboratory, where it is used for filtering acids, and there are several chemical salts, which, applied to
other compounds, which would quickly destroy prevent them burning.
fabrics, will Of these, the
ordinary media. tungstate of soda is, perhaps, the most effectual.
The latest, and perhaps the most interesting, ap- We may also call attention to a fireproof varnish or
plication of asbestos, is in the manufacture of a
paint, the formulae of which has lately been pub-
fireproof paint,which seems, from recent public lished in France. It will be seen that asbestos
experiments, to fulfil its purpose in the most ad- does not enter into its composition. It consists of '
mirable manner. This paint, while not more ex- finely powdered glass, 20 porcelain, 20 stone of ; ;
pensive than the ordinary white lead compounds, any kind, 20 and calcined lime, 10 parts. These ;
;
weighs very much less, and has better covering ingredients, all in a pulverized condition, are mixed 1
power. It the action of sulphuretted to a proper consistency with water glass {i.e., silicate
will resist
hydrogen and other gases, and is therefore well of soda). It is claimed that two coats of this mix-
adapted for railway bridges, and other structures of ture will prove a thorough protection to woodwork.
the kind. But its fireproof quality is its most im-
portant feature, and renders it specially valuable Str.\nge Life Assurance Story. — Mr.
for painting joists, rafters, beams, stairs, and, in- Joseph Francis, author of “The History of the
deed, any wooden structures whatever. Bank of England,” and other works, tells us that
The trial of the asbestos paint took
first important there was once a life assurance company which
place in 1882 in the grounds of the Crystal Palace, altogether omitted the usual prescriptive con-
Sydenham, before a representative assemblage, dition of rendering the assurance void in the event
which included the managers of several of our of the person who had assured his life committing
theatres and other public buildings. had opened a policy with
The first suicide. A man who
experiment consisted in igniting this company invited directors and his creditors
some cotton,
the
linen, and gauze fabrics, which had been partially to dine with him, and when the cloth was removed
The unprotected portions arose and said “ Gentlemen, it is fit you should
treated with the paint. :
were quickly reduced to tinder, whilst those to know each other. These gentlemen are directors
which asbestos had been applied remained intact. of the company in which I have assured my life.
Next, upon a fierce fire were thrown some blocks These poor honest men are the tradesmen to
of wood, some painted, and some unpainted. The whom I am deeply in debt. I now mean with —
latter were quickly inflamed, but the painted blocks your assistance, gentlemen to pay them.” As he —
resisted the action of the fire even after blisters had spoke he pulled out a pistol, placed its mouth to
been raised on their surfaces. The bursting of his head, and blew his brains out.
DECORATIVE MUTILATIONS. 4ir
A RIDE ON THE WIND. race of Macrocephali, whose elongated heads were

the result of artificial pressure. The direction in
In the afternoon of Monday, July 25th, 1768, an which this pressure was applied varied greatly
extraordinary gust of wind near Cleobury Mortimer, amongst different tribes. The Natchez Indians
in Shropshire, not only unroofed the dwelling-house, produced an upward elongation of the cranium,
barns, stables, and out-buildings belonging to a terminating in a kind of point or edge, while the
farmer named Bishop (levelling one of the buildings .children of the Choctaws were laid upon a plank,
with the ground, and tearing up and rending more and a bag of sand placed upon the forehead,
than sixty apple and pear trees), but also took up his “ which,” says Schoolcraft, “ by continual gentle
son, a youth of sixteen, and carried him at a height compressure, gives the forehead somewhat the
of four or five yards from the ground to a distance form of a brick from the temple upwards, and by
of about eight yards, over a stone wall, fish-pond, these means they have high and lofty foreheads
and a hedge, depositing him in a great state of sloping off backwards.” Sometimes the Jiead is
terror, but otherwise unhurt, in a field of hay. bandaged between two boards (Fig. but what-
i),
ever means are adopted, the result always the

is
same— the production of a malformation of the

DECORATIVE MUTILATIONS. skull, which is anything but prepossessing to the
majority of mankind.
Amongst the forms of personal adornment
all The manner in which the feet of Chinese ladies
adopted by barbarous tribes, none are more repul- of superior rank are deformed and dwarfed by a
sive than those frequent examples of mutilation somewhat similar process of bandaging is so well
mentioned by travellers in all countries. known, that it is only necessary to refer to it as
We have already described (page 45) the extra- one amongst the many forms of decorative mutila-
ordinary practice of tattooing, but this is only one tion.
out of many forms of personal disfigurement. In Amongst the Eskimos the most fashionable
nearly every country, even in our own, the inhabit- ornaments are “ cheek-studs ” of wood or bone.
ants are accustomed to pierce the ears for the These are worn either in the cheeks or in the lower
insertion of pendent rings. In some places, how- lip, the hole into which they are inserted being
ever, this practice is carried to a great extreme, formed in infancy, and gradually enlarged by the
and amongst the Nagas, Kukis, and other Indian insertion of a series of “ guides.” These unseemly
hill tribes, the lobe of the ear is pierced, and a decorations are stated by Richardson to be in
plug of wood inserted, the size of which is gradually vogue amongst the natives from Behring’s Straits
increased until at length a silver ring, about the to the Mackenzie River, but they appear to be con-
size and nearly the shape of a napkin-ring (for fined entirely to the men.
which the writer has seen them used by Europeans) The insertion of these studs into the lower lip
can be inserted, the extended lobe of the ear en- calls to mind the custom of the Babines, who dwell
circling the ring like a rope. Nose rings, too, are to the north of the Columbia River. A large under
of frequent occurrence amongst savages, whilst many lipbeing regarded as a type of beauty, a small in-
of the women of India, both Hindus and Moham- cision is made in it during infancy, and a fragment
medans, are accustomed to pierce a small hole in of bone inserted. This is replaced from time to
one nostril, into which a stud of varying dimen- time by larger and larger fragments, each operation
sions, sometimes of brass, sometimes of gold and being productive of severe pain, and at length
gems, is inserted. The Sachet Indians of North pieces of wood, measuring no less than three inches
America wear large pieces of wood or bone in a in length and an inch and a half in width, are
hole piercing the cartilage of the nose, and the inserted, “ causing the lip to protrude to a frightful
Classet Indians slit, or otherwise disfigure their extent.” A similar custom existed amongst the
noses after having been successful in capturing a Paraguay Indians, who inserted a piece of wood
whale. four or five inches long into the lip, where it re-
A more curious form of mutilation than any of mained ever afterwards without removal. The
these is, however, very common amongst many labrets worn by the Botocudos(Fig. 2), some of
I
American tribes, and is not unknown in the Old

j
whom were London, are often
lately exhibited in
World. This consists in the artificial deformation ‘
two or three inches in diameter, and are inserted

of the skull by constant pressure during infancy, in a slit made in the lower lip and it is from this
;
and from this custom one tribe at least of American custom that they have received their name, the
Indians, the Flatheads, has derived its name. The Portuguese having compared the circular plug of
same custom is found in Mexico and Peru, in the wood to a botoqiie, or bung. A large disc will
Carib Islands and in Oregon, as well as in many also be seen inserted in the ear, after the manner
other parts of the American continent, and history of the Nagas.

informs us that on the shores of the Euxine dwelt a One of the most extraordinary freaks of fashion
is, however, the practice of filing, was held in no very great esteem in America yet
piercing, or ;
otherwise mutilating the teeth. Injurious as it Vancouver mentions that the Indians of the Bay of
might be supposed such a custom must be, it is, Trinidad, both men and women, were in the habit
nevertheless, one of very considerable distribution of filing the teeth almost level with the gums, the
amongst the barbarians of both the Old and the women carrying the practice to an even greater
New World. Many of the North American tribes, extent than the men. Amongst the Tchigt Eski-
and some of those of Australia, file the front teeth mos, who dwell at the mouths of the Mackenzie
into various forms, and certain African tribes chip and Anderson Rivers, a somewhat similar custom
and grind the in- was observed by
cisors, each tribe Mr. Petitot, while
apparently follow- dental mutilations
ing a different pat- seem to have been
tern or fashion of formerly widely
its own. customary in
Still more extra- Mexico and Yuca-
ordinary is the cus- tan, and have been
tom exhibited by a described in detail
Uyak skull from by Sahagun,Landa,
Borneo, in which and Mota Podilla.
each of the six Thus Diego di
upper incisors has Landa, who wrote
been carefully during the latter
drilled with a small half of the sixteenth
hole, into which century, describes
was inserted a the Indians of
small metal pin, Yucatan as filing
having a spherical the teeth to a sharp

polished brass point, resembling
head. These little the teeth of a saw,
metal knobs shine which they regard
and sparkle when as highly becom-
the mouth is ing. The opera-
opened, and are re- tion was usually
garded as highly performed by the
ornamental. Much old women of the
has been said by tribe, by means of
ethnologists rela- a hard grinding-
tive to this custom stone and a plenti-
amongst the unci- ful application of
vilised people of water.
the Old World ;
Mota Podilla,
but practices of the shortly after the
same character, to Spanish conquest,
be met with in Fig. I.— INDIANS WITH FLATTENED .SKULLS, FROM THE LOWER FRASER, observed a similar
North and South WITH CHILD IN THE CRADLE UNDERGOING THE PROCESS. practice in the
America, at the province of Panuco,
period of the Spanish discovery, have scarcely where not only did the Indians file the teeth to
obtained more than a passing notice. Even Mr. sharp points, but also bored holes in them, which
von Ihering, who has so minutely detailed the they stopped with a hard black cement. This dou-
various tooth mutilations indulged in by the ble mutilation had, however, already been noticed
Malays and other Eastern races, has hardly men- by Sahagun as characteristic of the Huaxtecs, a
tioned the custom prevalent in Peru of extracting race supposed to be the direct ancestors of the Pan-
the front teeth, noticed by many authors, from otecs of Mota Podilla, and originally forming a part
Cieza de Leon to Barnard Davis nor does he refer
;
of the great Toltec nation. And ultimately it was
to the custom of sharpening the incisors, observed proved by the researches of Doutrelaine, in 1865,
by Tschudi and other travellers in Brazil and the that the custom was one which had been in exist-
Isthmus of Panama. ence amongst the Toltecs from time immemorial.
It sees, indeed, tolerably clear that the practice of For in the curious ancient Toltec cemetery known by
artificially shaping the incisor teeth was one which the name of the Cerro de las Palmas, was discovered
s
DECORATIVE MUTILATIONS. 413
a skull showing precisely the same mutilations of workmanship, in a tomb in the neighbourhood of
the incisors and canines of the lower jaw previously Campeachy, and though it would be hazardous to
described by Sahagun. The teeth have been filed attempt to fix the date of this burial-place, there
at their edges with the aid of a hard cylindrical can be no doubt that it was anterior to the Spanish
tool, and the filed surfaces conquest. As may be seen
are neatly rounded and po- in Fig. 4, (No. i), the in-
lished, the gaps thus pro- cisors and canines are skil-
duced measuring from two fullybored near the centre
to four millimetres in depth. by small holes about three
No less than six skulls thus millimetres in diameter, into
disfigured have been ob- which have been inserted
tained from this cemetery, small fragments of a hard
while a skull which has re- stone of bluish colour, termed
cently been discovered in a turquoises by Dr. Fuzier.
Huaxtec place of sepulture, The outer or exposed portion
of a date anterior to the of these stones is regularly
Spanish conquest, clearly convex, and has received a

proves, as regards the sharp- tolerably high polish. Two
ening of the teeth, the ex- of the stones have disap-
actness of the descriptions peared from their cells (those
recorded by Sahagun and of the right canine and the
Mota Podilla. left middle incisor), and it is
The excavations executed seen that the perforations,

in the ruins of Tijar, near two teeth have which in these
Medellin, have, however, attained a depth of one milli-
Fig. 2. — BOTOCUDO iNDIAN
brought to light a most in- metre, have been produced
teresting fragment of the by a drill similar to those
head of a terra cotta statuette, in which are seen which we know were used throughout this region
combined the flattened skull of the Toltecs and anterior to the conquest, for boring diorite, ser-
the dental perforations attributed by Sahagun to pentine, and chatchinitl, or rock cry'stal. The
the Huaxtecs. boring of even
In this curious so slight a
relic, of which puncture, by
a figure is means of this
given in Fig. small drill,
3, the mouth
working in a
is half open, bed of finely-
and the upper powdered
incisors are flint, must
shown perfo- have occupied
rated by regu- no inconside-
lar cylindrical rable time,
holes, about and a careful
three millime- examination
tres indiame- of Dr. Fuzier
ter and about specimen
one millime- shows that it
tre in depth. has been per-
Other exca- formed after
vations made death, there
in the State of being not the

slightest trace
Campeachy,
during the of any patho-
Fig. 3. — TERRA-COTTA HEAD, WITH PERFORATED TEETH.
logical change
French occu-
pation, have in the vi-
led to the discovery of a fragment of an upper jaw, cinity of the perforation, which would
hardly
showing mutilations almost identical with those of have been the case had the operation been per-
the terra-cotta face from Tijar. This fragment oc- formed upon a living and healthy subject. But
curred, in association with several relics of excellent that in some cases the boring was made in the
teeth of living individuals does not admit of ques- THE ULTIMATE MYSi'ERY.
tion, and whether practised upon the living or the
dead, the mutilation is strikingly similar at Tijar We have now and in a popular manner^
shortly,
and at Campeachy, amongst the ancient Huaxtecs considered elements of Matter and their
the
and the Mayas and this resemblance has led to
; methods of combination also the all-pervading ;
the belief in the original unity of the two races. A Energy which affects them, and its wonderful
trifling ethnographical character such as this is, changes. Wonderful as they are, we have so
however, by no means sufficient upon which to base far found these conceptions apparently pretty
an argument as to the descent of nations. Never- simple but this is because they represent to us
;
theless, it may be mentioned that the languages of merely methods and phenomena. The human
these people presented some striking affinities, and intellect, however, refuses to rest satisfied with
are stated, with the language of the Quichas, to these : it persists in asking. What is the ultimate,
form one great lingual family. or real nature of things 1 Such questions occupied
We have little knowledge as to the customs of and puzzled the great thinkers of antiquity. Since
the other ancient inhabitants of Mexico and Yu- then science has professed to discard their modes
catan, at least as regards the practice of boring of inquiry as barren, and to substitute for them
and mutilating the teeth ;
but M. Eugene Eoban exact experiment and research but it is remark- ;
discovered at Tepito, in the valley of Mexico, an able that, when we have carried these as far as
they will go, we have to return to the old methods,
and are confronted with the same insoluble difficul-
ties which have ever baffled the human mind.
First of all, that Energy which we have con-
sidered must obviously have some medium for its
action — or, if we like to call it so, for its convey-
ance. Observing motion, for instance, we see
'
that one billiard ball does not transfer its motion

I to another until it knocks up against it till then ;
the second ball is unaffected. Wave-motion also,

of any kind, requires a medium in which to propa-
I
gate the wave and so, when Roemer found that

;
j
the light of one of Jupiter’s emerging satellites
Fig. 4.— TEETH FROM CAMPEACHY. i
took a quarter of an hour to cross the earth’s orbit,
I
it was plain that sonieihing^ or motion in something,
Aztec relic, composed of a number of gold teeth, !

traversed at a definite rate that apparently immense
only one of which seems to have been preserved. void. Later on, the remarkable phenomena of
This is also shown in Fig. 4 (Nos. 2 and 3), and polarisation showed that the vibrations whose
indicates a custom of fluting or grooving the teeth, wave-propagation constitute light required to be
not dissimilar to that prevalent at Cabinda, in made across the path of the ray and it was seen at ;
West Africa, where the natives file a deep notch in once that this necessarily involved further, something
the middle upper incisors. From the examples of of the constitution of a solid body, since no fluid
tooth mutilation which have come to our notice in is capable of propagating such waves.* Tremor^
various parts of America, it would be reasonable to must be transmitted through the medium which con-
infer that, if not very generally followed, it was, veyed Light, whatever it was, somewhat as through
nevertheless, a custom of very wide distribution ;
a jelly Here at once, then, physicists were and
!
but though a few places the fashion still remains,

in are confronted with apparently contradictory re-
it is curious to observe that no traces of the custom quirements. The Ether, as this universal medium
are to be met with amongst the existing races of is called, must be unimaginably rare and subtle,
Mexico and Yucatan. since it passes through all matter freely, and does
Many other forms of mutilation, practised either not perceptibly obstruct the heavenly bodies yet ;
as decorative or ceremonial, might be described if it must have the chief distinguishing property of a
space permitted. But enough has been said to solid ! More than this, its elasticity, or resilience,
show that the propensity is a curiously general one, must be literally inconceivable to us. We can
common in some form or other to a' large propor- neither see it, nor feel it, nor weigh it ; its neces-
tion of the primitive races of mankind. It is, in sary properties seem in their contradiction to mock
fact,one of the peculiarities which are distinctively all our faculties ;
yet we must suppose it, or some-
human; and why the human mind should persist thing like it, or all our physical theories fail us,
in outraging nature, whether by spoiling teeth or

* It is true that transverse motions are transmitted by waves
by tight-lacing, might furnish curious subject for on the surface of water. But we are considering vibrations in or
speculation. through a medium, not on a bounding surface of it.
THE Ui;riMATR MYS'l'ERV. 415
and our known facts fall to the ground as a con- the second place, the wonderful force of chemical
fused mass. affinity between different elements (or forms of
The Ether may seem unreal and far away but ;
vortices) is unaccounted for. But chiefly the grand
we fare no better when we consider that Energy difficulty remains, that the constitution of a fluid,
which appears so near, or even the Matter which as we know a cannot belong to the ether, for
fluid,
seems so tangible to us. To the chemist, his ulti- reasons already given. The only way to remove
mate atoms necessarily appear absolutely hard, or this last difficulty is to suppose that the ether com-
inelastic for if they were elastic, elasticity im-
; bines the properties of a fluid and of a solid— of
plies alteration in the position of parts, and these perfect mobility with perfect fixedness in some —
parts would to him be smaller particles. But constitution of which we have no experience and
the physicist’s theory of gases which we have briefly can form no conception. This is therefore sup-
described, supposing as it does atoms flying about posed but it leaves the ultimate, primal Ether,
;
with a speed which constitutes the temperature which thus becomes the source of all things, more
and elastic force of the gas, and rebounding from inconceivable and mysterious than ever.
each other without loss of energy or increase of And our conceptions as to the absolute reality
temperature, equally necessitates perfect elasticity. or nature of things are equally baffled in matters
It was chiefly to reconcile these contradictory much more near and apparently tangible to us
requirements that Sir William Thomson, carrying than these. We are obliged to conceive of Energy
farther some ideas of Helmholtz, framed his cele- as something quite distinct from Matter for we ;
brated Vortex Theory of atoms. We have seen can deprive matter of almost any form of energy,
(p. 52) how vortex rings of air made visible by apparently leaving the matter otherwise unaffected.
smoke (and the smoke has really nothing else to A moving ball will yield up its motion to another
do with it) retain their identity even all across a ball. One ball has acquired motion, and the other
room. Now the remarkable thing about them is, lost it but both balls remain otherwise the same.
;
that although they really do consist of small mole- The motion itself has been visibly detached and
cules of air, these molecules are so hound together transferi'ed, as it were. This is itself a profound
in the vortex ring, that it is the very same molecules mystery for why should what we call “ dead
;
which travel along. They are so tied that we matter ” transfer motion to other dead matter ?
cannot separate them even a knife cannot cut a
;
But when we begin to think, we further find that
vortex-ring in two, but the ring recoils from it ;
we never know either Force or Energy except in
and two vortex-rings recoil frojn each other like connection with matter. We know movmg bodies ;
two elastic bodies. It is true that such air-rings pure motion itself we know nothing of. And yet
disperse at last, but that is because even the air the body through which alone we can know or ex-
has friction and both Helmholtz and Thomson
;
perience the motion, can somehow get rid of it, by
have shown that if we had a perfectly frictionless handing it over to some other body.
fluid — either liquid or gaseous —
a vortex-ring once Even Matter itself equally eludes our compre-
formed in it could never be destroyed, but must go hension, whatever it may be. We think we can at
on for ever On the other hand, in such a friction-
! least conceive of that, as something “ real,” distinct
less fluid we could never 7nake a. vortex-ring. We from motion or other forms of energy. Let us try.
made our air-rings by friction itself but in a per- ;
It must have no colour, or be at all visible, for
fect fluid, to make vortices would require a Creative Light is a form of Motion. It cannot feel warm,
act. Thomson and others therefore suppose that nor yet cold for both these feelings are transfers
;
the Ether may be such a perfect fluid, and that of motion. Of course it cannot move. It has no
inconceivably small Vortices in it may be the Atoms magnetic, nor electric, nor chemical properties it ;
of Matter which we know. While we can only by has no weight, which is a consequence of attractive
our rough methods make simple rings, such vor- force ;
it can give us no feeling of resistance, for
tices might be knotted on themselves in all sorts of even that is a manifestation of force Now when !
ways,, so accounting in some fashion for the differ- we have come to that, what has become of our
ing “ elements ” of matter and the elastic vibra-
;
matter f
tions of such rings might account for the various So profoundly true is this, that Boscovitch, Fara-
lines of the spectrum of the gaseous elements, and day, and many others, believed each ultimate atom
for various other phenomena. to be but a centre of forces, from which somehow
On more
the whole, this theory accounts for forces were exerted, no one could tell why or how.
phenomena than any other which has yet been Professor Tyndall states Faraday’s view (not his
framed, and therefore receives more adherents own) in this way. “What do we know of the
every day it presents almost insuperable diffi-
;
yet atom apart from its force.’ You imagine a nucleus
culties of own.
its In the first place, it is doubtful which may be called a, and surround it by forces
if vortices in a perfect fluid would “stand out” which may be called to my mind the a, or
;
from the medium so distinctly as matter does. Irt nucleus, vanishes, and the substance consists of the
powers of m. And indeed, what notion can we j
and it is imagine any boundary-
as difficult to
form of the nucleus independent of its powers ? ”
I
We cannot conceive
things having always
of
Very many take that view, and it is as likely to existed neither can we of their having begun to
;
j
be true as any view but it helps us no more

; be, anyhow. We may scoff at these questions as
than the other. What the intellect strives for is vague discussions of the metaphysician but the ;
something constant, something that remains amid difficultiesand contradictions in every theory we
all changes and transformations something that is. ;
j
I
—
can frame and we have only mentioned a very
Now we have found already that if this something *
—
few of them make us feel that, with all the boasted
be motion, in some mode or form, we cannot con- definiteness and exact knowledge of physical
ceive of it without something else that is moved. I science, her votaries are at last as helpless as he.
Nay, we soon find that there can be nothing ;
We cannot apprehend the essential nature of that
absolute about motion at all this is a very old ; wondrous trinity of Ether, Matter, and Energy-,
j
discovery among thinking men. To repeat an i

so strangely distinct and yet so strangely united,
illustration almost as old as the hills, take a man which even the material Universe presses upon us
I
on board a ship. He is motionless as regards the on every hand.

ship, but he moves over the surface of the earth. While, however, this inability should teach us
Conceive that the ship moves from east to west at humility, we must on the other hand avoid a mis-
the same speed as the earth’s surface revolves from take some philosophers have made, and not lay
west to east he is again without motion as regards
; disproportionate stress upon the extent and inac-
a point in the heavens. But the earth also moves cessibility of the Unknowable. We have found
round the sun shall we say the man now moves
: that this meets us, at last, in the physical as much
in a circular orbit ? The sun also rushes through as in the moral and domain. But in
spiritual
space and so we may go on, finding at every step
; the one, as in the other, if we cannot know all, it
that motion is not absolute but relative, and that is not in the least true that we can know nothing.
the motion of any body is no more than change of The Absolute may refuse to reveal itself to us ;
place in relation to some other body. We can only but none the less, the relations between its various
imagine “absolute” motion at all, by supposing modes or forms, and their relations to our own
— —
space itself mere space to be itself an absolute being, are not only open to our investigation, but
and real thing, with finite dimensions, and with can be known more or less completely. The know-
fixed points in it to which motion can be referred. ledge we can acquire, if not complete, is reat know-
And any such notion of empty space is as incon- ledge, so far as it goes. The Undulatory Theory of
ceivable as the rest. Light and the Atomic Theory of Matter may possi-
Weight itself presents the same difficulties. Our bly one day be superseded by better theories even
most tangible notion of matter is, that it has weight ;
of the phenomena they deal with ;
but none the less
we seem to hang on to that amid all our perplexi- they will have contained something ?m%\\’&x\xrg more
ties. But that too is relative, depending altogether and which will be represented
or less to the truth,
upon the attraction of gravitation itself an inscru- — in any newer or better theory which replaces them.
—
table mystery between it and some other body, Our bodily eyes may possess neither the powers of
in our case the earth. A i lb. weight would the microscope nor of the telescope but they are ;
“ weigh ” only 2 oz. on the moon, and 27 lb. on notwithstanding, in their measure, true witnesses,
the sun and if there were no other piece of
;
though there be tasks that lie beyond them, or
matter in the universe but this i lb. weight, it which they can only perform when aided by
could have no weight at all ! further powers. Some day, with extended faculties,
Thus we find baffled on every side.
ourselves all that now seems so inconceivable may appear
And this may

perhaps teach us the true nature of wonderfully simple and beautiful but however ;
all such difficulties. It appears that our intellec- that may be, and whatever increase of its powers
tual constitution is incapable of conceiving abso- may be in store for the human mind in a future
lute ideas. Take time itself we cannot conceive; and more perfect state, one of whose grand and
of its ever having a beginning, neither can we mysterious promises is that we shall “ know,” even
think of its having none and the same as to any
;
in themeantime all finite relations of the Un-
end or termination while yet it seems as if there
;
knowable are open to our search, and the consti-
must be one or the other. We are equally unable tution bestowed upon us urges us irresistibly
either to frame or conceive any absolute measure to push inquiry to its farthest limits. We are
of time all our measures depend on the relative
;
not debarred from either knowledge or belief,
movements of bodies, which we have already found because in proportion as we approach the Abso-
to be destitute of any uniform standard. We lute or the Infinite we come face to face with the
cannot conceive of a Universe boundless in space. Inscrutable.
! ;
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Wonders of Univers 00 New y

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llHllllllllUliil 1

WONDEKS or THE UNIVERSE

Things IVondcrfnl and A/arvclons in

NATURIi, SCIRNCR AND ART.

“ What does Philosophy impart to man

CASSELL & COMPANY, Limited.

"JUGILUl young > v- -

PAGE PAGE PAGE

Sailing on .Skates ... ... 396

LIST OF SEPARATE PLATES.

A Tattooed Japanese Servant To face page 46

Skeletons of Siliceous Sponges ,, 132

Edison’s Great Dynamo-Electric Machine at Paris ... ,, 180

A Stick-Insect {Enrycantha annata) from the Solomon

The Giant Centipede {Scolopendra gigintcd) of India ... ,. 287

The Floating Gardens of Kashmir >> 353

2 THE WORLD OF WONDERS.

nearer home. much improved by Foucault, the celebrated

Matter which, simple as it looks, is perhaps the

THE ROTATION OF THE EARTH. 3

ball any change in the direction of the

spinning axis it seems to push and turn against

Fig. 2. —INCLINED AXIS OF THE EARTH.

4 THE WORLD OF WONDERS.

motion of a pendu- were afterwards re-

rotation in alternate excited owing to

board. Lay the board on a music-stool and, ;

deviation of per hour, which a pendulum and during that —

6 THE WORLD OF WONDERS.

GIANT CUTTLEFISHES. often asserted. The ancient naturalists described

HEAD AND TENTACLES OF A GIANT CALAMARY FOUND OFF NEWFOUNDLAND.

iaws of this specimen were said to have been nine 44 feet.

inches long. In November, 1873, curiously enough, another

these unseemly appendages are pared and tended

blAMESE ACTOR, REPRESENTING A NOBLE, WITH NAIL-CASES.

14 THE WORLD OF WONDERS.

terms “the bird-hermit,” of whose fame he heard i

ICE AND WATER. 15

ICE AND WATER. water in this respect, which makes it so valuable

us in a solid state and we say that the air is a

Tyndall’s experiment, showing the crystallisation in a slab of ice.

difference. In glass drawn on this page,

breaks “ anyhow,” it is not the fact, as

sicists call a colloid, angle where the

scribes this special branches of crys-

THE SUEZ CANAL. 19

sirable to follow up Napoleon’s idea of restoring

most direct practicable line between the Red Sea

teen separate points between the Red Sea and the

DREDGING MACHINERY USED IN THE SUEZ CANAL.

22 THE WORLD OF WONDERS.

point the end-door of the box opened, the contents

substances which apparently did not share that j

day. Later on, it was Hence

the hand which held tion against flannel or

24 THE WORLD OF WONDERS.

amalgam of mercury and tin. The electricity is an electric discharge,accompanied by a brilliant

Fig. 5. — LEYDEN JAR.

Fig e —DISCHARGER. BATTERY OF LEYDEN JARS,

26 THE WORLD OF WONDERS.