CHAPTER 12.

THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

12.1 The Nature of Light

Light travels as combined transverse electric and magnetic fields. We have already learned
that the electric and magnetic fields are convenient schemes to explain electric and
magnetic forces and we have learned that electromagnetic fields can also acts in lieu of
discrete charges. Light can travel through vacuum, in which case there is no medium, or
background matter, that is displaced to form the waves. To add to the mystery, Einstein
postulated from experimental evidence that light must travel with the nature of discrete
particles known as photons. Ultimately, these explanations of light remain beyond our
common intuitive understanding. We are left with two theories that adequately explain the
nature of light: the first is the Classical Theory using Maxwell's master equations that
describe the wave behaviour of electromagnetic fields; the second is Quantum Theory,
which is able to include the discrete particle nature.

Light travels from source to detector in such a way that it takes the least possible time to
travel, this general principle is called Fermat's principle. For all our common
considerations we can assume that light travels from source to detector in a straight line.
The speed of light is greatest through a vacuum and the value of this speed is
c = 3.00×108 m s-1.
Einstein's theory of Special Relativity includes supposition that nothing can accelerate to
speed greater than this value. In all transparent media the speed of light is less than c. The
refractive index of a medium is the ratio of c to the speed of light in that medium. The
symbol for this refractive index is n (sometimes µ).
c
nj = (12.1)
vj
where vj is the speed of light in a medium that has an index nj . The energy of a photon is
proportional to the associated frequency f (or ω) and this frequency does not change as
photons cross the boundaries between different media. As a consequence both the
wavelength and speed of the photon must change for different media because
vj
f = = a constant .
λj
When light encounters a boundary between two transparent media we need not think that
the speed changes instantaneously the change occurs over a short distance as the light
penetrates the new medium, this distance is called the "skin depth".

The colour of light is technically defined by the wavelength. The human eye rarely
encounters monochromatic light of a single wavelength or colour. There are no standard
wavelength ranges for standard colours; the visible spectrum begins with ‘violet’ at about
380 nm and ends with ‘red’ at about 700 nm.

114
The details of the model for light passing through a refracting medium are quite
complicated yet it is commonly found that the refractive index of a medium changes
slightly with wavelength, this means that photons will travel at different speeds according
to their wavelengths; in particular circumstances the different wavelengths can be
separated, this effect is called dispersion.

12.2 Rays

When light travels from a point source it radiates in all directions moving outwards as a
spherical set of waves. Most sources give a spectrum of wavelengths but for convenience
and simplicity we will assume that we are dealing with monochromatic radiation.

In our diagram we have shown a radiating source sending out spherical waves, the waves
have all been transmitted at a regular frequency and are evenly spaced as they travel, this
regular synchronous behaviour can be called coherence. Two sources are coherent when
they transmit into the same medium at the same continuous frequency; this does not mean
that they must have the same phase, rather it means that they continue to radiate with the
same phase difference. In our diagram we have also included some lines that are
perpendicular to the wave-fronts, these lines are called rays, they show the direction that a
wave must travel (until it meets an obstacle) or the path of an individual photon. (In
practise we cannot narrow a light beam down to extremely narrows rays because of
diffraction.) When the waves have travelled a long way from the source the circular
curvature of their wave-fronts reduces so that these wavefronts become parallel. In a very
narrow ray the wave fronts are reduced to small sections that can be considered to be
parallel. Flat parallel wave fronts in three dimensions are called plane-waves. If we could
observe the wave-fronts in an optical ray of thickness say 10-6 m (also called a micron) we
would see

.
Which we might other wise draw on larger scale as

.
115
12.3 Reflection

When a ray meets a medium boundary it can be: absorbed in the new medium, continue
through the new medium with a new speed and wavelength or reflect from the boundary.
In this section we will look at reflection. Consider (in expanded detail) a ray that meets a
plane (flat) reflecting boundary between two media. The angle of incidence θi is the angle
between the ray and a perpendicular line from the surface called the normal.

In the above diagram we have shown an expanded ray meeting a fully reflecting surface,
this is indicated by the hatching on the other side of the surface; this is the common way
for a mirror surface to be indicated. We have then further magnified the diagram so that
the (reduced) wavefronts at the surface can form the triangles ABC and DCB with the
surface. In these triangles the common sides AB and DC are one wavelength long and the
triangles are congruent (with two matching sides and a right angle). This geometry
establishes a law of reflection: the incident and reflected rays lie in a plane and the angle of
incidence equals the angle of reflection.
θr = θi

12.4 Refraction

When a ray meets a medium boundary it can also continue through the new medium with a
new speed and wavelength. In this section we will consider this refraction which occurs
when a ray enters a medium and is not absorbed but continues through the new medium.
Some common examples of refracting media are water or glass. Whenever refraction
occurs there is also some reflection, the weakly reflected rays obey the law of reflection,
but here we will only concern ourselves with the refracted ray.

116
This time we have again shown two views of a magnified ray crossing a boundary from
medium 1 characterised by a refractive index of n1, into a medium characterised by n2. As
the waves change speed and wavelength as they encounter the new medium, we have

v
λ=
f
where f the frequency remains constant. From the geometry in our last figure
λ
sin θ i = 1
BD
λ2
sin θ r =
and BD
so that
sin θ i λ1 v1 n2
= = =
sin θ r λ 2 v2 n1
where we have also used equation (12.1). Sometimes the ratio of the refractive indices is
also referred to as a refractive index in which case we have
sin θ i n2
= = n21 . (12.2)
sin θ r n1
This equation for the ratio of the sines is called Snell's law. The laws of refraction state
that: an incident ray and an its refracted component lie in common plane with the surface
normal, but on different sides of the surface and the angles of incidence and refraction are
related by Snell's law.

When a ray travels from A in medium 1, to B in medium 2, and if the ray travels according
to Snell's law; then the ray takes the least time possible to travel between A and B, we
might also call this the shortest path length when the speeds are taken into account.
117
For the particular ray path shown above, it is easy to show that
sin 45° 141
.
=
sin 30° 100
.

12.5 Polarisation

We started this chapter with the statement, "Light travels through a medium as combined
transverse electric and magnetic fields." This transverse property of optical rays helps us
understand the nature of polarisation. As we are dealing with electric and magnetic fields,
we should be prepared to use a little imagination to help our understanding. Consider a
monochromatic continuous plane wave moving through space

In this sketch the Brad fields are oscillating horizontally as they move through space, while
the Erad fields oscillate vertically. If these fields encounter a grid of vertical conducting
strips Brad will bend about these conductors and a back e.m.f. will be generated. This will
in turn cancel the Erad field and the wave will not proceed easily through the grid (that is, it
is attenuated). The reason for this is suggested by the next diagram, the radiation field Brad
cutting the conducting grid displaces charges in the conductor in such a way that the
resulting induced E field (shown as white on black) opposes the radiation Erad field.

In a PolaroidTM filter the conducting grid is formed by molecular chains and these act to
oppose the electric field as described above.
118
If the Polaroid filter is turned sideways, so that the radiation field Brad is parallel to the
conducting grid then little if any opposing field is generated and the radiation passes
through without attenuation. Unpolarised light has photons of all orientations of Erad and
Brad in a direction transverse to the wave motion. Passing this unpolarised light through one
filter will then give us (linearly) polarised light where the transverse fields that pass
through the filter, have a common alignment. A polarised beam can be analysed by using
a second filter. With a parallel orientation of the analysing filter the light will not be
attenuated at all; but when this filter is turned through a right angle about the propagation
axis the beam is wholly attenuated as the components of polarised fields in both directions
are removed by the two filters.

When a beam of light is reflected from smooth a surface the reflected beam can be wholly
or partly polarised. The Erad vector is strongest when it moves across the face of the
reflecting surface while the Erad component that moves into or out of the surface is reduced
or removed on reflection. This is the reason while Polaroid spectacles can be used
effectively to block much of the radiation that is reflected from a smooth water surface or
the highway on a sunny day.

The use of Polariod filters is shown above. The filter with the horizontal molecular chains
blocks all the radiation that still reflects from the water, the filter with the vertical
molecular chains blocks only a small amount of the reflected radiation.

12.6 Interference

Interference occurs when waves from two or more sources, coherent and of the same
wavelength, are added together at particular times and places. If the waves have the same
amplitudes and are in phase they will combine to give twice the field (or displacement if
pressure waves). If the waves are out of phase they subtract to give a zero amplitude and
wave intensity. For interference we need to have two or more monochromatic sources,
sending out continuous unbroken signals. One way of setting up an interference system is
to have a screen which blocks plane waves with wave crests parallel to the screen but has
small openings (apertures) through which some radiation can pass. A single opening in
such a screen is shown below, we could be dealing with water surface waves or with
spherical light waves that have travelled so far that they have become flat planes.

119
If we have two small sources close together, but more than λ apart, we get the
superimposed pattern that is shown next.

This is an interference pattern, the diagram has been arranged so that: two grey wave crests
give black and two white troughs stay white, when they are in phase. The waves radiating
in the black and white zones have a maximum amplitude and intensity. When the waves
are out of phase, the black and white crests and troughs, overlay to give grey, in these
zones the waves have little, if any, amplitude and so there is little motion. The two sources
or apertures have been shown as circles (S1 and S2) that are a distance d apart.

If we go to a field point P in a direction θ to the x-axis which is the perpendicular bisector

From the geometry of this diagram we can see that S1P is about dsinθ longer than S2P. If
two waves start from S1 and S2 at the same time, then the wave from S2 arrives at P first,
while the wave from S1 arrives a little later. We can say that the wave from S1 is delayed
120
in phase. This phase delay (or phase difference) is the fraction of, the path difference
d sinθ
divided by the wavelength, or of a whole cycle. As one wavelength or a whole
λ
phase interval is 2π or we can say the phase difference is between the waves from S1 and
S2 is
2πd sin θ
Φ=
λ
at P. For our interference conditions the two waves will combine to give a maximum
intensity if they arrive at P with the same phase, that is
2πd sin θ
Φ = 2πm =
λ
or d sin θ = mλ (12.3)
where m is an integer. This equation (12.3) is a powerful equation for calculating
interference effects, it gives the angle (from the central normal to the two monochromatic
coherent sources) at which a maximum intensity will be observed. The minimum (or zero)
intensity will occur when the two waves arrive at P out of phase, that is their phases differ
by a whole number of cycles plus a half cycle or
2πd sin θ
Φ = ( m+ 21 )2π =
λ
or d sin θ = ( m + 2 )λ
1
(12.4)
This is the corresponding equation that enables us to calculate the angle θ, or position at P,
at which a minimum or zero intensity is observed in an interference pattern.

121
 Problems for chapter 12.

vj c
Revision: f =      and     n =
λj v
reflection θi = θr
sin θi n2
refraction = = n21
sin θr n1
Two slit interference maximum mλ = d sin θ
minimum ( m+ 21 ) λ = d sin θ

1.* A typical wavelength for a visible colour is 500 nm. If this light is observed in a
vacuum (air is nearly the same as a vacuum for light) what is the corresponding frequency
of the light? Is this frequency similar in order of magnitude to the period of an electron
orbiting an atom?

2. A typical wavelength for a visible colour is 500 nm. If this light is observed in a water
(of refractive index n = 1.33 compared with air) what is the corresponding frequency of
the light? Is this frequency similar in order of magnitude to the period of an electron
orbiting an atom?

3.* The frequency of a photon stays fixed as photons travel through different media. What
14
is the wavelength of light of frequency 6.0×10 Hz, when it is in a vacuum? What are the
effective wavelengths of this light in water n = 1.33 and in glass n = 1.55?
14
4. What is the wavelength of light of frequency 4.5×10 Hz, when it is in a vacuum?
What are the wavelengths of this light in water n = 1.33 and in glass n = 1.55?

5. The diagram below has been drawn to show how the reflections from a mirror appear
as rays diverging from an object in the mirror.

Use the laws of reflection to show that the distance of the real object O from the mirror is
the same as the distance of the apparent object O/ .

122
6.* In another diagram of similar nature to that of question 5, we have two perpendicular

plane mirrors with an object O that reflects to give three images (I1, I2 and I3) that can be
observed by the observer beside O. Two rays that follow the laws of reflection have been
drawn from O to the observer, these rays help us to understand why the image I1 can be
seen. Draw similar rays from O to the observer, that would help us understand the origin
of the other two images I2 and I3.

7. The vertical mirror in question 7, is rotated so that it is 120° from the horizontal mirror.
Find the location of the new images and draw rays from O to the observer, that help
explain the image locations.

123
8. A similar diagram to that in problem 5. has been drawn to show the rays of light from
an object at O inside a material of refractive index 1.5, these rays follow the laws of
refraction.

Draw the apparent rays that show why the object appears to be more shallow than it really
is below the surface.

9. Draw rays from O to A, B and C (or points conveniently near to A, B and C) using the
diagram below, or a reasonable copy; make sure that each ray follows the laws of
refraction. Show that the rays reaching A, B and C do not appear to come from a common
point inside the water.

You will need to use some approximations or guesswork to get your rays about right.

10.* Water has a refractive index of 1.33. When a ray has an angle of incidence greater
than 48.8° coming from water into air the ray will reflect inside the water. Why can these
rays not refract from the water?

11.* Why are Polaroid sun-glasses (shades) effective for people who go fishing?

124
12.* Two adjacent parallel slits have monochromatic (single colour) light shining through
-6
them. If the slits are 2.5 µm ( 2.5×10 m) apart and the wavelength of the light is 500 nm
-9
(500×10 m) find the angle between the first two interference maxima that are found
nearest the perpendicular line from the centre of the two slits. What is the angle from the
perpendicular to the first minimum found off the central perpendicular line?

13. Two adjacent parallel slits have monochromatic light shining through them. If the slits
-6
are 1.25 µm ( 1.25×10 m) apart. If the angle from the central normal to the second order
maximum of the diffraction pattern is 46°, what is the wavelength of the light? What is the
angle between the central normal and the first minimum or zero in the diffraction pattern?

14.* Two adjacent parallel slits have monochromatic (single colour) light shining through
them. If the slits are 31.5 µm apart and the wavelength of the light is 633 nm, find the
angle between the central normal and the first three interference maxima. What is the
angle from the central normal to the third minimum or zero?

125