Polish Grammar in A Nutshell: © Oscar E. Swan University of Pittsburgh 2003

Polish
Grammar in a
Nutshell
© Oscar E. Swan
University of Pittsburgh
2003
Information on Polish sounds and grammar

which should be mastered by the
intermediate-level student of the
language.
POLISH GRAMMAR IN A NUTSHELL
540
CONTENTS
The Polish Alphabet and Sounds 5

Notes on Spelling and Pronunciation 6
Sound Changes 8
Nouns 9
Noun Gender 9
Cases and Case Use 11
Noun Phrases 13
Regular Noun Endings 15
Distribution of Endings 16
Noun Endings Depending on the Hard-Soft Distinction 17
Noun Declensions 19
Days of the Week 23
Compass Directions 23
Months 24
Pronouns 24
Personal Pronouns 24
Possessive Pronouns 26
Demonstrative and Relative Pronouns 27
Intensive Pronoun 28
Reflexive Pronoun 28
Distributive Pronoun 29
Adjectives 30
Adjective Declension 30
Adjective-Noun Order 30
Comparison of Adjectives 31
Adjective Opposites 31
Adverbs 33
Comparison of Adverbs 33
Non-Adjectival Adverbs 35
Numerals 37
Cardinal Numerals 37
Compound Numbers 38
Declension of Cardinal Numerals 38
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Collective Numerals 41
Reified Numerals 42
Indefinite Numerals 42
Counting People 42
Ordinal Numerals 43
Time of Day 43
Dates, Years, Expressing ‘How Old’ 44
Prepositions 45
Prepositions Arranged According to Case 46
Prepositions Expressing 'at', 'to', 'from' 47
Expressions of Time 47
Polish Translations of 'For' 48
Conjunctions 50
Verbs 51
Finite Verb Categories 53
Present Tense 53
Summary of Verb Classes 56
Imperative 57
Past Tense 58
Future Tense 60
Perfective and Imperfective Aspect 60
Verbs of Motion 62
Conditional Mood 63
Participles and Gerunds 64
Passive Voice 66
Impersonal Verbs 67
Reflexive Verbs 68
Important Sentence Constructions 71
Constructions with the Infinitive 71
Modal Expressions 71
‘Introducing’ Sentences 71
Expressing 'There Is' 72
Predicate Nouns and Adjectives 72
Yes-No Questions 72
Negation 72
Word Order 73
Sentence Intonation 73
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THE POLISH ALPHABET AND SOUNDS
Here is the Polish alphabet: a, à, b, c, ç, d, e, ´, f, g, h, I, j, k, l, ∏, m, n, ƒ, o,

ó, p, r, s, Ê, t, u, w, y, z, ê, ˝.
SOUND VALUES OF THE LETTERS
APPROXIMATE
LETTER ENGLISH SOUND EXAMPLE
a father tak thus, so, yes, raz once

à dome sà they are, wà˝ snake
The sound à is pronounced like om, except that the lips or tongue are not
completely closed to pronounce the m, leaving a nasal resonance instead.
b big bok side, aby so that
bi- beautiful bieg course, run, race, tobie to you
c fits co what, noc night, taca tray
ch hall chata cottage, ucho ear, dach roof
The sound of ch is much raspier and noisier than English h.
ci- cheek ciasto cake, cicho quiet
cz chalk czas time, gracz player, tćza rainbow
ç cheek choç although, niçmi thread (Inst. pl.)
The letters ç and ci- are pronounced the same. The combination ci- is used
before a vowel. The letter c before i is pronounced like ç/ci-. The sound of
ç/ci-, pronounced with the mouth in the position of English )y), is different
from that of cz, pronounced with the mouth in the position of English "r".
d do data date, lada counter
dz odds cudzy foreign, wodze reins
dzi- jeans dziadek grandfather, ludzie people
dê jeans wiedêma witch. ludêmi people-Instr.pl.
d˝ jaw d˝ez jazz, rad˝a rajah
The letters dê and dzi- are pronounced the same. The combination dzi- is
used before a vowel. The letters dz before i are pronounced like dê/dzi-.
The sound of dê/dzi-, pronounced with the mouth in the position of English
"y", is different from that of d˝, pronounced with the mouth in the position of
English "r".
e ever ten this (masc.), ale but, Edek Eddie
´ sense g´Ê goose, t´skniç long for
The sound ´ is pronounced like em, except that the lips or tongue are not
completely closed to pronounce the m, leaving a nasal resonance instead. At
the end of a word, the letter ´ is normally pronounced the same as e:
naprawd´ "naprawde".
f felt farba paint, lufa rifle-barrel, blef bluff
g get guma rubber, noga leg, foot
gi- bug you gie∏da stock-market, magiel mangle
h hall hak hook, aha aha!
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Pronounced the same as ch (see above), the letter h appears mainly in words
of foreign origin.
i cheek list letter, ig∏a needle
j you, boy jak as, raj paradise, zajàc hare
k keg kot cat, rok year, oko eye
ki- like you kiedy when, takie such (neut.)
l love las forest, dal distance, fala wave
∏ wag, bow ∏eb animal head, by∏ he was, o∏ówek pencil
mi- harm you miara measure, ziemia earth
m moth mama mama, tom volume
n not noc night, pan sir, ono it
ni- canyon nie no, not, nigdy never
ƒ canyon koƒ horse, haƒba disgrace
The letters ƒ and ni- are pronounced the same. The combination ni- is used
before a vowel. The letter n before i is pronounced like ƒ/ni-.
o poke pot sweat, osa wasp, okno window
ó toot ból pain, o∏ówek pencil
The letter ó is pronounced the same as u.
p pup pas belt, strap, ∏apa paw, cap billy-goat
pi- stop you piana foam, ∏apie he catches
r arriba (Span.) rada advic, kara punishment, dar gift
The sound r is pronounced by trilling the tip of the tongue, as in Spanish or
Italian.
rz pleasure rzeka river, morze sea
The letter-combination rz is pronounced the same as ˝; see below.
s sad sam the same (masc.), pas belt, rasa breed
si- sheep siano hay, sito sieve
sz shark szal frenzy, dusza sou,
Ê sheep oÊ axle, kwaÊny sour, Êpi he sleeps
The letters Ê and si- are pronounced the same. The combination si- is used
before a vowel. The letter s before i is pronounced like Ê/si-. The sound of
Ê/si-, pronounced with the mouth in the position of English "y", is different
from that of sz, pronounced with the mouth in the position of English "r".
t top tam there, data date, kot cat
u toot but shoe, tu here, ucho ear
w vat wata cotton wadding, kawa coffee
y ill dym smoke, ty you (sg.)
z zoo zupa soup, faza phase
zi- azure ziarno grain, zima winter
ê azure wyraêny distinct, êle badly
˝ pleasure ˝aba frog, pla˝a beach
The letters ê and zi- are pronounced the same. The combination zi- is used
before a vowel. The letter z before i is pronounced like ê/zi-. The sound of
ê/zi-, pronounced with the mouth in the position of English "y", is different
from that of ˝, pronounced with the mouth in the position of English "r".
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NOTES ON SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION
1. The Polish alphabet has no Q, V or X, although these letters may be

found in transcriptions of foreign names, and in a few borrowed words, e.g.
video, pan X Mr. X..
2. Polish vowels a, e, i, y, o, u (ó) are all pronounced with exactly the

same short length, achieved by not moving the tongue or the lips after the
onset of the vowel, as happens, for example, in English vowel-sounds ee
(knee), oe (toe), oo (boot). Only the nasal vowels are pronounced long, the
length being due to rounding the lips and pronouncing the glide "w" at the
end: sà.
3. Polish consonant sounds may be pronounced slightly differently

according to position in a word. Most importantly, voiced consonant sounds
b, d, dz, g, rz, w, z, ê, ˝ are pronounced as unvoiced sounds (p, t, c, k, sz, f,
s, Ê, sz, respectively) in final position. For example, paw is pronounced "paf";
chodê is pronounced "choç".
voiced b d dz g rz w z ê ˝
voiceless p t c k sz f s Ê sz
4. The letters à and ´ are usually pronounced like on/om or en/em,

respectively, before consonants. For example, làd is pronounced "lont"; dàb
is pronounced "domp"; t´py is pronounced "tempy"; d´ty is pronounced
"denty"; and so on. Before ç and dê, ´ and à are pronounced eƒ/oƒ: ch´ç
"cheƒç", làdzie "loƒdzie". Before k and g, à and ´ may be pronounced as o
or e plus the English ng sound: màka, pot´ga. The vowels à and ´ are
usually denasalized before l or ∏: zdj´li "zdjeli", zdjà∏ "zdjo∏".
5. The stress in a Polish word falls on the next-to-last syllable: sprawa

SPRA-wa, Warszawa War-SZA-wa, gospodarka go-spo-DAR-ka,
zadowolony za-do-wo-LO-ny. As these examples show, Polish syllables
tend to divide after a vowel. Words in -yka take stress on the preceding
syllable: mateMAtyka, MU-zyka. The past-tense endings -yÊmy/-iÊmy,
-yÊcie/-iÊcie do not cause a shift in place of stress: BY-∏yÊ-my.
6. SPELLING RULES:
a. So-called kreska consonants (ç, dê, ƒ, Ê, ê) are spelled with an acute
mark only at word-end and before consonants; otherwise, they are spelled as
c, dz, s, z, n plus a following i: dzieƒ "dêeƒ", nie "ƒe". Before the vowel i
itself, no extra i is needed: ci "çi" to you.
b. Certain instances of b, p, w, f, m are latently soft, meaning that they
will be treated as soft (in effect, as if kreska consonants) before vowels. In the
spelling, they will be followed by i. Compare paw peacock, plural pawie
(paw'-e) peacocks.
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c. The letter y can be written only after a hard consonant (see below) or
after c, cz, dz, rz, sz, ˝. The letter i after the consonants c, dz, n, s, z always
indicates the pronunciations ç, dê, ƒ, Ê, ê, respectively. Only i, never y, may
be written after l or j.
d. The letter e is usually separated from a preceding k or g by i,
indicating a change before e of k, g to k', g': jakie, drogie.
e. The letter j is dropped after a vowel before i: stoj´ I stand but stoisz
you stand.
SOUND CHANGES
1. When describing word formation, some consonants are counted as

hard (H) and others as soft (S):
H p b f w m t d s z n ∏ r k g ch
S1 p' b' f' w' m' ç dê Ê ê ƒ l rz c dz sz j
S2 cz ˝
Hard consonants can soften before certain endings. For example, r goes to rz
before the Locative singular ending -'e, as in biur-'e: biurze office (from
biuro).
As noted, the consonants p, b, f, m, w at the end of a word may turn out

to be soft (p', b', f', m', w', spelled pi-, bi-, fi-, mi-, wi-), when not at the end
of a word; cf. paw peacock, pl. pawie.
2. One often observes vowel changes within Polish words depending on

whether endings are added to them. The most important such changes
involve an alternation between o and ó, ´ and à, io/ia and ie, and between
e and nothing (fleeting or mobile e). These changes may be observed in the
singular and plural forms of the following nouns: stó∏ sto∏y table-tables, zàb
z´by tooth-teeth, sàsiad sàsiedzi neighbor-neighbors, ch∏opiec ch∏opcy boy-boys,
pies psy dog-dogs.
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OUTLINE OF POLISH GRAMMAR

NOUNS
LACK OF ARTICLES. Polish does not have elements corresponding to
English indefinite and definite articles a, an, the. One interprets a noun as
definite or indefinite on the basis of context. Hence dom may be interpreted
as 'a house' or 'the house'.
NOUN GENDER. Polish nouns have three genders: masculine,

feminine and neuter. Grammatical gender has nothing to do with natural
gender (sex). It is mainly of importance for purposes of grammatical
agreement. For example, feminine nouns require that a modifying adjective
have 'feminine' endings, as in dobra lampa a good lamp; compare to
masculine dobry stó∏ good table or neuter dobre drzewo good tree. While
names for males will be masculine in gender, and names for females will be
feminine, other objects in the world are divided up according to gender in
an arbitrary way. For example, nos nose is masculine in gender, and g∏owa
head is feminine; s∏oƒce sun is neuter, while ksi´˝yc moon is masculine.
NOUNS STEMS. Nouns may end in a consonant or in a vowel; if in a

vowel, the stem of the noun, to which endings are added, is obtained by
subtracting the vowel. For example, the stem of g∏owa head is g∏ow-, while
the stem of nos nose is nos-.
MASCULINE NOUNS usually end in a consonant, for example: nos

nose, stó∏ table, hotel hotel, piec stove, mà˝ husband. Some masculine names of
persons end in -a, for example, kolega colleague, and even m´˝czyzna man.
Often masculine nouns show different stems before endings and when there
is no ending, as stó∏ table, sto∏y tables, or mà˝ husband, m´˝owie husbands.
PLURAL OF MASCULINE NOUNS. Masculine non-personal nouns

ending in hard consonants (see the Introduction) usually form the plural in
-y, for example nos nosy nose(s), stó∏ sto∏y table(s). One writes i after k or g:
czek czeki check(s). Masculine nouns ending in soft consonants usually form
the plural in -e, for example hotel hotele hotel(s), piec piece stove(s).
MASCULINE PERSONAL NOUNS often take special endings in the

plural. Usually the ending is -i/y, preceded by the softening of the
preceding consonant: student studenci student(s), Polak Polacy Pole(s), and so
on. With titles and relations, the ending -owie often occurs: pan panowie
sir(s), profesor profesorowie professor(s), mà˝ m´˝owie husband husbands;
brat bracia brother(s) is quite exceptional.
FEMININE NOUNS most often end in -a, for example, lampa lamp,
kobieta woman, krowa cow, siostra sister, mama mother, torba bag, ulica
street. Some feminine nouns end in a soft consonant, for example, twarz face,
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koÊç bone, rzecz thing. A few feminine personal nouns end in -i, as
gospodyni landlady. The noun osoba person is feminine in gender, whether
it refers to a man or a woman.
PLURAL OF FEMININE NOUNS. Feminine nouns follow

approximately the same rules as masculine nouns when forming the plural.
Nouns ending in a hard consonant take -y, for example kobiety women,
krowy cows, siostry sisters, torby bags. One writes i after k or g: noga nogi
leg(s). Feminine nouns whose stem ends in a soft consonant usually take -e,
for example koleje rails, ulice streets, twarze faces, rzeczy things, koÊci bones.
Some feminine nouns ending in a soft consonant take -y/i, for example
rzeczy things, koÊci bones.
NEUTER NOUNS end in -o or (after soft consonants) -e, for example

myd∏o soap, ko∏o wheel, piwo beer, morze sea, pole field, zdanie opinion.
Exceptional are nouns like imi´ name and zwierz´ animal, which end in ´.
Some neuter nouns, borrowed from Latin, end in -um, for example muzeum
musuem.
PLURAL OF NEUTER NOUNS. Neuter nouns form the plural in -a,

for example: ko∏a wheels, piwa beers, morza seas, pola fields, zdania opinions.
Nouns like imi´ and zwierz´ have plurals imiona names, zwierz´ta animals.
The plural of muzeum is muzea. The noun dziecko child is of neuter gender,
even though it refers to a person. Its plural is dzieci children.
SUMMARY OF NAMES FOR PEOPLE AND THEIR PLURALS.

babcia grandmother, pl babcie narzeczona fiancée, pl narzeczone
brat brother, pl bracia narzeczony fiancé, pl narzeczeni
ch∏opiec boy, pl ch∏opcy ojciec father, pl ojcowie
ciocia aunt, pl ciocie osoba person, pl osoby
córka daughter, pl córki przyjaciel m friend, pl przyjaciele
cz∏owiek man, human, pl ludzie przyjació∏ka f friend, pl przyjació∏ki
dziadek grandfather, pl dziadkowie sàsiad m neighbor, pl sàsiedzi
dziecko child, pl dzieci sàsiadka f neighbor, pl sàsiadki
dziewczyna girl, pl dziewczyny siostra sister, pl siostry
kobieta woman, pl kobiety syn son, pl synowie
kole˝anka f colleague, pl kole˝anki ta pani that lady, pl te panie
kolega m. colleague, pl koledzy ten pan that gentleman, pl ci panowie
krewna f relative, pl krewne wujek uncle, pl wujkowie
krewny m relative, pl krewni znajoma f acquaintance, pl znajome
m´˝czyzna man, pl m´˝czyêni znajomy m acquaintance, pl znajomi
mà˝ husband, pl m´˝owie ˝ona wife, pl ˝ony
matka mother, pl matki
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CASES AND CASE USE
Polish nouns have different case forms for expressing GRAMMATICAL

CASE, related to the function of the noun in a sentence. There are forms for
each gender for the Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Instrumental,
Locative, and Vocative cases - seven cases in all. In general, the Nominative
case is used to express the SUBJECT of a sentence, the Dative to express the
INDIRECT OBJECT (to or for whom something is done), the Accusative the
DIRECT OBJECT (the item perceived or acted on by the subject). The
Instrumental expresses the MEANS BY WHICH something is done (for
example, ride by train, write with a pen). The Genitive expresses
POSSESSION and, in general, most meanings of 'of', for example husband of
my sister, top of the mountain, end of the film, and so on. The Locative is used
with certain prepositions, especially prepositions expressing the simple
locational senses of of 'in', 'at', 'on'; and the Vocative is occasionally used in
direct address. Here is a summary of the main Polish case uses. The
pronominal questions with the corressponding forms of co what and kto who
are given next to the case-name.
NOMINATIVE (co? kto?) The Nominative case is used to express:

1. Subject of finite verb. Jan kocha Mari´ Jan-Nom. loves Maria. Maria
kocha Jana Maria-Nom. loves Jan.
2. Subject of existential 'be': Jan jest w domu Jan-Nom. is at home. Czy
jest szynka? Is there any ham-Nom?
3. Complement of the identifying phrase to jest/sà that is/those are: To
jest nowe muzeum. That is a new museum-Nom. To sà moje okulary Those are
my eyeglasses.
4. Complement of a naming phrase: Jestem Adam Wolak. I am Adam
Wolak-Nom.
GENITIVE (czego? kogo?). The Genitive case is used to express:

1. Almost all meanings of "of", including possession: To jest dom
mojego przyjaciela That's the house of my friend-Gen. To jest koniec pierwszej
lekcji That's the end of the first lesson-Gen.
2. After many prepositions, including do to, bez without, dla for, z from,
out of, od from, u at a person's place, and others (for a fuller list, see further
below under Prepositions). Tu jest coÊ dla ciebie Here is something for you-
Gen. Id´ do kina bez was I'm going to the movies without you-Gen. On jest
starszy od siostry He is younger than (his) sister-Gen. Wracam z Warszawy
I'm returning from Warsaw-Gen.
3. After negated transitive (Accusative-requiring) verbs. Compare: Mam
nowy telewizor. I have a new television set-Acc. Nie mam nowego telewizora I
don't have a new television set-Gen. Ju˝ skoƒczy∏em drugà lekcj´ I have already
finished the second lesson-Acc. Jeszcze nie zaczà∏em drugiej lekcji I haven't
begun the second lesson-Gen. yet.
4. Complement of negative existentials nie ma there isn't, nie by∏o there
wasn't, nie b´dzie 'there won't be'. Nie ma mas∏a there is no butter-Gen. Marii
jeszcze nie ma Maria-Gen. isn't here yet.
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5. After many verbs, for example the verb szukaç: Szukam ciekawego
prezentu I'm looking for an interesting present-Gen. Here is a list of common
verbs which take the Genitive case: baç si´ be afraid of, napiç si´ have a drink
of, nienawidziç hate, pilnowaç look after, tend, mind, potrzebowaç need,
s∏uchaç listen to, spodziewaç si´ expect, szukaç look for, uczyç si´ study, uczyç
teach, u˝ywaç use, make use of, wymagaç require, demand, zapomnieç forget,
˝yczyç wish, desire.
6. After numbers 5 and above (Gen. pl.): Compare jedno Êwie˝e jajko
one fresh egg, pi´ç Êwie˝ych jajek five fresh eggs-Gen.pl.; jedna szeroka ulica
one wide street, szeÊç szerokich ulic six wide streets-Gen.pl.; jeden nowy hotel
one new hotel, siedem nowych hoteli seven new hotels-Gen.pl.
7. After weights and measures and all kinds of quantifiers like du˝o,
ma∏o, troch´: troch´ sera a little cheese-Gen. kieliszek wina a glass of wine-
Gen. szklanka wody a glass of water-Gen. du˝o domów a lot of houses-Gen.pl.
ma∏o mieszkaƒ not many apartments-Gen.pl.
8. To express the sense "some, a bit of": Nalaç ci herbaty? Should I pour
you some tea-Gen?.
9. Genitive of time: tej nocy on that night.
DATIVE (czemu? komu?). The Dative case is used to express:

1. Senses of ‘to’ and ‘for’ a person, especially the indirect object (naming
the recipient or beneficiary, or sometimes the person negatively affected by,
an action). Kup mi coÊ. Buy me-Dat. something. Zepsu∏em ci samochód. I've
ruined your car for you-Dat.
2. After verbs of direct speech: Powiedz mi coÊ. Tell me-Dat. something.
3. In construction with certain verbs like podobaç si´ be pleasing to,
pomóc pomagaç help, powodziç si´ be successful for, smakowaç taste (good) to,
dziwiç si´ be surprised at, and others: Twój kolega podoba mi si´. Your
colleague is attractive to me-Dat. Dobrze mu si´ powodzi. He-Dat. is doing very
well. Musz´ mu pomagaç. I have to help him-Dat. Dziwi´ si´ tobie. I'm
surprised at you-Dat. Zdaje ci si´ it seems that way to you.
4. As the subject of impersonal adverbs: Jest mi zimno. I-Dat. am cold (it's
cold to me-Dat.), Nam jest ∏atwo. It's easy for us-Dat.
5. After the prepositions dzi´ki due to, ku toward, przeciwko against:
Wszystko, co wiem, to dzi´ki tobie. Everything I know is thanks to you-Dat..
Nie mam nic przeciwko temu. I don't have anything against that-Dat..
ACCUSATIVE (co? kogo?). The Accusative case is used to express:

1. The complement after transitive verbs: Mam brata i siostr´ I have a
brother-Acc. and sister-Acc. Chc´ kupiç ser, mas∏o, i cytryn´ I want to buy
cheese-Acc., butter-Acc., and a lemon-Acc. Chcia∏bym poznaç twoich przyjació∏
I'd like to meet your friends-Acc.. This use of the Accusative is called the direct-
object use. In general, one chooses the Accusative after a verb unless there is
a specific reason to use another case.
2. After the prepositions przez across, through, by (means of); za in the
meaning in/after (a period of time) or in exchange for; after na in the meaning
for or to; and after w in the meaning into. Pan Józef zosta∏ zaanga˝owany
przez pana Kowalczyka. Jozef was hired by Mr. Kowalczyk-Acc. B´d´ gotowy
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za minut´. I'll be ready in a minute. Dzi´kuj´ za prezent. Thanks for the

present-Acc. Idziemy do Warszawy na konferencj´. We're going to Warsaw to a
conference-Acc. Wchodzimy w las. We're entering the forest-Acc "On a day of
the week" is expressed with w+A: w poniedzia∏ek on Monday.
3. After the usually Instrumental prepositions nad, pod, przed, za in
the sense of 'motion-to': Jedziemy nad morze. We are going to the sea.
Taksówka podjecha∏ pod dom. The taxi drove up to the house.
4. In expressing duration of time. Pracowa∏em tam jednà godzin´. I
worked there one hour-Acc.
INSTRUMENTAL (czym? kim?). The Instrumental case is used to express:

1. Predicate nouns (nouns after linking verbs like byç be). Jestem
farmakologiem. I am a pharmacologist-Inst. Ona jest gwiazdà filmowà. She is a
movie star-Inst.
2. Expressing "by means of": Jedziemy tam moim samochodem. We're
going there in my car-Inst. Pisz´ nowym d∏ugopisem. I'm writing with a new
ball-point-Inst. Here also goes the "Instrumental of Path": Niech pan idzie tà
ulicà do rogu. Go along this street-Inst. to the corner.
3. Accompaniment of an action by a body movement: Ona machn´∏a
r´kà. She waved (with) her hand. On zareagowa∏ uÊmiechem. He reacted with a
smile-Inst.
4. Abstract causes: By∏em zaskoczony jego szczeroÊcià. I was surprised
by his sincerity-Inst.
5. With respect to: starszy wiekiem ale nie usposobieniem older with
respect to age but not attitude.
5. Certain time periods: zimà in the winter, nocà at night, wieczorem in
the evening.
6. After the static-location prepositions mi´dzy between, nadover, pod
under, przed before, z with, za behind. Id´ na koncert z moimi dobrymi
przyjació∏mi I'm going to a concert with my good friends-Inst.
7. After certain verbs, e.g. interesowaç si´ be interested in, kierowaç
direct, zajmowaç si´ be busy with. Interesuj´ si´ muzykà klasycznà. I'm
interested in classical music-Inst. Matka zajmuje si´ domem i dzieçmi. Mother
takes care of the house-Inst. and children-Inst.
LOCATIVE (o czym? o kim?). The Locative case is required after the

prepositions w in, na on, at, o about, po after, przy near, during, while. On jest
teraz w domu He is at home-Loc. now. Po zajćiach idziemy na kolacj´ After
classes-Loc. we are going to supper. Musz´ kupiç znaczki na poczcie I have to
buy stamps at the post-office-Loc. Biblioteka stoi przy ulicy Pi´knej The library
is next to Piekna Street-Loc.
VOCATIVE. Usually, the Nominative case functions as a de facto Vocative:

Pawe∏, chodê tu! Pawel-Nom., come here!. However, in conjunction with titles,
the Vocative is obligatory: Dzieƒ dobry, panie profesorze! Hello, professsor-
Voc.! The Vocative case is usually used with diminutive (affectionate) forms
of first names: Kasiu! Grzesiu! With other first names it is optional.
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SUMMARY: THE MAIN KINDS OF NOUN PHRASES IN A SENTENCE

TOGETHER WITH THE CASES THEY USUALLY TAKE
SUBJECT OF VERB (NOMINATIVE CASE):

Ewa uczy si´. Ewa-Nominative is studying..
SUBJECT OF EXISTENTIAL VERB (NOMINATIVE CASE, GENITIVE if negated):

Ewa jest. Ewa is here-Nominative.
Ewy nie ma. Ewa is not here-Genitive.
COMPLIMENT IN AN IDENTITY SENTENCE, after to jest/sà (NOMINATIVE

CASE):
Ewa to jest moja dobra przyjació∏ka. Ewa is my good friend-Nominative.
To sà nasi nowi sàsiedzi. Those are our new neighbors.
PREDICATE NOMINAL - nominal complement of 'be' - (INSTRUMENTAL

CASE):
Ewa jest interesujàcà osobà. Ewa is an interesting person-Instrumental.
DIRECT OBJECT OF VERB (ACCUSATIVE CASE, GENITIVE if negated):

Ewa kupuje nowàbluzk´. Ewa buys a new blouse-Accusative.
Ewa nie chce kupiç tej bluzki. Ewa doesn't want to buy that blouse-
Genitive.
OBLIQUE (NON-ACCUSATIVE) OBJECT OF VERB:

a. of a bare verb (the case depends on the oblique-case verb):
Ewa pilnuje dziecka. Ewa looks after the child-Genitive
Ewa pomaga Adamowi. Ewa helps Adam-Dative.
Ewa zajmuje si´ domem. Ewa takes care of the house-Instrumental
b. of a verb plus preposition (the case depends on the verb and
preposition):
Ewa czeka na Adama. Ewa waits for Adam-Accusative
Ewa cieszy si´ z prezentu. Ewa is glad of the present-Genitive.
Ewa zastanawia si´ nad problemem. Ewa considers the problem-
Instrumental
Ewa myÊli o swoim psie. Ewa thinks about her dog-Locative.
INDIRECT OBJECT (DATIVE CASE):

Ewa mówi coÊ Adamowi. Ewa says something to Adam-Dative.
BENEFICIARY (DLA+GENITIVE OR DATIVE CASE):

Zrób to dla mnie. Do that for me.
Pozmy∏em ci naczynia. I washed the dishes for you.
PHRASE OF MEANS (INSTRUMENTAL CASE):

Ewa jeêdzi do pracy autobusem. Ewa goes to work by bus-Instrumental
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COMPLEMENT OF LOCATIONAL PREPOSITION (preposition plus, usually,

either LOCATIVE or INSTRUMENTAL CASE, depending on the preposition):
Ewa mieszka w Warszawie. Ewa lives in Warsaw-Locative
Ewa stoi przed domem. Ewa stands in front of the house-Instrumental
With people, the locational preposition is u plus the Genitive:
By∏em u lekarza. I was at the doctor’s.
COMPLEMENT OF VERB OF MOTION:

a. PLACE TO WHICH (usually do plus GENITIVE or na plus ACCUSATIVE
CASE, depending on the kind of noun; see below under Prepositions):
Ewa idzie do domu. Ewa goes home-Genitive
Ewa idzie na koncert. Ewa goes to a concert-Accusative
Id´ do dentysty. I’m going to the ddentist’s.
b. PLACE FROM WHICH (usually z plus Genitive, od plus Genitive with

people):
Ewa wraca z pracy. Ewa returns from work-Genitive.
Wracam od mojego przyjaciela. I’m returning from my friend’s.
POSSESSOR (GENITIVE CASE):

To jest dom Ewy. That is Ewa's-Genitive house.
HEAD OF A PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE OF ACCOMPANIMENT (Z PLUS

INSTRUMENTAL CASE):
Ewa rozmawia z Adamem. Ewa talks with Adam.-Instrumental
IDIOMATIC BARE-CASE PHRASES, IN GENITIVE, ACCUSATIVE, or

INSTRUMENTAL CASE:
nast´pnego dnia next day-Genitive of time
wieczorem in the evening-Instrumental of time
ca∏à noc all night long-Accusative of time
CHART OF REGULAR NOUN ENDINGS
Here is a summary chart of regular noun endings. By -0 is meant 'no

ending'. For rules on the distribution of endings, see the followiong page.
feminine masculine neuter

Sg. N -a (-i) or -0 -0 -o or -e
G -y/i -u or -a -a
D -'e or -y/i -owi -u
A -´ or -0 =N/G =N
I -à -em -em
L =D -'e or -u -'e or -u
V -o or -y/i =L =N
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Pl. NV -y/i or -e (-y/i or -'i) or -e -a

G -0 or -y/i -ów or -y/i -0
D -om -om -om
A =N =N/G =N
I -ami -ami -ami
L -ach -ach -ach
Consonants soften before -'e (DLsg. feminine and LVsg. masculine and Lsg.
neuter, and before -'i (Npl. masculine persons). For chart of softenings, see in
the Introduction under SOUND CHANGES.
DISTRIBUTION OF ENDINGS
When there is a choice among endings in the above chart, follow these rules:
1. FEMININE NOUNS.
a. Hard-stems in -a, like kobieta woman, take left-hand endings;
soft-stems in -0 (zero), like twarz face, take right-hand endings; soft-stems in -
a (ulica street) or -i (gospodyni landlady) take italicized alternatives.
b. Soft-stem diminutive and affectionate names take Vsg. in -u
(thus, Basia Barb, Vsg Basiu).
c. Before DLsg. -'e, consonants soften; thus, nog-'e: nodze leg-
DLsg.
2. MASCULINE NOUNS.
a. Animate nouns take Gsg. in -a. Most inanimates take Gsg. in
-u. There are many exceptions.
b. Animate nouns take Asg. like the Gsg. in -a pies, NAsg. psa
dog. Inanimates take Asg.=Nsg. in -0 (zero): zeszyt, NAsg. zeszyt notebook.
c. A handful of masculine nouns take Dsg. in -u, e.g., pan panu,
chopiec ch∏opcu, kot kotu, ojciec ojcu, pies psu.
d. Velar and soft stems take LVsg. in -u: hotel hotelu hotel,
rćznik rćzniku towel. Others take LVsg. in -'e preceded by consonant
softening (thus, zeszyt-'e: zeszycie notebook-LVsg.).
e. Hard-stem nouns take NVpl. in -y/i: zeszyt zeszyty notebook.
Personal nouns soften the stem consonant (thus, student-'i: studenci students).
Soft-stems take -e: kraj kraje country -ies. Names for titles and relations tend
to take NVpl. in -owie, as syn synowie son(s), ojciec ojcowie father(s), mà˝
m´˝owie husband(s), and others.
f. Hard stems take Gpl. in -ów: zeszyt zeszytów notebook. Most
soft-stems take Gpl. in -y/i (hotel hoteli hotel), although some, especially
stems in c, dz, and j, take -ów: kraj krajów country.
g. Personal nouns take Apl.=Gpl, as student, GApl. studentów.
All others take Apl.=Npl., as hotel, NApl. hotele, zeszyt, NApl. zeszyty.
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3. NEUTER NOUNS.
a. Soft-stems take NAVsg. in -e: pole field. hard stems take
NAVsg. in -o: drzewo tree.
b. Velar and soft stems take LVsg. in -u: polu, ∏ó˝ku. others take
LVsg. in -'e preceded by consonant softening (thus, biur-'e: biurze office-
Lsg.).
c. All neuter nouns take NAVpl. in -a: drzewo drzewa tree(s),
mieszkanie mieszkania (apartment(s), zwierz´ zwierz´ta animal(s), imi´
imiona name(s), muzeum muzea museum(s).
d. Some soft-stem neuters with a collective meaning, or naming
areas or spaces, take Gpl. in -y/i (thus, wybrze˝e wybrze˝y seacoast,
narz´dzie tool, Gpl narz´dzi).
e. A very few neuters, most importantly those in -um, do not
decline in the sg. and take Gpl. in -ów. See muzeum in the declensional
illustrations to follow.
f. A few neuters have NAsg. in -´ and have soft stems in the sg.,
hard stems in the pl.; see imi´ imienia name(s), zwierz´ zwierzćia animal(s)
in the illustrations to follow.
THE MOST CHALLENGING POLISH CASE FORMS. The noun endings

which are the most challenging to learn are those that depend on
determining whether the stem consonant (the consonant before the ending)
is ‘hard’ or ‘soft’. Endings depending on this distinction are a) the Locative
sg. of all nouns, b) the Dative sg. of feminine nouns, c) the
Nominative/Accusative pl. of masculine and feminine nouns, including
masculine personal nouns, and d) the Genitive plural of masculine nouns.
Here is the chart of Polish hard (or 'plain') and corresponding soft
consonants:
H p b f w m t d s z n ∏ r
S p' b' f' w' m' ç dê Ê ê ƒ l rz
H k g ch st zd s∏ z∏ sn
S c dz sz Êç êdê Êl êl Êƒ cz ˝ j
A. THE LOCATIVE CASE.

1. Masculine and neuter nouns form the Locative sg. by adding -e to
a softenable consonant and by softening the consonant: zeszyt zeszycie
notebook. Non-softenable consonants, including k, g, ch, take -u: hotel hotelu
hotel, mieszkanie mieszkaniu apartment, rćznik rćzniku towel, pude∏ko
pude∏ku box. The adjective ending is -ym (-im): dobrym good, drogim
expensive, dear, moim my. Irregular Locatives: dom domu house, pan panu
Sir, syn synu son.
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2. Feminine nouns form the Locative by adding -e to a softenable

consonant (including k, g, ch) and softening the consonant: kobieta kobiecie
woman, ksià˝ka ksià˝ce book. Non-softenable consonants take -y (-i): ulica
ulicy street, rzecz rzeczy thing. The adjective ending is -ej: nowej new,
drogiej expensive, dear, mojej my.
3. The Locative plural of all nouns, without exception, is -ach:
zeszytach notebooks, mieszkaniach apartments. The adjective ending is -ych
(-ich): nowych new, drogich expensive, dear, moich my.
NOTES:
a. Before the ending -'e (e plus preceding softening), most nouns
containing ia or io/ió in the root before t, d, s, z, change ia to ie and io/ió to
ie (sàsiad LVsg. sàsiedzie neighbor, koÊció∏ LVsg. koÊciele church).
b. The possible change of root à and ó to ´ and o in masculine nouns
before all endings holds here too: mà˝ LVsg. m´˝u husband, stó∏ LVsg. stole
table. Mobile e occurs in many masculine noun stems, and is dropped before
all endings: budynek GLVsg. budynku building.
B. THE DATIVE CASE.

1. For feminine nouns, the Dative sg. is like the Locative sg. There
are no exceptions to this rule.
2. Neuter nouns always take -emu -u: m∏odemu drzewu young tree-
D, nowemu mieszkaniu new apartment-D.
3. Masculine nouns usually take -emu -owi: temu cz∏owiekowi.
However, a few common masculine nouns take -u, for example, pies psu
dog, kot kotu cat, pan panu Sir, ojciec ojcu father, ch∏opiec ch∏opcu boy (but:
syn synowi son). This is almost a complete list, so assume -owi for a
masculine noun unless you know for sure the ending is -u.
4. The Dative plural is -ym (-im) -om for all adjectives and nouns:
dobrym studentom good students-D, szerokim ulicom wide streets-D, nowym
mieszkaniom new apartments-D. There are no exceptions.
C. THE NOMINATIVE PLURAL OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. The

Accusative pl. of all nouns other than masculine-personal nouns is like the
Nominative pl.
1. All neuter nouns form the NApl in -a: drzewo drzewa tree(s),
mieszkanie mieszkania apartment(s), muzeum muzea museum(s). Special
types: imi´ imiona name(s), zwierz´ zwierz´ta animal(s).
2. Masculine NON-PERSONAL and all feminine nouns, personal or
otherwise, form the NApl by adding -y/i to hard consonants (choose i after k
and g) and -e to soft consonants: zeszyt zeszyty notebook(s), o∏ówek o∏ówki
pencil(s), hotel hotele hotel(s), dziewczyna dziewczyny girl(s), ksià˝ka
ksià˝ki book(s), ulica ulice street(s). Feminine nouns not ending in -a take
either -y/i or -e: rzecz rzeczy thing(s), powieÊç powieÊci novel(s), twarz
twarze face(s).
3.The NApl ending of the adjective is -e (ie after k and g). This is the
same ending as the neuter singular adjective ending: dobre, drogie, moje.
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4. Masculine PERSONAL NOUNS take y/i as expected, but they

soften the stem consonant before this ending. A modifying adjective takes
the same ending and shows the same softening: dobry student, dobrzy
studenci good student(s), m∏ody urz´dnik, m∏odzi urz´dnicy young clerk(s).
Many masculine personal nouns, especially names for relations, take -owie:
pan panowie gentleman/-men, ojciec ojcowie father(s), syn synowie son(s).
Irregular: brat bracia brother(s), cz∏owiek ludzie men/people.
NOTES:
a. With masculine personal nouns, ch softens to Ê (not to sz): Czech
Czesi.
b. Adjectives whose stem already ends in a soft consonant still take -y/i:
interesujàcy cz∏owiek, interesujàcy ludzie interesting man/people.
b. Adjectives (participles) in -ony change to -eni: zmćzony zmćzeni
tired.
D. THE GENITIVE PLURAL OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

1. The Genitive plural of FEMININE and NEUTER nouns is usually -0,
i.e., nothing: kobieta kobiet woman, drzewo drzew tree.
2. The Genitive plural of masculine nouns is usually: -ów after hard
(plain) stems, and -y/i after soft stems: student studentów student, hotel
hoteli hotel. However, many stems in dz, c, and j take -ów instead of
expected -y/i: kraj krajów country.
3. The Gpl. adjective ending is -y/ich: dobrych, drogich.
NOTES:
a. With masculine persons, the Gpl. form is also used as the
Accusative plural:
Widz´ tych studentów. I see those students.
b. A few, but not many, soft-stem feminine-declension nouns take
Gpl. in y/i: skrzela skrzeli gill.
c. A few soft-stem neuter nouns take Gpl. in y/i: wybrze˝e
wybrze˝y seacoast.
d. Masculine personal nouns with Npl. in -owie take GApl. in -ów
no matter what: s´dzia s´dziowie judge(s), hence Gpl. s´dziów.
e. With neuter and feminine nouns, the Gpl. ending in -0 (zero) can
prompt a mobile vowel e or the root-vowel changes ´: à, o: ó: ksià˝ka
ksià˝ek book, r´ka ràk hand, morze mórz sea.
NOUN DECLENSIONS. Here are the full declensions (sets of case endings)
of some representative Polish nouns of all three genders. Remember that:
a. Masculine-gender animate nouns have the Accusative singular like

the Genitive; inanimate nouns have the Accusative singular like the
Nominative. In the plural, masculine personal nouns have the Accusative
549
like the Genitive. All feminine, neuter, and masculine non-personal nouns
have the Accusative plural like the Nominative plural.
b. Neuter-gender nouns have identical Nominative and Accusative

forms in both singular and plural.
c. Feminine nouns have identical Dative and Locative forms in the

singular, and identical Accusative and Nominative forms in the plural.
d. All nouns have the same Dative, Instrumental, and Locative forms in
the plural. The Vocative plural of all nouns is like the Nominative plural.
MASCULINE NOUNS:
Masculine Non-Personal
Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.

sklep store (masc. hard-stem) hotel hotel (masc. soft-stem)
N sklep sklepy hotel hotele
G sklepu sklepów hotelu hoteli
D sklepowi sklepom hotelowi hotelom
A sklep sklepy hotel hotele
I sklepem sklepami hotelem hotelami
L sklepie sklepach hotelu hotelach
V sklepie sklepy hotelu hotele
stó∏ check (hard-stem, ó: o) go∏àb pigeon (anim., soft labial stem)

N stó∏ sto∏y go∏àb go∏´bie
G sto∏u sto∏ów go∏´bia go∏´bi
D sto∏owi sto∏om go∏´biowi go∏´biom
A stó∏ sto∏y go∏´bia go∏´bie
I sto∏em sto∏ami go∏´biem go∏´biami
L stole sto∏ach go∏´biu go∏´biach
V stole sto∏y go∏´biu go∏´bie
pies dog (mobile e, anim., Dsg. in -u) kot cat (animate, Dsg. In -u)
N pies psy kot koty
G psa psów kota kotów
D psu psom kotu kotom
A pies psy kota koty
I psem psami kotem kotami
L psie psach kocie kotach
V psie psy kocie koty
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dzieƒ day (soft-stem with mobile e) tydzieƒ week (soft-stem, irreg. stem)
N dzieƒ dni(e) tydzieƒ tygodnie
G dnia dni tygodnia tygodni
D dniowi dniom tygodniu tygodniom
A dzieƒ dni(e) tydzieƒ tygodnie
I dniem dniami tygodniem tygodniami
L dniu dniach tygodniu tygodniach
V dniu dni(e) tygodniu tygodnie
rok year (exceptional plural) miesiàc month (irregular Gpl.)

N rok lata miesiàc miesiàce
G roku lat miesiàca miesićy
D rokowi latom miesiàcowi miesiàcom
A rok lata miesiàc miesiàce
I rokiem laty (-ami) miesiàcem miesiàcami
L roku latach miesiàcu miesiàcach
V roku lata miesiàcu miesiàce
Masculine Personal
student student (masc. personal) lekarz doctor (m. pers. soft stem)
N student studenci lekarz lekarze
G studenta studentów lekarza lekarzy
D studentowi studentom lekarzowi lekarzom
A studenta studentów lekarza lekarzy
I studentem studentami lekarzem lekarzami
L studencie studentach lekarzu lekarzach
V studencie studenci lekarzu lekarze
brat brother (special declension) mà˝ husband (masc. pers.)

N brat bracia mà˝ m´˝owie
G brata braci m´˝a m´˝ów
D bratu braciom m´˝owi m´˝om
A brata braci m´˝a m´˝ów
I bratem braçmi m´˝em m´˝ami
L bracie bratach m´˝u m´˝ach
V bracie bracia m´˝u m´˝owie
przyjaciel friend (pers. spec. decl.) syn son (pers. spec. decl.)
N przyjaciel przyjaciele syn synowie
G przyjaciela przyjació∏ syna synów
D przyjacielowi przyjacio∏om synowi synom
A przyjaciela przyjació∏ syna synów
I przyjacielem przyjació∏mi synem synami
L przyjacielu przyjacio∏ach synu synach
V przyjacielu przyjaciele synu synowie
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cz∏owiek man (suppletive pl.) ojciec father (irreg. stem, Dsg., Vsg.)
N cz∏owiek ludzie ojciec ojcowie
G cz∏owieka ludzi ojca ojców
D cz∏owiekowi ludziom ojcu ojcom
A cz∏owieka ludzi ojca ojców
I cz∏owiekiem ludêmi ojcem ojcami
L cz∏owieku ludziach ojcu ojcach
V cz∏owieku ludzie ojcze ojcowie
FEMININE NOUNS:
kobieta woman (fem. hard-stem) ulica street (fem. soft-stem)

N kobieta kobiety ulica ulice
G kobiety kobiet ulicy ulic
D kobiecie kobietom ulicy ulicom
A kobiet´ kobiety ulic´ ulice
I kobietà kobietami ulicà ulicami
L kobiecie kobietach ulicy ulicach
V kobieto kobiety ulico ulice
noga leg, foot (velar-stem) r´ka hand, arm (vel.-stem, irreg. pl.)
N noga nogi r´ka rće
G nogi nóg r´ki ràk
D nodze nogom rće r´kom
A nog´ nogi r´k´ rće
I nogà nogami r´kà r´kami
L nodze nogach rće (r´ku) r´kach
V nogo nogi r´ko rće
rzeka river (velar stem) noc night (fem. in -0)

N rzeka rzeki noc noce
G rzeki rzek nocy nocy
D rzece rzekom nocy nocom
A rzek´ rzeki noc noce
I rzekà rzekami nocà nocami
L rzece rzekach nocy nocach
V rzeko rzeki nocy noce
koÊç bone (fem. in -0) gospodyni landlay (fem. in -i)

N koÊç koÊci gospodyni gospodynie
G koÊci koÊci gospodyni gospodyƒ
D koÊci koÊciom gospodyni gospodyniom
A koÊç koÊci gospodyni´ gospodynie
I koÊcià koÊciami gospodynià gospodyniami
L koÊci koÊciach gospodyni gospodyniach
V koÊci koÊci gospodyni gospodynie
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NEUTER NOUNS:
miasto town (neut. hard-stem) zdanie opinion (neut. soft-stem)

N miasto miasta zdanie zdania
G miasta miast zdania zdaƒ
D miastu miastom zdaniu zdaniom
A miasto miasta zdanie zdania
I miastem miastami zdaniem zdaniami
L mieÊcie miastach zdaniu zdaniach
V miasto miasta zdanie zdania
oko eye (neut., unique pl.) ucho eye (neut., unique pl.)
N oko oczy ucho uszy
G oka oczu ucha uszu
D oku oczom uchu uszom
A oko oczy ucho uszy
I okiem oczami uchem uszami
L oku oczach uchu uszach
V oko oczy ucho uszy
muzeum museum (-um type) dziecko child (neuter, unique pl.)

N muzeum muzea dziecko dzieci
G muzeum muzeów dziecka dzieci
D muzeum muzeom dziecku dzieciom
A muzeum muzea dziecko dzieci
I muzeum muzeami dzieckiem dzieçmi
L muzeum muzeach dziecku dzieciach
V muzeum muzea dziecko dzieci
zwierz´ animal (-´ -ćia type) imi´ first name (-´ -enia type)
N zwierz´ zwierz´ta imi´ imiona
G zwierzćia zwierzàt imienia imion
D zwierzćiu zwierz´tom imieniu imionom
A zwierz´ zwierz´ta imi´ imiona
I zwierzíem zwierz´tami imieniem imionami
L zwierzćiu zwierz´tach imieniu imionach
V zwierz´ zwierz´ta imi´ imiona
DAYS OF THE WEEK

poniedzia∏ek Monday w poniedzia∏ek on Monday
wtorek Tuesday we wtorek on Tuesday
Êroda Wednesday w Êrod´ on Wednesday
czwartek Thursday w czwartek on Thursday
piàtek Friday w piàtek on Friday
sobota Saturday w sobot´ on Saturday
niedziela Sunday w niedziel´ on Sunday
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COMPASS DIRECTIONS
pó∏noc north na pó∏nocy in the north
wschód east na wschodzie in the east
po∏udnie south na po∏udniu in the south
zachód west na zachodzie in the west
MONTHS
styczeƒ January w styczniu in January
luty February w lutym in February
marzec March w marcu in March
kwiecieƒ April w kwietniu in April
maj May w maju in May
czerwiec June w czerwcu in June
lipiec July w lipcu in July
sierpieƒ August w sierpniu in August
wrzesieƒ September we wrzeÊniu in September
paêdziernik October w paêdzierniku in October
listopad November w listopadzie in November
grudzieƒ December w grudniu in December
COMMON FIRST NAMES AND THEIR DIMINUTIVES

Male: Jaros∏aw, Jarek
Bogdan, Bogdanek, BoguÊ Jerzy, Jurek, Jureczek
Bogus∏aw, BoguÊ Józef, Józek, Józeczek, Józio,
Boles∏aw, Bolek, BoluÊ JuzuÊ
Bronis∏aw, Bronek Julian, Julianek
Czes∏aw, Czesiek, Czesio Juliusz, Julek
Daniel, Danielek Karol, Karolek
Dariusz, Darek, DaruÊ Kazimierz, Kazik, Kazio
Edward, Edek, Edzio Konstanty, Kostek, KostuÊ
Emil, Emilek, Milek, MiluÊ Krzysztof, Krzysiek,, KrzyÊ
Eugeniusz, Gienek, GeniuÊ, Gienio Lech, Leszek, Lesio
Feliks, Felek, FeluÊ Lucjan, Lucek
Filip, Filek, Filipek, FiluÊ Ludwik, Ludek
Franciszek, Franek, FranuÊ, Franio ¸ukasz, ¸ukaszek
Fryderyk, Frydek, Fryc Maciej, Maciek
Grzegorz, Grzesiek, Grzesio Marcin, Marcinek
Henryk, Heniek, Henio, HeniuÊ Marek, Mareczek, MaruÊ
Ignacy, Ignacek, IgnaÊ Marian, Marianek, MaryÊ
Jaros∏aw, Jarek, JaruÊ Mariusz, Mariuszek
Ireniusz, Irek, IruÊ Mateusz, Mateuszek
Jacek, JacuÊ Micha∏, Micha∏ek
Jakub, Kuba, Jakubek Mieczys∏aw, Mietek
Jan, Janek, Jasiek, Jasio Miko∏aj, Miko∏ajek
Janusz, Januszek Miron, Mirek
554
Miros∏aw, Mirek Dominika, Domiczka

Pawe∏, Pawe∏ek Dorota, Dora, Dorotka
Piotr, Piotrek, PiotruÊ Edyta, Edytka
Rafa∏, Rafa∏ek El˝bieta, Ela, Elunia
Robert, RobuÊ Emilia, Emilka
Roman, Romek, Romeczek, Ewa, Ewunia, Ewcia, Ewusia,
RomuÊ Ewka
Ryszard, Rysiek, Rysio, RyÊ Felicja, Fela, Felka
S∏awomir, S∏awek Gabriela, Gabrysia, GabryÊka
Stanis∏aw, Stasiek, Stasio, StaÊ, Gra˝yna, Gra˝ynka
Stacho Halina, Hala, Halka, Halusia,
Stefan, Stefek Halinka
Szymon, Szymek, SzymuÊ Hanna, Hania, Hanusia, Hanka
Tadeusz, Tadek, Tadzio Helena, Hela, Helenka, Helcia
Tomasz, Tomek Henryka, Henia, Heƒka
Wac∏aw, Wacek Irena, Irenka,Ircia, Irusia, Irka
Waldemar, Waldek Iwona, Iwonka
Walery, Walerek Izabela, Iza, Izunia, Izka
Wies∏aw, Wiesiek, Wiesio Jadwiga, Jadzia, Jaga, Jadêka,
Wiktor, Wiktorek Jadwisia
Wincenty, Wicek, WicuÊ Janina, Janka, Janinka
Witold, Witek, WituÊ Joanna, JoaÊka, AÊka
W∏adys∏aw, W∏adek , W∏adzio Jolanta, Jola, Jolusia, Jolcia, Jolka
W∏odzimierz, W∏odek Józefa, Józia, Józka
Wojciech, Wojtek, WojtuÊ Judyta, Judytka
Zbigniew, Zbyszek, Zbynio, Julia, Jula, Julcia, Julka
Zbysio, Zbych Justyna, Justynka
Zdzis∏aw, Zdzisiek, ZdziÊ Karolina, Karolcia, Karolinka
Zenon, Zenek Katarzyna, Kasia, Kasieƒka, KaÊka
Zygmunt, ZygmuÊ Kazimiera, Kazia
Klara, Klarusia, Klarcia
Female: Krystyna, Krysia, KryÊka
Agata, Agatka Leokadia, Lodzia, Loda, Leosia
Agnieszka, Agunia, Agusia, Aga Lidia, Lidka
Aleksandra, Ola Ala, Oleƒka, Olka Liliana, Lila, Lilcia, Lilka
Alicja, Ala Alusia, Alka Lucyna, Luca, Lucusia, Lusia,
Alina, Ala, Alusia, Alka Lucynka
Aneta, Anetka Ludwika, Lusia, Ludka
Aniela, Anielka Magdalena, Magda, Madzia,
Anna, Ania, Hanka, Anka Magdusia
Barbara, Basia, BaÊka Ma∏gorzata, Ma∏gosia, Gosia,
Beata, Beatka (Ma∏)goÊka
Bogdana, Bogdanka Maria, Marysia,
Bogumi∏a, Bogusia Marta, Marcia, Martunia
Bogus∏awa, Bogusia Maryl(ka), Mariol(ka) vars. of
Bo˝ena, Bo˝enka, Bo˝usia Maria
Cecylia, Cyla, Cylka Marzena, Marzenka
Danuta, Danusia, Danka Miros∏awa, Mirka , Mirusia
541
Monika, Moniczka, Monisia, Nika Teresa, Teresia, Renia, Terenia,

Natalia, Tala, Natalka Tereska
Olga, Ola, Oleƒka, Olka Urszula, Ula, Urszulka
Regina, Reginka Wanda, Wandzia
Renata, Renia, Renatka Weronika, Weroniczka, Weronka
Ró˝a, Rózia, Ró˝yczka Wies∏awa, Wiesia, WieÊka
Stanis∏awa, Stasia, StaÊka Wiktoria, Wika, Wiktorka
Stefania, Stefa, Stefcia, Stefka Zofia, Zosia, Zosieƒka, ZoÊka
Sylwia, Sylwiunia Zuzanna, Zuzia, Zuzka
PRONOUNS
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
singular: plural: also:
ja I my we co what
ty you (sg.) wy you (pl.) nic nothing
on he oni they (masc. pers.) kto who
ona she one they (non-masc.pers.) nikt no one
ono it
The pronoun oni is used for both all-male and mixed male and female
groups; one is used for groups not containing any male persons. Personal
pronouns, especially first- and second-person pronouns, are normally not
used as the subjects of verbs unless they are emphasized; hence one usually
says robi´ I do instead of ja robi´ I do. The pronoun kto always takes
masculine agreement: Kto jest g∏odny? Who is hungry. The pronouns nic
and nikt take a negative verb: Nic nie rozumiem. I don't understand
anything. Nikt tu nie mieszka. No one lives here.
Pronouns of polite, formal address:

singular: plural:
pan sir, you, Mr. panowie sirs, you (masc. pers. pl.)
pani madam, you, panie madams, you (fem. pl.)
Mrs., Miss, Ms. paƒstwo ladies and gentlemen, Mr. and Mrs.
The pronouns of polite, formal address show respect and distance. They are
used when addressing a stranger, a person one does not know well, or a
person of authority or status. The informal ty you (plural wy), conveys
friendliness, closeness and familiarity. They are used to address family
members, pets, and close friends. Its use with strangers or superiors is apt to
sound rude.
542
CASE FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Personal pronouns show a full

range of case forms, summarized in the following chart. Longer forms jego,
jemu ciebie, tobie, mnie are emphatic, and occur automatically after
prepositions. Also after a preposition, forms beginning in i or j lose j and
take a preceding ni-: bez + jej = bez niej, dla + ich = dla nich.
Nominative Genitive Dative Accusative Instrumental Locative

co what czego czemu co czym czym
kto who kogo komu kogo kim kim
nic nothing nic, niczemu nic niczym niczym
niczego
nikt no one nikogo nikomu nikogo nikim nikim
ja I mnie mi, mnie mnà mnie
mnie
ty you sg ciebie, ci, ci´, tobà tobie
ci´ tobie ciebie
on he go, mu, go, nim nim
jego, jemu, jego,
niego niemu niego
ono it go, mu, je, nim nim
jego, jemu, nie
niego niemu
ona she jej, jej, jà, nià niej
niej niej nià
pan you pana panu pana panem panu
m.form.
panowie pl. of panów panom panów panami panach
pan
pani you f.form. pani pani panià panià pani
panie pl. of paƒ paniom panie paniami paniach

pani
paƒstwo you paƒstwa paƒstwu paƒstw paƒstwem paƒstwu
mp,pl. a
my we nas nam nas nami nas
wy you pl was wam was wami was
oni they m.p.pl. ich, im, ich, nimi nich
nich nim nich
one they non- ich, im, je, nimi nich
m.p.pl. nich nim nie
reflexive siebie, si´ sobie si´, sobà sobie
siebie
541
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
Possessive pronouns 'my/mine', 'your/yours', 'our/ours' take a full set

of agreeing endings. By contrast, the possessive pronouns 'his', 'her/hers',
and 'its' do not take endings. The abbreviation m.p. below means 'masculine
personal':
my, mine
sg. mój (m.) moja (f.) moje (n.)
pl. moi (m.p.) moje (f., n.)
your, yours (informal)

sg. twój (m.) twoja (f.) twoje (n.)
pl. twoi (m.p.) twoje (f., n.)
your, yours (formal)

sg. wasz (m.) wasza (f.) wasze (n.)
pl. wasi (m.p.) wasze (f., n.)
our, ours
sg. nasz (m.) nasza (f.) nasze (n.)
pl. nasi (m.p.) nasze (f., n.)
its, his jego (no case forms)

her, hers jej (no case forms)
their, theirs ich (no case forms)
your, yours (m. formal) pana (no case forms)
you, yours (f. formal) pani (no case forms)
The reflexive possessive pronoun swój swoja swoje swoi one's own, with
endings like mój, is used instead of any of the other possessive pronouns
when modifying a noun in the complement of a sentence when the possessor
is the subject of the sentence: On idzie ze swojà narzeczonà He is coming
with his fiancée. Here are the complete declensions of mój moja moje my,
mine and nasz nasza nasze our(s).
mój moje moja my, mine

masc. neut. fem. masc. pers.pl. other. pl.
N mój moje moja moi moje
G mojego mojego mojej moich moich
D mojemu mojemu mojej moim moim
A ∏N/G moje mojà moich moje
I moim moim mojà moimi moimi
L moim moim mojej moich moich
542
nasz nasze nasza our, ours

N nasz nasze nasza nasi nasze
G naszego nasz naszej naszych naszych
D naszemu naszemu naszej naszym naszym
A ∏N/G nasze naszà naszych nasze
I naszym naszym nasz naszymi naszymi
L naszym naszym naszej naszy naszych
DEMONSTRATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS

this
sg. ten (m.) ta (f.) to (n.)
pl. ci (m.p.) te (f., n.)
which
sg. który (m.) która (f.) które (n.)
pl. którzy (m.p,) które (f., n.)
what
sg. jaki (m.) jaka (f.) jakie (n.)
pl. jacy (m.p.) jakie (f., n.)
Polish does not have indefinite and definite articles analogous to English
a, an, the. One concludes from the context whether or not a given noun is
definite or indefinite. Thus, stó∏ may mean either "a table" or "the table".
Demonstrative and relative pronouns have full case-and-number
declensions. Here are some illustrations:
ten ta to this, that (Demonstrative Pronoun)

N ten to ta ci te
G tego tego tej tych tych
D temu temu tej tym tym
A =N/G to t´ tych te
I tym tym tà tymi tymi
L tym tym tej tych tych
543
który która które which, who (Relative and Interrogative Pronoun)

N który które która którzy które
G którego którego której których których
D któremu któremu której którym którym
A =N/G które którà których którye
I którym którym którà którymi którymi
L którym którym której których których
jaki jaka jakie what, what kind (Relative and Interrogative Pronoun)
N jaki jakie jaka jacy jakie
G jakiego jakiego jakiej jakich jakich
D jakiemu jakiemu jakiej jakim jakim
A =N/G jakie jakà jakich jakie
I jakim jakim jakà jakimi jakimi
L jakim jakim jakiej jakich jakich
INTENSIVE PRONOUN
sam samo sama self, same, very

N sam samo sama sami same
G samego samego samej samych samych
D samemu samemu samej samym samym
A =N/G samo samà samych same
I samym samym samà samymi samymi
L samym samym samej samych samych
The intensive pronoun is used in expressions like the following:

Czy robisz to sam? Are you doing that yourself?
Czy mieszkasz sama? Do you live alone?-
To jest ten sam cz∏owiek. That is the same man.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUN
The reflexive pronoun means 'oneself', 'each other', 'one another', as in
Rozmawiajà ze sobà. They are talking wihh one another.
Nie zapominaj o sobie. Don't forget about yourself.
This pronoun has no Nominative case form:
G siebie, si´
D sobie
A siebie, si´
I sobà
L sobie
544
DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS
The distributive pronoun ka˝dy ka˝da ka˝de each, every is matched in

the plural by wszyscy wszystkie all:
N ka˝dy ka˝de ka˝da wszyscy wszystkie
G ka˝dego ka˝dego ka˝dej wszystkich wszystkich
D ka˝demu ka˝demu ka˝dej wszystkim wszystkim
A =N/G ka˝de ka˝dà wszystkich wszystkie
I ka˝dym ka˝dym ka˝dà wszystkimi wszystkimi
L ka˝dym ka˝dym ka˝dej wszystkich wszystkich
The negative of ka˝dy -a -e is ˝aden ˝adna ˝adne no, none, not any, always
accompanied by nie:
Ka˝dy stó∏ jest zaj´ty. Every table is occupied.
˚aden stó∏ nie jest zaj´ty. No table is occupied.
545
ADJECTIVES
Adjectives have different gender-forms corresponding to the genders of
nouns, as well as a full set of case endings. The masculine singular ending is
-y, as in dobry good, ∏adny, pretty, mi∏y nice, kind. This ending is spelled -i
after k and g: wielki great, drogi dear, expensive. The feminine singular
ending is -a, as in dobra, ∏adna, mi∏a. The neuter singular ending is -e, as in
dobre, ∏adne, mi∏e, spelled -ie after k and g: wielkie, drogie. The masculine
personal plural ending is -y/i, before which a hard-to-soft consonant change
occurs: dobrzy, ∏adni, mili, wielcy, drodzy. The feminine and neuter plural
ending is -e (-ie), for example dobre, ∏adne, mi∏e, wielkie, drogie. Hence,
one says:
dobry ch∏opiec good boy dobrzy m´˝czyêni good men
dobra dziewczyna good girl dobre kobiety good women.
dobre dziecko good child
Here is the adjective dobry good declined in all gender, number, and case
forms:
masc. neut. fem. masc. pers. pl. other pl.
NV dobry dobre dobra dobrzy dobre
G dobrego dobrego dobrej dobrych dobrych
D dobremu dobremu dobrej dobrym dobrym
A =N/G dobre dobrà dobrych dobre
I dobrym dobrym dobrà dobrymi dobrymi
L dobrym dobrym dobrej dobrych dobrych
Here is the adjective drogi dear, expensive:

masc. neut. fem. masc. pers. pl. other pl.
NV drogi drogie droga drodzy drogie
G drogiego drogiego drogiej drogich drogich
D drogiemu drogiemu drogiej drogim drogim
A =N/G drogie drogà drogich drogie
I drogim drogim drogà drogimi drogimi
L drogim drogim drogiej drogich drogich
ADJECTIVE-NOUN ORDER. As in English, Polish adjectives are usually

placed before the modified noun: pracowity urz´dnik hard-working clerk,
ci´˝ka walizka heavy suitcase, wysokie drzewo tall tree. However, if the
adjective designates the type of a thing, rather than some characteristic, the
adjective often follows the noun: Bank Handlowy Trade Bank, roÊlina wodna
aquatic plant. Adjectives may also follow the noun in set expressions like
dzieƒ dobry hello, j´zyk polski the Polish language.
546
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. Comparative forms of adjectives are

obtained by adding the suffix -szy (masculine), -sza (feminine), and -sze
(neuter) to the adjective stem. The superlative form is created by adding the
prefix naj- to the comparative. Comparative and superlative adjectives take a
full set of endings, like any adjectives.
mi∏y nice, kind
masc.: milszy kinder najmilszy kindest
fem.: milsza najmilsza
neut.: milsze najmilsze
pl. (m.p.) milsi najmilsi
pl. (f., n.) milsze najmilsze
Adjectives ending in consonants plus -ny use the suffix -iejszy:
∏adny pretty
masc.: ∏adniejszy prettier, naj∏adniejszy prettiest
and so on.
Irregular: dobry good, lepszy better, najlepszy best; z∏y bad, gorszy worse,
najgorszy worst.
ADJECTIVES, OPPOSITES, AND COMPARATIVES. Here is a list of common

adjectives, arranged into pairs of opposites. To the right are given the
comparative forms, meaning 'prettier', 'uglier', 'larger', etc. The abbreviation
b. stands for bardziej.
positive: comparatives:
beautiful, ugly pi´kny, brzydki pi´kniejszy, brzydszy
big, little du˝y, ma∏y wi´kszy, mniejszy
clean, dirty czysty, brudny czystszy, brudniejszy
deep, shallow g∏´boki, p∏ytki g∏´bszy, p∏ytszy
dense, sparce g´sty, rzadki g´stszy, rzadszy
diligent, lazy pracowity, leniwy b. pracowity, b. leniwy
dry, wet suchy, mokry bardziej suchy, mokrzejszy
early, late wczesny, póêny wczeÊniejszy, póêniejszy
easy, hard ∏atwy, trudny ∏atwiejszy, trudniejszy
expensive, cheap drogi, tani dro˝szy, taƒszy
far, near daleki, bliski dalszy, bli˝szy
fast, slow szybki, wolny szybszy, wolniejszy
first, last pierwszy, ostatni (no comparative)
flat, steep p∏aski, stromy bardziej p∏aski, b. stromy
free, busy wolny, zaj´ty (no comparative)
frequent, rare cz´sty, rzadki cz´stszy, rzadszy
full, empty pe∏ny, pusty pe∏niejszy, bardziej pusty
funny, sad Êmieszny, smutny Êmieszniejszy, smutniejszy
good, bad dobry, z∏y lepszy, gorszy
great, small wielki, ma∏y wi´kszy, mniejszy
happy, sad weso∏y, smutny weselszy, smutniejszy
547
hard, soft twardy, mi´kki twardszy, mi´kszy

heavy, light ci´˝ki, lekki ci´˝szy, l˝ejszy
high, low wysoki, niski wy˝szy, ni˝szy
hot, cold goràcy, zimny gor´tszy, zimniejszy
interesting, boring ciekawy, nudny ciekawszy, nudniejszy
light, dark jasny, ciemny jaÊniejszy, ciemniejszy
long, short d∏ugi, krótki d∏u˝szy, krótszy
new, old nowy, stary nowszy, starszy
young, old m∏ody, stary m∏odszy, starszy
open, shut otwarty, zamkni´ty (no comparative)
past, future przesz∏y, przysz∏y (no comparative)
public, private publiczny, prywatny (no comparative)
rich, poor bogaty, biedny bogatszy, biedniejszy
right, correct s∏uszny, b∏´dny s∏uszniejszy, b∏´dniejszy
right (hand) prawy, lewy (no comparative)
sharp, dull ostry, t´py ostrzejszy, bardziej t´py
sick, well chory, zdrowy bardziej chory, zdrowszy
simple, complex prosty, skomplikowany prostszy, b.skomplikowany
smart, stupid màdry, g∏upi màdrzejszy, g∏upszy
smooth, rough g∏adki, szorstki g∏adszy, bardziej szorstki
straight, crooked prosty, kr´ty prostszy, bardziej kr´ty
strong, weak silny, s∏aby silniejszy, s∏abszy
sweet, bitter s∏odki, gorzki s∏odszy, bardziej gorzki
sweet, sour s∏odki, kwaÊny s∏odszy, kwaÊniejszy
tall, short wysoki, niski` wy˝szy, ni˝szy
thick or fat, thin gruby, cienki grubszy, cieƒszy
thick, thin g´sty, rzadki g´stszy (g´Êciejszy), rzadszy
urban, rural miejski, wiejski (no comparative)
warm, cool ciep∏y, ch∏odny cieplejszy, ch∏odniejszy
wide, narrow szeroki, wàski szerszy, w´˝szy.
Many adjective opposites are formed with the prefix nie- 'un-':
discriminating, undisc. wybredny, niewybredny
distinct, indistinct wyraêny, niewyraêny
exact, inexact Êcis∏y, nieÊcis∏y
gracious, ungracious ∏askawy, nie∏askawy
honest, dishonest uczciwy, nieuczciwy
intentional, unintentional umyÊlny, nieumyÊlny
interesting, uninteresting ciekawy, nieciekawy
lucky, unlucky szcz´Êliwy, nieszcz´Êliwy
polite, impolite grzeczny, niegrzeczny
and so on.
Adjectives of lesser comparison are created with mniej less and najmniej
least: interesujàcy interesting, mniej interesujàcy less interesting, najmniej
interesujàcy least interesting.
548
ADVERBS
Adverbs formed from adjectives end in -o or -'e (e preceded by
softening), for example g´sto thickly from g´sty thick, tanio cheaply from tani
cheap, drogo dearly from drogi dear dobrze well from dobry good, êle badly
from z∏y bad. Generally speaking, adjectives whose stems end in a soft
consonant (see above under Sound Changes) or in k, g, ch take the ending
-o; most others, especially adjectives with stems ending in a consonant plus
-ny, take -'e. However, many or even most common adjectives form adverbs
in -o regardless of the general pattern. Adverbs have comparative and
superlative forms in -'ej and naj- + -'ej, respectively, as in
ciep∏y warm ciep∏o warmly cieplej more warmly najcieplej most

warmly.
Some formations are irregular. Here are the positive and comparative
adverbial forms of some common adjectives:
Adjective Adverb Comparative Superlative

biedny poor biednie biedniej najbiedniej
b∏´dny wrong b∏´dnie b∏´dniej
bliski near blisko bli˝ej etc.
bogaty rich bogato bogaciej
brudny dirty brudno brudniej
brzydki ugly brzydko brzydziej
ch∏odny cool ch∏odno ch∏odniej
chory sick choro bardziej choro
ciekawy interesting ciekawie ciekawiej
ciemny dark ciemno ciemniej
cienki thin cienko cieniej
ciep∏y warm ciep∏o cieplej
ci´˝ki heavy, difficult ci´˝ko ci´˝ej
cz´sty frequent cz´sto cz´Êciej
czysty clean czysto czyÊciej
daleki far, distant daleko dalej
d∏ugi long d∏ugo d∏u˝ej
dobry good dobrze lepiej
drogi dear, expensive drogo dro˝ej
du˝y large, big du˝o wićej
g´sty thick g´sto g´Êciej
g∏adki smooth g∏adko g∏adziej
g∏´boki deep g∏´boko g∏´biej
g∏upi stupid g∏upio g∏upiej
goràcy hot goràco gorćej
gorzki bitter gorzko bardziej gorzko
gruby thick, fat grubo grubiej
549
jasny clear jasno/jaÊnie jaÊniej

krótki short krótko krócej
kwaÊny sour kwaÊnie kwaÊniej
lekki sour lekko l˝ej
leniwy lazy leniwie leniwiej
∏atwy easy ∏atwo ∏atwiej
ma∏y small, little ma∏o mniej
màdry wise màdrze màdrzej
mi´kki soft mi´kko bardziej mi´kko
m∏ody young m∏odo m∏odziej
mokry wet mokro bardziej mokro
niski low, short nisko ni˝ej
nowy new nowo bardziej nowo
nudny boring nudno nudniej
ostry sharp ostro ostrzej
otwarty open otwarcie bardziej otwarcie
p∏aski flat p∏asko bardziej p∏asko
p∏ytki shallow p∏ytko p∏ycej
pe∏ny full pe∏no pe∏niej
pi´kny beautiful pi´knie pi´kniej
póêny late póêno póêniej
pracowity industrious pracowicie bardziej pracowicie
prosty simple prosto proÊciej
prywatny private prywatnie prywatniej
publiczny public publicznie publiczniej
pusty empty pusto puÊciej
rzadki rare rzadko rzadziej
silny strong silno/silnie silniej
s∏aby weak s∏abo s∏abiej
s∏odki sweet s∏odko bardziej s∏odko
s∏uszny right, correct s∏usznie s∏uszniej
smutny sad smutno smutniej
stary old staro starzej
stromy steep stromo stromiej
suchy dry sucho bardziej sucho
szeroki wide szeroko szerzej
szorstki rough szorstko bardziej szorstko
szybki quick, fast szybko szybciej
Êmieszny funny Êmiesznie Êmieszniej
t´py dull t´po t´piej
tani cheap tanio taniej
trudny difficult trudno trudniej
twardy hard twardo twardziej
wàski narrow wàsko w´˝ej
wczesny early wczeÊnie wczeÊniej
weso∏y merry, gay weso∏o weselej
wielki great wielce (wićej)
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wolny slow wolno wolniej

wysoki tall, high wysoko wy˝ej
z∏y bad êle gorzej
zdrowy healthy zdrowo zdrowiej
zimny cold zimno zimniej
It is helpful to think of adjectival adverbs as being the gender-neutral

form of the adjective, used when there is no specific noun with which the
adjective agrees. This includes instances where reference is to the weather or
general surroundings:
Jest tu bardzo duszno. It's very muggy here.
Zawsze jest przyjemnie z tobà rozmawiaç. It's always nice to chat with you.
¸atwiej jest jechaç samochodem. It's easier to go by car.
The verbs czuç si´ feel and wygladaç look, appear take the adverb:
Bardzo êle si´ czuj´. I feel very bad.
Ona wyglàda bardzo m∏odo. She looks very young.
Words often occurring with comparatives, both adjectival and adverbial, are
jeszcze even more, coraz more and more, and o wiele by a lot:
Ten dom jest du˝y, ale tamten jest jeszcze wi´kszy. That house is beg,
but that
other one is even bigger.
Ona wyglàda coraz m∏odziej. She looks younger and younger.
Klimat robi si´ coraz cieplejszy. The weather is getting warmer and
warmer.
Ten nó˝ jest o wiele ostrzejszy, ni˝ tamten. That knife is a lot sharper than
that other one.
NON-ADJECTIVAL ADVERBS. Non-adjectival adverbs play an important

role in speech. Here is a list of important non-adjectival adverbs and
adverbial phrases:
already ju˝ how often? jak cz´sto?
always zawsze in a moment chwileczk´
before, earlier przedtem never nigdy
everywhere wsz´dzie no one nikt
for how long? na jak d∏ugo? nothing nic
for how much za ile now teraz
for some reason z jakiegoÊ nowhere nigdzie
powodu often cz´sto
for what reason? po co? once raz, kiedyÊ
from there odtàd rarely rzadko
from where? skàd? rather doÊç
hardly ever rzadko kiedy right away zaraz
here tu, tutaj since when? od kiedy?
how jak so many, so much tyle
how come? Czemu? somehow jakoÊ
how many/much? ile? sometime, once kiedyÊ
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sometimes czasami to here, to there dotàd

soon nied∏ugo too, too much zbyt
sooner or later pr´dzej czy usually zwykle
póêniej what for po co
still jeszcze when? kiedy?
that way tamt´dy whenever kiedykolwiek
then wtedy where? gdzie?
then, later potem where to? dokàd?
there tam which way? któr´dy?
this way t´dy why? dlaczego?
Notes:
The negative forms nigdzie and nigdy require a negated verb:

On nigdy mnie nie rozumie. He never understands me.
The adverbs jeszcze still, yet and ju˝ already, yet function opposite each
other, according to whether or not they are negated:
Czy jeszcze pracujesz? Are you still working?
Nie, ju˝ nie pracuj´. No, I'm not working any more.
Czy ju˝ jesteÊ gotowy? Are you ready yet?

Nie jeszcze nie jestem gotowy. No, I'm not ready yet.
Similarly, doÊç rather and nie zbyt not too often work opposite each other:
Ona jest doÊç mi∏a.She is rather nice.
Ona nie jest zbyt mi∏a. She is not especially nice.
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NUMERALS
CARDINAL NUMERALS.
0 zero 26 dwadzieÊcia szeÊç
1 jeden 27 dwadzieÊcia siedem
2 dwa, f. dwie 28 dwadzieÊcia osiem
3 trzy 29 dwadzieÊcia dziewi´ç
4 cztery 30 trzydzieÊci trzydziestu
5 pi´ç pićiu 40 czterdzieÊci czterdziestu
6 szeÊç szeÊciu 50 pi´çdziesiàt pi´çdziesićiu
7 siedem siedmiu 60 szeÊçdziesiàt szeÊçdziesićiu
8 osiem oÊmiu 70 siedemdziesiàt siedemdziesićiu
9 dziewi´ç dziewićiu 80 osiemdziesiàt osiemdziesićiu
l0 dziesi´ç dziesićiu 90 dziewi´çdziesiàt -dziesićiu
11 jedenaÊcie jedenastu 100 sto stu
12 dwanaÊcie dwunastu 200 dwieÊcie dwustu
13 trzynaÊcie trzynastu 300 trzysta trzystu
14 czternaÊcie czternastu 400 czterysta czterystu
15 pi´tnaÊcie pi´tnastu 500 pi´çset pićiuset
16 szesnaÊcie szesnastu 600 szeÊçset szeÊciuset
17 siedemnaÊcie siedemnastu 700 siedemset siedmiuset
18 osiemnaÊcie osiemnastu 800 osiemset oÊmiuset
19 dziewi´tnaÊcie dziewi´tnastu 900 dziewi´çset dziewićiuset
20 dwadzieÊcia dwudziestu 1000 tysiàc
21 dwadzieÊcia jeden 10,000 dziesi´ç tysićy
22 dwadzieÊcia dwa 1,000,000 milion
23 dwadzieÊcia trzy 1,000,000,000 miliard
24 dwadzieÊcia cztery
25 dwadzieÊcia pi´ç
When enumerating a series, the word raz once is used instead of jeden: raz,
dwa, trzy, etc.
The Polish numeral system strikes most people by its complexity. The
number 1 takes the same endings as ten ta to this/that, hence jeden koƒ one
horse, jedna krowa one cow, jedno drzewo one tree. In Nominative-case uses
the numbers 2 (dwa, f. dwie, mp dwaj), 3 (trzy, mp tzej), 4 (cztery, mp
czterej)take the plural of the noun: dwa konie two horses, dwie krowy two
cows, cztery drzewa four trees, dwaj ch∏opcy two boys.
m./n. fem. male male examples:

2 dwa dwie dwaj/dwóch dwaj m´˝czyêni/dwóch m´˝czyzn
2 men
3 trzy trzej/trzech trzej urz´dnicy/trzech urz´dników
3 clerks
4 cztery czterej/czterech czterej ch∏opcy/czterech ch∏opców
4 boys.
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Numbers five and above are followed by the Genitive plural of the
counted noun, as though one were saying ‘five of horses,’ and so on. See
pi´ç koni five horses, szeÊç krów six cows, siedem zeszytów seven notebooks.
The male versions of numbers 5 and above end in -u:
masc.-fem.-neut. males male examples:
5 pi´ç pićiu pićiu m´˝czyzn 5 men
10 dziesi´ç dziesićiu dziesićiu ch∏opców 10 boys.
COMPOUND NUMBERS. Compound numerals follow the lead of the final

number. Numbers ending in 2, 3, 4 take the Nominative plural; while
numbers ending in 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0 take the Genitive plural: dwadzieÊcia trzy
zeszyty 23 notebooks, dwadzieÊcia pi´ç zeszytów 25 notebooks. Compound
numbers ending in 1 always end in jeden, no matter what the gender of the
noun, and take the Genitive plural: dwadzieÊcia jeden zeszytów 21
notebooks. One does not use dwaj, trzej, czterej in compound numerals;
hence dwudziestu dwóch ch∏opców, not dwadzieÊcia dwaj ch∏opcy.
CARDINAL NUMERAL DECLENSION. The number one, jeden jedna

jedno, is declined like a pronominal adjective. It agrees with the modified
noun in gender, number, and case: jeden kot one cat, Gsg. jednego kota;
jedno dziecko one child, Gsg. jednego dziecka; jedna krowa one cow, Gsg.
jednej krowy; and so on. The plural form jedne is used with plural-only
nouns: jedne drzwi one door. The word jeden jedna jedno is also used in the
sense ‘a certain’: jeden cz∏owiek a certain man.
3. Numbers 2, 3, 4, ‘both’
dwa, f. dwie two trzy three
M., N. F. M.p.pl. M., N., F. M.p.pl.
NV dwa dwie dwaj NV trzy trzej
GL dwóch, dwu GL trzech
D dwom, dwóm, dwu D trzem
A dwa dwie dwóch A trzy trzech
I dwoma (dwiema) dwoma I trzema
(or, in all Inst. uses, dwu)
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cztery four oba both

M., N., F. M.p.pl. M., N. F. M.p.pl.
NV cztery czterej NV oba obie obaj
GL czterech GL obu
D czterem D obu
A cztery czterech A oba obie obu
I czterema I oboma obiema oboma
(or, in all Inst. uses, obu)
Notes on dwa, trzy, cztery, oba:
a. The forms dwaj, trzej, czterej are male-only forms, as are the
Accusatives dwóch, trzech, czterech, obu. When referring to male-female
combinations, the collective numeral is commonly used; see further below.
b. The form dwu is a possible form in the GDLI, and it is optional in the
Accusative of masc. persons alongside dwóch.
c. dwom is the recommended written Dative form of dwa (in all genders),
but dwóm also frequently occurs, and dwu is also acceptable.
d. dwiema and obiema are usual in the feminine Instrumental, alongside
optional dwoma, oboma and dwu, obu.
e. In Nominative-case functions, the forms dwóch (or dwu), trzech, czterech
plus the Genitive case may be used as alternatives to dwaj, trzej, czterej;
hence either dwaj ch∏opcy or dwóch (dwu) ch∏opców two boys. The forms
dwaj, trzej, czterej tend to be used more in writing.
f. obydwa obydwie is often used instead of oba obie.
Numbers 5-90
pi´ç five
M., N., F. M.p.pl.
NV pi´ç pićiu
GDL pićiu
A pi´ç pićiu
I pićioma (pićiu)
Like pi´ç are declined szeÊç szeÊciu six, siedem siedmiu seven, osiem
oÊmiu eight, dziewi´ç dziewićiu nine, dziesi´ç dziesićiu ten.
jedenaÊcie eleven dwanaÊcie twelve
M., N., F. M.p.pl. M., N., F. M.p.pl.
NV jedenaÊcie jedenastu NV dwanaÊcie dwunastu
GDL jedenastu GDL dwunastu
A jedenaÊcie jedenastu A dwanaÊcie dwunastu
I jedenastoma (jedenastu) I dwunastoma (dwunastu)
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Note the change of dwa- to dwu- in oblique case-forms of dwanaÊcie (and

of dwadzieÊcia twenty described below). Like jedenaÊcie are declined
trzynaÊcie trzynastu thirteen, czternaÊcie czternastu fourteen, pi´tnaÊcie
pi´tnastu fifteen, szesnaÊcie szesnastu sixteen, siedemnaÊcie siedemnastu
seventeen, osiemnaÊcie osiemnastu eighteen, dziewi´tnaÊcie dziewi´tnastu
nineteen.
dwadzieÊcia twenty trzydzieÊci thirty

M., N., F. M.p.pl. M., N., F. M.p.pl.
NV dwadzieÊcia dwudziestu trzydzieÊci trzydziestu
GDL dwudziestu trzydziestu
A dwadzieÊcia dwudziestu trzydzieÊci trzydziestu
I dwudziestoma (dwudziestu) trzydziestoma (trzydziestu)
Like trzydzieÊci trzydziestu is declined czterdzieÊci czteredziestu forty.
pi´çdziesiàt fifty
M., N., F. M.p.pl.
NV pi´çdziesiàt pi´çdziesićiu
GDL pi´çdziesićiu
A pi´çdziesiàt pi´çdziesićiu
I pi´çdziesićioma (pi´çdziesićiu)
Like pi´çdziesiàt are declined szeÊçdziesiàt “szeêdziesiàt” szeÊçdziesićiu
sixty, siedemdziesiàt siedemdziesićiu seventy, osiemdziesiàt
osiemdziesićiu eighty, dziewi´çdziesiàt dziewi´çdziesićiu ninety.
Numbers 100–900.
sto hundred dwieÊcie two hundred
M., N., F. M.p.pl. M., N., F. M.p.pl.
NAV sto stu dwieÊcie dwustu
GDIL stu (I stoma) dwustu (I dwustoma)
trzysta three undred czterysta four hundred
M., N., F. M.p.pl. M., N., F. M.p.pl.
NAV trzysta trzystu czterysta czterystu
GDIL trzystu (I trzystoma) czterystu (I czterystoma)
The Instrumental forms in -oma above are optional alongside forms in -u.
Czterysta has the accent on the first syllable: “CZTE-ry-sta”.
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pi´çset five hundred

M., N., F. M.p.pl.
NAV pi´çset pićiuset
GDIL pićiuset
Note that the I of pi´çset is not *pićiomaset: z pićiuset pasa˝erami with five
hundred passengers. The item -set does not trigger stress advancement to the
next-to-last syllable; see pićiuset “PIEˆ-ciu-set”, siedemset “SIE-dem-set”,
and so on. Similarly to pi´çset are declined szeÊçset szeÊciuset six hundred,
siedemset siedmiuset seven hundred, osiemset oÊmiuset eight hundred,
dziewi´çset dziewićiuset nine hundred.
tysiàc thousand milion million

Sg. Pl. Sg. Pl.
NV tysiàc tysiàce NV milion miliony
G tysiàca tysićy G miliona milionów
D tysiàcowi tysiàcom D milionowi milionom
A tysiàc tysiàce A milion miliony
I tysiàcem tysiàcami I milionem milionami
L tysiàcu tysiàcach L milionie milionach
Notes on Numbers 5 and above:
a. With numbers 5-900, the Nominative-case function of masculine-personal
gender combinations is expressed with a construction that is identical to the
Genitive-Accusative. The ending is always -u. The quantified noun occurs in
the Gpl., and verb agreement is neuter-singular: Pićiu ch∏opców bawi∏o
si´. Five boys were playing.
b. The numbers 1,000, 1,000,000, and so on are declined as regular
masculine nouns in both singular and plural, including when reference is to
a masculine-personal group: dwa tysiàce zeszytów 2000 notebooks, pi´ç
milionów ludzi 5,000,000 people. In oblique cases, tysiàc and milion as head
numerals always take the Gpl.: Ta ksià˝ka wysz∏a w kilku tysiàcach
egzemplarzy. That book came out in several thousand copies-Gpl.
COLLECTIVE NUMERALS. A set of collective numerals is used to refer to

animal young and to mixed male-female groups. Most frequently used are
the collective numerals 2-12:
2 dwoje -jga 6 szeÊcioro -rga 10 dziesićioro -rga
3 troje -jga 7 siedmioro -rga 11 jedenaÊcioro -rga
4 czworo -rga 8 oÊmioro -rga 12 dwanaÊcioro -rga
5 pićioro -rga 9 dziewićioro -rga
and so on. See: pićioro dzieci five children, czworo ludzi four people.
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Here is the declension of dwoje and pićioro:

2 5 case required: example 'chicks'
NV dwoje pićioro +Gpl kurczàt
G dwojga pićiorga +Gpl kurczàt
D dwojgu pićiorgu +Dpl kurcz´tom
A dwoje pićioro +Gpl kurczàt
I dwojgiem pićiorgiem +Gpl kurczàt
L dwojgu pićiorgu +Lpl kurcz´tach
REIFIED NUMERALS. Reified numerals, which are feminine nouns ending

in -ka, are used to refer to items by numerical designation:
1 jedynka 5 piàtka 9 dziewiàtka
2 dwójka 6 szóstka 10 dziesiàtka
3 trójka 7 siedemka 11 jedenastka
4 czwórka 8 ósemka 12 dwunastka
and so on. For example, dziesiàtka could be used to refer to room number
10; a 10-millimeter wrench; a bus number 10; polska jednastka the Polish
eleven refers to a soccer team; and so on. Reified numerals may be used
colloquially in place of collective numerals: dwójka dzieci a couple of kids.
INDEFINITE NUMERALS. The following indefinite and questioning

numerals have a declension similar to that of pi´ç:
ile ilu iloma how many, how much, as many, as much
wiele wielu wieloma many, much
kilka kilku kilkoma several
par´ paru paroma a couple, several
tyle tylu tyloma so much, so many, as much, as many
kilkanaÊcie kilkunastu kilkunastoma a dozen or so
kilkadziesiàt kilkudziesićiu kilkudziesićioma several dozen
parńaÊcie parunastu parunastoma a couple dozen
par´dziesiàt parudziesićiu parudziesićioma several dozen
COUNTING PEOPLE. Of most use is learning to count groups of people in

the Nominative case. There are three options: a) the group is all-male; b) the
group is all non-male; c) the group is mixed male and female. Here are
illustrations with numbers 2 and 5, using student(ka):
All-male All female Mixed Male and Female

2 dwaj studenci dwie studentki dwoje studentów
(or dwóch studentów)
5 pićiu studentów pi´ç studentek pićioro studentów.
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ORDINAL NUMBERS. Ordinal numbers are used in telling time, for

referring to floors in buildings, and for other things that occur in series.
They take regular adjective endings, e.g. pierwszy pociàg 1st train,
pierwsza noc 1st night, pierwsze pi´tro 1st floor. Most important are the
ordinal numbers 1st through 31st (this covers all possible days of the month):
16th szesnasty
1st pierwszy 17th siedemnasty
2nd drugi 18th osiemnasty
3rd trzeci 19th dziewi´tnasty
4th czwarty 20th dwudziesty
5th piàty 21st dwudziesty pierwszy
6th szósty 22nd dwudziesty drugi
7th siódmy 23rd dwudziesty trzeci
8th ósmy 24th dwudziesty czwarty
9th dziewiàty 25th dwudziesty piàty
10th dziesiàty 26th dwudziesty szósty
11th jedenasty 27th dwudziesty siódmy
12th dwunasty 28th dwuldziesty ósmy
13th trzynasty 29th dwudziesty dziewiàty
14th czternasty 30th trzydziesty
15th pi´tnasty 31st trzydziesty pierwszy
and so on. Note that both members of the compound go in the ordinal form,
as though one were saying "twentieth first".
Also: czterdziesty 40th, pi´çdziesiàty 50th, szeÊçdziesiàty 60th,

siedemdziesiàty 70th, osiemdziesiàty 80th, dziewi´çdziesiàty 90th, setny
100th, tysićzny 1000th.
Among other things, ordinal numerals are used in combination with

godzina hour, o'clock for telling time: godzina pierwsza one o'clock; and for
giving dates: pierwszy maja the first of May; see below.
TIME OF DAY. One expresses 'at' a given time of day with the preposition o
plus the Locative case of godzina hour, which may be omitted, followed by
the ordinal number: o (godzinie) pierwszej at one o'clock. Minutes after the
hour are expressed with with the help of po plus the Locative case of the
hour: pi´ç po piàtej five past five. Minutes before the hour are expressed with
za plus the Accusative case of the minutes, followed by the Nominative case
of the hour: za dziesi´ç siódma ten till seven. Half hours are expressed with
wpó∏ do half till plus the Genitive case of the hour: wpó∏ do dziewiàtej half
till nine, 8:30. Quarter-hours may be expressed with kwadrans: kwadrans
po trzeciej 3:15, za kwadrans czwarta 3:45. The notions A.M and P.M. are
559
rendered with the phrases rano in the morning, po po∏udniu in the afternoon,
wieczorem in the evening, and nocà at night:
Jest godzina druga po po∏udniu. It's 2:00 A.M.
Film si´ zaczyna o siódmej wieczorem. The film begins at 7:00 P.M.
DATES. A date by itself is expressed with the masculine form of the ordinal
numeral, followed b˘ the Genitive of the month: pierwszy maja May 1st,
jedenasty grudnia December 11th. ‘On the date’ is expressed by putting the
entire expression in the Genitive. If the number is compound (20 or above),
both numerals appear in the ordinal form: dwudziestego drugiego listopada
on November 21st, trzydziestego sierpnia on August 30th.
YEARS. Years are expressed in the following way:

The year itself: rok tysiàc dziewi´çset szeÊçdziesiàty drugi 1962.
In the year: roku tysiàç dziewi´çset szeÊçdziesiàtego drugiego-Genitive.
Alternatively: w roku tysiàç dziewi´çset szeÊçdziesiàtym drugim-Locative.
One uses the Genitive construction more for historical events. In giving the
year of one’s birth, one would tend to use the Locative:
Urodzi∏em (urodzi∏am) si´ w roku tysiàc dziewi´çset siedemdziesiàtym
czwartym. I was born in 1974.
The year 2000 is rok dwutysićzny. 2001 is rok dwa tysiàce pierwszy;
and so on.
EXPRESSING ‘HOW OLD’. In Polish one asks ‘How many years do you
have?’: Ile masz lat? (formal, Ile pan(i) ma lat? and answers ‘I have so many
years’: Mam osiemnaÊcie lat. I am 18 years old. Mam szeÊçdziesiàt jeden lat. I
am 61 years old.
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PREPOSITIONS
The letter next to the preposition refers to the case required on the following
noun: G-Genitive D-Dative A-Accusative I-Instrumental L-Locative.
ENGLISH-TO-POLISH: POLISH-TO-ENGLISH
about o +L bez(e) +G without
according to wed∏ug +G blizko +G near
after, along, up to po +L dla +Gfor (the benefit of)
against, opposed to przeciw(ko) do +G to, as far as, until
+D dzi´ki +D due to, thanks to
against, up against o +A ku +D rare toward(s)
alongside, next to obok +G mi´dzy +I between, among
among wÊród +G mimo +G despite, in spite of
around, about oko∏o +G na +A for (a time)
as far as po +A na +L on, at
at przy +L, u +G, na +L nad(e) +I over, above,
before, in front of przed +I o +L about
besides oprócz +G, poza +I o +A against, up against
between, among mi´dzy +I obok +G alongside, next to
beyond, behind za +I od(e) +G from, since, than
despite, in spite of mimo +G oko∏o +G around, about
due to, thanks to dzi´ki +D oprócz +G besides
during w czasie +G, podczas +G po +A as far as, up to
for (the benefit of) dla +G po +L after, along
for, in favor of za +I pod(e) +I under, beneath
for, in exchange for za +A podczas +G during
for (a time) na +A poza +I besides, beyond
from, since, than od(e) +G przeciw(ko) +D against, opposed
from, out of z(e) +G to
in view of wobec +G przed(e) +I before, in front of
in w(e) +L przez(e) +A through, across, due to
instead of zamiast +G przy +L at, near, next to u +G, na
near blizko +G +L at
near, at przy +L przy +L near, at
off, down from z +G w +L in, at
on, at na +L w czasie +G during
out of, from z(e) +G wed∏ug +G according to
over, above nad(e) +I wÊród +G among
through, across przez(e) +A wobec +G in view of, toward(s)
to, until do +G z(e) +G from, out of, off, down
toward(s) ku +D (rare) from
under, beneath pod(e) +I z(e) +I with, together with, along
with, together with z +I with
without bez(e) +G za +A for, in exchange for
za +I beyond, behind, for, in
favor of
zamiast +G instead of
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PREPOSITIONS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO CASE REQUIRED
+GENITIVE ONLY: Almost all prepositions which take the Genitive case
take this case only. Genitive-requiring prepositions include:
bez(e) without mimo despite
blisko near naoko∏o all around
dla for (the good of) naprzeciw(ko) across from
do to, up to, until spoÊród from among, out of
doko∏a (dooko∏a) (all) around u at (someone’s), near
ko∏o around, about wed∏ug according to
obok next to, alongside wobec regarding, in the face of
od(e) from, away from, than wokó∏, woko∏o round, about
oprócz, prócz besides wskutek as the result of
podczas during wÊród among, in the midst of
pod∏ug according to z(e) out of, from, down from, off, because of
poÊród amongst za in the sense during the time or reign of
+DATIVE ONLY:
dzi´ki thanks to, due to przeciw, przeciwko against
ku toward (infrequent) wbrew despite.
+ACCUSATIVE ONLY: przez(e) through, across, by (the agency of).
+INSTRUMENTAL ONLY:
poza besides, z(e) (together) with.
The Instrumental preposition z is not to be confused with its homonym z+G
out of, off.
+LOCATIVE ONLY: przy while, during, at, next to.
+LOCATIVE OR ACCUSATIVE, depending on whether the verb

expresses state or motion:
+Locative (state): + Accusative (motion)
w(e) in, at into (a large area)
na on, at onto, to (a meeting place)
po after, over (the surface of) for, after (to get, fetch), up to
o about, at (a time), with against, for (as in 'fight for')
a characteristic
+INSTRUMENTAL OR ACCUSATIVE, depending on whether the verb

expresses state or motion:
+ Instrumental (state): + Accusative (motion)
pod(e) under, beneath, below to under, beneath, below, during
przed(e) before, in front of to before, in front of
nad over, above, on top of to over, above, on top of
za behind, in back of, beyond to behind, in back of, beyond,
in exchange for
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mi´dzy between, among to between, among.
The Instrumental-requiring prepositions form Genitive-requiring com-

pounds with z-/s- to express motion-from: spod from below, sprzed from in
front, znad from above, zza from behind, spomi´dzy from among.
PREPOSITIONS EXPRESSING 'AT', 'TO', 'FROM'
location: motion to: motioni from:

with people u+G do+G od(e) +G
with containers* w(e) +L do+G z+G
with surfaces, na+L na+A z+G
bodies of water nad(e) +I nad(e) +A znad(e) +G
Examples:
u dentysty, do dentysty, od dentysty at/to/from the dentist's
w biurze, do biura, z biura in/to/from the office
na koncercie, na koncert, z koncertu at /to/from the concert
nad morzem, nad morze, znad morza at/to/from the sea-side
*including most things and places
EXPRESSIONS OF TIME
rok (bare Accusative) for a year(’s length of time). By∏em w Polsce jeden
rok. I was in Poland a year.
do roku1 (do+G) up to the (specific) year. Do zesz∏ego roku mieszka∏em
u rodziców. Up until last year I lived with my parents.
do roku2 (do+G) up to a year(’s length of time). Dosta∏ do roku wi´zienia.
He got up to a year in prison.
na rok1 (na+A) for a year (looking ahead). Wyje˝d˝am do Polski na rok.
I’m going to Poland for a year.
na rok2 (na+A) exactly a year before. Zbieramy si´ na rok przed
obchodami. We’re gathering a year before the commemoration.
o rok (o+A) by a year. PrzegapiliÊmy jubileusz o ca∏y rok. We missed the
anniversay by an entire year.
od roku1 (od+G) for the year (just past). Od roku pracuj´ jako kelner. For
the past year I’ve been working as a waiter.
od roku2 (od+G) since the (specific) year. Pracuj´ tam od zesz∏ego roku.
I’ve been working there since last year.
po roku (po+L) after a year (usually looking back). Po tylko jednym roku
mówisz zupe∏nie dobrze po polsku. After only one year you speak
Polish quite well. Compare with za+A.
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przed rokiem1 (przed+I) a year ago. PrzeprowadziliÊmy si´ tu przed

rokiem. We moved here a year ago.
przed rokiem2 (przed+I) before the (specific) year. Przed rokiem
siedemdziesiàtym szóstym nie pracowa∏em. Before 1976 I didn’t work.
More or less the equivalent of: do zesz∏ego roku up to last year.
przez rok (przez+A) through the course of a year. By∏em chory przez ca∏y
rok. I was sick the whole year through. This construction usually
amounts to an emphatic version of the bare Accusative.
w rok (w+A) in the space of a year. Wszystko zdà˝y∏em zrobiç w rok. I
managed to do everything in the space of a year. More frequently used in
about the same meaning is w ciàgu roku in the course of a year.
w roku (w+L) in the (specific) year. Mam pojechaç do Polski w tym roku.
I’m supposed to go to Poland this year.
za rok (za+A) after a year (looking ahead). Za jeszcze jeden rok b´dziesz
ju˝ mówi∏ po polsku zupe∏nie p∏ynnie. After one more year you will
speak Polish completely fluently.
POLISH TRANSLATIONS OF 'FOR'
The English preposition for has a wide variety of translations into Polish,
using various prepositions, several cases, and even the conditional of the
verb. The most important correspondences of English for are given below:
1. dla+G ‘for the benefit of’: Czy te kwiaty sà dla mnie? Are those flowers for
me?; ‘easy/hard for’: To ∏atwe dla mnie. That’s easy for me.; ‘for the sake
of’: sztuka dla sztuki art for art’s sake.
2. za+A ‘in exchange for’: Ile zap∏aci∏eÊ za ten zegarek? How much did you
pay for that watch?, Sprzeda∏em za grosze. I sold it for pennies.;
‘responsible for’: Nie odpowiadam za jego zachowanie. I’m not responsi-
ble for his behavior; ‘in place of’: Niech ja to zrobi´ za ciebie. Let me do
that for (instead of) you.; ‘on behalf of’: za wolnoÊç for freedom; ‘mistake
for’: Wzià∏em go za lekarza. I took him for a doctor. Uchodzi∏ za
akrystokrat´. He tried to pass for an aristocrat; ‘thank for, ask pardon for’:
Dzi´kuj´ za pomoc. Thanks for the help., Przepraszam za k∏opot. Excuse
me for the bother.
3. na+A ‘intended for’: bilet na samolot ticket for the airplane, podrćznik
na u˝ytek cudzoziemców textbook for the use of foreigners, ‘desire for’:
Mam ochot´ na coÊ zimnego. I feel like having something cold.; ‘for
naught’: To wszystko pójdzie na nic. That’ll all go for nothing.; ‘for an
event or time’: bilet na godzin´ ósmà ticket for 8 o’clock, spóêniaç si´ na
przedstawienie be late for the performance; ‘for a time yet to come’:
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Wyje˝dam na rok. I’m leaving for a year. Rozstajemy si´ na zawsze.

We’re parting forever. Also see exclamations like na mi∏oÊç boskà for God’s
sake!
4. od+G ‘for (a time just past)’: Mieszkam w Warszawie od siedmiu lat.
I’ve been living in Warsaw for the past seven years’.
5. przez+A ‘for a period of time’: Przez ostatnie miesiàce pracujemy pe∏nà
parà. We’ve been working at full steam for the last (several) months. This
sense of ‘for’ may also be expressed by the bare Accusative case: Nosz´
ten kapelusz ju˝ jedenaÊcie lat. I’ve been wearing that hat for eleven years
already. The expression ‘for periods of time on end’ can be expressed by
the bare Instrumental: ca∏ymi dniami for days on end, although ca∏e dnie
or przez ca∏e dnie is also correct.
6. po+A ‘go for’: Wyskocz´ po piwo. I’ll dash out for some beer. Zajàd´ po
ciebie o ósmej. I’ll drop by for you at eight o’clock.
7. do+G ‘for (of specific application)’: woda do picia water for drinking,
maszynka do ogolenia machine for shaving, electric razor, pasta do z´bów
paste for teeth, toothpaste.
8. o+A ‘(ask, fight) for’: prosiç o pomoc ask for help, walczyç o istnienie
(równouprawnienie) fight for existence (equality).
9. u+G ‘for (be employed by a person)’: Ona pracuje u dentysty. She works
for a dentist. ‘Work for a company or firm’ is translated by w+L: Pracuj´
w banku. I work for a bank.
10. jak na+A ‘for (of belittling comparison)’: On nieêle mówi jak na
cudzoziemca. He speaks not badly for a foreigner.
11. z(e)+G ‘known for’: On jest znany ze swoich wczeÊniejszych prac. He is
known for his earlier works.
12. za+I ‘long for’: T´skni´ za tobà. I miss you, long for you. In older Polish,
po + L: T´skni´ po tobie.
13. jeÊli chodzi o+A, co do+G ‘as for’: JeÊli chodzi o brata, to on jest jeszcze
w szkole. As for my brother, he is still in school. Co do twojego pomys∏u,
on jest zupe∏nie nierealny. As for your idea, it is totally impractical.
14. The conditional. The English use of for after a verb of request has a cor-
respondent in the Polish conditional: Prosili, ˝ebyÊmy mniej ha∏asowali.
They asked for us to make less noise.
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CONJUNCTIONS
Some important conjunctions are a and/but, i and, i... i both... and, ale but,
albo... albo either... or, ani... ani neither... nor; 'English 'and' is usually
translated by i; however, if there is any constrast, i.e. if 'and' can alternately
be translated as 'but', it is translated by a.
Marek jest studentem, a Maria ju˝ pracuje. Marek is a student, but Maria
is already working.
Warszawa i Kraków sà doÊç du˝e. Warsaw and Krakow are rather large.
Jan jest i inteligentny i przystojny. Jan is both smart and good-looking.
To jest muzeum, ale nie jest zbyt ciekawe. That's a muzeum, but it's not
too interesting.
To jest albo szpital, albo hotel. That's either a hospital or a hotel.
To nie jest ani szpital, ani hotel. That's neither a hospital nor a hotel.
Important conjunctions introducing subodinate clauses include chocia˝

although, bo because, poniewa˝ since, jeÊli if, to then. The most important
subordinating conjunctions are ˝e that and czy whether. The conjunction ˝e,
always poreceded by a comma, may never be deleted, as it may be in
English:
S∏ysza∏em, ˝e masz nowà prac´. I heard (that) you have a new job.
The distinction between 'whether' and 'if' is carefully maintained:

Nie wiem, czy on jest zaj´ty. I don't know whether (not jeÊli if) he is busy.
Questioning adverbs may serve as subordinating conjunctions:
Czy pami´tasz, gdzie ona mieszka? Do you remember where she lives?
Nie wiem, jak to powiedzieç. I don't know how to say that.
Here is a list of major conjunctions and connectives:
although chocia˝ only just co dopiero

and i, a or albo
as... as... tak, jak... since, as long as skoro
as though jak gdyby since, for poniewa˝
as soon as jak tylko than ni˝
at the time when wtedy, kiedy... so that, in order to ˝eby
because dlatego, ˝e... that (subord. conj.) ˝e
before zanim... the way that tak, jak...
both... and... i... i... then to, wtedy
but ale. a therefore dlatego
either... or... albo... albo... until dopóki nie
for, because, since bo zanim, a˝
if jeÊli whether czy
if... then... jeÊli... to... whether... or... czy... czy...
neither... nor... ani... ani...
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VERBS
THE INFINITIVE. The infinitive, or dictionary form of the verb is translated
as "to ask", "to write", and so on. Most Polish infinitives end in -ç, for
example pisaç to write, although a few end in -c, for example, móc be able.
Some verbs occur together with the particle si´ self, for example baç si´ be
afraid. Here is a list of some common Polish verbs, given in the infinitive,
followed by the 1st person singular "I" and the 2nd person singular "you".
Other forms may be derived from these two (see further (below). The verbs
below are Imperfective, meaning that they refer to on-going, general, or
habitual action. For Perfective partners of these verbs, see further below
under 'Perfective and Imperfective Verbs'.
infinitive 1st p.sg. 2nd p. sg.

agree zgadzaç si´ zgadzam si´ zgadzasz si´
ask pytaç pytam pytasz
be byç jestem jesteÊ
be able móc mog´ mo˝esz
be afraid baç si´ boj´ si´ boisz si´
be glad cieszyç si´ ciesz´ si´ cieszysz si´
be surprised dziwiç si´ dziwi´ si´ dziwisz si´
begin zaczynaç zaczynam zaczynasz
build budowaç buduj´ budujesz
buy kupowaç kupuj´ kupujesz
carry nieÊç nios´ niesiesz
close, shut zamykaç zamykam zamykasz
cook gotowaç gotuj´ gotujesz
cost kosztowaç kosztuj´ kosztuje
cry p∏akaç p∏acz´ p∏aczesz
dance taƒczyç taƒcz´ taƒczysz
do robiç robi´ robisz
doubt wàtpiç wàtpi´ wàtpisz
drink piç pij´ pijesz
eat jeÊç,3ppl jedzà jem jesz
earn zarabiaç zarabiam zarabiasz
exist istnieç istniej´ istniejesz
find znajdowaç znajduj´ znajdujesz
finish koƒczyç koƒcz´ koƒczysz
fly lecieç lec´ lecisz
get dostawaç dostaj´ dostajesz
give dawaç daj´ dajesz
go (on foot) iÊç id´ idziesz
go (often) chodziç chodz´ chodzisz
go, ride jechaç jad´ jedziesz
go, ride (often) jeêdziç je˝d˝´ jeêdzisz
have mieç mam masz
hear s∏yszeç s∏ysz´ s∏yszysz
help pomagaç pomagam pomagasz
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know (info.) wiedzieç wiem wiesz

know (person) znaç znam znasz
know how umieç umiem umiesz
laugh Êmiaç si´ Êmiej´ si´ Êmiejesz si´
lie le˝eç le˝´ le˝ysz
like lubiç lubi´ lubisz
listen to s∏uchaç s∏ucham s∏uchasz
live, be alive ˝yç ˝yj´ ˝yjesz
live, reside mieszkaç mieszkam mieszkasz
look, appear wyglàdaç wyglàdam wyglàdasz
look for szukaç szukam szukasz
lose gubiç gubi´ gubisz
love kochaç kocham kochasz
meet spotykaç spotykam spotykasz
must, have to musieç musz´ musisz
open otwieraç otwieram otwierasz
pay p∏aciç p∏ac´ p∏acisz
play graç gram grasz
prefer woleç wol´ wolisz
read czytaç czytam czytasz
remember pami´taç pami´tam pami´tasz
return wracaç wracam wracasz
ruin, spoil psuç psuj´ psujesz
say mówiç mówi´ mówisz
see widzieç widz´ widzisz
sell sprzedawaç sprzedaj´ sprzedajesz
send posy∏aç posy∏am posy∏asz
sing Êpiewaç Êpiewam Êpiewasz
sit siedzieç siedz´ siedzisz
sleep spaç Êpi´ Êpisz
speak mówiç mówi´ mówisz
stand staç stoj´ stoisz
take braç bior´ bierzesz
thank dzi´kowaç dzi´kuj´ dzi´kujesz
think myÊleç myÊl´ myÊlisz
understand rozumieç rozumiem rozumiesz
wait czekaç czekam czekasz
want chcieç chc´ chcesz
wash (self) myç si´ myj´ si´ myjesz si´
watch oglàdaç oglàdam oglàdasz
work pracowaç pracuj´ pracujesz
write pisaç pisz´ piszesz
FINITE VERB CATEGORIES. Here is a chart of the Polish finite verb

categories, i.e., the categories characterized by tense and person. The verb of
illustration is pisaç -sz´ -szesz impf, pf napisaç write. For the distinction
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between perfective and imperfective verbs, see further below under

Perfective and Imperfective Aspect.
imperfective perfective
present pisz´
past pisa∏em, f. pisa∏am napisa∏em, f. napisa∏am
future b´d´ pisa∏(a) napisz´
imperative pisz napisz
PRAGMATIC PERSONAL VERB CATEGORIES. Polish uses the 3rd-person

titles pan, pani, and paƒstwo as de facto 2nd-person forms of polite address,
or what may also be called 'titled address'. The pragmatic Polish
conjugational system looks as follows. The illustration is in the present tense,
but analogous observations hold for the past and future tenses as well. The
verb of illustration below is czytaç -am -asz impf, pf napisaç
singular plural
1st p. (ja) czytam (my) czytamy
2nd p.informal (ty) czytasz (wy) czytacie
2nd p. titled (pan, pani) czyta (paƒstwo) czytajà
3rd p. (on, ona, ono) czyta (one, oni) czytajà
LACK OF AUXILIARY VERBS. Polish lacks any correspondent to the

English auxiliary or 'helping' verbs be, have, do, used to which, in English,
are used to make compound verb expressions of the sort I am asking, I have
been running, do you smoke, we used to live, and so on. In all such instances,
Polish uses a single verb form. One interprets the nuance of the Polish verb
on the basis of context. Thus, pytam could be interpreted as 'I ask', 'I do ask',
'I am asking', 'I have been asking'; mieszkaliÊmy could be interpreted as 'we
lived', 'we were living', 'we used to live', 'we have been living'.
PRESENT TENSE
The citation form of the verb (the form used by dictionaries) is the
infinitive. One must learn, for each infinitive, what the 1st person and 2nd
person singular forms are. The other forms of the present tense may be
predicted from these two forms. There are four classes (conjugations) of
verbs. The present endings are as follows:
Class 1. Verbs in -´ -esz:
singular plural
1st pers. -´ -emy
2nd pers. -esz -ecie
3rd pers. -e -à
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Example:
chcieç want
chc´ I want chcemy we want
chcesz you want chcecie you want
chce he, she wants chcà they want
If there is a change in the stem between the 1st person and the 2nd person,
then the 3rd person plural will have the same stem as the 1st person
singular:
iÊç go (on foot)
id´ I go idziemy we go
idziesz you go idziecie you go
idzie he, she, it goes idà they go
móc be able
mog´ I can mo˝emy we can
mo˝esz you can mo˝ecie you can
mo˝e he, she, it can mogà they can
braç take
bior´ I take bierzemy we take
bierzesz you take bierzecieyou take
bierze he, she, it takes biorà they take.
Class 2a. Verbs in -´ -isz:

singular plural
1st pers. -´ -imy
2nd pers. -isz -icie
3rd pers. -i -à
Example:
lubiç like
lubi´ I like lubimy we like
lubisz you like lubicie you like
lubi he, she, it likes lubià they like
If there is a change in the stem between the 1st person and the 2nd person,
then the 3rd person plural will have the same stem as the 1st person
singular:
musieç have to
musz´ I have to musimy we have to
musisz you have to musicie you have to
musi he, she, it has to muszà they have to.
Here, the stem alternates between sz in the 1st pers. sg. and 3rd pers. pl. to
Ê (si-) in the other forms.
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Class 2b. Verbs in -´ -ysz:

singular plural
1st pers. -´ -ymy
2nd pers. -ysz -ycie
3rd pers. -y -à
Example:
s∏yszeç hear
s∏ysz´ I hear s∏yszymy we hear
s∏yszysz you hear s∏yszycie you hear
s∏yszy he hears s∏yszà they hear
Class 3. Verbs in -am -asz:

singular plural
1st pers. -am -amy
2nd pers. -asz -acie
3rd pers. -a -ajà
Examples:
czekaç wait
czekam I wait czekamy we wait
czekasz you wait czekacie you wait
czeka he, she, it waits czekajà they wait
mieç have
mam I have mamy we have
masz you have macie you have
ma he, she, it has majà they have
Irregular in the 3.p.pl.: daç dam, dasz, dadzà give.
Class 4. Verbs in -em -esz:

singular plural
1st pers. -em -emy
2nd pers. -esz -ecie
3rd pers. -e -ejà
Example:
umieç know how
umiem I know how umiemy we know how
umiesz you know how umiecie you know how
umie he, she, it knows how umiejà they know how
Irregular in the 3rd pers. pl.:

wiedzieç know (information)
wiem I know wiemywe know
wiesz you know wiecie you know
wie he, she, it knows wiedzà they know
Similarly: powiedzieç powiem, powiesz, powiedzà say
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jeÊç jem, jesz, jedzà eat.
The verb byç be is irregular in the present:
byç be
jestem I am jesteÊmy we are
jesteÊ you are jesteÊcie you are
jest he, she, it is sà they are.
byç is the only verb with a specific future tense:

b´d´ I will b´dziemy we will
b´dziesz you will b´dziecie you will
b´dzie he, she, it will b´dà they will.
SUMMARY OF VERB THE CLASSES. From the point of view of the present
tense as it relates to the infinitive, the Polish verbs may be classified as
follows:
An infinitive marked Implies:
pis|aç pisz´, piszesz, pisze
da|waç daj´, dajesz, daje
dzi´k|owaç dzi´kuj´, dzi´kujesz, dzi´kuje
dokon|ywaç dokonuj´, dokonujesz, dokonuje
mdle|ç -j- mdlej´, mdlejesz, mdleje
dzia|ç -j- dziej´, dziejesz, dzieje
my|ç myj´, myjesz, myje
pi|ç pij´, pijesz, pije
˝u|ç ˝uj´, ˝ujesz, ˝uje
ciàg|nàç ciàgn´, ciàgniesz, ciàgnie
pleÊç -t- plot´, pleciesz, plecie
wieÊç -d- wiod´, wiedziesz, wiedzie
paÊç -dn- padn´, padniesz, padnie
nieÊç -s- nios´, niesiesz, niesie
gryêç -z- gryz´, gryziesz, gryzie
piec -k- piek´, pieczesz, piecze
ciec -kn- ciekn´, ciekniesz, cieknie
strzyc -g- strzyg´, strzy˝esz, strzy˝e
biec -gn- biegn´, biegniesz, biegnie
piàç -n- pn´, pniesz, pnie
dàç -m- dm´, dmiesz, dmie
umrzeç -r- umr´, umrzesz, umrze
pleç -l- piel´, pielesz, piele
kup|iç kupi´, kupisz, kupi
s∏ysz|eç s∏ysz´, s∏yszysz, s∏yszy
staç -oj- stoj´, stoisz, stoi
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czeka|ç czekam, czekasz, czeka

umie|ç umiem, umiesz, umie.
A number of unique verbs do not fit within this system, for example braç,
bior´, bierzesz, staç stan´, staniesz, znaleêç znajd´, znajdziesz, and others
IMPERATIVE
The imperative or command form of the verb is usually equivalent to

the stem of the 3rd pers. sg. present tense form of the verb, obtained by
dropping -e, -ie, -y, -i, or by adding j to -a:
pisaç pisz,´ piszesz, pisze, imperative pisz write!
iÊç id´, idziesz, idzie, imperative idê go!
koƒczyç koƒcz´, koƒczysz, koƒczy, imperative koƒcz finish!
kupiç kupi´, kupisz, kupi, imperative kup buy!
czekaç czekam, czekasz, czeka, imperative czekaj wait!
These are singular forms. The plural is formed from the singular by adding
the ending -cie: idêcie go! (2nd p. pl.). The ending -my can be added to form
a first-person plural form of exhortation: czekajmy let's wait!
Exceptional imperative forms include verbs in -awaç -aj´ -ajesz, whose

imperatives end in -awaj, e.g., wstawaç wstaj´, imper. wstawaj get up, and
the following:
jeÊç jem jesz, 3.pl. jedzà, imperative jedz eat!
powiedzieç powiem, powiesz, 3.pl. powiedzà, imperative powiedz say!
rozumieç rozumiem, rozumiesz, 3.p.pl. rozumiejà, imperative rozum
wziàç wezm´ weêmiesz, imperative weê take!
The imperative is often accompanied by the word prosz´ please: Prosz´

wejdê Please come in. The formal imperative (see below under Formal
Speech) is formed with the particle niech let plus the 3rd pers. form of the
verb: Niech pani usiàdzie. Why don't you sit down (madam)? Niech pan si´ nie
Êmieje Don't laugh, sir!
When forming the imperative, positive commands usually occur in the

perfective aspect, while negative commands occur in the imperfective
(regarding aspect, see further below):
Otwórz okno. Open-perfective. the window
Nie otwieraj okna. Don't open-imperfective the window.
THE PRAGMATIC IMPERATIVE SYSTEM. The system of actual pragmatic

implementation of the imperative differs from what is suggested by formal
charts. Because of the use of the hortatory particle niech with 3rd-person
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pronouns, and occasionally with 1st-person pronouns, the system can be

considered to consist of eight forms instead of only three:
Formal system:
singular plural
1st person --- zróbmy let's do!
2nd person zrób do! zróbcie do!
3rd person --- ---
Pragmatic system:
singular plural
1st person niech zrobi´ zróbmy
2nd p. informal zrób zróbcie
2nd p. formal niech pan zrobi niech paƒstwo zrobià
3rd person niech on zrobi niech oni zrobià
Constructions using niech often translate into English as 'Why don't...":

Niech to zrobi´. Why don't I do that? Niech pani to kupi. Why don't you buy
that, madam, and so on.
PAST TENSE
The 3rd person past tense is formed from the infinitive by dropping -ç
and adding -∏, (masculine) -∏a (feminine) -∏o (neuter), -li (masculine personal
plural), or -∏y (other plural). One then uses the 3rd person past tense forms
together with the endings of the present forms of the verb byç be in order to
form the 1st and 2nd person past forms. The past-tense endings are as
follows:
singular plural
1st pers. -(e)m -Êmy
2nd pers. -(e)Ê -Êcie
3rd pers.
For example, here is the past tense of daç give :

singular:
da∏em (m.) da∏am (f.) I gave
da∏eÊ (m.) da∏aÊ (f.) you (sg.) gave
da∏ he gave da∏a she gave da∏o it gave (n.)
plural:
daliÊmy (m.p.) da∏yÊmy (f.) we gave
daliÊcie (m.p.) da∏yÊcie (f.) you (pl.) gave
dali (m.p.) da∏y (f., n.) they gave.
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Verbs ending in -eç change e to a in all forms other than the masc. persl. pl.;
for example, mieç have:
singular:
mia∏em (m.) mia∏am (f.) I had
mia∏eÊ (m.) mia∏aÊ (f.) you (sg.) had
mia∏ he gave mia∏a she had mia∏o it had (n.)
plural:
mieliÊmy (m.p.) mia∏yÊmy (f.) we had
mieliÊcie (m.p.) mia∏yÊcie (f.) you (pl.) had
mieli (m.p.) mia∏y (f., n.) they had
Verb endings in -àç change à to ´ in all forms other than the masc. sg., e.g.
zaczàç begin:
singular:
zaczà∏em (m.) zacz´∏am (f.) I began
zaczà∏eÊ (m.) zacz´∏aÊ (f.) you (sg.) began
zaczà∏ he gave zacz´∏a she began zacz´∏o it began (n.)
plural:
zacz´liÊmy (m.p.) zacz´∏yÊmy (f.) we began
zacz´liÊcie (m.p.) zacz´∏yÊcie (f.) you (pl.) began
zacz´li (m.p.) zacz´∏y (f., n.) they began.
Verbs with infinitives in -Êç and -c add past-tense endings to stems similar to
those found in the 1st pers. sg. present. For example, here are the past tense
forms of nieÊç nios´ niesiesz carry and móc mog´ mo˝esz can, be able:
singular:
nios∏em (m.) nios∏am (f.)I carried
nios∏eÊ (m.) nios∏aÊ (f.) you (sg.) carried
niós∏ he gave nios∏a she carried nios∏o it carried (n.)
plural:
nieÊliÊmy (m.p.) nios∏yÊmy (f.) we gave
nieÊliÊcie (m.p.) nios∏yÊcie (f.) you gave
nieÊli (m.p.) nios∏y (f., n.) they gave.
singular:
mog∏em (m.) mog∏am (f.)I could
mog∏eÊ (m.) mog∏aÊ (f.) you (sg.) could
móg∏ he could mog∏a she could mog∏o it could (n.)
plural:
mogliÊmy (m.p.) mog∏yÊmy (f.) we could
mogliÊcie (m.p.) mog∏yÊcie (f.) you (pl.) could
mogli (m.p.) mog∏y (f., n.) they could.
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These verbs have an irregular past-tense formation:

iÊç, id´, idziesz go-det. szed∏, sz∏a, szli, sz∏y
jeÊç, jem, jesz, jedzà eat. jad∏, jad∏a, jedli, jad∏y
usiàÊç, usiàd´, usiàdziesz sit down-pf. usiad∏, usiad∏a, usiedli, usiad∏y
znaleêç, znajd´, znajdziesz find-pf. znalaz∏, znalaz∏a, znaleêli, znalaz∏y.
FUTURE TENSE
The future tense is formed with the auxiliary verb b´d´, b´dziesz,
b´dzie, b´dziemy, b´dziecie, b´dà, plus the 3rd pers. past form of an
imperfective verb. For example, here is the future of the verb czytaç read:
singular:
b´d´ czyta∏ (m.), b´d´ czyta∏a (f.) I am going to read
b´dziesz czyta∏ (m.) b´dziesz czyta∏a (f.) you are going to read
b´dzie czyta∏ (m.) b´dzie czyta∏a (f.) he/she is going to read
plural:
b´dziemy czytali (m.p.) b´dziemy czyta∏y (f.) we are going to read
b´dziecie czytali (m.p.) b´dziecie czyta∏y (f.) you (pl.) are going to
read
oni b´dà czytali (m.p.) one b´dà czyta∏y (f.) they are going to read
Instead of the past-tense forms, one may also use the infinitive; hence also
b´d´ czytaç I am going to read. The use of the past-tense forms is more
colloquial, and is practically obligatory with males.
PERFECTIVE AND IMPERFECTIVE ASPECT
The future-tense construction with b´d´ is formed only from

IMPERFECTIVE verbs (verbs naming an on-going activity). With
PERFECTIVE verbs (verbs naming an accomplishment), which have no
present-tense meaning, the present-tense form by itself expresses future
meaning. For example, the verb kupiç buy is perfective, hence its present
forms have future meaning:
kupi´ I will buy kupimy we will buy

kupisz you (sg.) will buy kupicie you (pl.) will buy
kupi he, she, it will buy kupià they will buy.
Verbs that are perfective will have a related imperfective verb in order
to express present meaning. With the perfective verb kupiç buy, the
corresponding imperfective verb is kupowaç, whose present-tense forms are
the following:
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kupuj´ I am buying, I buy kupujemy we are buying, we buy

kupujesz you (sg.) are buying, kupujecie you (pl.) are buying,
you buy you buy
kupuje he/she buys, he/she buys kupujà they are buying, they buy.
Perfective (pf.) verbs are often formed from imperfective verbs by

adding a prefix. Here are some common simplex verbs with their primary
perfective prefix:
budowaç, zbudowaç build myç si´, umyç si´ wash (self)

chcieç, zechcieç want myliç si´, pomyliç si´ err
cieszyç si´, ucieszyç si´ be glad nieÊç/nosiç, odnieÊç carry
czekaç, zaczekaç wait p∏aciç zap∏aciç pay
czytaç, przeczytaç read p∏akaç,zap∏akaç cry
dzi´kowaç, podzi´kowaç thank piç,wypiç drink
dziwiç si´, zdziwiç si´ be surprised pisaç, napisaç write
gotowaç, przygotowaç prepare pytaç, zapytaç ask
gotowaç, ugotowaç cook robiç, zrobiç do
graç,zagraç play rozumieç, zrozumieç understand
iÊç/chodziç, pójÊç go (on foot) s∏yszeç, us∏yszeç hear
jeÊç, zjeÊç eat siedzieç, posiedzieç sit
jechaç/jeêdziç, pojechaç go, ride Êmiaç si´, zaÊmiaç si´ laugh
koƒczyç, skoƒczyç finish Êpiewaç, zaÊpiewaç sing
le˝eç,pole˝eç lie taƒczyç, zataƒczyç dance.
lecieç, polecieç fly
Imperfective verbs in new meanings are typically formed from prefixed

perfective verbs by adding a suffix. Here are some examples:
Perfective Derived Imperfective
otworzyç -rz´ -rzysz open otwieraç -am -asz
pokazaç -˝´ -˝esz show pokazywaç -am -asz
pomóc -mog´ -mo˝esz help pomagaç -am -asz
poznaç -am -asz meet poznawaç -znaj´ -znajesz
przypomnieç -n´ -nisz remind przypominaç -am -asz
spotkaç -am -asz meet spotykaç -am -asz
u˝yç -yj´, -yjesz use u˝ywaç -am -asz
wygraç -am -asz win wygrywaç -am -asz
zaczàç -n´ -niesz begin zaczynaç -am -asz
zamknàç -n´ -niesz close, shut zamykaç -am -asz
zamówiç -wi´ -wisz order zamawiaç -am -asz
zaprosiç -sz´ -sisz invite zapraszaç -am -asz
zdarzyç si´ -y occur zdarzaç si´ -a
zostawi´ -wi´ -isz leave behind zostawiaç -am -asz.
A few verbs have irregular aspect partners:

Imperfective: Perfective:
braç bior´, bierzesz take wziàç wezm´, weêmiesz
dawaç daj´, dajesz give daç dam, dasz, dadzà
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k∏aÊç k∏ad´ k∏adziesz put, place, lay po∏o˝yç -˝´ -˝ysz

kupowaç -puj´ -pujesz buy kupiç -pi´ -pisz
mówiç -wi´ -wisz say, speak, talk powiedzieç -wiem -wiesz -wiedzà
oglàdaç -am -asz view, watch obejrzeç -rz´ -rzysz
widzieç -dz´ -dzisz see zobaczyç -cz´ -czysz
znaleêç znajd´ znajdziesz find znajdowaç -duj´ -dujesz
SUMMARY: THE POLISH TENSE-ASPECT SYSTEM

Imperfective Perfective
present robi´
past robi∏em zrobi∏em
future b´d´ robi∏(a) zrobi´
VERBS OF MOTION
Polish distinguishes between movement on foot and movement by

conveyance. In either case, the simple verbs for motion distinguish on-going
(determinate) activity from frequentative (indeterminate) activity. This
distinction holds in the imperfective aspect only. Here are the most
important verbs concerned:
determinate indeterminate
go on foot iÊç id´, idziesz chodziç -dz´ -dzisz
go by conveyance jechaç jad´, jedziesz jeêdziç je˝d˝´, jeêdzisz
carry on foot nieÊç nios´, niesiesz nosiç nosz´, nosisz
carry by conveyance wieêç wioz´, wieziesz woziç wo˝´, wozisz
run biec biegn´, biegniesz biegaç biegam, biegasz
fly, rush lecieç lec´, lecisz lataç latam, latasz
sail, swim p∏ynàç p∏yn´, p∏yniesz p∏ywaç p∏ywam, p∏ywasz
See: Gdzie teraz idziesz? Where are you going now?

Czy cz´sto chodzisz do kina? Do you go to the movies often?
Jad´ do Warszawy pociàgiem. I'm going to Wasaw by train.

Zwykle je˝d˝´ do Warszawy pociàgiem. I usually travel to
Warsaw by train.
Przepraszm, ale musz´ lecieç. Excuse me, but I have to run.

Nie lubi´ lataç. I don't like to fly.
When prefixed, motion verbs lose the on-going vs. frequentative

distinction. Here are the most important prefixed forms of iÊç and jechaç:
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Perfective Imperfective
arrive, come on foot przyjÊç przychodziç
leave on foot wyjÊç wychodziç
approach, come up to odejÊç odchodziç
approach, come up to podejÊç podchodziç
Perfective Imperfective
arrive by vehicle przyjechaç przyje˝daç -am -asz
leave by vehicle wyjechaç wyje˝daç -am -asz
depart by vehicle odjechaç odje˝daç -am -asz
approach, come up to podjechaç podje˝daç -am -asz
CONDITIONAL MOOD
The conditional mood is used to express the conditional sense which in

English is expressed with "would, could, should, might". It is also used to
refer to contrary-to-fact situations, and is required after indirect commands
and requests. The conditional is formed by using the 3rd-person past-tense
forms of the verb in conjunction with the conditional particle by, which is
either attached to the verb or, preferably, to some item occurring earlier in
the sentence. Personal endings are attached to the particle by. Here are the
conditional forms of pomóc pomog´, pomo˝esz help (pf.):
Singular
masc. fem.
1.p. pomóg∏bym pomog∏abym I would help
2.p. pomóg∏byÊ pomog∏abyÊ you-sg. would help
3.p. pomóg∏by pomog∏aby he/she would help
Plural
masc. pers. pl. other pl.
1.p. pomoglibyÊmy pomog∏ybyÊmy we would help
2.p. pomoglibyÊcie pomog∏ybyÊcie you-pl. would help
3.p. pomogliby pomog∏yby they would help
When by is attached to another word, it is usually to a subordinating

conjunction such as ˝e that or gdy if:
Singular
masc. fem.
1.p. gdybym pomóg∏ gdybym pomog∏a if I would help
2.p. gdybyÊ pomóg∏ gdybyÊ pomog∏a if you -sg. would help
3.p. gdyby pomóg∏ gdyby pomog∏a if he/she would help
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Plural
masc. pers. pl. other pl.
1.p. gdybyÊmy pomogli gdybyÊmy pomog∏y if we would help
2.p. gdybyÊcie pomogli gdybyÊcie pomog∏y if you-pl. would
help
3.p. gdyby pomogli gdyby pomog∏y if they would help
The conditional is primarily used:

a) In contrary to fact clauses:
Pomóg∏abym ci, gdybym nie by∏a tak zaj´ta. I would help you if I were
not so busy.
b) After verbs of request, command, desire, when the subject of the

incorporated clause is different from the person doing the requesting,
commanding, desiring:
Prosz´ ci´, ˝ebyÊcie nie robili takiego ha∏asu. I'm asking that you not make
such a racket.
c) To discuss hypothetical possibilities:

Czy móg∏byÊ mi pomóc? Could you help me?
d) To discuss vague wonderings:

Nie sàdz´, ˝eby on by∏ teraz w domu. I don't think he would be at home
now.
PARTICIPLES, GERUNDS, VERBAL NOUNS
Polish has a well developed system of verbal adjectives (participles),

verbal adverbs (gerunds), and verbal nouns, in both Perfective and
Imperfective aspects. The verb of illustration in the chart below is czytaç -am
-asz (impf.), przeczytaç (pf.) read.
imperfective perfective
gerund czytajàc przeczytawszy
active participle czytajàcy
passive participle czytany przeczytany
verbal noun czytanie przeczytanie
1. A GERUND is a verb form without personal endings, the person of the

verb being inferred from context. The IMPERFECTIVE GERUND can often
be translated as 'while doing something'; thus czytajàc means 'while
reading'. The PERFECTIVE GERUND usually means 'after having done
something'; thus przeczytawszy means 'after having read'. Gerunds are
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used to incorporate one sentence into another when the subject of both
sentences is the same: Czytajàc gazet´, pali∏ fajk´ While reading the paper,
he smoked a pipe. Zjad∏szy kolacj´, on wsta∏ i wyszed∏ Having finished
supper, he stood up and left. Gerunds do not take any endings.
The IMPERFECTIVE GERUND may be formed by adding –c to the

3.pers.pl. of an Imperfective verb: czytajà, hence czytajàc (while) reading; idà,
hence idàc (while going).
The PERFECTIVE GERUND may be formed from the 3.pers.sg.masc. past

tense of a Perfective verb. After vowel+∏, replace ∏ with –wszy: przeczyta∏,
hence przeczytawszy having read; zrobi∏, hence zrobiwszy having done. After
consonant+∏, add –szy: wyszed∏, hence wyszed∏szy having left, wyniós∏,
hence wyniós∏szy having carried out. The Perfective Gerund is going out of
use. It is hardly ever used in speech.
2. A PARTICIPLE is an adjective derived from a verb, which still retains

many of the the properties of the verb, for example, the ability to take a
complement. The imperfective active participle is often translated as a
relative clause: “who is doing”, and it is often separated from the noun it
modifies by its complement: Czytajàcy gazet´ cz∏owiek nic nie zauwa˝y∏.
The man reading the paper noticed nothing. Participles take a full set of gender-
number-case endings.
The IMPERFECTIVE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE may be formed by adding

adjective endings to the Imperfective gerund: czytajàç, hence czytajàcy –a –e
(who is) reading; idàc, hence idàcy –a –e (who is) going.
3. PASSIVE PARTICIPLES describe objects on which an action has been

carried out. The imperfective passive participle czytany means 'being read'.
The perfective passive participle przeczytany means 'having been read'. The
latter is the more frequently used, often in construction with the verb zostaç:
Ta ksià˝ka zosta∏a ju˝ przeczytana. That book has already been read.
The Passive Participle is formed on the basis of the infinitive.
a.Verbs with infinitives in -aç and –eç form the Passive Participle in
–any (-a –e): napisaç, hence napisany –a –e written; widzieç, hence widziany
-a –e seen.
b. Verbs with infinitives in –iç and -yç form the Passive Participle in
–ony -a –e, mppl -eni added to a stem like that of the 1.pers.sg. present:
zawstydziç, hence zawstydzony –a -e, mppl zawstydzeni embarrassed.
Monosyllabic verbs in -iç and -yç like piç, myç, and their derivatives like
wypiç and umyç, do not follow this rule; see below, d.
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c. Verbs with infinitives in -Êç, -êç, -c form the Passive Participle in –ony
-a –e --eni, added to a stem like that of the 2.pers.sg. present: wynieÊç, hence
wyniesiony –a -e, mppl wyniesieni carried out; przegryêç, hence
przegryziony –a -e, mppl przegryzieni bitten through; upiec bake hence
upieczony –a -e, mppl upieczeni baked. Irregular: znaleêç znajd´, znajdziesz,
znaleziony -a -e, mppl znalezieni found.
d. Verbs with infinitives in other vowels plus ç, and monosyllabic verbs

in -iç and -yç drop ç and add –ty (-ta –te): zepsuç, hence zepsuty –a -e
spoiled; u˝yç, hence u˝yty –a -e used. Verbs in –nàç form the Passive
Participle in –ni´ty (-a –e): zamknàç, hence zamkni´ty –a –e locked, shut,
closed. Other verbs in -àç form the Passive participle in -´ty: zaczàç, hence
zacz´ty begun.
4. A VERBAL NOUN is a noun derived from a verb which still retains

many of the properties of the verb, including aspect. Both czytanie and
przeczytanie are usually translated as 'reading', the first referring to the
action, the second to the accomplishment. Verbal Nouns often occur with the
prepositions przy while, during, przed before, and po after, and they are
often followed by a noun in the Genitive case: Po przeczytaniu tej ksià˝ki
pójd´ spaç After reading that book-Gen. I'll go to bed. Additionally, verbal
nouns often occur in phrases following the preposition do, as in woda do
picia drinking water, nic do zrobienia nothing to do, and so on.
The Verbal Noun is formed on a stem like that of the masc.pers.pl. of the
passive participle. This means that participles in –ony form the Verbal Noun
in –enie: podniesiony, hence podniesienie elevation. Particples in –ty form
the Verbal Noun on -cie: zatruty, hence zatrucie poisoning.
Gerunds and participles formed from verbs in si´ retain si´, while
verbal nouns formed from verbs in si´ sometimes lose the si´: goliç si´ shave
oneself, golàc si´ while shaving onself, but usually golenie shaving (although
golenie si´ is not wrong).
PASSIVE VOICE
An active-transitive sentence (a sentence with a subject, verb, and direct

object) can be transformed into the passive voice, using a passive participle,
which presents the action from the point of view of the direct object.
Compare English John is frying an egg (active) vs. An egg is being fried by John
(passive). In this sentence, fried is the passive participle, linked to the object
with the verb be. In Polish, the link verb is byç with Imperfective verbs,
and zostaç (zostan´ zostaniesz) with Perfective verbs:
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Imperfective
active: passive
pres. Jan czyta ksià˝k´. Ksià˝ka jest czytana przez Jana.

Jan reads (is reading) a book. The book is read (is being read) by Jan.
fut. Jan b´dzie czyta∏ ksià˝k´. Ksià˝ka b´dzie czytana przez Jana.
Jan is going to read the book. The book is going to be read by Jan.
past Jan czyta∏ ksià˝k´. Ksià˝ka by∏a czytana przez Jana.

Jan read (was reading) a book. The book was (was being) read by Jan.
Perfective
active: passive
fut. Jan przeczyta ksià˝k´. Ksià˝ka zostanie przeczytana przez
Jan will read the book. Jana. The book will be read by Jan.
past Jan przeczyta∏ ksià˝k´. Ksià˝ka zosta∏a przeczytana przez Jana.

Jan read the book. The book was read by Jan.
Observe that the original subject may be preserved by placing it after the
preposition przez +A: przez Jana by Jan. The practical effect of passive voice
is often expressed by reversing the order of subject and object. For example,
Ksià˝k´ czyta Jan book-Acc. reads Jan-Nom. has about the same effect as
Ksià˝ka jest czytana przez Jana.
IMPERSONAL VERBS
There is a difference in Polish between a verb which has a definite

subject which is simply not expressed, and a verb which has no subject in
the first place. The Polish impersonal verb system is well developed. For the
most part it is based on the third-person neuter forms of the finite verb, with
the particle si´ functioning as the de facto subject:
present 'one reads' czyta si´

past 'one read', 'one czyta∏o si´ or przeczyta∏o si´ or
used to read' czytano przeczytano
future 'one will read' b´dzie si´ czyta∏o przeczyta si´
The construction czyta si´ means 'one reads, reading is going on'. A form
like this takes direct objects the same as a personal verb: Czyta si´ ksià˝ki.
One reads books, books are being read. In the past tense, the forms based on si´
plus the past tense are usually replaced with forms based on the passive
participle: Czytano ksià˝ki. One read books; books were being read.
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REFLEXIVE VERBS
By 'reflexive verbs' in a broad sense are meant verbs occurring with the
reflexive particle si´. This particle can never occur in initial position in a
clause; hence one says:
Bardzo si´ Êpiesz´. I'm in a big hurry.
but: Âpiesz´ si´. I'm in a hurry.
Here are the most important functions of the particle si´:
1. LITERAL REFLEXIVE USE. The basic meaning of the reflexive

particle si´ is 'oneself' in literal reflexive uses (where the action comes back
upon the actor). This is not necessarily the most frequent usage of this
particle, but it is the one on which most other uses are based. Frequently
encountered are verbs of personal grooming:
czesaç (si´) czesz´, czeszesz comb (oneself)
kàpaç (si´) kàpi´, kàpiesz bathe (oneself)
myç (si´) myj´, myjesz wash (oneself)
goliç (si´) gol´, golisz shave (oneself).
Compare the two sentences:
Musz´ umyç rće. I have to wash my hands. Transitive without si´.
Musz´ si´ umyç. I have to wash up. Intransitive reflexive with si´.
Verbs of this sort occur with si´ more often than not:
Codziennie si´ kàpi´. I take a bath every day.
Gol´ si´ przed Êniadaniem. I shave before breakfast.
2. RECIPROCAL USE. The reflexive particle si´ can be used with

any verb where the action can be considered reciprocal (back and forth), in
which case the particle si´ takes on the sense 'each other,' 'one another':
Dobrze si´ znamy. We know each other well.
Bardzo si´ lubimy (kochamy). We like (love) each other a lot.
Cz´sto si´ spotykamy. We met each other often.
The verb must have Accusative syntax for the si´ construction to be possible.
Otherwise, one uses the appropriate case-form of the reflexive pronoun. For
example, since pomagaç -am -asz 'help' takes the Dative case, one expresses
'help one another' with the Dative reflexive sobie:
Cz´sto sobie pomagamy. We often help one another.
3. INTRANSITIVE FORM OF TRANSITIVE VERB. Polish is sensitive to

whether a given verb is used transitively (with a direct object), or
intransitively (without a direct object). If a verb can be used transitively in
its basic sense, its intransitive counterpart will be formed with si´. Three
584
subtypes of such use may be distinguished, consisting of uses with persons,

things, and events.
a. with persons
transitive: intransitive:
nazywaç -am -asz call, name nazywaç si´ be called
Êpieszyç -sz´ -szysz hurry (someone) Êpieszyç si´ be in a hurry.
Jak oni nazywaj àswojà ∏ódk´? How do they call their boat?
Jak ich ∏ódka si´ nazywa? What's their boat called?
b. with things
otwieraç -am -asz open otwieraç si´
zamykaç -am -asz close zamykaç si´
Zamykamy ksià˝ki. We are closing (our) books.
Drzwi si´ zamykajà. The door is (lit. doors are) closing.
c. with events
koƒczyç -cz´ -czysz end, finish koƒczyç si´
zaczynaç -am -asz begin zaczynaç si´
Zaczynamy (koƒczymy) lekcj´. We are beginning (ending) the lesson.
Lekcja si´ zaczyna (koƒczy). The lesson is beginning (ending).
4. DEPERSONAL USE. With the 3rd pers. sg. form of the verb, the
particle si´ can express the idea of impersonal 'one', as though it were the
subject of the sentence. Its occurrence in this use is frequent, much more so
than the corresponding use of "one" in English.
Jak to si´ mówi (pisze)? How does one say (write) that?
Jak tam si´ idzie (jedzie)? How does one go there?
Tam zawsze d∏ugo si´ czeka. One always waits a long time there.
Impersonal verbs take the Accusative of a direct object the same way as
other verbs:
Kiedy si´ ma temperatur´, trzeba zostaç w domu. When one has a
temperature, one should stay at home.
A sentence can often be depersonalized by adding si´ and putting the

subject in the Dative:
Przyjemnie mi si´ z tobà rozmawia. It's pleasant talking with you.
In English the 2nd pers. sg. form of the verb is often used impersonally,
as in How do you say that? The comparable use should not be used in Polish,
since it is apt to be taken for informal speech. Hence it is safest to express the
phrase 'How do you get to Lodz?' as Jak si´ jedzie do ∏odzi?
5. IMPERSONAL VERBS. The particle si´ is used with some verbs to

derive impersonal verbs (verbs which in English have as subject an empty
'it'):
585
wydawaç si´ wydaje si´ +D it seems

chcieç si´ chce si´ +D it feels like to me, I feel like
rozumieç si´ rozumie si´ it is understood.
and others. Such verbs often take Daative complements:
Wydaje mi si´, ˝e skàdÊ znam t´ panià. It seems to me I know that lady
from somewhere.
Nie chce mi si´ iÊç do miasta. I don't feel like going to town.
6. REFLEXIVE VERBS OF EMOTION. A number of verbs of emotion

take si´, a use which has no good translation into English. Among such
verbs are:
baç si´ boj´ si´, boisz si´ be afraid
bawiç si´ -wi´ -wisz play. dobrze si´ bawiç have a good time
cieszyç si´ -sz´ -szysz si´ be glad
denerwowaç si´ -wuj´ -wujesz be upset
dziwiç si´ -wi´ -wisz be surprised
martwiç si´ -wi´ -wisz worry
nudziç si´ -dz´ -dzisz be bored
przejmowaç si´ -muj´ -mujesz be upset
wstydziç si´ -dz´ -dzisz be embarrassed
The following negated imperative forms of reflexive verbs of emotion are

common:
nie bój si´ "nie BÓJ si´" don't be afraid
nie martw si´ "nie MARTW si´" don't worry
nie denerwuj si´ don't be upset
nie przejmuj si´ don't be concerned
nie wstydê si´ don't be embarrassed.
7. REFLEXIVE-ONLY VERBS. Some verbs occur only with si´, at least in

the given meaning, for example,
baç si´ boj´ si´, boisz si´ be afraid, fear
dziaç si´ dzieje si´ go on, happen
podobaç si´ -a +D be pleasing
staraç si´ -am -asz try
Êmiaç si´ Êmiej´ si´, Êmiejesz si´ laugh
wydawaç si´ wydaje si´ seem
zdarzyç si´ zdarzy si´ happen, occur (pf.)
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IMPORTANT SENTENCE CONSTRUCTIONS

CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE INFINITIVE. A number of common verbs
form phrases in construction with the infinitive. One of the most useful such
verbs is the verb chcieç want, especially when used in the conditional in the
sense 'I'd like', as in
Chcia∏(a)bym zamówiç rozmow´. I'd like to place a call.
Some common verbs followed by the infinitive include chcieç chc´, chcesz
want, mieç mam, masz be supposed to, musieç musz´, musisz must, have to,
staraç si´ staram si´, starasz si´ try, umieç umiem, umiesz know how, woleç
wol´, wolisz prefer. Three other useful words, mo˝na one may, trzeba one
ought, and wolno it is permitted, are also followed by the infinitive of the
verb and can be used to form a wide variety of impersonal statements and
questions:
Mo˝na tu usiàÊç? May one sit down here?
Tu nie mo˝na paliç. One may not smoke here.
Trzeba to zrobiç. It's necessary to do that.
MODAL EXPRESSIONS. The most important modal correspondences (items

referring to duty, need, obligation) are the following. All of these items are
followed by the infinitive of the main verb.
'must', 'have to' musieç, musz´, musisz or mieç, mam, masz
'need', 'should' musieç, musz´, musisz or trzeba
'supposed to' mieç, mam, masz
'ought to', 'should' powinienem, powinnam, powinniÊmy
The full conjugation of the last item is as follows:

masc. fem. masc. pers. pl. fem. pl.
1.p. powinienem powinnam powinniÊmy powinnyÊmy
2.p. powinieneÊ powinnaÊ powinniÊcie powinnyÊcie
3.p. powinien powinna (n. -no) powinni powinny
Examples:
Musz´ si´ uczyç. I have to study.
Trzeba go zapytaç. One should ask him.
PowinnaÊ si´ Êpieszyç. You-fem. ought to hurry.
Mam byç w domu o ósmej. I'm supposed to be at home by 8:00.
‘INTRODUCING’ SENTENCES. One introduces an identity-noun into

conversation with the expression to jest that/this is-sg. or to sà those are,
followed by the noun being introduced:
To jest mój kolega. This is my colleague.
To jest dobra ksià˝ka. That's a good book.
To sà moje okulary. Those are my eyeglasses.
The expression tu jest here is (pl. tu sà) is also often used:
587
Tu jest dobra nowa ksià˝ka. Here is a good new book.

Tu sà nasi nowi sàsiedzi. Here are our new neighbors.
EXPRESSING 'THERE IS'. The verb jest is is often used by itself to express
whether someone is "there" or whether an item is stock:
Czy jest Marta? Is Marta there?
Czy jest sok? Is there any juice?
These questions would be answered affirmatively by Jest there is or Nie ma

there isn't. nie ma takes the Genitive case: Nie ma soku there is no juice-Gen.
Nie ma Marty Marta-Gen is not here.
PREDICATE NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. A predicate noun or adjective is a

noun or adjective linked to the subject with a form of the verb 'be' (byç). In
Polish, predicate nouns are expressed in the Instrumental case, while
predicate adjectives are expressed with the Nominative case:
Janek jest dobrym studentem. Janek is a good student-Inst.
Ewa jest wymagajàcà nauczycielkà. Ewa is a demanding teacher-Inst.
Adam jest chory. Adam is sick-Nom.

Marysia jest zdenerwowana. Marysia is worried-Nom.
YES-NO QUESTIONS. Polish often forms questions to be answered by tak

yes or nie no with the help of the question-word czy (literally, 'whether'),
placed at the beginning of the sentence:
Czy pan jest gotowy? Are you ready?
Czy to jest dobry film? Is that a good movie?
Czy to nie jest Jan? Isn't that Jan?
When a yes-no question revolves around a verb, it is often answered with

the verb, not with tak or nie:
-Czy wypi∏eÊ mleko? Did you drink the milk?
-Wypi∏em. I drank it.
NEGATION
a. When a verb is negated, the negative particle nie is always placed
immediately in front of it:
Nie mam czasu. I don't have time.
Nie kupi´ tego. I won't buy that.
When placed before one-syllable verbs, the particle nie takes the stress: NIE
chc´, NIE wiem.
b. When using words like "nothing", "never", "nowhere", and so on,

Polish also uses nie before the verb, creating the impression of a "double
588
negation": Nic nie mam I don't have anything Nikt tu nie mieszka. No one
lives here. Nikt nic nikomu nie mówi. No one says anything to anyone.
Another common word that occurs together with nie is ˝aden, ˝adna, ˝adne
none, not any, as in ˚aden stó∏ nie jest wolny no table is free.
c. Verbs which ordinarily take the Accusative case take the Genitive case
when negated:
Oglàdam telewizj´. I'm watching television-Accusative.
Nie oglàdam telewizji. I'm not watching television.
d. The negation of 'be' in its existential sense of 'there is/are' is

expressed by nie ma (past nie by∏o, future nie b´dzie) plus the Genitive
case:
W sklepie jest piwo. There is beer in the store.
Nie ma piwa w sklepie. There is no beer in the store.
WORD ORDER. Word order in Polish tends to reflect the increasing

informational prominence of the elements in a sentence as one proceeds from
left to right. Items placed at the end carry logical stress and respond to the
implicit question a sentence answers. For example, in
Jan kocha Mari´. Jan-nom. loves Maria-Acc.,
the sentence answers the question 'Whom does Jan love?' (Maria). The same
sentence with the subject and object reversed,
Mari´ kocha Jan. (in effect, 'Maria is loved by John')
answers the question 'Who loves Maria?' (John). Polish often makes use of
the device of subject-object reversal to express what is the equivalent of
passive voice:
Obudzi∏ mnie telefon. I-Acc. was awakened by the telephone-Nom..
Background information is typically placed in the first part of a sentence.

Note the difference between Polish and English in this regard:
Jutro wieczorem w tej sali odb´dzie si´ zebranie studentów. There
will be a meeting of students tomorrow evening in this room.
Manner adverbs in Polish tend to be placed earlier in a sentence rather than
later. Note here too the difference between Polish and English:
On dobrze mówi po polsku. He speaks Polish well.
SENTENCE INTONATION. Sentence intonation refers to the slight rise or

fall in pitch of the voice while speaking. Polish sentences utilize three levels
of intonation: mid, high, and low. Sentences can end on a rise, on a fall, or
be level at the end. High and low intonation is not radically different from
mid intonation. Polish creates the impression of a moderately intoned
language.
589
1. STATEMENT INTONATION. A typical Polish declarative sentence

opens at mid level, possibly rises slightly just before the end, but then drops
to low level at the very end:
On nie jest tak mi∏y, jak si´ wy-da-je.
2. YES-NO QUESTIONS, that is, questions expecting an answer of either

'yes' or 'no', usually begin at mid level and end on a rise to high:
Czy je-steÊ za-do-wo-lo-ny?
Czy pa-ni mie-szka w War-sza-wie?
3. WH QUESTIONS, that is, questions asking 'how', 'why', 'when',

'where', 'who', 'what', 'what kind', 'which' typically begin with high level on
the question word, and then fall to a low level for the remainder of the
question.
Gdzie
pa-ni mieszka?
Jak
si´ pa-ni na-zy-wa?
For a more emphatic question, high level may be maintained until the end
of the sentence, with a slight rise on the next to last syllable, then a dip to
low:
Dlaczego pani tak si´ Êpie-szy?
It is important not to give WH questions the intonation of a Yes-No question

by ending on a high pitch. Aside from needing to learn this one rule,
speakers of English are inherently predisposed to have natural-sounding
intonation in Polish.
4. MANNER ADVERBS. Adverbs of manner do not usually occur at the

end of a sentence, but rather before the verb, where they are emphasized
intonationally:
On dobrze mówi po polsku.
590

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Polish

Information on Polish sounds and grammar

The Polish Alphabet and Sounds 5

THE POLISH ALPHABET AND SOUNDS

Here is the Polish alphabet: a, à, b, c, ç, d, e, ´, f, g, h, I, j, k, l, ∏, m, n, ƒ, o,

SOUND VALUES OF THE LETTERS

a father tak thus, so, yes, raz once

NOTES ON SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION

1. The Polish alphabet has no Q, V or X, although these letters may be

2. Polish vowels a, e, i, y, o, u (ó) are all pronounced with exactly the

3. Polish consonant sounds may be pronounced slightly differently

4. The letters à and ´ are usually pronounced like on/om or en/em,

5. The stress in a Polish word falls on the next-to-last syllable: sprawa

1. When describing word formation, some consonants are counted as

As noted, the consonants p, b, f, m, w at the end of a word may turn out

2. One often observes vowel changes within Polish words depending on

OUTLINE OF POLISH GRAMMAR

NOUN GENDER. Polish nouns have three genders: masculine,

NOUNS STEMS. Nouns may end in a consonant or in a vowel; if in a

MASCULINE NOUNS usually end in a consonant, for example: nos

PLURAL OF MASCULINE NOUNS. Masculine non-personal nouns

MASCULINE PERSONAL NOUNS often take special endings in the

PLURAL OF FEMININE NOUNS. Feminine nouns follow

NEUTER NOUNS end in -o or (after soft consonants) -e, for example

PLURAL OF NEUTER NOUNS. Neuter nouns form the plural in -a,

SUMMARY OF NAMES FOR PEOPLE AND THEIR PLURALS.

CASES AND CASE USE

Polish nouns have different case forms for expressing GRAMMATICAL

NOMINATIVE (co? kto?) The Nominative case is used to express:

GENITIVE (czego? kogo?). The Genitive case is used to express:

DATIVE (czemu? komu?). The Dative case is used to express:

ACCUSATIVE (co? kogo?). The Accusative case is used to express:

za minut´. I'll be ready in a minute. Dzi´kuj´ za prezent. Thanks for the

INSTRUMENTAL (czym? kim?). The Instrumental case is used to express:

LOCATIVE (o czym? o kim?). The Locative case is required after the

VOCATIVE. Usually, the Nominative case functions as a de facto Vocative:

SUMMARY: THE MAIN KINDS OF NOUN PHRASES IN A SENTENCE

SUBJECT OF VERB (NOMINATIVE CASE):

SUBJECT OF EXISTENTIAL VERB (NOMINATIVE CASE, GENITIVE if negated):

COMPLIMENT IN AN IDENTITY SENTENCE, after to jest/sà (NOMINATIVE

PREDICATE NOMINAL - nominal complement of 'be' - (INSTRUMENTAL

DIRECT OBJECT OF VERB (ACCUSATIVE CASE, GENITIVE if negated):

OBLIQUE (NON-ACCUSATIVE) OBJECT OF VERB:

INDIRECT OBJECT (DATIVE CASE):

BENEFICIARY (DLA+GENITIVE OR DATIVE CASE):

PHRASE OF MEANS (INSTRUMENTAL CASE):

COMPLEMENT OF LOCATIONAL PREPOSITION (preposition plus, usually,

COMPLEMENT OF VERB OF MOTION:

b. PLACE FROM WHICH (usually z plus Genitive, od plus Genitive with

POSSESSOR (GENITIVE CASE):

HEAD OF A PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE OF ACCOMPANIMENT (Z PLUS

IDIOMATIC BARE-CASE PHRASES, IN GENITIVE, ACCUSATIVE, or

CHART OF REGULAR NOUN ENDINGS

Here is a summary chart of regular noun endings. By -0 is meant 'no

feminine masculine neuter