Chapter 4

LIVE LOADS

4.1 DEFINITIONS with a method approved by the authority having

jurisdiction.
FIXED LADDER: A ladder that is permanently
attached to a structure, building, or equipment.
GRAB BAR SYSTEM: A bar and associated
4.3 UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LIVE LOADS
anchorages and attachments to the structural system,
for the support of body weight in locations such as
4.3.1 Required Live Loads
toilets, showers, and tub enclosures.
The live loads used in the design of buildings and
GUARDRAIL SYSTEM: A system of compo-
other structures shall be the maximum loads expected
nents, including anchorages and attachments to the
by the intended use or occupancy, but shall in no case
structural system, near open sides of an elevated
be less than the minimum uniformly distributed unit
surface for the purpose of minimizing the possibility
loads required by Table 4-1, including any permis-
of a fall from the elevated surface by people, equip-
sible reduction.
ment, or material.
HANDRAIL SYSTEM: A rail grasped by hand
4.3.2 Provision for Partitions
for guidance and support, and associated anchorages
In office buildings or other buildings where
and attachments to the structural system.
partitions will be erected or rearranged, provision for
HELIPAD: A structural surface that is used for
partition weight shall be made, whether or not
landing, taking off, taxiing, and parking of helicopters.
partitions are shown on the plans. Partition load shall
LIVE LOAD: A load produced by the use and
not be less than 15 psf (0.72 kN/m2).
occupancy of the building or other structure that does
EXCEPTION: A partition live load is not
not include construction or environmental loads, such
required where the minimum specified live load
as wind load, snow load, rain load, earthquake load,
exceeds 80 psf (3.83 kN/m2).
flood load, or dead load.
ROOF LIVE LOAD: A load on a roof produced
4.3.3 Partial Loading
(1) during maintenance by workers, equipment, and The full intensity of the appropriately reduced
materials and (2) during the life of the structure by live load applied only to a portion of a structure or
movable objects, such as planters or other similar member shall be accounted for if it produces
small decorative appurtenances that are not occupancy
a more unfavorable load effect than the same
related.
intensity applied over the full structure or member.
SCREEN ENCLOSURE: A building or part
Roof live loads shall be distributed as specified in
thereof, in whole or in part self-supporting, having
Table 4-1.
walls and a roof of insect or sun screening using
fiberglass, aluminum, plastic, or similar lightweight
netting material, which enclose an occupancy or use
such as outdoor swimming pools, patios or decks, and 4.4 CONCENTRATED LIVE LOADS
horticultural and agricultural production facilities.
VEHICLE BARRIER SYSTEM: A system of Floors, roofs, and other similar surfaces shall be
components, including anchorages and attachments to designed to support safely the uniformly
the structural system near open sides or walls of distributed live loads prescribed in Section 4.3 or
garage floors or ramps, that acts as a restraint for the concentrated load, in pounds or kilonewtons
vehicles. (kN), given in Table 4-1, whichever produces
the greater load effects. Unless otherwise specified,
the indicated concentration shall be assumed to be
4.2 LOADS NOT SPECIFIED uniformly distributed over an area 2.5 ft
(762 mm) by 2.5 ft (762 mm) and shall be located
For occupancies or uses not designated in this chapter, so as to produce the maximum load effects in the
the live load shall be determined in accordance members.

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CHAPTER 4 LIVE LOADS

4.5 LOADS ON HANDRAIL, GUARDRAIL, guardrail system loadings specified in Section 4.5.1.
GRAB BAR, VEHICLE BARRIER SYSTEMS, Vehicle barrier systems in garages accommodating
AND FIXED LADDERS trucks and buses shall be designed in accordance with
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
4.5.1 Loads on Handrail and Guardrail Systems
All handrail and guardrail systems shall be 4.5.4 Loads on Fixed Ladders
designed to resist a single concentrated load of 200 lb The minimum design live load on fixed ladders
(0.89 kN) applied in any direction at any point on the with rungs shall be a single concentrated load of 300
handrail or top rail and to transfer this load through lb (1.33 kN), and shall be applied at any point to
the supports to the structure to produce the maximum produce the maximum load effect on the element
load effect on the element being considered. being considered. The number and position of
Further, all handrail and guardrail systems shall additional concentrated live load units shall be a
be designed to resist a load of 50 lb/ft (pound-force minimum of 1 unit of 300 lb (1.33 kN) for every 10 ft
per linear foot) (0.73 kN/m) applied in any direction (3.05 m) of ladder height.
along the handrail or top rail. This load need not be Where rails of fixed ladders extend above a
assumed to act concurrently with the load specified in floor or platform at the top of the ladder, each side
the preceding paragraph, and this load need not be rail extension shall be designed to resist a single
considered for the following occupancies: concentrated live load of 100 lb (0.445 kN) in any
direction at any height up to the top of the side rail
1. One- and two-family dwellings.
extension. Ship ladders with treads instead of rungs
2. Factory, industrial, and storage occupancies, in
shall have minimum design loads as stairs, defined in
areas that are not accessible to the public and that
Table 4-1.
serve an occupant load not greater than 50.
Intermediate rails (all those except the handrail),
and panel fillers shall be designed to withstand a 4.6 IMPACT LOADS
horizontally applied normal load of 50 lb (0.22 kN)
on an area not to exceed 12 in. by 12 in. (305 mm by 4.6.1 General
305 mm) including openings and space between rails The live loads specified in Sections 4.3 through
and located so as to produce the maximum load 4.5 shall be assumed to include adequate allowance
effects. Reactions due to this loading are not required for ordinary impact conditions. Provision shall be
to be superimposed with the loads specified in either made in the structural design for uses and loads that
preceding paragraph. involve unusual vibration and impact forces.

4.5.2 Loads on Grab Bar Systems 4.6.2 Elevators

Grab bar systems shall be designed to resist a All elements subject to dynamic loads from
single concentrated load of 250 lb (1.11 kN) applied elevators shall be designed for impact loads and
in any direction at any point on the grab bar to deflection limits prescribed by ASME A17.1.
produce the maximum load effect.
4.6.3 Machinery
4.5.3 Loads on Vehicle Barrier Systems For the purpose of design, the weight of machin-
Vehicle barrier systems for passenger vehicles ery and moving loads shall be increased as follows to
shall be designed to resist a single load of 6,000 lb allow for impact: (1) light machinery, shaft- or motor-
(26.70 kN) applied horizontally in any direction to the driven, 20 percent; and (2) reciprocating machinery or
barrier system, and shall have anchorages or attach- power-driven units, 50 percent. All percentages shall
ments capable of transferring this load to the struc- be increased where specified by the manufacturer.
ture. For design of the system, the load shall be
assumed to act at heights between 1 ft 6 in. (460 mm)
and 2 ft 3 in. (686 mm) above the floor or ramp
surface, selected to produce the maximum load effect. 4.7 REDUCTION IN LIVE LOADS
The load shall be applied on an area not to exceed 12
in. by 12 in. (305 mm by 305 mm) and located so as to 4.7.1 General
produce the maximum load effects. This load is not Except for roof uniform live loads, all other
required to act concurrently with any handrail or minimum uniformly distributed live loads, Lo in

14
 MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

Table 4-1, shall be permitted to be reduced in EXCEPTION: Live loads for members
accordance with the requirements of Sections 4.7.2 supporting two or more floors shall be permitted to be
through 4.7.6. reduced by 20 percent.

4.7.2 Reduction in Uniform Live Loads 4.7.5 Assembly Uses

Subject to the limitations of Sections 4.7.3 through Live loads shall not be reduced in assembly uses.
4.7.6, members for which a value of KLLAT is 400 ft2
(37.16 m2) or more are permitted to be designed for a 4.7.6 Limitations on One-Way Slabs
reduced live load in accordance with the following The tributary area, AT, for one-way slabs shall not
formula: exceed an area defined by the slab span times a width
normal to the span of 1.5 times the slab span.
15
L  Lo 0.25  K A (4.7-1)
LL T

In SI: 4.8 REDUCTION IN ROOF LIVE LOADS

4.57
L  Lo 0.25  4.8.1 General
K A
LL T
The minimum uniformly distributed roof live loads, Lo
where in Table 4-1, are permitted to be reduced in accor-
L = reduced design live load per ft2 (m2) of area dance with the requirements of Sections 4.8.2 and
supported by the member 4.8.3.
Lo = unreduced design live load per ft2 (m2) of area
supported by the member (see Table 4-1) 4.8.2 Flat, Pitched, and Curved Roofs
KLL = live load element factor (see Table 4-2) Ordinary flat, pitched, and curved roofs, and awning
AT = tributary area in ft2 (m2) and canopies other than those of fabric construction
supported by a skeleton structure, are permitted to be
L shall not be less than 0.50Lo for members designed for a reduced roof live load, as specified in
supporting one floor and L shall not be less than Eq. 4.8-1 or other controlling combinations of loads,
0.40Lo for members supporting two or more as specified in Chapter 2, whichever produces the
floors. greater load effect. In structures such as greenhouses,
EXCEPTION: For structural members in one- where special scaffolding is used as a work surface
and two-family dwellings supporting more than one for workers and materials during maintenance and
floor load, the following floor live load reduction shall repair operations, a lower roof load than specified in
be permitted as an alternative to Eq. 4.7-1: Eq. 4.8-1 shall not be used unless approved by the
L = 0.7 × (Lo1 + Lo2 + …) authority having jurisdiction. On such structures, the
minimum roof live load shall be 12 psf (0.58 kN/m2).
Lo1, Lo2, … are the unreduced floor live loads appli-
cable to each of multiple supported story levels Lr = LoR1R2 where 12  Lr  20 (4.8-1)
regardless of tributary area. The reduced floor live In SI:
load effect, L, shall not be less than that produced by
the effect of the largest unreduced floor live load on a Lr = LoR1R2 where 0.58  Lr  0.96
given story level acting alone. where
Lr = reduced roof live load per ft2 (m2) of horizontal
4.7.3 Heavy Live Loads projection supported by the member
Live loads that exceed 100 lb/ft2 (4.79 kN/m2) shall
Lo = unreduced design roof live load per ft2 (m2) of
not be reduced.
horizontal projection supported by the member
EXCEPTION: Live loads for members (see Table 4-1)
supporting two or more floors shall be permitted to be
reduced by 20 percent. The reduction factors R1 and R2 shall be deter-
mined as follows:
4.7.4 Passenger Vehicle Garages 1 for AT  200 ft2
The live loads shall not be reduced in passenger R1 = 1.2 − 0.001At for 200 ft2 < AT < 600 ft2
vehicle garages. 0.6 for AT  600 ft2

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CHAPTER 4 LIVE LOADS

in SI: Bridge cranes or monorail cranes with

2 hand-geared bridge, trolley, and hoist 0
1 for AT ≤ 18.58 m
R1 = 1.2 − 0.011At for 18.58 m2 < AT < 55.74 m2
0.6 for AT ≥ 55.74 m2 4.9.4 Lateral Force
The lateral force on crane runway beams with
where AT = tributary area in ft2 (m2) supported by the electrically powered trolleys shall be calculated as 20
member and percent of the sum of the rated capacity of the crane
1 for F ≤ 4 and the weight of the hoist and trolley. The lateral
R2 = 1.2 − 0.05F for 4 < F < 12 force shall be assumed to act horizontally at the
0.6 for F ≥ 12 traction surface of a runway beam, in either direction
perpendicular to the beam, and shall be distributed
where, for a pitched roof, F = number of inches of with due regard to the lateral stiffness of the runway
rise per foot (in SI: F = 0.12 × slope, with slope beam and supporting structure.
expressed in percentage points) and, for an arch or
dome, F = rise-to-span ratio multiplied by 32.
4.9.5 Longitudinal Force
4.8.3 Special Purpose Roofs The longitudinal force on crane runway beams,
Roofs that have an occupancy function, such as roof except for bridge cranes with hand-geared bridges,
gardens, assembly purposes, or other special purposes shall be calculated as 10 percent of the maximum
are permitted to have their uniformly distributed live wheel loads of the crane. The longitudinal force shall
load reduced in accordance with the requirements of be assumed to act horizontally at the traction surface
Section 4.7. of a runway beam in either direction parallel to the
beam.

4.9 CRANE LOADS

4.10 CONSENSUS STANDARDS AND OTHER
REFERENCED DOCUMENTS
4.9.1 General
The crane live load shall be the rated capacity
This section lists the consensus standards and other
of the crane. Design loads for the runway beams,
documents that are adopted by reference within this
including connections and support brackets, of
chapter:
moving bridge cranes and monorail cranes shall
include the maximum wheel loads of the crane and
AASHTO
the vertical impact, lateral, and longitudinal forces
American Association of State Highway and
induced by the moving crane.
Transportation Officials
444 North Capitol Street, NW, Suite 249
4.9.2 Maximum Wheel Load
Washington, DC 20001
The maximum wheel loads shall be the wheel
loads produced by the weight of the bridge, as
Sections 4.4.3, Table 4-1
applicable, plus the sum of the rated capacity and the
weight of the trolley with the trolley positioned on its
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 4th
runway at the location where the resulting load effect
edition, 2007, with 2008 Interim Revisions
is maximum.
Sections 4.5.3, Table 4-1
4.9.3 Vertical Impact Force
ASME
The maximum wheel loads of the crane shall be
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
increased by the percentages shown in the following
Three Park Avenue
text to determine the induced vertical impact or
New York, NY 10016-5900
vibration force:
Monorail cranes (powered) 25 ASME A17.1
Cab-operated or remotely operated Section 4.6.2
bridge cranes (powered) 25 American National Standard Safety Code for
Pendant-operated bridge cranes (powered) 10 Elevators and Escalators, 2007.

16
 MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

Table 4-1 Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads, Lo, and Minimum Concentrated Live Loads

Occupancy or Use Uniform psf (kN/m2) Conc. lb (kN)

Apartments (see Residential)
Access floor systems
Office use 50 (2.4) 2,000 (8.9)
Computer use 100 (4.79) 2,000 (8.9)
Armories and drill rooms 150 (7.18)a
Assembly areas and theaters
Fixed seats (fastened to floor) 60 (2.87)a
Lobbies 100 (4.79)a
Movable seats 100 (4.79)a
Platforms (assembly) 100 (4.79)a
Stage floors 150 (7.18)a
Balconies and decks 1.5 times the live load for the
occupancy served. Not required
to exceed 100 psf (4.79 kN/m2)
Catwalks for maintenance access 40 (1.92) 300 (1.33)
Corridors
First floor 100 (4.79)
Other floors, same as occupancy served except as indicated
Dining rooms and restaurants 100 (4.79)a
Dwellings (see Residential)
Elevator machine room grating (on area of 2 in. by 2 in. (50 mm by 300 (1.33)
50 mm))
Finish light floor plate construction (on area of 1 in. by 1 in. (25 mm 200 (0.89)
by 25 mm))
Fire escapes 100 (4.79)
On single-family dwellings only 40 (1.92)
Fixed ladders See Section 4.5
Garages
Passenger vehicles only 40 (1.92)a,b,c
c
Trucks and buses
Handrails, guardrails, and grab bars See Section 4.5
Helipads 60 (2.87)d,e e,f,g
Nonreducible
Hospitals
Operating rooms, laboratories 60 (2.87) 1,000 (4.45)
Patient rooms 40 (1.92) 1,000 (4.45)
Corridors above first floor 80 (3.83) 1,000 (4.45)
Hotels (see Residential)
Libraries
Reading rooms 60 (2.87) 1,000 (4.45)
Stack rooms 150 (7.18)a,h 1,000 (4.45)
Corridors above first floor 80 (3.83) 1,000 (4.45)
Manufacturing
Light 125 (6.00)a 2,000 (8.90)
Heavy 250 (11.97)a 3,000 (13.40)

Continued

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CHAPTER 4 LIVE LOADS

Table 4-1 (Continued)

Occupancy or Use Uniform psf (kN/m2) Conc. lb (kN)

Office buildings
File and computer rooms shall be designed for heavier loads based
on anticipated occupancy
Lobbies and first-floor corridors 100 (4.79) 2,000 (8.90)
Offices 50 (2.40) 2,000 (8.90)
Corridors above first floor 80 (3.83) 2,000 (8.90)
Penal institutions
Cell blocks 40 (1.92)
Corridors 100 (4.79)

Recreational uses
Bowling alleys, poolrooms, and similar uses 75 (3.59)a
Dance halls and ballrooms 100 (4.79)a
Gymnasiums 100 (4.79)a
Reviewing stands, grandstands, and bleachers 100 (4.79)a,k
Stadiums and arenas with fixed seats (fastened to the floor) 60 (2.87)a,k
Residential
One- and two-family dwellings
Uninhabitable attics without storage 10 (0.48)l
Uninhabitable attics with storage 20 (0.96)m
Habitable attics and sleeping areas 30 (1.44)
All other areas except stairs 40 (1.92)
All other residential occupancies
Private rooms and corridors serving them 40 (1.92)
Public roomsa and corridors serving them 100 (4.79)
Roofs
Ordinary flat, pitched, and curved roofs 20 (0.96)n
Roofs used for roof gardens 100 (4.79)
Roofs used for assembly purposes Same as occupancy served
o o
Roofs used for other occupancies
Awnings and canopies
Fabric construction supported by a skeleton structure 5 (0.24) nonreducible 300 (1.33) applied to
skeleton structure
Screen enclosure support frame 5 (0.24) nonreducible and 200 (0.89) applied to
applied to the roof frame supporting roof frame
members only, not the screen members only
All other construction 20 (0.96)
Primary roof members, exposed to a work floor
Single panel point of lower chord of roof trusses or any point 2,000 (8.9)
along primary structural members supporting roofs over
manufacturing, storage warehouses, and repair garages
All other primary roof members 300 (1.33)
All roof surfaces subject to maintenance workers 300 (1.33)
Schools
Classrooms 40 (1.92) 1,000 (4.45)
Corridors above first floor 80 (3.83) 1,000 (4.45)
First-floor corridors 100 (4.79) 1,000 (4.45)
Scuttles, skylight ribs, and accessible ceilings 200 (0.89)
a,p
Sidewalks, vehicular driveways, and yards subject to trucking 250 (11.97) 8,000 (35.60)q
Stairs and exit ways 100 (4.79) 300r
One- and two-family dwellings only 40 (1.92) 300r

18
 MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

Table 4-1 (Continued)

Occupancy or Use Uniform psf (kN/m 2) Conc. lb (kN)

Storage areas above ceilings 20 (0.96)
Storage warehouses (shall be designed for heavier loads if required
for anticipated storage)
Light 125 (6.00)a
Heavy 250 (11.97)a
Stores
Retail
First floor 100 (4.79) 1,000 (4.45)
Upper floors 75 (3.59) 1,000 (4.45)
Wholesale, all floors 125 (6.00)a 1,000 (4.45)

Vehicle barriers See Section 4.5

Walkways and elevated platforms (other than exit ways) 60 (2.87)
Yards and terraces, pedestrian 100 (4.79)a
a
Live load reduction for this use is not permitted by Section 4.7 unless specific exceptions apply.
b
Floors in garages or portions of a building used for the storage of motor vehicles shall be designed for the uniformly distributed live loads of Table 4-1 or the
following concentrated load: (1) for garages restricted to passenger vehicles accommodating not more than nine passengers, 3,000 lb (13.35 kN) acting on an area of
4.5 in. by 4.5 in. (114 mm by 114 mm); and (2) for mechanical parking structures without slab or deck that are used for storing passenger vehicles only, 2,250 lb (10
kN) per wheel.
c
Design for trucks and buses shall be per AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications; however, provisions for fatigue and dynamic load
allowance are not required to be applied.
d
Uniform load shall be 40 psf (1.92 kN/m2) where the design basis helicopter has a maximum take-off weight of 3,000 lbs (13.35 kN) or less.
This load shall not be reduced.
e
Labeling of helicopter capacity shall be as required by the authority having jurisdiction.
f
Two single concentrated loads, 8 ft (2.44 m) apart shall be applied on the landing area (representing the helicopter’s two main landing gear,
whether skid type or wheeled type), each having a magnitude of 0.75 times the maximum take-off weight of the helicopter and located to produce
the maximum load effect on the structural elements under consideration. The concentrated loads shall be applied over an area of 8 in. by 8 in. (200
mm by 200 mm) and shall not be concurrent with other uniform or concentrated live loads.
g
A single concentrated load of 3,000 lbs (13.35 kN) shall be applied over an area 4.5 in. by 4.5 in. (114 mm by 114 mm), located so as to produce
the maximum load effects on the structural elements under consideration. The concentrated load need not be assumed to act concurrently with other
uniform or concentrated live loads.
h
The loading applies to stack room floors that support nonmobile, double-faced library book stacks subject to the following limitations: (1) The
nominal book stack unit height shall not exceed 90 in. (2,290 mm); (2) the nominal shelf depth shall not exceed 12 in. (305 mm) for each face;
and (3) parallel rows of double-faced book stacks shall be separated by aisles not less than 36 in. (914 mm) wide.
k
In addition to the vertical live loads, the design shall include horizontal swaying forces applied to each row of the seats as follows: 24 lb per
linear ft of seat applied in a direction parallel to each row of seats and 10 lb per linear ft of seat applied in a direction perpendicular to each row of
seats. The parallel and perpendicular horizontal swaying forces need not be applied simultaneously.
l
Uninhabitable attic areas without storage are those where the maximum clear height between the joist and rafter is less than 42 in. (1,067 mm), or
where there are not two or more adjacent trusses with web configurations capable of accommodating an assumed rectangle 42 in. (1,067 mm) in
height by 24 in. (610 mm) in width, or greater, within the plane of the trusses. This live load need not be assumed to act concurrently with any
other live load requirement.
m
Uninhabitable attic areas with storage are those where the maximum clear height between the joist and rafter is 42 in. (1,067 mm) or greater, or
where there are two or more adjacent trusses with web configurations capable of accommodating an assumed rectangle 42 in. (1,067 mm) in height
by 24 in. (610 mm) in width, or greater, within the plane of the trusses. At the trusses, the live load need only be applied to those portions of the
bottom chords where both of the following conditions are met:
i. The attic area is accessible from an opening not less than 20 in. (508 mm) in width by 30 in. (762 mm) in length that is located where the
clear height in the attic is a minimum of 30 in. (762 mm); and
ii. The slope of the truss bottom chord is no greater than 2 units vertical to 12 units horizontal (9.5% slope).
The remaining portions of the bottom chords shall be designed for a uniformly distributed nonconcurrent live load of not less than 10 lb/ft2
(0.48 kN/m2).
n
Where uniform roof live loads are reduced to less than 20 lb/ft2 (0.96 kN/m2) in accordance with Section 4.8.1 and are applied to the design of
structural members arranged so as to create continuity, the reduced roof live load shall be applied to adjacent spans or to alternate spans,
whichever produces the greatest unfavorable load effect.
o
Roofs used for other occupancies shall be designed for appropriate loads as approved by the authority having jurisdiction.
p
Other uniform loads in accordance with an approved method, which contains provisions for truck loadings, shall also be considered where
appropriate. q The concentrated wheel load shall be applied on an area of 4.5 in. by 4.5 in. (114 mm by 114 mm).
r
Minimum concentrated load on stair treads (on area of 2 in. by 2 in. [50 mm by 50 mm]) is to be applied nonconcurrent with the uniform load.

19
CHAPTER 4 LIVE LOADS

Table 4-2 Live Load Element Factor, KLL

Element KLLa
Interior columns 4
Exterior columns without cantilever slabs 4
Edge columns with cantilever slabs 3
Corner columns with cantilever slabs 2
Edge beams without cantilever slabs 2
Interior beams 2
All other members not identified, including: 1
Edge beams with cantilever slabs
Cantilever beams
One-way slabs
Two-way slabs
Members without provisions for continuous shear transfer normal to
their span
a
In lieu of the preceding values, KLL is permitted to be calculated.

20