5/10/2018 Models of Teaching - The Second Principle

The Second Principle

The work of Leslie Owen Wilson, Ed. D.

CREATIVITY HOMEPAGE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN OPTIMAL LEARNING

RECOMMENDATIONS TEACHING ESSENTIALS

Models of Teaching
An Overview:  Exactly what are models of teaching and why are they so important to the quality of
instruction?

©Leslie Owen Wilson                               Contact Leslie

“  Simply put models of teaching deal with the ways in which learning
environments and instructional experiences can be constructed,
sequenced, or delivered.

If you are a practicing educator at any level, you may not yet realize this, but you need not
reinvent the wheel when you are looking for e ective ways teach. There are literally hundreds
of models of teaching and learning. To reiterate, simply put models deal with the ways in
which learning environments and instructional experiences can be constructed,
sequenced, or delivered. They may provide theoretical or instructional frameworks,
patterns, or examples for any number of educational components — curricula, teaching
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techniques, instructional groupings, classroom management

plans, content development, sequencing, delivery, the
development of support materials, presentation methods, etc.
Teaching models may even be discipline or student-population
speci c.

Models of teaching and learning are critical pieces to

instructional planning and delivery because they help
educators:

1) develop highly tuned and more varied professional

repertoires;

2) allow them to reach larger numbers for students more e ectively;

3) create either more uniform, or varied, or e ective instructional events, guided by

targeted subjects, content, or processes;

4) understand curricular foci better, especially as di erent models can be matched

speci cally to both learning outcomes and/or targeted learning populations;

5) gain needed insights into why some methods work with some learners, while others do
not;

6) radically modify or redesign existing methods of teaching and instructional delivery so

that emerging or altered instructional techniques may better meet the needs of today’s
students.

If you have ever used elements from Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences, or Madeline Hunter’s
lock-step lesson formula for Mastery Learning you have used a model of teaching. Or if you
have used Bernice McCarthy’s Learning Styles 4-mat Model, or KWL (know, want to know,
learned), or the Gra ti Model, or perhaps Six Traits Writing, or the Fishbowl Discussion model
to formulate and deliver a lesson, then you have already used a model of teaching. You may
have even created your own teaching models but didn’t know it.

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Aligned to teaching beliefs

Traditionally, models of teaching are represented by a broad array of teaching systems, each
system containing a distinctive philosophical foundation, or theory of learning basis, with
related pedagogical methodologies. Most models can be loosely tted into one of four or ve
distinct families of educational psychology – social; information-processing; personal;

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behavioral systems are the traditional ones, with constructivist added lately. Models falling
into the rst four categories have strong histories of research, development, and usage as
most have been both re ned and tested in the eld. Plus, each of these divisions, to include
constructivism, has a distinctive theory of learning orientation. (A test of four family
preferences – see which one you believe in most.  Four Families Philosophy Survey and the
four family test key )

Often what happens in schools is that school administrators buy into a certain philosophical
orientation. Based on those beliefs administrators may choose favorite models to want to see
implemented in their schools. They may also o er mandatory professional development
training in related models with the strong expectations of seeing all teachers using the
selected methods.

But what happens when teachers don’t have the same belief system that guides the chosen
model? When there is no alignment between one’s personal beliefs and suggested or imposed
practices, teachers tend to bulk at using these methods, often simply shutting the door and
hoping to teach in their preferred way.

An example of a model vs belief con ict: While intellectually I realized the potential power
of behavioral management models to actively change students’ actions, at least in the short
term, throughout my public teaching career at a deeply personal level I had a strong aversion
to using these techniques as my rst course of action. Many of the methods labeled as
behavioral modi cation use operant conditioning as a basis.  At a deeply rooted level I don’t
appreciate treating children like trained seals – for me it chafed at my professional and
personal beliefs. This aversion does not mean that I was incapable of using behavioral
techniques. Indeed, schools by the very nature of the organization of the institution are very
rooted in behavioral models. If I noticed that students were only motivated by external
rewards or punishments, I could certainly implement behavioral models, but emotionally I
never felt fully committed to these methodologies. Indeed, if I started out having to use
extrinsic behavioral rewards, often I would gradually phase these techniques out in favor of
more intrinsic methods.

My end point is that each family of models has strengths and weaknesses, and there is a great
deal of diversity in the available array of models. A preference for one set of models over
another does not necessarily imply superiority or heightened usefulness. It may simply be the
compatible alignment of ones underlying beliefs to those that direct the model. There are no
one-size- ts all models of teaching, and all models are not appropriate for all
instructional scenarios. In point of fact, there are models that are a better match for certain
tasks. Increasing the diversity of one’s teaching techniques is the primary power of learning
about models. The more models teachers investigate and practice, the more techniques they
will have at their disposal and the better their chances at optimizing e orts to successfully
reach and teach their students.

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Details – Families of models:

Basically there are two types of models of teaching – ones that can be cleanly categorized and
placed into one of the classic philosophical orientation groupings  – social; information-
processing; personal; or behavioral systems; or ones that are hybrid/mixed models that have
combined elements from di erent families of learning like those that can be labeled as
constructivist.

Descriptions of each of the traditional families: 

Personal source (aka Personalist): This group of approaches acknowledges the

uniqueness of each learner. Methods in this category foster the importance of individuals
in creating, directing, and structuring personal meaning. Also models in this area are often
targeted to foster things like self-esteem, self-e cacy, emotional and personal
understanding and acceptance. Carl Roger’s Non-directive Teaching Model would be a
good example for this group.

Social interaction: This group of methods aims at building learning communities and
purports to develop productive ways of interacting in a democratic setting. These models
also emphasize that human learning occurs in social settings and through modeled
behaviors and social exchanges. The Schaftel’s Role Playing Model is one of the more
popular models in this group. Donald Oliver’s The Jurisprudence Model also exempli es a
form of social learning.

Information processing: This is the largest grouping of approaches aimed at

emphasizing ways of learning speci c information and of acquiring and organizing data,
solving problems, and developing concepts and language. As the categorical title obviously
implies, models con ned to this category deal with intellectual development, powers of
reasoning and logic, aiding students in organizing and retaining information, and in
enhancing their metacognitive functions.  Primary examples designate in this area of
might be David Ausubel’s Advanced Organizers, or Jerome Bruner’s Concept Attainment
models.

Behavioral: Behavioral techniques are amenable to highly structured outcomes that

concentrate on observable objectives such as learning to read, physical skills, behavioral
and emotional adaptations and restructuring. These models are highly structured with
nite goals toward speci c pre-determined ends. B. F. Skinner is one of the more well
know developers of behavioral techniques like his Operant Conditioning.

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Common features: Models usually contain common features and these may include:

An identi ed purpose or area of concentration (For instance the Six Traits Writing
Model is designed for writing, while Synectics was formulated to stimulate creative
thought and solutions);
Underlying explicit and implicit assumptions about the characteristics of learners and
about the teaching-learning process (These are directly tied to guiding tenets of the
di erent divisions of educational psychology and theories of learning. For instance in
Behavioral Models students are seen as being generally passive but able to respond
and to be motivated through di erent forms of directed stimulation.)
Guidelines for developing speci c educational experiences;
De nite patterns and requirements for each instructional event; plus
A body of research surrounding their development and implementation, and/or an
evaluation of their e ectiveness.

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Traditional Parts of a Model:

In Joyce, Weil, and Calhoun’s Models of Teaching, 9th ed. (2014) they note that in order to
be designated a bona de model, it should qualify in 6 of the following areas.

Focus is the central intent of the model. Focal components

revolve around the main objective of the model. Is it the focus of
the learning event to encourage learning by manipulating
thought or types of thinking; growth in learning through external
stimuli or rewards; social learning, or social and emotional
growth through interaction; or increased levels of self-achievement and personal growth
through personally directed choices? Models are usually developed with a focus, an end-
game, or speci c intention in mind. For instance, Madeline Hunter’s very popular Mastery
Teaching concept focuses on presenting materials in a tightly controlled, very repetitive
way so that learners have optimal opportunities to get content, concepts, or processes
right the rst time. Another example – in cooperative learning models the focus is on the
importance of social interchange and peer support in learning new things. Therefore
models di er one from the other in terms of their primary objective or focal point of their
intended outcomes.

Syntax describes the model’s structure and includes the sequence of steps involved in
the organization of the model. It includes the major components and the phases of
unfolding, or the sequencing of steps, and describes how the model progresses.
Obviously the syntax can be quite di erent for each model.

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Principles of Reaction tell the teacher how to regard the learner and how to respond to
what the learner does during the use of the model. Often responses in using a designated
model should be appropriate and selectively speci c. This element is concerned with the
teacher’s reactions to the students’ responses. This portion of the model alerts the
teacher on how to react to the responses of the students. It is here that the teacher learns
whether the learners have been actively involved in the model’s processes and steps.

The Social System describes the interactions between students and teacher as each
model is viewed as if it were a mini society. Since every teaching model is di erent, each
model will have its own social system and rules of engagement. This portion concerns the
interactive roles and relationships between the teacher and the student, expected norms,
and which student behaviors should be rewarded. These may be overtly described or
simply inferred. Depending on the philosophical orientation of the model, in some models
the role of the teachers is dominant, while in others his or her role is passive. In some
models the roles center on the teacher, and in others the concentration is on the
students. There are still other models that require shared roles whereby teachers and
students share roles equally. In this segment both motivational strategies and tactics for
engaging students could be discussed too.

Support system de nes the supporting conditions required to implement the model
successfully. ‘Support’ refers to any additional requirements, beyond the usual general
human skills and capabilities, that are needed to implement the model. This component
relates to any additional requirements beyond those generally possessed by teachers or
found in schools. What requirements are needed to make this model work? Are special
skills or knowledge needed; or is there special equipment, media, or learning environment
requirements that need to be accessed in using this model? This support would also
include special books, lms, laboratory kits, reference materials, permissions, facilities, etc.

Application and e ects are rather apparent – how can the students use what the
model teaches? Application is the utility of the model as it can be transferred to other
situations. Each model attempts to implement some change in learners and in uence
their thinking, feelings, social interactions, or physical movements in some way so that
those changes can be transferred to other situations and experiences.

Leslie’s Note: Many models of teaching were created long before Joyce, Weil and Calhoun
developed their 6 elements of a model list above. In the models these authors selected for
their book they examine the individual components for each chosen model thus making it easy
for readers to see how each category works. But for the many teaching models not showcased
in the Joyce, Weil, and Calhoun Models of Teaching text you may have to dig into the literature
surrounding the model to discern if all, or any, of the 6 elements are there.

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 Samples of Models and Links to more information: *Underlined model titles indicate links in the
description.

***Most of the links below are from others’ sites. If you nd that links are down and
dead, PLEASE contact me @thesecondprinciple@gmail.com

Leslie’s Note: Sometimes the supposed “o cial” classi cation of selected models changes as
classi cations can be somewhat subjective depending on the philosophical orientation and
educational intentions of the model and the viewer/user. This should not diminish their
e ectiveness or value, but rather it is a condition of time and personal analysis. Di erent
classifying authors see di erent elements. As I indicated earlier, many models are hybrids
combining elements from varied theories of learning and this makes them more di cult to
pigeon hole correctly.

Examples of Existing Models with Their Common Family Classi cations:

The listing below is not fully conclusive but places to start your searches. Readers are
encouraged to seek out additional models on their own using the titles of the models as
search descriptors.

I have linked some examples of materials from the WWW but you too can nd them
using the title of the model. Additionally, for use with their classic text on models,
Pearson Publishing has sponsored a website that is designed to be a companion to
their Joyce, Weil, and Calhoun text at modelsofteaching.org and this may be a good
place to augment your online investigations. It is exceptionally helpful in that they
have gathered links from YouTube whereby viewers can actually see examples
of teachers using or demonstrating the models, or parts of models.
There are also general teaching strategies sites that include links to both models and
individual strategies. A good example of an excellent resource is Kelly Jo Rowan’s site.
In the listings below, there are hypertexted beginning links, and those selections with
an * asterisk are ones where there are links within the de nitions. Please explore
those examples for more ideas.

Please, if you nd exceptional examples, write to me so I too can add this information and we
can spread the word! If a link is down please contact me so that I can remove or correct
the link.

Personal or Personalist Models:

*Nondirective teaching: Focuses on self-awareness, understanding,

autonomy, and self-concept (There are a number of Prezi’s (Notasha
Folarin), PPTs, and articles (ASCD) on this concept online)
Developing Positive Self-Concepts

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Relaxation and stress reduction: Exploring personal goals for relaxation, or

using self-initiated relaxation techniques to calm anxieties in social settings.
There are many models that use this theme as a basis.
Selection, Detection, Connection Model – A self-directed teaching model
for highly intrinsically motivated high school students.

Social Learning Models:

Classroom Meeting: Strengthens responsibility towards self and others. This

model has rules and structure and speci ed intentions.
Cooperative or Collaborative Learning: Collective arrangement and
division of tasks, sharing results and ideas. There are a number of authors
claiming this model – signi cantly Johnson and Johnson, and also Robert
Slavin. There are also cooperative models that have more speci c purposes
like the Jigsaw Model.
Gra ti Model: Gra ti is a cooperative learning structure in which students
are asked to give written responses to questions posed by a teacher
Group Investigation: Focuses on interpersonal group skills as students
engage in acquiring information
Jigsaw Model: Originally, the jigsaw concept was developed in the 1960’s to
facilitate racial integration.  As an educational model it falls into the Social
Family of methods. There are several variations of this model. Here is another
page on creating jigsaw lessons, a sample lesson plan using the model.
Jurisprudential: Uses the jurisprudential frame of reference to solve social
issues (see 2nd example)
Laboratory Method:  Group/interpersonal skills, personal awareness, and
exibility skills are stressed in this model
Role Playing: Role play as a teaching strategy – In role play students assume
roles and become the source of their inquiry.
Sociodrama – Students assume roles, acting out issues in order to facilitate
awareness and understanding about concepts or important issues
Social Inquiry: Problem solving using social issues

Information Processing Models: (this is the fastest growing family of models)

*Advance Organizer Model: Increases the e ciency of information-

processing capacities. There are several kinds so there is a lot of possibilities
and varieties – expository, narrative, skimming, or graphic. This piece from
John Hendron is an excellent overview of the process and usage of this
model, plus he has included samples and resource links.
Cognitive Growth Development:  Mainly focuses on general intellectual
development

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Cognitive Views of Learning: Focuses on the processes within the learners.

Strategies are developed to encode and retrieve information (Kauchak &
Eggen, 1998)
Critical Thinking: Deals with a series of dialogs and exercises designed to get
students to think at higher levels and at levels that engage critical appraisal or
critical thinking. (see the works of Richard Paul for primary methods and
examples.[Paul, 2005])
*Inductive Thinking Model/Inquiry Training Model:  Focuses on the
development of inductive mental processes and academic reasoning. This
model includes the work of Hilda Taba who is linked below. Here is fun and
informative overview of teaching the inductive process and a comparison of
how it di ers from the direct teaching from Byrdseed.
Concept Attainment:  Focuses on developing inductive reasoning &
conceptual knowledge
Inquiry Training: Engages students in causal reasoning, and aids then in
developing hypotheses
Learning Styles Model: These plans are devised and written re ecting
concepts developed by one of the learning style theorists or followers (such as
Kathleen Butler or Bernice McCarthy, Dunn and Dunn, etc.)
*Memorization: Improves memory capabilities through a variety of methods
and tricks. There are a number of inventive and helpful sites like Wiliamette’s
 on ideal conditions for memorizing, or commercial sites like Memorize.com
with all kinds of cool functions to help students create memory devices. Study
guides and strategies also has a great page about create mnemonic devices
to aid recall.
*Multiple Intelligences: MI plans utilize, or are based on, those 8
intelligences described in the work of Howard Gardner. Samples of related
plans here. There are many, many excellent sites based solely on MI Theory.
*Multi-modal Learning Model: These plans re ect varied modalities used to
encode and retrieve learning. There are generally two basic variations – VAK
(visual, auditory, kinesthetic) and VARK (visual, aural, reading, kinesthetic).  Neil
Fleming (VARK) seems to have gone commercial, his site and test are an
excellent overview on modal di erences for beginners exploring this concept.
Picture Word Inductive or PWIM – Developed by Models of teaching
author Emily Calhoun this model is geared to help children in developing sight
and written vocabulary drawing on commonly familiar words. There is also and
excellent YouTube demonstrations of this model.
Scienti c Inquiry Model: Instructor teaches students the research system of
a subject or discipline.  Problem solving may be utilized in this model
Synectics: Creative problem solving (Gordon, W. J. J. [1961] and also George
M. Prince) In earlier versions of this model it was placed in the Personalist
category, later versions place in in the Information Processing format.
Personally I think this is where it belongs

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*Taba’s Inductive Reasoning Model: Advanced thinking can be taught

through a series of steps designed to be an active transition between an
individual and data. This is a very powerful model and there are a number of
good links explaining this concept. Here are two – a short research paper
from Dr. Mujibul Hasan Siddiqui and an example of a lesson plan using the
model.

 Behavioral Models:

Desensitization: Replacing anxieties with relaxation

*Direct Teaching: Expert or intermediary o ers information this method in
probably the oldest method among the teacher-centered models. Also it is
more than likely the most universally experienced  form of teaching for most
of us. This link o ers a comprehensive de nition of direct instruction with
citations.
Direct Training: Develops distinctive predetermined patterns of behavior.
Like direct teaching an expert shows a novice how to do something. This is
readily used in trade schools and in situations where there are gradations of
apprenticeship toward a desired skill or goal.
Behaviorism: Emphasized the importance of observable, external events on
learning and the role of reinforces in in uencing those events (Kauchak &
Eggen, 1998)
Hunter Model, also Mastery Learning: – highly structured approach to
teaching whereby plans are devised using the classic, repetitive lesson model
developed by the late Madeline Hunter
Self-control: Uses a series of rewards and internal dialogs to correct or
improve social behavior
Simulation: Students deal with hypothetical or social situations and various
processes to help their decision-making skills. Progression to an end goal or
speci ed understanding or outcome is plotted.

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Examples of hybrid or mixed models:

 Awareness Training: Emphasizes self-awareness and interpersonal awareness

 *Constructivism: An eclectic view of learning that emphasizes: This site does an
excellent job of explaining constructivist planning – Thirteen EdOnline.

o   Learners construct their own understanding rather than having it delivered or
transmitted to them.
o   New learning depends on prior understanding.

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o   Learning is enhanced by social interaction.

o   Authentic learning tasks promote meaningful learning. (Kauchak & Eggen, 1998)

Constructivist models can be

o   Problem based learning
o   Project based learning

Contingency Management: Deals with facts, concepts, and skills

The Flipped Classroom Model – A succinct, comprehensive overview of the model
Holistic-learning: The focus of holistic education is on relationships. This model
focuses on the relationship between linear thinking and intuition, the relationships
between various domains of knowledge, the relationship between the individual and
community, as well as the relationship between self and Self. In the holistic-curriculum
the student examines these relationships so that he/she gains both an awareness of
them and the skills necessary to transform the relationships where it is appropriate
(Miller, 1988)
*Paideia: A model that attempts of instill egalitarian education to all children through
the study of enduring classics in an educational system based on the great, unchanging
themes and works of human kind. These are topics and works that are timeless,
endless, classic – they are the big ideas contained in great works of art, literature and
science. Paideia focuses on helping all students to acquire, remember, and understand
basic ideas, skills, and facts. The model uses three main methods of teaching – the
lecture, coaching, and seminar and is linked through Socratic dialogues between
students and teachers. There are numerous website showing schools that use this
method.
Positive interdependence: Focuses on achieving personal goals by nding and
networking with individuals with like concerns or goals. (Realistically this model melds
both personal interests with social needs to establish connections with others with the
same goals or concerns. I have also seen it categorized as both a personal model and
as a social model.)
Problem Solving Model: These plans re ect general rules for developing skills used in
solving problems. In this process the teacher develops a problem; carefully accesses
skills needed to solve the problem; and creates conditions and/or parameters that act
as guidelines for products or solutions; these same conditions and parameters also
serve as evaluation criteria integrated approach to education.
Renzulli’s Triad Enrichment Model: Planned inquiry is accelerated through
personally chosen research interests
Socratic Method: Using specialized instructor dialogues as a means of direct teaching
and to encourage critical thinking and appraisal (Hyman, 1970)

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A Personal Testimony: In all of my 310+ credits in higher education, Models of Teaching

and Learning was one my most important graduate classes – EVER! I have two very
strong regrets about this course. The rst is that I wish it had been part of my undergraduate
teacher preparation training. My other regret is that this course is not more universal in
teacher training programs, or mandatory in advanced educational graduate sequences.

Based on these thoughts, as a professor in teacher education I tried to bring some of the
simpler models into my undergraduate classes in educational psychology. Content in
educational psychology traditionally covers the distinctive families of learning and the theories
that drive them. Adding models of teaching that exempli ed these theories seemed like a
natural addition to the course so that students could see how theory bridged into practice.

Although many of my students artfully incorporated this training into their lesson planning, I
am still not wholly certain they grasped fully the importance of knowing about teaching
models. Later in my university career I also developed an online graduate class focused on the
models topic. At least at the graduate level I was glad to observe that most of my students did
get the importance of knowing about teaching and learning models. Many also had the same
initial reaction I did – “why didn’t I have this course as an undergraduate?”

That noted, learning about models may be one of those topics that increases in importance
and ease of acceptance and applicability as folks age in their professional wisdom and
experience. I still feel very compelled to try to spread the word to a broader cyber audience
hoping to convince those readers interested in being excellent teachers that learning about
teaching models is a very important topic in one’s professional array of teaching tools. This
posting is an alert that many models are out there and an encouragement that as an educator
you should try to nd out more about them beyond this simple introduction.

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Recommended Texts:

There are several excellent books on models of teaching. For an overall introduction into the
world of models I am partial to the one by Joyce, Weil, and Calhoun. For years, Bruce Joyce and
Marsha Weil have been perceived by educational leaders as paramount experts in the area of
teaching and learning models. Recently they have joined with Emily Calhoun. In all my years of
teaching this content as a graduate level course, I have had no student who was willing to let
go of his/her text for resale. They all agreed this is one of those books that was a must have in
their collections of professional references. In my mind that is quite an endorsement.

 Joyce, B.  & Weil, M., w/Calhoun, E. (2014) Models of teaching, 9th edition, Allyn
and Bacon. (Pearson Publishing) This is an expensive text to buy, even in paperback,
but a jewel of a professional reference. It comes in a variety of other forms. If you do
not want to buy it for yourself, see if you can get your media specialist or administrator
to purchase a copy for your institution’s professional development library. Unlike many
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other reference books, one of the premiere elements in this volume is the Appendix. It
is full of very useful forms, and not only ones that will help readers implement the
models, but ones designed to improve teaching practices and professional self-
evaluation. Again, as noted above, this newer edition encourages readers to use the
companion website @ modelsofteaching.org, where there are linked videoed
examples of demonstrations of many of the models. This video cache from Pearson
is an extremely valuable resource!

There are also books on teaching models for special populations. For readers interested in
models designated for use with those children who have been labeled as “gifted” learners I
would suggest.

Maker, J. C. &  Shieve, S. W. (2005)  Teaching Models In Education Of The

Gifted 3rd edition. Pro Ed.

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References

Hyman, R. T. (1970). Ways of teaching. New York, NY:  J.B. Lippincott Company.

Joyce, B.  & Weil, M. and Calhoun, E. (2008). Models of teaching, 8th ed.  Englewood Cli s,
NJ:  Prentice-Hall. (there is now a 9th, 2014 edition)

Kauchak, D. P. & Eggen, P. D. (1998). Learning and teaching: Research-based methods.

Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Miller, J. P., Cassie, B. J. R., and Drake, S. M. (1990). Holistic learning: a teacher’s guide to
integrated studies. Toronto, Ontario:  The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE
Press).

Miller, J. P. (1988). The holistic curriculum. Toronto: The Ontario Institute for Studies in
Education (OISE Press).

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For further investigations

 Other models of teaching explained in this site:

The Flipped Classroom

The Madeline Hunter Model

The selection, detection, connection model – An self-directed, inquiry learning model

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Online resources

This list is intended to merely provide examples of sites where you can nd more information
on models of interest. If you have resources you’d think might provide examples of other
models,  please send them to me for consideration.

Models for teaching science – schema listing an array of models used in teaching
science.

Concept to Classroom – An overview of 3 constructivist models

Contact Leslie

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