Ba'ath Party

For other uses, see Ba'ath Party (disambiguation). al-Razzaz, Aflaq, and their supporters. The 1966 coup
For the party which governed Iraq and governs Syria at split the Ba'ath Party between the Iraqi-dominated Ba'ath
the present time, see Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq movement and the Syrian-dominated Ba'ath movement.
Region and Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region.
Not to be confused with Bahá'í Faith.
1 History
The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party (Arabic: ‫حزب البعث‬
‫ العربي الاشتراكي‬Ḥizb Al-Ba‘th Al-‘Arabī Al-Ishtirākī IPA: Main article: History of the Ba'ath Party
[ħɪzb albaʕθ alʕarabiː alʔɪʃtɪraːkiː]) was a political party
founded in Syria by Michel Aflaq, Salah al-Din al-Bitar,
and associates of Zaki al-Arsuzi. The party espoused
Ba'athism (from Arabic: ‫ البعث‬Al-Ba'ath or Ba'ath mean- 1.1 Founding, early years and seizing
ing “renaissance” or “resurrection”), which is an ideol- power: 1947–1963
ogy mixing Arab nationalist, pan-Arabism, Arab social-
ist, and anti-imperialist interests. Ba'athism calls for uni- The party was founded on 7 April 1947 as the Arab Ba'ath
fication of the Arab world into a single state. Its motto, Party by Michel Aflaq (a Christian), Salah al-Din al-Bitar
“Unity, Liberty, Socialism”, refers to Arab unity, and (a Sunni Muslim), and the followers of Zaki al-Arsuzi
freedom from non-Arab control and interference. (an atheist) in Damascus, Syria, leading to the establish-
The party was founded by the merger of the Arab Ba'ath ment of the Syrian Regional Branch.[1] Other regional
Movement, led by Aflaq and al-Bitar, and the Arab branches were established throughout the Arab world
Ba'ath, led by al-Arsuzi, on 7 April 1947 as the Arab in the later 1940s and early 1950s, in, among others,
Ba'ath Party. The party quickly established branches in Iraq,[2] Yemen and Jordan.[3] Throughout its existence,
other Arab countries, although it would only hold power the National Command (the body responsible for all-
in Iraq and Syria. The Arab Ba'ath Party merged with Arab affairs), gave most attention to Syrian affairs.[1] The
the Arab Socialist Party, led by Akram al-Hawrani, in 2nd National Congress was convened in June 1954, and
1952 to form the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party. The newly elected a seven-man National Command; Aflaq, Bitar,
formed party was a relative success, and became the and Akram al-Hawrani were elected and represented the
second-largest party in the Syrian parliament in the 1954 Syrian Regional Branch,[4] while Abdullah Rimawi and
election. This, coupled with the increasing strength of Abdallah Na'was were elected to represent the Jordanian
the Syrian Communist Party, led to the establishment of Branch.[5] The congress is notable for sanctioning the
the United Arab Republic (UAR), a union of Egypt and merger of the Arab Socialist Party and the Ba'ath Party,
Syria. The union would prove unsuccessful, and a Syrian which took place in 1952.[6]
coup in 1961 dissolved the union. The Syrian Regional Branch rose to prominence in the
Following the break-up of the UAR, the Ba'ath Party was 1940s and 1950s; in the 1954 parliamentary elections
reconstituted. However, during the UAR, military ac- the Syrian Regional Branch won 22 seats in parliament,
[7]
tivists had established the Military Committee to take becoming the second largest party in the country. 90
control of the Ba'ath Party from civilian hands. In the percent of Ba'ath Party members who stood for elections
[7]
meantime, in Iraq, the local Ba'ath Party branch had taken were elected to parliament. The failure of the tradi-
power by orchestrating and leading the Ramadan Revo- tional parties represented by the People’s Party and the
lution, only to lose power a couple of months later. The National Party, strengthened the Ba'ath Party’s public
[8]
Military Committee, with Aflaq’s consent, took power in credibility. Through this position, the party was able
Syria in the 8th of March Revolution of 1963. to get two of its members into the cabinet; Bitar was ap-
pointed Minister of Foreign Affairs and Khalil Kallas be-
A power struggle quickly developed between the civilian came Minister of Economics.[9] Its new, strengthened po-
faction led by Aflaq, al-Bitar, and Munif al-Razzaz and sition, was used successful to garner support for Syria’s
the Military Committee led by Salah Jadid and Hafez merger with Gamal Abdel Nasser's Egypt, which led to
al-Assad. As relations between the two factions deteri- the establishment of the United Arab Republic (UAR) in
orated, the Military Committee initiated the 1966 Syrian 1958.[10]
coup d'état which ousted the National Command led by
On 24 June 1959, Fuad al-Rikabi, the Regional Secre-

1
2 1 HISTORY

tary of the Iraqi Regional Branch, accused the National 1.2 Rule in Syria, infighting, the 1966 coup
Command of betraying Arab nationalist principles by and split: 1963–1966
conspiring against the UAR.[11] In light of these criti-
cisms, the Ba'ath convened the 3rd National Congress
(held 27 August – 1 September 1959), which was at-
tended by delegates from “Iraq, Lebanon, Jordan, South
Arabia, the Gulf, Arab South, Arab Maghreb, Palestine
and Party student organisations in Arab and other univer- The challenges of building a Ba'athist state led to consid-
sities outside the [Arab] homeland”.[12] The congress is erable ideological discussion and internal struggle within
notable for endorsing the dissolution of the Syrian Re- the party.[24] The Iraqi Regional Branch was increas-
gional Branch, which had been decided by Aflaq and ingly dominated by Ali Salih al-Sadi, a self-described
Bitar without inner-party consultation in 1958,[13] and for Marxist.[24] He was supported in his ideological reorien-
expelling Rimawi, the Regional Secretary of the Jorda- tation by Hammud al-Shufi, the Regional Secretary of
nian Regional Branch.[14] Rimawi reacted to his expul- the Syrian Regional Branch,[25] Yasin al-Hafiz, one of
sion by forming his own party, the Arab Socialist Revo- the party’s few ideological theorists, and by certain mem-
lutionary Ba'ath Party, which established a rival National bers of the secret Military Committee.[26] The Marxist-
Command to compete with the original.[15] The National wing gained new ground at the 6th National Congress
Command responded to the problems in Iraq by appoint- (held in October 1963), in which the Iraqi and Syrian re-
ing a Temporary Regional Command on 2 February 1960 gional branches called for the establishment of “socialist
which appointed Talib Hussein ash-Shabibi as Regional planning”,[27] "collective farms run by peasants”, “work-
Secretary,[11] and on 15 June 1961 the National Com- ers’ democratic control of the means of production”, and
mand expelled Rikabi from the party.[11] other demands reflecting a certain emulation of Soviet-
style socialism.[28] Aflaq, angry at this transformation of
In Iraq, the Iraqi Regional Branch had supported Abd al- his party, retained a nominal leadership role, but the Na-
Karim Qasim's seizure of power and its ensuing abolish- tional Command as a whole came under the control of the
ment of the Iraqi Monarchy.[16] The Iraqi Ba'athists sup- radicals.[29]
ported Qasim on the ground that they believed he would
enter Iraq into the UAR, enlarging the Arab nationalist In 1963 the Ba'ath Party seized power, from then on
republic.[16] However, this was proven to be a ruse, and the Ba'ath functioned as the only officially recognized
after taking power Qasim launched an Iraq first policy.[16] Syrian political party, but factionalism and splintering
In retaliation, the Ba'ath Party tried to assassinate Qasim within the party led [30]
to a succession of governments and
in February 1959, but the operation (which was led by a new constitutions. On 23 February 1966, a coup d'état
[17]
young Saddam Hussein) failed. Qasim was overthrown led by Salah Jadid, the informal head of the Military
in a 1963 coup led by young Ba'athist officer Ahmed Committee, overthrew Aflaq and the Bitar’s cabinet.[31]
Hassan al-Bakr, and rumoured to be supported by the The coup sprung out of factional rivalry between Ja-
American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).[18] Declas- did’s “regionalist” (qutri) camp, which promoted ambi-
sified documents and the testimony of former CIA offi- tions for a Greater Syria and the more traditionally pan-
cers indicate there was no direct American involvement, Arab, in[31]power faction, called the “nationalist” (qawmi)
although the CIA had been previously notified of an ear- faction. Jadid’s supporters are considered more left-
lier Ba'athist coup plot in July 1962 by a high-ranking in- wing then Aflaq and his peers.[32] Several of Jadid’s op-
formant within the Party. The CIA official working with ponents managed [31]
to make their escape and fled to Beirut,
Archie Roosevelt, Jr. on a separate plan to instigate a mil- Lebanon. Jadid moved the party in a more radical di-
itary coup against Qasim, and who later became the head rection. Although he and his supporters had not been
of the CIA’s operations in Iraq and Syria “from late 1968 supporters of the victorious far-left line at the 6th Party
to June 1970,” has “denied any involvement in the Ba'ath Congress, they had now moved to adopt its positions.[32]
Party’s actions.”[19] The Iraqi Regional Branch, when it The moderate faction, formerly [32]
led by Aflaq and al-Bitar,
took power, was so riven by factionalism that its pur- were purged from the party.
ported allies launched a counter-coup forcing them out While it took some years, the 1966 coup resulted in
of power in November 1963.[20] the creation of two competing National Command, one
[29]
The 4th National Congress, held in August 1960, crit- Syrian-dominated and another Iraqi-dominated. How-
icized the leadership of Aflaq and Bitar, called for the ever, both in Iraq and Syria, the Regional Command be-
reestablishment of the Syrian Regional Branch and deem- came the real centre of party power, and the membership
phasized the party’s commitment to Arab nationalism of the National Command became a largely honorary po-
while emphasizing more the socialist character of the sition, often the destination [29]
of figures being eased out
party. [21][22]
A year after, at the UAR’s nadir in Syria, of the leadership. A consequence of the split was
the Syrian General Abd al-Karim al-Nahlawi launched a that Zaki al-Arsuzi took Aflaq’s place as the official fa-
coup on 28 September 1961 which led to the reestablish- ther of Ba'athist thought in the pro-Syrian Ba'ath move-
ment of the Syrian Arab Republic. [23] ment, while the pro-Iraqi Ba'ath movement still consid-
ered Aflaq the de jure father of Ba'athist thought.[33]
2.3 Membership 3

2 Organization from the provincial branches; other members attended

to, but as observers.[35] The Regional Congress was re-
The organizational structure of the Ba'ath Party was sponsible for evaluating the party’s performance since the
created at the 2nd National Congress by amending the last Regional Congress, while at the same time formulat-
party’s Internal Regulations (An-Nidhāmu-d-Dākhilī), ing new policies for the next period, which lasts until the
which was approved at the party’s 1st National Congress next Regional Congress is held.[35] How long this period
in 1947.[34] The organizational structure ran from top to lasts is decided by the Regional Command.[35] The Re-
bottom, and members were forbidden to initiate contacts gional Command, similar to the Branch Command, op-
between groups on the same level of the organisation—all erated through bureaus and met for weekly-sessions.[35]
contacts had to pass through a higher command level.[35] Below the Regional Commands there existed
branches.[39] The Branch came above the Subbranch;
it comprised at least two to five subbranches,[35] and
2.1 National organization operated at the provincial level.[39] The branch held a
congress periodically in which it elected a Command
Further information: National Command of the Ba'ath
and a Secretary (leader).[35] The Command operated
Party
through bureaus, such as the Workers Bureau and the
Bureau of the Secretariat for instance.[35] Underneath the
The National Command was the ruling organ of the branch was the Subbranch, which was made up of three
party between sessions of the National Congress, and to five sections, “and was the lowest level of the party
was headed by a Secretary General.[36] Between National to hold a periodical Congress.”[35] Some subbranches
Congresses, the National Command was held account- were independent of central authority, and elected their
able by the National Consultative Council (Arabic: al- own Command and secretaries, while other subbranches
majlis al-istishari al-quami).[37] The National Consulta- were incorporated into the Branches.[35] In these cases
tive Council was a forum made up of representatives from the Subbranch Secretary is appointed by the superior
the party’s regional branches.[37] However, the number of Branch.[35]
National Consultative Council members were decided by
A Section, which comprised two to five Divisions, func-
the size of the regional branch.[37] The National Congress
tioned at the level of a large city quarter, a town, or a
elected the National Command, National Tribunal, the
rural district.[36] It elected its own Command, composed
party’s discipline body, and the Secretary General, the
of five members, but the Command’s secretary was ap-
party leader.[37] The congress delegates determined the
pointed by the Subbranch.[35] Below that there existed
party’s policies and procedures.[37]
divisions.[36] A division comprised two to seven Circles,
Before 1954, the party was ruled by the Executive Com- controlled by a Division Commander.[36] Such Ba'athist
mittee, but this organ, along with others too, were re- groups occurred throughout the bureaucracy and the mil-
placed at the 2nd National Congress (for more, see itary. They functioned as the Party’s watchdog and were
“Structure” section).[36] In Ba'athist jargon “Nation” an effective form of covert surveillance within a public
means the Arab Nation, because of that, the National administration.[39] The lowest level was the circle. It was
Command formed the highest policy-making and coor- composed of three to seven members, constituted the ba-
dinating council for the Ba'ath movement throughout the sic organizational unit.[36]
Arab world.[36] The National Command had several bu-
The Military Organization was made up of branches sim-
reaus, similar to those of the Regional Command.[37]
ilar to those in the Ba'ath’s civilian sector.[35] However,
National Command sessions were held monthly.[37]
unlike the civilian sector the Military Organization was
Of these, the National Liaisons Office was responsi-
controlled by a separate Military Bureau, and held period-
ble for maintaining contact with the party’s Regional
ical Military Congresses.[35] The Military Organization
Branches.[38]
and the Civilian Organization converged at the Regional
Congress.[35]
2.2 Regional organization
The term region reflected the Party’s refusal to ac- 2.3 Membership
knowledge them as separate nation-states.[39] A “Re-
gion” (quṭr), in Ba'athist parlance, is an Arab state such There existed three types of membership categories in
as Syria, Iraq, or Lebanon.[39] The Regional Congress, the Ba'ath Party; Active member (Arabic: udw ämil),
which combined all the provincial branches, was the re- Apprentice Member (Arabic: udw mutadarrib) and Sup-
gion’s highest authority and elected a Regional Com- porter (Arabic: firqa).[35] An Active member had to at-
mand, the party leadership in a specific region, the Re- tend all formal meetings of his party unit, was given the
gional Tribunal, the body responsible for discipline in- right to vote in party elections,[35] and could run for party
spection, and a Regional Secretary, the regional party office.[35] In the Syrian Regional Branch a member had to
leader.[35] The Regional Congress is made of delegates spend 18 months as a Supporter to be promoted to Ap-
4 3 IDEOLOGY AND POLICY

prentice status, and then wait another 18 months to be race or ethnic chauvinism, but on idealistic thoughts bor-
promoted to Active member status.[35] rowed from the enlightenment era.[44] According to Mid-
dle East expert Tabitha Petran, the basic idea of the
party’s ideology was;[45]
3 Ideology and policy
that the Arab nation is a permanent en-
Further information: Ba'athism tity in history. The Arab nation is consid-
ered, philosophically speaking, not as a social
and economic formation, but as a transcendent
fact inspiring different forms, one of its highest
3.1 Classical Ba'ath: 1947–1960 contributions taking the form of Islam. It was
not Islam that modeled the peoples of Arabia,
3.1.1 Arab Nation the Fertile Crescent, and North Africa, equip-
ping them with Islamic values, especially the
Arabic language and the Arabic culture, but the
Arab nation which created Islam. This con-
ception of the Arab nation implicitly advan-
tages the Arab contribution to history. On the
other hand, Arab decadence can be overcome
through a purifying and spiritual action, not re-
ligious but moral.”[45]

3.1.2 Peasant and workers

The early Ba'ath gave little attention to the problems fac-

ing the peasants and workers.[46] As Hanna Batatu notes,
“Aflaq was basically urban in outlook. The peasants never
constituted an object of his special concern. In his writ-
ing there is scarcely an expression of concentrated interest
in the country’s husbandsmen.”[46] While peasants and is-
sues facing them are mentioned in some of Aflaq’s work,
there was scarcely any depth given to them or the issues
facing them.[46] To take an example, in one instance Aflaq
states “the [national struggle] ... can only be based on the
generality of the Arabs and these will not take part in it if
they are exploited.”[46] Secondly, Aflaq never had any of-
ficial enmity towards the traditional landlords.[46] Issues
Part of the 1947 Ba'ath Party constitution such as these would only gain prominence when Akram
al-Hawrani became a leading party figure, and when the
From its very beginning, the party was a manifestation of “transitional Ba'athists” took power.[46] Of the four mem-
Arab nationalist thought, with the party itself referring bers in the 1st Executive Committee, Wahib al-Ghanim
to itself as “The Party of Arab Unity”.[40] The party’s was the only who paid much attention to the problems
ideology also excluded and subjugated regional minori- of the peasants and workers,[46] because the other mem-
ties like the Kurds, Turkmens, Assyrians and other. bers (Aflaq, Salah al-Din al-Bitar and Jalil al-Sayyide)
The pan-Arab tendencies of the party’s predecessor, the had a middle class upbringing and upheld middle class
Arab Ba'ath Movement, was strengthened 1945–1947 values.[47]
by recruiting members from the Zaki al-Arsuzi's Arab The early party organization never cultivated a deep fol-
Ba'ath.[41] The first article of the party’s constitution lowing in rural areas.[46] In fact, at the party’s found-
stated “the Arabs form one nation. This nation has the ing congress, only one peasant and one worker were
natural right to live in a single state. [As such,] the Arab present among the 217 delegates.[46] Most of the del-
fatherland constitutes an indivisible political and eco- egates were either school teacher or students attending
nomic unit. No Arab can live apart from the others.”[42] universities.[46] When the Akram al-Hawrani's Arab So-
To express his heartfelt belief in Arab nationalism, Aflaq cialist Party (ASP) merged with the Ba'ath Party, the ma-
coined the term “one Arab nation with an eternal mes- jority of ASP members of peasants origins did not join
sage” (Arabic: risalah thatu wahidah arabiyyah ummah the Ba'ath Party, instead becoming personal followers of
khalidah).[43] Party ideology, and Ba'athism in general, Hawrani.[46] However, the majority of Ba'ath members
was not based on concepts such as the purity of the Arab were of rural upbringing.[46] The “Transitional Ba'ath”,
3.2 Transitional Ba'ath: 1960–1964 5

which grew out of the dissolution of the Syrian Regional majority of its members in the provinces were of com-
Branch in 1958 dissolution and the Military Committee, munal origins–Druze, Alawi or Ismaili.[56] The provin-
were more rural in outlook, policy and ideology.[48] cial party members had not been told of the Syrian Re-
gional Branch’s dissolution, which in fact broke the com-
munication line with provincial branches and the National
3.1.3 “Unity, liberty, socialism” Command.[56] While its true that in 1962 the Region-
alists supported the slogan, adopted at the 5th National
The slogan “Unity, liberty, socialism” is the key tenet Congress, “the renewal of the union with Egypt while tak-
in Ba'athist thought.[49] Unity stood for the creation of ing note of past mistakes”, they treated such a slogan as a
an independent, strong Arab Nation (see “Arab Na- propaganda slogan, and not as a feasible goal.[57]
tion” section).[49] Liberty did not mean liberal democ-
racy, but rather freedom from colonial oppression and
freedom of speech and thought.[50] Aflaq believed that 3.2.2 The “Arab road to socialism”
the Ba'ath Party, at least in theory, would rule, and
guide the people, in a transitional period of time with- The disillusionment felt among party members on the
out consulting the people,[51] however he did support pan-Arab project, led to the radicalization of the party’s
[58]
intra-party democracy.[52] The last tenet, 'socialism', did interpretation of socialism. Yasin al-Hafiz, a for-
not mean socialism as it is defined in the West, but mer member of the Syrian Communist Party, was an
[58]
[53]
rather a unique form of Arab socialism. According to early frontrunner for the party’s radicalization. While
Ba'athist thought, socialism had originated under the rule he didn't oppose the pan-Arab project, he wanted to
[53]
of Muhammad. The original interpretation of Arab so- turn the concept of Arab socialism into a scientific and
cialism did not answer questions such as: how much state revolutionary socialist ideology which adapted Marxism
[58]
control was necessary, or economic equality; but instead to local conditions. Jamal al-Atassi, who had been a
focused on freeing the Arab Nation and its people from moderate socialist for most of his life, called for the re-
colonization and oppression in general. [53] nunciation of Arab socialism in 1963 and the adoption of
a “virtually Maxist concept of socialism” by claiming that
class struggle was the moving force in society.[59]
3.2 Transitional Ba'ath: 1960–1964 Hammud al-Shufi became the leader of the party’s Marx-
ist faction during his short stint as Syrian Regional
3.2.1 Regionalists versus nationalists Secretary, literally the head of the Syrian Regional
Organization.[60] Shufi was able, due to his position as
After the failure of the United Arab Republic (UAR), head of the Organization Bureau of the Regional Com-
a union of Egypt and Syria, the Ba'ath Party was di- mand, to recruit several Marxist or Marxist-leaning mem-
vided into two main factions, the Regionalists (Arabic: bers to the top of the Syrian Regional party hierarchy.[61]
Qutriyyun) and the Nationalists (pan-Arab) (Arabic: Radical socialists led by Ali Salih al-Sadi took control of
gawmiyyun).[54] When the union with Egypt collapsed, the Iraqi Regional Branch in 1963, which led to the offi-
the Ba'ath Party was put in a difficult position, the party cial radicalization of the party’s ideology.[62]
still sought Arab unity, but did not oppose the UAR’s The delegates at the 6th National Congress elected an
dissolution and did not want to seek another union withIdeology Committee which was responsible to write a
Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser's rule.[54] However, be-charter about the party’s ideology.[63] The end result was
ing the unionist party that it was, the party’s leaders could
the document Points of Departure.[63] The document,
not state their position on this issue.[54] The end result
which was approved by the 6th National Congress, rel-
was that the pro-Arab nationalists within the Ba'ath Party
egated Arab unity to a secondary role and gave social-
became committed Nasserists, while the more moder- ism prominence.[63] Marxists concepts were used inter-
ate Arab nationalists founded the pro-Nasserite Socialist
changeably alongside Ba'athist ones, however, the doc-
Unionists party.[54] The third group, led by people dis-
ument was reluctant in explicitly admitting that certain
enchanted with both Nasser and the union period, re- ideas were of Marxist origins.[64] While the Points of De-
mained in the Ba'ath Party, stopped believing in the fea-
parture didn't exist a break with party’s traditional ide-
sibility pan-Arabism.[54] on 21 February 1962, the Na- ology, it criticized the party’s old guard for given Arab
tional Command issued a new policy regarding the pan- unity primary over socialism and their failing in turn-
Arab project by first mentioning the successes and fail-ing Ba'athism into a comprehensive theory.[64] While the
ures of the UAR, but ending the statement by calling for
documents says Arab unity is progressive, the reason for it
the reestablishment of the UAR as a decentralized federal
being important changed.[65] The document stated; “Arab
union with Nasser’s Egypt.[55] Many rank-and-file mem- unity is an indispensable basis for the construction of
bers opposed this change in policy, with many members a socialist economy.”[65] Aflaq’s also believed that Arab
being both disenchanted with pan-Arabism and Aflaq’s unity was only an intermediate goal, but it stood at the
continued party rule.[55] centre of classical Ba'athism.[65] In the Points of Depar-
When the Syrian Regional Branch was reestablished, the ture, despite not firmly stating it, the goal of creating a so-
6 4 REGIONAL BRANCHES

cialist society seemed to be both an immediate goal and 4.1 Iraq

the main goal of the party.[65]
The concept of Arab socialism, accused of being narrow-
Main article: Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region
minded and nationalistic, was replaced with the Arab
road to socialism concept.[65] The Points of Depar-
ture criticized the classical Ba'athist view regarding Fuad al-Rikabi founded the Iraqi Regional Branch in
private ownership.[65] Classical Ba'athists supported pri- 1951[2] or 1952.[74] There are those who trace the
vate ownership as a way to recruit into the party many branch’s founding to Abd ar Rahman ad Damin and Abd
petty bourgeois elements.[66] The document called for al Khaliq al Khudayri in 1947, after their return from the
nationalization of the commanding heights of the econ- 1st National Congress, which was held in Syria.[75] An-
omy, the slow incorporation of the petty bourgeoise into other version is that the branch was established in 1948 by
the socialist economy and the elimination of the national Rikabi and Sa'dun Hamadi, a Shia Muslim.[76] However,
bourgeoise and its allied classes.[66] To safeguard the Efraim Karsh and Inari Rautsi contend that the Regional
party from evolving into one supporting state capitalism, Branch was established in the 1940s, but that it received
the socialist economy would be controlled by a vanguard official recognition as a Regional Branch of the Ba'ath
party together with popular participation from the toiler Party in 1952 by the National Command.[77] What is cer-
masses.[66] tain is that Rikabi was elected the Regional Branch’s first
Regional Secretary in 1952.[76]
The party initially consisted of a majority of Shia
Muslims, as Rikabi recruited supporters mainly from
3.3 Neo-Ba'ath: 1964–1966 his friends and family, but slowly became Sunni
dominated.[78] The Regional Branch, and other parties of
Further information: Neo-Ba'athism pan-Arab inclination, had difficulties in recruiting Shia
members.[79] Most Shi'ites considered pan-Arab ideol-
Neo-Ba'athism is a term used to describe the dra- ogy as a Sunni project, since the majority of Arabs are
[79]
matic changes which manifested itself in Ba'athist ide- Sunnis.
ology from 1960 to 1964, and the Military Committee’s At the time of 14 July Revolution in 1958, which over-
takeover of the Syrian Regional Branch and the National threw the Hashemite monarchy, the Regional Branch had
Command in the period 1964 to 1966.[67] The 6th Na- 300 members.[80] The Iraqi Regional Branch supported
tional Congress signified the takeover of the party by Abd al-Karim Qasim's rule on the grounds that he would
an anti-militarist left which opposed both the traditional seek Iraq’s entry into the United Arab Republic.[16] Of
leaders in the National Command and the pragmatists in the 16-members of Qasim’s cabinet, 12 of them were Re-
the Military Committee.[68] When the anti-military left gional Branch members.[16] After taking power, Qasim’s
called for popular democracy, no involvement in the mil- change his position on the UAR, reverting to the old “Iraq
itary in national politics and popular struggle, the Mili- first policy”.[16] This turn displeased the Regional Branch
tary Committee became concerned.[69] By 1965 the anti- and other Arab nationalists groups.[81] Because of his pol-
military leftists began to “spread rumors about the right- icy reversal, the Regional Branch gathered a group, led
ist character of the military junta [Military Committee] by Saddam Hussein, which tried but failed to assassinate
within the party and their subversive efforts to engulf it. Qasim.[82]
There was not a single officer in the party who was not
accused of conspiracy and reactionary tendencies.”[70] In The Regional Branch seized power in the February
collaboration with the National Command the Military 1963 Iraqi [83] coup d'état, referred to as the Ramadan
Committee succeeded in expelling the anti-military left Revolution. The coup was led by leading Regional
[71]
from the party at the 7th National Congress. The Mil- Branch member Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr.[83] The plot-
itary Committee, which now controlled the Syrian Re- ters appointed Abdul Salam Arif, a Nasserite, to the
gional Branch, took control of the Ba'ath Party in the Presidency while [84]
al-Bakr was appointed the country’s
[72]
coup of 1966 (see “1966 split” section). According to Prime Minister. However, real power was in the hands
Middle East expert Avraham Ben-Tzur “the [neo-]Ba'th of Ali Salih al-Sadi, the branch’s Regional Secretary.[85]
in its latest variant is a bureaucratic apparatus headed by After taking power, the Regional Branch through its mili-
the military, whose daily life and routine are shaped by tia, the National Guard, initiated what Iraqi expert Con
the rigid military oppression on the home front, and [So- Coughlin referred to as an “orgy [84] of violence” against
viet aid among others] military aid.” [73] communist and left-wing elements. These repressive
measures coupled with factionalism within the Regional
Branch led to the November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état by
President Arif and his Nasserite supporters.[86] Iraq ex-
pert Malik Mufti believes Aflaq may have supported
4 Regional branches Arif’s coup because it weakened al-Sadi’s position within
the party and strengthened his own.[87] The coup forced
4.3 Lebanon 7

the branch to go underground.[88] Because of the coup, Jordan, used his spare time reading Marxist and Leninist
several leading Ba'athist were jailed, such as al-Bakr and literature.[92] While he never became a communist, Shuq-
Saddam.[88] Despite this, the Regional Branch elected al- yar began to support communist concepts.[92] On his re-
Bakr as Regional Secretary in 1964.[88] turn from exile he tried to persuade the Regional Branch
to join in an electoral front with the Jordanese Commu-
nist Party.[92] However, the Regional Branch leaders Ri-
4.2 Jordan mawi, Na'was, Gharbiyah and Munif al-Razzaz opposed
such an idea, and because of it, Shuqyar left the Ba'ath
[92]
Following the party’s establishment in Syria, Ba'athist Party.
ideas spread throughout the Arab world. In Jordan Rimawi and Na'was were elected to the National Com-
Ba'athist thought first spread to the East Bank in the late- mand at the 2nd National Congress (held in 1952).[5] At
1940s, most notably at universities.[89] While the Re- the 6th and 7th National Congress, the Regional Branch
gional Branch was not formed until 1951, several meet- elected Razzaz to the National Command.[94]
ings took place at the universities where students and pro-
fessors alike would discuss the Ba'athist thought.[89] De-
spite the ideology being very popular, it took time before 4.3 Lebanon
the actual Regional Branch was established.[90] A group
of teachers established the Regional Branch in the city by Main article: Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Lebanon
Al Karak.[90] At the very beginning, the clinic owned by Region
Abd al-Rahman Shuqyar was used as the branch’s meet-
ing place.[90] Bahjat Abu Gharbiyah became the Regional The Lebanese Regional Branch was formed in 1949–
Branch’s first member in the West Bank, and was thus re-
1950.[95] During the existence of the UAR, the Re-
signed the responsibility of building the party’s organiza- gional Branch was split into two factions, those support-
tion in the area the branch secretary in the West Bank, and ing Nasser and those opposing him.[14] However, in April
was thus responsible in that area.[90] In the West Bank, 1960, the UAR denied the Regional Branch organ As Sa-
the branch was most active in the cities of Jerusalem and hafäh access into the UAR-ruled Syria.[14]
Ramallah.[90]
The Regional Branch was strongest in the city of
The 1st Regional Congress was held in 1951 in the Tripoli.[96] In the 1960 elections, Abd al-Majid Rafi was
home of Abdullah Rimawi.[90] The congress mapped out just a few votes short of being elected to parliament.[96]
the “future course of the party”.[90] The next year, the However, a persistent problem for him during his elec-
2nd Regional Congress was held, this time in Abdallah tion campaign was the vocal criticism of him and the
Na'was' home.[90] It elected a Regional Command and Regional Branch by the Lebanese Communist Party.[96]
appointed Rimawi as the branch’s Regional Secretary.[90] In Tripoli the Communists supported the candidacy of
Shugyar, Gharbiyah and Na'was agreed to serve in the Rashid Karami, to ensure themselves of a Regional
Regional Branch’s Central Committee.[90] Rimawi and Branch victory.[97] On 17 July 1961 a group of rival
Na'was, his deputy, would prove effective leaders.[90] Ba'athists led by Rimawi (see “Jordan” section) opened
Shortly after the 2nd Regional Congress, the branch
fire on several of the Regional Branch’s members.[98]
launched a successful recruitment campaign in Jordanian
and Palestinian neighbourhoods and cities.[90] On 28 Au- During the UAR years, the same factional lines which
gust 1956 the branch was legalized by a High Court.[91] developed in the Syrian Regional Branch came to
the Lebanese Regional Branch.[99] At the 4th National
Both Rimawi and Na'was were elected to Parliament in Congress (held in Lebanon), which was mainly attended
the 1950 and 1951 elections as independents (the branch by delegates representing Lebanon, several resolutions
was not a legal party at the time).[92] In the 1951 elec- with a pronounced anti-Nasser tone were approved.[100]
tion, the branch managed to elect three members to At the same time, criticism of Aflaq and Bitar was severe,
parliament.[89] Rimawi was able to retain his seat in par- both their leadership records and their ideology were
liament until the 1956 election.[90] None of these elec- criticized.[22] A resolution was approved which stated that
tions can be considered democratic.[93] Shuqyar, during the party leaders [Aflaq, al-Bitar among others had to
the 1951 elections, was imprisoned by the authorities be- hastily entered into a union with Egypt, had wrongly dis-
cause his views were deemed to radical.[93] Less than a solved the Syrian Regional Branch in 1958, given pan-
month before the election day, the British Embassy in Arabism primacy when socialism was the more impor-
Amman had estimated that Shuqyar would gain an easy tant, the need to use Marxist, not Ba'athi, tools to ana-
victory.[93] However, because of the undemocratic nature lyze the current situation and the need for the party to
of the election, Shuqyar was not elected.[93] As voting strengthen their positions amongst the popular classes–
patterns would prove, voters who voted for Ba'athist can- the workers, peasants, artisans and shopkeepers.[22] Be-
didates lived in Irbid and Amman on the East Bank, and cause of the position of the Lebanese Regional Branch,
Jerusalem and Nablus on the West Bank.[90] Aflaq at the 5th National Congress invited enough Iraqi
Shuqyar during a government-imposed exile to Southern Regional Branch delegates to neutralize the Lebanese
8 4 REGIONAL BRANCHES

delegates.[55] However, at the same time, the Lebanese a Greater Syria. The Ba'ath Party’s main adversary was
Regional Branch opposed Hawrani and his faction.[101] Atthe SCP, whose support for class struggle and interna-
the 6th National Congress, the Lebanese Regional Branch tionalism was anathema to the Ba'ath.[111] In addition to
elected Jubrän Majdalani and Khalid al-Ali to the Na- parliamentary-level competition, all these parties (as well
tional Command.[94] as Islamists) competed in street-level activity and sought
[112]
At the 7th National Congress the National Command to recruit support among the military.
in collaboration with the Military Committee either ex- By the end of 1957, the SCP was able to weaken the
pelled or removed leftists such as those found in the Ba'ath Party to such an extent that the Ba'ath Party
Lebanese Regional Branch from leadership position, drafted a bill in December which called for a union with
and in the most severe cases, expelled them from the Egypt, a move that proved to be very popular. The Ba'ath
party.[102] The Lebanese Regional Branch managed to leadership dissolved the party in 1958, gambling that the
elect three members to the National Command at the 7th illegalisation of certain parties would hurt the SCP more
National Congress; Majdalani, al-Ali and Abd al-Majid than it would the Ba'ath.[113]
Rafi.[94]

4.4 Libya

The Regional Branch was founded in the 1950s[103] by

Amr Taher Deghayes.[104] Ba'athism was a major po-
litical force in Libya following the establishment of the
United Arab Republic. Many intellectuals were at-
tracted to Ba'athist ideology during the later years of the
Kingdom of Libya. However, with help from Nasserist
propaganda, several Ba'athists changed affiliation and be-
came Nasserists instead.[105] The growth of these pan-
Arab ideologies concerned the government, which led to Akram al-Hawrani (left) with Michel Aflaq, 1957.
the incarceration of several Nasserist and Ba'athist mil-
itary officers in the early sixties.[106] The Ba'athist were A military coup in Damascus in 1961 brought the
accused of working to overthrow “the political, economic UAR to an end.[114] Sixteen prominent politicians signed
and social system” of the Kingdom; the sentences ranged a statement supporting the coup, among them al-
from everything to eight months to two years.[107] By Hawrani and Salah al-Din al-Bitar (who later retracted
1964, the Libyan Regional Branch had only managed his signature).[115] Following the UAR’s dissolution, the
to establish one-level below the Regional Command, the Ba'ath Party was reestablished at the 1962 congress.[30]
branch-level.[108] Syrian specialist John Devlin estimated The Military Committee did not show itself to the civil-
that the Libyan Regional Branch had been 50 and 150 ian wing of the party at this congress.[116] During the
members in 1964.[108] congress, Aflaq and the Military Committee, through
Muhammad Umran, made contact for the first time; the
committee asked for permission to initiate a coup d'état;
4.5 Syria Aflaq supported the conspiracy.[117]
Following the success of the February 1963 Iraqi coup
Main article: Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region d'état, led by the Ba'ath Party’s Iraqi Regional Branch,
the Military Committee hastily convened to hatch a coup
Syrian politics took a dramatic turn in 1954 when the mil- against Nazim al-Kudsi's presidency.[118] The 8 March
itary government of Adib al-Shishakli was overthrown Revolution proved successful, and a Ba'athist government
and the democratic system restored. The Ba'ath, now in Syria was established.[118] The plotters first order was
a large and popular organisation, won 15 out of 142 to establish the National Council of the Revolutionary
parliamentary seats in the Syrian election that year, be- Command (NCRC), consisting entirely of Ba'athists and
coming the second-largest party in parliament. Aside Nasserists, and controlled by military personnel rather
from the Syrian Communist Party (SCP), the Ba'ath Party than civilians from the very beginning.[119]
was the only party able to organise mass protests among While the Ba'ath Party had attained power, there was a
workers.[109] The party was supported by the intelligentsia
problem; internal infighting.[120] The Military Commit-
due to their pro-Egyptian and anti-imperialist stance tee which was itself a tiny minority of the already small
along with their advocation of social reform.[110] Ba'ath Party membership was forced to rule by force.[120]
The Ba'ath faced considerable competition from ideo- The Ba'ath Party had only 2,500 members by mid-1963,
logical competitors, notably the Syrian Social National- the party lacked a popular base. Even if membership ex-
ist Party (SSNP), which supported the establishment of panded, the authoritarian way of ruling it had introduced
 9

when coming to power would get worse, not better.[120] [18] Coughlin 2005, p. 40.
Another problem was that the civilian wing was riven by [19] Gibson, Bryan R. (2015). Sold Out? US Foreign Policy,
infighting between the radical socialist and moderate fac- Iraq, the Kurds, and the Cold War. Palgrave Macmillan.
tion, while the military stood more unified.[121] Whatever pp. xxi, 45, 49, 57–58, 121. ISBN 978-1-137-48711-7.
the case, the Syrian Regional Command slowly amassed
its powers by weakening the National Command.[121] [20] Coughlin 2005, pp. 44–46.
This all came to a head in the 1966 Syrian coup d'état [21] Seale 1990, p. 66.
(see “1966 split” section).[121]
[22] Rabinovich 1972, p. 24.

[23] “Background Note: Syria”. United States Department of

4.6 Others State, Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs. May 2007. Re-
trieved 8 August 2013.
Following the Ba'ath Party’s founding, regional branches
were established in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.[122] Not [24] DeFronzo 2009, p. 61.
long after it established branches in North Yemen and
[25] "The Spectator". 212. 1964: 473.
South Yemen.[123] In Tunisia, a Regional Branch was es-
tablished in the 1950s, but was forced underground for [26] Seale 1990, p. 87.
much of its existence.[124] The Saudi Regional Branches
elected Ali Ghannäm to represent them at the 7th Na- [27] Ali 2004, p. 105.
tional Command.[94] While its currently unknown which [28] Hiro 1982, p. 143.
side the Saudi Ba'ath took after the 1966 split, it pub-
lished a newspaper, Sawt al-Tal‘iyya, from 1973 to 1980. [29] Ali 2004, pp. 106–107.
It was an ardent critic of the Saudi royal family and
[30] Federal Research Division 2004, p. 55.
American imperialism. The majority of its members
were Shia Muslims.[125] In late 1963, Ba'ath cells were [31] Federal Research Division 2004, p. 59.
being established in Sudan, and there were even rumours
[32] Federal Research Division 2004, p. 213.
that a Ba'ath cell had been established in Egypt.[126]
[33] Bengio 1998, p. 218.

[34] Batatu 1999, p. 392.

5 Notes
[35] Rabinovich 1972, p. 230.
[1] George 2003, p. 66.
[36] Commins 2004, p. 65.
[2] Polk 2006, p. 109.
[37] Rabinovich 1972, p. 231.
[3] Seale 1990, p. 98.
[38] Rabinovich 1972, p. 148.
[4] Reich 1990, p. 10.
[39] Choueiri 2004, p. 234.
[5] Anderson 2005, p. 231.
[40] Batatu 1999, p. 134.
[6] Seale 1990, p. 65. [41] Batatu 1999, p. 135.
[7] Kaylani 1972, p. 15. [42] Claessen 2010, p. 24.
[8] Kaylani 1972, p. 16. [43] Seale 1990, p. 30.
[9] Kaylani 1972, p. 19. [44] Seale 1990, pp. 30–31.
[10] Kaylani 1972, pp. 19–21. [45] Moaddel 2009, p. 229.
[11] Oron 1960, p. 271. [46] Batatu 1999, p. 136.
[12] Ministry of Information 1971, p. 33. [47] Batatu 1999, pp. 134–136.
[13] Podeh 1999, p. 219. [48] Batatu 1999, pp. 144–145.
[14] Oron 1960, p. 497. [49] Salem 1994, p. 61.

[15] Anderson 2005, p. 203. [50] Salem 1994, pp. 67–68.

[16] Coughlin 2005, pp. 24–25. [51] Salem 1994, pp. 67–68].

[17] Coughlin 2005, p. 29. [52] Salem 1994, p. 67.

10 5 NOTES

[53] Salem 1994, pp. 69–70. [89] Anderson 2005, p. 135.

[54] Rabinovich 1972, p. 36. [90] Anderson 2005, p. 136.

[55] Rabinovich 1972, p. 37. [91] Anderson 2005, pp. 136–137.

[92] Anderson 2005, p. 137.
[56] Ben-Tzur 1968, p. 166.
[93] Anderson 2005, p. 175.
[57] Ben-Tzur 1968, pp. 166–167.
[94] Rabinovich 1972, p. 227.
[58] Rabinovich 1972, p. 41.
[95] Seddon 2004, p. 85.
[59] Rabinovich 1972, pp. 41–42.
[96] Oron 1960, p. 356.
[60] Rabinovich 1972, p. 77.
[97] Oron 1960, p. 348.
[61] Rabinovich 1972, pp. 77–78. [98] Oron 1960, p. 378.
[62] Rabinovich 1972, pp. 82–83. [99] Rabinovich 1972, p. 23.
[63] Rabinovich 1972, pp. 84–86. [100] Rabinovich 1972, pp. 23–24.
[64] Rabinovich 1972, p. 87. [101] Rabinovich 1972, p. 39.

[65] Rabinovich 1972, p. 88. [102] Rabinovich 1972, p. 106.

[66] Rabinovich 1972, p. 89. [103] Simmons 1993, p. 166.

[104] Wright 1981, p. 227.
[67] Ben-Tzur 1968, pp. 170–175.
[105] Wright 1981, p. 94.
[68] Ben-Tzur 1968, pp. 174–175.
[106] Wright 1981, p. 96.
[69] Ben-Tzur 1968, p. 175.
[107] Simmons 1993, p. 161.
[70] Ben-Tzur 1968, p. 177.
[108] Devlin 1972, p. 18.
[71] Ben-Tzur 1968, p. 179.
[109] Peretz 1994, p. 413.
[72] Ben-Tzur 1968, p. 180. [110] Finer & Stanley 2009, p. 149.
[73] Ben-Tzur 1968, p. 181. [111] Federal Research Division 2004, p. 211.
[74] Ghareeb & Dougherty 2004, p. 194. [112] Federal Research Division 2004, pp. 210–211.

[75] Metz, Helen Chapin. “Iraq — Politics: The Baath Party”. [113] Federal Research Division 2004, pp. 211–212.
Library of Congress Country Studies. Retrieved 23 Oc-
[114] Federal Research Division 2004, pp. 52–53.
tober 2011.
[115] Podeh 1999, pp. 152–153.
[76] Sheffer & Ma'oz 2002, p. 174.
[116] George 2003, p. 68.
[77] Karsh & Rautsi 1991, p. 13.
[117] Seale 1990, p. 75.
[78] Nakash 2003, p. 136.
[118] Seale 1990, pp. 76–78.
[79] Dawisha 2005, p. 174.
[119] Seale 1990, p. 78.
[80] Coughlin 2005, p. 22. [120] George 2003, pp. 68–69.
[81] Coughlin 2005, pp. 25–26. [121] George 2003, p. 69.
[82] Coughlin 2005, p. 26. [122] Goldman 2002, p. 60.

[83] Coughlin 2005, p. 39. [123] Rabinovich 1972, p. 169.

[84] Coughlin 2005, p. 41. [124] Ajmi, Sana (4 January 2012). “Tunisian Baath Party
Celebrates 5th Anniversary of Saddam Hussein’s Death”.
[85] Mufti 1996, p. 161. Tunisia-live.net. Retrieved 19 February 2012.

[86] Coughlin 2005, p. 44. [125] “Embattled in Arabia” (PDF). Human Security Gateway.
3 June 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on De-
[87] Mufti 1996, p. 165. cember 22, 2012. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
[88] Coughlin 2005, pp. 46–48. [126] Seale 1990, p. 90.
 11

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• Polk, William Roe (2006). Understanding Iraq: A

Whistlestop Tour from Ancient Babylon to Occupied
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• Rabinovich, Itamar (1972). Syria Under the Baʻth,

1963–66: The Army Party Symbiosis. Transaction
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Contemporary Middle East and North Africa: A
Biographical Dictionary. Greenwood Publishing
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Politics in the Arab World. Syracuse University
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• Seale, Patrick (1990). Asad of Syria: The Struggle
for the Middle East. University of California Press.
ISBN 0-520-06976-5.

• Seddon, David (2004). A Political and Economic

Dictionary of the Middle East. Taylor & Francis.
ISBN 1-85743-212-6.
• Sheffer, Gabriel; Ma'oz, Moshe (2002). Middle
Eastern Minorities and Diasporas. Sussex Academic
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• Leslie Simmons, Geoffrey (1993). Libya: The

Struggle for Survival. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN
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• Tejei, Jordi (2009). Syria’s Kurds: History, Politics
and Society. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-09643-5.
• Wright, John (1981). Libya: A Modern History.
Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-7099-2727-4.

7 External links
• The five volumes of Michel Aflaq’s On The Way Of
Resurrection (Fi Sabil al Ba'th) (Arabic)

• The Constitution of the Arab Socialist Ba'th Party

 13

8 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Pilhet, Baristarim, AussieBoy, Jim.henderson, Aleksander.adamowski, Azalea pomp, R'n'B, Prezen, Filll, Lizrael, Uncle Dick, Rashman,
Pajfarmor, Derwig, Zyrotec, RenniePet, Plasticup, Joka1991, Themoodyblue, Flatterworld, Juliancolton, GrahamHardy, Nuckollsm, Ger-
man.Knowitall, VolkovBot, Jeff G., BoogaLouie, Y0urlastdemise, Fences and windows, Pparazorback, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Jakedaniel,
Asabbagh, Jkeene, Kevincgk, Sstrak, Abdo88, Finngall, Danrolo~enwiki, Jookieapc, NinjaRobotPirate, AlleborgoBot, Mohonu, Al Ameer
son, Tpb, SieBot, Ilyacadiz, VVVBot, Proud Ho, FunkMonk, TideinTN, Lightmouse, Mtrinque, OKBot, Werldwayd, Svick, StaticGull, The
Four Deuces, Gr8opinionater, Talanmartin666, Moorehaus, RazeYathrib, Polentario, Bob1960evens, Gene93k, Rodhullandemu, Addycee,
UDSS, Gjacomet, Solar-Wind, Excirial, Lususromulus, BingoDingo, Jopsach, Nxx~enwiki, Factfinder123, TaalVerbeteraar, 7xxxxxxx,
Soulscivil, SilvonenBot, UNSC Trooper, Good Olfactory, Jts5039, Yaik9a, Addbot, Ave Caesar, Ahmad2099, Lihaas, Chzz, Numbo3-bot,
Erutuon, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Abjiklam, Bricklayer, Yobot, Rajakhr, Drphil500, Bushautox 2, AnomieBOT, Sinbad Barron, Ulric1313,
Materialscientist, Eumolpo, Little XQ, LilHelpa, Apjohns54, Xqbot, Wüstenfuchs, Almabot, GrouchoBot, Ohmygod766, RibotBOT,
Bellerophon, Doulos Christos, Arnoldhigginsy, FrescoBot, Kinghamnt, Lalala171717, Haeinous, Tlork Thunderhead, Trust Is All You
Need, Supreme Deliciousness, CousinJohn, Motorizer, Full-date unlinking bot, FoxBot, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Tbhotch, Rjwilmsi-
Bot, CrimeCentral, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Would?, GoingBatty, Dcirovic, ZéroBot, Terry Tells The Truth, Sundos-
tund, Euloiix, Muntaineers, Sunshine2525, Greyshark09, ReddyWhenUAre, Demiurge1000, Berone, Peitro1b, ChuispastonBot, EdoBot,
Amfarr21, TheTimesAreAChanging, ClueBot NG, Arab leaf, Bsch162, Cagoul, Tanbircdq, RJFF, SomeDudeWithAUserName, Brain-
cricket, Widr, Names are hard to think of, Joshuajohnson555, Helpful Pixie Bot, Guest2625, BG19bot, Dafosaddikk, Dobrich, Chinnz,
BattyBot, Cyberbot II, Markd107, J.elizabeth.golden, Noobish123, Taffysaur, Charles Essie, Mogism, Zumwalte, Kevin12xd, Khaled-
soubani, Lasabbagh, Hohogumbobob, Tango303, Transphasic, OccultZone, LogFTW, Insignia2000, BethNaught, LibDutch, Aequitas333,
Walknack, CAPTAIN RAJU, GreenC bot, MartinKassemJ120 and Anonymous: 368

8.2 Images
• File:Ba'ath_Constitution.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Ba%27ath_Constitution.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Syrian History Original artist: Not credited
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-
nal artist: ?
• File:Flag_of_Iraq.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors:
• This image is based on the CIA Factbook, and the website of Office of the President of Iraq, vectorized by User:Militaryace Original artist:
Unknown, published by Iraqi governemt, vectorized by User:Militaryace based on the work of User:Hoshie
• File:Flag_of_Syria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: see below Original artist: see below
• File:Flag_of_the_Ba'ath_Party.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Hawrani_Aflaq_1957.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Hawrani_Aflaq_1957.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: The Online Museum of Syrian History Original artist: Unknown<a href='https:
//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590'
/></a>

8.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0