Bloom’s Modern Critical Views

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 Bloom’s Modern Critical Views
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 Bloom’s Modern Critical Views

HANS CHRISTIAN
ANDERSEN

Edited and with an introduction by

Harold Bloom
Sterling Professor of the Humanities
Yale University
©2005 by Chelsea House Publishers, a subsidiary of
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Introduction © 2005 by Harold Bloom.

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Hans Christian Andersen / [edited and with an introduction by] Harold Bloom.
p. cm. — (Bloom’s modern critical views)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7910-8129-X (alk. paper)
1. Andersen, H. C. (Hans Christian), 1805-1875—Criticism and interpretation. I. Bloom,
Harold. II. Modern critical views.
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 Contents

Editor’s Note vii

Introduction ix
Harold Bloom

Introduction to Hans Christian Anderson 1

Elias Bredsdorff

The Fairy Tale of Andersen’s Life 7

Wolfgang Lederer

Andersen’s Literary Work 27

Wolfgang Lederer

Andersen’s Heroes and Heroines:

Relinquishing the Reward 33
Celia Catlett Anderson

Hans Christian Andersen’s Fairy Tales

and Stories: Secrets, Swans and Shadows 39
Jon Cech

Nemesis of Mimesis:
The Problem of Representation
in H.C. Andersen’s Psychen 51
Karin Sanders

Hans Christian Andersen—The Journey of His Life 75

Hans Christian Andersen
vi Contents

War
Alison Prince 93

Hans Christian Andersen

and the European Literary Tradition 115
Niels Kofoed

Heroes in Hans Christian Andersen’s Writings 175

Aage Jørgensen

Kiss of the Muse: 1860–1865 189

Jackie Wullschlager

Counteracting the Fall:

“Sneedronningen” and “Iisjomfruen”:
The Problem of Adult Sexuality in Fairytale and Story 215
Jørgen Dines Johansen

Chronology 227

Contributors 233

Bibliography 237

Acknowledgments 241

Index 243
 Editor’s Note

My Introduction seeks to define what it is in Hans Christian Andersen’s

strongest stories that has achieved permanence for them, with particular
emphasis upon aspects of “The Little Mermaid”, “The Wild Swans”, “The
Snow Queen”, “The Red Shoes”, “The Shadow” and “Auntie Toothache”.
Elias Bredsdorff dwells on Andersen’s universalism, while Wolfgang
Lerderer considers both the writer in the work and the work in the writer.
Andersen’s protagonists are seen by Celia Catlett Anderson as blending
folklore and Christian spirituality, after which Jon Cech examines the
storyteller’s dark humors and personal vulnerability.
Sexual ambiguity, pervasive in the stories, is related by Karin Sanders
to problems of representation in Andersen, who then appears as self-
dramatist in an essay written by a namesake.
Denmark is the storyteller’s context is studied by Alison Prince, a
prelude here to this volume’s most substantial essay, Niels Kofoed’s
placement of Andersen in European literary tradition.
Aage Jørgensen reads Andersen as a dialectic of recognition purchased at
the high cost of emotional waning, while the biographer Jackie Wullschlager
finds something of the same pattern in the writer’s homoerotic romances,
and Jørgen Dines Johansen analyzes the evasions of adult sexuality so
characteristic of Andersen’s art.

vii
 HAROLD BLOOM

Introduction

Andersen’s prime precursors were Shakespeare and Sir Walter Scott, and his
best work can be thought of as an amalgam of A Midsummer Night’s Dream
and the almost as magnificent “Wandering Willie’s Tale” from Scott’s
Redgauntlet, with a certain admixture of Goethe and of the “Universal
Romanticism” of Novalis and E.T.A. Hoffman. Goethean “renunciation”
was central to Andersen’s art, which truly worships only one god, who can be
called Fate. Though Andersen was a grand original in his fairy tales, he
eagerly accepted from folklore its stoic acceptance of fate. Nietzsche argued
that, for the sake of life, origin and aim had to be kept apart. In Andersen,
there was no desire to separate origin and aim. It cost his life much
fulfillment: he never had a home of his own or a lasting love, but he achieved
an extraordinary literary art.
Like Walt Whitman’s, Andersen’s authentic sexual orientation was
homoerotic. Pragmatically, both great writers were autoerotic, though
Andersen’s longings for women were more poignant than Whitman’s largely
literary gestures towards heterosexuality. But Whitman was a poet-prophet,
who offered salvation, hardly Christian. Andersen professed a rather
sentimental devotion to the Christ child, but his art is pagan in nature. His
Danish contemporary, Kierkegaard, shrewdly sensed this early on. From the
perspective of the twenty-first century, Andersen and Kierkegaard strangely
divide between them the aesthetic eminence of Danish literature. In this

ix
x Harold Bloom

introduction to a volume of Andersen-criticism, I want to define precisely

the qualities of Andersen’s stories that go on making them imperishable, as
we approach the bicentennial of his birth in 2005. Kierkegaard himself
rightly analyzed his own project as the illumination of how impossible it is to
become a Christian in an ostensibly Christian society. Andersen covertly had
a rather different project: how to remain a child in an ostensibly adult world.
I myself see no distinction between children’s literature and good or
great writing for extremely intelligent children of all ages. J.K. Rowling and
Stephen King are equally bad writers, appropriate titans of our new Dark
Age of the Screens: computer, motion pictures, television. One goes on
urging children of all ages to read and reread Andersen and Dickens, Lewis
Carroll and James Joyce, rather than Rowling and King. Sometimes when I
say that in public I am asked afterwards: it is not better to read Rowling and
King, and then go on to Andersen, Dickens, Carroll and Joyce? The answer
is pragmatic: our time here is limited. You necessarily read and reread at the
expense of other books. If we lived for several centuries, there might be
world enough and time, but the reality principle forces us to choose.
I have just read through the twenty-two Stories of Hans Christian
Andersen, a new translation from the Danish by Diana Crone Frank and
Jeffrey Frank. Andersen called his memoir, The Fairy Tale of My Life, and it
makes clear how painful was his emergence from the working class of
Denmark in the early nineteenth century. The driving purpose of his career
was to win fame and honor while not forgetting how hard the way up had
been. His memories of being read to by his father from The Arabian Nights
seem stronger than those of the actual circumstances of his up-bringing.
Absorbing the biographies of Andersen is a curious process: when I stand
back from what I have learned I have the impression of a remarkable
directness in the teenage Andersen, who marched into Copenhagen and
collapsed himself upon the kindness of strangers. This peculiar directness
lasted all his life: he went throughout Europe introducing himself to Heine,
Victor Hugo, Lamartine, Vigny, Mendelsohn, Schumann, Dickens, the
Brownings, and many others. A hunter of big names, he hungered above all
to become one himself, and won through by the invention of his fairy tales.
Andersen was an outrageously prolific author in every genre: novels,
travelogues, poetry, stage plays, but he mattered and always will entirely
because of his unique fairy tales, which he transmuted into a creation of his
own, fusing the supernatural and the common life in ways that continue to
surprise me, more even than do the tales of Hoffmann, Gogol, and Kleist,
setting aside the sublimely dreadful but inescapable Poe.
Sexual frustration is Andersen’s pervasive though hidden obsession,
 Introduction xi

embodied in his witches and icy temptresses, and in his androgynous princes.
The progress of his fairy stories marches through more than forty years of
visions and revisions, and even now has not been fully studied. Here I will
give brief critical impressions and appreciations of six tales: “The Little
Mermaid” (1837), “The Wild Swans (1838), “The Snow Queen” (1845),
“The Red Shoes” (1845), “The Shadow” (1847), and “Auntie Toothache”
(1872).
On its vivid surfaces “The Little Mermaid” suggests a parable of
renunciation, and yet in my own literary sense of the tale, it is a horror story,
centering upon the very scary figure of the sea witch:

She came to a large slimy clearing in the forest, where big fat
water snakes gamboled and showed off their disgusting yellow-
white undersides. In the middle of the clearing was a house built
out of the white skeletons of shipwrecked humans; that was
where the sea witch sat with a toad that she let eat out of her
mouth the same way that people let a little canary eat sugar. She
called the fat ugly water snakes her little chickens, and let them
frolic on her huge spongy chest.
“I think I know what you want,” the sea witch said. “You are
being very unwise. You can have it your way, but it’s going to
bring you grief, my lovely princess. You want to get rid of your
fish tail and replace it with two stumps to walk on, like a human,
so the young prince will fall in love with you, and you will have
him and an immortal soul.”
At that, the sea witch laughed so loudly and nastily that the
toad and snakes fell to the ground and rolled around. “You came
just in time,” the witch said. “After sunrise tomorrow I wouldn’t
have been able to help you for another year. I’ll make you a drink,
but before the sun comes up, you must swim to land, sit on the
shore, and drink it. Then your tail will split in two and shrink into
what humans call ‘pretty legs.’ But it hurts—it’s like a sharp
sword going through you. Everyone who sees you will say that
you’re the loveliest girl that they have ever seen. You will keep
your gliding walk; no dancer will soar like you. But every step you
take will feel like you are stepping on a sharp knife that makes you
bleed. If you’re willing to suffer all this, I’ll help you.”
“Yes!” the little mermaid said in a quivering voice, and she
thought about the prince and about winning an immortal soul.
“But remember,” the sea witch continued, as soon as you get a
xii Harold Bloom

human form, you can’t ever be a mermaid again. You can never
swim down through the water to your sisters and your father’s
castle. And unless you win the prince’s love so that he forgets his
father and mother for your sake and thinks only about you and
lets the pastor put your hands together so that you become man
and wife, you won’t get an immortal soul. The first morning after
he has married someone else, your heart will break, and you’ll
turn into foam on the sea.”
“I still want to do it,” the little mermaid said. She was pale as
a corpse.
“But you have to pay me too,” the Sea Witch went on, “and I
ask for quite a bit. You have the prettiest voice of anyone on the
bottom of the sea, and I’m sure you imagine that you’ll charm
him. But you have to give me that voice. I want the most precious
thing you own for my precious drink. As you know, I have to add
my own blood to make the drink as sharp as a double-edged
sword.”
“But if you take my voice,” the little mermaid said, “what will
I have left?”
“Your beautiful figure,” the witch said, “your soaring walk, and
your eloquent eyes—with all that you can certainly enchant a
human heart. Well, well—have you lost heart? Stick out your
little tongue. Then I’ll cut it off as payment, and you’ll get my
powerful drink.”

There is a peculiar ghastliness about this, virtually unmatched in

literary fantasy. It has the aesthetic dignity of great art, yet a shudder goes
with it. Andersen’s imagination is as cruel as it is powerful, and “The Little
Mermaid” is least persuasive (to me) in its benign conclusion. The story
should end when the mermaid leaps from ship to sea and feels her body
dissolve into foam. Something in Andersen could not abide in this nihilistic
sacrifice, and so he allows an Ascension in which his heroine joins the
daughters of the air, thus recovering her voice. The aesthetic difficulty is not
sentimentality but sublimation, a defense against the erotic drive that may
work for the rare saint but almost never in imaginative literature.
There is no consistent allegory in “The Little Mermaid”, and whoever
finds a moral in it should be shot, a remark I intend in the spirit of Mark
Twain rather than the mode of Flannery O’Connor. I prefer Andersen’s
revision of a Danish folktale, “The Wild Swans”, which culminates in utter
ambivalence when another mute maiden, the beautiful Elisa, undergoes a
 Introduction xiii

second marriage with a king so doltish he nearly burns her alive as a witch,
at the prompting of an evil archbishop. The weird remarriage is appropriate
in a tale where Elisa’s eleven brothers experience a radical daily
metamorphosis into eleven wild swans:

“We brothers,” the oldest said, “are wild swans as long as the sun
is up. When it sets, we get our human shape back. That’s why we
always have to make sure that we have solid ground underfoot
when the sun sets. If we were flying among the clouds, we would,
as human beings, plunge into the deep. We can’t stay here, but
there’s a country as beautiful as this one on the other side of the
ocean. It’s a long distance. We have to cross the big ocean, and
there are no islands on the way where we can stay for the night—
only a solitary little rock juts up in the middle of the sea. It’s just
big enough for us to rest on side by side, and when the sea is
rough, the water sprays high above us.

That vision has the strangeness of lasting myth. There are disturbing
overtones here. Are we, in our youth, wild swans by day, and human again
only at night, resting on a solitary spot in the midst of an abyss? Meditating
upon the self of half-a-century ago, at seventy-four I am moved to a
Shakespearean sense of wonder by Andersen’s marvelous extended metaphor.
In two famous stories of 1845, as he reaches meridian, Andersen
achieved a fresh power of imagination. “The Snow Queen” is called by
Andersen a tale in seven stories, or an “ice puzzle of the mind”, a marvelous
phrase taken from and alluding to the unfinished visionary novel of Novalis,
Heinrich von Ofterdingen. Its evil troll, the Devil himself, makes a mirror,
eventually fragmented, that is the essence of reductiveness; that is, what any
person or thing is really like is simply the worst way it can be viewed. At the
center of Andersen’s tale are two children who at first defy all reductiveness:
Gerda and Kai. They are poor, but while not sister and brother, they share
fraternal love. The beautiful but icy Snow Queen abducts Kai, and Gerda goes
in quest of him. An old witch, benign but possessive, appropriates Gerda, who
departs for the wide world to continue her search for Kai. But my summary is
a hopeless parody of Andersen’s blithe irony of a narrative, where even the
most menacing entities pass by in a phantasmagoric rush: talking reindeer, a
bandit girl who offers friendship even as she waves a knife, the Northern
Lights, living snowflakes. When Gerda finds Kai in the Snow Queen’s castle,
she warms him with kisses until he unthaws. Redeemed, they journey home
together to a perpetual summer of happiness, ambiguously sexual.
xiv Harold Bloom

The fascination of “The Snow Queen” is Gerda’s continuous

resourcefulness and strength, which derives from her freedom or refusal of
all reductiveness. She is an implicit defense of Andersen’s power as a story
teller, his endless self-reliance. Perhaps Gerda is Andersen’s answer to
Kierkegaard, hardly his admirer. Gerda can be set against Kierkegaard at his
uncanniest: The Concept of Dread, The Sickness Unto Death, Fear and Trembling,
Repetition. The titles themselves belong to the Snow Queen’s realm, and not
to Gerda’s and Andersen’s.
The alarming and famous story, “The Red Shoes”, always has
frightened me. The beautiful red dancing shoes whirl Karen into a cursed
existence of perpetual motion, that cannot be solved even when her feet
(with her consent) are cut off. Only her sanctified death accomplishes
liberation. Darkly enigmatic, Andersen’s tale hints at what Freud called over-
determination, and renders Karen into the antithesis of Gerda.
“The Shadow”, composed during a hot Naples summer of 1847, may
be Andersen’s most evasive masterpiece. The author and his shadow
disengage from one another, in the tradition of tales by Chamisso and
Hoffmann, and Andersen’s shadow is malign and Iago-like. He comes back
to Andersen, and persuades him to be a travel-companion, but as the shadow
of his own shadow, as it were. The reader begins to suffer a metaphysical
bewilderment, augmented by the involvement of a princess who sees too
clearly, yet takes the original shadow as her consort. Andersen threatens
exposure of identity, and is imprisoned by his former shadow, and soon
enough is executed. This crazy and embittered parable prophesies Kafka,
Borges, and Calvino, but more interestingly it returns us to everything
problematic and ambivalent about Andersen’s relation both to himself and to
his art.
My ultimate favorite story by Andersen is his chillingly hilarious
“Auntie Toothache”, composed less than three years before his death. He
may have intended it as his logos or defining Word, and it is spoken by
Andersen himself in the first person. As an inventor of a laughter that hurts,
Andersen follows Shakespeare and prophesies Philip Roth. There is no
figure in Andersen more menacing than Auntie Toothache:

A figure sat on the floor; it was thin and long, like those that a
child draws with a pencil on a slate. It was supposed to look like
a person: Its body was a single thin line; another two lines made
the arms, the legs were single lines too, and the head was all
angles.
The figure soon became clearer. It wore a kind of dress—very
 Introduction xv

thin, very fine—that showed that the figure belonged to the

female sex.
I heard a humming. Was it her or was it the wind that buzzed
like a horsefly in the crack of the windowpane?
No, it was Madame Toothache herself—Her Frightfulness,
Satania infernalis, God save us from her visit.
“This is a nice place to live,” she hummed. “It’s a good
neighborhood—swampy, boggy ground. Mosquitoes used to
buzz by here with poison in their sting. Now I’m the one with the
stinger. It has to be sharpened on human teeth, and that fellow on
the bed has such shiny white ones. They’ve held their own against
sweet and sour, hot and cold, nutshells and plum pits. But I’m
going to wiggle them, jiggle them, feed them with a draft, and
chill them at their roots.”

As Her Frightfulness says: “Great poets must have great toothaches;

small poets, small toothaches”. There is a vertigo in the story: we cannot
know whether Auntie Toothache and the amiable Aunt Millie (who
encourages Andersen’s poetry) are one person or two. The penultimate
sentence is: “Everything goes into the trash”.
The accent is of Koheleth (Ecclesiastes): all is vanity. Andersen was a
visionary tale-teller, but his fairy-realm was malign. Of his aesthetic
eminence, I entertain no doubts, but I believe that we still have not learned
how to read him.
 ELIAS BREDSDORFF

“Introduction” to
Hans Christian Andersen:
Eighty Fairy Tales

H ans Christian Andersen’s fairy tales and stories have had their
important place in world literature since the middle of the nineteenth
century and have been translated into well over a hundred languages. The
first four tales were published in Denmark in 1835, and the first English
translations appeared in 1846. Within a short time, Andersen had become a
household word both in Britain and in the United States. In 1875, on the
occasion of his seventieth birthday, the London Daily News, a paper founded
by Dickens, paid homage to Andersen:

It has been given to Hans Andersen to fashion beings, it may

almost be said, of a new kind, to breathe life into the toys of
childhood, and the forms of antique superstition. The tin soldier,
the ugly duckling, the mermaid, the little match girl, are no less
real and living in their way than Othello, or Mr. Pickwick, or Helen
of Troy. It seems a very humble field in which to work, this of
nursery legend and childish fancy. Yet the Danish poet alone, of
all who have laboured in it, has succeeded in recovering, and
reproducing, the kind of imagination which constructed the old
fairy tales.

Hans Christian Andersen was more a creative writer than a collector of

folk tales. It is somewhat misleading to bracket him, as is often done, with

From Hans Christian Andersen: Eighty Fairy Tales (1982). © 1982 by Elias Bredsdorff.

1
2 Elias Bredsdorff

the German brothers Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm, or with Asbjørnsen and
Moe, the two Norwegian collectors of traditional folk tales. Nevertheless, a
few of Andersen’s tales, especially among the early ones, were based on
traditional Danish folk tales he had heard as a child. Two months before the
publication of his first four tales Andersen wrote to a friend: “I have set down
a few of the fairy tales I myself used to enjoy as a child and which I believe
aren’t well known. I have written them exactly as I would have told them to
a child.”
This group includes “The Tinderbox,” “Little Claus and Big Claus,”
“The Travelling Companion,” “The Wild Swans,” “The Swineherd” (all of
them published in 1835–1838), and two later ones, “Simple Simon” (1855),
with the subtitle “A Nursery Tale Retold,” and “Dad’s Always Right” (1861)
(which begins: “Now listen! I’m going to tell you a story I heard when I was
a boy ...”). There are also elements of folk tales in “The Princess and the
Pea” and in “The Garden of Eden.” Three of the tales have literary sources:
“The Naughty Boy” (based on a poem by Anacreon), “The Emperor’s New
Clothes” (based on a fourteenth-century Spanish story), and the narrative
frame of “The Flying Trunk” (taken, with a few modifications and a
complete change of style, from a French eighteenth-century work). As for
the rest, the remaining 144 tales (out of a total of 156) are entirely Andersen’s
own invention, though this does not mean, of course, that he did not use
themes or features from other sources.
Andersen entitled his tales Eventyr og Historier, thus making a
deliberate distinction between Eventyr, fairy tales containing a supernatural
element, and Historier, stories which lack that element. Thus “The Little
Mermaid” is a fairy tale, “The Emperor’s New Clothes,” a story. But the
dividing line is not always so clear, nor is Andersen always consistent. For
instance, in spite of its title, “The Story of a Mother” is not so much a story
as a fairy tale. Andersen first used the term Historier in 1852; until then he
had consistently used the term Eventyr. In his autobiography, he explains that
he had gradually come to regard the word Historier as a truer description of
his tales in their full range and nature: “Popular language puts the simple tale
and the most daring imaginative description together under this common
designation; the nursery tale, the fable and the narrative are referred to by
the child as well as by the peasant, among all common or garden people, by
the short term: stories.”
Throughout, Andersen’s style was unique, and far removed from that
of the traditional folk or fairy tale.
Since Andersen was writing primarily for children, he took great pains
not to use words they might have difficulty in understanding, and he showed
 Introduction to Hans Christian Andersen 3

great ingenuity in paraphrasing complicated words and ideas. In “The High

Jumpers” he speaks of “the man who writes the almanac,” meaning a
professor of astronomy. He writes “a student who was studying to become a
parson” instead of a “student of theology.” If he does use a word children
may not know, he takes care to explain it: thus, he says about one of his
characters that “he went in for conjuring and learnt to talk with his stomach,
which is called being a ventriloquist.”
Few writers employed truisms to such deliberately humorous effect as
Andersen. Witness the opening lines of “The Nightingale”: “You know of
course that in China the emperor is a Chinese and his subjects are Chinese
too.”
Another of Andersen’s special talents was that of conveying abstract
ideas through a tangible reality. In “The Tinder Box,” after the soldier has
lifted the third dog down on to the floor and seen the chest full of gold coins,
the amount of money is explained in terms which are fully comprehensible
to a child. “There was enough for him to buy the whole of Copenhagen, all
the sugar-pigs that the cake-women sell, and all the tin soldiers and rocking-
horses in the world.”
Expressions like “everybody” and “the whole world” seemed too
abstract to Andersen, so that he often added something more tangible to
them. For their jumping competition the three high jumpers “invited the
whole world, and anyone else who like, to come and watch the sport.” What
could convey a better impression of open admittance? Perhaps the best
example is the reward the Snow Queen promises Kay if he is able to combine
the letters correctly: not only does she promise him his freedom but also “the
whole world and a pair of new skates.” The genius of Andersen’s conception
is clear, for that expression is imbued with both humour and a deep
understanding of children’s minds.
Some of Andersen’s best tales are understood at two levels, by the child
and by the grown-up person. Andersen himself once explained that his tales
“were told for children, but the grown-up person should be allowed to listen
as well.” This is certainly true of such masterpieces as “The Little Mermaid,”
“The Emperor’s New Clothes,” “The Nightingale” and “The Snow Queen.”
But there are other tales which might actually appeal more to adults than to
children. “The Story of a Mother,” “The Bell,” and “The Shadow” are all
examples of this sort of story, for the true philosophy of these tales is beyond
the comprehension of most children. In particular, “The Shadow” is an
extremely sophisticated story open to many different interpretations; it could
have been written by Kafka.
Andersen himself was a man of deep and apparently irreconcilable
4 Elias Bredsdorff

contrasts, and the same contrasts are to be found in his fairy tales and stories.
“The Bell” and “The Shadow,” for instance, have themes which, at first
glance, seem quite similar, and yet they express two very different
philosophies. “The Bell” is an optimistic story about the triumph of
goodness and the victory of genius. In contrast, “The Shadow” tells a
pessimistic story in which the learned man, a dedicated scholar and lover of
truth and beauty, is beheaded, while his Shadow, the parasite, steals his fame
and is rewarded by marrying the princess.
In a much-quoted comment concerning his tales, Andersen said: “They
lay in my thoughts like a seed-corn, for them to spring forth and burst into
bloom.” The autobiographical element is obvious in many of the tales. It is
not difficult to see Andersen as the ugly duckling, or as Mr. Larsen in “The
Gardener and the Squire,” yet he frequently appears in other tales in may
different disguises. He is the soldier in “The Tinder Box”; he is the little
mermaid, the outsider who came from the depths and was never really
accepted in the new world into which he moved; he is the little boy in “The
Emperor’s New Clothes” who could see the emperor had nothing on; he is
the poet in “The Naughty Boy”; and I could cite many more examples. As a
Danish critic once said, Andersen wrote more self-portraits than Rembrandt
ever painted.
Andersen put not only himself but also his friends and enemies into his
tales, and scholars can point to many personal elements in them. But for the
large majority of readers all over the world, children as well as adults, who
read his tales with little or no knowledge of the author’s life and background,
most of this information is irrelevant. One can enjoy his fairy tales and stories
without any background knowledge whatsoever. If this were not so,
Andersen would never have been translated into most living languages, and
even in Denmark he would have been largely forgotten by now.
Some of Andersen’s tales were written in a matter of hours, or in the
course of a few evenings; others took much longer. In 1844, writing to a
friend about “The Snow Queen,” he noted that “it came out dancing over
the paper.” He began writing this tale, one of his longest fairy tales, on
December 5, 1844, and it was published in book form (together with “The
First Tree”) on December 21. The whole process of writing, setting up type,
printing, binding, and publishing was done in the course of sixteen days.
On the other hand, “The Marsh King’s Daughter,” another long fairy
tale, was rewritten six or seven ties before Andersen was certain that he could
not improve upon it.
In 1949 I treated some of these translations, which were then still being
reprinted, in an English journal under the heading, “How a Genius is
 Introduction to Hans Christian Andersen 5

Murdered.” As a result of the publicity surrounding that article, I was

approached by a Danish publishing firm in Andersen’s native town of Odense
which wanted to commission a new translation of some eighty of Andersen’s
tales. They asked me if I knew of a qualified translator who might be willing
to undertake such a task. I immediately asked my old friend R.P. Keigwin if
he would be willing to do it. Keigwin possessed both an extensive knowledge
of Danish and a very fine sense of style. In 1935, he had been responsible for
an excellent translation of the first four tales by Andersen, published in the
centenary of their first publication in Denmark. Keigwin understood the
difficulty of the task: Andersen’s language is full of colloquialisms, special
Danish idioms, untranslatable puns and an intimacy between writer and
reader which is strengthened by the frequent use of certain Danish adverbs
that defy translation. In his preface to the 1935 volume, Keigwin wrote of
Andersen:

He sprinkled his narrative with every kind of conversational

touch-crisp, lively openings, to catch the listeners attention at a
swoop; frequent asides or parentheses; little bits of Copenhagen
slang; much grammatical license; and, above all, a free use of
particles—those nods and nudges of speech with which Danish
(like Greek) is so richly endowed. So completely did Andersen
maintain the conversational tone in his Tales that you are quite
shocked when you occasionally come across some really literary
turn.

Not all of Andersen’s 156 fairy tales and stories are masterpieces, and R.P.
Keigwin’s translation includes a little over half their total number. Personally,
I think that it is the best available version of Andersen’s tales, taking into
consideration both the quality of the translation and the choice of tales and
stories.
“The True Wizard of the North” was a term that E.V. Lucas, the
English critic, said he would rather apply to Hans Christian Andersen than
to Walter Scott, “because whereas Scott took men and women as he found
them, [Andersen], with a touch of his wand, rendered inhuman things—
furniture, toys, flowers, poultry—instinct with humanity.” Robert Lynd,
another British literary critic, wrote about Andersen: “He can make the
inhabitants of one’s mantelpiece capable of epic adventures and has a greater
sense of possibilities in a pair of tongs or a door-knocker than most of us have
in men and women.”
There has been a tendency in both Britain and the United States to
6 Elias Bredsdorff

regarding Andersen as being only a writer for the nursery, with the
implication that he cannot be taken seriously as a literary figure. Or, as the
Austrian writer Egon Firedell once put it: “The great public had adopted the
same attitude to Andersen as a certain Prussian lieutenant of the guard did to
Julius Caesar when he said that he could not possibly have been a great man
since he had only written for the lower Latin forms. Similarly, since
Andersen is so great an author that even children can understand him, the
grown-ups have concluded that he cannot possibly have anything to offer
them.
Let me conclude by quoting Andersen’s own definition of the literary
genre in which he was, and still is, the unsurpassed master:

In the whole realm of poetry no domain is so boundless as that of

the fairy tale. It reaches from the blood-drenched graves of
antiquity to the pious legends of a child’s picture book; it takes in
the poetry of the people and the poetry of the artist. To me it
represents all poetry, and he who masters it must be able to put
into it tragedy, comedy, naïve simplicity, and humour; at his
service are the lyrical note, the childlike narrative and the
language of describing nature.... In the folk tale it is always
Simple Simon who is victorious in the end.... Thus also the
innocence of poetry, overlooked and jeered at by the other
brothers, will reach farthest in the end.
 WOLFGANG LEDERER

The Fairy Tale of Andersen’s Life

H e arrived in Copenhagen “on Monday morning, September 5th, 1819.”

It sounds like a birthday and, to him, it was.1 Here, finally, he was setting foot
in the world for which he was born, and he lost no time about it. Having
rented a room in a small public house, he immediately sought the theater. A
ticket-seller offered him a ticket, and he “accepted his offer with
thankfulness” in the childlike and devoutly matter-of-course expectation that
he was being given a present. When the scalper angrily disillusioned him, he
fled in confusion.
But he rallied quickly. The next day he dressed in his confirmation suit
(“nor were the boots forgotten, although this time, they were worn,
naturally, under my trousers”) and further adorned with a hat that was too
big for him he presented himself at the house of a famous dancer, Madame
Schall. “Before I rung at the bell, I fell on my knees before the door and
prayed God that I here might find help and support. A maid-servant came
down the steps ... she smiled kindly at me, gave me a skilling (Danish) and
tripped on. Astonished, I looked at her and the money. I had on my
confirmation suit and thought I must look very smart. How then could she
think I wanted to beg?” (FT, 25–26). He managed to gain admittance anyway
and offered by way of introduction a letter from the old printer Iversen in
Odense. The only connection Iversen ever had had with the dancer was the

From The Kiss of the Snow Queen: Hans Christian Andersen and Man’s Redemption by Woman. ©
1986 by The Regents of the University of California.

7
8 Wolfgang Lederer

printing of handbills for her performances, but Hans Christian had cajoled
the letter out of him in the firm belief that it would serve as a proper
introduction. It accomplished just that—even though the dancer “had not
the slightest knowledge of him from whom the letter came, and my whole
appearance and behavior seemed very strange to her.” He explained his
yearning for the theater. She wondered what he could do. He asked
permission to take off his boots and, using his broad hat for a tambourine,
began to dance and sing passages from a musical play, Cinderella. “My strong
gestures and my great activity caused the lady to think me out of my mind,
and she lost no time in getting rid of me” (TS, 38–39).
An attempt to find some employment at the theater resulted in another
snub and a moment of despair. But “with all the undoubting confidence of a
child in his father” he prayed to God and, having regained his courage,
bought a gallery ticket for the opera Paul and Virginia. It affected him so
deeply that he wept, and this in turn attracted the kind attentions of some
women who sat nearby. He explained himself to them, and they fed him
“bread and butter, with fruit and cakes,” as well as a sausage sandwich.
Even so, the next day found him penniless, and in his extremity he
looked for work. He answered the advertisement of a cabinetmaker and was
tentatively accepted as an apprentice. The following morning

I went to the workshop: several journeymen were there, and two

or three apprentices; but the master was not come. They fell into
merry and idle discourse. I was as bashful as a girl, and as they
soon perceived this, I was unmercifully rallied upon it. Later in
the day, the rude jests of the young fellows went so far that, in
remembrance of the scene at the manufactory, I took the resolute
determination not to remain a single day longer in the workshop.
(TS, 41)

The master tried to reassure him, but he was “too much affected” and
hastened away.
Again he knew despair,2 and again he rallied. This time he crashed the
dinner party of an opera singer he had once read about, Giuseppe Siboni,
who was at that moment entertaining a number of artists and writers. Hans
Christian opened his heart to the housekeeper; the good woman was moved
and induced the party to see him. He sang and recited poetry for them; at the
end, overcome by “the sense of my unhappy condition,” he burst into tears.
He was applauded. Siboni promised to give him singing lessons, and a
Professor Weyse raised a small sum of money for him by subscription. To
 The Fairy Tale of Andersen’s Life 9

study with Siboni he needed to learn German, and a woman of Copenhagen

with whom he had traveled from Odense arranged for him to receive free
lessons from a language-master. Things were finally going his way, and he
wrote a triumphant letter home. But within half a year, when he must have
been about fifteen, his voice broke—or was injured, “in consequence of my
being compelled to wear bad shoes through the winter, and having besides
no warm underclothing” (FT, 31). This finished his singing, and Siboni
counseled him to return to Odense and learn a trade.
We cannot help but raise an eyebrow. The tall, skinny boy with his long
blond hair, pretty face, and soprano voice had repeatedly suffered from
ribbing (and worse) on account of his girlish appearance. We would think he
would have wished for an early change toward a more masculine demeanor.
We would think he would know about and anticipate with some impatience
the voice changes associated with puberty, and in his case already overdue.
Instead, when the change does come, he considers it so unnatural that he
ascribes it to a cold “in consequence of being compelled to wear bad
shoes”—quite as if, had he only had proper shoes, he could have remained a
soprano forever! This is passing odd. We also do not fail to notice that shoes,
or boots, once again play some sort of symbolic, or magical, role. We shall
have more to say about this later on.
Meanwhile, in spite or because of his new voice, Hans Christian was
once again in despair. This time he bethought himself of a poet Guldberg,
the brother of a colonel who had befriended him in Odense, and to this man
he appealed for help. The poet received him kindly, gave him a substantial
sum of money, and offered him lessons in Danish, it being apparent that
Hans Christian both spoke and wrote his mother tongue rather poorly.
Needing a cheaper place to live, he took lodgings in “nothing but an
empty store room, without window and light” but with permission to sit in
the parlor. The landlady was a woman whom only years later he properly
identified as a madam: “I found myself in the midst of the mysteries of
Copenhagen, but I did not understand how to interpret them.” Like the sun-
god Phoebus, whose holy eye never sees the shadow, Hans Christian never
spotted sin: “I never suspected what kind of world, it was which moved
around me” (TS, 46–47).
He lived in a different world. The “stern but active dame” wanted
twenty rix dollars monthly for the wretched room, and he could afford but
sixteen:

This troubled me very much; when she was gone out of the
room, I seated myself on the sofa, and contemplated the portrait
10 Wolfgang Lederer

of her deceased husband. I was so wholly a child, that as the tears

rolled down my own cheeks I wetted the eyes of the portrait with
my tears, in order that the dead man might feel how troubled I
was, and influence the heart of his wife. She must have seen that
nothing more was to be drained out of me, for when she returned
to the room she said she would receive me into her house for the
sixteen rix dollars. I thanked God and the dead man.3

He continued to play with his puppet theater and his dolls and to make
doll clothes from colored fragments of material he begged from various
stores—even though his voice had changed and even though he was now
receiving free lessons in Latin, acting, and dancing. He was told he would
never make either an actor or a dancer, but he was permitted to watch
performances from the wings. Occasionally he got on stage as an extra, and
finally, through the kindness of his dancing instructor, he was even assigned
a little part in a ballet: “That was a moment in my life, when my name was
printed! ... I carried the programme of the ballet with me at night to bed, lay
and read my name by candle-light—in short, I was happy!”4
Meanwhile, he was starving, and the imminent necessity of returning
to Odense with his tail between his legs suggested suicide to him as a
preferable alternative. But an extraordinary procession of benefactors—
widows and their daughters, retired admirals, assorted officials—not only fed
him in turn but listened to his first poetry and read his first dramatic
efforts—largely plagiarized pieces conveying such ignorance of grammar,
history, and the world that it was increasingly felt that he should be given a
proper education.
One of his would-be educators was the poet Frederik Høegh-
Guldberg, who went to many troubles and pains on Andersen’s behalf, and
among other things arranged for him to have Latin lessons. When Andersen
proved anything but diligent, Guldberg lost his patience and lectured him
severely. Hans Christian’s reaction was characteristic:

I realized that it was wrong of me to have neglected the Latin

lessons ... I walked homeward full of despair. He had told me that
I was “a bad person,” and that affected me terribly. I stood for a
long time by the Pebblinge Lake ... and the horrible thought
struck me: “Nothing good can become of you ... God is angry,
you must die!” I looked into the water, and then thought of my
old grandmother, who would certainly not have thought that my
life would end in this way. This made me cry bitterly, but it
 The Fairy Tale of Andersen’s Life 11

relieved my mind, and in my heart I begged God to forgive me

for ... my sinful thought of jumping into the water.5

He had lost one protector, but about this time Jonas Collin, “one of the
most distinguished men of Denmark” and currently director of the Royal
Theatre, entered his life and began to shape it decisively. Collin was a man
of grave demeanor and few words, and Hans Christian, so pitifully anxious
to elicit a warm and sympathetic response from all he met, at first feared him
and considered him an enemy. But Collin, sensing a spark of genius in the
peculiar boy, obtained for him from King Frederick VI an annual stipend to
run for several years and arranged for him to receive free instruction in the
grammar school at Slagelse, a small town twelve Danish miles from
Copenhagen.
In the eyes of a less astute observer than Collin, Hans Christian would,
at that point, have appeared a dismal failure:

He had been rejected as a singer, as a dancer, as an actor, and as

a playwright. He was clumsy and “different,” and his appearance
was unfortunate in every way, and to make things worse he had
grown out of his suit without being able to afford to buy a new
one. His coat was too short, so he tried to pull down his sleeves
all the time, his trousers too short and too narrow, and his heels
trodden down. He moved awkwardly in a vain attempt to cover
up the many defects in his clothing. His whole behavior was often
ridiculous.6

When he declaimed his poetry or his plays, his listeners had difficulty not to
burst out laughing. A young physician who attended one of young Andersen’s
performances at the elegant house of a Mrs. Belfour wrote of it later:

In my opinion the whole performance (a reciting of plays, poems

etc.) was just mediocre. But on the other hand, the great interest
he took in it, the lack of restraint in his performance and his
enthusiasm had such great appeal that I became somewhat
indignant that they used him as a buffoon and a joker. The
audience laughed at his tall, ungainly figure and his strikingly
awkward appearance, which was especially noticeable in his
movements and his walk. When we were going to eat he
stumbled over the doorstep, tripped over his long legs, grasped
the sandwich as if in a coma, lost his knife and fork, but talked
12 Wolfgang Lederer

incessantly.... But that the seeds of greatness were in him was

quite clear.7

Andersen seems to have managed to overlook, or to reinterpret as

encouragement, all the laughter; and as to the “seeds of greatness” in himself
he was never in doubt. At any rate, things now were looking up. He had, in
a manner, been adopted by a good father—Jonas Collin—to whom he would
be able to turn with his problems and who would watch over him. And he
was now, at long last, really and truly to be a student—as his poor dead father
had always hoped—and so he wrote his mother a letter full of joy.
As it turned out, the next years of his life were anything but joyful. If
his memory can be trusted, the year was 1822. He would have been
seventeen years old when he joined a class of children aged perhaps ten to
twelve. With his beanpole figure he must have been twice the height of some
of them. Nevertheless, that is not what pained him; feeling so much a child
he may have fitted in uncommonly well. But he suffered bitterly from the
treatment accorded him by the rector, Dr. Meisling, a well-meaning
pedagogue with a sarcastic, bullying manner who never praised but criticized
constantly.8 There was nothing Hans Christian could tolerate less than
criticism, and over and over again he dissolved in despair and wrote letters to
his various benefactors proclaiming his unworthiness and failure. In
response, he received much kindness and reassurance and so, his spirits
briefly buoyed, managed to carry on. But he remained terribly vulnerable:
“In my character-book I always received, as regarded my conduct,
‘remarkably good.’ On one occasion, however, I only obtained the testimony
of ‘very good’: and so anxious and childlike was I, that I wrote a letter to
Collin on that account, and assured him in grave earnestness, that I was
perfectly innocent, although I had only obtained a character of ‘very good’”
(TS, 73).
Things got worse when the rector moved to a school in Helsingoer and
invited Hans Christian to come along and live in the rector’s house. The
place was, to Andersen’s perception, run like a jail: “When the school hours
were over, the house door was commonly locked ... I never went out to visit
anybody ... my prayer to God every evening was, that He would remove the
cup from me and let me die. I possessed not an atom of confidence in myself”
(TS, 75). He wrote one single poem during that time. It was called The Dying
Child (!).
In the end, thanks to a sympathetic teacher’s intervention with Collin,
Hans Christian was removed from the school and permitted to return to
Copenhagen. As a parting shot the rector predicted for him that he “would
 The Fairy Tale of Andersen’s Life 13

end his days in a madhouse.” In view of his background, such a prognosis

could not be taken lightly, and the boy understandably “trembled in his
innermost being.”
Released from “jail,” he took a new lease on life. An intelligent young
teacher tutored him in Latin and Greek and argued religion—Hans
Christian could accept God as love, but would never consent to hellfire9—
and, bubbling like a newly opened bottle of champagne, he produced some
humorous and satirical poetry that was actually published. In September
1828, now twenty-three years old, he officially became “a student” (of the
University). “Thousand ideas and thoughts by which I was pursued ... flew
like a swarm of bees out into the world and indeed into my ... work.” A
humorous and fantastic travel piece, self-published, had some success, and a
satirical play won the acclaim of his fellow students.10 “I was now a happy
human being; I possessed the soul of a poet, and the heart of youth; all houses
began to open to me; I flew from circle to circle.” His first collection of
poems appeared the next year. “Life lay bright with sunshine before me.”
A dark cloud soon appeared—one that was to darken the remainder of
his life.
In the summer of 1830, when he was twenty-five, he visited, on one of
the Danish islands, the home of a fellow student, Christian Voigt. And there

A pair of dark eyes fixed my sight,

They were my world, my home, my delight,
The soul beamed in them, and childlike peace,
And never on earth will their memory cease.
(TS, 90)

The pair of dark eyes belonged to Riborg Voigt, Christian’s sister, a pretty
girl of twenty who served him tea, went for walks with him, and generally
showed herself attentive and interested.11 He realized, with some dismay,
that he was falling in love: “I remained in that house but three days, and
when I felt what I had never felt before, and heard that she is already
engaged, I departed immediately.”
They met again in Copenhagen, late in the year, and he handed her a
little love poem; but far from pressing his suit, he apparently took it
completely for granted, and bitterly bewailed in his letters, that she would
have to marry the other: “I see that I will never be happy! All my soul and all
my thoughts cling to this one creature, a clever, childlike creature such as I
have never met before ... but she is engaged, and to be married next month....
I will never see her again. Next month she becomes a wife, then she will, then
14 Wolfgang Lederer

she must forget me. Oh, it is a deadly thought! ... If only I were dead, dead,
even if death were total annihilation” (Andersen’s italics).12 So he writes in
January 1831. In March he still protests and, one cannot help feeling, too
much: “I will never be happy in this world, I cannot; with my whole being I
cling to a creature who can never become mine!—Insuperable obstacles
separate us forever. Oh, God has tried me hard, almost too hard. She is the
most childlike, the most magnificent creature I know, but engaged, the bride
of another!” (Andersen’s italics).13
He wrote Riborg a highly emotional, but typically Andersenian, love
letter:

I think you have already sensed my feelings, I am not enough of

a man of the world to conceal my heart, and I dream of a hope,
without which my life is lost. DO YOU REALLY LOVE THE OTHER
MAN? ... If [so], then forgive me ... if you have been insulted by
this letter, then give me permission to see you once more ... for
three months my heart and my thoughts have been obsessed ...
now I can live in this uncertainty no longer, I must know your
decision. But forgive me, please forgive me! I was unable to act
otherwise. Good-bye!

In the very act of declaring his love, his letter already contains resignation
and farewell.14
By April he is, or at least appears to be, all over this infatuation.15 His
head, and his letters, are full of plans for a trip through Germany, and by May
he writes travelogues about it. It was not Riborg Voigt who was to become
his dark cloud; but rather it was the awkward, mysteriously abortive nature
of the encounter, a failure of nerve in romantic situations, that was to remain
characteristic of him, and of which we shall have more to say.
The journey itself was no doubt to serve as a distraction, but not only
from the pains of love. His heart was much more vulnerable, and far more
often injured, by the arrows of criticism. His happiness depended on a smile,
and a frown could precipitate him into despair. “I am a peculiar creature,” he
writes, “so easily distrustful of humanity, I find the world cold and dark; but
a single friendly word, and I am reconciled with all of you.”16 He hid his hurt
feelings behind an arrogance that was considered “the most unbearable
vanity ... it was more than I could bear to hear [something] said sternly and
jeeringly, by others; and if I then uttered a proud, an inconsiderate word, it
was addressed to the scourge with which I was smitten; and when those who
smite are those we love, then do the scourges become scorpions” (FT, 71).
 The Fairy Tale of Andersen’s Life 15

In other words, he had become so hypersensitive and disagreeable that

Collin sent him away for his own good and that of his friends. On the
journey he was to rebuild his damaged pride in a manner that, again, became
characteristic of him: he collected, and basked in, the attentions of famous
men and women.
In the beginning these were mainly writers and artists to whom he
managed to gain entry. On his first trip, in 1831 in Dresden, he met Tieck,
the famous translator of Shakespeare, who “on taking leave of me, embraced
and kissed me; which made the deepest impression on me” (FT, 72). And in
Berlin he had an introduction to Chamisso (FT, 73), the author of Peter
Schlemiehl and a good poet, who eventually translated some of Andersen’s
poems into German.17 Upon returning to Copenhagen he promptly
published his travel impressions, Shadow Pictures, as he eventually was to do
after almost all of his journeys.
Two years later he journeyed to Paris, where one day “A man of Jewish
cast came toward me. ‘I hear you are a Dane,’ said he. ‘I am a German: Danes
and Germans are brothers, therefore I offer you my hand!’ I asked for his
name and he said: ‘Heinrich Heine’!” Together with Sir Walter Scott and E.
T.A. Hoffmann, Heine had exerted the most formative influence on
Andersen’s youth. “There was no man I could have wished more to see and
meet with” (FT, 88).
This is, at least in the early years of Andersen’s travels, the only
instance of someone introducing himself to Andersen, rather than vice versa;
and, considering Heine’s feelings about “being a German,” the episode is
somewhat questionable. Doubt seems even more justified in the light of what
happened between them ten years later. Andersen reports in his diary on 26
March 1843 that he visited Heine, and he raves, “He received me graciously.
He wanted me to believe that he had forgotten his German, that now all his
joys and sufferings were French (his wife is a Frenchwoman); that for him
Scandinavia is the only place where the treasures of poetry can still be found;
and that, were he not so old, he would study Danish. He is interested in elves
and goblins.”18 But Heine raved decidedly less. He wrote later, “Andersen
called on me ... I thought he looked like a tailor. He is a lean man with a
hollow lantern-jaw face, and in his outward appearance he betrays a servile
lack of self-confidence which is appreciated by dukes and princes. He
fulfilled exactly a prince’s idea of a poet. When he visited me he had decked
himself out with a big tie-pin. I asked him what it was he had put there. He
replied very unctuously: ‘It is a present which the Electress of Hessen has
been gracious enough to bestow on me.’ Otherwise he is a man of some
spirit.”19
16 Wolfgang Lederer

In 1833 Andersen was not yet collecting dukes and princes, but he was
rapidly heading that way. He did manage to meet Victor Hugo in Paris, the
philosopher Schelling in Munich, the sculptor Thorwaldsen in Rome, and
the dramatist Grillparzer in Vienna.
There followed a hiatus until, in 1838, the Danish Prime Minister,
Count Rantzau-Breitenburg, had obtained for him from King Frederick VI
an adequate travel stipend. But in 1840 Andersen set out on an extended
journey. Having visited the Count in his ancestral castle in Holstein, he
traveled—for the first time by railway—to Leipzig. There he engaged in a
little game he was to play many times later on. He had heard that
Mendelssohn-Bartoldi had enjoyed one of his novels, and had issued a vague
invitation for Andersen to visit him if ever he came through Leipzig. Being
told that Mendelssohn was rehearsing at the Gewandthaus, Andersen sent in
a note to the effect that “a traveller was very anxious to call on him.” The
composer emerged, sorely vexed: “‘I have but very little time, and I really
cannot talk here with strangers!’ he said. ‘You have invited me yourself,’
answered I, ‘you have told me that I must not pass through the city without
seeing you!’—‘Andersen!’ cried he now, ‘is it you?’ and his whole
countenance beamed” (FT, 157). In this manner Andersen, over and over
again—approaching strangers at first anonymously and then “revealing”
himself—tested and heightened the favorable reception he could receive, the
confirmation of his fame he could enjoy.
He continued his journey to Rome, Naples, Malta, and Athens—where
he was a dinner guest of the King of Greece—and on to Constantinople,
where he “found a cordial reception with the Austrian internuncius, Baron
Stuermer,” and crossed the Bosporus to Asia Minor to see the dancing
dervishes in Scutari and Pera.20 From Constantinople he meant to continue
his journey to the mouth of the Danube and thence upstream to Vienna.
It should be pointed out that travel in those days was far from simple,
far from safe, and mostly incredibly wearisome. Steamships and railways
were just beginning to be built, and were sooty and most uncomfortable.
Post chaises were much worse. A journey from Denmark to Italy could take
weeks; the roads, especially over the mountains, were hazardous and dusty.
The few existing inns were bad, their beds crawling with vermin. In the
winter months heating was inadequate, and in the summer there was no
defense against mosquitoes. Highwaymen were not uncommon and public
conveyances often had to be accompanied by an armed guard. It was not
exactly the sort of experience one would have expected someone of
Andersen’s finicky sensibilities to venture—much less to enjoy. In addition,
his own quirks greatly aggravated the stresses of reality. He was afraid of
 The Fairy Tale of Andersen’s Life 17

dogs; he had such agoraphobia that he needed an escort to traverse a large

square. He was so afraid of fire that he always carried a rope in his trunk so
that, if necessary, he could escape through an upstairs hotel window. During
the night he had to get up several times to assure himself that the candle had
been properly extinguished; this in spite of the fact that he had himself,
before he went to bed, carefully pinched the wick between his damp
fingers.21 He worried obsessively whether his passport was in order and had
the required visas, whether he had locked the door to his room, whether he
had paid the right amount in the right currency, whether someone was out
to rob or murder him, and so on. “Oh, how good I am at tormenting myself!”
he wrote.22 But there was a stubborn streak in him whenever he had set his
mind on something.
In this instance he was told that the proposed journey was not to be
advised. The country was in revolt; it was said there had been several
thousand Christians murdered. He was urged to give up the Danube route,
and to return via Greece and Italy.

I do not belong to the courageous; I feel fear, especially in little

dangers; but in great ones, and when an advantage is to be won,
then I have a will, and it has grown firmer with years. I may
tremble, I may fear, but I still do that which I consider the most
proper to be done. I am not ashamed to confess my weakness; I
hold that when out of our own true conviction we run counter to
our inborn fear, we have done our duty. I had a strong desire to
... traverse the Danube ... I battled with myself; my imagination
painted to me the most horrible circumstances; it was an anxious
night. In the morning ... I determined upon it. From the moment
that I had taken my determination I had the most immovable
reliance on Providence, and flung myself calmly on my fate.
(FT, 167)

There were some exciting moments, some shooting, and the

discomfort and boredom of ten days’ quarantine at the Austrian border, in a
building “only arranged to receive Wallachian peasants,” with paved rooms,
horrid provisions, and worse wine. The trip from Constantinople to Vienna
took three weeks. Upon his return to Copenhagen he published his travel
book, A Poet’s Bazaar.
In 1843 he again went to Paris and this time, in addition to Victor
Hugo, visited Lamartine, Alexandre Dumas, Alfred de Vigny, Balzac, Scribe,
Gautier, and, as mentioned, once again Heine. On the return trip he
18 Wolfgang Lederer

managed to take in the poet Freiligrath in the Rhine town of St. Goar and
the writers Moritz Arndt and Emanuel Geibel in Bonn. 1844 took him to
Berlin to meet the composer Meyerbeer, and later to Weimar: “The reigning
Grand Duke and Duchess gave me so gracious and kind a reception.” But it
was when he met the hereditary Grand Duke and his lady—a newly married
princely pair—that his heart was deeply moved. More about this later.
From Weimar he traveled to Leipzig for a “truly poetical evening” with
Robert and Clara Schumann. Andersen was delighted by the reception, and
by the fact that Robert had set four of his poems to music.23 Clara said of
him later, “Andersen is the ugliest man imaginable, but he looks very
interesting and has a poetically childlike mind.”24 Apparently the King
(Christian VIII) and Queen of Denmark thought so too, for that summer
they invited him to stay with them at a spa on the North Frisian Island of
Foehr: “It was just now five-and-twenty years since I, a poor lad, travelled
alone and helpless to Copenhagen. Exactly the five-and-twentieth
anniversary would be celebrated by my being with my king and queen, to
whom I was faithfully attached, and whom I at that very time learned to love
with my whole soul.... The reality frequently surpasses the most beautiful
dream” (FT, 220).
This should have been the pinnacle of his success and he should have
been content. But, alas, his autobiography goes on, and it degenerates into a
tedious recital of royalties visited and honors, medals, and decorations
received. He visited Prince Radziwill in Berlin; received the Order of the
Dannebrog from the King of Denmark; visited King Friedrich August II of
Saxony; was introduced to the Grand Duchess Sophie of Austria, to
Archduke Stephan, and to the future Emperor Franz Joseph; and so on and
so on. There was no shortage of little countries, or of big ones—and they all
had royalty to be visited and to be made much of.
He is aware of the effect he is creating: “It may appear perhaps, as if I
desired to bring names of great people prominently forward, and to make a
parade of them; or as if I wished in this way to offer a kind of thanks to my
benefactors. They need it not, and I should be obliged to mention many
other names still” (TS, 169). And he does mention other names, such as
during his visit, in 1847, to England. From there he wrote to Jonas Collin’s
son Edvard: “Here is a paper which says that I am ‘one of the most
remarkable and interesting men of this day.’ Last night I made my first
appearance, and that in the most select society. I was at Lord Palmerston’s. I
talked to the Duke of Cambric [sic], the Duchess of Sutherland ... everyone
knew my writing; in the end I was surrounded by fine ladies who talked of
my tales ... I grew quite giddy, but not with pride.”25
 The Fairy Tale of Andersen’s Life 19

He was lionized as never before: invitations poured in from Lord

Stanley, Lord Castlereagh, the Rothschilds, and so on. He even received an
invitation from Prince Albert to visit him and Queen Victoria in Scotland,
but there his nerve, and his purse—he would have had to hire a valet—failed
him and, under many and bitter tears, he declined.26
When he had chronicled all this assiduously in his autobiography, there
was one friend, who knew him well, who protested. He had sent the
manuscript to Henriette Wulff, an old and wise friend. A hunchbacked
spinster of great intelligence and warmth, she truly cared for him. She wrote:

To me it is a total denial of oneself, of one’s own person, of the

gifts God has graciously given us, such an incomprehensible self-
humiliation that I am surprised when somebody like YOU,
Andersen—if you do recognize that God has given you special
spiritual gifts—that YOU can consider yourself HAPPY and
HONOURED to be placed—well, that is what it says—at the
table of the King of Prussia or of some other high-ranking
person—or to receive a decoration, of the kind worn by the
greatest scoundrels, not to mention a swarm of extremely
insignificant people. Do you really place a title, money,
aristocratic blood, success in what is nothing but outward
matters, ABOVE genius—spirit—the gifts of the soul?27

Andersen had no answer.28

Why indeed the parade of stars? What for? Why did he strive so
mightily to be accepted and flattered by the great? And why does he—with
all professed “humility”—make such a show of it?
To some extent, no doubt, the description of his spectacular ascent up
the artistic and social register serves the legitimate and well-deserved end of
illustrating the laborious metamorphosis of the poor cobbler’s son into a
world-renowned man of letters—the metamorphosis of the ugly duckling
into a swan. Nor shall we begrudge him a word of his triumph. However, it
is hard, in spite of his disclaimer, not to see in the recital of famous
personalities and in his attachment to them, a certain sycophantic quality: a
wish and need to derive from their company and approval a sense of security
he basically lacked.29 In this regard he failed completely. He continued to
play, with regard to the great, as in his far more sustaining attachments to
more faithful but less famous people (the Collin family above all) the role of
a child. The quality he was lacking, and the lack of which he wished to
conceal or to compensate for, was manhood.30 In this regard he had failed,
20 Wolfgang Lederer

at the age of twenty-five, with Riborg Voigt. He was to try seriously only
once more—and fail finally—at the age of thirty-five, with the famous
operatic singer Jenny Lind.31
He was thirty-five, and she twenty, when they first met. She was already
a well-known singer in Stockholm, and he a writer of rising fame. When he
learned that she, in company with her father, was visiting Copenhagen, he
felt it proper and appropriate to call on her. She received him “very
courteously, but yet distantly, almost coldly”; recoiling in his sensitive
manner, he gained “the impression of a very ordinary character which soon
passed from my mind.”
She was back three years later, and as friends assured him she now knew
of him and had read his works, he permitted himself to visit her again. This
time, indeed, he received a cordial welcome. He encouraged her to perform
in Copenhagen. When she did, she was an instant success and won
enthusiastic acclaim. His own view of her changed in resonance to her
cordiality: she was not only the best singer and actress of her time, but “at
home, in her own chamber, a sensitive young girl with all the humility and
piety of a child” (TS, 209). We cannot help but notice the emphasis, and he
repeats, so that we should not forget: “An intelligent and child-like
disposition exercises here its astonishing power” (TS, 213). Must he indeed,
and at all cost, see her as a child? There is, apparently, only one alternative:
“Her appearance in Copenhagen made an epoch in the history of our opera;
it showed me art in its sanctity—I had beheld one of its vestals ... she is a pure
vessel, from which a holy draught will be presented to us.” If she is not to be
a child, then she must be and remain “pure,” a holy virgin, untouchable.
So, at least, reads the autobiography. But his diary, in the fall of 1843,
when he was thirty-eight, reads: “In love,” and “I love her.”32 They were
meeting daily at that time, and when she left for home, he gave her a letter
of which his diary records: “She must understand.” She no doubt
understood, but she made her position clear: she loved him like a brother. He
was bitterly hurt—as he many years later expressed in some of his stories
(such as Under the Willow Tree)—but he soon settled into resignation.
They met, off and on, in the years to follow. At Christmas 1845, they
were both in Berlin. He spent a lonely Christmas Eve in his hotel. Was it, as
he claims, because “every one of the many families in which I ... was received
as a relation had fancied ... that I must be invited out [elsewhere]”? (TS,
2.63–64). Or was he hoping for an invitation by Jenny? At any rate, when she
heard of his solitary Christmas, “there was (on the last evening of the year)
planted for me alone a little tree with its lights, and its beautiful presents—
and that was by Jenny Lind. The whole company consisted of herself, her
 The Fairy Tale of Andersen’s Life 21

attendant, and me; we three children from the North were together on
Sylvester [New Year’s] eve, and I was the child for which the Christmas-tree
was lighted.” This “child” was now forty years old, and apparently quite
resigned to remaining a lonely bachelor for the rest of his life.
Not that he was ever really alone.
He never owned a house of its own. By preference he stayed on as a
houseguest in the homes of hospitable families—as he once stayed on, for
five weeks and much beyond his welcome, at the house of Charles Dickens.33
The description of him, written years later by Dickens’s son, Sir Henry
Dickens, paints a vivid picture:

He turned out to be a lovable and yet a somewhat uncommon

and strange personality. His manner was delightfully simple, such
as one rather expected from the delicacy of his work. He was
necessarily very interesting, but he was certainly somewhat of an
“oddity.” In person, tall, gaunt, rather ungainly; in manner,
thoughtful and agreeable. He had one beautiful accomplishment,
which was the cutting out in paper, with an ordinary pair of
scissors, of little figures of sprites and elves, gnomes, fairies and
animals of all kinds which might have stepped out of the pages of
his books.... Much as there was in him to like and admire, he was,
on the other hand, most decidedly disconcerting in his general
manner, for he used constantly to be doing things, quite
unconsciously, which might almost be called “gauche,” so much
so that I am afraid the small boys in the family rather laughed at
him behind his back; but, so far as the members of the family are
concerned, he was treated with the utmost consideration and
courtesy.34

Dickens himself poked fun at him: “We are suffering a good deal from
Andersen,” he wrote (in a letter). “The other day we lost him when he came
up to London Bridge Terminus, and he took a cab by himself. The cabman
driving him through the new unfinished streets at Clerkenwell, he thought
was driving him into remote fastnesses, to rob and murder him. He
consequently arrived here with all his money, his watch, his pocketbook, and
documents, in his boots—and it was a tremendous business to unpack him
and get them off.” When Andersen departed, Dickens put up a card over the
dressing-table mirror: “Hans Andersen slept in this room for five weeks—
which seemed to the family ages!”35
Not mentioned in Dickens’ description is the usual manner in which
22 Wolfgang Lederer

Andersen “sang for his supper” in his later years. Typically he would recite
tales in the family circle after dinner or in the nursery. As his skill in that
genre became renowned, he grew to resemble exactly the storyteller
surrounded by children that we fancy him to have been.
When he did not stay at someone else’s house or country mansion—
and he appears to have stayed at more than thirty—he lived in rented rooms,
or at a hotel. His popularity was such, and he knew so many ladies who were
to him as mothers or grandmothers, that one or the other or several of them
would invariably come to his quarters to look after him and to furnish his
rooms with flowers.36
Through much of his life the house of Jonas Collin was his “home of
homes,” a place where he always felt welcome and always found
understanding and loyal support. Jonas himself had directed his youth, and
his son Edvard, whom Andersen regarded as a brother, became, though three
years younger than Hans Christian, his business manager and practical
adviser in all matters regarding publications and finances. It is characteristic
of Andersen that he submitted—no doubt profitably—to this management,
even though Edvard, as stern as father Jonas, grated on him: “No matter how
much affection ties me to Edvard, I still feel that he cannot be a real friend
to me! It may be that the very qualities which give him character become
cutting edges which injure my sensibilities.”37
When, after the death of Jonas Collin in 1861, that “home of homes”
broke up, two highly respected Jewish families from Copenhagen, the
Henriques and the Melchiors, became increasingly important to him and
more or less “took over.” Mrs. Dorothea Melchior, in particular, saw in
motherly fashion after his physical and emotional wellbeing and in the end
became his nurse. He died at her summer villa, just outside of Copenhagen,
on 4 August 1875, shortly after his seventieth birthday.

NOTES

1. All his life Andersen considered this his “fateful date,” though he later changed it
to 6 September to conform with a printing error in his autobiography. It was also on that
day that he was recommended for a study grant by the Royal Theatre. He memorialized
the date every year until his death, though eventually in an increasingly despondent mood
(Niels Birger Wamberg, “H.C. Andersen og hans skæbnedato,” Anderseniana, 1970–73,
pp. 188–204).
2. “He thought of going all the way back to Funen by boat in the hope that the ship
would sink and he would be drowned” (Bredsdorff, Hans Christian Andersen, 31). His
predicament was in truth quite serious, and later on he formulated it like this: “When the
sculptor commences modelling the clay, we do not yet understand the work of art which
he will create.... How much more difficult is it then to discover in the child the worth and
 The Fairy Tale of Andersen’s Life 23

fate of the man! We here see the poor boy ... the instinct within him, and the influence
without, show, like the magnetic needle, only two opposite directions. He must either
become a distinguished artist or a miserable, confused being.” And he feared both
alternatives: “A rare artist must he become, or a miserable bungler—a sparrow-hawk with
yellow wings, which for his superiority is pecked to death by its companions” (Only a
Fiddler, 40, 41).
3. TS, 47. With reference to this episode, Helge Topsøe-Jensen and Paul V. Rubow,
“Hans Christian Andersen the Writer,” American-Scandinavian Review 18 (1930): 205–12,
comment that, despite Andersen’s constant appeals to God he was “in his religious action
and reaction like a savage ... what he actually did was to use magic ... whether he had
learned it of the witches or invented it himself” (210–11).
4. Andersen was so absorbed in his theatrical activities that he found no time to
study or even to make little excursions out of town. But he did learn somewhat how to
conduct himself with poise and a certain elegance, and acquired a sense of language and
music that later stood him in good stead (Povl Ingerslev-Jensen, “Statist Andersen,”
Anderseniana, 1970–73, pp. 137–87). The roles he was permitted to play have been
reconstructed through a survey of the costumes of the time, preserved at the Royal
Theatre (Frederick J. Marker, “H.C. Andersen as a Royal Theatre Actor,” Anderseniana,
1966–69, pp. 278–84).
5. Bredsdorff, Hans Christian Andersen, 39–40.
6. Ibid., 44.
7. Julius Clausen, “Young Hans Christian Andersen,” American-Scandinavian Review
43 (1955): 47–52, 51.
8. Meisling had grounds for criticism. Andersen, while adept at mathematics, was
surprisingly poor in Latin and spelling, and these shortcomings he feared would eventually
keep him out of the University. A recent study suggests that the problem was not cultural
or characterological but neurological. Andersen, it is claimed, must have been
constitutionally dyslexic, with auditory and visual defects—a complicated word-blindness
and dysgrammaticism with clumsy sentence construction. If this diagnosis is correct, it
could offer an additional reason for Andersen’s “oral” style of writing (Axel Rosendal,
“Årsagerne til H.C. Andersen stavevanskeligheder,” Anderseniana, 1974–77, pp. 160–84).
Regardless of the validity of this contention, it is certainly true that Meisling traumatized
Andersen deeply. Nightmares about him troubled the writer all his life, and only close to
his death did he have a dream in which something like a reconciliation with Meisling takes
place (Bredsdorff, Hans Christian Andersen, 67–68).
9. Bredsdorff, Hans Christian Andersen, 70.
10. Journey on Foot to Amager; Love on Saint Nicolas’ Tower.
11. Spink, Hans Christian Andersen and His World, 33–34.
12. Andersen, Der Dichter and die Welt, 44–45.
13. Ibid., 47.
14. Bredsdorff, Hans Christian Andersen, 76–77.
15. Otto, the hero of O.T., writes: “Was I not once convinced that I loved Sophie, and
that I never could bear it if she were lost to me? and yet it needed only the conviction ‘She
loves thee not,’ and my strong feeling was dead. Sophie even seems to me less beautiful; I
see faults where I formerly could only discover amiabilities! Now, she is to me almost
wholly a stranger” (253).
16. He never overcame his distrust, but knew himself well enough to see it and to
24 Wolfgang Lederer

deplore it. Thus he writes in his diary in 1850: “I felt I was bound to him. His friendship
was a greening palm against which I rested my head. Then along came a certain woman
and I said to her: ‘My faith is in him!’ ‘Your faith!’ she repeated, smiling. Oh, in that smile
there was devouring death. It breathed over my tree, which seemed to bend; I grew dizzy.
Oh, what a deadly poison filled the air in that instant,—I grieve that he could change
toward me, could be the first of us to feel less warmly! And yet in that instant I too felt the
same change. I distrust him. I can be shaken in my faith merely by a mocking smile” (Carl
Lorain Withers, “The Private Notebook of H.C. Andersen,” The Forum 78 [1927]:
417–29, 421).
17. Heinrich Harries, “H.C. Andersen and Heinrich Zeise,” Anderseniana, 1962–65,
pp. 233–95, 236. Oddly enough, one of these poems, “Der Soldat,” beginning with “Es
geht mit gedämpfter Trommeln Klang” (Adalbert von Chamisso, Chamissos Werke [Leipzig
und Wien: Meyers Klassiker Ausgaben, 1907], vol. 1, 134), became a typically death-loving
marching song of the German army (Lederer, The Fear of Women, 262–65). The popular
tune is not by Schumann—who also set this same poem to music—but by a man named
Friedrich Silcher, who composed it in 1837 (Gerhard Pallman and Ernst Lothar von
Knorr, Soldaten Kameraden [Hamburg: Hanseatische Verlagsanstalt, 1942]). It is also odd
in other ways. Among the poems translated by Chamisso, it is the only military one. The
others deal in more typically Andersenian fashion with a little girl expecting a brother to
be born out of a fountain (“Die kleine Liese am Brunnen”); a young man watching smiling
blue eyes through ice-flowers on a windowpane (“Märzveilchen”—the last line reading
“God help him when the ice-flowers melt!”); a mother daydreaming happily about the
future of her baby boy who, according to the ravens, is some day to be hanged as a robber
(“Muttertraum”); a fiddler who has to play at his beloved’s wedding (“Der Spielmann”);
and a rejected lover who, having to live in the same house with his now-married beloved,
longs for death (“Der Müllergesell”). “Der Soldat” (“The Soldier”) is, for all I know, the
only poem Andersen wrote in that vein, the only time he ever wrote anything about a real
soldier—and one could well wonder: whatever got into him? He claims in his
autobiography (FT, 5) that the poem was inspired by his witnessing the execution of the
Spanish soldier in 1808. But was it? Is the execution the main thing, or is it a love poem?
I am offering a rough translation, so that the reader may judge:

The muffled drums mark our pace

How long yet the road, how far the place
Oh, were it but over and he were at rest
My heart is breaking in my chest.

I’ve loved just him as long as I live

Him alone, who now his life must give.
To martial music we reach the square
I too, I too am commanded there.

Now for the last time does he sight

God’s world bathed in joyful light
Now they are binding tight his eyes
God take you up into paradise!
 The Fairy Tale of Andersen’s Life 25

The nine of us took aim at last

Eight bullets simply whistled past
Their aim by grief and pain was marr’d
But I, I shot him through the heart.

18. F. J. Billeskov Jansen, “Quelques extraits du Journal Parisien,” Adam International

Review 22, nos. 248–49 (1955) 38.
19. Grindea, “The Triumphant Ugly Duckling,” 3.
20. Bredsdorff, Hans Christian Andersen, 149.
21. Julius Clausen, “H.C. Andersen Abroad and At Home,” American-Scandinavian
Review 18 (1930): 228–34, 229.
22. Bredsdorff, Hans Christian Andersen, 150, 286–88.
23. FT, 215, and Peter Ostwald, Schumann (Boston: Northeastern University Press,
1985), 163–64.
24. Miron Grindea, Editorial Comment, Adam International Review 22, no. 248–49
(1955) 2.
25. Bredsdorff, “H.C. Andersen in Britain,” 22.
26. Bredsdorff, Hans Christian Andersen, 194–95.
27. Ibid., 234.
28. He did give an answer, of sorts, toward the end of his, life when, at sixty-five, he
published the long story—or short novel—Lucky Peer, a deeply cynical and pessimistic
work. There a wise mentor, an Edvard Collin figure, whom Andersen, perhaps in
acknowledgment of the loving care he was then receiving from the Melchior family, makes
a Jew, tells the spectacularly successful singer and composer Peer: “How young you are,
dear friend, that it can please you to be with these people! In a way they are good enough,
but they look down on us plain citizens. For some of them it is only a matter of vanity, an
amusement, and for others a sort of sign of exclusive culture, when they receive into their
circles artists and the lions of the day. These belong in the salon much as the flowers in a
vase; they decorate and then they are thrown away” (The Complete Andersen, Longer
Stories, 373). Lucky Peer, incidentally, is “lucky” not just in his career, but above all
because he drops dead at the height of it, being thus spared the many years of decline that
Andersen suffered—and from having to ask for the hand of the now willing aristocratic
young lady he loved. “Lucky Peer! More fortunate than millions!” (384).
29. In 1837 he wrote to Henriette Hanck: “My name is gradually beginning to shine,
and that is the only thing for which I live. I covet honour and glory in the same way the
miser covets gold; both are probably empty, but one has to have something to strive for in
this world, otherwise one would collapse and rot” (Bredsdorff, Hans Christian Andersen,
134). The famous Danish critic, Georg Brandes, wrote in 1869—and Andersen, then sixty-
four, must have been smarting when he read it—that “the criticism that can with justice be
made of Andersen’s ‘Story of my Life’ is not so much that the author is throughout
occupied with his own private affairs (for that is quite natural in such a work); it is that his
personality is scarcely ever occupied with anything greater than itself, is never absorbed in
an idea, is never entirely free from the ego. The revolution of 1848 in this book affects us
as though we heard someone sneeze; we are astonished to be reminded by the sound that
there is a world outside of the author” (Creative Spirits of the Nineteenth Century [New York:
Thomas Y. Crowell, 1923], 40).
26 Wolfgang Lederer

30. Brandes, who knew Andersen personally, wrote of him:

A great man he did become. A man never. It never occurred to him for one
second of his life that he might for once, in a good cause, attack the mighty
... only one fundamental trait, one untiring, all-consuming, all absorbing
ambition never faltered nor failed for one moment of his long life ... to
become famous, to be honored and considered, feted and paid homage to! ...
He writes with amazing frankness: “Only in being admired by all can my soul
find happiness; the most unimportant person who does not do so has power
to make me feel despondent!” He trembled before every breath of wind that
might rend a leaf from his laurel tree.
(“Hans Christian Andersen,”
Contemporary Review 87 [1905]: 640–56, 640–41)

31. There was another, “unserious”—meaning halfhearted—infatuation. Andersen

met the Countess Mathilde Barck, seventeen years of age, in Scania in 1839, and felt
himself “leaning towards” her. He alludes to her in his Picture Book Without Pictures: “A
poet whispered a name which he begged the wind not to betray—a count’s coronet
sparkles above it, and therefore he did not say it aloud.” A correspondence ensued, but by
25 January 1844, he wrote to a friend: “I think you have heard me mention Countess Barck
... one of the most beautiful girls I have seen. Some years ago she made a strong impression
on me. I almost think I could have fallen in love with her, but it did not happen, a poor
poet and a countess—I went away!” (Elias Bredsdorff, “H.C. Andersen og Mathilda
Barck,” Anderseniana, 1974–77, pp. 137–57).
32. Spink, Hans Christian Andersen and His World, 74.
33. A detailed account of Andersen’s relationship with Dickens (“A Friendship and its
Dissolution”) is given by Elias Bredsdorff “Hares Andersen and Charles Dickens,”
Anglistica, vol. 7 (Copenhagen: Rosenkilde and Bagger, 1956).
34. Quoted from Spink, Hans Christian Andersen and His World, 92.
35. Ibid., 94. The italics are Dickens’s; but we cannot fail to notice once again the
importance of boots (or shoes) in Andersen’s scheme of things.
36. He was sixty-two years old before he could be persuaded to buy himself his first
bed. He wrote: “Now I am going to have a house, even a bed, my own bed; it terrifies me!
I am being weighed down by furniture, bed and rocking chair, not to mention books and
paintings.... I have had to invest one hundred rix dollars in a bed, and it is going to be my
death-bed, for if it does not last that long, then it isn’t worth the money. I wish I were only
twenty, then I’d take my inkpot on my back, two shirts and a pair of socks, put a quill at
my side and go into the wide world” (Bredsdorff, Hans Christian Andersen, 251).
37. Andersen, Der Dichter und die Welt, 70.
 WOLFGANG LEDERER

Andersen’s Literary Work

T he past chapter has, in barest outline, sketched Andersen’s rise to fame;

it has not even mentioned that on which his fame was based, nor shall we
discuss it in any detail now. But since we are primarily concerned with The
Snow Queen, it would behoove us to look briefly at Andersen’s opus insofar as
it comes before or after and thereby assign The Snow Queen its proper place
in the whole picture.
A surprise immediately awaits us, for surely most American readers are
unaware that Andersen wrote anything but fairy tales, or that this unique
genre did not begin to occupy him—and tentatively at that—until relatively
late in his career.
We are, of course, somewhat prepared for this: we know that his chief
passion was the stage, ever since his father put on plays with him before he
was eleven years old, and that the most illustrious title, to his mind, was that
of a poet. So it is not surprising that his first efforts aimed along those lines.
We already know of several of these early efforts. A “national tragedy,”
The Robbers of Wissenberg, was written when he was barely sixteen. It
contained so many errors that, as he says, “there was scarcely a word in it
correctly written,” and it was returned to him by the director of the Royal
Theatre with the notation: “People do not frequently wish to retain works
which betray, in so great a degree, a want of elementary knowledge” (TS, 59).

From The Kiss of the Snow Queen: Hans Christian Andersen and Man’s Redemption by Woman. ©
1986 by The Regents of the University of California.

27
28 Wolfgang Lederer

His second effort, a tragedy entitled Alfsol, was again rejected, but it showed
enough promise to gain him financial support and entrance to the grammar
school already mentioned. His first poem, The Dying Child, written during
the unhappy days of Slagelse when he was twenty-two, is touching and sad
without sentimentality and stands up remarkably well:

Mother, I am tired, I’ll drowse away.

By your heart I’ll find my sleeping place.
Promise me you’ll weep no more today
For your salt tears burn upon my face.
Here it’s cold, outside the wind is wild ...1

His first published work, it was well received.

He had two other minor successes when he was about twenty-four: a
whimsical Walking Tour from Holmen’s Canal to the Eastern Point of Amager
(two locations within Copenhagen), and a parody on Schiller, a verse play
called Love on St. Nicholas Tower. There followed travel pieces, opera libretti,
and more poems. When he was twenty-eight, he produced a verse drama,
Agnete and the Merman, which was such a flop that critics considered him
“finished.” His despair can be imagined, but he pulled himself together and
two years later came out with a more or less autobiographical novel, The
Improvisatore, which was an immediate success.
He wrote several more novels: two during the ensuing two years, both
autobiographical (O.T. and Only a Fiddler), and three in his later years,
finishing the last one when he was sixty-five. None of them, though not
without some merit, would have assured him popularity in his lifetime, much
less immortality. The last one, Lucky Peer, was eventually omitted from the
first Collected Edition to be brought out in America—which in any case had
omitted all his dramatic and lyrical efforts. The public, it appeared, was
interested only in his fairy tales, not in his novels and travel books.2 These
are still read in Scandinavian countries,3 though his operatic libretti, of
which he wrote a number, have, to the best of my knowledge, vanished there
also. Some of these works, though far from all, were well received in his day,
but a good many met a highly critical and derogatory reception—particularly
in his own country—and caused him much anguish and many a fit of deep
depression.
What saved him from despair while he was alive, and from oblivion
after his death, were, of course, the fairy tales. The first batch came out while
he was riding high, a month after the successful Improvisatore. He called it
Tales Told for Children, and included in it The Tinder Box, Little Claus and Big
 Andersen’s Literary Work 29

Claus, The Princess on the Pea, and Little Ida’s Flowers. With the exception of
the last, they were Danish folktales, retold.4 Even so, the critics declared
them utterly unfit for children, full of violence and immorality, and in bad
style at that.5 The first published review of his first tales ran like this:

Among Mr. Andersen’s tales the first three, “The Tinder Box,”
“Little Claus and Big Claus,” and “The Princess on the Pea,”
may well amuse children, but they will certainly not have any
edifying effect, and your reviewer cannot answer for their being
harmless reading. At any rate, no one can possibly contend that a
child’s sense of propriety is increased by reading about a princess
who goes riding off in her sleep on a dog’s back to visit a soldier
who kisses her, after which she herself, wide awake, tells of this
incident as “a curious dream”; or that a child’s idea of modesty is
increased by reading about a farmer’s wife who, while her
husband is away, sits down at a table alone with the parish clerk,
“and she kept filling up his glass for him, and he kept helping
himself to the fish—he was very fond of fish”; or that a child’s
respect for human life is increased by reading about episodes like
that of Big Claus killing his grandmother and of Little Claus
killing him, told as if it were just a bull being knocked on the
head. The tale of the Princess on the Pea strikes the reviewer as
being not only indelicate but quite unpardonable, in so far that a
child may acquire the false impression that so august a lady must
always be terribly sensitive.6

Andersen was admonished to stop wasting his time on such unworthy

material and indeed he himself seems at first to have been in doubt as to the
value of these stories. He was, after all, working almost without precedent.
Up to the middle of the seventeenth century children listened to the same
stories as the adults, and nothing was tailored especially for them. When the
first texts for children appeared, they considered a child “a damned soul who
must be saved from perdition by a rigorous pietism. Children were not born
to live happily but to die holy and true. Education lay in preparing the soul
to meet its maker. The result of this was a crop of seventeenth-century books
zealously depicting for children the holy lives and joyous deaths of their little
contemporaries.”7 The first book of fantasy especially for children was Tales
of Mother Goose by Charles Perrault, published in France in 1697 and not in
English translation until 1729. It was only the Romantics who began to
appreciate folktales and who considered the possibility that children were, by
30 Wolfgang Lederer

nature, perhaps not all bad.8 The Brothers Grimm were contemporaries of
Andersen’s (and he had his typical meeting with them, arranging first to be
rejected and then admired), but they merely recorded, in anthropological
fashion, orally transmitted folktales. So Andersen was indeed breaking new
ground, and he had reason for apprehension.
But he persevered despite the critics and, almost, as if he could not help
himself. These stories wanted to be written, wanted out.9 In that same year
of 1835 three more appeared, and from then on he published several stories
each year—usually before Christmas—until he was sixty-eight years old. In
1843, when he was thirty-eight, and eight years after he had published the
first tales, he wrote in a letter:

I believe that I have now found out how to write fairy tales! The
first ones I wrote were, as you know, mostly old ones I had heard
as a child and that I retold and recreated in my own fashion; those
that were my very own, such as “The Little Mermaid,” “The
Storks,” “The Daisy,” and so on, received, however, the greatest
approval and that has given me inspiration! Now I tell stories of
my own accord, seize an idea for the adults—and then tell it for
children while still keeping in mind the fact that mother and
father are often listening too, and they must have a little
something for thought.10

From now on his little volumes no longer had the title Fairy Tales Told for
Children, but simply Fairy Tales.
They are very uneven in quality, and if one were graphically inclined,
one could construct a curve with a steep ascent on one side and a lengthy
decline on the other, indicating the quality, or lack thereof, of his output.
The steep ascent starts in his thirty-second year with The Little Mermaid and
The Emperor’s New Clothes. There follow, during the next eight or nine years,
most of the stories we all know and that, all over the Western world and to
this day, form an almost obligatory furnishing of any middle-class nursery:
The Steadfast Tin Soldier, The Ugly Duckling, The Fir Tree, and The Little Match
Girl. Two others, The Red Shoes and The Snow Queen, were written when he
was forty and in love with Jenny Lind. Some twenty-five other stories written
during those years may also be familiar to a good many readers: The Galoshes
of Fortune, The Wild Swans, The Nightingale,11 and The Shepherdess and the
Chimneysweep—among them.
But there followed, after The Little Match Girl, some 120 more stories
spread over the next twenty-seven years. Most of these would be unknown to
 Andersen’s Literary Work 31

most readers, and many of them are repetitive, pedantic, and uninspired—
some emanating a cloying and not very convincing religiosity,12 others
driven by a didactic zeal that blights what poetic or literary merit they may
have. However, sparks of beauty, humor, and sheer genius flash in many of
them, and during Andersen’s lifetime—a time perhaps more sympathetic to
instructive efforts than ours—even these stories were eagerly welcomed and
read. Or was it that the masterpieces of his “golden years” had so enchanted
the world that he could do no wrong, or at least was easily forgiven?
However that may be, it was the stories that earned him his fame, his place
at the most illustrious dinner tables, his personal and close friendship with
the Danish royal family, and no end of honorary medals and titles and
esoteric memberships. There was even the night when, according to the
prophecy of the wise woman who predicted his great future when he wanted
to leave home, Odense was lit up in his honor: on 6 December 1867, the city
council declared him an honorary citizen of Odense, and at the culmination
of a special school holiday a banquet and a torchlight procession were held
in his honor. The ugly duckling had become a swan indeed!
But as to The Snow Queen: where in Andersen’s life and work does it
have its place? At the pinnacle, no doubt: not the pinnacle of his honors,
which came late, as it should; but at the pinnacle of his creativity. Not only
is The Snow Queen one of his longest stories; it is his most inventive and
inspired.13 It is also his most profound. The story is the best he could
produce at the height of his faculties and of his craft. It is the most
consummate expression of what he knew and of who he was.
Having reassured ourselves that we are, indeed, dealing with a crucial
work, we shall now proceed and ask: what is it that this masterpiece has to
tell us, not only about the man who wrote it but perhaps about man in
general, about mankind?

NOTES

1. Hans Christian Andersen, Poems, trans. Murray Brown (Berkeley, Calif.: Elsinore
Press, 1972), 86.
2. Waldemar Westergaard, ed., The Andersen-Scudder Letters (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1949), xxiii.
3. A Poet’s Bazaar (1842), about a journey to Turkey; In Sweden (1851); In Spain
(1863).
4. Paul V. Rubow, “Et vintereventyr,” in Reminiscenser (Copenhagen: Ejnar
Munksgaard, 1940), points out to what degree all of Andersen’s tales are permeated by
motifs common in folktales. But whenever it could be done without stunting the story he
eliminated from them the more cruel and violent features (Sara P. Rodes, “The Wild
Swans,” Anderseniana, 1951–54, pp. 352–67, 353).
32 Wolfgang Lederer

5. Spink, Hans Christian Andersen and His World, 53.

6. Bredsdorff, Hans Christian Andersen, 123–24.
7. Bettina Hürlimann, Three Centuries of Children’s Books in Europe (London: Oxford
University Press, 1967), xii.
8. Ureaka, “Adult Symbolism in the Literary Fairy Tales of the Late Nineteenth
Century,” 18–35.
9. Martin Lotz, “The Object World of Hans Christian Andersen,” Scandinavian
Psychoanalytic Review 6 (1983): 3–19, suggests what may have been driving Andersen to
write his stories: “He found his own way of identifying with his father by telling fairy tales
to children. This was an activity that would remind him of some of the few moments
where he had seen his father happy” (13). He was, in other words, wearing his fathers
shoes.
10. Grønbech, Hans Christian Andersen, 91–92.
11. For a Kleinian interpretation of this story, see Stephen Wilson, “Hans Andersen’s
Nightingale. A Paradigm for the Development of Transference Love,” International Review
of Psychoanalysis 7 (1980): 483–86.
12. W.H. Auden speaks of “the namby-pamby Christianity of some of his heroes”
(“Some Notes on Andersen,” Adam International Review 22, nos. 248–49 [1955]: 12).
13. Ordinarily Andersen rewrote and polished his stories a good deal, and the final
product might be quite different from the first draft (Grønbech, Hans Christian Andersen,
133); but of The Snow Queen he wrote: “It has been sheer joy for me to put on paper my
most recent fairy tale, ‘The Snow Queen’; it permeated my mind in such a way that it came
out dancing over the paper!” (Bredsdorff, Hans Christian Andersen, 177). Indeed he had
begun writing The Snow Queen on 5 December 1844, and it was published in book form
on 21 December! (ibid., 353–54)—a speed, not just of writing but of printing and
publishing, unheard of in our electronic age.
 C E L I A C AT L E T T A N D E R S O N

Andersen’s Heroes and Heroines:

Relinquishing the Reward

H ans Christian Andersen’s fairy tales have sometimes been described as

too adult or too pessimistic for children. For example, May Hill Arbuthnot
in her classic Children and Books, although praising Andersen as an allegorist,
notes that “because of the double meaning, the adult themes, and the sadness
of many of these stories, the whole collection is usually not popular with
children.”1 P. L. Travers found a “devitalizing element” of nostalgia in the
tales.2 Bruno Bettelheim has commented that the conclusions of some of
Andersen’s stories are discouraging in that “they do not convey the feeling of
consolation characteristic of fairy tales,” and Jack Zipes accuses Andersen of
teaching lessons in servility to the young.3 Andersen’s tales continue,
however to be published, read, discussed, and used as a basis for children’s
theater, and the most popular of them have an undeniable appeal for
children. Furthermore, the most popular tales, such as “The Ugly
Duckling,” “The Little Mermaid,” “The Steadfast Tin Soldier,” “The Little
Fir Tree,” and “The Nightingale,” include for the most part, those stories
that were original with Andersen. His view of the world, then, the problems
he poses and the solutions he offers must touch some nerve in us; there must
be something more to them than simple pessimism, more than a servile call
to compromise.
Andersen does indeed often deliberately undercut the facile happy

From Triumphs of the Spirit in Children’s Literature. Edited by Francelia Butler and Richard
Rotert. © 1986 by Francelia Butler.

33
34 Celia Catlett Anderson

ending that is the trademark of fairy tales, but are his many characters who
fail to win a reward defeated in spirit? I would argue that they are not. Take
the one that may be, perhaps, saddest of all his protagonists, the little fir tree
(or pine tree as Erik Haugaard translates it).4 The tree fails to appreciate its
youth in the forest, is bewildered and frightened during its one glorious
evening as a baubled Christmas tree, is exiled to an attic, and there is unable
to hold an audience of mice who want to hear stories of “bacon or candle
stumps” (232), not of “How Humpty-dumpty Fell Down the Stairs but Won
the Princess Anyway” (229). Hauled out into the spring sunlight, the pine
tree is forced to recognize that it is a dead thing among the green renewal of
the season and achieves its one brief moment of wisdom: “If I only could
have been happy while I had a chance to be” (233). Finally the poor tree is
burned, sighing its sap away in shots, and “Every time the tree sighed, it
thought of a summer day in the forest, or a winter night when the stars are
brightest, and it remembered Christmas Eve and Humpty-dumpty: the only
fairy tale it had ever heard and knew how to tell. Then it became ashes”
(233). The tree dies unfulfilled, yes, but in one sense undefeated. It never
loses its vision of the possibility of beauty in the world. Like King Lear, the
tree is ennobled by wisdom that comes too late.
When we read this tale to our son, then eight years old, he had tears in
his eyes and commented that it was the saddest story he had ever heard.
Initially, I judged this as a negative reaction, a rejection of the story, but I was
wrong. He returned to the story again and again. Like the small boy who rips
the golden star from the tree’s branch and pins it to his chest, our son took
something shining from the story and, for all I know, wears it to this day.
Of course not all of Andersen’s tales end sadly. Even considering only
those stories that are not simply retellings of old folktales (and therefore with
conventional conclusions), we can find several types of endings. There are
some which express religious optimism, and some which reward the hero or
heroine with acceptance and love. Stories in the first group are rather self-
consciously overlaid with Christianity and conclude optimistically. To
mention only one of these, consider “The Old Oak Tree’s Last Dream,” a
story quite different in tone and message from “The Pine Tree.” The oak lives
three hundred and sixty-five years, many of them as a landmark for sailors. It
pities the mayflies and flowers for their short existences, but learns in a death
dream of ascension into a joyous heaven that “Nothing has been forgotten,
not the tiniest flower or the smallest bird” (548–49). The story concludes

The tree itself lay stretched out on the snow-covered beach.

From the ship came the sound of sailors singing a carol about the
 Andersen’s Heroes and Heroines 35

joyful season, when Christ was born to save mankind and give us
eternal life. The sailors were singing of the same dream, the
beautiful dream that the old oak tree had dreamed Christmas
Eve: the last night of its life. (549)

At least for the believer, this conclusion is more encouraging than that which
gives the pine tree only ashes of regret.
Another class of stories in Andersen does include more tangible
rewards. In these, the protagonists win acceptance by remaining true to their
natures and persisting in some quest or duty. “The Ugly Duckling” comes
immediately to mind, but perhaps “The Nightingale” is an even better
example. In that tale, the small bird is as plain and dull in plumage at the end
as at the beginning, but its ability to remain natural, to sing a spontaneous,
honest song finally wins it the respect of the emperor who has been saved by
the power of its singing and now realizes the false choice he made in earlier
preferring the bejewelled, mechanical bird who can sing only one song. Of
all Andersen’s stories, this may be the one in which the triumph of spirit over
matter is most simply and directly presented.
Love is the ultimate form of acceptance, and the tale “The Snow
Queen” most fully elaborates this theme. Bettelheim concedes that this tale
belongs among the tales that console.5 An allegory of reason versus love,
“The Snow Queen” is, like all allegories, explicitly symbolic, and this very
explicitness makes the story a good choice for analysis.
The childhood paradise of Gerda and Kai is blighted by Kai’s growing
away from Gerda into a cynical stage of adolescence (symbolized by the
splinters of the mirror of reason that have entered his eyes and heart and by
the numbing kisses of the Snow Queen who kidnaps him). Gerda, like the
sister in Andersen’s retold folktale “The Wild Swans,” endures much
suffering before she is able to restore Kai to his natural state as a warm-
hearted, loving person. The story is a classic example of what Marie-Louise
von Franz describes as the projection of anima—the suffering, brave woman
as a projection of the man’s problem with his feminine side. In this case the
identification is very appropriately used since Gerda, in bringing about the
union of intellect and emotion, is indeed a Sophia-like figure.
The story is one of Andersen’s most successful blendings of Christian
and folk elements. It contains not only many magical creatures (the Snow
Queen herself, a talking raven, and a Finnish white witch), but also a hymn in
place of the usual incantation, angels formed from the breath of prayers, and
a wise old grandmother who knows both the language of ravens and that of
the Bible. After Gerda, through her persistence, reaches the ice castle and
36 Celia Catlett Anderson

frees Kai with her warm tears, the two retrace her steps and finally arrive back
at the old grandmother’s apartment. Andersen tells us that “as they stepped
through the doorway they realized that they had grown: they were no longer
children” (261). But the grandmother is reading “Whosoever shall not receive
the Kingdom of Heaven as a little child shall not enter therein” (261). Kai and
Gerda understand the lesson and “There they sat, the two of them grownups;
and yet in their hearts children; and it was summer: a warm glorious summer
day!” (261). In choosing that particular text from the New Testament,
Andersen voices a central theme shared by Christian theologians and writers
for children. For the child, and for all of us, the test of spirit is to grow into
intellectual wisdom without losing the capacity for emotion, for love.
Certainly this is a central theme with Andersen himself. Elizabeth
Cook holds that “two of his strongest themes are the plight of the outsider,
and the primacy of Love over Reason.”6 We see these ideas combined in two
tales where the endings are unhappy and love must be its own reward. In
both “The Little Mermaid” and “The Steadfast Tin Soldier” the main
characters persist and suffer and do not win. These stories, along with “The
Pine Tree,” “The Little Match Girl,” and that very complex Andersen tale
“The Shadow,” are probably most responsible for the author’s reputation for
pessimism. The mermaid is promised eternal life at the last minute, but in
this story the Christian promise is not as successfully woven into the plot as
it is in some others (the tale always seems to me to end with the mermaid’s
dissolution into foam). Are these stories, then, about the defeat of the spirit?
As I said earlier, I think not. Neither the mermaid nor the tin soldier turn
aside from their goal, nor do they become bitter or vengeful. Through many
trials they continue to be humane and loving. Many of Andersen’s heroes and
heroines, though they suffer greatly, remain true to their ideals. If not
rewarded, neither are they defeated. And the true triumph of the spirit, after
all, consists not in winning the prince or princess, the kingdom or riches, or
even immortality, but in being worthy of the winning.
Much that is written for and about children springs from the premise
that the young need the hope and encouragement provided by the success of
the heroin the stories presented to them, and that they cannot cope with
models of failure. This may be true for certain ages and types, but it is in
many cases a condescending and even dishonest attitude. Hope can help
develop a child, but false hope can absolutely devastate. Hans Christian
Andersen knew that when Humpty-dumpty fell, he didn’t win the princess
anyway and that a storyteller who claims he did is a liar and, further, that an
innocent, like the foolish pine tree, who believes the lie will reap much
unhappiness.
 Andersen’s Heroes and Heroines 37

The child who comes to Andersen for spiritual sustenance will learn
that we must both test our dreams and be tested by them and that in this
world some bright dreams have gray awakenings. Will this harm or
strengthen a child? I think it strengthened our own children, that our son
drank courage, not despair, from the tears he shed over the story of the pine
tree. In Andersen’s tale “The Pixy and the Grocer” the pixy peeks through
the keyhole and sees the turbulent visions that the poor student enjoys while
sitting under the magic tree of poetry. Before such splendor, the pixy
“experienced greatness.... He cried without knowing why he cried, but found
that in those tears happiness was hidden” (426). So art redeems us; as Tolkien
put it so well in his famous essay on children and fairy stories, “It is one of
the lessons of fairy stories (if we can speak of the lessons of things that do not
lecture) that on callow, lumpish, and selfish youth peril, sorrow, and the
shadow of death can bestow dignity and even sometimes wisdom.”7 Hans
Christian Andersen gives us in his stories “peril, sorrow, and the shadow of
death” but also “dignity” and “wisdom.”

NOTES

1. May Hill Arbuthnot and Zena Sutherland, Children and Books, 4th ed. (Glenview,
Ill.: Scott, Foresman, 1972), 313.
2. P.L. Travers, “Only Connect,” Quarterly Journal of Acquisitions of the Library of
Congress (October 1967); repr. in Only Connect: Readings on Children’s Literature, ed. Sheila
Egoff, G. T. Stubbs, and L. F. Ashley (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), p. 198.
3. Bruno Bettelheim, The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy
Tales (New York: Knopf, 1976), 37; Jack Zipes, Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion: The
Classical Genre for Children and the Process of Civilization (New York: Wildman Press, 1983),
94.
4. Hans Christian Andersen, The Complete Fairy Tales and Stories, trans. Erik
Haugaard (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1983). Page numbers for quotes from this
edition are given in the text.
5. Bettelheim, Uses of Enchantment, 37.
6. Elizabeth Cook, The Ordinary and the Fabulous: An Introduction to Myths, Legends,
and Fairy Tales for Teachers and Storytellers (London: Cambridge University Press, 1971),
43.
7. J.R.R. Tolkien, “Children and Fairy Stories,” from Tree and Leaf, in Sheila Egoff,
G.T. Stubbs, and L.F. Ashley, Only Connect, New York: Oxford University Press, 1969, p.
120.
 JON CECH

Hans Christian Andersen’s

Fairy Tales and Stories:
Secrets, Swans and Shadows

A mong the 156 “tales and stories” that Hans Christian Andersen wrote
between 1835 and 1872, a dozen or so are among the best-known, most
frequently anthologized and reprinted retellings of fairy tales or literary fairy
tales of any canon. Indeed, such stories as “The Ugly Duckling,” “The
Princess and the Pea,” and “The Emperor’s New Clothes” have been retold
so often, and in so many different forms, that they have become part of the
public domain of our oral folk tradition. Bo Grønbech claims that Anderson’s
tales have been translated into over a hundred languages; only the Bible and
Shakespeare have been translated into more. Not long after the appearance
of the first of Andersen’s tales, one of his friends had quipped that Andersen’s
novels and plays might make him famous in Denmark, but his fairy tales
would make him immortal. The friend’s intuitive pronouncement has not
been far off the mark.
This enormous success could not have been more unlikely, more
unexpected than it was for Andersen, the son of a poor washerwoman and a
melancholy cobbler from the Danish coastal town of Odense. When the
fourteen-year-old Andersen left for Copenhagen in 1819, with thirteen
thalers in his pocket and without an education, a trade or prospects, only two
people in the world believed he would ever amount to anything: the local
fortune-teller and Andersen himself. In The Fairy Tale of My Life, Andersen

From Touchstones: Reflections on the Best in Children’s Literature, Volume Two: Fairy Tales, fables,
Myths, Legends, and Poetry. © 1985 by the Children’s Literature Association.

39
40 Jon Cech

tells how, in her anxiety, his mother had consulted this “wise old woman,”
who had, after reading her cards and Andersen’s coffee grounds, reassured
her with the now famous prediction: “Your son will become a great man, and
in honor of him Odense will one day be illuminated” (22). Andersen begged
his mother to let him go to Copenhagen to seek his fortune there; he had
dreamed that something wonderful would happen to him. “First one has to
endure terrible adversity,” he told his mother. “Then one becomes famous”
(Stirling 53).
And suffer he had and did. The facts are well-documented in the
numerous biographies of Andersen and in his diaries and The Fairy Tale of My
Life, the autobiography which he revised frequently during his life. The
grinding poverty of his childhood and youth, the desperate, depressing
struggle for this lad from the wrong social class to climb the ladder of literary
success, the unhappiness in his romantic life, the restless travelling, the
hysteric phobias (of rabies, hotel fires, or being accidentally thought dead
while asleep and buried alive), the “black” moods that swept over him—all
are revealed by his biographers and more often than not by Andersen
himself. He was, he informs us, the ugly duckling, the lowest in the town’s
pecking order—awkward, painfully sensitive, vulnerable—the brunt of crude
jokes and coarse criticism. Famous as he later became, he never quite got
over those early traumas, or the later scars. But they became the fuel of his
fantasies and the substance of his stories. Reginald Spink quotes Andersen’s
own words to support that idea: “Most of what I have written is a reflection
of myself. Every character is from life. I know and have known them all” (70).
Spink observes:

Andersen never stopped telling his own story; that was the way he
abreacted. Sometimes he tells it in an idealized form, sometimes
with self-revelatory candour. In tale after tale—“The Tinder
Box,” “Little Claus and Big Claus,” “The Steadfast Tin Soldier,”
“The Swineherd,” “The Ugly Duckling”—he is the hero who
triumphs over poverty, persecution, and plain stupidity, and who
sometimes, in reversal of the facts, marries the princess
(“Clodpoll”) or scorns her (“The Swineherd”). (100)

For Andersen, the creative process was an act of remembering, of stating and
then transforming biographical facts in order to somehow exorcise the
demons that haunted him, those shadows that never quite stopped
threatening to take over the poet and his identity.
But there are lives and there are lives. Not every roman à clef becomes
 Secrets, Swans, and Shadows 41

a best-seller, let alone a classic; and not every reified life experience succeeds
as a work of literature. In many of his fairy tales and stories, Andersen offered
his readers a theme and its variations which was not only personal to him, but
also had and continues to have a universal appeal: the rags-to-riches,
duckling-to-swan theme. Every swineherd or common soldier is a potential
prince, and every ugly duckling a swan, if they are true to their own good,
decent nature. This idea, which appears with such frequency in Andersen’s
works, creates an immediate bond of identification and sympathy between
Andersen and his readers, especially his younger readers who, like numerous
heroes and heroines in Andersen, are struggling and are desperately in need
of stories that frame the chaotic and conflicting emotions of this experience.
In his tales Andersen is the champion of the underdogs, the downtrodden,
the spurned, the impoverished—in short, those with every reason to hope for
whatever transformations will lead to a better life.
Of course, this sense of hope, of a brighter and ultimately happy future
(if one perseveres and remains good and kind in the process of enduring) is
at the very core of the traditional fairy tale, as Bruno Bettelheim has pointed
out in The Uses of Enchantment. Andersen had drawn his inspiration and the
vehicle for expressing this theme from the traditional fairy tales that, he tells
us in the notes he wrote to accompany his stories, he “had heard as a child,
either in the spinning room or during the harvesting of the hops” (1071).
Unlike other Romantic artists who also used the form and subject matter of
the folk fairy tale, Andersen did not have to learn about his material second
hand through study or from collecting trips in the countryside. He was
steeped in its traditions; the world of the fairy tale “was his own world and
had been so since birth” (Grønbech 95). This oral/aural sense of story, he
felt, was important to capture, and he tried to do this, beginning with his first
volume of stories which appeared in 1835. Of the four stories in this volume
(“The Tinder Box,” “Little Claus and Big Claus,” “The Princess and the
Pea,” and “Little Ida’s Flowers”), only the last was an original creation. The
others were based on tales from the oral tradition, but elaborated upon in
Andersen’s inimitable style. His life-long friend, Edvard Collin, remembers
how Andersen, during visits to his house, would tell the Collin children

stories which he partly made up on the spur of the moment,

partly borrowed from well-known fairy tales; but whether the tale
was his own or a retelling, the manner of telling it was entirely his
own, and so full of life that the children were delighted. He, too,
took delight in letting his humor run free. He spoke continually
with plenty of phrases that children used, and gestures to match.
42 Jon Cech

Even the driest of sentences was given life. He didn’t say, “The
children got into the carriage and then drove away,” but, “So they
got into the carriage, good-bye Daddy, good-bye Mummy, the
whip cracked, snick, snack, and away they went, giddy up!”
People who later heard him reading aloud his tales would only be
able to form a faint impression of the extraordinary vitality with
which he told them to children.
(Grønbech 89)

We hear this surging verbal energy in the swaggering first paragraph of

Andersen’s first published fairy tale—“The Tinderbox”:

A soldier came marching down the road: Left... right! Left...

right! He had a pack on his back and a sword at his side. He had
been in the war and he was on his way home. Along the road he
met a witch. She was a disgusting sight, with a lower lip that hung
all the way down her chest.

Andersen wrote to a friend as he was finishing this first collection, which he

called Fairy Tales for Children, to explain what he was doing: “I want to win
the next generations, you see!” (Grønbech 89). But by 1843, he had changed
the title of those little volumes, containing three or four stories each, to Fairy
Tales; and, within another ten years, they became, simply, Stories. But it had
not taken Andersen twenty years before he “found out how to write fairy
tales.” Within a few years of beginning the stories, he wrote to a friend to
say: “Now I tell stories of my own accord, seize an idea for the adults—and
then tell it for the children while still keeping in mind the fact that mother
and father are often listening too, and they must have a little something for
thought” (Grønbech 91–2).
We see Andersen’s concern with reaching the adult listening to (or
reading the tale) throughout the fairy tales and stories. Andersen can’t resist
such an “adult” touch in “The Ugly Duckling,” for example, when an old
duck comes to call on the mother duck who has just hatched out her brood
(except for the ugly duckling’s egg). She brags to her guest that each of the
new ducklings “looks exactly like their father.” But then she quickly adds:
“That scoundrel hasn’t come to visit me once” (217). In “The Nightingale,”
after the bird has been summoned to the emperor’s palace and has made the
monarch weep with his music, Andersen, with his tongue in his cheek,
describes the trickle-down effects of the concert:
 Secrets, Swans, and Shadows 43

“That was the most charming and elegant song we have ever
heard,” said all the ladies of the court. And from that time onward
they filled their mouths with water, so they could make a clucking
noise, whenever anyone spoke to them, because they thought that
then they sounded like the nightingale. Even the chambermaids
and the lackeys were satisfied; and that really meant something,
for servants are the most difficult to please. Yes, the nightingale
was a success. (207)

But there is more than just “a little something for thought” for the adults
in many of the stories that Andersen began to include in these collections. Take,
for instance, “The Sweethearts,” a tale about a wooden top and the leather ball
with which he is in love. She rejects his attentions, telling him that “mother and
father were a pair of morocco slippers, and ... I have a cork inside me.” The ball
gets lost on her ninth bounce, but the top, still very much in love with her, stays
on as a favored plaything in the house, eventually getting rewarded with a coat
of gold paint. Years later when he, too, is lost one day, he winds up in the same
trash can as the ball. Her years of exposure have left her unrecognizable, but she
proudly announces herself as before. At that moment the maid finds the top and
retrieves him from the trash, never noticing the ball. And Andersen leaves the
reader with the biting (and male chauvinist) commentary about life and love:
“You get over it when your beloved has lain in a gutter and oozed for five years.
You never recognize her when you meet her in the garbage bin” (215).
Similarly, stories like “The Shadow,” have pushed beyond the
boundaries of the literary fairy tale to become psychological fantasies
directed toward an older reader. This story, one of Andersen’s darkest and
most enigmatic, examines what happens when a young scholar, an
intellectual, sends his shadow across the street to the house of a beautiful
woman, who turns out to be Poetry, while he himself remains aloof and
detached, engrossed in his philosophical treatises and reveries on the other
side of the street. Years pass, the scholar travels and writes, and the shadow,
meanwhile, takes on a human form and a life of its own, becoming richly
successful because it can peep into mankind’s deepest secrets and because “he
knew how to tell about some of what he had seen and how to hint at the rest,
which was even more impressive” (342). Through an ironic reversal of events
befitting a writer like Kafka, the philosopher becomes the shadow’s shadow;
the shadow goes on to marry the princess, and the philosopher, in the closing
lines of the story, is executed. As the shadow has told the philosopher when
he objects to the absurdity of becoming the shadow’s servant, “that’s the way
of the world, and it isn’t going to change” (341).
44 Jon Cech

Andersen was criticized for writing such pessimistic and unfamiliar

tales—such “philosophical” stories. He responded to his critics in the notes to
his collected stories by arguing that “through the years ... (he) tried to walk
every radius, so to speak, in the circle of the fairy tale.” The problem lay,
Andersen felt, with some of those who had grown up with his earlier stories
and thus expected a particular kind of tale from him. Somehow they had “lost
the fresh spirit with which they once approached and absorbed literature
(1087). To an extent, that is still true today. The popular notion of Andersen is
that he is a writer or adapter of fairly traditional fairy tales; he has yet to receive
the recognition he deserves as one of the pioneers and important innovators
not only in the form of the literary fairy tale, but also in the forms of fantasy
(what Andersen collectively referred to as the “wonder tale”). Tales like “The
Millennium” (which begins: “They will home on wings of steam, the young
citizens of America will fly through the air, across the great ocean, to visit old
Europe.”) are at the threshold of science fiction. “Auntie Toothache,” the last
story that Andersen wrote, is a grotesquely absurd visit to a nineteenth century
Twilight Zone, where a young poet is visited in his dream by the archetypal
spirit of tooth problems. Andersen serves up the malaise to us in the form of
an aunt who, in the waking world, has over-indulged the poet with sweets and
with encouragement to keep writing his sentimental verse. In the young man’s
nightmare, though, “Auntie Toothache” treats him to an “Ode to Pain” on his
wisdom teeth and forces him to admit that her power is “greater than poetry,
mathematics, philosophy, and all the rest of the music ... stronger and more
penetrating than all other feeling that has been painted on canvas or carved in
marble ... older than all the others ... born right outside the gates of paradise,
where the wet winds blow and the toadstools grow” (1066). She leaves only
when the poet, in a dental delirium, agrees to stop writing verse forever.
Andersen wrote this sardonically witty story when he returned to Odense in
December of 1867 to be made an honorary citizen of the town—the highest
accolade that his neighbors could bestow on him—and to be feted at an
evening banquet when, as the gypsy had predicted, the city would be
illuminated to celebrate his accomplishments. On the day of the festivities,
Andersen was suffering from an excruciating toothache, the victim of one of
life’s supreme poetic injustices. But as so often happened with Andersen, he
transformed that bitter experience immediately into art.
Almost as often as Andersen allows his characters to triumph, it seems,
he offers stories in which fortunes are frustrated (as above), love is
unrequited, or at the farthest extreme, lives are lost. There are too many
dead or dying children in Andersen to suit many modern tastes (see “The
Mother,” “The Little Match Girl,” and “The Angel”), and too many lovers
 Secrets, Swans, and Shadows 45

who don’t attain their heart’s desire and are left in a kind of emotional limbo.
Perhaps the most famous of these impossible loves is that of “The Little
Mermaid,” whose sacrifices for the prince go unnoticed and unrewarded, and
who is left, despite the objections of generations of readers and all the logical
and emotional directions of the story, without the “love of a human being,”
“an immortal soul,” and thus without a way to “God’s kingdom”—at least not
until she serves a three hundred year penance with the other “children of the
air.” But after condemning her, Andersen offers a kind of reprieve:

“You may be able to go there before that,” whispered one of the

others to her. “Invisibly, we fly through the homes of human
beings. They can’t see us, so they don’t know when we are there;
but if we find a good child, who makes his parents happy and
deserves their love, we smile and God takes a year away from the
time of our trial. But if there is a naughty and mean child in the
house we come to, we cry; and for every tear we shed, God adds
a day to the three hundred years we already must serve. (76)

This was not one of Andersen’s better endings, and readers have often
objected to its heavy-handed manipulation.
A similarly dispiriting story is “The Little Fir Tree,” often considered
to be one of Andersen’s most autobiographical fables. In this story Andersen
creates a character (the little tree) who wants, in a sense, what every person—
certainly every child wants—“to grow, to grow ... to become tall and old;
there’s nothing in the world so marvelous” (226). And when it hears from the
sparrows in the forest about Christmas and the special place of the tree in the
festivities, it can’t wait to be carted away to be decorated, even though the
wind and the sunshine advise it to set aside these desires and “be happy with
us ... be glad you are young; enjoy your youth and your freedom, here in
nature (227). Of course the tree is chosen the next year, plays its rather
terrifying role in the celebration, and then is quickly removed to the attic,
where it is stored for the winter. There it whiles away the days telling a story
it heard on Christmas Eve to the mice who come to stay the winter in the
house. But unlike the main character in the tree’s story (ironically titled
“How Humpty-dumpty Fell Down the Stairs but Won the Princess
Anyway”), there is no ultimate triumph or happy ending for the little tree. As
it is being consumed on a spring-cleaning bonfire, it thinks “of a summer day
in the forest, or a winter night when stars are brightest, and it remembered
Christmas Eve and Humpty-dumpty: the only fairy tale it had ever heard and
knew how to tell. Then it became ashes” (233).
46 Jon Cech

Andersen is commenting here on the vain, fleeting nature of fame, in

contrast to the stability of an existence that is more accepting, modest, and
rooted—a lesson he was having to deal with in his own rather itinerant,
unsettled life, and in terms of the ups and downs of his literary fortunes,
which often sent him into tantrums or depressions. He is clearly trying to tell
another kind of “fairy tale”—one that expressed the other, dark side of his
artistic vision. This pessimistic bleakness in Andersen, which sometimes
seems so cruelly moralistic (as it does, say, in “The Red Shoes”) seems out of
keeping with the sympathy that Andersen is so intent on creating for many
of the other protagonists in his tales.
There are other contradictions, problems, and ambiguities in
Andersen’s work. One doesn’t always know, for instance, why Andersen
ridicules the pomposity and pretentions of the aristocracy on one page and
then forgives them on the next. In “The Nightingale,” Andersen satirizes the
ways of the Emperor of China’s court and the Emperor’s own shallow
willingness to settle for the artificial nightingale’s song. The nightingale, who
is really the figure of the poet and the perceptive proletarian center of the
story, tells the Emperor at the end: “I love your heart more than your
crown.” But then it adds: “... and yet I feel that the crown has a fragrance of
something holy about it” (211). One explanation for this waffling is that
Andersen himself was a son of the working class who aspired to be and
ultimately became the darling of the salons and courts of Europe. In a sense,
he was living the contradiction that he wrote about. These and other
problematic contradictions arise throughout Andersen’s stories to baffle or
puzzle the reader because Andersen seems frequently less interested in
maintaining a consistent point of view or tone than in letting loose mercurial
impressions and almost free associations.
What, then, makes Andersen’s tales “classics”? Why should they be
considered “touchstones”? A very obvious reason is that many of Andersen’s
tales continue to be read, and to affect those who read them deeply.
Regardless of how we might react to them individually, many of his stories
are passed from generation to generation, through edition after edition,
becoming household names and a part of our universal, literary vocabulary.
Ursula Le Guin speaks for many when she writes that she “hated all the
Andersen stories with unhappy endings. That didn’t stop me from reading
them, and rereading them. Or from remembering them” (104).
The secret to this success lies, perhaps, in the fact that Andersen was
connecting with exactly that in his readers—secrets. On one level, Andersen
was tapping the secret, emotional realms of his own troubled experience,
often writing from his own despair out of what Keats might have called
 Secrets, Swans, and Shadows 47

“negative capability.” But Andersen succeeded in projecting these incidents

onto a larger, more public screen, through forms and symbols ostensibly
reserved for children but which Andersen was keenly aware would usually be
introduced to children by adults. Ultimately, Andersen meant his stories to
be for everyone, and to deal with the secrets that all of us keep in common
but are unable or unwilling to tell. Etymologically speaking, the words for
“secret” and “sacred” share the same Germanic roots: what is secret is also
personally sacred to us, from those deepest yearnings to the most petty
jealousies and vanities.
On the one hand, there is Andersen’s composite hero, the
duckling/swan, swineherd/prince, nightingale/poet, soldier/king. He
frequently must undergo great suffering and trials but nevertheless remains
steadfast and true to his principles and, thus, to his own inner nature and its
humanity. This is the duckling’s way, and the tin soldier’s, and little Gerda’s
in “The Snow Queen.” Andersen is able to touch those chords of sympathy
within his readers because, on some fundamental level, they, too, have shared
these feelings and have hoped for the same optimistic resolution. Often this
character is flawed, wounded, incomplete, but through his perseverance,
kindness, and love he compensates for these inadequacies and becomes
whole, metaphorically if not literally. At times this character is a poet, like the
nightingale, whose songs “sing not only of those who are happy but also of
those who suffer ... of the good and of the evil that happen around you, and
yet are hidden from you” (211). Sometimes she is disguised as a little child,
whose stalwart love can melt the icy heart of her friend, a captive in the Snow
Queen’s palace. But whoever he or she is, this persona with dozens of faces
expresses those profoundly human desires to love and be loved, and to seek
a way to fulfill those feelings.
On the other hand, Andersen also explores those other, darker reaches
of the psyche that we do not like to admit exist within ourselves. These
shadowy realms appear in many of the tales, and they are Andersen’s way of
dealing with the dark side of his own soul. At its grimmest, in such tales as
“The Shadow,” Andersen is wrestling with the need for the artist to be aware
of the nether reaches of the psyche, even if these shadows may contain evil.
To repress, to deny, to not confront these forces, as Ursula Le Guin argues,
is to be ultimately ruled by them, to become their victim as an artist and as a
human being.

“For the shadow,” Le Guin insists, is not simply evil. It is inferior,

primitive, awkward, animal-like, childlike; powerful, vital,
spontaneous. It’s not weak and decent, like the learned young
48 Jon Cech

man from the north (in “The Shadow”); it’s dark and hairy and
unseemly; but, without it, the person is nothing. What is a body
that casts no shadow? Nothing, a formlessness, two-dimensional,
a comic-strip character. The person who denies his own
profound relationship with evil denies his own reality. He cannot
do, or make; he can only undo, unmake. (107)

Yet there is another dimension to Andersen’s exploration of the shadow:

humor. A finely tuned sense of humor gives many of Andersen’s stories a vitality
that holds them from the abyss of bitter gloom, despair or unrelieved
seriousness. Andersen’s humor can be very dark indeed, as in “A Drop of Water,”
where he has his main characters, who are looking through a magnifying glass at
a miniature but surprisingly vicious city they have discovered there, try to decide
whether or not they are observing a microcosm of “Copenhagen or some other
big city” or just plain “ditch water.” In “Big Claus and Little Claus” the humor
is deliciously macabre, when Big Claus ironically ties himself up in what will
become his own shroud and violently demands that Little Claus push him into
the river. In “The Tinder Box” Andersen’s humor is suggestively risque: when
the soldier has the magic dog fetch the sleeping princess for him, he cannot resist
kissing her, for “he was a soldier all over.”
Finally, in “The Emperor’s New Clothes,” Andersen provides us with
the kind of humor that manages to touch everyone’s pet vanities. No one
knew better than Andersen about the serious side of this kind of public
embarrassment; he had felt it keenly since he was an awkward child walking
down the center aisle of the church in the squeaky new boots of which he was
so proud. This particular story—one of Andersen’s most famous—was also
rooted in the facts of the writer’s life. Haugaard retells the incident from
Andersen’s diaries:

A foreign artist arrived in Copenhagen and announced in the

newspapers that he had come to paint portraits of the most
famous Danes, and he hoped that these great personages would
come to the studio he had just rented. The very next morning
who should appear at his door but Andersen and one of the actors
from the Royal Theatre, a man known for his self-love and
conceit. Andersen looked at the actor and could not help
laughing, both at him and at himself. (74)

“To write the Emperor’s New Clothes,” Haugaard goes on, “one must be
able to be as foolish as the emperor—although I admit that it is more
 Secrets, Swans, and Shadows 49

important to be as wise as the child who saw that he was naked. But only the
genius can be both at the same time and, therefore, be able to write the
story.”
P.M. Pickard writes that Andersen used “so much courage in displaying
so much vulnerability” (78). This struggle of opposing elements within
Andersen is at the paradoxical heart of his works—as it evidently was in his
life. Throughout his works, Andersen tried to preserve a precarious balance
between competing sides of his nature: the courtly and the colloquial, the
exalted and the mundane, the realistic and the Romantic, the conservative
and the iconoclast, the hopeful and the pessimistic. These and other
dramatic oppositions give Andersen’s stories their rich complexity and
expressive range. Andersen took real emotional and artistic chances in his
tales “for everyone.” Because he did, Andersen was instrumental in creating
a children’s literature that could become a vehicle for carrying both
traditional messages and values as well as an author’s personal visions.
Andersen wrote, as Keats puts it, “on the pulses,” casting light on the
shadows, telling his own, and our own, secrets, giving them a song and wings.

REFERENCES

Andersen, Hans Christian. The Complete Fairy Tales and Stories. Trans. Erik Christian
Haugaard. New York: Doubleday, 1974
———. The Fairy Tale of My Life. 1868; rpr. New York: Paddington Press, 1975.
Grønbech, Bo. Hans Christian Andersen. Boston: Twayne, 1982.
Haugaard, Erik Christian. “Portrait of a Poet: Hans Christian Andersen.” The Open-
Hearted Audience: Ten Writers Talk about Writing for Children. Ed. Virginia Haviland.
Washington: Library of Congress, 1980.
Le Guin, Ursula. “The Child and the Shadow.” The Open-Hearted Audience.
Pickard, PM. I Could a Tale Unfold: Violence, Horror and Sensationalism in Stories for Children.
New York: The Humanities Press, 1961.
Spink, Reginald. Hans Christian Andersen and His World. New York: G.P. Putnam’s, 1972.
Stirling, Monica. The Wild Swan: The Life and Times of Hans Christian Andersen. New York:
Harcourt, Brace and World, 1965.
 KARIN SANDERS

Nemesis of Mimesis:
The Problem of Representation in
H.C. Andersen’s Psychen1

“Pip! Det er det Skønne!”2

D uring his impressionable first visit to Rome in 1833–1834, Hans

Christian Andersen observed the digging of a grave for a young nun who had
just died. In the grave a statue of Bacchus was unearthed. Nearly thirty years
later, in 1861, this memory was transformed or “translated” to Psychen. The
“translation” of Bacchus to Psyche seems to have caused the author
considerable problems but manages nonetheless to raise some significant
questions concerning the nature of art and immortality, of mimesis and
(gender) identity. The conspicuous disparity between Psyche, Greek
Goddess of the spirit, and Bacchus, Roman God of wine, invites the reader
to look behind the obvious representations in order to examine other
meanings hidden in the written image.
Sculpture as metaphor here grants a possibility to analyze how a figural
image, as a textual device different from that of a written text, plays a
significant role in the understanding of a written narrative.3 How does this
“alien object” infuse qualities into the writing, enhancing the intentions of
the text as well as eventually puncturing it. I hope to demonstrate how this
“textual conflict” may subvert any easy understanding of gender markings.
Psychen takes place in Rome at a time when “konsten var erkjendt,

From Scandinavian Studies, vol. 64, no. 1 (Winter 1992). © 1992 by the Society for the
Advancement of Scandinavian Study.

51
52 Karin Sanders

hædret og lønnet” (art was acknowledged, honored, and rewarded)4 during

the reign of the Renaissance masters Raphael and Michelangelo. A young,
poor, and idealistic artist lives in an old temple pursuing his art in a desperate
attempt for perfection. He avoids the temptations of the sensual night life of
Rome and isolates himself from his fellow artist friends. One day the sight of
a young woman empowers and inspires him to create a masterpiece of
sculpture called Psyche. Rumor of the splendid statue eventually reaches the
young woman and her father. They come to the artist’s studio, and the father,
a nobleman, immediately recognizes his daughter’s image in the artist’s
creation and places an order for the statue to be done in marble. When the
statue is finished, the artist goes to the man’s palace, meets the young woman,
forgets himself, and passionately declares his love for her. She violently
rejects him, and in despair he joins his friends for a sinful night. Unable to
face the statue after his “defilement,” he lowers it into the ground, burying it
in a dried-up well. Eventually, the artist joins a monastery and dies—still full
of torment, religion having offered no solution. Following the customs of the
monastery, his skeleton is put on display, decaying until only his skull
remains. The skull is eventually disintegrated by a lizard who runs in and out
of the empty eye sockets. Centuries later a young nun is buried outside a
nunnery built on top of the artist’s temple. While the grave is being dug, the
statue of Psyche is exhumed, then admired as an anonymous masterpiece
from the past.

II

At one level, the statue may be seen as a representation of the young noble
woman—as a transformation, in the text, of the woman’s body into an artistic
form, of person into objet d’art. This is an obvious aspect of the text.
However, a closer look at the story challenges the obvious and offers a
possibility of investigating the problem of re-presentation itself. In order to
understand this challenge, we need to take a look at other representational
figures suggested implicitly by the text and then move on to the question:
how is representation represented?
Although Psyche is the only explicit mythological figure in the story,
the text is saturated with implicit mythological references that overlap and
often are entangled in each other. Perhaps the most obvious is that of the
young artist as a Pygmalion figure. Like Pygmalion, the young artist shuns
the real women around him. Like Pygmalion, he creates his “dream woman.”
And even more important, like Pygmalion who creates his statue from an
 The Problem of Representation in H.C. Andersen’s Psychen 53

already-engraved image depicting Aphrodite, the artist creates his statue

from an already-existing painting by Raphael named “Psyche.” Although it
was the sight of the young noble woman that inspired the artist’s creation, he
immediately recognized her as an image already represented:

[...] saaledes havde han ingen Qvinde seet, jo! malet af Raphael, malet
som Psyche, i et af Roms Paladser. Ja, der var hun malet, hergik hun
levende. (106)

(He had never seen such a woman before. Yes—painted by

Raphael, painted as Psyche, in one of the palaces of Rome. Yes—
there she was painted, here she walked alive.)

Psyche is literally described as a phantasmagoric picture that has

stepped out of the frame, and now is wandering free. When the artist makes
his representation of her and names it after the painting of Raphael, he
then—like Pygmalion—creates an image of an image.5 He implants her in a
transhistoric tradition of Psyche representations—thus putting her back in
the “frame,” his frame, or rather his embracing framing. The young woman
is, in other words, perceived through a filter of multiple previous images.
The lens through which she is seen is adjusted towards a particular system of
perception; she is seen through the veil of Psyche. His “inner eye,” to
paraphrase Wordsworth, “had seen such sights before.”6 It is this veil, this
presumed obstacle to seeing clearly, that becomes a vital part of the
constructs and problems of visuality in the story.
Not unlike Pygmalion, the young artist wishes to merge the
representation of Psyche, his “dream woman,” with the young woman he
saw, hereby symbolically giving it life. In this case the attempted “life-giving”
process takes place through an apparent symbolic exchange, in which the
statue serves as an exchangeable object between the father and the artist. The
sublimity of the representation of his daughter causes the father (who “owns”
the girl) not only to provide the money to form her in marble but also to
grant the artist access to the “real thing.” Our artist does not succeed in
taking advantage of this unique possibility, however. A closer reading of the
text gives us a clue as to why. When the father and daughter come to see the
statue it is the father, not the daughter, who recognizes the woman in the
statue.

Den unge Pige selv stod her i Stuen og med hvilket Smiil, da hendes
Fader, sagde de Ord: “Det er jo Dig lyslevende.” Det Smiil kan ikke
54 Karin Sanders

formes, det Blik kan ikke gjengives, det forunderlige Blik, hvormed hun
saa paa den unge Kunstner. (106)

(The young girl herself stood there in the room, and what a smile
when her father said these words: “But it is you completely.” That
smile can not be molded, that gaze can not be reproduced, that
peculiar gaze, with which she looked at the young artist.)

As this passage clearly shows, her smile evades molding and her gaze
cannot be copied. It is precisely not she herself, who is copied. It is an image
of an image, not a direct image of the girl. In fact, when the artist confronts
the girl in the palace, she is not Psyche-like at all. Quite the contrary.

“Afsindige,” sagde hun, “Bort, ned” og hun vendte ham Ryggen.

Skjanhedsansigtet havde et udtryk af hiint forsten ende Ansigt med
Slangehå René. (109)

(“Madman,” she said. “Begone, down” and she turned her back to
him. The face of beauty had a resemblance of that petrifying face
with serpent hair.)

Thus the artist has made a terrible blunder which leaves a significant
fissure in his project. When he, with his “blinded” vision, thought he saw a
young Psyche, he now—still “blinded”—thinks he sees another vision: a
Medusa. His “blinded” vision never allows him to see her as anything but his
own projection. The perilous metamorphosis of the young Psyche into a
Medusa prompts an outburst of repressed sexuality in our virtuous
protagonist, described in a characteristically Andersenian manner as an
orgasmic eruption of a volcanic crater overflowing with burning lava. This
desire ultimately throws him into the sinful night and eventually destroys
him, as he cannot rid himself of his secret, this “Slange” (serpent). In the
passionate night he “sins” with women from the Campagna, who, as the
artist’s friend claims, are equal to the beloved marble-woman since “Begge
ere Evadøttre” (Both are daughters of Eve). These alluring women too are
re-presented in art. Not in erect, white marble, but in flat, colorful paintings
(“glødende, yppige Billeder”; glowing, voluptuous pictures). These paintings
are spread upon the floor of the artist’s friend’s studio—they can be “stepped
on.”7
The virtue of the artist is intact as long as he believes in the power of
his beautiful creation. It is the aesthetic experience of beauty that seems to
 The Problem of Representation in H.C. Andersen’s Psychen 55

support his morale and distinguishes him from the sybaritic others. When
the gaze of the woman-as-Medusa takes away this innocence in the artist, it
is not only his purity that is violated, but his entire belief in pure art. The
“unveiling” of the imaginary Psyche woman reveals an evil “truth” (the cruel
Medusa face) that immediately must be “reveiled” (the cloth-veil and the
well-as-veil) to sustain (although seemingly in vain) the illusion of ideality.
When his passionate words confront the woman and provoke her fury: “Væk,
ned” (Begone, down), it is evident that his project is doomed. “Der fløj Ord
fra hans Tunge, han vidste det ikke selv; ved Krateret at det kaster glødende
Lava” [109] (Words flow from his tongue, he did not know it, does the crater
know that it expels glowing lava). It is at this point in the narrative we
understand that the artist is not only seeking the imaginary, he is reaching for
the real: the impossible. The self-absorbed artist does not understand that in
order to preserve the potency of the spectacle of the young woman, it must
remain a spectacle—that it is strictly limited to his gaze.
Like the gaze of Medusa, the gaze of the young woman is petrifying,
and we may assume that, as in the myth of Medusa, it is not only her gaze
that petrifies but the mere sight of her.8 The sight that inspired the artist to
create his masterpiece is thus the same sight that ultimately destroys him.
The seductive sight turns out to be a paralyzing demonic eye: a deadly eye,
a mythological gorgonian gaze. His desiring gaze has been turned back at
himself in a spiteful and vengeful manner. In fact it is precisely the petrifying
gaze of the woman that marks the difference between her and her reflection
in the marble stone. Hence, the act of petrifaction that indeed takes place in
the statue now must take on a new signification. Her appropriation of his
gaze “translates” the story of Psyche into a quite different story from the one
he inscribed in the marble. If, as I have argued, we may assume that the artist
made a blunder and did not make a representation of the young woman—she
could not be “cited”—of whom, then, did he make a representation in
marble? The text itself points towards a possible answer.
When the artist first catches sight of the woman she is immediately
described as a reflection of his entire artistic yearning. Later when the statue
is finished he is described as seeing it as a divine fulfillment—as his initiation
into life itself and possibility for immortality—in other words a reflection of
his ambitious longings. The implicit petrifaction of him by the woman-as-
Medusa through the reversal of the gaze transforms the plot of the story and
leaves us to assume that the statue is in fact: a re-presentation of himself. He
is the one who is “petrified”; it is his name, his fate, that is echoed in the
marble. The woman, as we saw, is not properly constrained into the field of
vision as one image. She breaks the frame and speaks with a monstrous voice
56 Karin Sanders

revealing the complete disparity between her resemblance to Psyche and her
“true” face as Medusa.
According to tradition, Psyche was punished for transgressing the
taboo of seeing her beloved Cupid.9 Her punishment was torment in the
underworld. Likewise the artist—not the woman—is punished; not only for
having seen wrongly, but for seeing what he should not have seen. The text
in fact gives him a warning that he overlooks. It specifically directs our
attention towards the green juicy leaves springing out of the marble basin in
the garden where the girl is first seen, suggesting a sensuous and dangerous
quality. Like Psyche he goes through torment and repentance, but unlike
Psyche he is not reunited with the loved object of his desire but remains
symbolically in the underworld. Why then is his punishment so severe?
If the statue can be seen as a representation of the artist himself, then
the worshiping of the statue initially performed by the artist, signifies an act
of self-reflection, self-worship, thus repeating the ancient myth of
Narcissus.10 The real tragedy of Narcissus was not that he fell in love with
his own reflection. It was rather that he did not recognize his own image in
the water as his own. This ultimately led to Narcissus’s destruction. The
artist does not recognize the statue as his own reflection because he does not
recognize himself in the shape of woman. This obviously does not mean that
he becomes woman but rather that he, as a consequence of the problem with
delimiting gender in the mimetic representation, comes to occupy the place
of woman. In other words, the framing of the woman is transported to a
framing of him(self). The subject of the story becomes his own object and
self-destructs in the act of re-presenting himself.
What is at stake in Psychen is a reversibility of gender which ultimately
results in a sense of feminization of the artist. It is this “destructive”
feminization through the mimetic project—this duplication of himself
through the sight of the woman—that brings him to despair, and that
Andersen seems to fear. The artist literally goes mad, falls apart, after the
collapse of his mimetic project. His body breaks away from the self-inflicted
exile in which he has preserved his physical energy for the divinity of his art.
But only to be exiled again in yet another “hysteric” punishment of his body
in the dark abyss of the monastery. When his attempt to cancel the social
difference between himself and the young noblewoman fails, it renders not
only the “inscription” of the woman upon the stone meaningless but indeed
his entire social, sexual, and artistic identity. The life-giving Pygmalion, who
can turn stone into life, has been overpowered by the death-giving Medusa,
who can turn life into stone. Thus the artist retains the self-afflicted position
of the exiled other. The place of woman.
 The Problem of Representation in H.C. Andersen’s Psychen 57

There is one aspect in which all of the mythical connotations in this story
overlap. All, in one way or another, revolve around a problem of sight, gaze,
reflections, and taboos; they are all centered around the pivotal point of the visual.
The image of the lizard slipping in and out of the empty eye sockets of the dead
artist’s skull underlines the destructive desire of the gaze. His white-boned
skeleton is a dysphoric, “castrated” echo of the white marble form. The artist’s
determination to find “truth” in the visual is rendered an illusion. The vera ikona
(true image) turns out to be a catastrophic image. Disoriented perception causes
the protagonist to fuse person and objet d’art and results in a problem with
delimiting the meaning inherent in the figural representation. Lack of distance
between the real and the image, between the represented and representation thus
creates a zone of confusion where the chaotic search for truth seems doomed. A
struggle that in this case becomes the very suspense of the story.

III

The problem of visuality in Psychen is more than anything connected to the

problem of mimesis, of representation. This is what the myth of Pygmalion
initially referred to. The indirect representation of Pygmalion points toward
the ultimate error that the artist commits: the transgression of the biblical
taboo against creating “overtly mimetic” art. In Exodus it says:

Thou shalt not make unto thee a graven image, nor any manner
of likeness of any thing that is in Heaven above or that is in the
earth beneath or that is in the water under the earth. Thou shalt
not bow down unto them, nor serve them. (Ex. 20:4–5)11

The two taboos in this excerpt from the Exodus—not to “commit”

mimesis and not to worship the image—are both violated by the artist. But
his creation of the sculpture, his transgressing of the commandment, points
toward a contradiction. On one hand, it is the victory of mimesis—his
perfect masterpiece—that grants him praise from everyone. He is seen as a
superior artist, as a rival to nature. But this triumph—this overtly perfect
mimesis—provokes at the same time the punishment for imitating God,
taking on the role of the Creator, of God. It is within this conflicting view of
mimesis that the artist is trapped. On one hand, a view “that privileges it,”
on the other hand, a view “that punishes it” (Meltzer 110). He is caught in a
conflict that I will call Nemesis of Mimesis. Justice and vengeance of
Nemesis mirrors itself onto Mimesis, literally letting the Ne(mesis) “slash”
into Mi(mesis) as a retribution for “committing mimesis.”
58 Karin Sanders

This is a mechanism similar to what René Girard calls the “double bind
of imitation—which turns back against the imitator even though the model
and the whole culture specifically encourage him to imitate” (Girard
290–91). It is the paradox of imitation that “the more perfect the imitation
is, the less it is known as a work of imitation” (Drost 310). Our artist loses
the mimetic pleasure—the gratification of his work—because he fails to
acknowledge (literally fails to see) the difference (and hereby the similarity)
between the real object and its imitation. The imitation is too perfect. By
measuring one with the other, letting one be the other, the otherness of the
art product disintegrates and moves away from being merely art. Thus the
artist performs a unique and tragic fusion between the imitated and the
imitation involving himself. His desire (for the woman and ultimately for
eradication of difference between her and the statue) is the glue between the
two. When this glue proves to have petrifying implications, he leaves his
trade and echoing her words “Væk, ned” he buries, not only the statue, but
eventually himself, in the catacombs of the monastery. The pleasure of the
sublimatory act of creating a masterpiece only had meaning if it gave him all.
His genius—this “gift from God”—is invested into a single moment. When
he realizes that he never had what he lost, he is thrust into a limbo where all
meaning is lost. His attempt at eradicating difference proves to be a virtual
suicide.
When the sculpture becomes a problem for the artist as well as for the
text it is because it is pointing towards a curious facet of mimesis. At the same
time as it is built upon the idea of an illusion, it cannot be recognized as such
by the artist. It becomes a kind of mimetic trap. But it cannot be understood
as a trap, because its meaning is veiled—or, as Meltzer claims, “it is built
upon the idea of the lie, and so cannot be recognized as a trap when it most
forcibly is one” (191). The artist cannot read it and thus persists in regarding
it as a creation of divine purity, unfit to be sullied by the undisguised desire
of his gaze.
As we have seen, the representation of the sculpture Psyche almost
immediately employed two signatures: that of the young artist and that of
Raphael. In the textual economy of the story we saw how the young girl is
wedged in between the painting by Raphael and the inner image (itself an
imitation) of the artist. In a comparable manner, the artist is caught in a trap
of an already existing name: the name of Raphael, or rather the names of
Raphael. More precisely, he is caught between Raphael as libertine and
Raphael as divine artist. The conflict between sin and purity, mortality and
immortality, according to the artist’s friends, is merged in the artist Raphael.
And to become like Raphael, they urge the artist to unite “life and self.” His
 The Problem of Representation in H.C. Andersen’s Psychen 59

blinded vision, however, his inability to see himself, deters him from
realizing the integration of sexuality and transcendence that he is so
desperately seeking. The hope that the sculpture provided is no longer able
to mediate in this conflict because its meaning has shifted.
This conflict can be seen as an intricate part of mimetic rivalry. What
the artist desires is the domain of the rival, the domain of Raphael. Raphael
is his master-model and the artist desires what he, Raphael, presumably
desires: immortality, artistic power, and women, thus creating “a triangle of
relationships” between artist-master–desired object—a variation of the
Lacanian doctrine that desire is the desire of the Other (Girard 323). A
certain measure of identification between the desired object (Psyche) and the
idol(s) (Raphael, Michelangelo) takes place so that only the appropriation of
the desired object is seen as a way to be like, to seize (through imitation) the
power of the masters, and ultimately of God. This is why the loss of the
desired object is so catastrophic. It is not just a rejection of the artist as a
socially unfit lover, but of his very existence and identity as an artist.
Although his masterpiece is recognized as a competent rival to those of
Raphael and Michelangelo, Andersen demonstrates that successful artistic
rivalry does not always guarantee the genius a place on Olympus or a place,
a name, in history. The author emphasizes this by literally letting the artist
lose his signature. A signature that ironically enough never establishes itself
in the text in the form of a proper name. Our artist has no proper name, he
remains a generic artist, a stand-in for other artists—like the author himself.
Although solidly planted on Olympus with Europe’s other great writers,
Andersen apparently never lost his fear and doubts concerning his own
artistic identity and, as it is well documented in his diaries, constantly sought
affirmation and approval from others to solidify his belief in his own name.
The proper names of Raphael and Michelangelo emerge in Andersen’s diary
on the day between the initial inception of Psychen and the day he started the
actual writing. On May 6, 1861, Andersen went to the Vatican to look at
frescoes by the masters who were to be eulogized in the story. The viewing
appears to have been a disappointment:

... men baade Raphaels og Michael Angelos Fresco synes mig aldre og
forrøgede fra jeg sidst saa dem, Farverne vare saa morke og udslidte.

... but both Raphael’s and Michelangelo’s frescos seemed to me

older and sootier than the last time I saw them; the colors were
so dark and worn. (Andersen, Diaries 274)
60 Karin Sanders

The fact that the immortal and celebrated productions of Raphael and
Michelangelo were fading might have induced him to place emphasis on
what became a central theme of this story: the survival of art. Furthermore,
the apprehension that he might have experienced in identifying with the
great masters, whose works were now “old” and “worn,” might have
influenced him in stressing the significance of the survival of the name of the
artist.
The mimetic exchange inherent in the significance of the name(s) of
Raphael/Michelangelo in Psychen takes the form of a violence that ends in self-
mutilation. The artist seems to set himself up for failure in a manner
bordering on masochism.12 The mechanism here has been described by
Girard as a complex part of mimetic desire: by first “changing its models into
obstacles, mimetic desire in effect changes obstacles into models” (327).
Masochism is in this aspect, according to Girard, directly connected to the
real or assumed violence of the rival. The obstacle placed by the rival—
assumed or not—eventually may be perceived as the original object of desire.
When our artist redirects his desire away from the woman-as-object or art-
as-object towards self-sacrifice, suffering, masochism, it is the perceived evil
inside himself that becomes the focus of his desire: “Han straffede sit
Legeme, men indenfra kom det Onde” (He scourged his body, but from
within came the evil yet again). Earlier this self-punishment was manifested
in his sisyphean repetition and destruction of his art:

Det blode Leer bøjede sig i Skjønhedsformer for hans Fingre, men
Dagen efter, som altid, brød han itu, hvad han havde skabt. (106)

(The soft clay bent in shapes of beauty by his fingers, but the day
after, he destroyed, as always, what he had created.)

IV

Perhaps the tragedy of the artist results from a confusion of two distinct
modes of mimesis: Apollonian and Dionysian. In the text Dionysian desire
seems to take over Apollonian mimetic desire, perhaps as mnemic traces of
the carnal Bacchus (also known as Dionysos)—a reminder of the original
spectacle, that inspired Andersen to write Psychen. The reappearance of the
original material, of Bacchus, breaks as a Nemesis into the Mimetic
representation thus prohibiting any comprehensible and clear-cut
interpretation of its meaning. The Apollonian demand for self-knowledge
and aesthetic distance is disrupted by Dionysian ecstasy and lack of
 The Problem of Representation in H.C. Andersen’s Psychen 61

distance.13 While producing his Apollonian statue, the artist becomes

virtually intoxicated with himself and his mark on the marble stone. He is so
absorbed into his own imitation that he “becomes” this imitation. The
Apollonian sculpture’s impenetrable surface is supposed to maintain a
distance from the fragmented sensual world surrounding it.14 This sensual
and seductive world engulfed the artist in a Dionysian night of sin or more
precisely, a night of fluidity: wine and women. But as Medusa broke into
Psyche, Dionysos breaks into Apollo, definitively refusing to let the sculpture
assert itself as an ultimate signifier, as a phallic celebration of the male artist
through the hard, smooth, glossy marble stone. The sculpture is “tainted” by
Dionysian desire. Thus the story leaves the artist forever particularized and
desperately searching for wholeness, truth and unity, only to find the
disintegration of his body through the actual pulverization of his white
bones.
The reversibility of gender that the sculpture refers to, the fact that the
sculpture is marked by not one, but two genders, gives it a gliding, un-fixed
meaning, an enigmatic quality. This is emphasised in the marble sculpture’s
tenacious and restless fluctuation between emerging from, and re-merging
with, the earth. We first encounter the unfinished marble block, which the
artist had inherited, as an archaic piece of purity covered with leaves and dirt.
After its molding, it is thrust into a well in the ground by the artist in a
sexually connotated symbolic act, that can be seen, not only as an aggressive
penetration of Mother earth—but also as a repression of the painful conflict
that the sculpture signified. The persistent importance of the sculpture in the
text is finally underlined in its re-emerging from the “grave” in a sacrificial
exchange for a young nun, a virgin, we may assume. The restless movements
show that it does not belong to the underworld, nor does it belong to the
world above. More than a symbol of “the spirit that survives psychical decay”
(Friedman 9), it provides a multiple message that cannot be confined to any
one realm.
Another important aspect is focused on the sculpture as a figural object
with a particular sensory quality. The first “draft” of the sculpture is formed
in clay. But the clay is too “fleshy and life-like,” too close to the actual body
of the woman. It is not able to transcend time like marble. Furthermore, the
smooth white surface of the marble offers a unique possibility of providing
the spectator with a reflection. The tradition of classicism that the sculpture
refers to often erased the pupil from the eyes, hereby indirectly underlining
the eyes as being blind or as mini-mirrors. There is no Medusa gaze here.
The sculpture’s three dimensionality accentuates this aspect. The sculpture
has an inside as well as an outside (surface). It displays itself, as well as hides
62 Karin Sanders

itself. It is a condensed form, as well as an open form. It alludes to something

present, as well as something absent, something in the past. To a fulfillment
and to a lack.
The text’s obvious difficulties in providing the reader with an
understandable and indisputable meaning of the sculpture can be seen as an
intricate part of its radical otherness in relation to the written narrative.15 The
sculpture-as-such is visual and in a sense fundamentally non-verbal. Clearly, in
the story we cannot see it with our eyes, nor can we walk around it to examine
it as we can a statue in a museum. It is a static object—radical other to the on-
going narrative of the written story. Narrative time is virtually clashing with
sculptural space. When a narrative employs such a figural image, it is often used
to reflect the “meaning” of the text. That is, it is used as an addendum to the
figural meaning—as a mimesis “of the assumptions of the text.”16 But if we
insist on looking at it as a radical other to the written story, it is obvious that
the sculpture refuses to mimic any clear meaning. I would rather argue that it
ruptures the progression of the narrative. First and foremost, as I have already
pointed out, the sculpture becomes an increasing problem within the story, a
problem for the artist. It did not want to represent what he wanted it to
represent. Instead of becoming the vehicle for his immortality, his signature, it
represented the inscription of his death. When the persistent statue re-
emerged it was in the form of an anonymous work of art, without his signature
on it. In other words, instead of bringing life to the statue, by symbolically
attempting to merge it with the girl, the motionless, deadened statue points
towards the death of the artist—and mimetic creation is once more
problematized.17 In this respect the sculpture inscribes death, not only for the
artist, but also for the woman. Both can be seen as contained in the
representation of the sculpture and both are survived and replaced by it.
Just as the sculpture refuses the intentions of the artist, it also ruptures
any clear understanding of Den skønne kunst (Beauty of Art). The fragility of
Den Skønne Kunst as anything but a garment is apparent and seems to have
been perceived by Andersen as an existential problem. Is art more than a vain
garment for the artist’s pride? This problem of consolidating artist and
product as a reflection of self-identity, is shown when the sculpture becomes
an obstacle at all levels of the narrative, for writer, as well as reader. It is not
content to speak with a mimetic voice. It is settled in the text persistent in its
otherness.
The narration of the story echoes in an ingenious way the subject
matter. When the story starts, it immediately employs a secondary narrator:
the bright morning star.
 The Problem of Representation in H.C. Andersen’s Psychen 63

I Dagningen, i den røde Luft, skinner en stor Stjerne, Morgenens

klareste Stjerne, dens Straale sittrer mod den hvide Væg, som om den
vilde der nedskrive, hvad den i Aartusinder saae her og der paa vor
omdreiende Jord. Hør en af dens Historier! (105)

(At dawn, through the red air, shines a large star, morning’s
brightest star; its ray quivers upon the white wall, as if it would
there inscribe what it had seen for thousands of years here and
there on our revolving earth. Listen to one of its stories!)

This narrator-star “writes” down the first part of the story on a white
wall, using its rays as an amorphous pen, as if inscribing an archaic scripture.
It is important to note, however that the story inscribed by the star-narrator
is the “happy” Pygmalion story. The serene “pen” is allowed to represent, on
the page of the white wall, a successful mimesis, the first successful creation
of the statue. Thus the story of the statue is doubly represented. It is inscribed
on the white wall, as well as in the first life—like “draft”—the clay. At the
critical point in the story, when the father and daughter arrive at the studio,
the star-narrator is superseded by a we-narrator.

En Dag traf det sig saa, ja den klare Stjerne fortæller intet derom, den
saa det ikke, men vi vide det: et fornemt Romersk selskab kom.... (107;
emphasis added)

(One day it happened, well, the bright star tells nothing about it,
it did not see it, but we know it, that a party of noble Romans
came....)

From this point on the narrator-star must content itself with the role
of on-looker, its ray-pen has been extinguished. It is no longer allowed to
inscribe, with its eternal power, the problematic story of a sculpture that
evades a fixed meaning, eludes an obvious mimesis. Through the explicit use
of the “star-pen” to inscribe the story, Andersen underscores two aspects of
the narrative. First and foremost, the story is directly emphasized as writing.
Thus, the text points back towards itself as representation. Secondly, the
“star-pen” indirectly parallels the hands of the artist. The “hand-as-pen”
inscribing his vision, his story—first on the “draft,” echoing all the clay-
drafts discarded earlier—then on the final version. The two “scriptures” in
the story, the blank white page of the wall and the white marble of the
sculpture, thus refer not only to the inscription on the wall as writing but also
64 Karin Sanders

to the scripture on the marble as writing. The sculpture, however—because

of its radical otherness—still tries to avoid being reduced to a blank page, like
the white wall. The sculpture as figural image never really allows itself to be
completely embraced by the text; it maintains it’s otherness.
Although they tell the same story, there is a significant difference
between the story inscribed on the wall and the story inscribed on the
marble. While the first depicts the triumph of mimesis, the second depicts
the problem of mimesis. Consequently the sculpture as a textual image can
also be seen as an image of writing, or more precisely, as a representation of
the act of re-presenting; a representation of the power of writing and the
problem of writing. Seen from this perspective, the text can be said not only
to represent the story of the artist for us; it also represents itself. This self-
reflexivity of the text, its mirroring of itself in the sculpture, gives the
sculpture the position of a textual mise en abyme.18 The sculpture
simultaneously mirrors the text (reflects the written narrative) and echoes the
double motion of the sculpture/artist into the abyme/abyss: the descent (the
falling, the vertigo) into the “underworld”: well/monastery/graveyard.19
If we read the sculpture as “a metaphor for inscription,” it can be seen
as an “iconic encapsulation” of writing (Meltzer 54), a self-reflective but not
a self-conscious apparatus. At the same time, as the text directs us towards
the problem of writing, it seeks to control this radical other, the statue, to
reduce it to its own terms hereby adding yet another commentary to the
problem of mimesis. The taboo against mimesis did not, as we well know,
include writing. “It is not accidental that the prohibition against a ‘graven
image, nor any manner of likeness’ is given to Moses in writing” (Meltzer 75).
Thus the problem of “committing mimesis” interestingly enough becomes a
problem in the text but not a problem for the text.
Andersen sets up a complex tropological system of reflections (the
reflection on the surface of the marble, on the wall, in the exchange of gazes,
etc.) that cross each other in a way that intensifies the opacity of the story. In
fact this system of reflections can be said to play Echo to the fate of Psyche
and the artist: he becomes as shadow of his former self just as his skeleton
becomes the virtual shadow (double) of the sculpture. The doubling of the
artist-as-skeleton with the sculpture has, as the story itself, a fascinating
connection to Andersen’s first stay in Rome. Thus it might not only have been
the exhumed sculpture that inspired Andersen to write Psychen. Rome was in
1833 the scene of Raphael’s second burial.20 Andersen notes in his diary:

Vi vare heldig nok komne til Raphaels Begravelse. Paa Academiet

gjemtes et Dodninghoved der udgaves for hans, for nu at overtydes
 The Problem of Representation in H.C. Andersen’s Psychen 65

derom, aabnede man Graven og fandt ham heel og holdende; nu skulle

da Liget igjen begraves og det skete denne Aften i Pantheon, vi fik
Billiet, det var en herlig Hvælving, paa en sort Forhøining stod
Mahonie Kisten bed ekket med etgyldent Klæde, Presterne sang et
miserere, Kirken aabnedes og man nedlagte de oplæste Efterretninger
om ham, blev derpaa forseglet, et usynligt Chor sang smukt imidlertid,
jeg saae Thorvaldsen med et Voxlys i Haanden ligerom de andre første
Mend. (216)

We were lucky enough to make it to Raphael’s burial. There was

a skull kept at the Accademia that people claimed to be his. In
order to prove it, they opened the grave and found him all in one
piece. Then the body had to be reburied, and this took place this
very evening in the Pantheon. We got a ticket. It was a
magnificent vault; on a black platform stood a mahogany casket
covered with a golden drape; the priest sang the Miserere. The
casket was opened, and within it were placed the findings
concerning the artist, which had been read aloud; then it was
sealed, while an invisible choir sang beautifully. (Andersen,
Diaries 49)

The spectacular scene described here must have captivated Andersen’s

imagination with its theatricality and worshiping of the artist. But the
exhumation and re-burial of the “eternal artist” proved to be just that: a
theatrical performance. Only nine days later he states that “Raphaels
Hovedet som jeg nu har seet ikke er hans” [224] (“Raphael’s head, which I
have just seen, is not Raphael’s head” [Andersen, Diaries 57]).21 The “loss” of
the remains of the great artist, the fact that the resurrection of Raphael
proved to be an empty gesture, is indirectly repeated in the dissemination of
the fictional artist skeleton.
By letting the artist pine away without any genuine enlightenment of
his psyche, his soul, Andersen might be said to challenge the platonic notion
of an ideal world. Plato’s axiom that “clarity of vision acquires metaphysical
significance,” that “the path that leads to truth moves progressively from a
vision of shadows and specular images to the contemplation of ideas”
(Perniola 238) is circumscribed and implicitly depreciated in Psychen. In fact,
our artist fails on all accounts and the author does not give us any idea or
truth to hold on to in the end. “The metaphor of the ‘naked truth,’” says
Perniola,
66 Karin Sanders

comes from a conflation of the concept of truth as visual

precision and the idea that eternal forms are the ultimate objects
of intellectual vision. From this foundation, the entire process of
knowledge becomes an unveiling of the object, a laying it
entirely bare and an illumination of all its parts. The body itself
then comes to be considered an obstacle, a tomb of the soul.
(238–39)

The sculpture-body not only becomes a “tomb for the soul”—it kills it.
Although the author appears to adhere to the platonic axiom that only when
“the soul (is) stripped of the body ... does it acquire complete freedom,” the
pessimism of the story does not allow the reader to believe the last convulsive
declamation of faith from the artist (Perniola 239):

“Psychen herinde aldrig døe!—Leve i Bevidsthed?—kan det Ufattelige

skee? Ja! ja! ufattelig er mit Jeg. Ufattelig Du, o Herre! hele din
Verden ufattelig;—et Underværk af Magt, Herlighed Kjærlighed!”—
Hans Øine lyste, hans Øine brast. (116)

(“Psyche within me never die!—live in consciousness! Can the

inconceivable be? Yes, yes! Inconceivable am I. Inconceivable
you, o Lord! The whole of your world is inconceivable; a wonder
of power, glory—Love!” His eyes shone, his eyes burst.)

The simultaneous lighting and bursting of the eyes—“Hans Øine

lyste—hans Øine brast”—deflate any real in-sight in our protagonist. The
instant he “sees” he goes “blind.” The world, God and the I is as “ufattelig”
(inconceivable) as the sculpture has proven to be. As metaphor it comes to
signify this impenetrable and bewildering message. It carries no catharsis,
no hope as an “eternal form” for man. Thus by blocking the mimetic
promise of the sculpture Andersen implicitly questions the acme of western
aesthetic tradition as we know it, here in the words of Winckelman: “The
only way for us to become great, or if this be possible, inimitable, is to
imitate the ancients.” Andersen lets the artist imitate Raphael who, as we
know, in turn imitated the relics of antiquity of Greece. Thus the author lets
the imprint on the “eternal marble stone” echo the “masterpieces of Greek
art.” When the sculpture fails to carry any “eternal” value or hope, it
implies—however subtly—a loss of faith in the traditional aesthetic maxim
that certain ideal forms of beauty are “better” than others, that to be
“inimitable” one must imitate the ancient Greeks. The burial of the
 The Problem of Representation in H.C. Andersen’s Psychen 67

sculpture in the narrative of Psychen is then also a burial of unconditional

adoration for the Greek body.

Rising like Phoenix out of the human chaos, self-punishment and

fragmentation, the sculpture nevertheless survives as a solid form that both
inscribes and defies death. And as a solid form it is able to keep its contour
unbroken while the human artist loses his to corrosion and decay. It
manifests itself as an epitaph over the life that has been lived—and wasted—
and resurrects itself as something more than just a sculpture. The
replacement of the corpse mortem (artist/virgin-nun) by the steadfast stone
becomes a cruel reminder of what was the idea behind the artistic form and
thus becomes an ironic remembrance of the Greek Psyche myth: a butterfly,
the symbol of the soul—the very belief that it seems to negate. Thus both the
idea and form here become the location for an aesthetic battle that might be
said to encompass a philosophical question of reflexivity. Implied in
Andersen’s story is a radical questioning of the Hegelian hypostasis of
sculpture as the first art form fit to idealize the human body—a hypostasis
echoed in the writings of the Danish Hegelian philosopher Johan Ludvig
Heiberg, to whom Andersen had an ambivalent relationship. When our
protagonist in Psychen is denied (in)sight, he is located away from a position,
as a speculative subject. That is, he is denied, as a subject, the ability to
conceptualize himself and thus denied the reward of becoming a “man”
through seeing himself do it. By taking away the sculpture as a successful
reflective device, Andersen appears to deconstruct the paradigm of det gode,
det sande og det skønne (goodness, truth, and beauty) with which Heiberg ruled
a major part of nineteenth-century Danish culture. The sculpture resists
being reduced to a container for ideality. The insurgent, responding gaze of
the woman fractures any smooth reflection.

The connection between mimesis and psychoanalysis is obvious. Mimesis

concerns itself with the problem of identification, of producing something
identifiable in which we can mirror ourselves. Psychoanalysis too, of course,
concerns itself with the question of identification. In his theory on the
mirror-stage, Lacan ties the problem of identification to the problem of the
visual. The mirror-stage refers to the time in which the subject, through an
actual or symbolic mirror, learns to see itself as an entity, as separate from
others. Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe broaches an equation of a psychoanalytical
(Lacan’s “Mirror-stage”) and a philosophical (Plato’s The Republic) theorizing
68 Karin Sanders

of mimesis. He says: “And let us not be surprised here if we begin to see

Lacanian terminology coming progressively to double Plato’s lexicon.” Both
are involved, he claims, with “a resentment against the original maternal
domination and original feminine education, these being always the sign, for
the subject, of its constituted incompleteness” (Lacoue-Labarthe 127). Seen
through this bifocal Lacanian/Platonic lens, the mimetic problem for the text
(and the artist) appear to be connected to a problem with “an original
maternal domination.” The artist as subject does not, as we have seen, come
into being successfully, and his fragmented self ends up echoed in the
splitting of gender in the statue. The uncanniness of the doubling process is,
although in a very oblique way, connected to this gender shift implied in the
statue. One might argue that the inscription (shaping) of fiction in the
conformable material of the statue comes to echo the “original” molding of
the infant child. In The Republic Plato writes:

You know that the beginning of any process is most important,

especially for anything young and tender. For it is at that time
that it takes shape, and any mold one may want can be impressed
upon it. (47)

If one can parallel the imprints on the un-finished infant with the
imprints made on the conformable sculpture—and if these imprints can be
associated with an “original” maternal/feminine discourse—then the
feminization of the artist might be seen as part of an involuntary
envelopment in a disconcerting (maternal/feminine) discourse that asserts
itself through the instability of gender in the statue. It is this discourse,
provided through the “splitting” gaze of the woman that tells the other story
of Psyche. The imprint on the tabula rasa of the inherited marble is then an
imprint itself inherited from the “natural submission to maternal or feminine
discourse in general.”22 The anxiety over devouring Medusas, the fear of
submission under a discourse other than the patriarchal, seems to have been
unconsciously known to Andersen. Furthermore, he appears to have had an
acute understanding for the subversive potential in this story. In his diary
entry from October 1863 he expresses apprehension over the fact that the
English version had been dedicated to the Princess of Wales without his
consent: “Jeg synes ikke om at en Historie som ‘Psycken’ dediceres til en ung
Dame” [5:421] (“I’m not at all pleased to have a story like ‘The Psyche’
dedicated to a young woman.” [Andersen, Diaries, emphasis added]). Later
(April 19, 1868) he seems to find it embarrassing to read Psychen aloud with
a women present: “Besøgt Hultmann og vilde læse for ham ‘Psycken’ men da
 The Problem of Representation in H.C. Andersen’s Psychen 69

hans Frue blev i Stuen var jeg generet ved at læse den” [8:52] (Visited
Hultmanm and wanted to read “The Psyche” for him but when his wife
remained in the room I was embarrassed to read it). Why, one must ask, was
Andersen so embarrassed? Was it because of the ironic fact that a “maternal,
feminine discourse” seemed to subsume a male protagonist?
When pagan imagery appears to survive soul-searching Christianity,
when the insurgent Medusa disrupts the sweet dream of Psyche, and when
“hysteric” Dionysus taints the somber Apollo, it apparently leaves Psychen
unfit for the ear of woman and decisively unfit to be dedicated to a young
woman—to carry her name?
The use of sculpture as a written image was not new to H.C. Andersen,
when he published Psychen in 1861. It appears again and again throughout his
authorship. In his early novel Improvisatoren, from 1835, sculpture plays an
important role as metaphor for the ideal woman, for the hope of
transcendence through woman. The quality of sculpture is here transported
directly to a young girl, even to the degree of giving her the blind eyes of the
classical statues. In this early, optimistic rendition of sculpture Andersen lets
sculpture as metaphor convey an unquestionable promise of ideality in reality.
Thus he not only let the male protagonist go through an act of symbolic
sexual cleansing in order to prepare him for the ideal sculpture-woman, he
also transformed the sculpture-woman into a prosaic realistic figure by
giving her sight and social status—a little red blood in her white marble
veins.
With this background it is interesting to note that in Psychen H.C.
Andersen chooses not to engage in any easy answers, any mediation. He
leaves the story fragmented, unsettled, and unsettling. The apparent loss of
belief in a blessed unity of man and woman seem to surface parallel with the
questioning of the artistic project per se and sculpture in particular.
Throughout H.C. Andersen’s authorship we find representations of woman
as object and as desiring subject. But he seldom articulates as clearly as in
Psychen, just how woman escapes representation. Here woman remains
enigmatic, avoiding being molded into any fixed term; she remains in the
position of other. A position H.C. Andersen most certainly could identify
with and a position that the artist in Psychen seems to appropriate. In the end
is it not this distant and evasive woman who has been the focus of desire in
the constructions of woman in patriarchy—precisely because she escapes any
fixed meaning? Andersen answers this question through a simultaneously
fearful exposure of the power of the reflective medusan gaze and a
perceptive—even if involuntary—understanding of the complexity of art and
gender.
70 Karin Sanders

The “mystery” of woman remains a mystery in Psychen. Art cannot

confine her. In fact, the transformation of body to form in Psychen is full of
implications that question art’s ability to represent at all. The promise of
fulfillment offered by the beauty of woman and by the beauty of art is shown
to be illusionary by Andersen; it is a promise full of treason, an invalid
promise. Both are seen as seductive, and both are guilty of instigating vanity.

Konsten var en Troldgvinde, der bar os ind i Forfængelighed, ind i

jordiske Lyster. Falske vare vi mod os selv, falske mod vore Venner,
falske mod Gud. Slangen talte altid i os: “smag, og Du skal blive som
Gud!” (113)

(Art was a sorceress that carried us to vanity, to earthly lusts. We

were false towards ourselves, false towards our friends, false
towards God. The serpent always spoke within us, “taste, and you
shall be as God.”)

Art and woman have become one in the form of the serpent who does
not talk “til os” (to us) but “i os” (in us). If art commits itself solely to capture
the illusion of beauty and woman, it will fail and itself become an illusion.
This pessimistic view is what sifts through the fissures of the text together
with woman. Yet, it is precisely when she is able to slip through the cracks of
that re-presentational form, that her story becomes his story. They follow
each other into exile.

In the end Psychen simultaneously questions and insists upon the very
notion of immortality through art, as the closing lines of the story clearly
display:

Hvad jordisk er, vejres hen, forglemmes, kun Stjernen idet Uendelige
veed det. Hvad Himmelsk er, straaler selv i Eftermælet, og naar
Eftermælet slukkes—da lever endnu Psychen. (118)

(All that is earthly dissolves, and is forgotten; only the star in the
infinite heaven knows it. What is heavenly shines in
remembrance; and when remembrance fades away, Psyche still
lives.)

The immortality awarded the mythological Psyche after her ordeal, is

 The Problem of Representation in H.C. Andersen’s Psychen 71

the immortality that Andersen so longed for—and got. But as pointed out by
Meltzer: “Insistence upon the concept of immortality must always lead to the
erasure of temporality, of difference, and therefore of history” (43). This
story shows how dangerous this erasure of difference can be. What might
have been intended as a eulogy over divine inspiration and a mourning and
protest over the world’s inability to recognize the true artist (also the theme
of Kun en Spillemand) turns into a very profound questioning of the very
existence and gender of the artist. The burial of the statue (in the text) is a
symbolic gesture that protests the fact that art does not necessarily award
immortality, fame, name and sex, and at the same time the text provides a
complex story of presumed triumph of divine art itself.

NOTES

1. I wish to thank Carol Clover, Jette Lundbo Levy, Erik Østerud, Thomas
Bredsdorff, and Niels Ingwersen for helpful comments in preparing this article. Also
thanks to Allen Simpson for directing my attention towards Psychen in the first place.
2. H.C. Andersen: Nabofamilierne. Andersen’s ironic view of det Skønne (beauty) is
amusingly conveyed in this story, where an educational conversation takes place between
a mother sparrow and her chicks: “‘Jeg forstod meget godt hvad den Fugl sang!’ sagde
Spurveungerne, ‘der var bare et Ord, jeg ikke forstod: Hvad er det Skønne?’ ‘Det er
Ingenting!’ sagde Spurvemoderen, ‘deterbare saadanne et Udseende....’ “[1:366] (“I
understood very well what the bird sang!” said the chicks. “There was only one word I did
not understand: what is beauty?” “It is nothing!” said mother sparrow, “it is merely an
appearance”).
3. Although I claim that sculpture, as presented in the text, occupies a position that
renders it “radical other” to the written narrative, I must emphasize that the sculpture in
question here obviously is a written one and not an unmitigated visual one. My claim
therefore must be seen as part of an examination of the polysemy of the sculpture in the
text. That is of its “borrowing” and “merging” of qualities inherently non-verbal into the
verbal writing.
4. Unless otherwise noted all translations of Andersen’s texts are mine. My
translations will attempt exactness not poetic rendition.
5. In an entry in his diary on Sunday December 1, 1833 H.C. Andersen describes his
viewing of Raphael in a matter-of-fact fashion: “Gik nu til Palazzo Farnazina, hvor
Raphael med sine Disciple har malet Psykkes Historie i Fresko paa Loftet, Guilander med
Blomster og Frugt slynger sig over vort Hoved og bag denne sees den deiligste italienske
Luft med Guder og Genier. En Gruppe med Grazierne og Amor er ganske af Raphael”
(Went to Palazzo Farnazina, where Raphael together with his pupils has painted the story
of Psyche in a fresco on the ceiling. Festoons of flowers and fruits are twined above our
heads and behind this the wonderful Italian sky with gods and spirits can be seen. A group
of Graces and Cupid is completely by Raphael).
6. Here quoted from Warminski 48.
7. This “conflict” between sculpture and painting is also evident in Improvisatoren,
where the marble sculpture signifies ideality, transcendence and purity while painting is
72 Karin Sanders

associated with sensuality and excess. Andersen’s use of sculpture and painting is more
complex than this seemingly simple dichotomy might indicate. A further study of this
dichotomy is, however, beyond the scope of this article.
8. The gaze of Medusa can naturally be connected to the psychological problems of
narcissism, to desire and the castration anxiety as Freud has taught us in his famous
interpretation of the phallic Medusa. The sculpture in connection with sight, gaze, and the
myth of Medusa, probably could be seen as a symbolic representation of a castration
threat. A threat that was ultimately carried out in the destruction of the artist. The
uncanny feeling of the double, that Freud discusses in his most prolific essay on visuality,
“The Uncanny,” could here be seen as the uncanny feeling that, we as readers, experience
through the gliding meaning of the sculpture. We do not really know how to understand
it. Of whom is it a double?
9. Susan Stanford Friedman writes in her book Psyche Reborn: “Psyche, the mortal
woman whose search for Eros has frequently been interpreted as the soul’s quest for divine
immortality. The name “Psyche” comes from the Greek word for “soul,” often portrayed
in Greek art as a butterfly that leaves the body at death. Psyche is the spirit that survives
physical decay to be reunited with the divine. But in the story first told by Apuleius and
later retold by countless poets, Psyche must undergo severe trials culminated by the
archetypal descent to underworld before she can rejoin Eros” (9).
10. René Girard writes in Things Hidden Since the Foundations of Time: “Narcissism is in
fact the final manifestation of the idol worshipped by the Romantics. It gives its own
mythological character away when it turns uncritically to the Narcissus myth, and interprets
it as a myth of solipsism, while in reality the image behind the mirror (as in the story of the
nymph Echo) conceals the mimetic model and the struggle between doubles” (377).
11 Here quoted from Françoise Meltzer, Salome and the Dance of Writing (73). The
following paragraph is inspired by Meltzer’s analysis of mimesis.
12. Interestingly enough there are many similarities between Sacher-Masoch’s book
Venus im Pelz from 1870 and Psychen. Cold, hard, “cruel,” marble-women are the focus of
desire for the male (masochistic) protagonists in both fictions.
13. Linda Hutcheon writes: “Part of Narcissus’s characteristics, according to Ovid,
was that ‘he does not know himself’” (9). This adds an extra perspective to my analysis of
the artist as Narcissus.
14. Camille Paglia sees the eye as an “Apollonian projectile.” She states: “Fashion is
an externalization of woman’s demonic invisibility, her genital mystery. It brings before
man’s Apollonian eye what that eye can never see. Beauty is an Apollonian freeze-frame: it
halts and condenses the flux and indeterminacy of nature. It allows man to act by
enhancing the desirability of what he fears” (32).
1.5 Françoise Meltzer uses the term radical otherness in her analysis of the figural
image in a narrative. She discusses the problem of how literature “augments, diminishes,
and manipulates” a figural image, or rather its visual presence in the text. She asks, how
does literature attempt “to reedit in a verbal form, something both visual and
fundamentally nonverbal?” (2).
16. See Meltzer.
17. “Mimetic creation can be said to engage death,” says Meltzer, “because the
simulacrum of life, in its static presence, negates by its very stasis the life it depicts” (116).
18. Semantically the word ‘abyme’ (abyss) evokes ideas of depth, of infinity, of vertigo
and of falling, in that order” (Dallenbach 8).
 The Problem of Representation in H.C. Andersen’s Psychen 73

19. One might in fact, as Linda Hutcheon does, call it a covert narcissistic narrative.
She writes:

Overt narcissistic texts reveal their self-awareness in explicit thematization or

allegorizations of their diegetic or linguistic identity within the texts
themselves. In the covert form, this process is internalized, actualized; such a
text is self-reflective but not necessarily self-conscious. (11)

20. I wish to thank Erik Østerud for calling my attention to Raphael’s second burial
during Andersen’s stay in Rome.
21. A month later this Raphael-story proves to have involved a peculiar case of
mimetic rivalry.

Ved Raphaels Beens Fremtagelse, havde Maleren Cambuccini faaet Eneret paa at
male Gravstedet; Horaz Vernet vidste det ikke og tog Blyanten for at ridse det af, et
slags pavelig Poletie forbød ham det, han blev forundret og sagde roligt, «men efter
Hukommelsen tør man dog hjemme gjore sig en Erindring derom,” dette kunne
man intet sige til. –/ Fra 12 Middag til 6 Aften malede han sig nu et smukt
lignende Oliemalerie, han lod nu gjøre en Pladefor at trykkt den, men den blev
tagen under Beslag, han skrev nu et heftigt Brev at han for 24 Timer forlangte den
tilbage, da Kunsten ikke som salt og Tobak kunde bringes under Monopol, da han fik
den brød han den og sendte den med et høfligt Brev til Camuccini og viiste ham at
han ikke til hans Skade vilde benytte sig deraf, men C fik den godt sadt sammen
igjen og leverede den atter med et venligt Brev og opgav ganske at udgive sin
Tegning, nu fik Enhver Lov til at tegne Graven. (234)

(At the exhumation of Raphael’s bones, the painter Cambuccini was given the
exclusive privilege to paint the grave. The painter Vernet did not know this
and took his pencil to sketch it. A kind of papal police banned him from
doing so. He became surprised and said calmly: “But from memory one can
try to make an impression of it at home.” This nobody could deny. –/ From
12 noon to 6 in the evening he now painted a beautifully resembling oil
painting. He then ordered a plate to be made so he could print it. But it was
confiscated. He now wrote a furious letter demanding the plate returned
within 24 hours as art could not be monopolized such as salt and tobacco
could. When he got it back he broke it and sent it with a polite letter to
Camuccini to show him that he meant no harm and would not take
advantage of the plate. But C. had the plate reassembled and returned it with
a friendly letter and he gave up the plan to publish his drawing. Now
everyone had permission to draw the grave.)

22. As Lacoue-Labarthe does, 127.

WORKS CITED

Andersen, Hans Christian. “Psychen.” 1831. Samlede Eventyr og Historier. Vol. 3 Denmark:
Gyldendal, 1982.
———. Improvisatoren. 1835. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1968.
74 Karin Sanders

———. Hans Christian Andersens Dagbøger: 1825–1875. Copenhagen: G.E.C. Gads Forlag,
1971–1977.
———. The Diaries of Hans Christian Andersen. Eds. Patricia L. Conroy and Sven H.
Rossel. Seattle: U of Washington P, 1990.
Dallenbach, Lucien. The Mirror in the Text. Trans. Jeremy Whiteley and Emma Hughes.
Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1989.
Drost, Mark. “Nietzsche and Mimesis.” Philosophy and Literature 10.2 (1986): 309–17.
Friedman, Susan Stanford. Psyche Reborn: The Emergence of H.D. Bloomington: Indiana UP,
1981.
Girard, René. Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World. Trans. Stephen Bann and
Michael Metteer. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1987.
Hutcheon, Linda. Narcissistic Narrative: The Metafictional Paradox. Waterloo, Ont.: Wilfrid
Laurier UP, 1980.
Jardine, Alice A. Gynesis: Configurations of Woman and Modernity. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1985.
Lacoue-Labarthe, Philippe. Typography: Mimesis, Philosophy, Politics. Ed. Christopher
Fynsk. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1989.
Meltzer, Françoise. Salome and the Dance of Writing: Portraits of Mimesis in Literature.
Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1987.
Paglia, Camille. Sexual Personae: Art and Decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson. New
Haven: Yale UP, 1990.
Perniola, Mario. “Between Clothing and Nudity.” Fragments for a History of the Human
Body. Ed. Michael Feher with Ramona Nadoff and Nadia Tazi. Vol. 2. New York:
Zone, 1989. 3 vols.
Plato. The Republic. Trans. G.M.A. Grube. Indianapolis: Hackett Publ. Co., 1974.
Warminski, Andrzej. “Facing Language: Wordsworth’s First Poetic Spirits.” Romantic
Revolutions: Criticism and Theory. Ed. Kenneth Johnston, Gilbert R. Chaitin, Karen
Hanson, and Herbert Marks. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1990. Pp. 29–49.
Winckelmann, Johann Joachim. Reflections on the Imitation of the Imitation of Greek Works in
Painting and Sculpture. Trans. Elfriede Heyer and Roger C. Norton. LaSalle, IL:
Open Court, 1987.
 HANS CHRISTIAN ANDERSEN

Hans Christian Andersen—

The Journey of His Life

H ans Christian Andersen’s delight in travel is well-known, as is his talent

for describing his progress through Europe and, briefly, the Near East and
North Africa. His very earliest works, and his earliest successful works, were
travel books or fiction inspired by the experience of travel in the middle of
the nineteenth century. They show him integrating fact and fiction
seamlessly, so that the reader comes to experience the world through his
mind, with his sensitive eye for the significant and the insignificant detail of
life in those days.
This present work is indirectly inspired by research into Hans
Christian Andersen’s work for the stage, an aspect of his career that has to a
great extent remained unseen in the work of critics. Among his thirty stage
plays is one originally written for reading rather than for performance:
Agnete and the merman (Agnete og Havmanden, 1833). Written in Switzerland
during his first long journey through Europe in 1833, it comes across as a
strikingly personal and intense account of the nature of exile and the
impossibility of making a proper return to one’s homeland, once a decision
has been made to leave it behind, even just temporarily.1
The student of Andersen’s life and work soon becomes aware of the
importance of travel and exile as themes both in the author’s own career and
in his written work. Both as a man and as an artist, Andersen was ‘on the

From Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester, vol. 76, no. 3 Autumn (1994).
© 1994 by the John Rylands University Library of Manchester.

75
76 Hans Christian Andersen

move’ throughout his life, restlessly changing address both in real terms and
metaphorically. There is, perhaps, nothing remarkable in this: it is in the
nature of great men and women that they resist the temptation to settle, that
they are constantly looking for new paths to travel. But in Andersen’s case the
significance is of a specific nature. He offers an opportunity to observe the
artist’s mind on the journey through the world.
Andersen is best known as the author of fairy tales for children, and his
fame rests on a comparatively small number of the very best. In all, he wrote
157 and increasingly, as his career progressed, he changed the emphasis from
children’s tales to something much closer to the short story, which was
gaining importance as a genre in nineteenth-century Denmark.2 However,
he never entirely let go of his young audience. After all, much of his fame in
the later part of his career depended on it. This article will show that the
travel motif acts as a guide through Andersen’s career in much more general
terms, and this can be taken as an indication of how important it was to
Andersen’s thinking.
A closer reading of his collected tales reveals that travel plays a part in
almost twenty per cent of them.3 This article will look at how the travel
motif is developed in thirty-four of the tales, published between 1835 and
1874. It will also look at the different ways in which the travel motif is made
to work for the story teller as he constructs the tales.
It soon becomes clear that it does so in a variety of ways. To a certain,
limited extent it provides the plot for his stories. In this respect, the journey
becomes a string of episodes, adding up into a full narrative. As in Homer’s
Odyssey, and as in countless folktales, the journey and its constituent parts are
made significant for what they have to say both about the places where the
travellers go and about the travellers themselves.
But more significant is the way in which Andersen uses the travel motif
as part of the theme of a tale. Where this happens, it is possible to see how
Andersen gradually moves away from an early reliance on folktale motifs to
describe a pessimistic view of the life of the emotional and geographical exile,
to a much more self-assured, realistic and cosmopolitan view of life,
expressed in a more modern prose style.
At no time does he abandon the fairy tale entirely, in the sense that he
continues to include elements of the irrational in many of his stories. This is
part of Andersen’s world view and fundamental to his art: everything under
the heavens, be it animate or inanimate, has a voice, which the author hears
and which informs his stories. Travel feeds into the stories in different ways,
sometimes simply by providing casual detail to the description of characters,
at other times by providing the actual key to characterization or even the
 Hans Christian Andersen—The Journey of His Life 77

actual physical environment in which the characters move. Travel as such is

rarely of great importance in the tales. Andersen is not using them to sell the
idea of travel as an important part of the development in the individual. But
they do suggest, by their example, why it is so important, and that is probably
how they can contribute to the lives of their readers.

Andersen wrote several autobiographies, starting with the first, hand-written

one from 1832, Levnedsbogen4 (The book of my life), written when he was only
twenty-seven years old and three years into his professional career as a writer.
Here, for the first time, he puts the view that God has, as it were, written the
script for his life, providing him with direction and, perhaps more to the
point, offered this son of poor parents unexpected and almost miraculous
opportunities in the middle-class world of literature. ‘Day by day, my life
becomes more and more like poetry’, he writes: ‘Poetry enters into my life
and it seems to me that life itself is a great marvellous poetic work. I feel that
an invisible, loving hand guides everything ...’.5 In later autobiographies, he
was to update this image: ‘My life is a beautiful fairy tale’, he was to write,
claiming that even a powerful fairy could not have guided him on the path of
life with greater happiness and wisdom.6
There is no doubt that this is how he saw his life and it is certainly the
metaphor which he, as a self-publicist, chose to use when presenting his life
to his audience as a typical Romantic artist: the natural talent who had risen
almost magically to international status as an artist. But the metaphor does
not hold. Not only was magic obviously not involved: he earned his status by
using his talent and he was given help by those of his contemporaries who
could see that he deserved it.
A better metaphor for Andersen’s life is that of the journey. Andersen
remained single all his life and moved between a number of temporary
addresses in Copenhagen until he settled in to his first real home in 1866, at
the age of sixty-one years. The purchase of his first bed caused him great
concern as he imagined that it would one day become his death bed. In fact,
he died, still single, in the home of wealthy friends, some of the many who
had invited him into their home for shorter or longer periods of his life; not
because he was poor but because he was offered hospitality, often by top
members of society, sometimes even by royalty.7
But somehow he remained ‘homeless’ in an existential sense. He left his
poor background behind when he left for the Danish capital in 1819 and he
never truly found another home of his own, except in the world of the arts.
His relationship with the family of his benefactor, Jonas Collin, illustrates
this excellently. Although Andersen saw a father figure in Jonas Collin and
78 Hans Christian Andersen

worked hard to get close to Collin’s son, Edvard, he was never fully
integrated into the family. Andersen accepted this: he was a public figure and
he gradually came to accept that he had to live a public life, in other people’s
families.

Andersen travelled throughout his life. His first significant journey,

significant because it changed his life, was the one that he made from his
home town to the Danish capital in 1819. But he made many other journeys
outside Denmark, from the first to the Harz Mountains in 1831 to his final
journey in 1873, and he visited most of Europe. Andersen was not only a
passionate traveller but also a professional one, and his experiences of foreign
countries found their way not only into his fiction but also into actual travel
descriptions. The earliest of these is Skyggebilleder af en Rejse til Harzen og det
sachsiske Schweiz (1831, Shadowy images of a journey to the Harz Mountains and
Saxony) where clear description of landscape mingles with humorous
description of human behaviour.
His Grand Tour of 1833–34 resulted in a novel (Improvisatoren (The
improviser), see below). His later, ten-month journey through Europe in
1840–41 inspired one of the great classics of nineteenth century travel
literature: En Digters Bazar (1842, A poet’s bazaar), where the reader
experiences all aspects of human nature of contemporary transport systems
in a manner that still inspires the reader to follow in the footsteps of their
guide.
The two journeys to Italy and beyond were the great formative events
in the author’s life. The first took him out of himself and away from the
limited Danish intellectual environment, into a quite different world of
unexpected natural beauty and intellectual challenge. Italy was the Mecca of
Danish nineteenth-century artists from all art forms, and in Italy Andersen
found himself included in an international artists’ community. Improvisatoren
is clear evidence of the impression which Italy made on Andersen, its artistic
maturity reflects the maturity that Andersen himself was reaching, as a man
and as an artist.
En Digters Bazar is no less indicative of his development. By the 1840s,
Andersen was a seasoned traveller and writer who was no longer just
observing but also much more directly absorbing and conquering the world
around him. The down-side of this professional development is, perhaps,
indicated by his final two travel descriptions: I Spanien (1863, In Spain) and
Et Besøg i Portugal (1868, A visit to Portugal) have greater journalistic than
artistic merit. Here, the experienced writer was drawing on his craft rather
than innovating.
 Hans Christian Andersen—The Journey of His Life 79

But it is not so much the ‘straight’ travel description that is of interest

here. Even taking into account that Hans Christian Andersen was always
imaginative in his approach to the objective truth of the world around him,
some of his works use travel in a stylized manner which throws clearer light
on the way in which travel plays a part in the fairy tale.

In 1829, having completed his school education, Andersen made his official
debut on the Danish literary scene with Fodrejse fra Holmens Kanal til
østpynten af Amager (Journey on foot from Holmens Canal to the east point of
Amager). This fantastic description of an imaginary, dream-like trip on New
Year’s Eve of 1828 is not only interesting because of its grotesque, surreal
atmosphere: the appearance of the supernatural prefigures the later fairy
tales. It is also important because it shows Andersen submitting the real
world almost completely to his own creative imagination. The reader is taken
on a journey through a known location by the author, but it is a journey
which could only be made with the author, through his imagination. This
becomes particularly clear when, at the end of the novel, Andersen uses the
Modernist technique of printing a short chapter consisting only of
punctuation.8 By instinct, this author was a surrealist rather than a realist,
and the contemporary reading public immediately took to his idiosyncratic
style.
Andersen was to use this mode—the synthesis of reality and the
imagination—in several of his travel-inspired works, notably in
Improvisatoren (1835) and I Sverrig (1851, In Sweden). The approach is
different in both, and both are different from Fodrejse.
Improvisatoren is an autobiographical novel, an inspired blend of two of
Andersen’s favourite subjects: his own unusual career, and the world outside
his own country. It gave him an international reputation as a novelist, in
advance of his fame as a writer of fairy tales, or ‘romances’ as they were often
called in the previous century. Improvisatoren tells the story of a young man
who rises from humble beginnings to artistic fame. Its success relied—and
relies—on the fact that it is told through the mind of the main character and
that we witness the colourful Italy of the early nineteenth century through
his eyes. He had seen that Italy himself on his Grand Tour in 1833–34 and
he chose to present his impressions in fictional form.
The eyes through which the reader sees Italy are those of a talented
traveller and fiction writer. To students of Andersen’s work, the narrator’s
point-of-view is always of crucial importance. It often says something very
directly about how close the reader is to Andersen’s own experience.
I Sverrig is a very different kind of work, but it is also testimony to its
80 Hans Christian Andersen

author’s ability to operate with a range of literary technique. Like

Improvisatoren, it is the fruit of the actual travel experiences of its author.9 But
I Sverrig is no ordinary travel description, any more than Improvisatoren is.
Rather, it is a collage of impressions of a country that was then not well
known in Europe, at least by travellers. The structure is episodic, a collage
made up of a variety of linguistic media, using straight prose interspersed
with fairy tales10 and lyrical poetry. Andersen does not restrict himself to
straightforward description of what he sees, although such descriptions are
included: he ranges from realism to philosophy, using his Scandinavian sister
nation as a springboard for all the many thoughts that travel may engender
in a receptive mind.
What we have in these three works is evidence of Andersen’s versatility
and his ability to juggle narrative styles and levels of realism. They suggest
that Andersen was not only crossing geographical borders on his way
through Europe but also inhabiting a continent of the imagination, one
without boundaries and with endless variety of landscape and experiences. It
was this landscape which he was to travel in his fairy tales.

Andersen published his first fairy tales in 1835, in a small volume of Eventyr
fortalte for Børn, ‘fairy tales told for children’. He continued to write and
publish them almost to the end of his life, the last collection being called
Eventyr og Historier, ‘fairy tales and stories’. The change in title to include the
word ‘stories’ was deliberate and suggested Andersen’s own changing
priorities as a writer of short prose: he was increasingly seeing himself as a
writer of short stories for adults, without leaving his young audience entirely
behind. The truth is that audiences of all ages were always in the implied
audience for his tales.
The four titles in the first volume included The tinder box and The
princess and the pea. Both of them make use of the travel motif, but at this
point that motif plays only a simple part in straightforward plots: the soldier
in The tinder box is marching home from war, apparently without aiming for
any particular address, and is intercepted by his destiny, in the shape of
money, power and love. This is an adaptation of the story about Aladdin
from the Arabian nights, which Andersen had known since childhood, and as
such it is a rare example of Andersen borrowing an idea from the existing folk
tradition.
The princess and the pea shows a prince engaging in a futile journey to
find a real princess. Only after his return does such a princess journey to his
home, appearing mysteriously out of the blue and settling down as his
Queen.
 Hans Christian Andersen—The Journey of His Life 81

Both these stories have the ring of the true folk-tale about them, their
characters are clearly acting without rational motivation and their plots
progress in ways that suggest the interference of non-human powers. They
represent a particular strand in the use of the travel motif: one that stems
from the folktale, where the journey is a recurrent and purely functional plot
element, offering opportunities for purely functional, one-dimensional
characters to meet challenges and complete tasks set by agents of the non-
human world.11
The earliest tale to illustrate this use of the motif is also one of
Andersen’s finest: The travelling companion (Rejsekammeraten, 1835).12
Rejsekammeraten is, in the true sense of the word, a ‘classical’ tale. It shows a
young man reaching a turning point in his life: his father dies, he himself is
uprooted and sets out on a journey that will ultimately lead to a new
equilibrium in his life, in the same way as happens in The tinder box and The
princess and the pea. To that extent, the plot of the tale is one that would be
recognized by audiences and readers not only now or in Andersen’s own time
but as far back as ancient Greece, where the same plot is met in the Odyssey
and in classical Greek drama. Throughout the story, the main character
moves in a world that is only superficially like our own ‘real’ world: it is, in
fact, suffused with the supernatural, in it witchcraft and magic both hinder
and help the characters.
The final, happy end is contrived rather than probable in terms of
modern realism, for this is story-telling as ritual, the plot is an acting-out of
a transition from one stable condition to another. What Andersen has
ultimately achieved with this tale is to show a young man undergoing the
transition from boyhood to manhood, from living with his father to living, as
an adult, with his own wife. He has been helped through this transition by a
character with supernatural powers, and this character, the Travelling
Companion, takes on the forces of darkness on his behalf.
Andersen is best known as a writer for children, but this is in reality
also a tale of adolescence. For all that it involves the forces of evil, it also
carries a comforting message: help is available, the main character does get
through to the other side, stability will return. The traditional tale is
particularly characteristic of Andersen’s early tales, from the 1830s, although
it continues to appear into the 1850s and 1860s.13 It is given a variety of uses,
from providing the structure for stories with deep metaphysical significance
such as The snow queen (Snedronningen, 1845) to those that are much more
straightforwardly amusing like Clod Hans (Klods-Hans, 1855).
Although Andersen himself refers to the stories told to him in his own
childhood,14 he only relied on the actual oral folk-tale tradition to a limited
82 Hans Christian Andersen

extent, composing most of his stories independently of known literary or

pre-literary models.15 Although he is often mentioned in the same breath as
the Brothers Grimm, he was no folklorist. Rather, he was an author of
‘Kunstmärchen’, a modern Romantic. It is therefore necessary to look
immediately beyond the folk-tale as such, to see in what other way he makes
the folk-tale work for him. Part of the answer lies in the way he develops as
an author of short stories. But at this early point in his career, he appears to
have drawn on the folk-tale for other things.

Most obviously Andersen makes travel provide him with plot: it offers a
reason for stringing a series of events together, events that shape the life of
the main character(s). Thus, in Inchelina (Tommelise, 1835) the somewhat
passive female main character passes through the hands of a series of
potential husbands until she is carried off by the swallow to foreign parts. The
ugly duckling (Den grimme Ælling, 1844) gives a similar view of a character
passively developing into a more mature character, as a hostile world passes
by.
The snow queen and The story of a mother (Historien om en Moder, 1848),
by contrast, show two main characters making rather better use of their
ability to travel, namely for a search for their loved ones. The snow queen and
The story of a mother, like The travelling companion, are stories of human beings
maturing, although in the case of The snow queen and The story of a mother, the
process is intellectual or metaphysical rather than social or to do simply with
ageing. It is not possible to say of stories such as these that they mainly
exemplify a characteristic, conventional use of plot and character functions.
These tales are far more sophisticated and their effect depends to a much
greater extent on the use of symbolism. Although they are good stories,
which work as entertainment at the surface, they invite interpretation that
goes far beyond their story lines. At the story level, they have elements of the
fairy tale, in that they include irrational and supernatural elements. But they
also present themes of fundamental importance for human beings: the ability
to love and, in the case of The story of a mother, the ability to let go of those
we love.
At this point in his life, Andersen had made a reputation as a travel
writer with A poet’s bazaar (1842) and his experience as an observer of the
world may explain why he was now capable of making better use of his plots.
However, it is more likely that we are simply looking at a more mature writer
in more general terms, for whom literature as such could be made to carry
more meaning. Plot is now made to work harder, the individual events made
to reveal more about the characters.
 Hans Christian Andersen—The Journey of His Life 83

The use of travel as a means of structuring plot peters out in the 1850s
along with the use of the folk-tale-like travel motif. It is likely that the two
trends are linked. Andersen’s tales were becoming increasingly realistic over
the years and the focus moving increasingly away from plot structure to the
reactions of the characters within the plots.

Andersen has rightly become renowned as a children’s author, and the tales
which most people now remember have become part of our collective
unconscious, entering our cultural mythology. The emperor’s new clothes, to
mention just one obvious example, has provided countless public writers and
speakers with ammunition for attacks on their opponents, and many of
Andersen’s tales have been published anonymously, adapted for children,
proving that they are now themselves part of our narrative tradition, not even
needing their author’s name to survive.
Children are not naive and the universe which they inhabit is not one
of simple, innocent bliss. Children know that and the most successful
children’s writers succeed by respecting that, as both Astrid Lindgren and
Roald Dahl illustrate.16 Andersen, too, reveals a complex and sometimes
even frightening view of the world, both in his children’s stories and in those
intended for older audiences. The plots may lead us through landscapes
peopled with devils and sprites before taking us up to the happy ending, and
we do not forget that we had to see those landscapes as we travelled with the
characters and that they are still there in the background as we learn that the
main characters will live happily ever after.
The little mermaid (Den lille Havfrue, 1837) is a story of love that cannot
succeed. That is, of course, not how it comes across in the recent animated
version: Andersen’s original tale commits the Mermaid to a fate of which the
makers of modern mass entertainment dare not conceive.
Like its predecessor in Andersen’s oeuvre, Agnete and the merman
(Agnete og Havmanden, 1834), it tells the story of a character who follows her
heart in a decisive existential choice, thereby unwittingly committing herself
to a life in loneliness and exile. The little mermaid, like Agnete, chooses a
partner who is so fundamentally unlike herself that a real relationship is not
possible, no matter how great a sacrifice she is prepared to make. The story,
revolving around this decisive moment when the wrong step is taken, evolves
like a Greek tragedy from hubris to eventual nemesis.
A number of Andersen’s tales show characters unable to engage in
harmonious relationships, men and women shipwrecked by life, and this
motif recurs from the earliest tales, i.e. Inchelina (1835) to one of the latest,
namely The wood nymph (Dryaden, 1868). The flying trunk (Den flyvende
84 Hans Christian Andersen

Koffert, 1839) provides a humorous example—the main character finds

himself deservedly stranded abroad after an accident, but other examples
leave little room for merriment. In The garden of Eden (Paradisets Have, 1839)
the main character finds himself repeating the original biblical mistake,
although without committing the original sin.
In Under the willow tree (Under Piletræet, 1853) a man who emigrates in
order to escape from the romantic disappointment of his youth encounters
the love of his youth abroad and dies as he tries to escape in the opposite
direction, travelling home. Ib and little Christina (Ib og lille Christine, 1855)
shows a woman destroying herself as she travels away to partake of
sophisticated city life rather than the simpler and healthier provincial life
which Ib could have offered her. And A story from the dunes (En Historie fra
Klitterne, 1860) has a social misfit die, mad and alone, buried by the
sanddunes in an abandoned church, after a life that starts and ends in
shipwreck.
What is happening here? How does one account for this sombre aspect
of Andersen’s work? It is tempting to do what critics have so often done,
namely to seek the reasons in Andersen’s own life, and to a certain extent this
makes good sense. Andersen was himself a ‘misfit’, he had left his poor
childhood behind but he never truly seemed to arrive anywhere else, in spite
of his international fame and comparative wealth. The fact that he never
settled down in a love relationship, in spite of several involvements with
various ladies, may have inspired his somewhat pessimistic view of love in the
stories referred to here, where the characters are endlessly—and
hopelessly—on the move.
One of the forest examples of how this motif is explored in the tales is
The steadfast tin soldier (Den standhaftige Tinsoldat, 1838), whose main
character only just has time to discover his love for the young ballerina
before fate—or some other inexplicable force—casts him out into a hostile
world from which he is miraculously and inexplicably saved, but only to be
senselessly destroyed. What comes across in this story is that there is no
sense to the universe, no apparent meaning or order, just casual and
irrational changes of fate. Other stories in this group may not be quite so
radical in their world view but they all share the feeling that we do not live
in a safe universe.17
Andersen’s treatment of the motif changes over the years, as he
becomes more modern in his narrative style and can distance himself,
perhaps, from his own personal experience. A story from the dunes shows
tragic events in the lives of its characters, but they are the kind of events that
you do tend to find in the nineteenth-century short story, where the sense of
 Hans Christian Andersen—The Journey of His Life 85

fate and of contrast between a person’s young and old age is often what gives
the short story its energy. In this particular story, Andersen moves close to
the style of Steen Steensen Blicher, the father of the modern Danish short
story. Like Blicher, Andersen gives his characters credibility by placing them
in a recognizable universe, where events and people do, after all, seem
probable even if their fate is extreme. In A story from the dunes, Andersen
‘poses’ as a nineteenth-century topographer, finding similarities between
Arabia and Jutland.18 There is still an element of the irrational in the story,
but it has more to do with psychological irrationality than with the
supernatural.
The homeless man, the exile who is out of his proper cultural
environment, is still there but he is increasingly like a modern man.
Characteristically, he still does not know what is hitting him, as is also seen
in the case of the main character of The ice maiden (Isjomfruen, 1862). But by
now the reader can see through the events and Andersen’s technique is
increasingly one of dramatic irony rather than the creation of alternative,
‘parallel’ worlds where nature and the supernatural interact.
At the same time as he was exploiting the existing thematic use of the
journey in the traditional tale, he was also using it to express much more
modern themes of alienation and exile. His inspiration may have come from
his personal experience, but the real power of stories obviously depends on
their reflection of a more general condition which his readers of all ages
would be able to recognize and relate to, consciously or otherwise.
In about a dozen of his tales we thus meet characters who travel,
perhaps because their instinct tells them to keep on the move, perhaps
because fate hurls them along for no clear reason, perhaps because they are
running away from their own anxieties or their own failure. But they do not
escape: in Andersen’s darker stories there is nowhere to hide, no home to go
to.

To travel is to escape, perhaps from one’s daily routine in order to go on

holiday, perhaps to create a new life for oneself in new surroundings through
emigration. There is, of course, that difference between the exile and the
tourist—or the emigré—that the exile is not usually away from his home of
his own free will. The exile is a refugee, unsettled, uprooted, only
temporarily at his address, waiting for a chance to return. The tourist—and
the explorer—engage in a more positive search for something different.
Andersen’s later stories reveal a much more settled picture of the
character away from home. Part of the change that happens in his narrative
style is a greater emphasis on realistic details. Reality is always present in the
86 Hans Christian Andersen

fairy tales, whether through references to real locations or in details which

more or less explicitly place the story in the reader’s own universe. But in the
later stories, reality becomes ever more obvious and in some cases the
element of geographical and psychological realism brings Andersen’s
narrative close to the prose style of the short story writers of his own time.
This also suggests that the universe described in the stories—the world
in which the characters ‘live’—is becoming rather more manageable, because
it is becoming easier to understand. This does not mean that the characters
cope more easily with their world but that their problems are not always
embodied in characters from another, metaphysical world. They are not
necessarily any happier but they are more like ‘real’ people.
An example of a transitional story between ‘exile’ and the more realistic
picture of the world abroad is The pepperman’s nightcap (Pebersvendens Nathue,
1858), one of the best realistic stories among Andersen’s many short tales. It
tells the life story of a German merchant’s representative, Anton, living in
Copenhagen several centuries before Andersen’s own time and making a
living by selling spices (the ‘pepper’ of his title) on behalf of Lübeck and
Hamburg merchants. The historical details of the story are interesting in
themselves but the description of Anton’s situation as an exile is more
fascinating in this context.
Andersen takes his character’s point of view, to the extent of describing
German nature as being more attractive than Denmark’s.19 This may seem
surprising to those who know Andersen as the author of some of the best-
loved lyrical descriptions of the Danish countryside, but it is an indication of
his cosmopolitan approach and it also says something about his ability to
enter into the world of his characters. Andersen, after all, was also a
playwright.
Because Anton is described with more psychological detail, his
situation also calls to a greater extent on the reader’s ability to observe and
understand real events, and with Anton we move away from the well-known
Andersen world of fairy tale to something that is closer to Andersen’s
contemporary Søren Kierkegaard. The focus is existential, the main
character’s problem cannot be solved by fairies or exacerbated by hostile
trolls. His problem is one of living in a world that is in constant flux, one that
changes constantly and which he is not equipped to understand. Andersen
hints that modern nineteenth-century transport would have helped the
character cope better with life away from home. At least now, in the 1850s,
modern steam power has shrunk Europe to more manageable proportions.
Far from being an impoverishment of the tale, its existential emphasis
becomes a sign of its author’s versatility as well as, it may be assumed, some
 Hans Christian Andersen—The Journey of His Life 87

of his own experience of life. It is not a happy or desirable life, but as

Andersen presents it, it does amount to a valid existence: the author is
implicitly claiming to be presenting his reader with reality. Andersen
describes his character’s loneliness as seen through the character’s mind: ‘...
he didn’t understand himself, he didn’t understand the others; but we
understand! You can be in somebody’s home, with the family, and yet you do
not strike root, you converse in the way you might converse on a stage coach,
you get to know each other in the way you get to know other passengers on
a stage coach, you bother each other, you wish that you were somewhere else
or that your good neighbour were’.20
Realism never entirely takes over the Andersen fairy tale, but it grows
in importance as an element in his narrative style and in a way it brings him
closer to our own century, helps us to see that his world view is not that
different from our own as well as allowing him to bring his talents as a
creative writer and a travel journalist together.
One may wonder, at reading The pepperman’s nightcap, whether it is a
reflection of Andersen’s true experience of ‘homelessness’. The answer would
probably be both a ‘yes’ and a ‘no’. He may well have felt what his character
does: ‘Bitter is the life of the stranger in a strange country! You are only,
noticed by others if you are in their way’.21 What is more, the late twentieth-
century reader easily recognizes the experience of living in a world in flux,
where one’s sense of belonging is constantly disturbed because modern
technology keeps changing one’s sense of what the world looks like. Feeling
estranged has become one of the central experiences of life in our century
and Andersen was ideally equipped to describe it well before it became
commonly understood.
But at the same time he was also becoming used to it. The experience
of homelessness, which he had had since childhood and which had become
his both by choice and through necessity, had also become a strength. And
so it is that late in life his attitude to rootless modern life begins to change.
For one thing, foreign countries increasingly provide the setting for his tales
or form part of the characters’ world. Thus, The ice maiden (Iisjomfruen,
1862), Psyche (Psychen, 1862) and The wood nymph (Dryaden, 1868) are set
outside Denmark. What is more, the author’s attitude to life becomes
increasingly cosmopolitan. His outlook, which is never narrow, becomes ever
more worldly. He embraces, with enthusiasm, the concept of modern
transport and he evidently understands that improved communication will
also change the outlook of modern people. The muse of the new century (Det
nye Aarhundredes Musa, 1861), The wood nymph (1862), The bird phoenix (Fugl
Phønix, 1863) and The thorny path (Årens Tornevei, 1863) are celebrations of
88 Hans Christian Andersen

life in a modern, cosmopolitan world. The ‘Muse’—that of poetry—is a

citizen of a world where, soon ‘the Great Wall of China shall fall; the
railways of Europe shall reach the closed cultural archives of Asia—two
streams of culture shall meet and flow as one’.22 The thorny path is an attempt
to link the ancient Greek civilization with that of modern engineers, by
listing some of the author’s own heroes from world history. The phoenix is,
again, creative writing as part of a timeless world-culture.
In The wood nymph, Andersen indulges in a description of the Paris
World Exhibition of 1867 that combines his enthusiasm for the real, modern
world with his fairy-tale style of writing. The story is described both through
the eyes of the wood nymph, the dryad, who is granted twelve hours in
human form, so that she can see modern Paris and the Exhibition; and
through the eyes of Andersen himself and those of his readers: ‘We are
travelling to the Paris Exhibition. We are there! with speed, with a rush,
entirely without witchcraft. We travelled on the wings of speed, at sea and on
land. Ours is the age of fairy-tales. We are in the middle of Paris ...’.23 Once
the wood nymph goes sightseeing in this modern Paris, we find that the
author’s enthusiasm has not blurred his vision: this is both a Paris of human
tragedy and of modern sewers, a Paris where hotels are decorated with fresh
flowers and where pollution kills the trees outside.
In a sense, The wood nymph brings this journey through Andersen’s fairy
tales full circle. From using the journey as a conventional folk-tale motif,
Andersen had reached the point where the journey was part of the shared
experience of modern Europeans, an experience which seemed likely to
reach modern people everywhere, tying them together in a shared world
with a shared culture.
In his autobiography Andersen describes the city where he grew up,
Odense, as being in some senses unchanged since the Middle Ages. His own
background, his childhood, was rooted in the past. Towards the end of his
life, in 1872, he published a fairy tale in which an old man, Great-grandfather
(Oldefader, 1872), appears. ‘Great-grandfather’ himself comes from Odense
and remembers its old-fashioned culture. But now, in his old age, modern
technology enables his grandson Frederik to travel to America (by
steamship), and the same technological age has provided the means (the
telegraph) whereby Frederik is able to stay in contact with ‘Great-
grandfather’.
Andersen had himself travelled from the world of the Middle Ages to
that of Modernism, in both art and culture. In his fairy tales, travel remained
a central motif. It played different parts in the tales at different stages of his
artistic career and in that respect it reflects changes in his life and in his art.
 Hans Christian Andersen—The Journey of His Life 89

At an early age he set out on his life’s journey, through an age of restless
cultural, political and technological change. At the early stages, from 1835,
travel was predominantly used in the way it happens in the folktale, as a
conventional element in story-telling. But he soon began to explore travel at
a more personal level in the tales, as a metaphor for homelessness and exile,
reflecting his own dark vision of human life as a problematic journey.
But in the 1850s, a change takes place, a change which clearly reflects
his own experience of travel and which may also reflect his own greater
maturity as a man of the world: his outlook becomes increasingly
cosmopolitan and his fascination grows for the technology of travel and
foreign settings for his narratives.
He never loses track of the essential ingredient of the fairy-tale: its
ability to merge the rational and irrational worlds. Nor does he ever forget
that children are in the audience for the tales, after all writing tales
specifically for children was one of his great achievements. But his view of
the world changes and his readers—be they children or adults—are
challenged to deal with ever more complex and advanced aspects of the
world which they share with the author.
The great joy is that they have been allowed to go with him on his
journey. Ivan Klima, remembering a school essay which he wrote in
Theresienstadt, said that writing ‘enables you to enter places inaccessible in
real life, even the most forbidding spaces. More than that, it allows you to
invite guests along’.24 To this day, readers sense Andersen’s generous
invitation to go with him on that great journey of his life.

APPENDIX

Fairy tales considered for this investigation (the English titles in the list are
those used in the Penguin Complete fairy tales and stories of Hans Andersen,
trans. Erik Haugaard (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1985):

1835 Fyrtøjet The tinderbox

1835 Prinsessen paa Ærten The princess and the pea
1835 Rejsekammeraten The travelling companion
1835 Tommelise Inchelina
1837 Den lille Havfrue The little mermaid
1838 De vilde Svaner The wild swans
1838 Den standhaftige Tinsoldat The steadfast tin soldier
1838 Lykkens Kalosker The magic galoshes
1839 Den flyvende Koffert The flying trunk
90 Hans Christian Andersen

1839 Paradisets Have The garden of Eden

1842 Metalsvinet The bronze pig
1844 Den grimme Ælling The ugly duckling
1845 Snedronningen The snow queen
1848 Den lykkelige Familie The happy family
1848 Historien om en Moder The story of a mother
1853 Under Piletræet Under the willow tree
1855 Klods-Hans Clod Hans
1855 Et Blad fra Himlen A leaf from heaven
1855 Ib og lille Christine Ib and little Christina
1858 Flaskehalsen The bottle
1858 Pebersvendens Nathue The pepperman’s nightcap
1858 Suppe paa en Polsepind How to cook soup upon a sausage pin
1859 Et Stykke Perlesnor A string of pearls
1860 En Historie fra Klitterne A story from the dunes
1861 I Andegården In the duckyard
1861 De Vises Sten The philosopher’s stone
1861 Det nye Århundredes Muse The muse of the new century
1862 Isjomfruen The ice maiden
1862 Psychen Psyche
1863 Fugl Phønix The bird phoenix
1863 Ærens Tornevej The thorny path
1868 Dryaden The wood nymph
1872 Oldefar Great-grandfather
1874 Laserne The rags

NOTES

1. Hans Christian Andersen, H.C. Andersen and Thalia: love’s labours lost? (Odense:
Odense University Press, 1992).
2. Steen Steensen Blicher (1782–1848), clergyman, topographer and author, is the
father of the Danish short story. Partly inspired by Sir Walter Scott, the Ossian tradition
and folktales, he developed and perfected a style of pseudo-realistic narrative, often in
regional Danish (Jutland) dialect. A number of stories are available in English translation
(see Schroder, A bibliography of Danish literature in English translation 1950–1980
(Copenhagen: The Danish Institute, 1982).
3. This investigation covers 34 out of 157 printed in Gyldendal.
4. Published in 1926. See H. Topsøe-Jensen: Omkring Levnedsbogen (1943).
5. Hans Brix (ed.), H.C. Andersens levnedsbog (1971), 19.
6. H.C. Andersen: Mit eget eventyr uden digtning, edited from the author’s
manuscript by H. Topsøe-Jensen (Copenhagen: Nyt Nordisk Forlag, 1942), 5. This is the
Danish original of Andersen’s first published autobiography, which appeared in German
 Hans Christian Andersen—The Journey of His Life 91

translation as Das Märchen meines Lebens ohne Dichtung (Leipzig: Carl B. Lorck, 1847).
Andersen’s second autobiography, Mit Livs Eventyr (1855), uses almost identical twins to
the passage quoted.
7. In 1857, he spent a month in Charles Dickens’ home. See Elias Bredsdorff, H.C.
Andersen og Charles Dickens (Copenhagen: Rosenkilde og Bagger, 1951). Andersen’s many
Copenhagen addresses are listed in B.H. Gjelten, H.C. Andersen som teaterconnaisseur
(Copenhagen: Nyt Nordisk Forlag, 1982), 18.
8. Andersen uses a similar device in his first stage play, Kærlighed paa Nicolai Taarn
(1829, Love on St Nicholas’s tower), which suddenly becomes ‘interactive’, when the author
invites the audience to decide how the play should end.
9. Andersen visited Sweden on several occasions, in 1837, 1838 and 1840. He spent
three months in Sweden in 1849, before writing I Seerrig.
10. E.g. Fugl Phønix and Poesiens Californien.
11. See, for example, Terence Hawkes, Structuralism and semiotics (London:
Methuen, 1977), 67 ff. VI. Propp is the proponent of this functionalist or syntagmatic
analysis of the fairytale in Morphology of the folktale (Russian edition 1928, English
translation 1958, revised Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1968).
12. In fact, it is also his earliest fairy tale. He published the original version of this
tale, Dødningen (‘The dead man’) in Digte 1830 (Poems 1830). For the full text of
Dødningen, see H.C. Andersens eventyr, ed. Erik Dal (Copenhagen: Det danske sprog- og
litteraturselskab, 1963), 191 ff.
13. In this category we also find The little mermaid (1837), The wild swans (1838), The
flying trunk (1839), The garden of Eden (1839), The ugly duckling (1844), The story of a mother
(1848), How to cook soup up a sausage pin (1858) and The philosopher’s stone (1861). Note that
in this investigation a tale may exemplify several uses of the travel theme and may
therefore appear in different categories.
14. See his preface from 1837, in H.C. Andersens eventyr (1963), i, 19ff.
15. See Elias Bredsdorff, Hans Christian Andersen: the story of his life and work
(London: Phaidon Press, 1975), 310 ff. On Andersen’s use of the folk-tale see also Paul V.
Rubow, H.C. Andersens eventyr, second edition, 1943 (Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1967).
16. See Alison Lurie, Not in front of the grown-ups (London: Sphere Books, 1991).
For a discussion of Andersen and children, see e.g. Dot Pallis; ‘H.C. Andersen’s
børneverden i eventyrene’, Anderseniana, iv (1985–86), 297 ff.
17. The shadow (Skyggen, 1847) depends on similarly irrational events, although in
this instance the travel motif moves to the background of the story in favour of the drama
that develops between the man and his shadow, as the latter to take over his identity.
18. H.C. Andersen, Samlede eventyr og historier (Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1972), ii,
386.
19. After Denmark’s defeat in 1864 in the war against Prussia, such a liberal gesture
would have been much less acceptable. The passage in question is the following: ‘“Great
is the beauty of the Danish beech forest!” they said, but to Anton the beeches at Warburg
rose even more beautifully’ (Samlede eventyr og historier, ii, 204.)
20. Samlede eventyr og historier, iii, 208.
21. Ibid.
22. Samlede eventyr og historier, iii, 40.
23. Samlede eventyr og historier, ii, 277.
24. Ivan Klima, ‘A childhood in Terezin’ in Granta (1993), no. 44, 200.
 ALISON PRINCE

War

A ndersen’s trip to Britain had done nothing to improve his reputation in

Denmark—rather the reverse. Goldschmidt’s The Corsair had carried a
sarcastic piece about ‘Andersen, the Lion’, accompanied by biting cartoons
depicting him as a grovelling toady. Edvard Collin had shown William
Jerdan’s enthusiastic report of Andersen’s visit to the editor of Berlingske
Tidende, a Danish newspaper named after its founder in 1745, suggesting that
he might reprint it from the Literary Gazette. He was met with a firm
refusal—not, the editor explained, through any malice, but because Jerdan
had equated Andersen’s greatness with that of Jenny Lind, and such a
ludicrous overstatement would make him a laughing-stock in Denmark.
This assessment seems to have been right, for Andersen had only been
back in Copenhagen a few hours when a mortifying incident occurred.
Looking out of his window, he saw two well-dressed men pass by:

They saw me, stopped, laughed, and one of them pointed up and
said in such a loud voice that I could hear every word, “Look!
There’s our orang-outan who’s so famous abroad!”

By contrast, the modest Jonas Collin had been made a titular privy
councillor, and H.P. Holst, who had been Andersen’s somewhat reluctant

From Hans Christian Andersen: The Fan Dancer. London: Allison & Busby (1998). © 1998 by
Alison Prince.

93
94 Alison Prince

companion in Rome before Andersen’s Greek trip, had been knighted for his
services to poetry.
On 4 November, Felix Mendelssohn died. His disintegrating health
had been partly responsible for Jenny Lind’s preoccupied mood in London,
for she knew, as Andersen must also have done, that the composer had been
so distressed to hear of the sudden death of his beloved sister in May of that
same year, 1847, that he himself had lost consciousness, having suffered a
stroke from which he never fully recovered. Although he had written the F
minor String Quartet that summer during a period of remission, a further
attack in September led to his death in under two months. Jenny Lind,
grieving for him even before he died, had told Andersen in London that she
would never be the same again.
Ahasuerus appeared on 16 December 1847. If Andersen had intended
this ambitious verse drama to be a clinching proof of his status as one of the
world’s great writers, it failed abysmally. He had talked to Oehlenschläger
about the idea before he started writing, and the wise old professional had
warned him not to attempt it. ‘There are such things as form and limits, and
one has to respect them,’ he advised—but Andersen had ignored him. When
he sent Oehlenschläger a copy of the finished book, it earned him a sharp
reproof:

The whole work makes an unpleasant and disorderly impression

on me; you must forgive me for putting it so bluntly ... the entire
structure consists of aphorisms, fragments, sometimes stories, all
of which are loosely connected. It seems to me that there is too
much pretension and too little achievement in this poem.

Andersen reproduced his long letter in its entirety in Mit livs eventyr, but
persisted in defending Ahasuerus as a new stage in his development. Early in
January 1848, the king asked Andersen to come and take tea with him, and
bring something to read. It was not an unusual request, for he had long been
on easy terms with the older man who could have been his father, but this
time, as Andersen read, he knew that his listener’s vitality was failing, and
realised with distress that this might be the last time the two of them would
meet. Christian VIII was suffering from kidney cancer. Some theorists hold
that an early diagnosis of this lay behind his sudden decision to ensure
Andersen’s welfare in 1844, on Als during the last holiday he took—and now,
his remaining days were running out.
The king died on 20 January. He had ruled for only nine years, a steady,
far-sighted monarch who had wisely retreated from the nervy absolutism of
 War 95

his predecessor, Frederik VI. They had been good years for Andersen, whose
relationship with the king was warm and familiar. He put no thoughts on
paper, but Christian VIII remained in his mind for a long time, referred to
months later with regret.
The king’s death cut the bonds on the demand for democracy which
had been swelling in Denmark as it had in the rest of Europe. Christian VIII
had been riding this turbulent force with a light hand, yielding to the
liberalism of such men as Anders Sandøe Ørsted (brother of the physicist
who so strongly influenced Andersen), well aware that his predecessor had
come close to causing an embarrassing high-level rebellion in his move to
censor the press, which he had been forced to drop. Had Christian lived
longer, the new Constitution which was being prepared might have been less
confrontational; as it was, his son ‘Fritz’ (Frederik VII) was left to sign a
document which attempted, hopelessly, to bind the duchies of Schleswig and
Holstein to Denmark.
The revolutionary urge which was infiltrating Europe in the wake of
the French upheaval was essentially nationalistic in character, and the
southern duchies seized the opportunity of Christian’s death to demand their
independence.
Frederik, often written off as ‘the mad king’ had none of his father’s
rational intellectualism. He had charm and could always say the right thing
to the right person, which caused him to be known in his own time as
Frederik the Popular, but he was essentially a lightweight, quite unable to
withstand the huge cultural and political authority of Germany. As tension
between the two countries rapidly worsened, Andersen, like almost every
educated Dane, grieved that the land of Goethe and Schiller and the great
composers was closing off and becoming a hostile camp. For years, young
Danes of the upper classes, together with the odd maverick like Andersen
and Thorvaldsen, had assumed it a vital part of their education to study in
Munich or Dresden, Dusseldorff or Weimar, or at least to become familiar
with these places on the long trek to Rome, and now, impending war
threatened to block off this great cultural hinterland and set friend against
friend.
On 22 February, revolution broke out in Paris for two violent days,
followed by an uprising in Vienna on 13 March. Widespread famine
throughout Europe brought the desperation of starving people to explosion
point, and Schleswig-Holstein followed the Viennese example two days later
when it staged armed insurgence. Two men whom Andersen knew well were
leaders of the revolt; one was the Prince of Nør and the other was his brother,
the Duke of Augustenborg, who went to Germany to enlist military support
96 Alison Prince

for the rebel movement. Andersen watched in horror as the Prince of Nør,
too impatient to wait for the results of his brother’s mission, launched an
armed attack on the Danish garrison of Rendsburg. German troops supported
him, precipitating a war which would rumble on for the next three years.
Lord Palmerston, whom Andersen had met in London, is reputed to
have remarked years later that only three men ever fully understood the
Schleswig-Holstein conflict; ‘One was Prince Albert, who is dead, the second
was a German professor who went mad. I am the third—and I have forgotten
it.’ For Andersen, no such levity was possible. To him, it was an agonisingly
intimate war, and the thought of Weimar was particularly painful. Only six
months previously, on 4 October 1847, he had written an ecstatic letter to
Carl Alexander about his recent visit. Following his trip to Britain had come

the beautiful days at Ettersburg, with our reunion, our life

together there, and our parting. Yes, yes, my noble friend, I love
you as a man can only love the noblest and best. This time I felt
that you were still more ardent, more affectionate to me. Every
little trait is preserved in my heart. On that cool evening, when
you took your cloak and threw it round me, it warmed not only
my body, but made my heart glow still more ardently.

With the death of Christian VIII, Andersen had suffered a great loss of
warmth and friendship. The visits to Amalienborg stopped, and there were
no invitations from the new king, a man three years younger than Andersen
himself, to come and read.
Carl Alexander’s father, the Grand Duke, awarded Andersen the Order
of the White Falcon in February 1848, as if in a token of faith before the
conflict which was boiling up. At almost the same time, Andersen, together
with Oehlenschläger’s son William, was honoured with the Swedish Order of
the North Star. Oehlenschläger himself gave Andersen as a personal present
the miniature replica of his own Danish North Star, confirming his affection
and admiration despite his criticism of Ahasuerus. Andersen was touched by
all this, but the assurances of friendship which they represented seemed a
frail defence of decency in the face of what was happening all round him.
The Prince of Nør’s intervention had led to the Battle of Schleswig on 24
April, leaving countless dead and wounded, and ten days later, Andersen
wrote to Carl Alexander in anguish:

Denmark, my native country, and Germany, where there are so

many whom I love, are standing opposed to each other in enmity!
 War 97

Your Royal Highness will comprehend how much all that pains
me! I believe so firmly in the nobility of all men, and feel certain
that if they only understood each other, everything would
blossom in peace ... How is it in Weimar? When shall we meet,
my noble friend? Perhaps never again! And as I think this, all the
dear memories of every hour of our life together, the warmth of
our meetings, flash through my mind, and my heart melts.

In a kind of horrified fascination, Andersen set off for Glorup shortly

after writing this letter. The manor was not far from the scene of the action,
and his journalistic instincts prompted a first-hand view of what was going
on. A week before the disastrous battle had taken place, he had written a vivid
account of Denmark’s preparations for war and sent it to Jerdan, well aware
that it would be printed in the Literary Gazette. In this piece, he had been
forthright about the treachery of the Duke of Augustenborg who, despite his
support for the German attack on the Danish garrison, had turned and fled
in the thick of battle, enraging the troops on both sides. The Moltke
mansion of Glorup, on Funen, just north of Schleswig, was visited frequently
by officers who had taken part in the action, and Andersen’s diary was full of
appalling details:

Heard a good deal about the battle; the men shot in the chest or
head lying as if they were asleep; those shot in the abdomen had
been almost unrecognisable because their faces were so
convulsively distorted with pain. One had lain literally ‘biting the
dust’ with his teeth; his hands had been clutching at the turf.

Some of the stories were about men whom Andersen knew personally. The
artist Johan Lundbye, thirty years old, died with tragic absurdity as he leaned
on his rifle, which went off when a passing farmer happened to trip over it.
Lieutenant Host wept as he told the story.
The defeated and disorganised Danes were scattered across the
countryside and found scant hospitality from frightened villagers who feared
Prussian reprisals if they offered food or shelter. The invading troops were
pillaging their way across the land, and Andersen wrote on 24 May to his
publisher, Richard Bentley, in the hope of stimulating British sympathy:

You will know that the Prussians have penetrated into the country
itself, have occupied Jutland and are daily requisitioning
foodstuff, wine and tobacco, are sending out troops to take away
98 Alison Prince

whole herds of horses, cloth from the factories, in short, they are
oppressing this poor country in the harshest possible way,
impounding the civil servants if they refuse to give in to their
demands. And just in these last few days—this really is the limit—
they have levied a forced contribution of four million rixdollars,
to be paid before May 28th, otherwise it will be extorted by the
power and terror of war! Jutland cannot pay this sum, not even
half of it can be found; so the Prussians intend to plunder and set
the towns on fire. That such things can happen in our time, that
such things can happen in civilised nations, seems to me like a
nightmare.

He went on to make a passionate appeal to Britain for help, and it may have
been that his intervention had some effect on public opinion, for, having seen
Sweden and Norway lend their support, the British government, together
with Russia, weighed in on the side of Denmark. The Prussian leaders
prudently withdrew their troops and refrained from pressing the demand for
four million rixdollars, and an armistice in September brought about a fragile
and uneasy peace.
In that same month, Andersen’s new novel, The Two Baronesses, was
published in England, two months prior to its appearance in Denmark.
While in London, he had realised that the only way to stop the pirating of
his work in unauthorised translations was to corner the market with an
original publication, and from that time on, this became his standard
practice. That international copyright became established was largely due to
the campaigning of Charles Dickens, but it was Richard Bentley who had
prompted Andersen to his self-protecting course of action.
Andersen himself sent Dickens a copy of his new book. He had already
sent him his latest collection of tales, dedicated to Dickens and entitled A
Christmas Greeting to my English Friends, but this had elicited no response,
and neither did the new book. Until prompted by Andersen nine months
later, the great man remained silent. It may well have been that he found
himself unable to say much about The Two Baronesses, even if he read it, for
the book is completely lacking in all the qualities which Dickens regarded as
valuable. Its storyline is wandering and confused, without humour or
identifiable characterisation, and its heroine is so closely modelled on Jeanie
Deans in Scott’s Heart of Midlothian as to border on pastiche. Andersen’s
diary records his reading of this novel on 17 May 1848, early in the writing
of his own book.
As a mosaic of elements from his own life, The Two Baronesses holds a
 War 99

certain interest to present-day readers. The usual theme of making good

from poverty-stricken origins is there, together with the friendships between
young men, a shoemaker called Hansen, a girl who wears Hansen’s red boots,
a childhood dream of living in castles, a child with a wonderful voice and a
reference to the magnificent acting of Johanne Heiberg. It may have been
Jonna Drewsen’s pending elevation to the rank of baroness through her
engagement to Henrik Stampe which had sparked off the idea of a contrast
between the young woman of non-aristocratic background and the older,
more secure one, but numerous role-models have been suggested. Whatever
its origins, the plot is so diffuse and lacking in organisation that it fails to
hang together. Despite these shortcomings, the book was lighter in tone than
Andersen’s previous novels, and proved popular. Heiberg even went so far as
to send its author his congratulations.
During the summer months of 1848, discontent continued to simmer
in Schleswig-Holstein, the German-speaking inhabitants having been denied
their wish to break away from Denmark, and Andersen saw that the armistice
could not hold much longer. He wrote to Carl Alexander, voicing his fears
that the duchies, already unwilling to abide by the terms of the peace
settlement, would explode into further violence—‘then we will have no
postal connection in winter at all’. His concerns were always essentially
personal.
Without apparent awareness that his friend’s allegiances lay with the
other side, Andersen’s letter went on to give a description of the Swedish
detachment that had been billeted on Count Moltke of Glorup while he had
been there. He made it sound more like a cultural delegation than an army.
There had been, he said:

a colonel, eight officers, a chaplain, a surgeon and forty

bandsmen, besides a large number of soldiers ... the officers are
still cultured and mostly talented men (I met a pianist among
them, a friend of Liszt). Every day the band played during dinner,
and there were promenade concerts for the whole
neighbourhood in the long avenues of the garden.

The Swedes had not actually engaged in the war, since the armistice had
been declared shortly after their arrival, but they gave a hand with the harvest
in the absence of so many Danish men, and were warmly welcomed.
At the end of that troubled year, Andersen was commissioned by the
Royal Theatre to write a play for performance at its hundredth jubilee gala.
After his years of struggle and disappointment in the theatrical world, it was
100 Alison Prince

a touching gesture of confidence, and Andersen produced a patriotic piece

called The Groundwork of Art, in which he claimed that Denmark’s greatness
lay in her collective intellectual power rather than in military strength. It was
an elegant explanation of his country’s losing situation in Schleswig-
Holstein, and the play ran to great public acclaim.
On 3 April 1849, as Andersen had feared, the fragile peace broke down
and Denmark was again at war with Germany. This time, he had no desire
to be a witness, and instead headed north to Sweden, leaving Copenhagen on
17 May. He stayed away for four months, finding himself heralded with
much celebration wherever he went. He had only one unnerving moment;
when taken to visit an insane asylum, the minister in charge of it asked on
hearing Andersen’s name, ‘Will he be staying here permanently?’ If meant as
a joke, it was less than hilarious, and Andersen, morbidly sensitive on the
subject of madness, could find no reply.
In the renewed fighting, the Danish forces were again losing heavily, as
might be expected when the sympathies of the population lay with the
opposing side, and Andersen found himself touched personally by the
conflict as letters from his beloved friend in Weimar ceased to arrive. Finally
he heard that Carl Alexander had himself led a contingent of troops into
battle, and recognised at last that the man he cared for so deeply must be
counted among Denmark’s enemies.
Following a further defeat in a battle on 6 July, an armistice was again
declared, and Andersen ventured to write to his friend. In a letter dated 18
August, he commented that the young duke had ‘certainly experienced sad
days this summer’. He did not post the letter until 8 September, by which
time he had added a rash postscript:

Your noble heart, and every noble German heart which loves the
truth, will feel that Denmark is blameless and good, and has
suffered injustice ...

Carl Alexander felt no such thing. In a letter written shortly after the latest
armistice, he had, as Andersen told Edvard, stressed that their friendship
should have nothing to do with politics. It was a clear warning not to
overstep the mark, and Andersen did his best to keep his patriotic feelings
out of their continued correspondence, even though the armistice broke
down once more.
On 14 November 1849, he wrote a song called ‘Poetry’ for the public
celebration of Oehlenschläger’s seventieth birthday, little suspecting that the
man he had admired so long was almost at the end of his life. At eleven
 War 101

o’clock on 20 January 1850 ‘at the same hour of the same day as Christian
VIII’ Andersen noted, Adam Oehlenschläger died, with immense dignity. He
kissed his family goodbye and assured them that he felt no pain, and when
Andersen saw his body, he commented that the jaundice which had killed
him had conferred ‘the appearance of a bronze statue rather than of a corpse.
The forehead was beautiful, youthful and clear.’
People from all walks of life followed the poet in a long procession to
his burial-place at Frederiksberg, where he had been born. Once again
Andersen (‘and old Grundtwig’ as he told Carl Alexander in a long letter) had
been commissioned to write suitable words, and Andersen’s funeral song was
set to music by Christophe Weyse. In the same letter to the young duke, he
had spoken with excitement about H.C. Ørsted’s newly published book, Soul
in Nature, which revealed the world to be ‘so splendidly great, so intelligible,
so sacred’. Ørsted, though renowned for his innovative practical work in
physics, was based very much in the tradition of Goethe, writing about
natural phenomena with a perceptive curiosity which is only beginning to re-
emerge in our own time from an age of artificial and restrictive division
between the arts and the sciences.
On 2 February, the marriage between Jonna Drewsen and Henrik
Stampe took place, and Andersen’s diary contained no comment. On his
forty-fifth birthday, 2 April 1850, he wrote to Carl Alexander with a long
description of his new verse play, Ole Lukoie, which had just been staged. The
eponymous hero is a figure not unlike the legendary Scottish Dream Angus,
a bringer of the heart’s desire to the sleeping mind, and the plot addressed
the question which was beginning to trouble Andersen so much; when a man
has all he could wish for, why is it that he still senses an inner emptiness and
despair?
The play was widely misunderstood. Andersen quoted in his letter a
critic who had taken the point to be a political one and assumed the author
to be rebuking those who held ‘false notions of a perfect equality in worldly
circumstances for all’. Nothing could be further from the truth. As always,
Andersen’s concerns were purely personal, and while he retained a fellow-
feeling for the underdog, he showed no signs of envisaging a society free of
the gradients which were so material to his life and to his writing. The
dismaying blankness which accompanied his success came from realising that
admiration is no substitute for love. Edvard was lost to him, reduced to the
status of a sensible and supportive friend, and the continuing war had made
Weimar and Carl Alexander seem remote. His play was parodied in the
newly established Casino Theatre, a popular and irreverent rival to the
Royal, and Andersen wrote in distress to Ørsted’s daughter, Mathilde. Ørsted
102 Alison Prince

himself replied, pointing out that ‘almost all men of distinction are subject to
attacks of that kind’. Very gently, he told Andersen that Ole Lukoie was not
the best thing he had ever done, and cautioned him on no account to try to
defend himself.
Andersen took his advice—but by the summer, he was sinking into
depression. At Glorup, his fellow-guests made it clear that they knew about
his friendship with the Hereditary Grand Duke of Weimar, and needled him
constantly about this and about his effeminacy. His diary entries in June
record a multitude of provocative remarks. ‘“Isn’t that a handkerchief from
Schleswig-Holstein?”’. ‘“You’re not writing to the Duke of Weimar, are
you?”’. On 25 June, he had a particularly bad time:

Mr Lindegaard was boorishly witty at my expense—talked about

my courage with bulls and so forth, and later, at home, about my
having made the cloth flowers for the chandelier. I ignored him,
but felt uncomfortable about it. Afterwards ... Countess Scheel
came out with some drivel—that I was supposed to have said I
didn’t have the heart for war but would go along as a troubador!
I was angry to have such nonsense pinned on me and objected to
such ‘unnatural talk’.

The next day, he went out to pick forget-me-nots for Miss Raben and
Countess Moltke, and felt a little better, but toothache began to plague him,
with an abscess which had to be lanced. ‘Melancholy;’ he wrote on 1 July, ‘my
progress as a writer is a thing of the past.’
Four days later, as Andersen was out walking alone in a ‘dark and
sombre mood’, a servant rushed up with the news that there had been a
cease-fire:

Tears sprang to my eyes; I ran in to His Excellency; saw the

announcement on the leaflet sent to us from Nyborg by the
merchant Suhr. It isn’t official; I don’t dare give myself over to my
joy.

The peace treaty was signed on 2 July 1850. ‘Peace! Peace with Germany!’
Andersen wrote to Carl Alexander. ‘It rings through my heart.’ He rushed on
to voice his hope that he could visit Weimar again, and lamented that
Beaulieu had entirely ceased to write to him.
His letter met with a hostile silence. Andersen seemed unaware that
Germany had technically lost the war, since the treaty had given Denmark
 War 103

continuing, though conditional, rule over the duchies. The Schleswig-

Holstein insurgents ignored the cease-fire and continued to fight on against
the Danish troops, but without their Prussian allies they had no real hope of
victory, and were finally crushed in January 1851. Their defeat left the
duchies in a state of sullen resentment, under a Danish hold much weakened
by conciliatory clauses in the peace treaty—and Germany was biding its
time, well aware that the business had not been concluded. In such
continuing tensions, Andersen’s gushing letters to Weimar must have seemed
blunderingly insensitive, and Carl Alexander remained silent.
Home concerns occupied Andersen. Jette Wulff, an intrepid traveller
despite her small, deformed body, embarked on 12 September on a year’s trip
to the Danish West Indies aboard the brig Mercurius, of which her brother
Christian had just taken command. Like several Danish women of the time,
she was a skilled painter, depicting landscape and genre scenes with a fluent,
easy technique and clear perception. Shortly after her departure, Andersen
began sitting to another woman artist, Elizabeth Jerichau-Baumann, for a
portrait.
On 7 November, Copenhagen University honoured H.C. Ørsted with
a celebration of his fiftieth jubilee as a lecturer there. At seventy-three, with
an untidy shock of white hair and an enthusiasm for the mystery and
excitement of physics which was as strong as ever, he was adored by his
students, who staged a torchlight procession for him. Andersen described the
whole thing in yet another letter to the silent Carl Alexander, chatting
excitedly about the second part of Ørsted’s Soul in Nature and its effect on his
own latest book, In Sweden. He added that the Moltkes’ son, Jerichau, who
had served as a hussar in the Danish army, had died of typhus. The silence
from Weimar continued.
As the unofficial war finally came to an end in January, Andersen
watched the victorious troops returning to Copenhagen, exhausted rather
than triumphant. His publisher, Reitzel, gave him thirty copies of the book
of patriotic songs Andersen had written during the war, including the famous
In Denmark I Was Born, for distribution to the soldiers. Andersen gave them
to the wounded men first, then to the youngest, and lamented that he had
not enough. What the men said is not recorded.
There was a waspish reference to this public benevolence in Meier
Goldschmidt’s new publication, North and South, but it was caused in part by
a foolish discourtesy of Andersen’s towards the editor. He had been invited
to Goldschmidt’s house on 12 February for a celebration of Ole Bull’s
birthday but decided not to go ‘as I so often do’, he admitted in his diary. The
indignant Goldschmidt took him to task for sending no apology or excuse
104 Alison Prince

and accused Andersen of being jealous that somebody other than himself was
being feted.
It was the kind of social gaffe which Andersen, ever locked within his
own concerns, was particularly prey to. Now that the victory celebrations
were over, the anticlimax was setting in, and there was little to distract him
from his growing bleakness. On 21 February he wrote, ‘No joy about the
future. The wreaths and garlands have been taken down; only a few hang
here and there like flowers after a ball.’
An old friend, Emma Hartmann, died on 6 March, and a worse blow
followed three days later. H.C. Ørsted, after only a few months in the country
residence provided for him, caught a cold which led quickly to a chest infection,
and he was dead in a matter of hours. A great procession went to his house and
laid a silver wreath on his coffin, then the mourners carried it on their own
shoulders to the University, where he lay in state until his burial on 18 March,
very close to the main door of the University, in the courtyard which separates
it from the Church of our Lady. Andersen’s new book, In Sweden, came out the
next day, as if in tribute to the man who had so heavily influenced it.
Ørsted’s death deepened Andersen’s sense of solitude, and he sent the
still-silent Carl Alexander a bust of himself, following this by a letter to
Beaulieu-Marconnay in which he asked tentatively whether a visit to Weimar
might be possible, or whether his pro-Danish views might make him
unpopular. Beaulieu reacted like a poked lion, snarling that if Andersen was
so one-sided as to consider Denmark right in all things, he had better stay
away. Recovering himself, he added that his correspondent would of course
be welcome as ‘a dear, worthy poet with whom one may go for a walk but not
discuss politics’.
Andersen forwarded this sharp reply to Edvard Collin for advice, and
received a closely reasoned response tinged with sheer fury. Beaulieu should
not forget, Edvard said, that his token support of a democratic uprising in
Schleswig-Holstein must be set against a regime of press prosecutions,
civilian oppression and political imprisonment in his own country. Denmark
had been forced to oppose ‘German arrogance’, and the fact that the new
Danish government of the duchies was described in Germany as a ‘Casino-
Cabinet’ showed a continuing contempt:

It might perhaps interest Herr Beaulieu to learn that there are

four noblemen in the Cabinet, among them two counts, and that
the President of the Council is one of our highest and most
distinguished aristocrats.
 War 105

Edvard, as a deeply conservative civil servant, had an ingrained respect for

aristocracy and regarded the radical changes which were sweeping Europe as
utterly distasteful. Describing himself as ‘an official of the ancien régime and
no friend to democracy’, he was outraged that Beaulieu should regard
himself as a virtuous progressive where Schleswig-Holstein’s affairs were
concerned, and hoped that Andersen would utterly refuse to be regarded by
such a man as ‘a dear, worthy poet with whom one may go for a walk but not
discuss politics’. His repetition of the phrase showed how offensive he found
it, and he offered to make his entire letter available to Andersen to send to
Beaulieu as it stood.
Andersen could not take such a drastic step. It would have meant the
final breaking-off of all contact with Weimar, and while Edvard would have
thought this a good thing, Andersen could not face it. He wrote in
conciliatory terms to both Carl Alexander and Beaulieu, explaining that he
had merely feared that the ‘lower orders’ might show some ignorant
prejudice. He had no fear of coming into conflict with ‘the cultivated classes’,
he went on:

We have so many other interests in common which are dear to us,

so much that is good and beautiful to talk about and entertain
ourselves with, that I would unhesitatingly come to my friends.

A slightly stiff contact was resumed—but Andersen abandoned any thoughts

of going to Weimar that year. Nevertheless, after the restrictions imposed by
the war, he was chafing to go abroad again, and on 17 January, set off on a
modest European journey. This time, he took with him Ingeborg Drewsen’s
youngest son, Viggo, knowing by now that loneliness was a constant hazard
of his travels.
Viggo, now twenty-one years old, found Andersen’s fussiness over
details irritating and, with the impatience of youth, probably seldom
understood why his companion seemed so set in his ways and easily upset.
For Andersen, the journey was a disturbing one. He was troubled by the
evidence of warfare that lingered in the embattled duchies and ‘did not
breathe freely until all Holstein, including Hamburg, had been left behind’.
To travel through Germany without visiting Weimar was equally painful, and
by the time the pair got to Prague, Andersen was suffering from persistent
and excruciating toothache. In Dresden, Viggo headed for home alone,
leaving Andersen to stay with his old friends, the Serres, at Maxen.
In the autumn of the same year he was made an honorary professor of
Copenhagen University, to his great delight, and through the winter of
106 Alison Prince

1851–2 he worked on a new volume of stories. The bulk of what are now
considered his classic fairy tales had by now been written, but he continued
to produce short pieces which have much to say on the sad comedy of human
life and his own experience of it.
A week before Christmas, he wrote to Jette Wulff, who was now in
America. She had told him the voyage was perfectly easy, and urged him to
come over and sample the delights of the New World. ‘You can travel about
with the Lind,’ she suggested. Jenny Lind was indeed about to start an
American tour with that great showman, Barnum—but Andersen would not
cross the Atlantic. He had always been afraid of long sea voyages, which Jette
knew, but he fell back on the excuse that he could not afford it. He was
interested, however, in the question of his books circulating in the States in
cheap and un-paid-for editions, and gave Jette strict instructions to bring
sample copies back with her.
He was still obsessed with the idea of going to Weimar, and in March
1852 wrote a politely insistent letter to Carl Alexander, fishing for an
invitation. It duly came, and he set out in mid-May, full of nervous hope. The
visit was not a great success. He stayed with Beaulieu, a little surprisingly in
view of their previous correspondence, but was only one of several guests,
and found the atmosphere difficult. Beaulieu was now married, with two
children, and had his cousin staying with him. This young man, Ernst
Beaulieu-Marconnay, had been an officer in the Prussian army and still
suffered from the effects of a severe head-wound, complaining constantly of
pain and sometimes almost fainting, and in fact died three years later. He was
a walking reminder of the war, and Andersen found him unnerving. ‘He is
lying in the room outside mine,’ he wrote in his diary on 23 May, ‘I’m
completely shut in by him, and the thought occurred to me that he might go
mad during the night and come in and murder me. Can’t lock my door.’ He
spent some time during the days that followed in listening to the young man
reading his poems aloud and admitted eventually that he could be quite
pleasant, but he never quite recovered from his first impression that Ernst
was sinister and not to be trusted.
Carl Alexander himself proved elusive. His first meeting with Andersen
had taken place on the neutral ground of his mother’s house, and although
the two men had embraced and kissed as old friends would expect to; he
seemed otherwise occupied for most of the visit, only seeing Andersen on
formal occasions, with other people present.
There were substantial reasons for his preoccupation. The Empress of
Russia, Alexandra Feodorovna, arrived during Andersen’s stay, necessitating
a shift round of rooms. Her husband, Tsar Nicholas I, was the brother of the
 War 107

Grand Duchess of Weimar. The Empress was frail and almost blind, having
to be carried upstairs. Andersen found it pitiable and, as he admitted in a
letter to Ingeborg Drewsen, slightly absurd that such a frail invalid should be
head of a country ‘the size of the surface of the moon’. He was not feeling
welcome, and increasingly occupied his time with visits to artistic friends,
and on 25 May wrote with some astonishment of Liszt, who was living in sin
with the Princess of Wittgenstein, that the pair of them seemed ‘like fiery
spirits blazing, burning—they can warm you at once, but if you get too close,
you will be burned.’
Liszt was full of enthusiasm for the music of Wagner, which Andersen
failed to admire, as he made clear in Mit livs eventyr.

In Wagner I see an intellectual composer of the present day; he is

great because of his understanding and his will; he is a
tremendous innovator, rejecting everything old, but I feel that he
lacks that divine element which was granted to Mozart and
Beethoven.

He sat through a performance of Tannhäuser and remarked in his diary

that the music was competent but lacking in melody. ‘What Weber or
Mozart couldn’t have done with it!’ he added, in a somewhat comic lumping-
together of unlikelihoods. Lohengrin failed to change his opinion. When
Liszt came bounding into his box at the theatre to demand what he thought
now, Andersen merely said limply, ‘I feel half dead.’ He was happier with
Flotow’s light opera, Martha, with its indisputably tuneful theme-song, ‘The
Last Rose of Summer’.
Despite its evident shortcomings, Andersen wrote rapturous
descriptions of his Weimar visit to his friends. At the end of three weeks he
moved on, and in Munich he met King Maximilian of Bavaria, generally
known as ‘King Max’, together with the old king, Ludwig I, Max’s father.
Andersen went on a boat trip with them to their island villa, and after dinner
sat chatting with the younger monarch on a bench. He then joined Viggo
Drewsen in Leipzig and travelled with him to Milan. Rather strangely, he
wrote from Frankfurt on the way home to Beaulieu, saying that he would
have liked to call again at Weimar, but his companion ‘wished to return home
without making a stay anywhere’. It seems doubtful that there had been a
specific invitation, but Andersen could not stop worrying at the Weimar
question, as if he could somehow shake it into the real welcome he so
desperately wanted.
In Frankfurt, some German friends tried to take him to Homberg,
108 Alison Prince

where the Duchess of Augustenborg was anxious to see him, but here
Andersen dug his heels in. He could not forgive that family for its
involvement against Denmark during the war, and wrote in his diary on 14
July, ‘they have brought misfortune and unhappiness to my native land. I’m
not judging them, but I cannot bear the thought of meeting them.’
In the spring of 1853, Andersen arranged a large-scale deal with Reitzel
for four thousand copies of his Illustrated Stories and two thousand of his
Collected Works to be reissued. It was to be his last meeting with the publisher,
who died shortly afterwards and was succeeded by his son. In May he went
to Sorø for a long stay with the Ingemanns, and wrote to Jette Wulff on 5
June about the daily good-natured wrangles with the poet about the meaning
of creativity:

He sets poetry high above science, but I don’t. He admits that our
time is a great era of inventiveness, but only in the field of the
mechanical and the material, which is constantly expanding. I
think of this as a necessary support for what is spiritual, a great
branch from which poetry can blossom ...

The Ørsted influence was still strong. Two days previously, Andersen
had written in great excitement to Carsten Hauch about the electric
telegraph which had just been installed between Elsinore, Copenhagen and
Hamburg, due to open for public use the following year. Andersen had stood
beside Peter Faber, the operator, and heard him contact Elsinore with the
news that a great poet was in his office—whereupon a whole stanza of one of
Andersen’s earliest poems had come back from that distant place. It was,
Andersen said, ‘as if I stood under the wingbeat of an eternal, mighty spirit’.
He added that, had he discovered science twenty years ago, he might well
have followed that discipline, which could have been ‘a better one’.
A few days later, cholera broke out in Copenhagen. It was an appalling
epidemic, causing nearly five thousand deaths during the summer months,
and Andersen fled for safety to Jutland. There, he heard that Carl Alexander’s
father, the old Duke of Weimar, had died, leaving his son to inherit the title.
‘In the new activity of your life I shall probably hear from you less often,’ he
wrote in his letter of sympathy and congratulations, ‘but I firmly believe in
you, and that I live in your thoughts as you have grown into mine.’
During the two months of his self-imposed exile, Andersen began work
on an extended version of The True Story of My Life. This new autobiography
was to occupy him for the next two years, and would eventually appear as The
Fairytale of My Life—Mit lies eventyr.
 War 109

By the time Andersen thought it safe to return to Copenhagen, the

epidemic had killed Edvard’s mother-in-law, Oline Thyberg, and also a
cousin on old Mrs Collin’s side of the family, Emilie Hornemann. The
newspapers declared the city to be free of the disease, but Andersen, ever
fearful and hypochondriac, lived for some time in the dread of being stricken
down.
His sensibilities were deeply offended in January 1854 when he read a
book called Mimona. This was the work of a young actress known as Clara
Raphael, her real name being Mathilde Fibiger, and it dealt uninhibitedly
with incest and other sexual aberrations. Andersen was deeply shocked that
a young woman could, as he wrote to Ingemann, ‘live, think, write and read
about something like that’. Such confrontation with female interest in sex
repelled him, and he described the book as ‘bestial’.
That year, he took Viggo’s younger brother, Einar Drewsen, with him
on a trip to Germany and Italy. In Vienna they dined with Jenny Lind, now
married to Otto Goldschmidt, who had gone out to America to be her
accompanist there. He had converted to Christianity in order to appease his
wife’s increasing religiosity, and the first of their three children, a little son
called Walter, had been born in the previous September. Jenny had now
become convinced that to sing in a theatre was sinful, and restricted her
appearances to concerts and oratorios sung in churches. Andersen remarked
that it was ‘a sin against the spirit, an abandonment of the mission God gave
her’, and his disappointment soured his mood and may well have added to
the difficulties of his relationship with Einar, who became fretful and unwell.
Andersen did not tolerate other people’s malaises easily, and in Munich the
pair of them quarrelled. Whether by pre-arrangement or as a result of their
falling-out, Andersen went on alone, first to visit King Max and then to
Weimar, and this time found a warmer reception.
For all Carl Alexander’s cordiality, politics lurked not far below the
surface, and when Andersen was asked to visit the Duchess of Augustenborg
and resume the friendship, he flatly refused. Carl Alexander accused him of
bearing a grudge, pointing out that ladies were above politics, but Andersen
was not to be moved.
In the spring of the following year, he was fifty. Oddly enough, it was a
muted birthday; after a meal with the Drewsens he went home and spent the
evening correcting the proofs of My Life’s Fairytale. He was living at this time
in a couple of rooms in Nyhavn, an adequate base for such tasks, but
essentially he remained as homeless as a stray cat, shifting from one
hospitable house to another and travelling abroad at least once a year. No
longer young, he retained extraordinary stamina, seeming unaware that few
110 Alison Prince

people could cope with such constant moving about, and yet he fretted
obsessively over every ache or itch or stomach upset. At Christmas he had
gone home from the Collins’ house because of a stye on his eye and had sat
alone, holding a compress over the affliction. Winter was always a bad time
for him, and he looked forward to the better weather which heralded another
travelling season.
In June, after attending the funeral of Neils Gade’s wife, Sophie, he set
off again, and while passing through Nuremberg, heard that King Max and
his queen were in the town. He at once put off his journey, as he wrote to
Jette Wulff:

and as soon as the Majesties heard that I was here, I was received
most warmly, most beautifully. We dined at the castle in the large
banqueting hall, where the wood panelling is beautifully carved,
walls and windows medieval, and immediately outside, the old
town lay down below in the sunshine.

Andersen had arranged to meet another young member of the Collin

tribe in Munich, this time Edgar, the nineteen-year-old son of Edvard’s elder
brother, Gottlieb. Edgar’s mother, Augusta, was the sister of Andersen’s
friend from his days in Rome, Fritz Petzholdt, who had been so tragically
killed. With this young companion, Andersen spent four days in Wildbad—
and discovered to his alarm that the Prince of Nør was also present. ‘I saw
him from behind,’ he wrote to Jonas Collin—‘I do hope we won’t meet!’ He
managed to avoid this enemy of Denmark, and headed for a far more
congenial meeting, though one which filled him with some nervousness.
Edvard and his wife, together with their son, Jonas, then fifteen, happened to
be visiting a spa in Wildbad, and Carl Alexander had also come to the town
in order to see Andersen, bringing with him Karl Schiller, son of the poet.
This rather oddly assorted company was to meet, and Andersen was well
aware of Edvard’s feelings about Weimar and its rulers.
He need not have worried. Whatever Edvard’s private opinions, he was
nothing if not diplomatic. He was also a royalist, and was much taken with
the duke, telling Andersen afterwards that he would like to know Carl
Alexander better. Relieved, Andersen went on with Edgar into Switzerland,
where they climbed Rigi-Kulm.
On return to Zurich, the pair spent half an hour with Wagner. The
composer was then living in exile from Germany, having been much involved
in the revolutionary movement, but Andersen, with his customary political
blindness, seems not to have understood the implications, or even to have
 War 111

realised that it was Liszt who, because of Wagner’s poverty and lack of
recognition, had personally funded the productions of Lohengrin and
Tannhäuser in Weimar.
At the beginning of September, Edgar had to go back to Copenhagen,
and Andersen missed him. He was upset, too, by meeting a Dane who told
him that My Life’s Fairytale newly published in Denmark, had been badly
reviewed. His diary recorded that he felt ‘physically and spiritually ill’, and
he fled to Weimar to take refuge with Beaulieu, Carl Alexander still being
away. It was not a happy visit. The weather turned cold and Andersen was
bored and chilly. ‘I have my winter clothes on and sleep with a down
comforter. Not in a good mood.’ Peevishness exudes from his entry on 11
September ‘At home alone at the tea-table with Mrs Beaulieu-Marconnay.’
In practical terms, however, the stay was a productive one. Andersen
talked to Liszt about staging his two musical plays, The Raven and Little
Kirsten, in Weimar, and Beaulieu helped him to translate Little Kirsten into
German, promising that it would appear early the following year.
Back in Copenhagen, Andersen found that his autobiography had not
received the savaging he had feared. His sharpest critic, in fact, was Jette
Wulff, who had seen the book in proof form. She was even more critical than
the Collin family of her friend’s hobnobbing with the nobility, for whereas
the Collins’ objections sprang from a respect for the social divisions and a
feeling that one should know one’s own place, hers were briskly political. Her
nature, she told Andersen, was ‘definitely democratic and egalitarian’, and his
liking for the aristocracy baffled her. Before the book’s publication, she had
written to him with some severity:

I am surprised when someone like you, Andersen—recognising

that God has given you special gifts—that you should feel happy
and honoured to be placed—well, that’s what you say here—at
the table of the King of Prussia or some other high-ranking
person—or to receive a decoration of the same kind worn by the
greatest scoundrels, not to mention a horde of utterly
insignificant people. Do you really place a title, money,
aristocratic blood, success in merely mundane matter, above
genius—spirit—the gifts of the soul?

Jette, the daughter of an Admiral who was also a renowned man of

letters, had a well-founded confidence underpinning her refusal to be
impressed by the trappings of wealth and class, and could not see why her
admired friend was incapable of the same mental freedom. For Andersen,
112 Alison Prince

disillusion about the follies of the rich was more than outweighed by the
sense of security he derived from each mark of acceptance he was given, not
to mention the possible implications of an actual royal connection. His was
the classic paradox of the self-made man, simultaneously measuring himself
in terms of the favours he could win while resenting the power of those
whose approval he sought.
As if to mark how far he had come, he sent a copy of My Life’s Fairytale
to Fedder Carstens, the teacher who nearly half a century ago had patted his
cheeks and protected him from the rough boys and then so abruptly
disappeared. One can only wonder anew what memories had stayed in
Andersen’s mind to prompt such a gift. Carstens had clearly been important
to him.
In the following year, 1856, Jette Wulff left Denmark again on a
further transatlantic voyage—but this time, she was overtaken by tragedy. In
America, her much-loved brother, Christian, died of jaundice. Jette made her
desolate way home alone, leaving Christian to lie in his grave in South
Carolina.
Andersen, by contrast, seemed increasingly concerned with petty
detail. He had begun another novel, titled To Be Or Not To Be, in which he
was exploring the question of Christian faith, floundering a little as he
grappled with the holism of Ørsted’s thinking in the great man’s absence. As
if in recoil from these large ideas, his mind took refuge in trivia; his diary
entries plunged into a long saga about being overcharged for some postage
stamps, and another stye on his eye reduced him to ‘sitting with half a boiled
egg on my eye; can’t get out at all, can’t read and have difficulty in writing’.
Little Kirsten had been staged as promised in Weimar during January,
and Andersen, who had been travelling between manor-houses for some
months, set off in June for another visit to Germany. He stayed with the
Serres in Maxen, and found that a fellow-guest was the author Karl Gutzkow.
Andersen had met Gutzkow the previous year and described him as ‘cold,
cautious, not very charming’. The dislike was clearly mutual, for Gutzkow at
Maxen missed no opportunity to pour scorn on the Dane’s work and to imply
that he was effete. On 17 June Andersen recorded furiously that his enemy
had been ‘so tactless as to ask me whether I had ever been in love—one
couldn’t tell from my books, where love came in like a fairy; I was myself a
sort of half-man!’
Gutzkow’s point was a valid one, as Andersen knew. His objection is to
the tactlessness rather than to the accusation itself. As a man of over fifty,
craggy and yet dandified, he had begun to look what would nowadays be
recognised as ‘an old queen’, but he relied on the decencies and inhibitions
 War 113

of the time not to say so—and, perhaps, to refrain from forcing his own
recognition of his nature. The status of poet had long protected him from
any such incursions into his privacy, and he fought off Gutzkow’s attack with
an intensity that left his hosts distraught. ‘Mrs Serre was crying, said she’d
like to thrash Gutzkow, who was now chasing her dearest friends away. Serre
came and spoke with me in an effort to restore harmony ...’ Some kind of
uneasy truce was achieved, but Andersen took himself off a couple of days
later and fled to the more reliable Weimar.
To Be Or Not To Be was published on 20 May 1857 in simultaneous
German and English editions with the Danish. It is one of Andersen’s least
readable novels, mulling inconclusively over the religious conflicts which he
himself could never quite resolve. The simple Lutheran belief inherited from
his mother was at odds with a kind of instinctive Judaism, whether present
by blood or not, which made him feel it his duty to play the hand of cards
dealt by God as successfully as possible. At a deep level, he felt as his father
had done, that there was nothing supernatural about Jesus Christ, and his
chosen hero, Niels Bryde—a name very close to that of his composer friend,
Niels Gade—worries his way through the almost plotless book, pausing only
to express his dislike of Kierkegaard, Grundtvig and dogs.
Andersen dedicated the new novel to Charles Dickens, with whom he
had kept in touch sporadically since his visit to London a decade ago.
Writing to his fellow-author in sending him the book, he described it as
marking ‘a stage in my development which I have not previously reached’.
He also took up a polite invitation issued by Dickens the previous autumn,
announcing that he would like to visit him in the coming summer of 1857.
 NIELS KOFOED

Hans Christian Andersen and

the European Literary Tradition

INTRODUCTION

A ll literary activity is determined mainly by three factors: the author’s

individual talent, the times, and the historical tradition. The most important
of these factors is, of course, the author’s talent, but also the ideas and the
taste of his age have an impact on his writings and provide the direction they
are going to take. The third factor, tradition, contains a large complex of
social and cultural components that both deliberately and unconsciously
form the author’s career and the character of his work. In addition to the
author’s social milieu there is the national background that sets the stage and
delivers the scenario.
Most writers of some importance intend to address their
contemporaries and countrymen directly. Some of them even make a virtue
of being rooted in their nation and their age, not caring for an international
reputation. They do not aim beyond their country and their compatriots,
which make up the very center of their life. They take an interest in their
own time and its people, they may be patriots and portrayers of their own
society, but their curiosity stops at the national border.
The artists who have crossed those boundaries are often either
involuntary emigrants or those, who have made mankind itself the center of
their works. These are the true metaphysical artists, who endeavor to

From Hans Christian Amdersen: Danish Writer and Citizen of the World. © 1996 by Editions
Rodopi B.V.

115
116 Niels Kofoed

transcend frontiers and break down the barriers between national origin and
international society. They openly declare themselves as members of all
humanity and adapt their works to this goal. Among them are two Danish
artists, the writer Hans Christian Andersen (1805–75) and the sculptor
Bertel Thorvaldsen (1770–1844). Both of them recognized early on that they
had to transcend national borders to bring their talents to fruition. They
preferred the larger European stage to the smaller Danish setting. By doing
so they not only deepened their relationship to contemporary society but to
the European tradition as well. They became great Europeans. The taller the
tree and the more widespread the crown, the deeper and more ramified do
the roots become as well.
The roots of Andersen’s work are seated partly in Danish literature,
partly in the larger European tradition. Andersen was by no means erudite,
but he was well educated and above all a restless reader during most of his
life, an assiduous theatergoer, an art lover, a singer with a fine sense of music,
and an avid traveler. He had a better knowledge of Europe’s geography,
history, and culture than almost any other Dane of his day, and any other
European for that matter. He counted kings, princes, and ordinary citizens
in many European countries among his personal friends, and was familiar
with nearly all its capitals and larger cities.

YEARS OF FORMATION AND UPBRINGING: 1805–1830

Hans Christian Andersen’s first encounter with literature was listening to his
father reading aloud in the evenings from the comedies of Ludvig Holberg
(1684–1754) and from tales in the Arabian Nights. He also built his son a
puppet theater for which the boy made the clothes for the puppets himself.
Afterwards Andersen made up small plays and put them on his stage. He
even taught the puppets their lines and staged performances. Andersen’s
second encounter with literature took place when he visited his grandmother
at the old people’s asylum in Odense. Here he found the old women sitting
in the spinning-room singing folksongs and telling folktales. This childhood
world endowed with impressions from the life of the Danish working class
later emerged in Andersen’s tales and novels.
When Andersen was about seven years old he was sent to a school for
the poor, where he sat absent-mindedly in the classroom losing himself in
daydreams and was said to have a screw loose. Although he was hardly able
to read, he came across a number of major works in world literature, such as
Medea and Ariadne on Naxos.1 Andersen exploited these works with a view to
his puppet theater, but as he could not form the lines for his plays on his own
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 117

he added sentences from the catechism. Already when Andersen was eleven
he was an eager reader of all kinds of literature. He read Shakespeare’s plays,
for instance Macbeth (1605) and King Lear (1605), in a bad translation, and
Shakespeare’s imaginative power appealed to him much more than Holberg.
Andersen’s world of fancy was from the outset directed toward the
supernatural tale. Life itself was a tale and he himself an adventurer.
When the Royal Theater in 1818 paid a visit to Odense, Andersen was
given a walk-on part, and he became familiar with the singspiel Cendrillon
and the plays of the Danish romantic Adam Oehlenschläger (1779–1850). It
was certainly because of these guest performances that Andersen made up his
mind to leave his native town and seek his fortune in Copenhagen as soon as
possible after his confirmation in 1819.
Thanks to his unique frankness, Andersen soon succeeded in fording a
number of influential benefactors, for instance the composer C. E. F. Weyse
(1774–1842) and the director of the singing school at the Royal Theater,
Guiseppe Siboni (1780–1839). He also gained a footing in several highly-
placed families of the time, those of Hans Christian Ørsted (1777–1851), the
famous physicist, Peter Frederik Wulff (1774–1842), naval officer and a man
of letters who was also a competent translator of Shakespeare, and Jonas
Collin (1776–1861), the state secretary of finance and the right hand of King
Frederik VI. As secretary of the Royal Foundation named Ad usus publicos,
and as a member of the board of directors of the Royal Theater, Collin held
all the possibilities for young Andersen in his hand. In spite of not possessing
much knowledge of literature and fine arts himself, he was nevertheless a
competent high government official who was eager to support talented
artists, and in fact both Thorvaldsen and Andersen profited from his
benevolence.
Collin pleaded Andersen’s cause before the king, who granted him a
scholarship for the grammar school at Slagelse, from which Andersen later
transferred to Elsinore (see Chapter 1). After years of misery and adversity,
Andersen completed his studies at the University of Copenhagen in 1829
with a minor degree in philology and philosophy, but all attempts to get him
to continue his studies failed. Instead, he made his official debut in 1829 with
a book entitled Fodreise fra Holmens Canal til Østpynien af Amager i Aarene
1828 og 1829 (A Walking Tour from Holmen’s Canal to the Eastern Point of
Amager in the Years 1828 and 1829).
Having been admitted to the grammar school, where he received a
comprehensive training in Danish, history, religion, mathematics, as well as
Greek, Latin, German, French, and Hebrew, implied for Andersen a passage
once and for all from the working to the middle class. The aim of the school’s
118 Niels Kofoed

curriculum, whose principal was the well-known scholar of classical

languages and minor poet Simon Meisling, was to provide a good knowledge
of the classical languages and literatures, an insight into theology, ethics, and
the history of Europe, and a proper mastery of modern languages. Even the
natural sciences were taught. If one reads some of Andersen’s still extant
essays from the school,2 one is struck by the great number of general
philosophical and theological subjects dealt with. There can be no doubt that
the training Andersen received in the classroom formed the basis for his
literary activities. He was introduced to a large complex of problems and
motifs that make up the very core of European civilization.
As a student at the university Andersen continued his general education
without choosing a professional study. He managed to maintain a dual
existence as student and writer. During his first year at the university he
completed Kjœrlighed paa Nicolai Taarn (Love in Saint Nicholas Church
Tower), a poorly written parodic vaudeville with which he made his debut as
a playwright in 1829, satirizing, in particular, the Danish romantics
Oehlenschläger and Bernhard Severin Ingemann (1789–1862).
All his compulsory schooling conflicted with Andersen’s self-esteem as
a creative artist, adding to his feelings of insecurity. He became an eager
reader of contemporary literature. Ever since his arrival in Copenhagen he
had borrowed books at a lending library, and early on developed a broad
familiarity with Danish and European literature, from the tragedies of
Shakespeare, and the eighteenth-century comedies of Holberg and rhymed
comical tales of Johan Herman Wessel (1742–85), to the romantic five-act
play Aladdin (1805) by Oehlenschläger, his tragedies based upon
Scandinavian mythology and history, and the historical tragedies Blanca
(1815) and Masaniello (1815) by Ingemann, all of which are echoed in his
early works. Andersen dreamed of becoming an actor and a playwright. He
wanted desperately to live the free life of an artist, and this side of his
character appears in his literary production before his adult works were
begun. Already at the age of seventeen he had written three unpublished
plays and published his first book, the pseudonymous Ungdoms-Forsøg (1822;
Youthful Attempts), and he had no intention of giving up his free,
untrammeled existence.
Rather, Andersen’s true university was nature, man, and the countries
he visited, as Ingemann, his elder personal friend and literary guide through
more than 40 years, once wrote to him in a congratulatory letter.3 The base
of Andersen’s European formation was first and foremost Shakespeare,
Walter Scott, and Goethe. As a student at the grammar school at Elsinore he
subscribed to a series of Goethe’s works, and the first novel he ever read was
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 119

Scott’s The Heart of Midlothian (1818), which appeared in a Danish

translation in 1829 by Caspar Johannes Boye and made a great impression on
him; but Andersen must have been familiar with Scott before that time.
Youthful Attempts, published under his nom de plume, Villiam Christian
Walter, contains among other texts a story “Gjenfærdet ved Palnatokes
Grav” (The Ghost at Palnatoke’s Grave), which has a Scottish touch. By
means of magic Andersen tied up his destiny to the two great Englishmen.
By having chosen Shakespeare and Scott as his immediate models,
Andersen wanted to indicate that he was going to become a playwright and
novelist himself. His first book never sold well and the main part of the
whole printing was pulped. This was an experience to which he referred
many times in his later works. However, strong hands caught hold of the
youthful writer and helped him start again. Andersen had succeeded in
making friends even among members of the royal family and the
government, and he had submitted to the will of his benefactors.4 At the
same time a struggle with his surroundings began that left its mark on him.
His openness and indiscretion made him enemies. Already on his first
evening in Slagelse in 1822 he had read Alfsol, a tragedy eventually published
in Youthful Attempts, and “The Ghost at Palnatoke’s Grave” aloud to
Meisling, expecting to find at least some kind of appreciation, but already at
this point the hostilities between the free artist and the representatives of the
educational system began that later on became a main theme in Andersen’s
life and literary works.5
Andersen needed help, he aspired to knowledge and good manners and
was completely dependent on helpful people and the surrounding
community; but at the same time he was unwilling to enter into a
compromise with his dreams. If he wanted to attend a performance at the
Royal Theater in Copenhagen, he would hike back to Slagelse on foot about
fifty miles in the snow, while reading Shakespeare’s The Tempest.
In Copenhagen Andersen became a frequent guest with the Collin
family. He learned to move in the best circles and was regarded as one of
their own children. Here he adopted the easy-going tone of the
Copenhageners and acquired the art of being a good-natured tease. Also P.
F. Wulff, residing at Amalienborg, the royal castle, often invited Andersen to
his home, where he formed a life-long friendship with his daughter,
Henriette, who was a cripple endowed with a talent for painting and a taste
for adventure. Besides these, there was a circle of talented scientists and
writers employed at Sorø Academy, located in the small Zealand town, where
Andersen would stay with Ingemann and his wife.
Thus the first chapter of Andersen’s biography is the account of a child
120 Niels Kofoed

from the proletariat, who with the assistance of influential people makes his
way to the top. Just as poor students in those days were admitted regularly to
the dinner tables of the well-to-do, so Andersen circulated between a
number of families. Here he adopted the bourgeois way of life, which
became the ideal of a society moving toward democracy. The poor provincial
yearned for all the experiences of drama, dance, music, and literature that the
times had to offer. Here the myth of the self-made artist who had freed
himself from all constraint had its origin, and from now on Andersen insisted
on making his living solely as a writer. He was never employed in private or
public service, and had to face the hard fact of addressing a very small
readership.

DENMARK’S LITERARY AND CULTURAL SITUATION AROUND 1830

At the turn of the nineteenth century there was no literature of true

significance in Denmark. Only the representatives of the Enlightenment still
exerted a considerable influence, and among them Knud Lyne Rahbek
(1760–1830) a writer, critic, and a professor of literature, occupied an
important position. He and his wife Kamma held a literary salon at
“Bakkehuset,” their beautiful, small estate in Frederiksberg, outside
Copenhagen. In their living room the youthful talent of the time gathered,
and here the transition from the classicism of the previous century to the
romanticism of the nineteenth was made. The house looked more like a
home for young writers from the provinces than a center of cultural high life.
In the lounge the new generation, which later on made up the glittering
circle of men and women of the so-called Golden Age in Danish cultural
history: Oehlenschläger, Nicolai Frederik Severin Grundtvig (1783–1872),
Henrich Steffens (1773–1845), Johan Ludvig Heiberg (1791–1860),
Ingemann, and Andersen, introduced itself to the host and hostess.
Whenever a new era is inaugurated in the history of literature, its
activities do not restrict themselves to a limited field such as music or poetry.
The new ideas penetrate all the spheres of civilization with a reorganizing
will. The aesthetics of romanticism were rooted in eighteenth-century
philosophical debates and inquiries into art, poetry, and beauty, and
Denmark with its geographically strategic position as the gateway to the
North has over the years functioned as a catalyst for various trends coming
from Germany, England, and France being adopted by the other
Scandinavian countries, transforming them according to national standards
and capabilities. So it also happened with the romantic movement.
Philosophical romanticism, also called Universal Romanticism
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 121

(Universalromantik), began in Berlin shortly before the turn of the century. It

reached its climax in Jena with the publication of the periodical Athenäum
(1798–1800), published by Friedrich Schlegel, the movement’s foremost
theoretician, and his brother August Wilhelm, and ended with the latter’s
lectures in Berlin between 1802 and 1804. The Schlegel brothers, the
philosophers Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Schelling, the theologian
Friedrich Schleiermacher, and the poets Ludwig Tieck and Novalis belonged
to this group and were even joined by the Dano-Norwegian scientist and
philosopher Henrich Steffens (see above).
The ideas of Universal Romanticism were rooted in the philosophy of
the eighteenth century and in the political ideas of the French Revolution. It
therefore differs considerably from the later two phases of romanticism: the
national German romanticism with its center in Heidelberg, and late
romanticism, when democratic and popular ideals came into fashion in close
association with vigorous waves of nationalism. During the first period the
chief goal of the movement consisted in a unification of philosophy, religion,
and poetry. In the second phase the goal shifted to a position that became
decisive for the remainder of the movement: a fusion of medievalism,
nationalism and Christianity.
In the conflicts between the adherents of the revolutionary ideas of
Universal Romanticism and the conservative wing of writers fighting for
monarchy and church, to which eminent novelists like Scott and Victor
Hugo belonged, we find the essential clash of interest. The common good of
mankind was a central concept of the early romantics, and in a way one may
consider National Romanticism an answer to the horrifying events of the
French Revolution and the long period of political and social unrest that
followed in the wake of Napoleon. The rebirth of the national state resulted
from military defeat and from new possibilities of economic progress.
The romantic movement meant not only a break with the patterns of
eighteenth-century classicism as an expression of a world of balance and
stability, it also occasioned a rebellion on behalf of the northern “Gothic”
Europeans against the predominance of southern, classical civilization.
Remnants of tribal conflicts are in fact visible in all the essential disputes of
the period. Scandinavian mythology and folklore made up an inexhaustible
treasure of motifs and themes. Fichte’s Reden an die deutsche Nation, delivered
during the French occupation of Germany in 1807–08, the attempts of
Danish poets to awaken the populace after England’s attack on the Danish
fleet off Copenhagen in 1801, the shelling of the capital by the English in
1807, and the peace treaty of Kiel 1814 forcing Denmark, which had formed
an alliance with Napoleon, to cede Norway to Sweden, gave rise to a Nordic
122 Niels Kofoed

and a specifically Danish patriotic movement based on a broad, popular

foundation. Not since the days of the Lutheran Reformation in 1536 had
there been a stronger German influence in Denmark than during these years
when prolific writers such as Oehlenschläger and the poet Jens Baggesen
(1764–1826), an eminent representative of the previous century and of great
importance to the development of Danish–German relations during these
years, even tried to establish themselves as German writers in an attempt at
breaking the narrow boundaries of the national state. Never has the struggle
of a small European nation to survive as an independent state of multi-
national character—and benefiting greatly from this diversification—left
such indelible marks on its domestic life.
It was not until the start of the third stage of romanticism in the 1830s
that other tendencies took the lead. The dramatic poems and novels in verse
by Lord Byron and the lyrical poems by Heinrich Heine delighted the Danes
with their frivolous tone. The fight for a Scandinavian renaissance on a
Christian foundation did not harmonize with an aristocratic contempt for
law and order. Byron and Heine came into fashion and a new aesthetic taste
for more liberal ideas on the relations between the sexes and on religion was
adopted by the middle class. This new audience demanded local color in the
so-called vaudevilles, musical comedies with a sprightly intrigue, and novels
dealing with everyday life. All the great and naive passions of historical
heroes were to be replaced by descriptions of a newly established and self-
conscious bourgeois world carried out with refined sensibility and piquancy.
This third phase of romanticism, which to some extent reflects the
belated breakthrough of romanticism in France and the other Romance
countries, has been named “poetic realism.” In the period from 1825 to 1850
the key words of the era strongly influenced by the philosophy of Friedrich
Hegel became: idea and spirit. Both in the arts and in philosophy as such, the
times may be characterized as the era of Hegel. Johan Ludvig Heiberg, the
Danish critic and playwright, became an enthusiastic adept in Hegel’s
thought. Hegel, the master philosopher himself, was professor at the
University of Berlin from 1818 to 1831, and he exerted a strong and long-
lasting influence on Danish writers. From Heiberg and Søren Kierkegaard
(1813–55) to the naturalist critic Georg Brandes (1842–1927) there runs a
current of philosophical rationalism and idealism that stood in opposition to
positions held by the older school of romanticism. The break with this
speculative trend came partly from the minister and poet N.F.S. Grundtvig,
who fought it based on ecclesiastical and historical views, partly from
Ingemann and Andersen, who were wholeheartedly romantic poets and anti-
academics eagerly concerned with folklore and the popular cause.
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 123

As an adept of Molière, Holberg, and Hegel, Heiberg was an eminent

representative of the German and French school advocating such genres as
the vaudeville and the satirical or Aristophaneic comedy, yet at the same time
the public developed an interest in modern prose based on the sentimental
English romanticism of the late eighteenth century represented by writers
such as Laurence Sterne, Tobias Smollett and Samuel Richardson. The
Ossian poems of James Macpherson and the novels of Walter Scott had been
translated and published during the first decades of the nineteenth century,
and it was mainly due to their impact on Danish writers that there was a new
wave of prose writing beginning in 1824 with Steen Steensen Blicher’s
(1782–1848) Brudstykker af en Landsbydegns Dagbog (Fragments of the Diary
of a Parish Clerk) and Pout Martin Møller’s (1794–1838) En dansk Students
Eventyr (unfinished, publ. 1843; The Adventures of a Danish Student)—as
was, in fact, happening all over Europe. In Denmark such writers as
Ingemann, Blicher, Møller, and Andersen all passed from a stage of lyrical
poetry to a new stage of writing novels, tales and stories.
When Andersen arrived in Copenhagen in 1819 this change was
already being prepared. By virtue of his unique ability to adapt himself to the
life style and bourgeois culture of his time, he succeeded in less than ten
years in acquiring a knowledge of classical formation that at the time was the
foundation of all education, and he managed to gain a knowledge of the
romantic poetry that was the favorite reading matter of the 1820s.
During the transitional period between national romanticism and
poetic realism, there was a wealthy and educated middle class in Copenhagen
that was instrumental in making the city a cultural center. Political activities
were limited, since the country was still governed by an absolute monarchy,
so instead all the attention of the populace was directed toward an aesthetic
and fictional world in which imagination and emotions could move
unimpeded. After the French Revolution and the turmoil of the Napoleonic
era, there was an urge to cultivate the muses. The peace-loving Danish
population made up an affluent and interested public eager for poetry and
the fine arts. Interest in the theater came to the fore, and even though there
was not a first-rate playwright to be found among the writers of the day,
there was a rich repertoire for the stage performed at the Royal Theater. All
writers were courting the dramatic muses, so it comes as no surprise that
Andersen should start his career trying to become an actor, a dancer, and a
singer. In the long run his shortcomings in these arts prepared him for life’s
disappointments, but throughout his life he kept the stage door open. This
was what he had been born to, he claimed, but for the time being he was only
a supernumerary and a keen observer of the Copenhagen proletariat that
124 Niels Kofoed

lived in a quarter next to the theater and of the middle class that had confided
in him. In Andersen’s first autobiography, he writes about a visit to the Wulff
family in December 1825:

It was indeed a strange transition to come from Meisling’s home

to that of P.F. Wulff. Here everything was pure elegance,
everything fine and pretty—I arrived there in the evening.—Oh,
it appears so vividly to me! I was received so affectionately as if I
were a child of the house. When I felt sated and refreshed, the
servant took me to my bedroom, I got two rooms facing the
square, and before I went to bed I was presented with three
volumes of Shakespeare, nicely bound. I felt so imbued with
heartfelt gratitude, so happy—I have still kept some leaves of a
diary from this stay in the city, which I had written that very same
evening. “I would walk out there on the big square five or six
years ago; no one knew me in the whole city and now I can really
have a good time with my Shakespeare staying with a loving and
respected family.—Oh God! This is like Aladdin, I too am sitting
inside the castle looking down. Good God! No, you will not let
me down. I could kiss you!”6

In this remarkable scene from the royal castle of Amalienborg, dream and
reality are connected like interwoven threads: Shakespeare and
Oehlenschläger in one cloth. Aladdin, Oehlenschläger’s youthful play (see
above), was the very quintessence of an adventurous life, a myth of the
chosen hero, the spokesman for the people in opposition to the royal court.
Here was a story about the poor, fatherless boy, who refuses to serve his
apprenticeship, a good-for-nothing, dreaming of a great, unexpected
fortune. This five-act play in Shakespearean blank verse had not only
inaugurated the Golden Age in Danish literature, but had also given true
expression to the fairy-tale myth of the child of fortune, chosen by the gods,
a youngster having the courage to carry his good blessing and to implement
his most daring schemes.
Andersen, identifying with Aladdin, made his tale a leitmotif in the
drama of his own life. When people would mock him for his peculiar
appearance, he would clench his fists in his pockets saying: I am going to
prove that I am not the simpleton they take me for! Just wait! Some day they
will stand up and bow to the triumphant poet—the genius of the world, who
will be seated on Parnassus beside Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, and
Goethe.” Andersen told this tale time and again. His very first tale,
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 125

“Fyrtøiet” (1835; The Tinderbox), is the story of Aladdin transformed into a

retold folktale. In “Den grimme Ælling” (1844; The Ugly Duckling) Aladdin
has been changed into an animal fable. In Andersen’s novels and in his tales
and stories he repeated and varied the theme of his life numerous times,
developing it and enlarging on it, turning it into a universal song about
poetry being of common interest to all mankind. He even considered the
fairy-tale genre to be the underlying structure of all good novels and the
universal genre of a coming global civilization.
At the same time Andersen was an unhappy student, who in his
principal saw his worst tormentor. The evening before he returned to
Slagelse from his Christmas holidays at Amalienborg he wrote:

All the last day [of my visit] I felt so miserable; but in the evening
I was presented with a copy of Boye’s new play William
Shakespeare to read aloud to the Wulffs; it made a strange
impression on me. It was taken right out of my soul; I thought it
was my own story, so while reading it I burst into tears, but I also
felt strengthened by it.7

When Andersen was sent to the grammar school in Slagelse, Ingemann

had already settled in nearby Sorø. He and his wife Lucie (née Mandix) who
was a painter, took care of the young boy, and many years later Andersen
gave the following description of their friendship:

Yet the most happy event to me was on a Sunday when the forest
was bursting into leaf, to travel on foot the ten miles from
Slagelse to Sorø; the town is situated in the middle of the forest,
surrounded by a lake; there is an academy for the nobility
founded by Ludvig Holberg.—Here I paid a visit to Ingemann,
the poet, who recently had married and been appointed to the
position of lecturer. He had received me kindly in Copenhagen,
and here, if I may say so, the reception was even more cordial.8

On January 28, 1826, Andersen records in his diary that he has paid a visit to
Sorø Academy, and here Carl Bagger (1807–46), one of his friends who later
became a novelist, showed him his collection of books: Shakespeare, Scott,
Byron, Oehlenschläger, and Ingemann. This was the very core of modern
reading material. Andersen writes: “He offered to let me take what I
wanted,” adding: “but I had read it all.”9 From his stay in Elsinore as a
grammar school student, a collection of quotations from the works of such
126 Niels Kofoed

writers as Goethe, Schiller, Oehlenschläger, E.T.A. Hoffmann, and Jean Paul

has been preserved,10 indicating some of Andersen’s favorite writers of the
period.
Ingemann could also be included among Shakespeare’s admirers. As a
writer he belonged to the patriotic and historical school of national
romanticism, and in his dramas he was deeply influenced by the romantic
wave of enthusiasm for the Elizabethan theater, which had started in
Germany some years before. Ingemann enjoyed a great reputation as a writer
of historical novels and poems dealing with the establishment of Denmark’s
Baltic empire during the Middle Ages. At the same time Ingemann was very
familiar with German romantic poetry and the romantic literary tale. As a
teller of tales himself, he had started by imitating Tieck and Hoffmann, and
after his return from Italy in 1819 he had published a volume entitled Eventyr
og Fortœllinger (1820; Fairy Tales and Stories).
Ingemann’s chief opponents were the representatives of the
Copenhagen intelligentsia, such as Heiberg and the critic and librarian
Christian Molbech (1783–1857). Heiberg had derided Ingemann for his
dramatic dramas written in a Shakespearean style, and Molbech had
disqualified him as a writer of historical novels. In spite of embittered
feelings Ingemann was never petty-minded and accepted Andersen’s flitting
between these Copenhagen circles and the provincial and historical setting
of Sorø. Andersen had initially been successful in trying to place himself as a
follower of Heiberg. Bagger, his friend from school days, had also eagerly
tried to persuade him to produce satirical and humorous works. In 1829,
when Andersen published A Walking Tour, he and Bagger met every Sunday
together with a third friend, Frederik (Fritz) Petit, in the so-called “Serapion
Brotherhood,” named after Hoffmann’s collection of stories Die Serapions-
Brüder (1819–21), Andersen showing up regularly with a large sheet of paper
sticking out of his pocket. As a writer in spe he aimed at creating fanciful
arabesques in the style of Hoffmann. What he had learned from Ingemann,
talked about with Bagger and read in Hoffmann, he tried to summarize in
this small book, which as a medley of travelogue, autobiography and fairy
tale contains all the basic elements and forms of his creative power.
A Walking Tour cannot be labeled a travelogue in the literal sense of the
word, for the walking tour undertaken by the poet on New Year’s eve from
the center of Copenhagen and through the Amager gate to the Sound is a
journey taking place within himself, a humorous, self-ironic, narcissistic
mapping of confused mental life. Of course, the model could be found in
Hoffmann’s Die Abentheuer der Sylvester-Nacht (1813–15) and Die Elixiere des
Teufels (1815–16). All the far-flung world of imagination from the depths of
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 127

the oceans, the abyss of the heart, the temple of poetry, the interior of the
earth and airships in the sky, is unfolded in this book. The reader encounters
Doctor Faust, Emperor Octavian, Saint Peter, Aristophanes, Shakespeare,
Cervantes, and Carlo Gozzi. Andersen presents the whole repertory of his
reading, “partly old classics, partly little-known works, from which the petty
poets of the present day sometimes steal an arm, sometimes a leg, now an
eye, now a heroic arm in order to scrape together a fairly tolerable hero and
heroine they can pass off as their own.”11 The young author, who was just
about to free himself from the straitjacket of the grammar school, is like
Hercules at the crossroads. On one side he has a street vendor, called the
Amager Woman, a plain woman of the people and of the flat island outside
Copenhagen, a land of cabbages and potatoes, representing the old world of
classicism and rationalism; on the other side he has Louise, a hollow-cheeked
girl from the morgue, the muse of romanticism. Everywhere the poet’s ego
is confronted with a splitting up of things and their phantoms, and it
consequently appears as his own double. A good many of Andersen’s fairy-
tale motifs are found as germs in this small book, which like the immature
work of any great writer reveals the true character of his talent.
A Walking Tour is first of all a marvelous display of feelings and
imagination—a capricious display with poetic motifs and a scanning of limits
from aesthetic, moral and religious points of view. It is also a disguised
encounter, similar to that of the revivalist preacher Grundtvig (see above),
with the orthodox circles that wanted to control him, but failed to make him
a member of their congregation. Andersen defended himself, fighting
back,in order to retain his freedom as a talented, young artist, but still the
most crucial test seemed to be due recognition by Heiberg and his circle. On
the other hand Andersen could hardly realize that his propensity for satire
and persiflage would also offend older romantic poets such as
Oehlenschläger and Carsten Hauch (1790–1872). It was the same case with
Andersen’s debut as a playwright. Love in Saint Nicholas Church Tower, his first
vaudeville, which in any case turned out to be a trifle that should never have
been performed, nearly cost him his friendship with Oehlenschläger because
of its satire of his historical tragedies and dramas of fate.
The basic genre in Andersen’s early production is the arabesque, which
at that time was conceived as a form permitting the artist to give a full
expression to a capricious imagination, and which according to Andersen’s
own statement seemed to be made for him. When Islam banned not only all
depictions of the deity, but of humans and animals as well, artists learned how
to encircle the pages of the Koran with ornaments of foliage and fruit in the
most fanciful ways. As adopted by Christian artists, this decorative technique
128 Niels Kofoed

was extended to include living creatures, and eventually the arabesque was
adopted as an original form in the world of European fine arts and literature.
The core of the literary arabesque as a piece of short prose is the episode, the
free flight of fancy and a structuring concept. As to the work of Andersen he
had a clear concept of this genre, adding a good memory, a sense of reality,
a clear understanding of his objective, and an ability to improvise as
necessary conditions. Friedrich Schlegel, the chief theoretician of German
romanticism, had introduced the theory of the arabesque in 179812 and he
associated the concept of fairy-tale fantasy with poetic abundance and ironic
ease. Even Edgar Allan Poe adopted the genre later on, making the
grotesque narrative a valid expression of emotional contradiction.13
Thus Andersen’s first production during the years from 1829 to 1835
became a test of the possibilities and limits of his talent. Heiberg had an open
eye for the young writer’s aesthetic qualities when stating:

The author finds himself in the same position as a painter, who

before daring to take up stricter compositions practices with the
arabesque, for even in the arabesque the elements are casual,
heterogeneous and indifferent to one another, but the originality
and the grace with which they are fused give it artistic value.... A
Walking Tour should be evaluated as a musical fantasy.14

In the ninth chapter of A Walking Tour the narrator, Andersen’s alter

ego, pays a visit to the Pantheon of poetry. First he lingers in the
antechambers with several figures, and finally enters a large hall with a
number of living spirits. In the four corners the princes of poetry,
Aristophanes, Shakespeare, Cervantes, and Hoffmann are seated. Even Tieck
and Gozzi are present in the hall. At last the narrator meets a lovely small
boy with colorful butterfly wings, who clasps him in his arms and flies into
God’s heaven. Together they walk on a bright rainbow, until he abruptly
awakes from his dream. “Did I snatch you away, son!” cries a brutish female
voice. It is the Amager Woman—an allegorical representation of reason and
classical education—catching the narrator in a fowler’s net and putting him
into a cage. Andersen looks at himself as in a mirror in order to define his
own identity as a writer. He makes a double movement in releasing himself
and all possible models and being reborn as a child with all its spontaneous
freshness. He is certifying his literary vocation as a classicist and as a
romanticist as well.
It is strange that Goethe is not among the poets in the Pantheon.
Research aimed at the models for Andersen’s youthful works have focused
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 129

mainly on the influence of Scott, Hoffmann, and Heine. Heinrich Teschner15

has proved Andersen’s dependence on Heine as a lyrical poet; Elias
Bredsdorff16 has dealt with Scott’s influence, and Helge Topsøe-Jensen points
to Andersen’s collection of quotations in foreign languages.17 These sources
allow us to get some idea of his reading. Among the best-known writers are
Oehlenschläger, Ingemann, Baggesen, the Swedish poet Esaias Tegnér,
Gellert, Gozzi, Seneca, Herder, Schiller, Goethe, Jean Paul, Wieland, Tieck,
Hoffmann, and Novalis. The quotations have not been translated and appear
in many languages: Danish, Swedish, German, English, French, Greek, Latin
and a single one in Hebrew. Of 196 quotations in all, twenty-six are by
Goethe. The main emphasis is on German literature, because German was
the only foreign language Andersen could read with effortless ease, but we
should not forget that Shakespeare and Scott were mostly read in translation.
From 1821 to 1828 thirty-three translations of Scott’s novels were published
in Denmark, and Shakespeare’s plays and Byron’s poems also appeared in
great number. A popularity similar to that of Scott’s novels was only reached
by the literary dandy, Edward Bulwer-Lytton, who was widely read and held
in high esteem even by Andersen.

YEARS OF FRUSTRATION AND ADVERSITY: 1830–1835

Having published the collection Digte (Poems) in 1830, which also contained
his first tale “Dødningen” (The Dead Man), Andersen had succeeded in
firmly placing himself in the minds of the reading public as a promising
young writer. He enjoyed the favor of most critics and earned a living, but
immediately there began a long period of disappointment and adversity, that
would prepare him for a larger world than Denmark.
In the summer of 1830 he met a beautiful girl on Funen. She was the
sister of his fellow student and friend Christian Voigt; her name was Riborg
and she was the daughter of a well-to-do businessman in Fåborg. She was
already engaged to a young forester, but as her parents did not care much for
her fiancé, Andersen felt he had a fair chance. The following autumn Riborg
showed up in Copenhagen and paid him a visit. Andersen was as much
occupied with her brother Christian as with her. He studied the poems of
Ludwig Uhland together with Christian and fell deeply in love with his
sister. The strange situation led to a serious crisis in Andersen’s life. After a
period of hesitation he proposed to Riborg and was rejected. One day
Andersen had presented her with a short poem entitled “Til Hende” (To
Her), which was originally part of his libretto Bruden fra Lammermoor (1832;
The Bride of Lammermoor) after Scott’s novel. Set to music by Edvard
130 Niels Kofoed

Grieg, this poem which begins: “You have become the sole thought of mine,”
is sung in recital halls around the world, usually in its German translation as
“Ich liebe dich.” Andersen could now join the long line of unhappy lovers
like Johannes Ewald (1743–81), Grundtvig, Ingemann, and Kierkegaard.
Not only in his private life did Andersen have a stroke of bad luck; his
attempts at reworking two of Scott’s novels, The Bride of Lammermoor (1819)
and Kenilworth (1821), into opera libretti were ruthlessly criticized after a few
performances at the Royal Theater, in spite of the fact that the latter contains
some of his best lyrical poems, set to music by Weyse. All of a sudden
Andersen found himself in the middle of a literary feud, labeled as gifted with
talent but without discipline in a pamphlet by the poet and playwright
Henrik Hertz (1798–1870) entitled Gjenganger-Breve (1830; Letters of a
Ghost), a poetic manifesto defending Heiberg’s aesthetics. Being very
susceptible to any cold winds blowing down from the Danish Parnassus and
still suffering from his unhappiness as a rejected lover, Andersen went on his
first journey abroad in the summer of 1831.
Before leaving Denmark, Andersen had asked Ingemann for guidance,
and in a letter written on New Year’s Eve 1830 he took Ingemann into his
confidence: “My health is pretty good; but yet I don’t feel satisfied, I am not
any longer the man I used to be, I feel that I am growing older, I feel that life
has something far deeper than I dreamed of before, and that I shall never,
never become truly happy here.”18 In times of despair Andersen hung on to
his friend, fifteen years his senior, who could speak of the Danish critics from
experience. Ingemann’s help consisted in his willingness to acknowledge
Andersen’s character and his unique talent. From the outset he had
recognized the genius of the fatherless schoolboy, guiding him as a writer,
strengthening his self-reliance and letting him follow partly in his footsteps
until he outpaced him as a storyteller. Ingemann had all the experience in
love affairs, in the theater, and as the object of harsh and unjust criticism that
Andersen now was to experience himself. In times of trial Ingemann stepped
in, cautioning him about making Byron his ideal. The way Ingemann
responded in this matter, trying to deter Andersen from adopting a Byronic
lifestyle, behavior in sexual matters and radical religious views may lead us to
suspect that he might have met with Byron himself during his long stay in
Italy 1818–19, but in this respect evidence has to be found in his literary
remains. At any rate Ingemann could neither endorse the formalism that he
found in Heiberg’s and Hertz’s works, nor could he approve of their demands
for greater correctness of orthography and grammar. Instead he pointed to
Andersen’s childlike fantasy, his depiction of everyday life and his fascination
with death as being essential subjects of literature.
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 131

In his autobiography Andersen has summed up his essentials literary

development up to 1830:

Among my young friends in Copenhagen there was at that time

Orla Lehmann, who later on has been brought to the top of
public favor in Denmark’s political life.... His father was German;
this language was much used in their home, and here Heine’s
poems had come to delight young Orla; he was staying in the
countryside near Frederiksberg Castle; I came out to see him and
he shouted with joy one of Heine’s stanzas: “Thalatta, Thalatta,
du ewiges Meer!”—We read Heine together, the afternoon and
evening passed, it got so late I had to stay there overnight, but
this night I had come to know a poet who seemed to sing out of
my soul; he displaced Hoffmann, who as one may see from A
Walking Tour had the greatest effect on me at that time.—In my
youthful days there are only three writers, who as it were have
spiritually got into my blood, with whom for a while I have
shared my life, and they are Walter Scott, Hoffmann, and
Heine.19

Ingemann, who had gone on his great educational journey to Germany

and Italy in 1818–19, always remained a luke-warm European. Thus he
wrote to one of his friends in 1818:

I like the Germans most of all next to Danes and Norwegians,

whom you come across almost everywhere; every city and
country is swarming with stuck-up Englishmen. The French like
France itself “hab ich mit Löffeln gefressen,” and between you
and me the Italians are not worth many scudi. All husbands are
cuckolds here; as you may well know they feel honored by this
fact and are too ignominious for being jealous.

The further Ingemann traveled in Europe, the more Danish he felt: “I will
live and write in Danish,” he wrote. “One may well discuss literary relations
in Germany and the benefit of foreign theaters, etc., for the sake of
appearances. All in all I don’t give a tinker’s damn for it.”20
In spite of this outburst, Ingemann had formed important and long-
lasting friendships in Germany with Adelbert von Chamisso and Tieck,
hereby paving the way for his protégé Andersen. When the latter went
abroad for the first time in the spring of 1831, Ingemann had furnished him
132 Niels Kofoed

with letters of recommendation to his friends abroad. Tieck especially was

well acquainted with Denmark and Danish literature, and had already
received Oehlenschläger some years before and also met Ingemann in 1819,
who on his way back from Italy had spent a whole month in Tieck’s home.
Ingemann had competed with Tieck in telling stories and tales, and he
claimed that there could be no other German poet he would rather be with
than Tieck. Whereas Oehlenschläger, who during his stay in Germany in
1805 and 1806 met often with Goethe, feeling quite attracted to his
personality and the Weimar school of neoclassicism and eventually falling
out with the representatives of romanticism, Ingemann succeeded in
establishing very good relations with Tieck, Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué
and Adelbert von Chamisso. By virtue of his influence, Andersen
immediately got a foothold in Germany, staying with Tieck in Dresden and
then Chamisso in Berlin. At Andersen’s departure Tieck wrote a few lines in
his album and inaugurated him as a true poet by profession by kissing him
on both cheeks.
Goethe’s sarcastic remarks about young Oehlenschläger being one of
these sons of the North who behave like a dancing bear21 had no bearings on
either Ingemann or Andersen, whose first journey to Germany nearly
assumed the character of a homecoming. On his return to Denmark,
Andersen published a travelogue entitled Skyggebilleder af en Reise til Harzen
det sachsiske Schweitz etc. etc., i Sommeren 1831 (1831; Shadow Pictures from a
Journey to the Harz Mountains and Saxon Switzerland, etc., etc., in the
Summer of 1831), in which he appears as a true disciple of Heine. The book
created a sensation, but the author frequently suffered from financial worries
and felt increasingly downhearted as to his future in Denmark. Fits of deep
despair lay in wait for him at all times. “What is to become of me?” Andersen
wrote to Ingemann going on to say: “I look forward to nothing, hope
nothing, only write, because I have to, I can’t help doing it. This world would
be so beautiful, if only everybody would let their heart play a greater role
than it is allowed to do.”22
One of Andersen’s problems was an increasing sense of inferiority.
Throughout his entire adult life he carried the burden of his social heritage,
and to this lack of a clear social identity one may add a failing or uncertain
sexual orientation. He felt attracted to both sexes, and he found excellent
excuses for not marrying. In a society with clear gender roles he could easily
have run the risk of becoming superfluous, had it not been for his
distinguished talent as a writer. His travels abroad were a necessity, because
he escaped from his literary adversaries at home, which he feared more than
anything else. Consequently he rarely felt homesick, but felt a strong and
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 133

continual urge to travel, which in the long run drove him to more and more
extended journeys all over Europe. Enclosed with his application for a travel
grant in December 1832, directed to the Royal Foundation Ad usus publicos,
were many letters of recommendation. Oehlenschläger praised his lyrical
talent, Ingemann his sense of nature and descriptions of popular life, and
Heiberg found his humor similar to that of the famous comic writer Johan
Herman Wessel.
Getting financial support for a grand tour of Europe by the Royal
Foundation, to so many Danish painters and writers used to be a crucial
event in their artistic development. As for Baggesen, Ingemann,
Oehlenschläger, and Andersen, a stay for one or two years in Germany,
France, and Italy not only helped to bring them abreast of the times, but it
also enabled them to establish networks of international significance. By
keeping their fingers on the pulse of their times, they responded to current
changes in art, literature, and politics. Baggesen’s stay abroad fell during the
French Revolution, Oehlenschläger experienced the turbulent period of
early romanticism and the French occupation of Germany by Napoleon’s
troops, Ingemann breathed the sacred air of the Holy Alliance and felt the
wave of conservatism in the wake of the Vienna Congress of 1814–15.
Obvious parallels can be drawn between Ingemann’s and Andersen’s careers.
They were both awarded the royal grant when they were twenty-eight years
old, they stayed abroad for about eighteen months, and they followed the
same itinerary, which went from Copenhagen to Kiel and Hamburg and then
on to Cologne and Strasbourg. The next stop was Paris, where they both
stayed for a couple of months, continuing to Switzerland on they way to
Italy. After an extended stay in Rome they traveled to Naples and the Gulf of
Sorrento. On their homeward passage they visited Florence, Venice, Vienna,
Munich, Dresden, and Berlin.
Ingemann taught Andersen how to travel. He instructed him about
museums and famous architectural sites, told him the names of sculptors and
painters he ought to go and see in Berlin, and he gave him addresses of art
galleries and personal friends, such as Chamisso, Friedrich de la Motte
Fouqué, both of them renowned writers of fairy tales, and Johan Christian
Dahl, the Norwegian painter, who resided in Dresden. The highlights of
Ingemann’s journey had been the encounter with the historical places in
Germany, where he met the fascinating compound of the German medieval
and romantic periods that was a true reflection of himself. From Italy he
brought his tragedy Tasso (1819) back to Denmark, and with it a work within
an essential genre in German and European literature: the drama dealing
with art itself and the life of artists.
134 Niels Kofoed

Whereas Ingemann brought his tragedy of Tasso and the German

romantic literary tale of Hoffmann, Tieck, and Novalis back to Denmark as
conspicuous results of his long stay abroad, it seems to be the travel book, the
prose novel, and the fairy tale that first and foremost provided Andersen with
a reputation as a distinguished writer. In the years 1829–33 he had tried his
hand at lyrical poetry, drama and short story, but without experiencing a real
breakthrough. When he felt most dejected, he was not met with caring
sympathy, but rather with an unsentimental severity. Before his departure on
his next journey abroad in the spring of 1833, he received a letter from
Ingemann including the following passage:

What up till now has most prevented your development as a poet,

has undoubtedly been the misfortune that with far too much
confidence and an almost childlike affection you have thrown
yourself into the arms of this large, many-tongued and fickle
audience and into the millpond of empty social intercourse
before knowing what you really wanted and were capable of
doing.... You should care a little less about the poet and his laurels
and more about poetry! Don’t cut the songbird open to collect
the golden eggs at once.23

This letter probably dates from the end of December 1832 and led to
a stop in their exchange of letters for nearly two years. Ingemann had been
anxious to see his protégé develop according to his true character and
peculiar talent and not just to go along with the requirements of any school
or the general demands of the time. He therefore warned him against his
urge to flatter his readers and to submit to the judgment of his critics.
Andersen continued to do both, knowing better than Ingemann how to
address his readers and his contemporaries, but his seductive attitude also
had its share in his fate as a Danish writer.

A SPIRITUAL REBIRTH: ANDERSEN AND ITALY: 1833–35

In the course of his life Andersen undertook thirty journeys abroad

which, apart from his travels to Asia Minor in 1841 and Morocco in
1862, all went to one or several European countries. His knowledge of
Europe was unequaled in his age, and although traveling life at that
time was troublesome and sometimes even dangerous, Andersen spared
no pains to achieve his objectives. For him traveling became a lifestyle
and an existential necessity. “To travel is to live!” he simply declared.24
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 135

Life itself was a journey and he himself a pilgrim destined for

immortality.
Andersen’s educational journey from 1833–35 was by far the most
important. He left Copenhagen on April 22, 1833, passing through Lubeck on
his way to Hamburg. A couple of months before his departure from
Copenhagen he had written to Henriette Wulff. “I have remained a child ever
since I was young. I have never known what it is to be a youth! ... It is an
inveterate idea I have that only by getting tom away from my actual
surroundings will I ever amount to anything; if I must stay here, I will perish!”25
It became a tour of cultural formation, on which Andersen kept a diary
over all the places he visited, and, in addition, made skillful drawings of the
scenes and monuments he saw. Two-thirds of the pencil drawings left by
Andersen come from this journey. Diaries, letters, and drawings were the raw
material for this incessantly active artist, always on the lookout for unusual
events and particulars of interest. His journey was intended as a cure,
transforming and developing his character and at the same time providing
him with material for new writing. In Paris Andersen joyfully celebrated his
regained freedom, but he nevertheless also felt a lack of letters from
Denmark. During the three months he stayed in Paris, he became acquainted
with Heine and Victor Hugo, but went in vain to see Eugene Scribe, the
famous playwright. In a letter to Christian Voigt of June 26 Andersen
mentions that he had been admitted to a society named “Europe littéraire.”
In spite of his determined will to avoid Heine, this was the first writer he met
there. Heine approached him kindly, claiming that in his view
Oehlenschläger was the greatest poet in Europe. When Heine called on him
at the hotel a few days later, Andersen was not in, and he continued to avoid
him. “I think one has to be on one’s guard against him,” he adds. Still they
got along on friendly terms, although Andersen did not sympathize with
Heine’s revolutionary ideas.26 On the whole he had some difficulty in
eradicating Denmark from his mind, and during his entire stay in Paris he
worked regularly on Agnete og Havmanden (1834; Agnete and the Merman),
a lyrical drama in five acts based on an old Danish ballad.
Late in the summer Andersen left Paris for Switzerland, where he
stayed in Le Locle in order to finish his play in rural quiet. He wanted his
work published in the same size and color on the cover as Goethe’s Faust
(1808) and Oehlenschläger’s Aladdin in order to express his gratitude and to
emphasize the importance of his drama. On September 5, 1833—on the
fourteenth anniversary of his first arrival in Copenhagen—he crossed the
border to Italy. In a way this became his second rebirth. This time Andersen
was born as a European and an adult writer who shed the slough of
136 Niels Kofoed

childhood. A new landscape and a different art world met him as he traveled
through Lombardy and stood in contemplation before the Medicean Venus
in Florence. The everyday life, delight in nature, and the art of the
Renaissance appealed more to him than the world of antiquity.
Andersen arrived in Rome on October 17 and was kindly received by
the members of the Scandinavian Club, which met regularly at the “Caffé
Greco” close to the Spanish Steps. At that time Antonio Canova was
everyone’s favorite sculptor, but his obvious successor was Bertel
Thorvaldsen, one of a group of Northerners bringing Scandinavia to the
forefront of European art. In the 1820s the romantic movement had its
breakthrough in Paris. Now the new generation of romantics arrived in
Rome, and they were bound to conquer, if only because of their age. The
French romantics were born in the decade of 1795–1805 and included
writers such as Honoré de Balzac, Victor Hugo, Alfred de Vigny, and George
Sand. These young people were the generation of the “Empire” and had, as
Alfred de Musset put it, been conceived between battles and attended school
to the sound of rolling drums.27
Andersen’s life fitted in perfectly with this up and coming generation,
and he happened to be in Paris and Rome at the right moment. Like these
writers he became a strong anti-Bonapartist. Taking their cue in this respect
from François René de Chateaubriand, they repudiated both the Republic
and the Empire, and they embraced the old monarchy with its link to the
medieval past. Apart from the fact that Andersen, unlike Ingemann, did not
admire the Middle Ages, he remained an advocate of absolute monarchy, but
also deliberately tried to avoid getting involved in politics.
For a couple of months Andersen lived happily in Rome, but just
before New Year he received a letter from Jonas Collin informing him of the
death of his mother, and a few days later another letter from Edvard, Jonas’s
son, in which he could read a scathing criticism of Agnete and the Merman. In
a furious state of mind Andersen went to see Thorvaldsen, whom he found
in his studio working on a bas-relief named Justice on the Rolling Chariot.
Andersen took it as an obvious sign of relief to his tormented soul. Here the
master himself stood in front of him all smeared with clay, consoling the
unfortunate author by saying: “Feel your own strength; don’t let yourself be
led by the judgment of the masses; and go calmly on.”28 Andersen was still
furious, but nevertheless he immediately set to work on the first chapter of
what was to become his first novel, Improvisatoren (1835; The Improvisatore).
After having spent the carnival season in Rome, Andersen went to see
Naples and Amalfi before returning to Rome at Easter. On his departure
from Italy in April of 1834, Andersen did not carry many manuscripts in his
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 137

luggage: a few poems, the diary, the drawings, and the initial chapters of The
Improvisatore, which within a year should turn out to be the turning point of
his career. Two of the most important models for this novel were Scott and
Madame de Staël-Holstein. “As Walter Scott, if I may say so, depicted the
highlands and its people, I portray the landscape and the people of
Hesperia,” Andersen wrote to Henriette Hanck, his friend in Odense.29
About his other model he wrote the following to Ludvig Müller: “Madame
Holstein’s Corinna seems to me a guide wrapped up in ordinary novelist’s
chatter and some very sensible discourse. Heine, who never really crossed
the Apennines, might as well have written the whole story in Hamburg.”30
After his return to Denmark Andersen confided to Henriette Wulff that he
worked every day on his novel and that he had read Dante, Virgil and “a
great many folios about art and Italy.”31 In the final account Andersen ended
up using all his models and materials including Goethe and his two volumes
Italienische Reise (1786–87) and Zweiter römischer Aufenthalt (1788), which he
read during his stay in Munich before he returned to Denmark.32
Behind The Improvisatore lie also Dante’s La Divina Commedia (c.
1307–21), Tasso’s Gerusalemme liberata (1581), Virgil’s Aeneid (publ. 19 B.C.)
and even Goethe’s comprehensive diaries. The description of the Roman
carnival is based directly on Goethe’s account of the saturnalia, but Andersen
had also personally participated in the festivities. He had experienced the
street life of Rome on his own, using his eyes and his ears as hardly any
Danish writer before him and committing his impressions to his diaries and
letters, from which he later transferred all the best passages directly to his
novel. Add to this a comprehensive reading of relevant European literature,
old and modern, with an unerring eye for the useful elements of the texts,
and one may conclude that Andersen’s entire production comprises a
synthesis of travels and travel experiences transformed into drawings and
notes greatly enriched by sparks of his brilliant imagination. This is how a
professional writer is incessantly working. Not only did Andersen borrow
motifs and details from Goethe’s diaries, he also followed in the footsteps of
his admired model. Being a traveler from the North trying to regain his spirit
in the same way as Goethe, he emphasized the cultural and allegorical
contrast between Rome and Naples by letting Antonio, the novel’s principal
character, go through the same existential crisis as Andersen himself. For
Andersen and Goethe, Naples appears to have been of crucial importance in
their spiritual development. In The Improvisatore and in his overpowering tale
“Skyggen” (1847; The Shadow), Andersen lets his main characters
experience the decisive moments of truth in this city. Andersen’s novel is not
only a travel book, but also a novel dealing with love and the religious and
138 Niels Kofoed

ethical aspects of making a career as an artist. Therefore the tension between

Rome, the seat of the church, history, and learning, and Naples, the city of
art and love, plays a predominant role.
Each of the three novels Andersen published during the years 1835–37
after his return from Italy marks a peculiar phase in his struggle for identity
as an artist and for his integrity as a moral individual with roots in a
proletarian soil. That is the very reason why Andersen’s climb up the social
ladder seems more difficult than Goethe’s fight for his moral and artistic
integrity. All of Andersen’s novels are predominantly stories of realistic defeat
and dream fulfillment, and consequently very different from his tales and
stories. The Improvisatore is an example of the poetic and sentimental realism
following upon Scott’s historical novels in the 1830s, but the relationship with
Goethe’s Die Leiden des jungen Werthers (1774) and Torquato Tasso (1790), his
Italian drama, in which Goethe describes the incongruities between the artist
and the surrounding society and life in general, is even more conspicuous.
Torquato Tasso has been called “ein gesteigerter Werther” and the split
between Tasso, the poet, on the one hand, and Antonio, the government
official, on the other, between the dreamer and the practician, has been
transformed in Andersen’s novel into a class conflict between the poor,
fatherless Antonio and young Bernardo, a member of the nobility. To
elucidate his problem Andersen makes use of a complementary delineation of
character. He introduces his persons in pairs, imitating a pattern in European
epic tradition that goes back to ancient mythology. Antonio, who is a student
of theology at a seminary in Rome, feels coerced to abandon his hope of
becoming a priest and turn to an artistic career because he experiences
religion as the brutal force of a punishing father, whereas Bernardo, as his
complementary opposite, enjoys full freedom of mind. As the young
Andersen, like Goethe his model, could not reconcile himself to the
surrounding world, he let his problem pass on from one novel to the next. It
was not until he discovered the fairy tale, in which the lines of demarcation
between the two opposite worlds of reality and dream are obliterated, that he
found a sanctuary where he could survive. The fairy tale became a pantheon
in which both the child and the adult could be seated together.33
On his way back to Denmark from Italy, Andersen stayed in Austria for
about a month. In Vienna he went to see Joseph Sonnleithner, who invited
him to dinner. Thanks to Andersen’s talent for establishing contacts with
people of influence, he was also introduced to other Austrian writers. In
Sonnleithner’s home, where many Danes would come, he met the playwright
Franz Grillparzer, who sat beside him at the table. He seemed rather fragile
of health, Andersen observed in his diary, but was also very pleasant.
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 139

Andersen also was very much attracted to the Viennese theater, going to the
Burgtheater as often as he could. He was especially fond of the way in which
August von Kotzebue was performed, because in his view Kotzebue held the
position of being the Eugène Scribe of the eighteenth century, a writer of
little imagination but capable of writing a good dialogue. Andersen also met
Johanna von Weissenthurn, the famous actress, who also became a
celebrated playwright. She was a great admirer of Oehlenschläger, with
whom she had become acquainted during his stay in Vienna in 1817.
During his stay in Vienna Andersen also read Grillparzer’s Das goldene
Vließ (1822). In his diary he calls the play a masterpiece, which will put
Grillparzer among the finest playwrights in the German language.34
Meanwhile he became better acquainted with Ignaz Franz Castelli, whom he
considered to be genuinely Viennese in his good nature, humor, and loyalty
to the emperor. Andersen went to see Castelli several times and made him
one of the characters in his novel Only a Fiddler. He also became familiar with
Ferdinand Raimund’s and Johann Nestroy’s popular comedies and fairy-tale
plays, and gained an impression of the easy-going and fantastical humor of
the Viennese singspiel. He felt so pleased by the performances he attended
that he returned with a copy of Raimund’s comedy Der Verschwender (1834)
in order to translate it, but it was not until fifteen years later he succeeded in
introducing a fairy-tale comedy of his own, Meer end Perler og Guld (1849;
More than Pearls and Gold), in Denmark.35
All the European countries that Andersen had visited left ideas for
coming works in his mind. In France it was Hugo’s novels. In Italy it was the
art of the Renaissance and the great epics of the same period that most
appealed to him. In Austria it was the singspiel and the popular farce that
impressed him. To establish a clear context between landscape, nationality,
character, and fate seems to be the formula of Andersen’s creative writing in
these years. Politics and history never appealed much to him. His knowledge
of contemporary literature, its favorite topics and forms and, above all, a
personal contact with writers, painters, composers and other important
people mattered most to him. His diaries and letters testify to his continual
activity in mixing with people who might be useful to him.
The closer he got to Denmark, the more Andersen dreaded his
homecoming. Immediately before arriving in Copenhagen he wrote in a
letter to Henriette Wulff: “Well, now I am flying toward my Gethsemane, to
Judas kisses and cups of bitterness; but this, of course, is quite poetic; as a
poet I am held to be a butterfly, and they are supposed to be most beautiful
when wriggling on the pin.”36
140 Niels Kofoed

THE BREAKTHROUGH IN 1835

Andersen’s homecoming turned out to be much better than he had expected.

He arrived in Copenhagen on August 3, 1834, and after staying a few days he
went to Sorø in order to visit Ingemann and his wife. Here he calmed down
after his journey and set to work on The Improvisatore, which was published in
April 1835, a few weeks later followed by the first small volume of tales. In the
three novels, The Improvisatore, O.T. (1836), and Kun en Spillemand (1837; Only
a Fiddler) Andersen succeeded in making the transition from the historical
novel of the 1820s to the realistic novel of the 1830s dealing with
contemporary topics. By doing so, he underwent the same development that
such writers as Balzac and Charles Dickens made in the same decade.37
There had been two essential characteristics in the romanticism of the
1820s. One was the sense of couleur locale, local color, which Scott had evoked
through his nostalgic and retrospective novels, the other was the sense of the
supernatural, which Scott had in common with Hoffmann and Tieck. After
1827, when Goethe proclaimed the existence of a coming world literature
(see below), the supernatural came into fashion all over Europe, and it was
not until this year that romanticism, which had prevailed in the English,
German and Scandinavian literatures for nearly three decades, had its
breakthrough in France. After this time literature was neither really classical
nor romantic any longer; it was simply modern, because the freedom of the
individual, the ideals of political democracy, and a newborn sense of the
lower classes were brought into focus. In O.T. Andersen commented on his
own narrative techniques with the following words:

Our tale is no figment of the imagination, but a picture of the

reality in which we live, blood of our blood and flesh of our flesh.
We are going to see our own days, to meet people of our own
time. Still it is not only the everyday life, not only a lingering look
at the mosses of the surface. We shall contemplate the whole tree,
from the roots to the scented foliage—but the tree of reality
cannot sprout up with the same rapid growth as the one of
imagination, like the magic tree in Tieck’s The Elves.39

Andersen seems to have been very conscious about his own double role
as a spokesman for poetic realism and for the use of unrestrained imagination
in literature. As a novelist he wanted to be true to his own social background
and the difficulties he had experienced on his way upwards, but he also knew
that an author’s freedom of speech is limited in a small society. Actual
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 141

conflicts always had to be disguised somehow or other. Andersen wanted to

tell the truth, but he would have to paraphrase it by subtle means. All of his
novels deal with the development and identity of character based on
autobiographical material. They describe young men and women and their
struggle for independence in a world of social and moral restraint. In O.T., in
which the capital letters denote either Odense Tugthus (Odense Jail) or Otto
Thostrup, the name of the principal character carrying the two letters
branded on his shoulder, Otto is brooding over a somber secret. In this
respect Andersen pays a tribute to his time by mixing reality with romance.
He continued to give a complacent display of his own character in Only a
Fiddler, in which Christian, his alter ego who is born with a great talent for
the violin, perishes because nobody cares to support him. Andersen loved to
describe the offspring of the pariah in his novels: Jews, gypsies, and orphans.
The social outcast and the rootless emigrant were his favorite characters. He
was one of the first writers who dared to describe the loneliness and misery
of modern man irrespective of age, sex, nationality, and social class. The
setting of the third part of Only a Fiddler is Vienna, and is full of local color.
Naomi, one of two principal characters in the novel, is described as an
example of a female cosmopolitan, an emancipated Jewish woman detached
from her natural surroundings. Time and again Andersen asks the same
question: What happens to human beings breaking away from their ethnic
background, social class, and native country? One might suspect that
Andersen would be fascinated by the Kaspar Hauser case, which took place
these years. On December 28, 1833, he included, however, only a brief
notice of Hauser’s death in his diary.39
Andersen deliberately built his novels on stark contrasts and let his
characters move around in a Europe with which he had just become familiar.
From time to time he failed to live up to his own demands for realism, as he
neither dared nor was able to delve into the deeper moral layers of his
characters. “In a small country like ours, it is good for an author to be
unknown. Here we stand upright close together watching every crease of the
clothes; the personality turns the scale,” he said.40
Whereas in The Improvisatore Andersen deploys all his skill to paint a
colorful picture of Italy, O.T. is, according to his own statement, a French
seed.41 Otto Thostrup, who is fighting his obscure past and his intense
feelings of social inferiority, cherishes deep sympathies with the French. He
is characterized as a resolute devotee of the Revolution and a secret follower
of Napoleon. In this hero, Andersen intends to glorify the struggle against
the enemies of enlightenment and revolution by claiming that his story is not
mere fancy but based on actual fact. Yet in spite of this claim Otto is a typical
142 Niels Kofoed

hero of the day possessed by a melancholy of the same sort as could be found
in Byron’s most desperate verse. Andersen knew exactly where to set the
bounds between an author’s diplomacy and boldness. Even if O.T. involved a
private and very painful conflict in his life, namely his ambivalent feelings
toward and fear of his half-sister Karen Marie (see Chapter 1), who might
have ruined his career, he did not dare to give full expression to all his
innermost problems. In order to make a career in a society dominated by the
middle class, Andersen would have to suppress his sexuality and the
memories of his social background. Yet his awareness of such sensitive spots
added something to his presentation of the subject: “In front of the audience,
in public, I have taken every step of my career as a writer; it has been a show,
where the plate has passed around to provide food for the artist.”42
It was the novels that put Andersen on his feet again as a writer. He
published three novels in three years and had them all translated into
German through his friendly connections in Germany. On April 20, 1835, he
wrote to Henriette Wulff:

The Improvisatore, my novel, has now appeared in Danish.—

Never yet has any work of mine gripped the masses so intensely.
Hertz called on me in order to thank me for the pleasure,
assuring me quite nicely that many people who did not otherwise
like me were here devoted to me. Ingemann says that it marks the
transition from youth to manhood in my writing.43

Apparently Andersen straightened himself up because of his good

fortune. By reversing a trend of general dislike of his writing, he had come
to a turning point in his career, especially as his novels also gave him a
provisional economic security. The fact that he now let his journeys result in
novels and fairy tales was not a mere coincidence. During his stay in Italy
Andersen had changed from a lyrical poet into a modern writer of prose and
a storyteller. With this change he attained a position from which he could
assert himself internationally. While abroad he had been tempted to free
himself of all loyalties to his native country, in the same way as the shadow
splits from its master in the tale of “The Shadow.” Disparities at all levels—
philosophical, moral, and psychological—tormented Andersen and added to
his feeling of isolation. Even the conflict between a deep-rooted patriotism
and an ever increasing yearning for a larger world, between nationalism and
cosmopolitanism, would become a main theme of his literary work, since the
tension between the narrow and oppressive environment at home and the
freer conditions of life abroad is felt more deeply in a small country than in
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 143

a larger one. This conflict is thus distinctly reflected in the careers of such
Scandinavian writers as Andersen, Henrik Ibsen, and August Strindberg.
In the nineteenth century the highway to European fame for
Scandinavian writers went through Germany. Andersen wrote in his German
autobiography from 1847:

From Germany came the first strong approval, or perhaps

overestimation of my book, and I bowed like a sick man before
the sunshine, gratefully happy, for my heart is grateful. I am not
what “The Danish Monthly Review” condescended to subscribe
to and publish in its criticism of my novel “The Improvisatore,”
an ungrateful person demonstrating in my book a lack of
gratitude toward his benefactors.... From Sweden praise later
resounded, all the Swedish newspapers that I caught sight of were
in panegyrics over my work, which in recent years has been
received just as warmly in England, translated by the poetess
Mary Howitt. As has been related and written to me, the same
good fortune has been allotted me in Holland and in Russia,
where the book has been translated into the native languages.
Audible recognition came from abroad.44

After the publication of The Improvisatore, Andersen consciously aimed

at addressing a European public, deliberately setting some of his novels in
France, Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. He wrote to Henriette Hanck:
“I want to become the best novelist of Denmark! In my nook the few souls
around me will recognize that I am a true poet; if I had been French or
English, the world would mention my name; now I am getting dropped and
my songs with me. No one listens to them in poor distant Denmark.”45
There is no lack of histrionic and high-flown statements of this kind in
Andersen’s letters, nor was he ever short of humor and a keen sense of comic
details, but like all other novelists of the time he loved melodrama and
sentimentality. Only when it came to discussing his position and vocation as
a writer belonging to world literature did he lose his self-irony. The struggle
had been too hard, the obstacles too many and the critics too unjust toward
him, that he could not help being embittered. Still he worked unremittingly
to realize the myth of Aladdin. He was the Aladdin of literature preparing the
way for the new Aladdin, who in his turn would reconcile natural science
with religion. In the course of time Andersen felt more and more inclined to
refer to an enigmatic election haunting his intellect:
144 Niels Kofoed

My life is really a poetic story, surely I am a poet! The son of the

poor washerwoman running around in the streets of Odense in
his wooden shoes has already come so far that he is treated like a
son in the home of one of Denmark’s most estimated men and has
friends among honorable and wonderful people. One has to
mention me as one of the good writers of my time, but I want
even more! God granting me sufficient strength, I want to be
mentioned among Denmark’s best writers together with Holberg
and Oehlenschläger! But there is one more leap to take, a great
leap upwards, I really sense it, although I don’t like to talk about
it. The good Lord must take me by the arm; it’s no use my just
lifting my legs. But cheer up! A great writer here and a greater
one still in the next world, that is the image of my hopes, and it
is a bad soldier who doesn’t think of becoming a general, as the
proverb says.46

By gradually extending his ambition to fit his new possibilities, Andersen

currently updated his demands for a high position.
In the summer of 1837 Andersen paid a visit to Sweden, going by boat
on the Göta Canal to Stockholm, where he was well received and became
acquainted with several distinguished Swedish writers. On the boat he had
met Fredrika Bremer, a prolific novelist and female emancipator. Very soon
she became his personal friend. Andersen was enthusiastic about Sweden and
flattered the Swedes by praising Stockholm as the Naples of the North, and
the cathedral of Uppsala as Notre-Dame de Paris. In the 1830s the relations
between Sweden and Denmark were still rather cool as a result of the
numerous wars fought over the centuries between the two countries. Some
of these hard feelings might be due to a sort of hereditary mistrust between
neighbors.47
At the same time as he promoted his own production, Andersen
worked to enhance international understanding, openly professing his belief
in the incipient pan-Scandinavian movement, the so-called Scandinavianism
that grew out of student gatherings in Denmark and Sweden in the 1820s
and 1830s.
With the publication of Only a Fiddler in 1837, Andersen was on his
way to becoming a European celebrity. While staying in Denmark he
received a visit from Count Conrad Rantzau-Breitenburg, a cabinet minister,
who was a Holsteiner by birth. The count called in person at Andersen’s
modest residence and asked what he could do for him, and the following year
Andersen was granted an annual stipend for the rest of his life. In his
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 145

autobiography he dated the turning point of his career to May 28, 1838, the
day on which the king had signed the grant. After that day Andersen was no
longer compelled to write for lack of money. He had in fact become
independent of his benefactors. It was Only a Fiddler, his third novel, which
decided the matter. This novel roused a great deal of enthusiasm in
Germany, and Andersen could not help taking advantage of telling his
detractors who he was. Besides he had Ingemann on his side. The latter
wrote in a letter to his young friend: “Now let the critics say what they want!
Our aesthetic criticism is like an ostrich; it gapes as if it were going to
swallow up the swan of poetry, which from the very instant it flew out of the
egg has surpassed it.”48
With this passage Ingemann presented Andersen with the basic
metaphor for his tale “Den grimme Ælling” (1844; The Ugly Duckling). He
invited him emphatically to join him in his fight against speculative
philosophy and the whole world of conceited and semi-educated critics.
“Devotion to poetry and feeling for it is not a rare phenomenon,” Ingemann
added, “but very few are good judges of it.”49 Although Andersen agreed
with Ingemann in his popular taste and liberal ideas, he made no attempt at
concealing the fact that an ardent desire and an almost insatiable greed for
recognition, which hardly any human court could guarantee, were the true
incentives for his activities. He confided his conviction thus to Henriette
Hanck:

I am looking for a literature suitable for my time and instructive

for my spirit; an ideal picture is emerging vaguely in my mind,
but its outlines are so shapeless that I cannot render it distinct
myself. It seems to me that every great poet has added a link, but
no more than that, to this huge body. Our age has not yet found
its poet. But when will he appear? And where? He has to describe
nature as Washington Irving does, to comprehend the age as
Walter Scott could, sing like Byron, and yet originate in our time
like Heine. Oh! I wonder where this messiah of poetry will be
born? ... I was born to be a poet, I feel, and I am aware of the fact
that everything comes into my life as poetry, and still I want
more!50

From Chamisso Andersen learned how estimated he was in Germany

as a novelist, but at the same time his situation at home was aggravated. The
more European he became, the less popular he was with his compatriots.
The hardest blow was directed at him by the philosopher Søren Kierkegaard,
146 Niels Kofoed

whose first book in its abstract Hegelian style, Af en endnu Levendes Papirer
(1838; From the Papers of One Still Living), contained a furious attack on
Andersen and his novel Only a Fiddler. The varying degrees of the effect on
the novelist’s mind caused by Kierkegaard can be examined in Andersen’s
diaries and letters, where he describes himself as going around in a state of
feverish lethargy. Christian, the hero of Only a Fiddler, Kierkegaard claimed,
is not a genius but a sniveler. He has no outlook on life, no philosophy of his
own and for that reason no personality either. In Denmark everybody agreed
in denouncing Kierkegaard’s critical lampoon, but nevertheless it gave birth
to two of the most obstinate myths about Andersen: his obvious lack of
character and his deficiency of true interest in intellectual matters.
If Andersen had been able to rise above the general disregard of his
opponents by ignoring the judgments of his critics and the whims of his
public, he would have been in a stronger position, but ever since his
childhood he had been used to submitting to the country’s rulers and the
reigning men of letters. His attempts at approaching the speculative
Hegelian Heiberg-Kierkegaard camp had been turned down definitively, and
the leading representatives of romanticism, writers like Ingemann, Blicher,
and Hauch, who believed in a literature based on sincere feelings and a vivid
imagination, were living outside the capital.
Although he maintained strong ties with the Collin family and had
many friends in the Copenhagen middle class, Andersen’s endeavors to
become a Danish playwright were never crowned with success. His most
ardent wish never came true, and in the eyes of the Copenhagen theatergoers
he appeared more or less as a minor dramatist visited by fiasco. Since his
debut in 1829 Andersen had been a steady supplier of plays to the Royal
Theater but had only a few successes, in particular Mulatten (The Mulatto),
a romantic drama that premiered on February 3, 1840. Heiberg did not have
a good word to say about him. Even his wife, the celebrated actress Johanne
Luise, could never recognize Andersen as a playwright because she did not
consider him sufficiently masculine. The relationship between Andersen and
the Heiberg family turned into a lifelong and at times rather embittered
fight, which Andersen lost in spite of his rare talent for diplomacy. If he had
been met with a more forthcoming attitude from the theater, which held a
monopoly on the Danish stage, romantic drama might have been more
successful in the history of Danish literature. No other Danish writer had a
more comprehensive knowledge of the European theater of his time than
Andersen, who could state: “If I must be classed with a certain school and not
be allowed to establish one of my own, I would have to be considered as
something between Victor Hugo and Casimir Delavigne.”51
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 147

During his first visit to Paris, Andersen had become familiar with the
theater of French romanticism. In May 1834 he had attended a performance
of Hugo’s Marie Tudor (1833) in Munich, and he seriously considered
translating the play into Danish; nevertheless all his attempts at transplanting
contemporary French drama to the Danish stage failed. Andersen’s
knowledge of the French language was not sufficient. While he was staying
in Paris in 1833 he did, for instance, read his first novel in French, Hugo’s
Notre-Dame de Paris (1831), but as he admitted it gave him a lot of trouble.52
On the whole, cultural relations between Denmark and France were
slight during these years. Xavier Marmier, a young French writer, decided to
remedy the situation. During a stay in Denmark in 1837–38 he succeeded in
acquiring a good knowledge of the Scandinavian countries and their history,
and his Histoire de la littérature en Danemark et en Suède (1839) became a
unique introduction to Danish cultural life for the French reading public.53
When Andersen on his second visit to France in 1843 wanted to see Hugo,
Marmier brought about the meeting, and now the Danish writer was warmly
received and presented with a free ticket by his host to attend a performance
of Les Burgraves (1843). “The play did not really amuse me, I didn’t
understand it,” Andersen wrote in his diary.54 Strange to say that Marmier
had not only prepared the way for his Danish colleague in France by writing
an article about him in Revue de Paris in October 1837, he had opened a path
for him in Denmark as well, where no one at the royal court had ever noticed
him until Marmier presented his article to Prince Christian, who later
ascended the throne as King Christian VIII. “At his own request I have given
[Marmier] a sketch of my life,” Andersen wrote Henriette Hanck. “‘But may
all of Europe know about it?’ he asked, and I was—as you would say—vain
enough to add: ‘I belong to the world! Just let them all know, what I am
thinking and feeling’.”55
The first time Andersen had paid a visit to Hugo in his fashionable
apartment at Place des Vosges in 1833, he was not familiar to him at all, but
being a colleague Hugo had put his own name on the top of a piece of paper,
fearing that his signature might possibly be abused. “In the hall there was a
picture of Notre Dame [de Paris] on the wall and on the floor a small gypsy
child was running about, apparently one of the good Victor’s,” Andersen
then wrote in a letter to Henriette Wulff.56 During his second stay in Paris
ten years later Andersen wrote in his diary:

When I called on Victor Hugo, he was away, his wife asked me to

wait for him, she would write an answer to Marmier. I came into
a small room, decorated in rococo, Gobelin tapestries with gods
148 Niels Kofoed

of love, kings and ladies! Some kind of sofa just like those antique
choir stalls stood along the wall. Victor Hugo’s daughter, about
11 or 12, was seated here having lunch while reading a comedy,
she was dark and pretty; the maid put the parrot into a cage.
Madame Hugo is, beautiful, looks Spanish, she was very kind.57

A few days later, when Andersen had lunch with the French celebrity, Hugo
had read Marmier’s book and familiarized himself with the caller.
In 1843 the thirty-eight-year-old Andersen had already become a man
of European renown, who by means of letters of recommendation and
personal contacts had beaten a path to all the important people and places.
On April 25, 1843, he wrote in his diary: “At one o’clock I rode out ... to see
David [d’Angers], the sculptor, a plain, straightforward man, like a Danish
peasant, in his blue smock and Greek cap, we crossed a beautiful garden in
front of his studio; he was working on a bust of Victor Hugo.”58
Andersen also paid a visit to the poet Alphonse de Lamartine in his
aristocratic apartment, where many servants dressed in livery received him
and one of the large rooms was decorated with a life-size portrait of the poet
himself. Even Alfred de Vigny became his friend, and Andersen also went to
the theater together with Alexandre Dumas père. He was moreover invited by
Elisabeth Rachel, the famous actress, who appeared as Racine’s Phèdre at the
Théâtre-Français during the season, and at an evening party he was
introduced to Balzac, “to whom I paid some compliments. He was a short,
broad-shouldered, stocky fellow,” Andersen wrote ingenuously in his dairy
on March 25.59
In all respects the 1840s became years of incredible success on a European
scale. Andersen’s novels had rapidly been translated into several languages. The
Improvisatore, first published in 1835, appeared in a German translation the
same year, in Swedish in 1838, in English and American editions in 1844, in
Russian in 1845, in Dutch in 1846, in French in 1847, and in Czech and Polish
in 1857. The same was the case with O.T. and Only a Fiddler and already in 1847
his Gesammelte Werke began to come out in Germany.
Andersen continuously set out on long journeys in order to promote
his work and international understanding by making himself visible to his
readers and admirers. Wherever he went, he immediately looked up well-
known painters, sculptors, writers and composers. Acting as an intermediary
and a propagator of Danish culture seemed to him an obligation he enjoyed
fulfilling. His patriotic feelings flourished beautifully when he went abroad.
His capacity for social contact must be seen as a direct consequence of his
artistic talent. There have indeed been other great geniuses that have turned
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 149

their backs on the outside world and been unwilling to address or even to like
their public. This was never the case with Andersen. As a writer and a human
being he loved his audience. He was to some extent a deliberate simpleton,
who with disarming ingenuousness and a mediocre skill for speaking foreign
languages headed straight to the cultural centers of the nations of Europe
and made friends everywhere. In Germany he attended concerts with Franz
Liszt and paid visits to Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy and Robert Schumann.
He felt deeply inspired by the painters he met in Rome and borrowed motifs
from the biblical paintings by Wilhelm von Kaulbach for his epic poem,
Ahasverus (1847; Ahasuerus). Having a more direct knowledge of his
European contemporaries in art and music than any other Danish writer of
his age, Andersen realized instinctively the important role played by the
great historical and religious epics in French and German romanticism.60
In Denmark Andersen was a welcome visitor at many manor houses in
the countryside and he made friends with several aristocratic families, but he
spent most of his time abroad during these years. In 1844 he went to Weimar
to be introduced to Carl Alexander, hereditary grand duke of Saxony-
Weimar-Eisenach. Standing in the chapel of the cemetery between Goethe’s
and Schiller’s coffins he said the Lord’s Prayer, begging God to let him
become a writer worthy of these two men. In Leipzig he spent an evening
together with Robert Schumann, and afterwards he went to see Jacob
Grimm in Berlin, who for a change had never heard of him. Here he also met
the scientist Alexander von Humboldt and the French-German composer
Giacomo Meyerbeer.
Through his letters, diaries, pocket calendars, his so-called almanacs
and autobiographies we can follow Andersen day by day, sometimes even
from one hour to the next. We may watch him at famous tourist resorts with
his sketch book in hand; we see him alone in his room at the hotel and as a
European celebrity in the opera house or at the royal castle, always
persecuted by his shadow, which like a permanent toothache containing
bitter vestiges of poverty and underclass life together with the scars of his
unremitting efforts to reach his goals, would cause him pain. All the travels
that Andersen undertook during his lifetime were made up of equal parts of
recreation, work, education, and escape. Traveling was a part of his character,
he liked to think of himself as a migratory bird. As a storyteller Andersen
wanted to find and confirm himself in an endless striving toward the
Absolute, but also in a most earthly desire for fame. He wanted to reach all
the peoples and nations of the world, and in this he departed from the norms
of his contemporaries. His travel books are not just descriptions of the
countries he had visited. Analyses of their political systems and social
150 Niels Kofoed

conditions did not really interest him as such. If anything, these books were
rather a hunt for pictures, a search to express the soul of a country by
painting genre pictures, by rendering fragments of everyday life to which is
added a touch of fresh sense impressions, light, colors, and fragrance.
As a model for his travelogue En Digters Bazar (1842; A Poet’s Bazaar),
Andersen initially had planned to use Lamartine’s Souvenirs d’un voyage en
Orient (1835), but ended up rejecting it because over the years he had learned
to rely on his own eyes.61 His travel books were in fact complex outlooks on
life. Always being on the watch for the poetry of the instant, as Andersen put
it, he sought the transcendent experiences behind the phenomena, in which
the genre picture assumed a shape of myth or symbol. He wished to open up
perspectives of cultural and philosophical importance and make them visible
to his readers, but as he had a completely concrete mindset, he acted rather
as a painter, trying to accentuate all the picturesque elements and the local
color of the country in question. Above all, he wanted to write a condensed
prose fraught with a maximum of meaning. His weakness was his lack of
talent for logical analysis and cohesive characterization. The truth he found
only appears in glimpses and in small details. The sweeping panoramas are
rare. One finds the best example of Andersen’s artistic technique in his travel
book I Sverrig (1851; In Sweden), in which the river navigation on the Göta
Canal through Sweden is both a realistic depiction of waterfalls, floodgates,
and landscapes, and an imaginary trip into the world of myth and legend as
well, dealing with the one great topic of true interest to him: the relationship
between faith and knowledge, the myth of the end of civilization and its
rebirth as expressed in the tale of the phoenix, the bird that is burnt to death
and thereafter arises from its own ashes.62
For this reason the presentation of Andersen’s development as a writer
and his personal view of life are closely connected with his journeys, because
traveling for him consisted in a double activity: an exploration of the outside
world and a search for the human being within. In the course of the 1830s
Andersen had managed to conquer Germany and Sweden. In the 1840s France
and England were added to his sphere of interest. One of the highlights in his
career was when Alfred de Vigny, a writer of great elegance, on April 26, 1843,
called on him in the small room on the fifth floor in which he lived during his
stay in Paris. However he also received a letter from Denmark the very same
day informing him that Agnete and the Merman had been laughed to scorn on
the opening night at the Royal Theater in Copenhagen. Deeply hurt, Andersen
exploded with rage, cursing the small country he had been condemned to live
in. On April 29, 1843, he wrote in a letter to Henriette Wulff.
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 151

Here, in this large, foreign city, Europe’s best known and the
noblest spirits lovingly surround me, meeting me as a kindred
soul, and back home the boys go about spitting on the best
creation of my heart!—Indeed, even if I have to be judged after
my death as I am judged in life, I shall say: “The Danes can be
evil, cold, satanic!”

Before closing the letter Andersen added the following: “However, I am

probably expressing myself characteristically for a booed-at writer.”63
The conflict between the valuation of Andersen in Denmark and
abroad became critical in these years. The growing nationalism and the
social and political revolutions in Europe ran counter to his international and
enlightened outlook. Andersen was to some extent a Russeauean optimist
regarding democracy as an ideology suitable for bringing about ethnic, social
and cultural equality, and he could never approve of the romantic concept
that the borders of nations, states and languages should coincide as a
condition for a democratic constitution. It seemed quite natural for him that
Danes, Norwegians and Germans had been living happily together within
the same state since the Middle Ages. But Andersen’s attempts at gaining
influence in Germany and later in England were met with doubt in
Denmark. De to Baronesser (1848; The Two Baronesses), a novel that was
inspired by a stay on the North Frisian island of Föhr, to which Andersen had
been invited by King Christian VIII and his queen, Caroline Amalie, is with
its descriptions of the tidal areas and the Frisian islands the last picture of
Denmark within the setting of the United Monarchy, before it was dissolved
as a result of the defeat in 1864 (see below).
During the mid-1840s the Golden Age in Danish literature reached its
zenith. Andersen and Kierkegaard wrote their most significant works,
Grundtvig, Ingemann, and Blicher contributed to its bloom with hymns,
poems, and short stories, and Frederik Paludan-Müller (1809–76) published
his great epic poem Adam Homo (1842–49). This impressive display of talent
was subsidized by an absolute monarch, Christian VIII, a man of letters
himself who took a great interest in art and literature. This prosperity
appeared in many ways paradoxical and inversely proportional to the decline
in the political influence of the monarch, as absolutism as a form of
government was about to be replaced by the first democratic constitution in
1849.
For Andersen it was a period of restless traveling. In 1845 he celebrated
Christmas in Berlin together with the Swedish singer, Jenny Lind, his
beloved and admired female friend, whom he had met a couple of years
152 Niels Kofoed

before in Copenhagen and fallen hopelessly in love with. Having been

invited as a guest to the Prussian court and receiving the Knighthood of the
Red Eagle by King Friedrich Wilhelm IV, Andersen could now parade at
balls with a rapier and a three-cornered hat. In Weimar he was frequently
asked to the court of Grand Duke Carl Alexander of Saxony-Weimar-
Eisenach. On one occasion he read aloud the tale of “Den lille Havfrue”
(1837; The Little Mermaid) in Goethe’s house at Frauenplan, where also
Jenny Lind made her voice heard with songs by Mendelssohn.
For many reasons Andersen’s journeys became an odd mixture of
triumph and escape, often followed by fits of depression. During his long
stay in Naples the following summer of 1846 he suffered severely. While he
was sitting in his room working on his autobiography, he was overwhelmed
by the excessive heat and fell ill; but in spite of heavy strokes of indisposition
which are recorded in his diary, Andersen was inspired by his feverish
hallucinations and the idea of his tale “The Shadow,” a complex and
inexhaustible text, inspired by Chamisso’s Peter Schlemihls wundersame
Geschichte (1814), appeared to him in a delirious dream.
The following year, 1847, Andersen visited England for the first time,
where he met Charles Dickens on July 16. He had felt encouraged to
undertake this journey by the propitious reception of his novels in England.
The Improvisatore, O.T, and Only a Fiddler had all been published in English
in 1845, and the English edition of The Two Baronesses, was, in fact, published
two months before the novel appeared in Danish. After 1846 his tales and
stories also began to appear in English. “Your name is now an honoured one
in England,” his first translator Mary Howitt had written him in July of
1845,64 and there is plenty of evidence to prove that Andersen acquired a
popularity in England that was unrivaled by any foreign author. He was
accepted as the literary lion of the season and received by the aristocracy of
the country.
Andersen also made a journey to Scotland. In Edinburgh he went to see
the prison and the monument to Walter Scott. He made a trip to the
Highlands to visit the scene where Scott’s story The Lady of the Lake (1810)
and novel Rob Roy (1818) took place, and on several occasions he was greeted
with the honorable name of “the Danish Walter Scott.” So he immediately
started reread The Heart of Midlothian, which was the first book by Scott he
had read as a schoolboy in 1824, and whose plot he had used in The Two
Baronesses. Andersen held the opinion that he was more clever than Scott in
depicting nature, but he also admitted openly that his own capacity as a
portrayer of characters, a delineator of settings and an antiquarian lagged far
behind his beloved idol. As a novelist Andersen lacked a breadth of outlook
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 153

and the faculty of calmly advancing the narration. He was so much the better
at short prose, which corresponded so well to his nervous and restless
temperament.
In spite of his conspicuous dislike of politics, Andersen was frequently
overtaken by violent events. In 1848 the February Revolution broke out in
Paris, and in the same year Denmark’s Three-Year-War against the duchies
of Schleswig and Holstein, which desired independence from Denmark,
started. The political realities had an impact on the cultural life, and the
times no longer felt disposed toward literature and fine arts, but toward
political action. In Ahasuerus Andersen tried to gather his ideas about the
crucial events of world history. This poem was intended to become an epic
dealing with the genius of mankind—a despairing and deeply split
consciousness of belief and doubt embodied in the contradictory characters,
Columbus and Ahasuerus. But Ingemann accused Andersen of turning his
back to the current situation by letting his historical poem conclude with
Columbus’ discovery of the new world. He was himself far more pessimistic
about the future of humanity. Ahasuerus was completely rejected and ignored
by the Danish critics. Still the formation of a new world order fighting the
folly of its surroundings, the old world constantly denying the new, and the
indispensable and yet conditional faith in progress, were all to become the
main theme of Andersen’s works during these years of mature writing. There
is indeed a straight line of coherent ideas from Ahasuerus to the religious and
philosophical novel At vœre eller ikke vœre (To Be, or Not to Be?) from 1857.
The protracted war, the general political unrest and the cholera
epidemic in the early 1850s kept Andersen back in Denmark for several
years. When he resumed traveling abroad, the reason for doing so might
have been his fear of the Danish critics. As Andersen had published his
autobiography, Mit Livs Eventyr (The Story of My Life) in 1855, full of
unrestrained feelings of bitterness against what he considered to be a
persecution of his person and an underrating of his exploits, he looked
forward to meeting his friends abroad. During his stay in Weimar Grand
Duke Carl Alexander had embraced him and kissed him on both cheeks.
“Tears came to my eyes,” he wrote in his diary on June 23, 1856; “I was
thinking of a time, when the poor shoemaker’s and washerwoman’s son had
been kissed by the nephew of the Tsar of all the Russians, how the extremes
were meeting.”65
Without taking a clear political stand, much less becoming a socialist,
Andersen was still increasingly concerned with issues of poverty; but at the
same time he had no way of reconciling his social background with the elitist
views held by him as an artist of international reputation. He appeared to be
154 Niels Kofoed

a simpleton in the eyes of the English aristocracy, yet while he might have
been a harmless storyteller for children on one hand, still he was a subtle and
humorous challenger of society on the other, convinced that truth did exist
and would prevail in the long run.
Taking his point of departure in the German novelist Wilhelmine
Canz’s novel Eritis sicut Deus (1854) and some academic lectures given by D.
F. Estricht, a well-known German zoologist of the time who wished to
combat the German school of materialistic philosophers led by the zoologist
Carl Vogt, the physiologist Jacob Moleschott and the physician Ludwig
Büchner, Andersen set out to write his novel To Be, or Not to Be?, which was
to make his name reverberate throughout Europe.66 In Weimar he had
attended a performance of the second part of Goethe’s Faust (1833) in 1856
and had reread the whole tragedy. On May 2, 1857, To Be, or Not to Be?
appeared in Denmark, having been published in England a short time before.
Prior to its publication Andersen had gone to England as Charles Dickens’
guest. The latter had informed him in a letter that after having finished his
novel Little Dorrit (1857) he wanted to see him at Gad’s Hill, his country
house outside London, and as Andersen did not dare to await the reception
of his own ambitious novel at home, he preferred to absent himself in due
time.
In his letters to all his friends in Denmark Andersen was vocal in his
praise of Gad’s Hill, but as a guest he was also sensitive of a hint of
matrimonial tragedy behind Dickens’s seemingly idyllic family life. Andersen
was mainly concerned with a concert that he had attended in the Crystal
Palace, where 2,000 performers had presented Handel’s Messiah. In his view
the Crystal Palace was the next thing to Aladdin’s palace in the Arabian
Nights. Meanwhile he became quite upset by the negative reviews of his novel
sent to him from Denmark, and he let himself be consoled by his renowned
English friend, who advised him to be less vulnerable and more proud.
From England Andersen set out for Weimar in order to participate in
the festivities that were going to take place on the occasion of Grand Duke
Carl August’s centenary. In Weimar he was offered the position as Goethe’s
successor, which he declined. On his way back to Denmark, Andersen
suffered from severe depression on account of his fear of a cholera epidemic
in Kiel. His homecoming was felt as an ignominious defeat in contrast to all
his experiences abroad.
In 1858 Andersen paid another visit to Switzerland. In his view
Switzerland was one of the countries that meant most to him. In the contrast
between the Lake Lucerne, the green lake of the mountains, and the idyllic
Sorø Lake, where Ingemann’s house was located, he saw a kind of
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 155

explanation for a part of his own life story: the loss of an idyll and the
struggle to regain it. Among the snow-covered mountain peaks of the Jura
Mountains he had finished Agnete and the Merman in 1833. To him
Switzerland could have symbolized the country where bottom and peak are
present together in a synthesis of euphoria and despair, ascent and fall. Now
at the top of his career he returned to the country of his youthful hopes and
aspirations in order to continue dreaming about greatness on the mountain
top and death in the glacial valleys. Tales like “Sneedronningen” (1844; The
Snow Queen) and “Iisjomfruen” (1861; The Ice Maiden) have themes closely
associated with a Swiss setting and scenery. In Andersen’s vivid imagination
huge icicles and organ pipes produce the same kind of music.
Until the last years of his active life Andersen continued to travel to
Germany, Sweden, and Spain, including a trip to North Africa and a stay in
Portugal. Often these trips were true triumphal processions during which he
was presented with many marks of honor, but they were nevertheless all put
in the shade by the occasion in Odense in 1867, when he was made an
honorary citizen of Odense and the town was lit up as had been foretold by
a fortune teller in his childhood.
In a travel book from 1863, entitled I Spanien (In Spain), Andersen
depicts his experiences of the nature, people, and culture in this large country
which he visited in 1862. Andersen had crossed the border to Spain on
September 6, the very same date he arrived in Copenhagen in 1819 and in
Italy in 1833. Spain had in fact always played an important part in his
imagination as a magic and fabled land hidden behind the Pyrenees. Already
in 1838 he let Spain emerge in his poem “Dette har Zombien gjort” (The
Zombie did it); and even earlier in his singspiels Spanierne i Odense (1836;
The Spaniards in Odense) and Skilles og modes (1836; Parting and Meeting),
dealing with all the disorder caused by the Spanish troops in Denmark
during the Napoleonic Wars, this nation played a part in his creative mind.
To this list of works inspired by Spain should be added the romantic tragedy
Maurerpigen (1840; The Moorish Maid), telling the story from the Middle
Ages about the conflict between the Moors and the Christians and influenced
by the Spanish national epic Poema de mio Cid. Even in his Jutland tale “En
Historie fra Klitterne” (1859; A Story from the Dunes) a series of Spanish
pictures can be found.

THE SOURCES OF ANDERSEN’S FAIRY TALES

Andersen’s world fame does not rest on his novels, travelogues, poems, and
plays. Although it was the novels that first made a name for him as a writer
156 Niels Kofoed

of European standing, this would only rank him among writers like
Oehlenschläger and Ingemann, who were also considered to be among the
best of the romanticists. Had it not been for his small, insignificant and
modest-looking booklets of tales and stories, his writings would have fallen
into the kind of oblivion, into which nearly all classic works of literature sink
unless they become part of a compulsory syllabus in high-school education.
As a novelist Andersen does not measure up to either Scott, Dickens or
Balzac. As a writer of tales and stories, however, Andersen is unique and to
some extent without real competition.
When in May of 1835 Andersen published the first collection of
Eventyr, fortalte for Børn (Tales, Told for Children), containing “Fyrtøiet”
(The Tinderbox), “Lille Claus og store Claus” (Little Claus and Big Claus),
“Prindsessen paa Ærten” (The Princess on the Pea), and “Den lille Idas
Blomster” (Little Ida’s Flowers), he did not suspect that he was thereby
forming the basis for his fame. He was simply not aware of the fact that
tradition, his individual talent and the times agreed to an exceptional degree
in his case. Already the first four tales reveal Andersen’s eminent skill at
writing short prose and the versatility of his treatment of topics and themes.
The sources of Andersen’s tales and stories are manifold. First of all
there is the anonymous folktale; next there is the German literary tale by
writers such as Tieck, Arnim, Brentano, Chamisso, and Hoffmann, which
had flourished throughout the romantic period; furthermore Andersen’s own
life story, and finally modern technology and natural science, a source
pointed out by one of his closest friends, the physicist Hans Christian
Ørsted. In his tales and stories Andersen exploits the entire treasure trove of
motifs and themes to be found in European literature as well as in Greek and
Roman antiquity, and he also found inspiration in Arabic, Persian, and Indian
narrative.
One of the secrets behind Andersen’s success may have been the fact
that in his development as a writer he accomplished a transition from poetry
to prose, from writing in verse for an educated reader to a modern narrative
prose based on oral diction, addressing both children and adults. In the latter
decades of romanticism, when popular and realistic tendencies made
themselves felt together with an incipient political and social liberation from
absolutist rule, prose writing came to the forefront in Danish as in European
literature of the 1830s. 1827 was an epoch-making year in the history of
literature: the year when Goethe proclaimed the existence of a new world
literature in a letter to his assistant and close associate Johann Peter
Eckermann, when Hugo signed the preface to his romantic play Cromwell
and Scott published his article on the supernatural in Foreign Quarterly
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 157

Review.67 A taste for the supernatural and the realistic at the same time
demanded a new kind of prose. People with an extensive knowledge of
folklore, such as Ingemann and Andersen in Denmark and the Grimm
brothers in Germany, were able to draw on a large stock of popular legends
and superstitions. That Andersen, within the compass of his literary work,
had participated in a general development from eighteenth-century
classicism to early nineteenth-century romanticism is clearly seen already in
his first major work A Walking Tour, and in his first tale, “Dødningen, et
fyensk Folke-Eventyr” (The Dead Man: A Folktale from Funen), which
concludes his volume of Poems from 1830 and constitutes the first version of
the tale “Reisekammeraten” (1835; The Traveling Companion). The witty
and affected style Andersen used in his early, immature attempts was
criticized by Ingemann and his wife, who encouraged him to continue
writing tales, but also to opt for a style with greater simplicity and
seriousness. The rediscovery of a childlike universe in which also ordinary
people take part would, according to Ingemann, be the true basis for a revival
of story telling.
Andersen took notice of this bit of advice, but by preserving an adult
undertone of irony and humor he managed to create his personal mode of
double articulation. He felt himself naturally attracted to a childlike sphere
and to the nearby world of children. He addressed himself directly to the
child in the adult person by taking a short-cut to a world of fellowship and
frankness shared by the storyteller and his public. A new interest in
childhood with all its implications regarding faith and ideology was a
characteristic of romantic literature in the 1830s. The child conceived as an
ideological factor symbolized the true source of optimism and belief in the
future, and this became an effective argument in polemics against the
defenders of pure enlightenment and reason.68 This fight against the
hegemony of reason had begun with Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and had also
appeared in Bernardin de Saint-Pierre’s novel Paul et Virginie (1787), which
in a dramatized version was the first play Andersen ever attended at the Royal
Theater one of the first days in September 1819 after his arrival in
Copenhagen. The notion of the child playing the part of an intermediary of
imagination and feeling in literature was also accentuated by Novalis in
Germany and Oehlenschläger and Grundtvig in Denmark.
By presenting children in literature as adults in disguise, the classicists
of the enlightenment had kept any interest in childhood within narrow
limits. To the rationalists of the eighteenth century, childhood seemed a
period of waiting; to the romantics the world of children became the very
center and culmination of life. It was not until the emergence of a new fairy
158 Niels Kofoed

tale literature that the child found a place in adult literature, and the tension
between the manners of the highly educated, adult person and the
spontaneity of the child as a representative of unconscious life is certainly at
work in a sophisticated manner in many of Andersen’s tales and stories.
Tieck, who had been the first to renew the writing of short prose as a
transitional form, was a master of the fairy tale. His Volksmärchen von Peter
Lebrecht appeared already in 1795. Tieck had also given his fairy-tale play Der
gestiefelte Kater (1797) the significant subtitle: “Ein Kindermärchen,” and
another fairy-tale play Ritter Blaubart (1797) he called “Ammenmärchen.”
Even a number of Hoffmann’s and Chamisso’s tales were told for children.
On the whole the fairy tale seemed to constitute a genre per se, expressing the
quintessence of imagination, the very canon of poetry. Hoffmann was
strongly influenced by Carlo Gozzi, the Venetian playwright, who
masterfully exploited folktale motifs in his comedies. The subjects of these
tales have been handed down orally as well as in print and are frequently
related to those in legends, myths and medieval ballads as well.
The romantics took over the themes and the material from the
folktales in the same way as they used medieval ballads and epics as sources.
The literary tale of German classicism and early romanticism as we know it
from Goethe and Novalis, however, never seems to have been very popular
in its mode and narrative technique. On the contrary, these tales were
symbolic, complex and far from the simple folktale. It was not until the
Grimm brothers began to reshape the folktale with their edition of
Kinderund Hausmärchen (1812–15) that an oral narrative art came into
fashion. It was by merging the folktale and the literary tale that Andersen
succeeded in creating his works of excellence.69
The folktale is characterized by oral transmission, anonymous origin,
formulaic structure and a general lack of style. The literary tale on the other
hand is expressed in a sophisticated form in which the individual style of the
author is apparent. Characters, setting and detailed descriptions of nature
and surroundings play an important part. It is often allegorical and symbolic,
as it reflects both a childlike universe and an adult world. It contains a
considerable portion of realism, but preferably in a compound of the real and
the imaginative.
The romantic literary tale developed in many directions. It was made
up of motifs borrowed from comedies, anecdotes, short stories, symbolic
stories, fables, and arabesques, among others, and thus it became a supple
instrument for expressing the writer’s personal philosophy of life. In the
1830s and during the later phases of the romantic movement, where popular
and realistic tendencies took over the lead, this kind of short prose reached
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 159

its height with writers such as Nicolay Gogol, Gottfried Keller, Berthold
Auerbach, Charles Baudelaire, and Edgar Allan Poe. In Denmark
Oehlenschläger had tried already in 1805 to introduce the genre with
Vaulundurs Saga (The Saga of Vaulundur), and in 1816 he had published two
volumes of fairy tales, Eventyr of forskiellige Digtere (Fairy Tales by Various
Authors), in which translations from Tieck, Motte Fouqué, Heinrich von
Kleist, and Johann Musäus were represented. In 1820 Ingemann had
published a volume of Fairy Tales and Stories, which had not aroused any
attention. The reading public was not familiar with short prose of that kind
and fairy tales were generally considered to belong in the nursery.
Only when Andersen at Ingemann’s suggestion abandoned the
sentimental and high-flown style of contemporary prose and replaced it with
a colloquial language in which the narrator’s own voice is heard and the
presentation comes close to drama, did a real renewal take place. Andersen
had read both Hoffmann, Tieck, Jean Paul, and Brentano since his early
years. On his way back from Italy in 1834 he attended performances given by
the children’s ballet in Vienna, in which he may have found inspiration for
two of his very first tales not based on folktales, “Little Ida’s Flowers” and
“Hyrdinden og Skorstensfeieren” (1845; The Shepherdess and the Chimney
Sweep). Novalis’ fragmentary novel Heinrich von Ofterdingen (1802) contains
an allegory about Arcturus and Ginnistan telling how the realm of prose and
reason is overthrown and poetry is set free. Arcturus’s crystal palace
reappears in Andersen’s tale “The Snow Queen.” Other lines can be drawn
back to Goethe’s Die Leiden des jungen Werthers (1774; The Sufferings of
Young Werther) and Faust (1808), the poems of Schiller, and the comedies of
Holberg. Numerous loans, parallels and traces of reading in European
literature have already been pointed to in Andersen scholarship, for instance
Andersen’s dependence both on Motte Fouqué’s Undine (1811)70 and August
Bournonville’s ballet Sylfiden (1836; The Sylphide) for his own tale of “The
Little Mermaid.”
A certain shortness and clarity, a brisk action, a natural dialogue, humor
and irony are essential ingredients in Andersen’s narrative prose. However,
his poetics of double articulation implies that a discourse that is childlike in
the positive meaning of the word by appealing to the world of children and
telling about it in their own words, has to be counterbalanced by some
humor and irony in order to make another interpretation possible than the
one based on lack of sophistication. This double articulation is not only part
of a specific poetics, it is a new strategy as well, because it enables the writer
to give a full expression of a world of experience resulting from a split in the
adult mind.71
160 Niels Kofoed

The literary fairy tale was a demanding genre revealing its possibilities
only to a writer who in his personal development would measure up to its
requirements. All indications point to the fact that Andersen in the years just
before his literary breakthrough in 1835 underwent a serious crisis that
brought him maturity as a story teller. His social background, his strange
vegetating as a young man in the Copenhagen slum, his moral strength and
his first agonizing experiences as a writer had awakened a tremendous energy
in him. His tales were not just a trio of folktales, romantic literary tales, and
his autobiography. In fact, one can point to only about nine of his tales as
being reproduced folktales. Andersen felt an urge to delve deeper into the
anonymous layers of the history of civilization, which make up the common
heritage of all humanity. It is easy to demonstrate that Andersen on the
surface knew how to imitate the nuances, gestures and the diction of the
Copenhagen bourgeoisie so masterly depicted in his tales and stories. But
beneath this local and often humorous level there is a region taking us back
to a prehistoric world.
As a storyteller Andersen was original, because he more or less
deliberately kept in touch with the unconscious aspects of his soul. Beneath
the personal experiences, which to a large extent reflect his own life story, we
find the general and elementary conditions and conflicts that belong to all
humanity. There is a common stock of experience and belief shared by all
people, and if the solutions to the problems that arise cannot be explained in
term of providence or fate, they tend to become meaningless. This tension
between the belief in the wisdom of the people, a simple conviction of the
possibility of being selected by fate, and a modern and adult knowledge
about the absurdity of human existence, makes up the true high-voltage field
in Andersen’s writing. His strength does not lie as much in the delineation of
the hero’s individual character as in the description of his fate. It is the simple
and strong emotions he depicts, the passions carrying life and death in them.
Therefore the struggle for life and the pursuit of happiness are the main
themes of his tales and stories. He never hesitates to pass beyond the borders
of life and death in his desire to let his characters fulfill their lot. He even
permits a few of them to ascend directly into Heaven.
Whether Andersen is treating his subject with a profound seriousness
or a brilliant sense of humor, any human being regardless of race, sex, social
class or religion will nod in recognition to the incidents or situations being
described. Poverty, social struggle, childhood, love, human betrayal, and
death constitute the central themes of Andersen’s tales and stories. Without
the rich harvest of German literary tales and the Grimm brothers’
achievements these tales and stories would never have come into existence.
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 161

However, Andersen’s realism seems much more comprehensive than theirs,

his humor more evident and his irony present everywhere as a double
exposure of the motifs.
The folktale is unequivocal in its view of fate, because it is rooted in
popular belief. It deals with the way fate does justice to the repudiated and
the disowned. It elevates the humble hero and rewards the humiliated
person. By bravely defying the way of the world, it creates a reality in which
poetry and devoutness are crucial. But it is not the values and ideas of the
folktales that permeate Andersen’s creative work. A great many of his tales
and stories approach the eighteenth-century rationalist approach to telling
fairy tales, such as that proclaimed by Christoph Martin Wieland. According
to Wieland the fairy tale should approach an expression of knowledge of the
way of the world, should contain wit, satire and allegory expressed in any
possible form. This definition, which has the fable as a literary model,
suffices to explain the character of a large number of Andersen’s tales and
stories. In fact they have many sources. There is a romantic-religious group
conveying the tradition of the folktale and the German literary tale, such as
“The Little Mermaid” and “De vilde Svaner” (1838; The Wild Swans).
There is also a second group of satires and allegories related to the classical
fables, such as “Keiserens nye Klæder” (1837; The Emperor’s New Clothes)
with a motif borrowed from a Spanish collection of anecdotes from the
fourteenth century, Juan Manuel’s, El Conde Lucanor, or “Den uartige Dreng”
(1835; The Naughty Boy) which is based on the Greek poet Anacreon.
Finally there are examples of realistic short stories devoid of any supernatural
element, such as “En Historie fra Klitterne” (1860; A Story from the Sand
Dunes) and “Hvad Fatter gjør, det er altid det Rigtige” (1861; What the Old
Man Does Is Always Right).
Generally speaking, the complex and highly sophisticated forms did
not appeal to Andersen. He aimed deliberately at creating works of
simplicity, truth and nature by conveying an atmosphere of intimacy. As a
storyteller he acts like a phenomenalist philosopher grasping the
characteristic details and trying to let the truth appear by glimpses of
intuition. In accordance with the program of the earliest romantics,
Andersen tried to develop his own mythology based on tradition. The
essential characteristic of a great writer is that he has created types and
characters more alive to the tradition than real human beings. Andersen not
only succeeded in creating imperishable characters, he also invented
creatures of a pure imaginative character like the heroes and heroines of the
sagas and the myths; such are the title figures of “The Snow Queen” and
“The Ice Maiden.” It is a remarkable feature about Andersen’s tales that the
162 Niels Kofoed

supernatural settings—populated with all kinds of fanciful figures—border

directly on the bourgeois world of everyday life. Andersen’s skill in linking
the sphere of normal life to a supernatural or fabulous world by making these
separate worlds function together with imperceptible transitions between
them, is quite unique.
More and more Andersen felt the urge to specialize in writing short
prose. The retold folktales and the fictitious fairy tales were after 1850
replaced by various kinds of tales and stories with the German author
Berthold Auerbach’s Schwarzwälder Dorfgeschichten (1843–54) as a model.
Andersen tried to extend his small genre in all possible directions. One way
of experimenting was by writing new tales and stories upon request. In 1846
he was asked by Thorvaldsen to write “Stoppenaalen” (1847; The Darning
Needle), and several years later, following a suggestion by Dickens, he
finished “Skarnbassen” (1861; The Dung Beetle). Just as some of Andersen’s
narratives are connected with European colleagues of his time—such as “Det
gamle Huus” (1848; The Old House), which he wrote after a visit to the
German author Julius Mosen, whose little son had presented him with a tin
soldier at his departure, and “Vanddraaben” (1848; A Drop of Water), which
he wrote for his close friend Ørsted—others are closely attached to definite
geographic localities, such as “The Ice Maiden,” which is a genuine Swiss
tale, “Psychen” (1861; The Psyche), which is set in Rome, “Metalsvinet”
(1862; The Metallic Pig) in Florence and “Venskabs-Pagten” (1862; The
Treaty of Friendship) in Greece.
In Andersen’s writing a trend toward popular and realistic storytelling
dominated the 1850s and 1860s. He seemed restless in his attempts at
fording new modes of expression and went over his manuscripts again and
again. His texts tended to increase in length and complexity. At the same
time he came under the influence of the Swedish singer Jenny Lind (see
Chapter 1) and went through a crisis of religious and philosophical scruples.
Only about one-sixth of his 156 tales and stories are without any reference
to death. In twenty-four of them death is the main theme and in another
twenty-five death is part of the conclusion. Whereas Andersen avoids all
descriptions of sexuality, since this topic found no place in the literature of
the time, he confined himself to telling about illegitimate children and their
life stories. He kept turning death over in his mind, because as a lifelong
bachelor he had repressed his own sexuality. When all his attention turned
on death, his descriptions approached the macabre. He liked to describe
skulls, skeletons, burials, and cemeteries; however he could also spare the
details and simply let death appear as an old man wrapped in a horse cloth as
in “Historien om en Moder” (1847; The Story of a Mother).
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 163

Besides death described as the universal lot of all humans, we find

Andersen’s concept of immortality as a transcendental phenomenon. He held
the view that man has a right to immortality because of all the injustice and
sufferings the majority of people are subject to during their lifetime, and he
proportioned this concept to his aesthetics, as expressed in his tale of “Ærens
Tornevei” (1863; The Thorny Path of Honor): “Fairy tale and reality are so
close to one another, but the fairy tale has a harmonious resolution on this
earth. Reality removes it from our life on earth by relating it to time and
eternity.” Andersen’s later writings reveal a brooding and sometimes even
overly scrupulous man occupied with new experiments. By taking his point
of departure in the folktale and the romantic concepts of the child and the
people as the main objectives of all poetry, Andersen deliberately tried to go
beyond national borders and place himself as a poet for all humanity. He
built his world from below, using the prose sketch and the child as simple
models, letting the arabesque unify poetry and visual art, as proposed by
Friedrich Schlegel (see above), and combining in his own way the idea of a
fanciful imagination and a light irony with an exuberant abundance of details.
Precisely by insisting on the origin of the arabesque in pictorial art did
Andersen succeed in creating a prose richly endowed with the colors and
contours of a visual world. Reality and dream did not exist apart from each
other as incompatible extremes.

ANDERSEN’S POETIC MESSAGE AND HIS HERITAGE

The romantic writers shared a concept of the folktale as a genre that

contained all the topics of the collective human mind. In the light of this
concept Andersen wrote his tales and stories as the result of a kind of
comprehensive impact of influences. Motifs and form came from the folktale,
but the ideas were modern and the style sophisticated. In the course of time
he continued with new experiments: exploiting and reproducing myths,
sagas, legends, parables, and fables in order to create works of great artistic
value for the general reader. It was his deliberate intention to make his prose
capable of expressing all ideas and sentiments imaginable.
As Andersen wished to bring about a fusion of literature and religion,
he also wrote texts which approach the prose hymn, such as the concluding
chapter of In Sweden, “Poesiens Californien” (The California of Poetry) and
“Det ny Aarhundredes Musa” (1861; The Muse of the New Century), in
which he tried to convey his poetic message to his readers. His liberal
humanism and democratic ideas had in fact more to do with the revival of
enlightenment than with the revival of nationalism, which took place in his
164 Niels Kofoed

own time. Being a cosmopolitan and a loyal patriot at the same time,
Andersen ran a great risk of being accused of vacillation, but he remained
firm in his conviction that every nation was only a single letter in the large
alphabet of cultural development toward a global civilization, in which
human rights, rationality, and democracy would compensate for national
selfishness and the irrationality of power. Sometimes he even tried to
prophesy about the future role of literature as a vehicle for this global and
religious humanism as in “The Muse of the New Century”:

We, the elders of today, would tremble at hearing the powerful

notes, perceiving in them a Ragnarok, the fall of the old gods,
forgetting that down here ages and races disappear and only a
small picture of each, encapsulated in the word, swims on the
river of eternity like a lotus flower, telling us that all of them are
and were flesh of our flesh in different garb.

Andersen’s dreams about a reconciliation between faith and knowledge,

religion and natural science, were made more specific and turned into a
cultural vision of the future. The foundation of a global civilization could
possibly be realized by means of the fairy tale, because it was expressed in a
form which joined two contradictory and conflicting urges in human nature:
a desire for the supernatural and a love of truth. The motifs in Andersen’s
tales and stories, novels and plays are generally problems shared by all human
beings irrespective of sex, race, and ideology. These problems are related to
childhood, poverty, nature, love, career, death, and literature itself. He
wanted to describe the triumph and humiliation of humanity brought into
focus through the magical power of fantasy.
Still it seems obvious that in spite of his moral and religious idealism with
all its belief in the immortality of the soul, Andersen was incapable of reaching
an agreement between the light and the darkness of his own melancholy mind.
He dreamed of a new world order based upon the leadership of the best men
and women. The nobility of talent and heart should replace the aristocracy of
birth, but Andersen nevertheless did not want to make himself too clear on
political and moral issues. As an artist he wished to address everyone who would
listen to him, and wherever he read aloud to an audience at a royal court or in
the Copenhagen Workers’ Union, he made a supreme effort to do his very best.
When Denmark had lost the war with Prussia in 1864 and surrendered
Schleswig-Holstein, Germany had suddenly turned into a serious threat to
the existence of small neighboring countries. For Andersen, the noble
German nation, which before any other country had bestowed upon him a
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 165

spiritual citizenship, suddenly turned into an enemy. Time and again

Andersen was accused of being a bad patriot. He experienced the classical
conflict of being a European as well as a Dane, and as a man of honor he paid
the full price for the defeat of his nation. The words of Talleyrand: “C’est la
plume qui est devenue l’épée” had certainly been pronounced too early.
Andersen gave vent to his feelings quite openly. When Grand Duke
Carl Alexander in the 1850s made him his personal friend and in Weimar
offered him a position (see above), he had declined. When Andersen went to
see the world exhibition in Paris in the spring of 1867, he returned by train
through Germany. “At Giessen I learned that the Grand Duke of Weimar
was in the same train,” Andersen wrote in his diary on June 1:

I even knew his escort without remembering his name, it was

embarrassing for me not to be able to rush out and shake his
hands. I didn’t know how he would greet me, how I myself would
later feel if I had followed my instinct; therefore I drew the
window curtain all the way every time he walked by.72

The world had become smaller and a harder place to live in. About ten
years earlier, in 1855, Andersen had written the following introductory
passage in his autobiography:

My life is a beautiful fairy tale, rich and happy! If as a boy, when

I went out into the world, poor and alone, I had met a mighty
fairy and she had said: Choose your own course and career, and
then according to the development of your mind and as it
obviously has to happen in this world, I will guide and protect
you, my destiny could never have been happier, wiser and better
than it is. The story of my life will say to the world what it says
to me: there is a loving God, who directs all things for the best.73

Meanwhile doubt was lying as a snake in the grass around the root of the
fairy tale tree. Since the war of 1864 Andersen’s creative power had been
handcuffed. In “Loppen og Professoren” (1872; The Flea and the Professor),
a hybrid of an arabesque based on Léon Gambetta’s escape in a balloon from
a besieged Paris on October 7, 1871, during the Franco-Prussian War, he
also lets his modern hero escape all private and political worries through a
flight. This attempt from Andersen’s last years as a storyteller at fording a
refuge in the grotesque points ahead to twentieth-century modernism and
back to his own youth as well.
166 Niels Kofoed

If the character of a certain kind of literature could possibly be defined

by the number of essential contrasts expressed in it, Andersen’s works rank
among the first. The last tale he wrote, “Tante Tandpine” (1872; Auntie
Toothache)—an arabesque of fantasy in the style of Hoffmann—is a complex
allegory dealing with original sin as the true stimulus of civilization and with
his own increasingly ambiguous relationship to his vocation as an artist.
When Andersen stopped going abroad toward the end of the 1860s, his
tales and stories continued to travel on their own. There were indeed
countries in Europe he never managed to visit. He never undertook any
travel through Eastern Europe, but still the greatest critical acclaim came to
him from Russia. “Long ago he found his adopted country with us,” wrote
the Russian author S. J. Marsak. It was not until the 1830s that Russians
became acquainted with any Scandinavian literature beside Holberg.74
Already at that time the critic Vissarion Belinsky had reviewed The
Improvisatore favorably, and in 1838 a Russian translation of Marmier’s article
about Andersen, “Une vie de poète” in Revue de Paris (see above), was
published. On the whole, Andersen’s novels did not attract much attention,
but in the 1850s the revolutionary democrats began to take an interest in
Andersen’s tales and stories, resulting in an official ban of “The Emperor’s
New Clothes” by the imperial censor. In A. Lavrent’ev’s memoirs Sutkiv
Kopengagene (n.d. available) the following graceful portrait of Andersen
occurs:

In front of me stood a very tall, thin figure dressed in an old-

fashioned, black frock coat. Above the long, aquiline nose there
were a pair of eyes probably without peer on this earth. They
were blue and exceedingly deep, sensitive, good and also naive as
only the eyes of children can be. They contained so much
goodness and tenderness, so much fantasy and poetry as can only
be recognized in his works, not least in his marvelous fairy tales
for children.75

Toward the end of the nineteenth century Peter Emanuel Hansen, a Dane
who had settled in Saint Petersburg, and his Russian-born wife Anna
Vasiljevna Vasiljeva, issued a brilliant translation of Andersen’s selected works
in four volumes (1894–95). The two translators concluded their task with a
translation of the tales and stories, and so it becomes quite obvious that the
reception of Andersen’s works in Russia clearly distinguishes itself from that
in English-speaking countries. In the East European countries Andersen has
always been regarded the way he himself wanted to be viewed: as a serious
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 167

writer, addressing all people, children, women, and men, and one of the very
few writers knowing how to communicate works of great artistic value to
common people. This general appeal is addressed in the preface to the
above-mentioned the fairy tale-edition: “The fairy tales are interesting by
the way in which they nourish intellect, emotions, and imagination in all age
groups.” To renowned Russian writers such as Anton Chekhov and Leo
Tolstoy, Andersen’s tales and stories became a permanent source of wonder
and joy. Tolstoy often discussed Andersen with Maksim Gorky, advising him
to write a simple and truthful prose using the Danish storyteller as his model.
Although Andersen was not a philosopher by profession, he was
capable of advocating ideas deeply rooted in a liberal and social humanism of
common European extraction. He held the view that pagan self-assertion is
as valuable as Christian self-denial and he had a clear concept of individual
freedom as a necessary condition for all creative work. Sometimes his social
instincts and his demand for public recognition made him submit to his
critics, and he was generally looked upon as a clumsy fool and a
hypochondriac by many of his Danish contemporaries. To ridicule others
and to be ridiculed himself was part of his destiny as a first-rank writer. As a
writer of his age he not only behaved like an isolated atom in society but also
as an ingredient in a social pattern. Any kind of shyness was unknown to him.
He left all his writings to posterity making no attempts to conceal any
intimacies or secrets of his heart. In spite of all his infirmities he never lost
his credibility either as an artist or as a human being.
It is possible to define civilization as a condition in which a great
number of extremes and contrasts have been balanced and expressed as a
whole. Good writing also testifies to this assumption. Andersen’s artistic
message is a belief in the victory of light over darkness and the temporary
triumph of goodness over the evil powers of the world. The fundamental
oppositions between life and death, good and evil, true and false, rich and
poor, and faith and doubt are the only themes worthy of the artist’s concern,
and they can never be exhausted. In his endless striving toward immortality
Andersen felt committed to the ideas of his time, the evolutionary and
progressive thoughts of the early romantic writers and philosophers. He
conceived of himself as an adventurer from the bottom of society climbing
up the ladder of fortune. Only the swamp can produce a white lotus. Like all
the other great Europeans of the 1830s and 1840s he was a child of the
French Revolution and the social and political unrest of the Napoleonic
Wars, attracted or repelled by the new opportunities for social progress and
political conflict. By not taking sides either in political matters or in religious
disputes he remained free in his creative work, preserving his ability to
168 Niels Kofoed

address the greatest possible number of readers. Andersen was a

contemporary of Nikolay Gogol, Hoffmann, Stendhal, Scott, and Dickens, a
generation which succeeded in following up on Napoleon’s military
adventures with cultural conquests. As a citizen of an old monarchy that had
lost its wars, he had the greatest possibilities of turning a defeat on the
political level into new victories by conquering not only the national scene
but the European stage as well. This point of view has definitely a great
bearing on Andersen’s life story. His father had worshipped Napoleon and
died as a soldier who had never taken part in a battle (see Chapter 1). Out of
his father’s frustrated mind came the son’s commitment to the dreams of
greatness they had shared together in his early childhood. Andersen’s literary
achievements were deeply rooted in a social heritage and in the political
decline of a former European power. At a time when the larger European
nations cherished their national pride and colonized the rest of the world, the
smaller nations could only make their influence felt by achievements in art,
literature, and science. Andersen not only succeeded in renewing an
insignificant, yet internationally recognized genre and in becoming the most
conspicuous Dane in the Europe of his time, he actually ended up as the most
widespread and the most frequently translated writer in all history. As a man
without prejudice he tried to disregard the national self-sufficiency he had
met in his own country, because he wanted to play his part as an intermediary
between nations and their creeds.
Andersen managed to create tales and stories in which realism and
modernity participate in a way that Hoffmann had dreamt of, and he realized
the most daring dreams in his own career. Still Andersen reluctantly had to
admit that the apple of immortality was a hard one to bite and that his success
might have been bought too dearly. He had been very well aware of the price
he had had to pay for his victories, making his way with difficulty through a
life full of disappointments and defeat. As a man of a swelling self-confidence
he had tasted the sweetness of fame, but he could not avoid his lot of
hardship. There was first of all his renunciation of love between man and
woman. That was indeed a deliberate sacrifice due to his physical and mental
constitution. He seems to have been healthy, strong and persevering, yet he
was delicate and had a sensitive skin in more ways than one, an irritable and
edgy man bordering on insanity. Then there was a worm gnawing at him
from within. Anxiety and loneliness, the affliction of modern man, were
Andersen’s loyal traveling companions throughout his life. This nervous
hypochondria brought about a somber frame of mind in which his best works
have been tuned. Among the notes left after his death was found a slip of
paper on which he had written: “I have often heard about the English that
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 169

they suffer from spleen; I only know about this illness that it is an
eccentricity, but still a kind of sadness in which they often take their own
lives; I suffer from something like that.”76
In so saying, Andersen has confirmed the myth that all true greatness is
enclosed within a frame of mortal weakness. He realized that, if one may use
Danton’s words, truth is not only bitter, but that in the long run it is the only
remainder of any human being. And as Andersen believed that the voice of the
heart is also vox Dei, he received all the acclaim and all the homage paid to
him without any false modesty. According to Johanne Luise Heiberg (see
above) Andersen was, after all, not a masculine person. He therefore had his
largest audience among women and children, and since they make up the
majority of all mankind, he could feel assured in his hopes for immortality. “If
you want to make yourself understood by us, you will have to talk to us in a
simple language,” another expert on the tales of reality and mankind, Antoine
de Saint-Exupéry once said. It was this plain speech that Andersen used at the
royal and princely courts in Germany, Austria, England, and France, but even
though he wrote the tale called “Klods-Hans” (1855; Clod-Hans), he was
never a bungler himself. As a person of great diplomacy and shrewdness he
wanted to contribute to a solution of one the major problems of art and
literature: to be popular without being banal, simple without being silly.
Andersen has had many imitators, but only a few lawful successors. To
those who have adopted his narrative technique and style belongs August
Strindberg, whose concise short stories and fairy tales bear the impress of
Andersen’s oral diction and brevity; but Strindberg as a writer is far more
passionate than Andersen and much less humorous. The same is true of
another Swedish writer, Selma Lagerlöf, who as a representative of the
popular tradition of narrative art has also been influenced by Andersen. On
the other hand, even though comparisons have been made, it seems quite
obvious that the tales by Karen Blixen (1885–1962) (pseudonym Isak
Dinesen), in spite of the fact that to a certain extent she has also benefited
from the folktale, rest on a literary foundation quite different from Andersen.
Blixen and Andersen both exploit the huge literary tradition of Europe and
the Near East. They also have a common metaphysical basis for their
narrative art, but whereas Andersen believed in democracy and concentrates
on the contrast between heart and spirit, Blixen is an aristocrat dealing with
a split between fate and freedom.
When the heart gets the better of the story, Andersen tends to become
sentimental, and when his spirit lets his fantasy go its own way, his fables
become empty pretense, but as a master of the tale he is unrivaled, when
most in earnest, as in “The Story of a Mother”, and most satirical as in
170 Niels Kofoed

“Nattergalen” (1843; The Nightingale). It is a general characteristic of

Andersen’s art that he had a keen sense of literary delicacy and balance, which
his imitators have too often lacked.

NOTES

1. J.C. Brandes. Ariadne auf Naxos. Duodrama in one act, 1778. G.B. Sporon, tr.
Music by Georg Benda; Fr. W. von Gotter. Medea. Melodrama in one act, 1781. Fr.
Schwarz, tr. Music by Georg Benda. Both plays had been performed at the Royal Theater
in Copenhagen in 1778 and 1788.
2. See Christian Svanholm. H.C. Andersens ungdomstro. Trondheim: Bruns bogh.,
1952.
3. Letter from Ingemann to Andersen from October 29, 1853. See Niels Kofoed.
H.C. Andersen og B.S. Ingemann. Et livsvarigt venskab. Copenhagen: C.A. Reitzel, 1992, p.
180.
4. See Andersen’s autobiography Mit Livs Eventyr. Copenhagen: C.A. Reitzel, 1855,
pp. 48–49 and 55–59.
5. H.C. Andersen Levnedsbog 1805–1831. 2nd. ed. H. Topsøe-Jensen, ed. Copenhagen:
Schonberg, 1971, p. 96.
6. Ibid., p. 135.
7. Ibid., p. 143.
8. H.C. Andersen. Mit eget Eventyr uden Digtning. Copenhagen: Lademann, 1986, p. 41.
9. H.C. Andersens Dagbøger 1825–1875. Kåre Olsen and H. Topsøe-Jensen, eds.
Copenhagen: Det danske Sprog-og Litteraturselskab/G.E.C. Gad, 1971, 1, p. 45.
10. H. Topsøe-Jensen. Omkring Levnedsbogen. En Studie over H.C. Andersen som
Selvbiograf 1820–1845. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1943, pp. 55–57. Manuscript in the Royal
Library of Copenhagen, NKS 643, 8.
11. H.C. Andersen. Fodreise fra Homens Canal til Østpynten af Amager i Aarene 1828 og
1829. Johan de Mylius, ed. Copenhagen: Det danske Sprog- og Litteraturselskab/Borgen,
1986, p. 55.
12. The arabesque played an important role in Schlegel’s concept of poetry. As a term
dealing with literature it appears for the first time in Athenäum (Fr. 418) in 1798, where
Schlegel talks of Tieck’s “Märchen” as poetic arabesques, the second time in Athenäum (Fr.
421) about Jean Paul. It is also treated in Gespräch über die Poesie, 1800. See Friedrich
Schlegel. Literary Notebooks, 1797–1801. Hans Eichner, ed. London: Athlone Press, 1957.
13. See Niels Kofoed. “Genreproblemet i H.C. Andersens Billedbog uden Billeder.
Prosaskitse og Arabesk.” Anderseniana, III, 4, 1982, p. 23.
14. Heiberg in Maanedskrift for Litteratur, 1, 1829. Quoted from Fodreise, p. 131; see
note 11.
15. Heinrich Teschner. Hans Christian Andersen und Heinrich Heine. Münster: Westfäl.
Vereindruck, 1914.
16. Elias Bredsdorfff. Hans Christian Andersen og England. Copenhagen: Rosenkilde og
Bagger, 1954.
17. See note 10.
18. Breve fra Hans Christian Andersen, 1. C. St. A. Bille and Nicolai Bøgh, eds.
Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1878, p. 59.
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 171

19. Mit eget Eventyr uden Digtning, p. 65.

20. Breve til og fra Bernh. Sev. Ingemann. V. Heise, ed. Copenhagen: C.A. Reitzel,
1879, pp. 86 and 120.
21. Goethe in a letter to Zelter. See Albert Sergel. Oehlenschläger in seinen persönlichen
Beziehungen zu Goethe, Tieck and Hebbel. Rostock: C.J.E. Volckmann, 1907, p. 40.
22. Breve fra Hans Christian Andersen, 1, p. 111.
23. Kofoed. Et livsvarigt venskab, pp. 45–46.
24. Mit Livs Eventyr, p. 313. See also Mogens Brøndsted. “Livsrejsen. Omkring H.C.
Andersens ‘I Sverrig’.” Danske Studier (1967), 5–45.
25. Breve fra Hans Christian Andersen, 1, p. 113.
26. See Breve fra Hans Christian Andersen, 1, p. 125.
27. See Paul Johnson. The Birth of the Modern World Society 1815–1830. London:
Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1991, pp. 146–47.
28. H.C. Andersens Dagbøger 1825–1875, 1, pp. 270–71.
29. Breve fra Hans Christian Andersen, 1, p. 275.
30. Breve fra Hans Christian Andersen, 1, p. 228.
31. Breve fra Hans Christian Andersen, 1, p. 268.
32. See Niels Kofoed. “Goethes indflydelse på den unge H.C. Andersen.”
Anderseniana, 2, V, 4, 1965, p. 324.
33. See Gérard Lehmann. Improvisatoren og H.C. Andersens første Itahensrejse. Odense:
Odense University Press, 1976, pp. 192–93.
34. H.C. Andersens dagbøger 1825–1875, 1, p. 467.
35. See Lotte Eskelund.... sah ich zum erstenmal die Donau. Hans Christian Andersen in
Østerreich. Vienna and Munich: Jugend und Volk, 1979, p. 12 and Da Andersen var i Wien.
Copenhagen: Spektrum, 1991.
36. Breve fra Hans Christian Andersen, 1, p. 251.
37. See F. Baldensberger. “La grande communion romantique de 1827 sous le signe
de Walter Scott.” Revue de Littérature Comparée, 7, 1926–27.
38. Romaner og Rejseskildringer, 2. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1943, p. 133.
39. H.C. Andersens Dagbøger 1825–1875, 1, p. 263.
40. Romaner og Rejseskildringer, 2, p. 143.
41. Letter to Ingemann on Feb. 10, 1835. Breve fra Hans Christian Andersen, 1, p. 292.
42. Letter to Frederik Læssøe on March 9, 1838. Breve fra Hans Christian Andersen, 1,
pp. 410–11.
43. Breve fra Hans Christian Andersen, 1, p. 301.
44. Mit eget Eventyr uden Digtning, p. 84.
45. Breve fra Hans Christian Andersen, 1, pp. 332–33.
46. Letter to Kirstine Marie Iversen on Jan. 4, 1837. Breve fra Hans Christian Andersen,
1, p. 365.
47. See Mit eget Eventyr uden Digtning, p. 87.
48. Breve nil Hans Christian Andersen. C. St. A. Bille and Nicolai Bøgh, eds.
Copenhagen: C.A. Reitzel, 1877, p. 285.
49. Ibid., p. 285.
50. Breve fra Hans Christian Andersen, 1, pp. 425–26.
51. Kofoed: Et livsvarigt venskab, p. 103.
52. See H.C. Andersens Dagbøger 1825–1875, 1, p. 429.
53. About Marmier, see Helge Topsøe-Jensen. Omkring Levnedsbogen, p. 155; Xavier
172 Niels Kofoed

Marmier. “Une vie de poète.” Revue de Paris, Oct. 1837; Kofoed. Et livsvarigt venskab, p.
108. Marmier’s article was later included in his book Histoire de la littérature en Danemark
et en Suède, 1839.
54. H.C. Andersens Dagbøger 1825–1875, 2, pp. 324–25.
55. Breve fra Hans Christian Andersen, 1, p. 384.
56. Ibid., p. 132.
57. H.C. Andersens Dagbøger 1825–1875, 2, p. 325.
58. Ibid., p. 352.
59. Ibid., p. 333.
60. Andersen’s epic was inspired by Julius Mosen’s poem Ahasver (1838) and to some
extent by Lamartine’s epic poem La chute d’un ange (1838) and travelogue Souvenirs d’un
voyage en Orient (1835).
61. Romaner og Rejseskildringer, 6, p. xi.
62. See Brøndsted. Note 24.
63. Breve fra Hans Christian Andersen, 2, pp. 81–82; see also H.C. Andersens Dagbøger
1825–1875, 2, pp. 356–58.
64. Elias Bredsdorf, Hans Christian Andersen 1805–75. London: Phaidon, 1975, p. 183.
65. H.C. Andersens Dagbøger 1825–1875, 4, p. 213.
66. Romaner og Rejseskildringer, 5, p. ix.
67. See F. Baldensberger. See note 37.
68. See H. Kind. Das Kind in der Ideologie und der Dichtung der deutschen Romantik.
Dresden: Dittert, 1936.
69. Niels Kofoed. Studier i H.C. Andersens Fortœllekunst. Copenhagen: Munksgaard,
1967, p. 96. See also Richard Benz. Märchendichtung der Romantiker. Gotha: Perthes, 1908.
70. See, for instance, Sven H. Rossel, “Undine-motivet hos Friedrich de la Motte
Fouqué, H.C. Andersen og Jean Giraudoux.” Edda, 70 (1970), 151–61.
71. Søren Baggesen. “Dobbeltartikulationen i H.C. Andersens eventyr.” Andersen og
Verden. Odense: Odense University Press, 1993, pp. 26–27.
72. H.C. Andersens Dagbøger 1825–1875, 7, pp. 297–98. Bredsdorff. Hans Christian
Andersen 1805–75, pp. 224–25.
73. Mit Livs Eventyr, p. 1.
74. Cynthia Dillard. “Ludvig Holberg in the Russian Literary Landscape.” Ludvig
Holberg: A European Writer. Sven H. Rossel, ed. Internationale Forschungen zur Allgemeinen
und Vergleichenden Literaturwissenschaft, 8. Amsterdam/Atlanta: Rodopi, 1993, pp. 162–90.
75. About Andersen and Russia, see L.J. Braude. “H.C. Andersen i Rusland.”
Anderseniana, 1987, pp. 5–24.
76. Edvard Collin. H.C. Andersen og Det Collinske Huus. Copenhagen: C.A. Reitzel,
1882, pp. 456–57.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Editions
H.C. Andersens Samlede Skrifter, 1–15. 2nd ed. Copenhagen: C.A. Reitzel, 1876–80.
———. Romaner og Rejseskildringer, 1–7. H. Topsøe-Jensen, ed. Copenhagen: Det danske
Sprog- og Litteraturselskab/Gyldendal, 1943–44.
———. Eventyr, 1–7. Erik Dal, Erling Nielsen, and Flemming Hovmann, eds.
Copenhagen: Det danske Sprog- og Litteraturselskab/Hans Reitzel, 1963–90.
 Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition 173

Ungdoms-Forsøg af William Christian Walter. Cai M. Woel, ed. Copenhagen: Christtreus

Bogtrykkeri, 1956.
———. Fodreise fra Holmens Canal til Østpynten of Amager i Aarene 1828 og 1829. Johan de
Mylius, ed. Danske Klassikere. Det danske Sprog- og Litteraturselskab/Borgen,
1986.

Correspondence
Breve til Hans Christian Andersen. C. St. A. Bille and Nicolai Bøgh, eds. Copenhagen:
Gyldendal, 1877.
Breve fra Hans Christian Andersen, 1–2. C. St. A. Bille and Nicolai Bøgh, eds. Copenhagen:
Gyldendal, 1878.

Diaries
H.C. Andersens Dagbøger 1825–1875, 1–12. Kåre Olsen and H. Topsøe-Jensen, eds.
Copenhagen: Det danske Sprog- og Litteraturselskab/G.E.C. Gad, 1971–76.
H.C. Andersens Almanakker 1833–1873. Helga Vang Lauridsen and Kirsten Weber, eds.
Copenhagen: Det danske Sprog- og Litteraturselskab/G.E.C. Gad, 1990.

SECONDARY LITERATURE

Anderseniana. First Series, 1–13 (1933–46); Second Series, 1–6 (1947–69); Third Series,
1–4 (1970–86). Annually since 1987.
Andersen og Verden/Hans Christian Andersen and the World. Johan de Mylius, Aage Jørgensen
and Viggo Hjørnager Pedersen, eds. Odense: Odense University Press, 1993.
Behler, Ernst, Heinrich Fauteck, et al. Die europâische Romantik. Frankfurt/M.: Athenäum,
1972.
Bredsdorff, Elias. H.C. Andersen and Charles Dickens: A Friendship and Its Dissolution.
Anglistica, 7. Copenhagen: Rosenkilde and Bagger, 1956.
Bredsdorff, Elias. H.C. Andersen og England. Copenhagen: Rosenkilde og Bagger, 1954.
Bredsdorff, Elias. Hans Christian Andersen: The Story of His Life and Work 1805–75.
London: Phaidon, 1975. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1975.
Brix, Hans. H.C. Andersen Eventyr. Copenhagen: Schubotheske, 1907.
Collin, Edvard. H.C. Andersen og det Collinske Huus. Copenhagen: C.A. Reitzel, 1882.
Eskelund, Lotte. ... sah ich zum erstenmal die Donau. H.C. Andersen in Østerreich. Vienna and
Munich: Jugend und Volk, 1979.
Eskelund, Lotte. Da Andersen var i Wien. H.C. Andersens rejser i Østrig i årene 1834–1872.
Copenhagen: Spektrum, 1991.
Grønbech, Bo. H.C. Andersens Eventyrverden. Copenhagen: Povl Branner, 1945.
Johnson, Paul. The Birth of the Modern World Society 1815–1830. London: Weidenfeld and
Nicholson, 1991.
Kofoed, Niels. Studier i H.C. Andersens Fortœllekunst. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1967.
Kofoed, Niels. H.C. Andersen. Copenhagen: G.E.C. Gad, 1967.
Kofoed, Niels. H.C. Andersen og B.S. Ingemann. Et livvarigt venskab. C.A. Reitzel, 1992.
Lehmann, Gérard. Improvisatoren og H.C. Andersens første Italiensrejse. Odense: Odense
University Press, 1976.
174 Niels Kofoed

Mylius, Johan de. Myte og Roman. H.C. Andersens romaner mellem romantik og realisme.
Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1981.
Möller-Christensen, Ivy York. Den gyldne trekant. H.C. Andersens gennembrud i Tyskland
1831–1850. Odense University Studies in Scandinavian Languages and Literatures, 24.
Odense: Odense Universitetsforlag, 1992.
Nielsen, Erling. H.C. Andersen. Stockholm: Natur och Kultur, 1960.
Nørregaard-Nielsen, Hans Edvard. Jeg saae det Land. H.C. Andersens rejseskitser fra Italien.
Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1990.
Rubow, Paul V.H.C. Andersens Eventyr. Copenhagen: Levin and Munksgaard, 1927.
Westergaard, E. Koed. Omkring H.C. Andersens første eventyr. Copenhagen: Hans Reitzel,
1985.
 AAGE JØRGENSEN

Heroes in Hans Christian Andersen’s Writings

A SON OF THE PEOPLE

L et us begin in medias res: with a fabulous main character nicknamed

Clod-Hans by his brothers,—which doesn’t exactly suggest anything heroic.
On the other hand, Clod-Hans gives his name to the text, a conventional
fairy tale (from 1855) not particularly influenced by Romanticism, but clearly
rooted in the art of popular storytelling.1 As you will recall, the brothers
want to ask the princess’s hand in marriage. She will marry the man who has
“the most to say for himself”, and since the brothers are “so witty that they
thought themselves too clever for words”, and beyond that have impressive,
supposedly useful abilities, the father willingly provides them with horses.
When Clod-Hans realizes what is happening, he immediately has “a yen to
get married”: “If she takes me, she takes me; and if she doesn’t take me, I’ll
take her, anyway.” That’s how simple Clod-Hans’s life is and that’s how
spontaneously he tackles things. That his father refuses to lend him a horse
is no problem, for Clod-Hans has his own billy-goat and is therefore mobile.
So it’s easy sailing for him, “halloo, here I come!” Along the way, he makes
his matchless discoveries: a dead crow, an old wooden shoe with no leather
top, a pocketful of the finest mud. On the back of his goat and in possession
of these wonderful finds, he rides, as it is written, “right into the hall”, where
his brothers have just had a terrible setback, despite their abilities. They start

From Hans Christian Andersen: A Poet in Time (1999). © 1999 by Odense University Press and
the authors.

175
176 Aage Jørgensen

out well enough by finding it “terribly hot” and “dreadfully warm”

respectively, but when the princess explains that it is due to the fact that “my
father” and “we” respectively are in the process of broiling chickens, that
shuts them up. Clod-Hans also notices “a scorcher”, but when she answers,
“I’m roasting young chickens”, he immediately scores points with clever
conversation and fancy contributions to the royal cuisine. Not even the
prospect of seeing the entire story verbatim in the newspaper can stop him;
on the contrary, he throws what is left of his mud right in the alderman’s face,
to the utter delight of the princess.
In recent years, Mikhail Bakhtin’s carnival concept has often proved an
effective instrument in the context of literary analysis. It deals with situations
in which things are stood on their heads, so to speak. Where the bottom rung
of society is momentarily on the top, and where the refined and
distinguished, the respectable and ideal are subjected to ridicule. Where
room is given to bodily functions, to digestion and reproduction, where
sexuality is for once both spoken of and allowed to speak, where bad table
manners and belching undercut the show of proper etiquette, and so on. A
burlesque and grotesque world of the belly unfolds itself and challenges the
intellect’s ability to maintain control.
Clod-Hans is in all modesty a text of that kind.2 Its language is not
exactly the most refined. It opens onto the perishable and the putrefying.
The hero rides his goat right into the castle’s fancy room with mirrored-
ceiling (which in turning things upside down, contributes to the brothers’
breakdown). And not only does he use mud in the food, but with what he has
left, he also dirties the alderman’s ruling-class face.
As can be seen in connection with the title, Clod-Hans is “an old story
retold”. Here, as a 50-year-old writer, Andersen returns to his popular or
rather folktale point of departure. The retold folktale is found in several
variants, and we do not know precisely which one Andersen knew. But in the
Danish Folklore Archives, there is a transcript of a tale told by Black Grethe
to her daughter, in the village Kjøng, southwest of Odense, and “given to
Jens Kamp before 1904”. This variant, Klotte-Hans, was undoubtedly in
circulation in Funen in the early 19th Century.3
This well-turned and somewhat coarse tale, whose young lad rides a
ram for the simple reason that the father only has two horses, clearly satisfies
a social wish-fulfillment dream. What was not possible in the reality of the
feudal social system, could be fulfilled in fiction. Not to put too fine a point
on it, the hero gives the princess a turd and gets a kingdom in return.
But Klotte-Hans was not suitable for the fashionable urban bourgeois
nursery. It differs from the literary tale in striking ways. The refined modern
 Heroes in Hans Christian Andersen’s Writings 177

teller of tales—Andersen, that is—spins his story in such a way that without
losing any vigour, it remains fully presentable in cultivated circles. He
manages this by using several strategies. First of all, it is evident that Clod-
Hans is invested with a powerful artistic mastery of language. The story is
also expanded, refined and removed from the specifically folktale milieu and
in a way transferred to “modern times”. For example, in Andersen’s version
there aren’t three brothers, but rather two and then one more, whom no one
takes into account. And why not? Because the brothers have been ascribed
abilities of a kind that had never been seen in a folktale, and which turn out
to be utterly useless after all. To know the guild articles and the city
newspaper by heart corresponds in large measure to knowing the telephone
directory by heart today. The tale opposes two kinds of education: the
brothers’ sterile memorization which has no relation to the real world, and
Clod-Hans’s highly effective cunning, which brings him the fulfillment of his
desires.
Clod-Hans is, in short, a popular hero. He uses his resources
masterfully and achieves his goal, he is the princess’s equal and indifferent to
public opinion. He gets a wife, crown and throne, and the alderman gets mud
in his face. The fiction rewards him and could have been rounded off in the
traditional folktale manner: they lived happily ever after. However, the
narrator moderates the simplicity with some ironic distance: in a story this
sort of thing can happen, in the reality outside of the story is it hardly
possible. So instead, Andersen sends a little greeting to the expanding
bourgeois press: “we had this story straight from the alderman’s newspaper—
but that is one you can’t always depend upon”.

A MAN OF ACTION

There are few examples of this kind of folktale-retold in Hans Christian

Andersen’s stories, but that was what he began with,—with The Tinder Box at
the beginning of the very first of the little booklets (1835).4 Here, he takes up
the same Oriental Aladdin story that Oehlenschläger had dramatised in the
year of Andersen’s birth. Oehlenschläger’s Aladdin gets hold of the magic
lamp because Noureddin sees at the palace square how he gets the orange in
his turban by a stroke of luck, as it were. In the same manner, Andersen’s
Soldier gets hold of the tinder box because the old witch is in need of a helper.
By means of their sources of light both get whatever their heart desires,
including of course a princess. And both stand to lose her again. But Andersen
turns the Soldier’s story around in fairy-tale fashion, so that it ends with a
wedding,—during which the dogs have a good time throwing the courtiers up
178 Aage Jørgensen

in the air. Here we see a carnival element which was not present in
Oehlenschläger’s universal, romantic drama. On the other hand Andersen’s
tale omits the long hard battle through which Aladdin wins back the palace
and Gulnare. The Soldier gets his tinder box back through cunning and then,
with the help of the dogs, can obtain the princess and the kingdom. While
Oehlenschläger tells a story of sublimation, Andersen tells one of the
unfolding of drives and of self-realization. The Soldier cannot resist kissing
the girl, for he is after all “a real soldier” and can apparently see that she is “a
true princess”. A real soldier doesn’t care for nonsense, without any scruples
he cuts off the witch’s head,—to which his critics and the public objected, even
though she obviously represents psychological states that must be overcome.
I will defy that criticism and designate the Soldier as one of Andersen’s
popular heroes. And not because he cuts the witch’s head off, but because
after he does so, which amounts to freeing himself from mother fixation, he
shows that he can master his magical lamp and thereby also his drives. And
note that this is mastery, not repression. Here in any event, the princess
leaves the copper palace, that is liberates herself from father fixation, and
becomes queen, which appeals to her. And, as written: “The wedding lasted
all of a week, and the three dogs sat at the table, with their eyes opened wider
than ever before.”—No one need doubt that the new royal couple, acclaimed
by the people, will live happily ever after.

A CHILD OF HAPPINESS

Late in his life (1870), Hans Christian Andersen wrote a little novel whose
title—and the fact that the Aladdin theme is once again played out in it—
makes it far more relevant than was the case with Clod-Hans to draw on it in
an effort to clarify what might be meant by the word “hero” in the context
of the author’s work. Lykke-Peer (Lucky Peer) is a novel about an artist and in
this respect marks a return to Andersen’s first great international effort as a
novelist, Improvisatoren (The Improvisatore, 1835).5
At precisely the same moment, two boys are born in one and the same
house. The merchant’s son is christened Felix, while the warehouse worker’s
boy is called Peer. He acquires his nickname when, while playing, he finds
the merchant’s wife’s engagement ring in the gutter. The lucky child chooses
a life in the theater, first ballet, then singing, but as an adolescent, he loses
his voice. An anonymous benefactor (the theater’s singing teacher, we later
learn) ensures that he is sent to a provincial city and taken in as a boarder by
the schoolmaster, Mr. Gabriel, whose wife—we note en passant—bids him
welcome with the line: “Good heavens, how grown-up you are!” (and orders
 Heroes in Hans Christian Andersen’s Writings 179

that a communicating door be nailed shut for the sake of propriety) (334).6
She arranges for him to play Romeo in the local theater’s performance of
Shakespeare’s tragedy, with the pharmacist’s daughter as Juliet, which results
in his falling in love with her. But at a ball given by the local deacon, Felix
gets in the way and conquers the beauty. After two years of diligent study,
Peer must return to the capital and at the final moment, during a scary dream
in which the pharmacist’s daughter appears as another elfmaid and tempts
him to perdition, he gets his voice back. The singing teacher is still his
mentor and oracle of wisdom, and Peer advances from one success to
another,—while Felix enjoys life’s more material pleasures and is promoted
to gentleman-in-waiting. Together at a painting exhibition, they meet a
young baroness, “in her sixteenth year, an innocent, beautiful child” (372),
whose maternal home becomes Peer’s gateway to “the great world” (373). He
was “happy in his art and with the talents he possessed” (375), though with a
touch of sadness at the thought of the transitory nature of all things,
including the performing arts. Until the day when he marvelously improvises
on the piano and brings the baroness to make a declaration, whereupon she
thinks: “Aladdin!” He now writes an opera with that title, composing both
lyrics and music, and rehearses it with the orchestra—and has it performed
with himself in the lead role. The sounds and tones of the work “subdued all
listeners and seized them with a rapture that could not rise higher when he
[Aladdin] reached for the lamp of fortune that was embraced by the song of
the spirits” (383). The cheering at this finale pours down upon Peer, and in
this moment of triumph, he collapses, dead to the world.
We can understand that Peer is positioned between two women: the
pharmacist’s daughter, who plays Juliet in the provincial Shakespeare
performance, and the baroness, who inspires the Aladdin opera. The
pharmacist’s daughter represents the petite bourgeoisie as temptation with
the prospect of perdition. In Peer’s feverish dream, she reveals herself to him
as hollow in her back, profligate. The baroness, on the other hand,
representing the aristocracy, is the one who throws him the laurel wreath, is
the one who “like a spirit of beauty” leads the cheering at his triumph.
But the moment of triumph is also the moment of death. At the end
Peer is called “more fortunate than millions” (384). He is spared the struggle
to hold on to his luck, and possibly also for running his head into a wall in
an attempt to transform the platonic relationship to a life together. Artistic
fortune has its price: it doesn’t simply allow itself by magic to be reconciled
with a bourgeois married life. This is Andersen’s version of what Georg
Brandes a few decades later was to call aristocratic radicalism. The great
artist is his era’s seeing-eye dog.
180 Aage Jørgensen

Hans Christian Andersen’s novel, as well as the main character’s opera,

are situated in the wake of Oehlenschläger’s famous drama, in the cultural
tradition established by that work. As is known, Aladdin appeared in the
second volume of Poetiske Skrifter (Poetic Writings), as an Oriental-sanguine
counterpart to the Nordic-melancholy saga pastiche, Vaulundurs Saga. That
piece became the unavoidable lifelong assignment for the golden era’s writers
and artists. It taught that nature’s cheerful son is as a matter of course granted
happiness, but must achieve an awareness of “the ethical dimension of his
task” in order to hold on to or recover it, should it be lost. “Not until after
manly fight / is its full value appreciated by the owner”, is it written of the
lamp.7
Within the Aladdin figure, we can find the very core of the romantic
conceptual structure, which ingeniously and organically combines
philosophies of nature, personality, and aesthetics. This is brought about
through the recognition that one and the same force—or spirit, as it was
called at the time—flows through all of creation, though with different
strengths. Schelling’s well-known formulation—spirit in nature sleeps in the
stone, dreams in the plant, awakens in the animal, becomes conscious in man
and reaches fulfilment in the artist—beautifully illustrates this organic
thinking. Its dynamic quality is also significant: everything strives for a higher
consciousness. Man does so insofar as a seed is planted within him, which his
lifelong duty is to bring to full fruition, just as an acorn is invested with the
potential that can guide its growth toward becoming the most magnificent
oak tree. It is called culture,—becoming cultivated and unfolding one’s
inherent possibilities in their pathway toward the idea. The artist, the genius,
differs from ordinary people in that he consciously aims for the very source
of the divine power which flows through nature and human life. When taken
to its logical conclusion, Romantic philosophy is a philosophy of identity.
“To embrace everything, that is love”, wrote Oehlenschläger in Sanct
Hansaften-Spil (Midsummer Night’s Play). And in Jesu Christi gientagne Liv i
den aarlige Natur (The Life of Jesus Christ Symbolized in the Seasons) Simon
Peter comes to the realization that “taken in itself everything is nothing, but
taken as a whole everything is everything”. The mystical raises itself up to
and dissolves itself into the mythic.
In the framework of a philosophy of identity, the hero can be
recognized by his purposeful, exuberant growth. He is like a tree that grows
up into the sky without losing connection to its roots. The ultimate hero is
the great artist.
In the moment of triumph and of death, Lucky Peer undoubtedly
experiences identity with the divine, with the world of the idea. But it is
 Heroes in Hans Christian Andersen’s Writings 181

worth noticing that his opera does not follow Aladdin’s story to the very end.
It breaks off at exactly that point where he takes hold of the lamp in the
underground cave. The story continues. With the lamp, Aladdin acquires the
power to create a palace and win the princess, Gulnare. But it should also be
noted that he becomes careless with the lamp, so that Noureddin gets hold
of it,—after which he loses everything again. At one point, his spirits are so
low that suicide appears to him as the only possibility. But at that very
moment, there emerges within him another and higher nature, and he gets
the strength to take up the battle, first with Hindbad, and later with his true
counterpart, the brooding Noureddin. Out of that development, there
emerges a ripened hero with his luck intact, but in a purified and ennobled
form, as though spirit were added to it. Ripeness is all, as Shakespeare said.

THE CHILDLIKE HERO

Materially, Lucky Peer draws in several ways upon Hans Christian Andersen’s
so-called Levnedsbog (Life Book), his first autobiography, covering the period
1805–31, and written in 1832, that is before the great journey he undertook
in 1833–34, a freer, fresher, more ingenuous and less elaborate work than the
subsequent autobiographies.8 The explicit purpose of the project is to seek
clarity about himself. Although he finds his own personality or character
“quite inexplicable”, he nevertheless feels “that an invisible, loving hand
guides all things”, and “that life itself is a grand and wonderful poem” (6). Is
it a hero we now see extricating himself from his infant state? And if so: a
hero on the stage of life? The Life Book contains formulations which in fact
suggest just that. As a child, he reads biographies: “[...] my imagination for
adventure was awakened, I thought of life itself as an adventure and looked
forward to appearing in it myself as a hero” (42). More and more, he relates
his own life to the portrayals of heroic life in the books he reads. He decides,
“just like the heroes in the many adventure stories I had read to get out—all
alone—into the world” (49), that is, to the capital. Once again, however,
specifically mentioning that the good Lord will see to it that things go as they
should. Also when Weyse raises money and Siboni promises singing lessons,
it is God who gets the credit, but Andersen is in no way surprised: “that’s the
way I had imagined it, and in all novels and stories the hero succeeded in the
end” (62). In the end! But the year is 1819 and Andersen has just barely
arrived in Copenhagen. Subsequently, and especially after his deportation to
Slagelse, “heroic places” will be few and far between, while those places
where he will need comforting by God and motherly ladyfriends, come one
after another. He was given comfort, for example, during his visits to the
182 Aage Jørgensen

Wulff family at Amalienborg. He cites from his own journal: “Oh God, this
is just like Aladdin, I am also sitting in the castle and looking down. God
Almighty! No, you will not abandon me” (135). The reference here is to the
final monologue in Oehlenschläger’s work; Andersen would gladly have
skipped over the difficult balance sheets of existence. Later, when Meisling’s
lessons as well as Ludvig Müller’s preparatory training for the degree
examination were well behind him, he made the acquaintance of the Læssøe
family.

On many an evening, I could completely become as a child in

their home. I became natural just because I did not feel shy and
knew that my errors and spontaneous remarks would never be
weighed without their letting the good tip the scale in my favour.
While other people tried to turn me into a man of the world, they
appreciated my curious, childlike character. (198f)

One can wonder why Hans Christian Andersen develops this

autobiographical description at such an early point in his life. Probably above
all for the purpose of legitimizing himself in relation to culture and its
purveyors within the Copenhagen elite, whom he had approached, and who
had in a sense invested in him,—for the purpose of giving an impression of
his inner riddle, which could explain that the goal of becoming cultivated had
not fully been achieved because his gift was of a most unusual nature. For
that reason, the autobiography’s central and most moving section becomes
the one on the five accursed years—Meisling’s compulsory lessons in Slagelse
and finally in Helsingør.

THE LIFE’S FAIRY TALE HERO

The Fairy Tale of My Life is next on the program!9 What has been said up to
this point about the artist hero and about the way the 19th Century’s idea of
the hero was shaped by the entire Romantic philosophy of personality and
focus on culture, leads us to the question: isn’t the fairy tale of life essentially
Hans Christian Andersen’s proposal of a contemporary hagiography? In the
history of literary genres, that word refers to portrayals designed to present
a person’s life and deeds in so convincing a manner, that the Pope will be
moved to declare the person a saint. It was not of course up to the budding
saint himself—of whom it was also required that he be dead—to write the
hagiography. The point is that hagiographic portrayals are written with a
specific purpose in mind, and this in turn accounts for the genre’s significant
 Heroes in Hans Christian Andersen’s Writings 183

influence on the biographical and thereby also the autobiographical tradition

in European literature. Johannes Jørgensen writes about the holy Francis of
Assisi and Georg Brandes of the unholy François de Voltaire, because they
want to unfold an ideal of personality,—and both are, by the way, also writers
of autobiographies, in which they model themselves on their heroes. In the
same way, Hans Christian Andersen has a task to accomplish with his
autobiographical works, especially with The Fairy Tale of My Life, which
begins with the well-known passage:

My life is a beautiful fairy-tale, so eventful has it been and

wondrous happy. Even if, when I was a boy and went forth into
the world poor and friendless, a good fairy had met me and said,
“Choose thy own course through life and the object for which
thou wilt strive, and then, according to the development of thy
mind, and as reason requires, I will guide and defend thee,” my
fate could not have been more wisely and happily directed. The
story of my life will tell the world what it tells me:—There is a
loving God who directs all things for the best. (A, 13)

At its conclusion, the work circles back upon itself in the following way:

The fairy-tale of my life right up to the present hour is thus laid

before me so eventful, so beautiful and so full of comfort. There
came good even out of evil and joy out of pain; it is a poem more
full of profound thoughts than I could possibly have written. I feel
that I am a child of good fortune. So many of the noblest and best
men and women of my day have dealt with me kindly and openly,
and it is but seldom that my confidence in Man has been
disappointed. Even the heavy days of bitterness contain the germs
of blessings. All the injustice I thought I suffered and every hand
which was heavy in the way in which it influenced my development
brought good results after all. / As we progress towards God all
pain and bitterness are dispersed, and what is beautiful is left
behind. We see it like a rainbow against dark clouds. May men be
mild in their judgement of me as I am in my judgement of them;
and I am sure they will be. The story of a life has something of the
sacredness of a confession for all noble and good men. I have told
the fairy-tale of my life here openly and full of confidence as
though I were sitting among cherished friends. (A, 346)
184 Aage Jørgensen

These concluding words are dated April 2, 1855. “Right up to the present
hour” means therefore quite literally: ‘in the first 50 years of my life’. Here
Andersen is taking stock of his life. It is thanks to the good Lord, who guides
everything for the best, together with a strongly purposeful personal
commitment, that the 50th birthday does not appear to be a random pause,—
for immediately before that, Andersen places a kind of acknowledgment for
Grímur Thomsen’s review of his collected writings. In his eyes, this
discussion of his work becomes the proof that the long and arduous battle on
his home grounds against every kind of small-mindedness is now finally
bearing fruit. The period of rejection is over, the recognition and victories
throughout Europe—which peaked in 1847—now finally makes an impact
on the attitude of Danish critics. Listen carefully and notice the points that
are so deftly emphasized:

Just at this present time, as I am about to complete my fiftieth

year and as my “Collected Works” are being published, the
“Danish Monthly Review of Literature” has published a review of
it by Mr. Grímur Thomsen. [..] It seems almost that Heaven
wished me to end this chapter of my life by seeing the fulfilment
of H.C. Ørsted’s words to me in those heavy days when no one
appreciated me. My native land has given me the cherished
bouquet of recognition and encouragement. (A, 346)

It is in this way that Hans Christian Andersen organizes his life for
posterity,—as a divinely guided path, along which hardships purify him in his
journey toward the stars. The trials have a meaning, when viewed in
retrospect from the present summit. Olympus makes a good blotting-pad,
when the days of rejection are enumerated and forgiveness dispensed.
Taking stock of one’s life has for all good and noble souls something of
the power and sanctity of confession, as Andersen sees it; in this way he
himself justifies our inscribing of this life’s fairy tale in a sacred context.
Glory be to God!
Andersen also makes a claim concerning cultivation. In our progress
toward God beauty arises, while bitterness melts away.
It is however something of a problem that what is most decisive comes
to Andersen from without. That Thomsen writes in warm and friendly tones
about the fairy tales and virtually fulfills the prophecy with which H.C.
Ørsted comforted the poet when he was criticized for his first fairy tales,
cannot really be compared to what Aladdin experiences when a higher nature
emerges from deep within him and prevents him from taking his own life in
 Heroes in Hans Christian Andersen’s Writings 185

the Persian river. Aladdin is formed from within, Andersen gains recognition
from without. It is the surrounding world that changes, not his own
personality. It is the people who increasingly come to him in an open and
loving way, not he who makes peace with existence.
He repeats this manoeuvre in 1869, when he completes the
continuation of the fairy tale of his life, which he penned for the American
edition of his writings. This time, the obvious culmination was the festivity
at which he was proclaimed honorary citizen of Odense in December 1867.
When he was approached, Andersen had proposed that they wait until
September 4, 1869, the fiftieth anniversary of his departure for Copenhagen.
In this case, he did not however get his way, but the proposal was presumably
nothing more than an off-hand remark. After the celebration itself, but
before his departure, he took part in the Lahn Foundation’s annual festival.
Some fuss was made over Andersen on that occasion as well. “It was as if one
sunbeam after another shone into my heart, it was more than I could bear!
In such a moment one clings to God as in the bitterest hour of sorrow” (B,
569). And once outside of the city, Andersen finally realized what honor, joy
and delight “God had endowed upon me through my native town”. And
further on, in conclusion:

The greatest, the highest blessing I could attain was now mine.
Now for the first time could I fully and devoutly thank my God
and pray: “Leave me not when the days of trial come!” (B, 569)

This final remark is essentially concerned with the future. Although allegedly
his heart could not contain so much happiness, there was no occurrence of
what Andersen allowed to happen to Lucky Peer a few years later:

A fire rushed through him; his heart swelled as never before [..].
Dead in the moment of triumph, like Sophocles at the Olympian
games, like Thorvaldsen in the theater during Beethoven’s
symphony. An artery in his heart had burst, and as by a flash of
lightning his days here were ended, ended without pain, ended in
an earthly triumph, in the fulfilment of his mission on earth.
Lucky Peer! More fortunate than millions! (383f)

Andersen spared his hero all tribulations. His own heart sighed but didn’t
burst when he left the scene of his triumph (which marked the fulfilment of
the prophecy that Odense would some day be lit up in his honor)—on the
way to awaiting trials.
186 Aage Jørgensen

If the truth be told, and it can be if the journals and letters are allowed
to supplement the autobiography, then trials were an integral part of the
poet’s life. Some years ago, in Flugten i sproget (Flight into Language), Torben
Brøstrom and Jørn Lund argued that it was precisely there, in language, that
the poet occasionally overcame the experience of loneliness and coldness that
came increasingly with fame. They write somewhere10 about

the realization that came in the final years of his life, that artistic
growth was won at the expense of human development, that fame
had not only cost blood, sweat and tears, but had left him with a
disheartening sense of coldness, which his analytical acuity
prevented him from repressing, and which he had to face head
on—just before the end came.

It is Klaus P. Mortensen who sharpened the two writers’—and our—grasp of

this in Svanen og Skyggen (The Swan and the Shadow), which as the title also
indicates, tells “the story of young Andersen”.11 The evidence suggests that
as his literary achievement was eventually honored by general European and
Danish recognition, the poet understood with ever increasing clarity that
success had cost a terrible price: emotional coldness.
The final chapter in Brostrøm and Lund’s book is entitled “Language
and poetry. The unfulfilled dream”. Here, the obvious connection between
The Improvisatore and Lucky Peer is drawn, in the following way:12

[Andersen’s] drive for poetic unfolding was also a dream of

personal unfolding. He wanted both to create art and to redeem
it. The improvisatore at the gateway to the literary production
and Lucky Peer at the close of it, can accomplish anything, reach
everyone around them, interpret shared experiences as well as
individual, bound impulses and memories, see poetic possibilities
and create in the here and now a kind of expression which is in
harmony with eternity, with the universal poetic primitive force.

The Improvisatore was written by Hans Christian Andersen in continuation of

the journey he undertook to become cultivated, during which he paradoxically
and fortunately liberated himself from (or at least kept a certain distance from)
the imposed and hard won cultivation. In the novel, he goes so far as to let the
hero, Antonio, prevail both artistically and matrimonially. That was just before
he wrote The Tinder Box, which he brought off with improvisational ease.
 Heroes in Hans Christian Andersen’s Writings 187

THE REALIZATION AND THE PRICE

Hans Christian Andersen produced essentially two sets of heroes: the

popular (represented here by Clod-Hans and the Soldier) and the literary
(represented by Lucky Peer and Hans Christian himself). His popular heroes
pass their tests and win their princesses and live happily ever after. The
literary heroes attune their spiritual powers to an exalted level, but have to
pay dearly for that. As will be recalled, it isn’t the learned man who marries
the princess in the fairy tale, The Shadow, but precisely those shadowy
properties he represses, and which ultimately kill him.
Though with social and cultural odds against him, Hans Christian
Andersen achieves happiness, but specifically in the form of success: being
cheered by the public, outer appearances. What he loses along the way is the
popular hero’s drive, and what he ultimately can only rave about is Lucky
Peer’s uncompromising spiritual aristocraticism. It is in the interval that,
with our Lord as his guide, and thanks to an inherent stubborn tenacity, he
achieves the coveted goal, recognition.13

NOTES

1. “Clod-Hans”, quoted from The Complete Andersen, translated by Jean Hersholt,

illustrated by Fritz Kredel. New York 1952, Section II, pp. 175–79 [entitled “Clumsy
Hans”]. (Original Danish version: “Klods-Hans”, Historier, illustrated by Vilhelm
Pedersen, 1855, pp. 114–19; cf. H.C. Andersens Eventyr, ed. by Erik Dal, et al., Vol. 2:
1843–55, 1964, pp. 291–94, and Vol. 7: Kommentar, 1990, pp. 162–63.)
2. Cf. Jens Aage Doctor, “H.C. Andersens karneval”, in Andersen og Verden, ed. by
Johan de Mylius, et al., 1993, pp. 410–19. (The author’s doctoral thesis: Shakespeares
karneval, 1994.)
3. The version in question can be found in Fortællerstil, ed. by Kristian Kjær and
Henrik Schovsbo, 1975, pp. 85–86. Jens Kamp was a Danish folklorist (1845–1900).
4. “The Tinder Box”, quoted from The Complete Andersen, Section I, pp. 1–7.
(Original Danish version: “Fyrtøiet”, Eventyr, fortalte for Børn, Vol. I:1, 1835, pp. 1–16; cf.
H.C. Andersens Eventyr, Vol. I: 1835–42, 1963, pp. 23–29, and Vol. 7: Kommentar, 1990, pp.
19–23.)
5. Lucky Peer is quoted from The Complete Andersen, Section III, pp. 316–84. (Original
Danish version: Lykke-Peer, 1870, 1870, 183 pp.; cf. Romaner og Rejseskildringer, Vol. 5,
1944, pp. 241–317.) The American edition is, despite the title, complete only as far as the
fairy tales are concerned, but Hersholt may have considered Andersen’s shortest novel to
be rather like a fairy tale. (An English translation prior to Hersholt’s appeared in Scribner’s
Monthly, Vol. 1, 1871.)—Cf. Johan de Mylius’s doctoral thesis, Myte og roman. H.C.
Andersens romaner mellem romantik og realisme, 1981, pp. 210–25 (chapter entitled “Kunst
som myte”).
6. The portrayal of Peer’s stay with the Gabriel family can be compared with the
portrayal in the so-called Levnedsbog (see note 8) of Hans Christian Andersen’s stay with
188 Aage Jørgensen

the Meisling family. Mrs. Meisling is cited in that work—as a prelude to the description of
her seduction attempt—for her exclamation: “This is no real he-man” (131).
7. Aladdin eller Den forunderlige Lampe, ed. by Jens Kr. Andersen, 1978, p. 281 (and
preface p. 7). (Cf. Aladdin or The Wonderful Lamp, translated by Henry Meyer, 1968, p. 222:
“To grasp it dauntlessly it is your part / to fight courageously. First then you are / able to
hold its value in regard”.)
8. The page references in this section are to H.C. Andersens Levnedsbog, ed. by
H. Topsøe-Jensen, 1962 (3rd impr., 1988).
9. The page references in this section are to [A] The Fairy Tale of My Life, translated
by W. Glyn Jones, illustrated by Niels Larsen Stevens, 1954, and [B] The Story of My Life,
translated by Horace E. Scudder, New York 1871 (= Author’s Edition, Vol. 7); Scudder’s
translation has been slightly revised. (Cf. the Danish standard edition: Mit Livs Eventyr,
Vols. 1–2, ed. by H. Topsøe-Jensen and H.G. Olrik, 1951 (2nd impr., 1975).)
10. Torben Brostrøm & Jørn Lund, Flugten i sproget. H.C. Andersens udtryk, 1991, p.
138 (in the chapter entitled “Norgesturen”, by Jørn Lund).
11. Klaus P. Mortensen, Svanen og Skyggen—historien om unge Andersen, 1989.
12. Flugten i sproget, p. 155. (The chapter was written by Jørn Lund.)
13. This article was presented as a paper on two occasions: first at a Hans Christian
Andersen symposium held at the university in St. Petersburg on May 17, 1996, as part of
the Danish-Russian festival of children’s culture organized by the Danish Literature
Information Center (DLIC); and subsequently at The Second International Hans
Christian Andersen Conference, held at the H.C. Andersen Center, Odense University,
from July 28 to August 3, 1996. The Danish version appeared in BUM/Børne-og ungdoms-
litteratur magasinet, Vol. 14: 1–2, 1996, pp. 32–38; H.C. Andersen i Rusland, ed. Aage
Jørgensen, et al., 1997, pp. 37–48; and Aage Jørgensen, Børgens Fædreland-og andre
guldalderstudier, 1999, pp. 109–29.
 JACKIE WULLSCHLAGER

Kiss of the Muse:

1860–1865

You are a lucky man. When you look in the gutters, you find pearls.
—B.S. INGEMANN, letter to
Hans Christian Andersen, 10 April 1858

A ndersen called Harald Scharff “a butterfly who flits around

sympathetically.” They first met in Paris in 1857; Andersen was on his way
home from his visit to Dickens, and Scharff was staying in the French capital
with the Danish actor Lauritz Eckhardt. Scharff was then twenty-one, lean
and lithe, a flamboyant dancer at the Royal Theatre in Copenhagen. In his
memoirs Auguste Bournonville wrote that Scharff “is full of life and
imagination, and is unquestionably the finest leading man [of Danish
ballet].” Photographs of him starring in Bournonville’s productions, as
Gennaro in Napoli and as the Norse hero Helge in The Valkyrie, show a very
handsome young man with dark eyes and long lashes, black curly hair and
thick sensuous lips; he sometimes wore a curling moustache. Like Stampe,
there is something irresolute and uncertain in his expression and bearing
which is apparent even when he is acting out the forceful role of a warrior,
but his face has nevertheless a magnetism which suggests why he was so
compelling a performer.
In Paris, Scharff and Andersen visited Notre-Dame together, but their

From Hans Christian Andersen: The Life of a Storyteller (2001): 373–98. © 2000 by Jackie
Wullschlager.

189
190 Jackie Wullschlager

paths did not cross again until July 1860, when Andersen was travelling in
southern Germany and made a detour to the Bavarian village of
Oberammergau to see the famous Passion Play, performed there every ten
years. Eckhardt and Scharff, who shared a house in Copenhagen, were there
to see it too, and the three Danes teamed up and travelled back to Munich
together, where they were in each other’s company ceaselessly for the next
week.
By 1860, southern Germany was beginning to replace Weimar in
Andersen’s affections. “Munich has an immense attraction for me,” he wrote
to Carl Alexander. “In the Bazaar I have compared it to a rose-bush, which
is now in full bloom. The Au-Kirche is a veritable passion-flower, as if
sprung up in a moment; the Basilica a golden pink with exquisite perfume
and organ tones.” Tainted less by the war than the northern states, touched
by the warmth and sensuality of Italy across the Alps, spectacular in its
landscapes of high mountains plunging down to crystal clear lakes and its
colourful baroque architecture, and presided over by sentimental King Max,
who fussed over Andersen like a favourite pet, Bavaria drew him back
continually. By the time he reached Oberammergau and put up with the
pastor, he was excited, and in a receptive mood. Few places could have been
more conducive a setting in which to fall in love than this picturesque Alpine
village where the outsides of the chalets were painted with brightly coloured
religious scenes and the villagers, like Andersen’s grandfather, made their
living by wood carving.
That such a place should host a theatrical spectacle of rare
magnificence and spiritual grandeur was for Andersen overwhelming. “I had
always feared that the representation of Christ on the stage must have
something sacrilegious about it, but, as it was given here, it was elevating and
noble,” he told Carl Alexander. The open-air theatre, built of beams and
boards on the green plain outside the village, embodied the convergence of
nature and religion; the folk elements of the Passion Play’s tradition also
attracted Andersen. The play lasted from eight in the morning until five in
the afternoon; “we sat under the open sky; the wind sighed above us, the
birds came and flew out again. I thought of the old Indian play in the open
air where the Sakuntala was given; I thought of the Greek theatre ... There
was an ease and a beauty about it that must impress everyone,” Andersen
wrote. And everything was more exhilarating because he was falling in love
with Scharff.
The pleasure continued in Munich. “Scharff and Eckhardt came to me,
we talked together until after 11 p.m. ... went with Eckhardt and Scharff to
the Basilica ... now I am going with Scharff and Eckhardt to Kaulbach’s
 Kiss of the Muse: 1860–1865 191

studio ... to the Residenz Theatre with Scharff and Eckhardt ... came home
at 10 p.m. and had a visit from Scharff and Eckhardt,” he jotted down in his
diary over a week in the city; then, on 9 July 1860, “don’t feel at all well;
Eckhardt and Scharff travelling to Salzburg at 8 o’clock today.” The next day,
Andersen, who had been photographed very little since the early days of the
daguerreotype in the 1840s, went to the studio of the photographer Franz
Hanfstaengel, and came away with a splendid photograph of himself.
In a full-length, sitting portrait in profile, with sunlight streaming in
behind, Hanfstaengel captured a look which is at once serene, serious and
full of movement and excitement; the dignity and humanity of a man on the
brink of old age, and the radiance and warmth that lit up Andersen’s face as
he stood on the verge of a new love affair. Early pictures show that
Andersen’s eyes were unnaturally small; here they are open, wide, eager,
illuminating his powerful, intelligent features. Wrapped up, as he always was,
even in midsummer, in layers of long coats and waistcoats, with a thick tie
around his neck, there is something self-protective about the elegant pose,
yet it is eased out of stiffness by the expressive, big, bony hands, and by a
playfulness about the sensual lips, which seem about to burst into talk.
Andersen, who was generally convinced that he was ugly, was ebullient about
the result. “I’ve never seen such a lovely and yet life-like portrait of myself. I
was completely surprised, astonished, that the sunlight could make such a
beautiful figure of my face. I feel unbelievably flattered, yet it is only a
photograph. You’ll get to see it, it is the only portrait which my vanity allows
me to leave to those coming after me. How the young ladies will exclaim
‘And he never got married!’” he wrote home to Henriette Collin.
Unlike some more handsome young men, Andersen aged well; at fifty-
five a lifetime of thought and concentration was etched into his features, and
Scharff’s attentions at this time perhaps made him believe in himself more
strongly. While early accounts of his appearance all emphasize his
gaucheness and peculiarity, after 1860 the accent is always on his
distinguished and animated features. “Andersen’s personal appearance is
prepossessing,” wrote the American consul George Griffin, who visited him
in the early 1860s.

He would not however be called a handsome man in the popular

acceptance of the term. He is tall and slender. While standing or
sitting, he holds his body erect, but when walking he stoops a
little. His nose is large but well-proportioned and his hair, which
curls around his temples, is sprinkled with gray. His forehead is
high, but not broad, still it is a noble-looking forehead, and not
192 Jackie Wullschlager

altogether unlike that of one of Titian’s heads. His eyes are of a

dark grey and literally beam with intelligence.

Another admirer, J.R. Brown, visiting around the same time,

remembered:

Before me stood a big bony figure, a man who had his best years
behind him, but still wasn’t quite old. He had lively eyes in a fine,
wrinkled face, which was vivacious, and in the middle of this face
a big protruding nose which by some quirk of fate was a bit
crooked and was flanked by two protruding cheek bones below
which were deep wrinkles. Numerous folds and grooves lay
round the corners of a large mouth which was like a deep,
irregular opening; one could easily have taken it for the mouth of
a monster who ate children—if it were not for the kind and sunny
smile round the corners of his lips and the humanity which shone
from every fold and groove.

A liaison with a figure of such gravitas and fame may have been one of
Andersen’s attractions to the flighty Scharff, who was over thirty years
younger and still had his name to make at the Royal Theatre; certainly letters
flew between the two for the rest of the year, and Andersen sent Scharff his
photograph.
Andersen moved on to Switzerland, but the joy of his foreign trip was
extinguished by Scharff’s departure and, alone abroad, he soon grew
despondent. His diaries from Geneva, where he spent the beginning of
September, show how rapidly he descended into depression:

1 September: Want to go home ... my blood in a wild turmoil.

2 September: My spirits are down; want to go home and yet don’t

want to ... I have a morbid feeling, a strange fear about going
crazy.

3 September: It’s as if there’s a demon riding my spirit. Where does

it come from? Why? I’m unusually tired of everything! ... Took a
walk by the rushing Rhone; a demonic urge to throw myself in ...
I made cut-outs, which were greatly admired, for two nice little
boys, Emile and Ernest. People were very attentive to me, and at
9 o’clock I was driven home. If only I could curb the demon
 Kiss of the Muse: 1860–1865 193

riders that oppress my spirit. It reminds me of a dream I had

about a bat that was grappling with me and almost choked me.

4 September: Upset. My spirit demon-ridden. Wished for sudden

death; a frequent thought.

5 September: Nervous, in a morbid mood and got to feeling worse

and worse ... My legs were shaking; I didn’t feel well.

6 September: My mood depressed.

7 September: Was in a foul mood ... At home I found a couple of

books ... in one I was mentioned in favourable terms. I read aloud
in French ... I really am having an incredibly good time; only I
myself can ruin my enjoyment ...

But not even flattery satisfied him for long, and although he had intended to
spend Christmas in Italy, he turned back at Geneva, and in a black, confused
mood began the journey north to Denmark. “I’m drifting like a bird in a
storm, a bird that cannot fly but also cannot quite fall. O Lord! My God!
have mercy on me!” he wrote in his diary on 27 October. He reached
Copenhagen in November (“went to bed as usual in a bad mood, godless”)
and fled to Basnæs for the Christmas holiday.
Here, as often happened, his spirits lifted and his creative energy
returned. His diary is full of close, acerbic observations on those at the
Basnæs house party (“Nelly is a strange, cold person who stands as if her
hands were wet and she were saying: ‘Don’t touch me!’”), and on New Year’s
Eve he wrote the short tale “The Snowman,” whose setting recalls the woods
on the estate: “all the trees and bushes were covered with hoar frost. It was
like a forest of white coral, as though all the branches were studded with
silvery blossom ... It was like lace, and as dazzling white as though a brilliant
white light streamed from every branch. The silver birch stirred in the wind
and seemed to be as much alive as trees in the summertime. How lovely it all
was!”
Here lives a snowman, who ought to have been in his element but can
get no peace because he falls in love with a stove which he has glimpsed in
the kitchen. “It’s the exact opposite of you! It’s as black as soot, and has a long
neck with a brass front! It eats wood till the fire comes out of its mouth,” a
watchdog tells him, but all day the snowman gazes in:
194 Jackie Wullschlager

“I must get in; I must lean my head against hers, if it means

breaking the window.”
“You’ll never get in there,” said the watchdog. “And if you did
get to the stove, you’d be off! Off!”
“I’m as good as off now,” said the snowman. “I’m breaking in
two, I think.” ...
Whenever the stove door was opened the flames would leap
out in the way they had, shining bright red on the snowman’s
white face and throwing a red glow all over his chest.
“I can’t bear it,” he said. “How it suits her to put her tongue
out!”

The frost crunches and crackles, and like Andersen in the months before he
wrote the story, the snowman “could have felt happy, and he ought to have
felt happy, but he wasn’t happy; he was pining for a stove.” The weather
changes, as the watchdog has threateningly predicted, and the snowman
melts—at which point the dog sees that he has been built around a stove-
scraper, which explains his lovesickness, but “‘it’s all over now! Off! Off!’
And soon the winter, too, was over ... And then no one ever thinks of the
snowman any more.”
Lyrical and poignant, “The Snowman” is another veiled, self-mocking
autobiography which expresses Andersen’s view of love as a burning,
unreciprocated pain, his bitter acceptance that he would end life alone and a
comic awareness that, as he wrote in his diary, “only I myself can ruin my
enjoyment.” The Snowman is a light-hearted cousin of the tragic Fir Tree;
in this story Andersen returns to his earlier, tragi-comic mode of sketching
the fleeting autobiography of an everyday object which seems to have caught
his eye at random and yet whose life story has an uncanny appropriateness to
its physical form. Just after “The Snowman” Andersen wrote “The Silver
Penny,” after he was cheated by a false coin; with the story, he joked, he got
his money back. To tell such tales was almost a compulsion, like relating his
own life story. Sometimes such ideas stayed in his mind for years before
coalescing with some event or mood in Andersen’s own life. Although it is
told with the lightest touch, “The Snowman” sprang to life at least partly out
of Andersen’s discontent and pining over Harald Scharff.
He saw Scharff again during the winter of 1860–1861, and began a
long, slow campaign to fix his interest. In January 1861 he had his
photograph taken by the Copenhagen photographer Rudolph Striegler; in
contrast to the upright, rigid poses he adopts in all other photographs, this
one is languid and seductive, and he sent it to Scharff with an inscription,
 Kiss of the Muse: 1860–1865 195

using the familiar “Du” form, “Dear Scharff, here you have again Hans
Christian Andersen.” On 20 February, Scharff’s twenty-fifth birthday, he
gave the dancer five volumes of his “Fairy Tales and Stories,” and four days
later Scharff came to see him; for his birthday in April Scharff gave him a
reproduction of the Danish sculptor Herman Bissen’s “Minerva.”
Nevertheless, Copenhagen left him restless and ill-tempered, and on 4 April
1861, just after publication of a new volume of tales including “The
Snowman,” and only four months after his return from his last foreign trip,
he set off again, this time determined to reach Rome.

He was in a febrile and nervous state, which his choice of travelling

companion, Edvard’s son Jonas, only made worse. By now Andersen felt too
old to travel far alone, and the Collin grandsons were becoming a necessity
to him, to jolly him along and look after him. Jonas, at twenty-one, was a
clever, moody, strong-minded and taciturn young man with a passion for
zoology; as Edvard’s son, he caused Andersen more agony than any of his
cousins, because Andersen was so desperate for the relationship to be
successful, while Jonas inevitably picked up something of the manoeuvrings
between his father and Andersen, and knew that, although Andersen was his
host and was paying his entire expenses, he could treat him badly. Edvard
predicted problems, but was extremely grateful: “At this moment I only feel
capable of telling you, my dear Andersen, that I more and more appreciate
what you are doing for Jonas ... I hope you will always get pleasure from what
you are doing; that Jonas is grateful to you, you can be sure of it, even if he
doesn’t express it in so many words; this is hardly his skill, as surely as it is
not mine.”
It took Andersen and Jonas nearly a month to reach Rome, travelling
by train to Marseilles, by stagecoach to Nice and Genoa, and then by boat to
Civitavecchia. By the time they arrived, suffering from over-exposure to one
another in train carriages and closed coaches, from exhaustion and frayed
nerves, their relationship was in tatters. Jonas was red-faced with anger and
silent; “I asked him if I had done anything to incur his displeasure; he said
no, he wanted to go home to do some writing. I became dispirited—I live for
him, do everything for him; and he said the other day that I have only ‘my
egoism’—I’m feeling despondent, unwell. Sat in tears on my bed,” Andersen
wrote in his diary on 5 May. A few days later: “I explained how ill I felt. He
told me to pull myself together and then went off ... I had the feeling and the
hope that he would be concerned enough about me to stay, but he went ...
Jonas had as refrain, ‘You must pull yourself together!’” Towards the end of
the month, there was little improvement: “Jonas went around always
196 Jackie Wullschlager

brooding ... He has no consideration for me, just like Drewsen’s sons [his
cousins Viggo and Harald]; I was grieved and offended ... I did ... without
supper, terribly depressed, spiteful and in tears, jumping out of bed and
ranting, beside myself... Got up early and went out. Came home just as
unhappy, brooding, was irritable and upset.”
Another evening, after they had quarrelled about Viggo Drewsen,
whom Jonas praised over artists and writers because “he worked on his own
development and had nothing to do with other people,” Andersen wrote his
tale “The Snail and the Rosebush” in revenge. Andersen, or the creative
artist, is the rose bush, who cannot help giving beautiful, blooming roses to
the world; Jonas is the snail—the image is wonderfully apt, because as a
budding zoologist he collected snails locked inside his own house who snarls,
“The world doesn’t concern me. What have I to do with the world? I have
enough of myself, and enough in myself ... What am I giving? I spit at it! It’s
of no use. It doesn’t concern me.” The tale has often been taken as
Andersen’s view of the creative life versus the intellectual one, with the snail
an embodiment of Kierkegaard; it is in fact a shrewd comment on the
narrow-minded impetuosity of youth versus the tolerance and generosity
towards the wider world that comes with middle age. This was the core of
the conflict between Jonas and Andersen. A wise and loving parent would
perhaps have accepted Jonas’s youth and found him less of an irritant than
Andersen did; Andersen remained too much a child, anxious to be indulged
and to be in the right himself, to be able to do so.
Once again, Rome had turned sour on Andersen; it also, as usual, made
him feel sensual and sexually frustrated, and he was probably no easier to live
with than was Jonas. He poured out his discomfort in another Roman tale,
“The Psyche,” begun in the theatre during a badly danced ballet days after
his arrival, and continued on and off throughout the trip. The germ of the
story had been in his mind since he began The Improvisatore in Rome thirty
years earlier. He began it, he said, when he remembered an incident that
occurred there in 1833–1834: a young nun was to be buried, and when her
grave came to be dug there was found a beautiful statue of Bacchus. The
story also owes much to his own early experiences in Rome, to the life of the
Danish artist-monk Küchler, who had intrigued him since Küchler painted
the first, puritanical portrait of him in 1834, and something, too, to
Andersen’s continuing obsession with Scharff.
It turns on a gifted sculptor with “warm blood” and “a strong
imagination” who is consumed by sexual longing as his friends taunt him to
use a prostitute, which he cannot bring himself to do—Andersen had
endured similar teasing in Rome in 1833–1834. The sculptor devotes himself
 Kiss of the Muse: 1860–1865 197

to his art, preferring the cold marble of his statues to female flesh and blood,
but he is such a perfectionist that he destroys most of what he makes. His
best work is a figure of a noble young woman, his “Psyche,” and in fashioning
it he falls in love with her. When she rejects him, he gives up his resistance
and listens to a friend telling him, “Be a man, as all the others are, and don’t
go on living in ideals, for that is what drives men crazy ... Come with me: be
a man!” They find a pair of girls, but sex is described in terms of repulsion.
The sculptor cries:

“I feel as if the blossom of life were unfolding itself in my veins at

this moment!”
Yes, the blossom unfolded itself, and then burst and fell, and an
evil vapour arose from it, blinding the sight, leading astray the
fancy—the firework of the senses went out, and it became dark.

His decision is to bury his beautiful statue of Psyche, to give up art and, as
Küchler did, become a monk. Andersen visited Küchler at his monastery
while he was writing the tale and was much taken by another monk there,
Brother Ignatius (“He was a young man, kind and happy in Christ; remarked
that there was religious feeling in the North and that each approached God
in his own way ... We all were in search of truth. He found he had so much
in common with me”), who appears by name in the story as a model of the
spiritual life. But the sculptor finds no peace:

What flames arose up in him at times! What a source of evil, of

that which he would not, welled up continually! He mortified his
body, but the evil came from within ... The more deeply he
looked into his own heart the blacker did the darkness seem.
“Nothing within, nothing without—this life squandered and cast
away!” And this thought rolled and grew like a snowball, until it
seemed to crush him.
“I can confide my griefs to none. I may speak to none of the
gnawing worm within. My secret is my prisoner; if I let the
captive escape, I shall be his!”

Aware that he has wasted his gifts, he dies. Centuries later the white marble
statue of Psyche is discovered when a young nun is buried, and although the
artist is unknown, his art, as well as “the Psyche—the soul—will still live on!”
How much of Andersen’s own sexual uncertainty went into this sultry,
guilt-ridden tale? He recognized it as one of his most erotic works, and was
198 Jackie Wullschlager

furious when Bentley dedicated the English translation without his

permission to the Princess of Wales (“I’m not at all pleased to have a story
like ‘The Psyche’ dedicated to a young woman”). It is remarkable how close
“The Psyche” is to the pent-up emotional tone and lurid Italian setting of
The Improvisatore, and to the tales of sexual revulsion or denial, such as “The
Travelling Companion” and “The Little Mermaid,” which he wrote in the
1830s. Like his other tales of the same period, “The Psyche” questions the
value of art, but, though more acrid in mood and contorted in style, its final
message is that of “The Little Mermaid”—that immortality can be won
through art not sex. “The Little Mermaid” was written twenty-five years
earlier at the height of Andersen’s obsession with and renunciation of Edvard
Collin. Did he feel any bitterness that he was now travelling with Edvard’s
grown-up son, yet emotionally he had himself barely moved on, and was
caught in the throes of a similar fixation on another young man, Harald
Scharff? Certainly the tale, followed weeks later by a greater work of
brooding eroticism, “The Ice Maiden,” suggests that “the gnawing worm of
sexuality gave him no peace.
Publicly, however, a quite different persona was at work in Rome. This
was the occasion, for example, when Andersen met Robert Browning at the
Palazzo Barberini, the home of the wealthy American sculptor William
Wentmore Story; Henry James was there and recalled Andersen as the
quintessential Pied Piper, charming a group of children:

The small people with whom he played enjoyed, under his spell,
the luxury of believing that he kept and treasured—in every case
and as a rule—the old tin soldiers and broken toys received by
him, in acknowledgement of favours, from impulsive infant
hands. Beautiful the queer image of the great benefactor moving
about Europe with his accumulations of these relics. Wonderful
too our echo of a certain occasion—that of a children’s party, later
on, when, after he had read out to his young friends “The Ugly
Duckling,” Browning struck up with the “Pied Piper”; which led
to the formation of a grand march through the spacious Barberini
apartment, with Story doing his best on a flute in default of
bagpipes.

The dying Elizabeth Barrett Browning made Andersen the hero of her
last poem, “The North and the South,” in which the South yearns for a poet
to express its beauty. The poem ends:
 Kiss of the Muse: 1860–1865 199

The North sent therefore a man of men

As a grace to the South;
And thus to Rome came Andersen.
—“Alas, but must you take him again?”
Said the South to the North.

In a letter, she left another record: “Andersen (the Dane) came to see me
yesterday,” she wrote, “kissed my hand, and seemed in a general verve for
embracing. He is very earnest, very simple, very child-like. I like him. Pen
[her twelve-year-old son] says of him, ‘He is not really pretty. He is rather
like his own ugly duck, but his mind has developed into a swan’—That wasn’t
bad of Pen, was it?” Andersen knew he was perceived as something of a
curiosity; in a short comic tale of self-acceptance, “The Butterfly,” written
just after he left Rome, he painted himself as a butterfly who flits about
indecisively between girlfriends only to find he has become too old to be
married, ending “a crusty old bachelor ... stuck on a pin in a box of curios.”
Another well-known writer charmed by Andersen in Rome was the
Norwegian poet Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, who soon got the measure of
Andersen’s crankiness and minor upsets, and unlike Jonas was willing to
indulge them. When Andersen complained about the draughts and the
crowds, Bjørnson suggested good-humouredly that the moment Andersen
entered heaven he would turn round and ask Peter to close the door against
the draught—unless of course he demanded to go back the minute he was in
the doorway because he was being pushed by the crowds. He was, he said,
very fond of Andersen, both for the glories and the weakness of his character.
After Rome, Andersen and Jonas went on to Switzerland, staying at the
resort of Montreux on Lake Geneva, with its magnificent Alpine backdrop,
where, Andersen wrote, “was wrought my Wonder Story ‘The Ice Maiden’
... in which I would show the Swiss nature as it had lain in my thoughts after
many visits to that glorious land.” “The Ice Maiden,” more a novella than a
tale, is the tragic love story of two Swiss peasants, Rudy and Babette, told in
fifteen parts. Its emphasis on setting, on letting the story almost emerge by
itself through the ice and snow, the use of dreams, the brooding
psychological unease, the images of destruction that ring out from the
start—all these link it with the recent works of 1858–1859, but with the
figure of the Ice Maiden, Andersen returns to the dramatic mythic creations
of his middle years.
The story opens with a light touch and with Andersen’s reassertion of
the romantic belief in the child as visionary, as young Rudy chatters to his pet
cats and dogs—“for you see, children who cannot talk yet, can understand
200 Jackie Wullschlager

the language of fowls and ducks right well, and cats and dogs speak to them
quite as plainly as father and mother can do ... with some children this period
ends later than with others, and of such we are accustomed to say that they
are very backward, and that they have remained children a long time. People
are in the habit of saying many strange things.” The cats and dogs remain
commentators throughout, telling us of the progression of the love affair
(“Rudy and Babette were treading on each other’s paws under the table all
evening. They trod on me twice, but I would not mew for fear of exciting
attention”), but the tragic impulse of the story is overriding, its fatalism
hanging heavy and thundering as the glaciers and streams of melted ice that
rush down the valleys. Andersen’s mountain scenery is spectacularly drawn;
here Rudy’s mother is killed, and the Ice Maiden, “the Glacier Queen,” who
rules this “wondrous glass palace,” feels cheated that she has not captured
Rudy too. She is one of Andersen’s femmes fatales:

She, the death-dealing, the crushing one, is partly a child of the

air, partly the mighty ruler of the river ... she sails on the slender
fir twig down the rushing stream, and springs from one block to
another, with her long snow-white hair and her blue-green
garment fluttering around her and glittering like the water in the
deep Swiss lakes.
“To crush and to hold, mine is the power!” she says. “They
have stolen a beautiful boy from me, a boy whom I have kissed,
but not kissed to death. He is mine, and I will have him!”

Rudy goes to live with his grandfather, a woodcarver like Andersen’s, and
becomes the embodiment of nature, climbing and hunting in the mountains
like an animal, repeatedly depriving the Ice Maiden of her prize. In this
cinematic story, she looms in and out of dark icy snowscapes, sometimes as a
hallucination, sometimes as a real, terrifying presence. Once Rudy nearly falls,
and “below, in the black yawning gulf, on the rushing waters, sat the Ice
Maiden herself, with her long whitish-green hair, and stared at him with cold
death-like eyes.” But his undoing is to fall in love with Babette, who represents
culture and worldly sophistication, and to become jealous when a cultivated
Englishman gives her a book of Byron’s poems. He swaps Babette’s betrothal
ring for a kiss from a phantom woman on the mountains, and as in “The
Psyche,” this instant of pure eroticism spells darkness and death:

In that moment ... he sank into the deep and deadly ice cleft,
lower and lower. He saw the icy walls gleaming like blue-green
 Kiss of the Muse: 1860–1865 201

glass, fathomless abysses yawned around, the water dropped

tinkling down like shining bells, clear as pearls, glowing with pale
blue flames. The Ice Maiden had kissed him—a kiss which sent a
shudder from neck to brow; a cry of pain escaped from him; he
tore himself away, staggered, and—it was night before his eyes.

In “The Snow Queen,” when Kai is seduced by the icy femme fatale, he
is rescued by the purity of Gerda’s childish love, but here there is no
redemption. Rudy is saved, briefly reunited with Babette and then snatched
from her on the eve of their wedding day, as they celebrate the flowering of
adult love by sailing at sunset under a mountain that “gleamed like red
lava”—as in The Improvisatore and “The Little Mermaid,” the signal colours
of “The Ice Maiden” are those Andersen used to symbolize passion, fiery red
and deathly blue. Rudy is dragged under the water where he sees crowds of
the drowned who have sunk into the crevasses among the glaciers, and

beneath all the Ice Maiden sat on the clear transparent ground.
She raised herself towards Rudy and kissed his feet; then a cold,
death-like numbness poured through his limbs, and an electric
shock—ice and fire mingled! ... “Mine, mine!” sounded around
him and within him. “I kissed you when you were little, kissed
you on your mouth. Now I kiss your feet, and you are mine
altogether!” And he disappeared beneath the clear blue water.

Babette realizes “The Ice Maiden has got him”—the words spoken almost
half a century earlier by Andersen’s mother when his father died.
Now this deep-seated memory merged with the fatalism of a lifetime,
with his idea of sex as death—forbidden, frightening—and with intimations
too of the price the artist pays for his gift. In his ballet version of the tale Le
Baiser de la Fée Stravinsky interpreted the early kiss of the Ice Maiden as the
kiss of the muse, marking out the hero Tchaikowsky for suffering brilliance;1
Andersen’s use of the symbolic kiss may in turn have derived from the fatal
kiss planted on the brow of the hero by the fairy-woman in Bournonville’s
ballet La Sylphide, which opened in Copenhagen in 1836. “The Ice Maiden”
is one of Andersen’s most powerful tales; the heroine is one of the three
demonic women in his stories—the others are the Snow Queen and his late
creation Auntie Toothache—who are archetypes as memorable as those from
myth or legend. Bjørnson, to whom the story was dedicated, thought it
exceptionally bold:
202 Jackie Wullschlager

“The Ice Maiden” begins as if it were rejoicing and singing in the

free air, by the pine trees, and the blue water, and the Swiss
cottages. The thought that fashions the last portion has
something divine in it—so it impresses me, the thought that two
people should be separated at the very highest point of their
happiness; still more that you showed clearly how as when a
sudden breeze ruffles the still water, so there dwelt in the souls of
both that which could overthrow their happiness; but that you
should have the courage to do this with these two of all people!

Bjørnson was one of the earliest critics fully to appreciate Andersen’s

widening range; he wrote to Jonas Collin junior that all the other forms from
which Andersen had been discouraged—the novel, drama, even
philosophy—now turned up in his fairy stories, which were no longer
traditional tales but freewheeling narratives embracing tragedy, comedy, the
epic and the lyric; their lack of restraint made one tremble to think what he
might do next.
Andersen was still working on “The Ice Maiden” as he travelled home
to Denmark in August, staying en route in Sorø with Ingemann, to whom he
read it as he was revising the ending and changing the title from first “The
Mountain Hunter” and then “The Eagle’s Nest.” At the last moment his
relations with Jonas improved, and Andersen suggested that Jonas call him
“Du”: “he was surprised but said Yes in a firm voice, and thanked me. Later,
when I was in bed he came in to me before lying down in his own room, took
my hand and repeated once more such a heartfelt ‘Thank you!’ that tears
came into my eyes; he gave me a kiss on my forehead and I felt so happy.”
This was the best compensation he could have had for Edvard’s refusal to
accept “Du” terms thirty years earlier; its symbolism as a healing of Collin
wounds was magnified when Jonas senior, aged seventy-five, died just days
after this rapprochement with his grandson.
Although the old man had been declining for months, Andersen was
shocked at how intensely he felt the loss of his father-figure and first patron.
“Toward evening I had a physical reaction ... felt faint and went to bed,” he
wrote; he returned to Copenhagen for the funeral, after which he “ate at a
restaurant and felt very alone.” Heiberg, who had died the year before, had
written that as civil servant, patron of the arts and director of the Royal
Theatre, Jonas had been “an active participant and often instigator of almost
everything produced in this country of any lasting significance.” Jonas had
always been instinctively more in sympathy with Heiberg’s art than with
Andersen’s, and in his final year he was much cheered by twilight visits from
 Kiss of the Muse: 1860–1865 203

the widowed Johanne Luise Heiberg, his favourite protégée, who described
in her memoirs how she tiptoed along to the house standing behind the iron
gates and rang the doorbell which had once sounded constantly as “the high
and the lowly, the young and the old, all sought out this mighty man.” Now
the house was silent, a dozy servant peered out curiously from “a half-opened
door ... as though he did not really believe in the unwonted sound of the
bell,” and the pair sat by the firelight and reminisced about the heyday of the
theatre. Jonas Collin haunted Andersen’s dreams until his death; in 1865,
four years after the old man’s death, Andersen had a nightmare in which
“mighty Collin” was pitted against “poor Andersen,” dependent on him as in
adolescence for his survival in the intellectual classes.

It often happens, however, that the death of a parent or parental figure both
galvanizes and liberates an individual towards a new sexual relationship, and
so it was with Andersen. In the winter of 1861–1862 his friendship with
Scharff finally turned into a love affair, about which he was too excited to be
discreet. Through the autumn he read aloud his erotic tales “The Psyche”
and “The Ice Maiden” to Scharff as he was preparing them for publication
in November 1861, then on 2 January 1862 he noted in his diary, “Scharff
bounded up to me; threw himself round my neck and kissed me! ... Nervous
in the evening.” Five days later he received “a visit from Scharff, who was
very intimate and nice.” In the following weeks, there was “dinner at
Scharff’s, who was ardent and loving,” on 16 January; “a visit from Scharff,
who is intimate and deeply devoted to me,” on 23 January; and several more
visits during the rest of the month. He saw Scharff, now promoted to a solo
dancer, perform at the Royal Theatre several times in January and February;
on 12 February he recorded a visit to the theatre which simply ends
“Scharff,” and on 13 February he wrote, “Yesterday Scharff was at my house,
talked a lot about himself with the greatest familiarity.”
By 17 February the relationship had been noticed and Andersen’s
doctor, Edvard’s brother Theodor Collin, was warning him to be careful.
“The odor put me in a very bad mood,” he wrote, “he emphasized how
strongly I showed my love for S, which people noticed and found ridiculous.”
He was so upset by Theodor that he fled home from a lunch at Louise
Lind’s—his old love Louise Collin, Theodor’s sister—but nothing could now
stop the flow of the affair. On 20 February Andersen was celebrating his 26-
year-old lover’s birthday at a dinner at Eckhardt’s house; he sent Scharff a
bouquet, a teacup and saucer and a book of Paludan-Müller’s poems. Next
day Scharff was again at Nyhavn, “intimate and communicative,” gossiping
about Madame Heiberg and the Royal Theatre—their chief shared interest.
204 Jackie Wullschlager

Through March the two saw each other every few days and Andersen often
saw Scharff dance at the theatre; the diary for 6 March records, for example,
“visit from Scharff ... exchanged with him all the little secrets of the heart; I
long for him daily,” and on is March, “Scharff very loving, gave him my
picture.” Andersen was utterly absorbed in him; he spent an evening at the
house of the young banker Einar Drewsen, another Collin grandson
(Ingeborg’s son), in whom he confided—“I told all about my erotic time”—
and on 2 April the highlight of his fifty-seventh birthday was Scharff’s
present, a silver toothbrush engraved with his name and the date.
The happiest photographs we have of Andersen, taken by Georg
Hansen in Copenhagen to be mounted on visiting cards, date from these
months. Leaning on the back of a chair, his elbows on a table and his head
leaning against his hands, his expression smiling and his face shining with
pleasure, they show Andersen in a relaxed and sunny mood. Elizabeth
Jerichau-Baumann’s portrait of Andersen reading to children was also
painted at this time; though sentimental, it catches a luminous grace and
contentment about Andersen, absorbed in his imaginative world, that is rare.
We can only guess at the physical details of his relationship with Scharff, but
there is no doubt that here was an affair, which brought him joy, some kind
of sexual fulfilment and a temporary end to loneliness. As important, Scharff
was Andersen’s link to youth at a time he felt himself getting old; his
enthusiasms, his flighty, high-pitched personality, his youthful beauty and his
lithe dancing were all restorative for the ageing writer.
His new fairy tales sold out rapidly and were well-received, he had
8,200 rixdollars in the bank at New Year 1862 and a few weeks later Theodor
Reitzel offered him an astonishing 3,000 rixdollars for a reissue of the
illustrated edition of his collected tales and stories—the first payment on
which he had to pay income tax, introduced in 1862 at a rate of two per cent,
which Andersen considered outrageously high. When the theatre season
ended in June and Scharff departed with Eckhardt for Vienna, Andersen did
not languish long in Copenhagen; he used the money from Reitzel to fund
an exotic trip he had long wanted to make, to Spain, and in July 1862 he set
out, again taking Jonas Collin with him. The journey was not a success.
Andersen was unknown in Spain and received none of the gratifying
recognition that usually bolstered him up on foreign trips; indeed the reverse
happened, and several times he was laughed at in the street for his long lanky
figure. It was the primitive and medieval aspect of Spain that most appealed
to him, such as his visit to the Alhambra to see the Moorish halls in the sunlit
air, where he was driven in a diligence drawn by ten mules with jingling bells;
crossing to Tangier, where he took tea with the Pasha, was, he said, the
 Kiss of the Muse: 1860–1865 205

highlight of the entire journey. These experiences poured into notes for his
travel book, A Visit to Spain, finished on his return in 1863. But the account
has none of the enthusiasm and beneath-the-skin knowledge of the country
of his best travel books, such as Pictures of Sweden, and the muted tones of his
diary too show that this was a lacklustre trip. His heart was not in it, and how
much he was still preoccupied with Scharff is suggested from the diary entry
for 15 September in which a dramatic description of a flood in Barcelona is
interrupted by the underlined sentence “Sent letter to Eckhardt and Scharff”
and then continued, with an account of those who had drowned.
The desperation for new experiences and inspiration which had
marked his journeys as a young man was gone; he was weary, irritable and
often bored. Jonas, who travelled with an increasing collection of small
animals such as snails, provided a focus for his complaints and some
moments of farce, as when the Spanish customs confiscated his menagerie
and its supply of poisonous food, and he and Andersen had to wait for a
chemist to inspect it. A photograph of the pair of travellers in Bordeaux en
route for Denmark in January 1863 shows the strain: Jonas, square-faced,
tight-lipped and cold, the very image of his father, stands erect and
unhesitating, staring straight ahead; Andersen, sitting at right angles to him,
is taken in profile, looking tired, tense and old. By the time they arrived
home, Jonas was recorded as “an insolent fool on whom I have wasted the
kindness of my heart.”
But Copenhagen in 1863 gave Andersen no peace. The clouds of war
were gathering, and the relationship with Scharff that had brought such
pleasure was clearly on the wane. In June Scharff was still loving, and at a
party he boldly proposed a toast “to his two dearest friends, Eckhardt and
Hans Christian Andersen,” but on 27 August Andersen wrote in his diary:
“Scharff’s passion for me is now over; he has transferred his attentions
completely to someone else fascinating. I am not as upset about it as over
earlier, similar disappointments.” So the world-weary older man contrasted
his resignation with the intense feelings of youth. He may have been
remembering his agony at what he considered Henrik Stampe’s betrayal back
in 1844, or even the blow to his youthful desire for Ludvig Müller in 1832—
or there may have been other romances with men in the intervening years,
too secret even to be mentioned in the diary.2
But Scharff’s attentions had kept him young, and as soon as he realized
they were over Andersen felt like an old man. He guessed that he would
never have another love affair, although his sexual interest in women would
still revive. “I am not satisfied with myself. I cannot live in my loneliness, am
weary of life,” he wrote on 16 September. “Felt old, downhill, sad,” he noted
206 Jackie Wullschlager

on 5 October; the next day, “visited Scharff, who gave me his photograph and
was a good child ... Poor young love, I can achieve nothing there.” Through
the autumn of 1863 his spirits fell; “Scharff has not visited me in eight days;
with him it is over,” he wrote on 13 November; in December he saw Scharff
at Eckhardt’s house—Eckhardt was by now married—where he read some
fairy tales and noted, with the infallible instinct of the spurned lover, that a
dancer called Petersen was there. A few years later Scharff and Camilla
Petersen were engaged, though they never married. Andersen now had to
recognize that, like all the young men with whom he had toyed, Scharff
would move on from homosexual flings to a stable heterosexual relationship;
he married another ballet dancer, Elvida Møller, in 1874, when he was thirty-
eight.
There was no apparent bitterness; Andersen and Scharff continued to
move in overlapping social circles, saw each other from time to time, and
Andersen remembered Scharff’s birthday almost every year until his death.
There was a poignant coda to the relationship in 1871, when Scharff was due
to dance the lead in Bournonville’s ballet version of “The Steadfast Tin
Soldier,” one of Andersen’s most memorable characterizations of resignation
and disappointment in love. Shortly before the ballet opened, Scharff, while
performing a dance in a divertissement for The Troubadour, ruptured a
kneecap, “an accident which,” said Bournonville, “in all my years of
experience, has not happened to any dancer, either here or abroad.” Scharff
had given his parts a highly individual stamp, and he was severely missed as
the star of the Copenhagen ballet. “This tragedy,” Bournonville wrote, “was
greeted with universal sympathy, for while there was certainly hope of a cure
which would make it possible for him to move about unhindered in private
life, and maybe even on the dramatic stage, he had to be considered lost to
the Ballet.”

The end of Andersen’s affair with Scharff combined with two national events,
the death of King Frederik VII on 15 November, and the signing of a new
constitution for Denmark and just one of the duchies, Schleswig, to make
Andersen look towards the new year of 1864 with horror. The new
constitution, separating Schleswig and Holstein, provoked Prussia, and by
the end of 1863 Danish troops were being called up for war. “The year is
over; the outlook is pitchblack, sorrowful, bloody—the New Year,” he noted
in his diary; in his autobiography he wrote:

The bloody waves of war were again to wash over our fatherland.
A kingdom and an empire stood united against our little country.
 Kiss of the Muse: 1860–1865 207

A poet’s way is not by politics ... but when the ground trembles
beneath him so that all threatens to fall at once, then he has only
thought for this which is a matter of life and death ... He is
planted in his fatherland as a tree; there he brings forth his
flowers and his fruit; and if they are sent widely through the
world, the roots of the tree are in the home soil.

During the 1864 war he was much harsher on Germany than in

1848–1851, refusing to speak German: “it was against my heart of hearts to
speak that language, found it unpatriotic.” Meeting Robert Lytton, he said,
“at present there is for me in that language the sound of cannon and of the
shouts of enemies. I would rather speak bad English.” Two days later he
wrote that “Today I’ve been really tormented by the pressure of political
events ... I feel each kindness people in Germany have shown me,
acknowledge friends there but feel that I, as a Dane, must make a complete
break with them all. They have been turned out of my heart: never will we
meet again ... My heart is breaking!” New Year’s morning 1864 at Basnæs was
a tingling, frosty day. Andersen had apple dumplings and spiced red wine,
and read aloud to the guests, but the cosiness and luxury could not take his
mind off war and the soldiers in their cold barracks, and once again he was
unable to write. “Every day soldiers left for the seat of war, young men,
singing in their youthful gaiety, going as to a lively feast. For weeks and
months I felt myself unfitted to do anything; all my thoughts were with the
men.”
He returned to Copenhagen on 5 January. “Mrs. Anholm’s eldest son
was there to welcome me. My room was toasty warm. A cup of tea was my
dinner. Walked over to Edvard Collin’s.” War brought financial problems to
Copenhagen, and that year Andersen lent money both to Edvard (2,500
rixdollars) and to Henrik Stampe (1,000 rixdollars); his own savings exceeded
10,000 rixdollars. He tried to absorb himself in the city’s social life, visiting
the same group of people almost every day, and depending, as he had since
his student days, on the weekly rota of dinners with leading Copenhagen
families. Though early patrons like Jonas Collin and Ørsted were dead and
the children of Andersen’s contemporaries had mostly left home, the
dramatis personae were remarkably unchanged. On Mondays he dined with
Edvard and Henriette Collin; on Tuesdays with Ingeborg Drewsen and her
husband; on Wednesdays with Ørsted’s widow and his daughter Mathilde; on
Thursdays—the evening formerly devoted to Jonas Collin—with the
merchant Moritz Melchior; on Fridays with Ida Koch, the widowed daughter
of Admiral Wulff and sister of Henriette; on Saturdays with an aristocratic
208 Jackie Wullschlager

friend, Madame Neergaard; and on Sundays with another merchant family,

the Henriques. Andersen was just beginning now to know the Henriques and
the Melchiors, wealthy Jewish families related by marriage; they were to be
of paramount importance to him in his last decade. In 1864, however, his
greatest support was Edvard’s sympathetic wife Henriette, whom he now felt
closest to within the Collin family. In his extended autobiography, he paid
her tribute: “I lost for a moment my hold on God, and felt myself as
wretched as a man can be. Days followed in which I cared for nobody, and I
believed nobody cared for me. I had no relief in speaking to anyone. One
however, more faithful and kind, came to me, Edvard Collin’s excellent wife
who spoke compassionate words and bade me give thought to my work.”
But he could not work. His muse dried up as wholly as it had done
during the first Danish–German conflict; as before, he could not dislodge
thoughts and nightmares of war from his head. “I feel gloomy and depressed.
Can’t get anything done. Wish for an end to everything,” he noted in January
1864, then a few days later, “overwhelmed and bitterly aware of my
forsakenness” and “Now I’m sitting at home all alone. The African cactus
gets shifted every evening away from the cold windows, but I’m not
expecting any flowers, not even that it will survive.” On the eve of his fifty-
ninth birthday on a April, Andersen looked back: “the past year of my life has
been full of trials and tribulations ... The king died. The war is threatening
Denmark with destruction. I’ve aged. I have false teeth that torment me. I’m
not in good health. I’m heading for death and the grave.” Andersen signed a
petition to the Swiss people to stir up international sympathy for the Danes;
after it was published he began to suffer nightmares that the Germans would
attack him. “What a night I’ve spent in self-torture, in rehearsing fixed ideas,
in half madness, envisioning myself at the bottom of a ship, cast into a dark
cell, tortured and abused—I’m making a fool of myself by recording my fixed
idea. I lay bathed in sweat, unsleeping in the early morning hours,” he wrote
on 18 April. Two hours later came word of a Danish defeat, along with the
news that Viggo Drewsen, Ingeborg’s dark, curly haired, rebellious son, of
whom Andersen was fond despite their difficult travelling days together, was
wounded and taken prisoner.
Another Danish defeat followed in June; “Godless and therefore
unhappy,” Andersen noted on 30 June. A ceasefire was declared on 20 July,
and a peace treaty drawn up on 30 October, by which Denmark lost both
Schleswig and Holstein. “I am disgruntled and depressed, angry with so
many people. Only disaster, violation, oblivion and death are waiting for
me,” Andersen wrote in his diary the next day. That night, he recorded his
recurrent nightmare: “Last night I again dreamed my usual, hideous dream
 Kiss of the Muse: 1860–1865 209

about a living child that I press up against my warm breast—this time,

though, it was just in my sleeve; it breathed its last, and I was left with only
the wet skin.”
The dream, so close to the images of dead children in his tales, may
have had many subconscious meanings, but it seems linked to his awareness
both of his public image and of his own creativity. At some level, he had been
exploiting the child in himself as a persona since his teens—the image he
liked to cultivate of innocent but gifted naïf. This recurring dream may have
been an acknowledgement that by doing so he had in a sense killed it, thus
forcing himself always to act a part. Yet childhood memories and echoes of
folk tales remained the well-spring of his creativity; this dream was symbolic
too at a time when he was mourning the loss of his creative powers. A few
weeks after recording it, he was complaining about a tumour in his hand,
which he thought he would die from, adding that he believed it was time for
him to die as he hadn’t enjoyed life, nor accepted the gifts God had given
him.
Yet almost as soon as war was behind Denmark, and “the darkest,
gloomiest year” of Andersen’s life was over, inspiration flooded back. At
Basnæs on New Year’s Day 1865, he began “The Will o’ the Wisps are in
Town,” which summed up his desperate feelings about the war, his doubts
about art as devilish as well as redemptive, his fears about the end of civilized
values.

For more than a year and a day I had written no wonder-story;

my soul was so burdened; but now, as soon as I came out into the
country to friendly Basnæs, to the fresh woods and the open sea,
I wrote “The Will o’ the Wisps are in Town” in which was told
why it was that the wonder stories had been so long unwritten;
because without was war, and within sorrow and want that war
brought with it.

Set in a hazy, chiaroscuro world reminiscent of A Walking Tour, the

story tells of “a man who once knew many stories, but they had slipped away
from him—so he said; the Story that used to visit him of its own accord no
longer came and knocked at his door.” He sets out to seek the story, in the
woods, on the seashore, and finds it at the home of the Moor-woman, a
grotesque parody of the poet’s muse.

And the man asked about the Story, and inquired if the Moor-
woman had met it in her journeyings ... “I don’t care about it
210 Jackie Wullschlager

either way,” cried the woman. “Let the rest write, those who can,
and those who cannot likewise. I’ll give you an old bung from my
cask that will open the cupboard where poetry is kept in bottles,
and you may take from that whatever may be wanting. But you,
my good man, seem to have blotted your hands sufficiently with
ink, and to have come to that age of satiety, that you need not be
running about every year for stories, especially as there are more
important things to be done.”

But as she mocks him, she tells him a story about the will o’ the wisps
who live on the marsh and go “dancing like little lights across the moor.”
Once a year, those born at “that minute of time” when the wind blows a
certain way and the moon stands at a certain size, have the power to enter the
soul of a mortal for 365 days, during which time they must lead 365 people
to destruction; they then “attain to the honour of being a runner before the
devil’s state coach.” But of course these devilish will o’ the wisps are as
insubstantial and fleeting as the moment when they are born. They are
emblems of the insubstantiality of art, yet paradoxically they make up the
authenticity and solidity of the story that Andersen is narrating. “One could
tell quite a romance about the Will o’ the Wisps, in twelve parts,” says the
man who tells stories, but “I should be thrashed if I were to go to people and
say, ‘Look, yonder goes a Will o’ the Wisp in his best clothes.’” In the end
he concludes that it does not matter if he dares to speak the truth, as no one
will believe him; “for they will all think I am only telling them a story.” Thus,
in this satirical story-within-a-story, the value of fairy tales is demolished and
Andersen’s own worth as a writer rejected—except that through its comedy
and the vitality of its characters, wisps and Moor-woman, “The Will o’ the
Wisps” reaffirms the very power of the art it appears to doubt. Here
Andersen returned to the questioning, innovative mode of the late 1850s, as
he turned reinvigorated to those aspects of his life he thought he had put
behind him.
“Especially cheerful and well,” he wrote in his diary in February 1865.
Not even three evictions from his Nyhavn apartment of sixteen years—first
rain flooded the bedroom, then snow burst into the living room and finally
the landlady declared she needed more space—quenched his spirits. At sixty,
he still had no furniture; he simply packed his bags, stayed first with Edvard
and next at Basnæs, where he wrote more tales, and in the autumn toured
Sweden. In between, he stayed at the new, exclusive Hotel d’Angleterre on
Kongens Nytorv; in the winter he was briefly given rooms on the King’s
estate, where Bournonville was a neighbour. A new volume of tales—
 Kiss of the Muse: 1860–1865 211

including “The Will o’ the Wisps”—was published in November 1865.

Andersen was himself more of a will o’ the wisp than ever; at the end of 1865
he was planning another exotic trip, to Portugal. He had a decade to live, and
was bursting with energy for new experiences of travel, love, friendship and
the continual redefining of the genre he had made his own.

FOOTNOTES

1. Later commentators have suggested that the kiss also suggests the stigma of
homosexuality.
2. The silence of Danish commentators, from Andersen’s own time until the present
day, on the subject of his homosexual relationships, is remarkable. Andersen’s diaries leave
no doubt that he was attracted to both sexes; that at times he longed for a physical
relationship with a woman and that at other times he was involved in physical liaisons with
men. Danish scholars from Hjalmar Helweg (H.C. Andersen: En psykiatrisk Studie) in 1927
to Elias Bredsdorff today have consistently denied Andersen’s involvement in homosexual
relationships, pinning much on the argument that the Collin family would have known
had Andersen had homosexual tendencies, and would not have allowed him to take their
young sons and grandsons on foreign holidays. But we know from the diaries that at least
two of the Collins, Edvard’s brother Theodor and Ingeborg’s son Einar Drewsen,
discussed Andersen’s homosexuality with him at precisely the time when he was travelling
abroad with members of the family—not to mention Andersen’s confidential relationship
with his favourite Collin grandchild, Ingeborg’s daughter Jonna, whom Andersen once
asked, “do not judge me by ordinary standards,” and who was married to Andersen’s
former lover Henrik Stampe.
Much definitive Andersen scholarship—the editing of the diaries and letters—was
completed by the 1960s, when discretion about sexual matters was still considered
appropriate in many academic circles, but even recent Danish scholarship has swerved
away from it. Patricia L. Conroy and Sven H. Rossel, editors of the English edition of
Andersen’s diaries (1990), for example, include none of the erotic references to either
Stampe or Scharff, leaving only the tantalizing hint that “at Oberammergau he saw two
familiar faces from home—the actor Lauritz Eckhardt and the ballet dancer Harald
Scharff—which he got to know much better in the coming years.” Only two scholarly
papers in recent years have discussed Andersen’s homo-erotic attachments: Wilhelm von
Rosen in “Venskabets Mysterier” in 1980, and the German critic Heinrich Detering in
Intellectual Amphibia in 1991.

NOTES

The notes refer back to the original publication

373. “You are a lucky man...”Bernhard Ingemann to HCA, 10 April 1858, quoted in
Edvard Collin, H.C. Andersen og det Collinske Hus, Copenhagen 1929 (second
edition), p. 311.
“a butterfly...” diary, 13 November 1865, Dagbøger, vol. VI, p. 322.
“is full of life...” Auguste Bournonville, My Theatre Life, translated by Patricia N.
McAndrew, London 1979, p. 169.
212 Jackie Wullschlager

374. “Munich has an immense attraction ...” HCA to Carl Alexander, 23 June 1852,
Crawford, p. 293.
“I had always feared ...” HCA to Carl Alexander, 24 July 1860, ibid. p. 417.
“we sat ...” Fairy Tale, p. 454.
“Scharff and Eckhardt came ... etc.” diary, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 8 July 1860, Dagbøger, vol.
VI, pp. 394–6.
“don’t feel at all well...” diary, 9 July 1860, ibid. p. 396.
376. “I’ve never seen ...” HCA to Henriette Collin, 3 August 1860, E. Collin, vol. II, p.
243.
“Andersen’s personal appearance ...” G.W. Griffin, My Danish Days, Philadelphia
1875, pp. 207–8.
“Before me stood...” John Ross Brown, quoted in “Der Dichter Als Mensch,” in
Bente Kjolbe, Hans Christian Andersens Kopenhagen, Copenhagen 1992, p. 64.
377. “Want to go home ... etc.” diary, 1–7 September 1860, Diaries, pp. 269–72.
“I’m drifting ...” diary, 27 October 1860, Dagbøger, vol. IV, p. 455.
378 “went to bed ...” diary, 14 November 1860, ibid. p. 465.
“Nelly is a strange, cold person ...” diary, 30 December 1860, Diaries, p. 272.
379. “only I myself...” diary, 7 September 1860, ibid.
“Dear Scharff....” note on back of photograph taken by Rudolph Striegler in
Copenhagen, 21–22 January 1861, in the Hans Christian Andersen Hus, Odense,
reproduced in Henrik C. Poulsen, Det Rette Udseende. Fotografernes H.C. Andersen,
Copenhagen 1996, p. 62.
380. At this moment...” Edvard Collin to HCA, 9 May 1861, E. Collin, vol. III, p. 15.
“I asked him ...” diary, 5 May 1861, Diaries, p. 273.
“I explained how ill ...” diary, 9 May 1861, ibid. p. 275.
Jonas went around ...” diary, 18 and 19 May 1861, ibid. pp. 282–3.
“he worked on his own development...” diary, 14 May 1861, ibid. pp. 279–80.
382. “He was a young man ...” diary, 8 May 1861, ibid. p. 274.
“I’m not at all pleased ...” diary, 18 October 1863, ibid. p. 299.
383. “The small people ...” Henry James, William Wentmore Story and his Friends,
Edinburgh and London 1903, vol. I, pp. 285–6.
“The North sent therefore ...” Elizabeth Barrett Browning, “The North and the
South,” in Last Poems, London 1861.
“Andersen (the Dane) ...” Elizabeth Barrett Browning to Isa Blagden, 17 May
1861, The Letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning, edited by F.G. Kenyon, London
1897, vol. II, p. 448.
384. “was wrought...” Fairy Tale, p. 464.
386 “‘The Ice Maiden’ begins ...” quoted in ibid. p. 470.
387. “he was surprised ...” diary, 20 August 1861, Dagbøger, vol. V, p. 112.
“Toward evening ...” diary, 29 August 1861, Diaries, p. 284.
“ate at a restaurant ...” diary, 2 September 1861, ibid. p. 285.
387. “an active participant...” quoted in Niels Birger Wamberg, “A Born Achiever:
Jonas Collin—Potentate and Philanthropist,” in The Golden Age of Denmark: Art
and Culture 1800–1850, edited by Bente Scavenius, Copenhagen 1994, p. 65.
“the high and the lowly ... a half-opened door ...” quoted in ibid.
“mighty Collin ... poor Andersen” Niels Birger Wamberg, A Born Achiever,” in
The Golden Age of Denmark, edited by Bente Scavenius, Copenhagen 1994, p. 60.
 Kiss of the Muse: 1860–1865 213

388. “Scharff bounded up ...” diary, 2 January 1862, Dagbøger, vol. V, p. 141.
“a visit from Scharff ...” diary, 7 January 1862, ibid. p. 142.
“dinner at Scharff’s ...” diary, 16 January 1862, ibid. p. 143.
“a visit from Scharff ...” diary, 23 January 1862, ibid. p. 144.
“Scharff” diary, 12 February 1862, ibid. p. 147.
“Yesterday Scharff ...” diary, 13 February 1862, ibid.
“Theodor put me in a very bad mood ...” diary, 17 February 1862, ibid. p. 148.
389. “intimate and communicative ...” diary, 21 February 1862, ibid. p. 149.
“visit from Scharff ... exchanged ...” diary, 6 March 1862, ibid. p. 154.
“Scharff very loving...” diary, 12 March 1862, ibid. p. 155.
“I told all about my erotic time ...” diary, 5 March 1862, ibid. p. 154.
391. “Sent letter ...” diary, 15 September 1862, Diaries, p. 290.
“an insolent fool ...” diary, 15 October 1863, ibid. p. 298.
“to his two dearest friends ...” diary, 17 June 1863, Dagbøger, vol. V, p. 397
“Scharff ’s passion for me ...” diary, 27 August 1863, ibid. p. 413.
392. “I am not satisfied ...” diary, 16 September 1863, ibid. p. 418.
“Felt old ...” diary, 5 October 1863, ibid.
“visited Scharff, who gave me ...” diary, 6 October 1863, ibid.
“Scharff has not ...” diary, 13 November 1863, ibid. p. 426.
393. an accident which ...” Augusta Bournonville, My Theatre Life, translated by
Patricia N. McAndrew, London 1979) p. 371.
“This tragedy...” ibid.
“The year is over...” diary, 31 December 1863, Diaries, p. 301.
“The bloody waves of war ...” Fairy Tale, p. 495.
394. “it was against my heart ... at present...” diary, 14 April 1864, Diaries, p. 307.
“Today I’ve been really...” diary, 16 April 1864, ibid. p. 308.
“Every day soldiers left...” Fairy Tale, p. 498.
“Mrs. Anholm’s eldest son ...” diary, 5 January 1864, Diaries, p. 303.
395. “I lost for a moment ...” Fairy Tale, p. 501.
“I feel gloomy...” diary, 24 January 1864, Diaries, p. 305.
“overwhelmed and bitterly aware ...” diary, 29 January 1864, ibid. p. 306.
“Now I’m sitting at home ...” diary, 31 January 1864, ibid.
“the past year...” diary, 1 April 1864, ibid. p. 307.
“What a night ...” diary; 18 April 1864, ibid. p. 309.
“Godless ...” diary, 30 June 1864, Dagbøger, vol. vi, p. 81.
“I am disgruntled...” diary, 31 October 1864, ibid. p. 146.
“Last night I again dreamed...” diary, 31 October 1864, Diaries, p. 310.
396. “the darkest, gloomiest ...” Fairy Tale, p. 503.
“For more than a year ...” ibid. p. 504.
397. “Especially cheerful ...” diary, 4 February 1865, Diaries, p. 312.
 JØRGEN DINES JOHANSEN

Counteracting the Fall

“Sneedronningen” and “Iisjomfruen”:
The Problem of Adult Sexuality in Fairytale and Story

I n Andersen’s works, a barrier exists that more often than not prevents the
protagonists from experiencing adult sexual fulfillment. Indeed, even if this
barrier is overcome by the denouement on the level of plot, somehow the
reader doubts the authenticity of the putative sexual happiness because the
resistance to growing up and enjoying the physical side of adult life seem to
be entrenched in the texts. This is well known and serves only as my point of
departure. What I want to look at here are the techniques of avoidance in
two texts in which the barrier that prevents mature sexuality is openly
explored: “Sneedronningen” [“The Snow Queen”] and “Iisjomfruen” [“The
Ice Maiden”].
“Sneedronningen” begins with a cosmic prologue staging the
opposition between God and the Devil and the latter’s ability to harm the
original goodness of man with the splinters of the enchanted mirror. The
setting then shifts to a small idyllic ambience created by poor bourgeois
parents in order to preserve benign nature within an urban milieu. Here the
two children, Gerda and Kai, grow up in a humble earthly paradise. The
advent of male puberty and the splinters of the mirror mean a fall/Fall and a
break up of both the happy and innocent relationship between male and
female children and the trust and love between the grandmother and the boy.
Instead, little Kai is spellbound by the Snow Queen, a beautiful, mature
woman incapable of caring and loving. Little Kai is, thus, not only kissed half

From Scandinavian Studies, vol. 74, no. 2 (Summer 2002). © 2002 by the Society for the
Advancement of Scandinavian Study.

215
216 Jørgen Dines Johansen

to death by the Snow Queen, but her kisses also erase his memory of
childhood, making it easy to hold him prisoner in the ice castle at the North
Pole in Lapland. In Kai’s case, the transformation is swift and irreparable as
far as he is concerned since he cannot himself escape his confinement in
eternal winter.
The story of Gerda’s quest and rescue of Kai, on the other hand, is
divided into a series of adventures. Her quest begins with the sacrifice of her
red shoes, which Kai never saw, to the river, a sacrifice that in Andersen’s
system of images means giving up selfishness, vanity, and sexual desire. The
next stop in Gerda’s quest is at the old woman’s house. Here the old woman
tries all manner of ploys to make Gerda forget her mission, such as combing
her hair with the comb of oblivion and by making the roses—the symbols of
true love—disappear. She wants to hold Gerda prisoner as a child in eternal
summer (all the flowers are blossoming simultaneously). However, the tears
of pity that Gerda sheds make this attempt vain. Interestingly, the stories that
the flowers tell her at the old woman’s house are all but one—the buttercup’s
story about love between grandmother and grandchild—about the transitory
nature of happiness, the wrong way of loving, or the damning effects of
erotic desire and longing. Three of these embedded stories are, notably,
blatantly erotic: the tiger lily’s about a sexual desire that burns hotter than the
consuming fire of a funeral pyre. But Gerda answers the lily: “Det forstaaer
jeg slet ikke!” (2:58) [“I don’t understand that at all” (61)]. The hyacinth’s
story describes the fragrance that grows even stronger; and the account of
the three sisters who vanish and die in the forest is laden with erotic
overtones as well. In the last story, the protagonist, the narcissus-ballerina, is
described as follows: “see hvor hun kneiser paa een Stilk! jeg kan see mig
selv! jeg kan see mig slev!” (2:61) [“See how she stretches out her legs, as if
she were showing off on a stem. I can see myself, I can see myself ’ (62)]. It
does not take much effort to infer what is also implied in this self-mirroring.
At this point, then, Kai is imprisoned within the eternal winter of male
pride and pubescent sexuality whereas Gerda barely escapes the
imprisonment in eternal female childhood, a childhood, however, beset with
erotic fantasies: to wit the curious passage: “da fik hun en deilig Seng med
røde Silkedyner, de vare stoppede med blaae Violer, og hun sov og drømte
der saa deiligt, som nogen Dronning paa sin Bryllupsdag” (2:57) [“then she
slept in an elegant bed with red silk pillows, embroidered with colored
violets; and then she dreamed as pleasantly as a queen on her wedding day”
(60).]
Her pure love for Kai, however, leads to escape from the entrapment
of unfulfilled, pubescent longings. Her next stop at the prince and princess’s
 The Problem of Adult Sexuality in Fairytale and Story 217

castle shows two kinds of relationships that should be avoided: the stale idyll
of the crows and the puerile, unconsummated relationship between prince
and princess.
Her imprisonment in the robbers’ castle in the woods addresses the
unresolvable link between sexuality and destruction. On the one hand, there is
the murder of coachman and footmen, the threat that Gerda herself is going to
slaughtered and eaten, and the robber girl’s sadistic treatment of animals. On
the other, there is the unsavory sexuality of the robber witch and the robber
girl’s threats and sexual advances toward Gerda. Like the prince and princess,
however, the robber girl takes pity on Gerda and facilitates her pursuit. She
keeps Gerda’s muff, though, as token of Gerda’s continuing sacrifice.
Whereas the robber witch may be seen as a representation of the bad
mother, Gerda next enters the realm of the good mothers (the Finnish woman
and the Lapp woman) whose dwellings are reminiscent of wombs. By her
faith, fidelity, and non-sexual love, Gerda defeats the demonic powers with
the help of the angels. Gerda’s tears make Kai remember, as her tears earlier
made love blossom, and her love frees him of his imprisonment in intellectual
pride and longing for the Snow Queen. Indeed, the pieces of ice dance and
spell out the word “Eternity,” which the answer to the riddle of life.
In the present context, Gerda’s and Kai’s journey back to their point of
departure, however is of greatest interest. First they meet or hear about some
of the significant characters whom Gerda had met on her way out. Notably,
both the little robber girl as well as the prince and princess have left their
homes, i.e. have severed childhood ties. Second, their journey begins during
the winter and continues through the spring; at the moment they enter the
grandmother’s drawing room though, the wholesome summer sun is shining.
During the course of these events, they have matured into responsible adults
but, nevertheless, sit on and fit into their little stools. They have grown up
but remained children at heart.
As is well-known, an important structural homology links the fairy tale
and the Bildungsroman: both have three sequences, often dubbed home,
abroad, and at home. The name of the last phase may be a slightly misleading
because the protagonists most often do not return to the home of their
parents, but rather establish their own home with a spouse.
“Sneedronningen” is a significant departure from this pattern in the literal
return to the parental home. Read in conjunction with Andersen’s claim that
Kai and Gerda are simultaneously children and adults, it indicates that the
concept of time is central to this fairy tale.
Before discussing this point, however, let us turn to “Iisjomfruen,” in
the plot of which realism and fantasy are intertwined. A traditional realistic
218 Jørgen Dines Johansen

story, it presents a young man’s maturation and efforts to qualify himself as a

provider for his family, his falling in love, his overcoming of the resistance of
the young woman’s father, and the young couple’s happiness after quarrels
and misunderstandings. The end of Andersen’s story is less traditional in that
the protagonist drowns the day before his wedding. He, however, had
become an excellent hunter and guide with the help of a talking cat that
taught him to climb without becoming dizzy and afraid of heights. Hence,
his upbringing had included the supernatural.
Simultaneously, the tale is about the malignant and beneficent forces of
nature represented by the Ice Maiden and the daughters of the sun. The
story presents a cosmic dualism juxtaposing destructive and restorative
powers wherein death—in the story the Ice Maiden—takes the body but the
human soul is saved by the heavenly powers. However, already as an infant
Rudy had been consecrated to the Ice Maiden because she kissed him when
as mere baby he barely escaped the death on the glacier that killed his
mother. Throughout the story, she longs for her son, but recovers him only
when his sexuality awakens. Thus Andersen here as in “Sneedronningen”
merges the cosmic struggle and human sexuality. Nevertheless, there are
important differences between the fairy tale and the story: Kai and Rudy are
different ages. Whereas Kai has just reached puberty, Rudy is an adult. Kai’s
imprisonment in the Snow Queen’s castle occurs when he as a boy is just on
the verge of becoming a young adult and adoring a highly ambiguous female
whom he perceives as half mother and half beloved. Rudy, however, had
already experienced sexual feelings before he met Babette, and he knows that
sexuality is something that has a disturbing autonomy and that it is not
inextricably bound to the beloved. Babette, moreover, is not like Gerda, she
is not giving up sexuality: on the contrary, she is flirtatious, she enjoys the
advances of her rich cousin, and she delights in Rudy’s jealousy. Whereas Kai
falls and is immediately immobilized by the destructive forces and Gerda’s
quest means the overcoming of various hazards by virtue of her almost
angelic nature Rudy and Babette’s road to union and final separation is filled
with temptations that they must resist, which begin, though, before they
meet. Although Rudy is in love with Babette, he kisses Annette (even the
names indicate that the great leveler—lust—to a certain extent makes them
interchangeable). In addition to this initial mistake, Rudy is further tempted
by the Ice Maiden’s maids. It is difficult not to read the second scene in which
he thinks he is with the schoolmaster’s Annette—whom he, by “mistake”
kissed earlier—as a fall where he succumbs to the spell of the maid and to his
own desire.
 The Problem of Adult Sexuality in Fairytale and Story 219

Derstrømmede Livsens Glæde ind i hans Blod, den hele Verden var
hans, syntes han, hvorfor plage sig! Alt er til for at nyde og lyksaliggjøre
os! Livsens Strøm er Gladens Strøm, rives med af den, lade sig bare af
den, det er Lyksalighed. Han saae paa den unge Pige, det var Annette
og dog ikke Annette, endnu mindre Troldphantomet, som han havde
kaldt hende, han modte ved Grindelwald; Pigen her paa Bjerget var
frisk som den nysfaldne Snee, svulmende som Alperosen og let som et
Kid; dog altid skabt af Adams Ribbeen, Menneske som Rudy. Og han
slyngede sine Arme om hende, saae ind i hendes forunderlige klare
Øine, kun et Secund var det og i dette, ja forklar, fortæl, giv os det i
Ord—var det Aandens eller Dødens Liv der fyldte ham, blev han loftet
eller sank han ned i det dybe, dræbende Iissvæg, dybere, altid dybere,
han saae Iisvæggene som et blaargrønt Glas; uendelige Kløfter gabede
rundt om, og Vandet dryppede klingende som et Klokkespil og dertil saa
perleklart, lysende i blaahvide Flammer, Iisjomfruen gav ham et Kys,
der iisnede ham igjennem hans Ryghvirvler ind i hans Pande, han gav
et Smertens Skrig, rev sig los, tumlede og faldt, det blev Natfor hans
Øine, men han aabnede dem igjen. Onde Magter havde ovet deres Spil.
(4:154–5)

(A living joy streamed through every vein.

“The whole world is mine, why therefore should I grieve?”
thought he. “Everything is created for our enjoyment and
happiness. The stream of life is a stream of happiness; let us flow
on with it to joy and felicity.”
Rudy gazed on the young maiden; it was Annette, and yet it
was not Annette; still less did he suppose it was the spectral
phantom, whom he had met near Grindelwald. The maiden up
here on the mountain was fresh as the new fallen snow, blooming
as an Alpine rose, and as nimble-footed as a young kid. Still, she
was one of Adam’s race, like Rudy. He flung his arms round the
beautiful being, and gazed into her wonderfully clear eyes,—only
for a moment; but in that moment words cannot express the
effect of his gaze. Was it the spirit of life or of death that
overpowered him? Was he rising higher, or sinking lower and
lower into the deep, deadly abyss? He knew not; but the walls of
ice shone like blue-green glass; innumerable clefts yawned
around him, and the water-drops tinkled like the chiming of
church bells, and shone clearly as pearls in the light of a pale-blue
flame. The Ice Maiden, for she it was, kissed him, and her kiss
220 Jørgen Dines Johansen

sent a chill as of ice through his whole frame. A cry of agony

escaped from him; he struggled to get free, and tottered from her.
For a moment all was dark before his eyes, but when he opened
them again it was light, and the Alpine maiden had vanished. The
powers of evil had played their game. [407–8])

This situation, so similar to and yet so different from the passage in which
Kai is kissed by the Snow Queen, describes Rudy’s temptation and fall. The
narrator—and Andersen I presume—are giving two reasons for this fall.
First, it is, according to the norms of the story, a grave sin to presume that
“alt er til for at nyde og lyksaliggjøre os!” [“everything is created for our
enjoyment and happiness”]. Second, the woman is first and foremost defined
by her sex and her sexual nature. He is uncertain of her identity: she may be
the woman he once kissed “by mistake,” but she is definitely not Babette.
Likewise, her cousin’s advances first tempt Babette although she resists
them. Two days before her wedding, though, she has the ghastly dream of
her own future adultery and of losing Rudy. In the dream, she even prays to
God that she will die on her wedding day. However, it is not she who dies,
but Rudy. In the attempt to seize the boat, Rudy dives into the lake—the
element of the Ice Maiden—where she finally kills him.
A twofold explanation of Rudy’s death and the final separation of the
young couple suggests itself. First, Rudy’s death is fated because he somehow
already belongs to the Ice Maiden, i.e. he is swayed by a sexuality that is
linked not only to mortality, but also to active destruction. Second, however,
death and the resulting sexual abstinence are explicitly conceived as a gift
sent from God. There are two reasons for this interpretation: first, death is a
blessing because it prevents future sins. Second, the narrator deems it a
blessing to die at the verge of fulfillment, i.e. in the enjoyment of expectation
in the moment when lasting happiness seems assured. Their virginal love not
yet consummated is untouched by experience. Sudden death in the bloom of
youth is, thus, constructed as a blessing because of its disruption of human
erotic happiness: it both prevents future sinning, and the ensuing sorrow
purifies Babette and leads to a quiet life in God instead of a life spent in the
tribulations of desire.
In addition to ideological trends of the Danish Golden Age that might
support this line of thinking, Andersen’s configuration of the plot emerges
from personal psychological considerations that precluded his portraying an
authentic union between men and woman in erotic happiness. However, this
is not the subject of this article. Here attention must remain focused on the
literary reasons why Kai and Gerda both survive while Rudy and Babette are
 The Problem of Adult Sexuality in Fairytale and Story 221

separated by his death. In order to attempt an answer, let us return to the

time–space relations of the two texts and to their understanding of causality.
The question of genre—whether there is a difference between eventyr
(fairytale) and historie (story)—is complicated. In one of his own observations
from 1874 regarding the tales, Andersen comments on the change in their
title that took place in 1852. Prior to that year, the tides of the collections of
tales had been either Eventyr fortalt for Børn (Fairy Tales told for Children)
or Nye Eventyr (New Fairy Tales), as in the case of the 1849 deluxe edition
with 125 illustrations of his collected fairy tales published by C.A. Reitzel.
Concerning this edition, Andersen goes on to say:

Med dette Pragtbind var Eventyr-Samlingen afsluttet, men ikke min

Virksomhed i denne Digtart; et nyt betegnende Navn maatte derfor
tages til den nye Samling, og den kaldtes “Historier”—det Navn, jeg i
vort Sprog anseer at være det bedst valgte for mine Eventyr i al deres
Udetrækning og Natur. Folkesproget stiller den simple Fortælling og
den meest dristige Phantasie-Skildring ind under denne Benævnelse;
Ammestuehistorien, Fabelen og Fortællingen, betegnes af Barnet,
Bonden og Almuen, ved det forte Navn “Historier”. (SS
1880:15:302–3)

(This edition de luxe concluded the collection of fairy tales, but

not my work within this kind of literature. Consequently, a new
name had to be given to the new collection, and it was called
Stories [Historier] in our language, the name that I find most
fitting for the nature and size of my tales. Vernacular language
reduces the simple story and the most daring representation of
fantasy to this common denominator; the child, the peasant, and
common people call the cock-and-bull story the fable, and the
tale “stories.”)

It is difficult to see the logic of Andersen’s distinction other than perhaps the
wish to separate works imitating the simple folk tale from other kinds of
writing. Furthermore, Andersen himself was not very consistent in applying
these labels. For instance, Flemming Hovmann’s commentary to the critical
edition of the tales, H.C. Andersens Eventyr I–VII 1963–1990, shows that
Andersen referred to “Iisjomfruen” both as a story and as a fairy tale. The
reception of the collection, Nye Eventyr og Historier (1862) was favorable, and
one of the dailies, Fædrelandet, calls “Iisjomfruen” “a kind of fantastic
novelle,” but, like Andersen, the critics were not consistent in their use of
222 Jørgen Dines Johansen

generic labels. Nevertheless, at that time, it seems that few critics and
colleagues perceived a difference between a psychological and in some
respects “realistic” work such as “Iisjomfruen” (which in spite of Andersen’s
own vacillation should be called a story) and tales modeled on the folk tale.
Andersen, however, frequently altered the genre framework within which he
was working. In our context, his shifting perspective is illustrated by the
subtitle of “Sneedronningen” which is “Et Eventyr i syv Historier” (2:49) [A
fairy tale told in seven stories]. And, with regard to “Sneedronningen,” the
difficulty is not only a question of the added complexity occasioned by the
sequence of stories, but also involves a radical change of theme. The folk tale
has little concern for the salvation of the protagonists’ souls, but is
preoccupied with the obstructions to achieving maturity—including sexual
maturity—with making illegitimate relations between the sexes legitimate,
and with social advancement. These themes are found throughout
Andersen’s work but always with a twist and very often turned upside down
as in “Sneedronningen” itself. Hence, this fairy tale is very far from the folk
tale. What, though, is the difference between “Sneedronningen” and
“Iisjomfruen,” and is the difference responsible for the very different
solution to the problem of development and maturation? My answer is that
the decisive difference has to do with the different handling of time and space
in the two texts.
In “Sneedronningen” geographic references are not totally absent;
there are references to Finland, Italy, and Lapland. However, this part of the
world is basically treated as a mythic location of the Snow Queen’s castle. As
for time, it is not represented as chronology, as calendar time. It is, rather,
presented cyclically, i.e. the changing and returning of the seasons and with
summer and winter absolutely dominant. These two contrary seasons are
strongly thematized in the fairy tale: summer is linked not only to the
regenerative forces of nature, but also to innocence, faith, piety, and the love
and redeeming power of Jesus and God. Winter is linked with sexuality,
intellectual pride, and calculation and with destruction, the demonic powers,
and damnation.
Cyclical time is, of course, a basic way of conceiving of the changes and
recurrences of outward nature. Furthermore, fundamental differences
between the cyclical time of outward nature and the linear time of human
existence arise. Whereas nature’s cyclical time is conceived as repetition,
human time is seen as transitory with every moment unique and
unrepeatable. The consequence of this deplorable fact is that the past cannot
be changed; the most we can do is to edit its narration.
In “Sneedronningen,” however, the time of outward nature is molded
 The Problem of Adult Sexuality in Fairytale and Story 223

to serve the protagonists, while human time is made flexible to the extent
that not only prior states of mind but even prior relationships can be
restored. The basic paradox of he fairy tale is, of course, contained in the last
paragraphs. As Kai and Gerda walk homewards it is spring; as they arrive in
grandmother’s drawing room, they realize that they have grown up.
Nevertheless, they sit down hand in hand on the small chairs remaining from
their childhood. In the warmth of summer, the grandmother reads the
passage from Matthew 18:3, “except ye be converted, and become as little
children, ye shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven.” In
“Sneedronningen” Andersen offers a literalist reading and exemplification of
this passage. Hence, the formative influence of physical growth on the mind
is both recognized and denied. Kai’s physical and intellectual growth and the
advent of puberty occasion the end of the infantile paradise. The point of
Gerda’s entire quest, however, has been to rescue Kai by lifting the spell of
the Snow Queen and, thus, to restore him to what he was before his
abduction. The flexibility of the time–space coordinates of the fairy tale
universe and the necessary suspension of causal relationships render the
retroaction and the consequent the literalist exemplification of the sacred
text, i.e. Matthew, possible.
In “Iisjomfruen” things are different. Despite the fourfold presence of
the supernatural (as fairy tale lore, as folklore, as reminiscences of gothic
tales, and as a more or less Christian allegory of opposed cosmic forces), this
story has less narrative latitude to determine the level upon which the
denouement will take place. The reason is its precision with regard to the
space–time coordinates. It takes place in various Swiss cantons in the years
before and after 1856. And according to the narrator, what is narrated ends
up in the guidebooks. In fact, his reading the Baedecker for Switzerland
inspired the part of the story about the drowning of the groom. He made one
significant change though: in the Baedecker, the couple had just been
married whereas Rudy and Babette are going to be married the next day.
Its precise setting in the immediate past of a part of a Europe known to
very many people, its reference to a past event, and the realistic psychology
of the protagonists make a denouement like that of “Sneedronningen”
impossible. It would be too implausible and offend against the logic of both
characters and plot. Even though there are both supernatural helpers and a
powerful supernatural enemy, undoing the protagonists’ realistically
conceived psychosexual development would be impossible because it has
been the engine of the story. In “Sneedronningen,” Kai suddenly falls and
Gerda immediately sacrifices her own development into a maiden to save
him. In “Iisjomfruen,” both Rudy and Babette grow, and they experience
224 Jørgen Dines Johansen

repeatedly the tribulations and temptations of desire. Furthermore, in the

central passage describing Rudy’s temptation and fall, he has a vision, i.e. he
is endowed with an inner life, whereas this is not the case in
“Sneedronningen.” Hence, despite the fantastic elements, “Iisjomfruen” is a
story (historie) not a fairy tale.
Differences of genre, then, seem to determine the different endings of the
two texts. In some important respects, however, they still tell the same story: the
story of the impossibility of erotic love between adults, and the story about how
God’s ways may be mysterious to man but nevertheless lead to salvation and
true happiness. The narrator of “Iisjomfruen” even becomes a little insistent,
quarrelsome, and didactic at the end. He first challenges the reader with the
question, “Kalder Du det en sørgelig Historie?” (4:161) [“Do you think this a
sad story?” (412)]. And he ends with “‘Gud lader det Bedste skee for os!’ men
det bliver os ikke altid aabenbaret, saaledes som det blev for Babette i hendes
Drøm” (4:162) [“‘God permits nothing to happen, which is not the best for us.’
But this is not often revealed to all, as it is revealed to Babette in her wonderful
dream” (413)]. In “Sneedronningen,” we witness a miracle, the co-presence of
child-like innocence and adulthood; in “Iisjomfruen,” it is claimed and
somehow demonstrated that the wages of sin is death, but we are told that such
punishment is for our own good. In “Iisjomfruen” too, however, time is in a
sense manipulated because even if the stern necessity of linear time and
individual death is not denied, it is made unimportant, almost negligible. At the
moment of Rudy’s death, the narrator concludes:

“Min er Du!” klang det i det Dybe; “min er Du!” klang det i det Høie,
fra det Uendelige.
Deiligt at flyve fra Kjærlighed til Kjærlighed, fra Jorden ind i
Himlen.
Der brast en Stræng, der klang en Sørgetone, Dodens Iiskys beseirede
det Forkrænkelige; Forpillet endte for at Livs-Dramaet kunde begynde,
Misklangen opløses i Harmonie. (4:161)

(“Thou art mine,” sounded from the depths below; but from the
heights above, from the eternal world, also sounded the words,
“Thou art mine!” Happy was he thus to pass from life to life,
from earth to heaven. A chord was loosened, and tones of sorrow
burst forth. The icy kiss of death had overcome the perishable
body; it was but the prelude before life’s real drama could begin,
the discord which was quickly lost in harmony. [412])
 The Problem of Adult Sexuality in Fairytale and Story 225

There, in accordance with a central tenet of Christianity, the moment of

death becomes a cosmic struggle for man’s soul and in Andersen, the soul’s
homecoming. In his review of Andersen’s collection of fairy tales and stories
from 1858, the Danish author Meïr Goldschmidt wrote that Andersen
revealed a bent to move from a piety of nature to ecclesiastic piety, and says:
“Dette Sidste kan være snare godt og gavnligt, men næppe i Længden for
Eventyrpoesien. Thi det specifikt Religiøse vil være Eneherre” (Eventyr
6:174) [This (i.e. ecclesiastic piety)—may be very good and beneficial, but
just barely in the long run for fairy tales because the specifically religious
wants to be autocratic].
Even if the end of “Sneedronningen” is in a sense flawed as well, it
abides by the logic of the tale and the unity of its universe. The universe of
“Iisjomfruen,” however, does not possess any unity. It is fundamentally split,
and its parts seem to contradict each other. Andersen, thus, does not trust the
force of his own story and he directly intervenes to set things straight.
Accordingly, I think Goldschmidt is right. Andersen stops narrating and
starts preaching, and the sermon he gives is outrageous because one might
accuse him of curing the illness by killing the patient. This response is not
just the reaction of a twenty-first century reader. Even Ingemann complained
that Andersen had the heart kill off Rudy to prevent their union. However,
the important question is not one of sympathizing with the detractors of the
story or with the young couple; it is also a question of Andersen’s inability to
find a narrative form congenial to his message. And I should add that I find
the denouement of the latter impossible anyway.

WORKS CITED

Andersen, Hans Christian. H.C. Andersens samlede skrifter. 15 vols. Copenhagen: C.A.
Reitzel, 1876–80.
———. H.C. Andersens Eventyr. 7 vols. Copenhagen: Reitzels Forlag, 1963–90.
———. The Complete Hans Christian Andersen Fairy Tales. Ed. Lily Owens. New York:
Gramercy Books, 1984.
 Chronology

1805 Hans Christian Andersen was born in a small cottage in the

poorest part of Odense, Denmark, on April 2, to Hans
Andersen, a twenty-two year old shoemaker, and Anne
Marie Andersdatter, a very kind and hardworking peasant
woman approximately eight or so years his senior; due to
the high rate of infant mortality during this time, Andersen
is christened on that very same day.
1807 In May, the family moves to their first settled home, a small
one-room house close to a baker’s shop on 3,
Munkemøllestræde (Monk’s Mill Street); Andersen lives
here for the next twelve years with his family who, although
poor, are better off than some because they only have one
child.
1811 Andersen witnesses the great comet from St. Knud’s
churchyard, which he later describes as a “frightful and
mighty fireball,” and which his neighbors interpret as a sign
of impending doom.
1816 In April, his father becomes delirious and his mother sends
Andersen to Mette Mogensdatter, a “wise woman.” Among
other things, she places a twig from “the same kind of tree
upon which the Savior was crucified,” on his chest; he
returns home terrified from the experience, but says he has
seen nothing; his father dies two days later at the age of

227
228 Chronology

thirty-three and is buried in a pauper’s grave at St. Knud’s

Church. His mother is now very poor, working at a variety
of jobs; for his part, Andersen begins to cultivate the
cultured middle class of Odense, starting with Mrs.
Bukenflod, a clergyman’s widow; he also begins to read
Shakespeare and poetry, and writes plays which he can act
out in his puppet theatre.
1818 In June, a troupe from the Royal Copenhagen Theatre
arrives in Odense; Andersen is allowed to visit backstage; he
is given a walk-on part in the operetta Cendrillon and longs
to join the group in Copenhagen; in July his mother
marries a much younger shoemaker and Andersen becomes
further resolved to leave Odense.
1819 In April, just after his confirmation, Andersen’s mother and
step-father move into a house with a small garden, a
picturesque and idyllic place where he can lose himself in
singing and daydreaming; he establishes a persona of the
naïve talented country boy which he correctly intuits will be
an asset in gaining access to a more cultured class;
Andersen’s talents make him an attraction in Odense; on
September 4, he leaves for Copenhagen.
1819–22 On September 6, a very young and naïve Andersen arrives
in Frederiksberg; Andersen meets Henrik Hertz, a young
Jewish writer, who will eventually become his friend; during
the next three years, under extremely difficult financial
conditions, Andersen struggles to gain a foothold at The
Royal Theatre, as a singer, dancer or actor; at various
intervals, he manages to get the support of The Royal
Theatre and connects with various members of the Danish
aristocracy.
1822 Andersen’s makes his debut as a writer, turning in a few
plays to The Royal Theatre; very few copies of Youthful
Attempts are actually sold, with the remainder used for
wrapping paper; the wealthy and philanthropic Jonas
Collin, theatre manager and financial deputy at the Royal
Theatre, becomes Andersen’s guardian, affording him the
opportunity to attend the grammar school at Slagelse.
1822–27 Attends school in Slagelse and Elsinore.
1826 When the Slagelse principal, Simon Meisling, is moved to
 Chronology 229

Elsinore Grammar School, Andersen follows him, although

their relationship is a problematic on; he writes his famous
poem, “The Dying Child.”
1827 Having complained to Collins about Simon Meisling’s
mistreatment, Collins removes Andersen. from the school
and pays for private tutoring; a number of poems are
published in the leading literary journal of the day and
“The Dying Child” appears in both Danish and German
versions.
1828 Andersen passes the entrance exam at the University of
Copenhagen and matriculates there; He takes the
examination which entitles him to begin his studies
(philologicum) and passes this examination the following
year.
1829 Andersen makes his official and successful debut with his
first prose work, A Walking Tour from Holmen’s Canal to the
Eastern Point of Amager in the Years 1828 and 1829; and
debut as a playwright with Love in Saint Nicholas Church
Tower.
1830 Publishes Poems.
1831 Publishes first important collection of poems; Fantasies and
Sketches; first journey abroad to Germany where he
encounters Ludwig Tieck in Dresden and Adalbert von
Chamisso in Berlin; Andersen publishes Shadow Pictures
from a Journey to the Harz Mountains and Saxon Switzerland,
etc, etc., in the Summer of 1831, his first travelogue.
1832 Andersen writes his first autobiography which will remain
unpublished and unknown until 1926.
1833 Publishes Collected Poems.
1833–34 Using a scholarship to travel, Andersen embarks on a
journey to France and Italy via Germany. He meets
Heinrich Heine and Victor Hugo in Paris, and Bertel
Thorvaldsen, who will become a close friend, in Rome.
1835 The Improvisatore, Andersen’s first novel and Fairy Tales, Told
for Children, Andersen’s first collection of tales, are
published.
1836 Publishes O.T., possibly a reference to Odense Tugthus, the
town goal.
230 Chronology

1837 Kun en Spillemand (Only a Fiddler) is published; the novels

are soon translated into German and, eventually, into
Swedish, Dutch, English and other languages; Andersen
makes his first trip to Sweden and meets the author
Frederika Bremer; the French home de letters, Xavier
Marmier, writes a biographical article on Andersen., “Vie
d’un poète,” and includes a French translation of “The
Dying Child”; the article is published in Revue de Paris and
has a decisive influence on Andersen becoming a known
literary figure in Europe.
1838 Søren Kierkegaard attacks Andersen in his review of Kun en
Spillemand. Andersen finally achieves financial stability as
he is granted the standard royal literary scholarship.
1839 Picture Book without Pictures is published.
1840 The Moorish Maid and The Mulatto are published.
Andersen’s play, The Mulatto, is a success at The Royal
Theatre, and it is also staged in Stockholm and Odense.
1840–41 Andersen travels to Italy, Greece, and Constantinople,
returning via the Balkans, Vienna, Dresden, and Leipzig,
where he meets Franz Liszt and Felix Mendelssohn-
Bartholdy.
1842 A Poet’s Bazaar, a travel account, is published, which
includes the famous chapters on the railway and a concert
with Franz Liszt.
1843 Andersen begins a new series of fairy tale booklets; Meets
Clara Schumann, a pianist, in Copenhagen; Months later
Schumann dedicates a musical setting of his poem to
Andersen; journeys to France and Germany; falls in love
with the Swedish singer, Jenny Lind; unsure of her own
talent, Jenny, like Andersen, is temperamental, very
sensitive and needs to be handled with great delicacy.
1843–48 Andersen publishes five collections of tales.
1844 He journeys to Germany and meets the hereditary Grand
Duke Carl Alexander of Saxony-Weimar-Eisenach, with
whom he will become a close friend; receives an invitation
to visit King Christian VIII on the North Frisian island of
Föhr.
 Chronology 231

1845–46 H.C. travels to Germany, Austria, and Italy; his novels

begin to appear in English translation.
1846 On January 6, Andersen receives the Knighthood of the
Red Eagle from King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia.
1847 The True Story of My Life is published.; Andersen travels to
England and Scotland and meets Charles Dickens.
1848 The Two Baronesses is published and his first fairy tales are
published in French.
1849 Andersen travels to Sweden; Invitation from King Oscar I.
1851–52 Andersen journeys to Germany, Italy, and Switzerland; his
travel account, I Sverrig (In Sweden), containing his poetical
manifesto (a blend of poetry, religion and science) is
published; Hans Christian is made a titular professor.
1852–53 Two collections of stories.
1853 The Danish edition of Samlede Skrifter (Collected Works)
begins to appear.
1854 Andersen travels to Germany and Italy.
1855 Andersen travels to Germany and Switzerland; meets
Richard Wagner in Zurich; The Fairy Tale of My Life is
published.
1856 Andersen travels to Germany.
1857 Andersen travels to England as the guest of Charles
Dickens; To Be, or Not To Be? is published.
1858–72 Publishes eleven collections of tales and stories; Andersen
reads aloud from his fairy tales for the first time at the
newly-established middle-class Workers’ Association.
1859 He receives the Maximilian Order of Art and Science from
King Maximilian II of Bavaria.
1861 Andersen travels to Italy; he meets with Bjørnstjerne
Bjørnson and Robert and Elizabeth Barrett Browning in
Rome.
1862–63 Andersen travels to Switzerland, Spain, Morocco, and
France.
1863 Travel account I Spanien (In Spain) is published.
1865 Meets Edvard Grieg; travels to Sweden; receives an
Invitation from King Karl XV.
232 Chronology

1866 Andersen travels to Portugal via Amsterdam and Paris; his

account of this journey, Et Besøg i Portugal (A Visit to
Portugal), is published in 1868.
1867 Andersen makes two visits to the World Exhibition in Paris;
he is made honorary citizen of Odense on December 6.
1868 He meets Johannes Brahms in Copenhagen.
1869–70 Andersen travels to Vienna and the Riviera.
1870 Lucky Peer, H.C.’s last novel, is published; he meets Henrik
Ibsen.
1873 H.C. travels to Switzerland. It is his last journey abroad.
1875 After several years of serious illness, Andersen dies on
August 4 at Rolighed, the country seat of the Jewish
merchant family Melchior. The Melchior family have taken
care of Andersen during his final years; his funeral is held at
the Cathedral of Copenhagen on August 11.
 Contributors

HAROLD BLOOM is Sterling Professor of the Humanities at Yale

University. He is the author of over 20 books, including Shelley’s Mythmaking
(1959), The Visionary Company (1961), Blake’s Apocalypse (1963), Yeats (1970),
A Map of Misreading (1975), Kabbalah and Criticism (1975), Agon: Toward a
Theory of Revisionism (1982), The American Religion (1992), The Western Canon
(1994), and Omens of Millennium: The Gnosis of Angels, Dreams, and
Resurrection (1996). The Anxiety of Influence (1973) sets forth Professor
Bloom’s provocative theory of the literary relationships between the great
writers and their predecessors. His most recent books include Shakespeare:
The Invention of the Human (1998), a 1998 National Book Award finalist, How
to Read and Why (2000), Genius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative
Minds (2002), and Hamlet: Poem Unlimited (2003). In 1999, Professor Bloom
received the prestigious American Academy of Arts and Letters Gold Medal
for Criticism, and in 2002 he received the Catalonia International Prize.

ELIAS BREDSDORFF (1912–2002) was a Lecturer in Danish at the

University of Cambridge, where he became a Fellow of Peterhouse from
1963 until his retirement in 1979. He is the author of “Intentional and Non-
Intentional Topicalities in Andersen’s Tales” (1999); Hans Christian Andersen:
The Story of his Life and Work 1805–75 (1975); and Hans Andersen and
Charles Dickens: A Friendship and its Dissolution (1956).

WOLFGANG LEDERER was a retired professor at the California College

of Arts and Crafts and in 1980 became Director Emeritus of the school’s

233
234 Contributors

division of design. He was also considered a master of book design, working

on numerous volumes for University of California Press, and winner of The
Book Club of California Oscar Lewis Award. He is the author of The Fear of
Women (1968) and African Figures (2000).

CELIA CATLETT ANDERSON is Emeritus Professor of English at

Eastern Connecticut State University. She is an editor of Nonsense Literature
for Children: Aesop to Seuss (1997).

JON CECH has been Professor of English at the University of Florida and
a Review Editor of Children’s Literature. He is the author of Charles Olson and
Edward Dahlberg: A Portrait of a Friendship (1982) and editor of American
Writers for Children, 1900–1960 (1983).

KAREN SANDERS is the author of “Ethics and Journalism” (2003);

“Staging the Invisible: From the Scene of Theatre to the Scene of Writing”
(1993) and “Signatures: Spelling the Father’s and Erasing the Mother’s in
C.J.L. Almqvist’s Ramido Marinesco and H.C. Andersen’s O.T.” (1993).

HANS CHRISTIAN ANDERSEN has taught at the Newcastle Business

School at Northumbria University.

ALISON PRINCE is a freelance writer and illustrator of children’s books,

adult novels, biography, and poetry. She is the author of Kenneth Grahame:
An Innocent in the Wild Wood (1994) and The Witching Tree (1996).

NIELS VILHELM KOFOED is Chairman of the B.S. Ingemann Society

and was the Chair of the Department of Scandinavian Languages and
Literature at the University of Washington. He is the author of “The
Arabesque and the Grotesque: Hans Christian Andersen Decomposing the
World of Poetry” (1999) and H.C. Andersen: den Store europμer (1996).

AAGE JØRGENSEN has taught at the University of Aarhus and has been a
Senior Lecturer at the Langkær Gymnasium. He is the author of Idyll and
Abyss: Essays on Danish Literature and Theater (1992) and editor of Isak
Dinesen, Storyteller (1972).

JACKIE WULLSCHLAGER is a literary critic, author, and European arts

correspondent for The Financial Times. She is the author of Inventing
 Contributors 235

Wonderland: The Lives and Fantasies of Lewis Carroll, Edward Lear, J. M. Barrie,
Kenneth Grahame, and A.A. Milne (1995).

JØRGEN DINES JOHANSEN has been Professor of General and

Comparative Literature at the University of Southern Denmark. He is the
author of Literary Discourse: A Semiotic-Pragmatic Approach To Literature
(2002) and Dialogic Semiosis: An Essay on Signs and Meaning (1993).
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and New York: Paddington Press, 1975.
———. Hans Christian Andersen’s Fairy Tales. Reginald Spink, trans.
Everyman’s Library. London: Dent, 1992.
Böök, Frederik. Hans Christian Andersen: A Biography. Norman: University of
Oklahoma Press, 1962.
Bredsdorff, Elias. Hans Christian Andersen: The Story of His Life and Work,
1805–1875. Phaidon Press, 1975; Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1975.
———. Hans Andersen and Charles Dickens: A Friendship and Its Dissolution.
Copenhagen: Rosenkilde and Bagger, 1956.
———. “Beginnings in Traditional Folk Tales and in H.C. Andersen’s
Eventyr.” Scandinavica vol. 21, no. 1 (May 1982): 5–15.
Burnett, Constance. The Shoemaker’s Son: The Life of Hans Christian Andersen.
London: George G. Harrap, 1943.
Conroy, Patricia L. and Sven H. Rossel. The Diaries of Hans Christian
Andersen. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1990.
Dahl, Svend and H.G. Topsøe-Jensen, eds. A Book on the Danish Writer Hans
Christian Andersen: His Life and Work. Copenhagen: Berlingske, 1955.
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no. 1 (January 1995): 94–102.
Godden, Rumer. Hans Christian Andersen. London: Hutchinson, 1955.
Gronbech, Bo. Hans Christian Andersen. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1980.
Hugus, Frank. “Opera as Allegory in Hans Christian Andersen’s
Improvisatoren and LykkePeer. Edda 1(1999): 19–30.
Johansen, Jørgen Dines. “The Merciless Tragedy of Desire: An
Interpretation of H.C. Andersen’s ‘Den lille Havfrue.’” Scandinavian
Studies 68, no. 2 (Spring 1996): 203-41.
Jørgensen, Aage. “ ‘ ... A Rag, but of Silk’: Some Recent Danish
Contributions to Andersen Research.” Norwich Papers 3 (November
1995 Nov): 31–43.
Jørgensen, Aage. “Hidden Sexuality and Suppressed Passion: A Theme in
Danish Golden Age Literature.” Neohelicon 19, no. 1 (1992): 153–74.
Marker, Frederick J. Hans Christian Andersen and the Romantic Theatre: A
Study of Stage Practices in the Prenaturalistic Scandinavian Theatre.
Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1971.
Meyer, Priscilla and Jeff Hoffman. “Infinite Reflections in Nabokov’s Pale
Fire: The Danish Connection, Hans Andersen and Isak Dinesen.”
Russian, Croatian and Serbian, Czech and Slovak, Polish Literature 41, no.
2 (February 15, 1997): 197–222.
Mylius, Johan de, Aage Jørgensen and Viggo Hjørnager Pedersen, editors.
Hans Christian Andersen: A Poet in Time. Odense, Denmark: Odense
University Press, 1999.
Rossel, Sven Hakon, ed. Hans Christian Andersen: Danish Writer and Citizen
of the World. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1996.
Sanders, Karin. “Signatures: Spelling the Father’s and Erasing the Mother’s
in C.J.L. Almqvist’s Ramido Marinesco and H.C. Andersen’s O.T.
Scandinavian Studies 65, no. 2 (Spring 1993): 153-79.
Soracco, Sabrina. “A Psychoanalytic Approach.” Scandinavian Studies 62, no.
4 (Autumn 1990): 407–412.
Spink, Reginald. Hans Christian Andersen and His World. London: Thames
and Hudson, 1972.
Stirling, Monica. The Life and Times of Hans Christian Andersen. New York:
Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1965.
 Bibliography 239

Toksvig, Signe. The Life of Hans Christian Andersen. New York: Harcourt,
Brace and Company, 1934; New York: Kraus Reprint Co., 1969.
Wangerin, Walter, Jr. “Hans Christian Andersen: Shaping the Child’s
Universe.” From Reality and the Vision. Edited by Philip Yancey. Dallas:
Word Publishing Group (1990): 1-15.
Ziolkowski, Jan M. “A Medieval ‘Little Claus and Big Claus’: A Fabliau from
before Fabliaux?” From Karczewska, Kathryn and Tom Conley,
editors. The World and Its Rival: Essays on Literary Imagination in Honor
of Per Nykrog, Amsterdam: Rodopi, Amsterdam (1999): 1-37.
 Acknowledgments

“Introduction” to Hans Christian Andersen: Eighty Fairy Tales by Elis

Bredsdorff. From Hans Christian Andersen: Eighty Fairy Tales (1982):
5–9. New York: Pantheon Books. © 1982 by Elias Bredsdorff.
Reprinted by permission.

“The Fairy Tale of Andersen’s Life and Andersen’s Literary Work” by

Wolfgang Lederer. From The Kiss of the Snow Queen: Hans Christian
Andersen and Man’s Redemption (1986): 71–90. Berkeley and Los
Angeles: University of California Press. © 1986 by The Regents of the
University of California. Reprinted by permission.

“Andersen’s Literary Work” by Wolfgang Lederer. From The Kiss of the Snow
Queen: Hans Christian Andersen and Man’s Redemption (1986): 91–96.
Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. © 1986 by
The Regents of the University of California. Reprinted by permission.

“Andersen’s Heroes and Heroines: Relinquishing the Reward” by Celia

Catlett Anderson. From Triumphs of the Spirit in Children’s Literature.
Edited by Francelia Butler and Richard Rotert. Hamden, Connecticut:
Library Professional Publications (1986): 122–36. © 1986 by Francelia
Butler. Reprinted by permission.

“Hans Christian Andersen’s Fairy Tales and Stories: Secrets, Swans and
Shadows” by Jon Cech. From Touchstones: Reflections on the Best in

241
242 Acknowledgments

Children’s Literature, Volume Two: Fairy Tales, fables, Myths, Legends, and
Poetry. West Lafayette, Indiana: Children’s Literature Association
(1985): 14–23. © 1985 by the Children’s Literature Association.
Reprinted by permission.

“Nemesis of Mimesis” by Karin Sanders. From Scandinavian Studies, vol. 64,

no. 1 (Winter 1992): 1–25. © 1992 by the Society for the Advancement
of Scandinavian Study. Reprinted by permission.

“Hans Christian Andersen—The Journey of His Life” by Hans Christian

Andersen. From Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of
Manchester, vol. 76, no. 3 Autumn (1994): 127–43. © 1994 by the John
Rylands University Library, The University of Manchester. Reprinted
by permission.

“War” by Alison Prince. From Hans Christian Andersen: The Fan Dancer.
London: Allison & Busby (1998): 261–82. © 1998 by Alison Prince.
Reprinted by permission.

“Hans Christian Andersen and the European Literary Tradition” by Niels

Vilhelm Kofoed. From Hans Christian Amdersen: Danish Writer and
Citizen of the World. Amsterdam and Atlanta: Rodopi (1996): 209–56. ©
1996 by Editions Rodopi B.V. Reprinted by permission.

“Heroes in Hans Christian Andersen’s Writings” by Aage Jørgensen From

Hans Christian Anderson: A Poet in Time (1999): 271–87. Odense:
Odense University Press. © 1999 by Odense University Press and the
authors. Reprinted by permission.

“Kiss of the Muse, 1860–1865” by Jackie Wullschlager. From Hans Christian

Andersen: The Life of a Storyteller (2001): 373–98. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf. © 2000 by Jackie Wullschlager. Reprinted by permission.

“Counteracting the Fall: “Sneedronningen” and “Iisjomfruen” The Problem

of Adult Sexuality in Fairytale and Story” by Jørgen Dines Johansen.
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© 2002 by the Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Study.
Reprinted by permission.
 Index

Adam Homo, (Paludan-Muller), 151 and creative writer, 1–2

Adventures of a Danish Student, his critics, 44
(Moller), 123 his death, 22
Aeneid, (Virgil), 137 his depression, 192–193
Agnete and the Merman, 28, 83, 135, his early years, 7–10, 39–40,
155 117–118
criticism of, 136 his educational journey, 134–139
on the nature of exile, 75 as a European, 116
Ahasuerus, 94, 96, 149 his feeling of inferiority, 132
and world history, 153 his first four fairy tales, 1–2
Aladdin, (play), Oehlenschlager, 118, the happy endings in his works,
124, 135 33–34
Albert, Prince, (Scotland), 19, 96 his heroes, 175–187
Alexander, Carl, 99–100, 104, 109, and misfit, 84
149, 165 and original, 160
letter from Andersen, 96–97 his passion, 27
Alfsol, 28, 119 his phobias, 16–17, 40
Andersen, Hans Christian on poetry, 6
on abstract ideas and reality, 3 on religion, 113
and associating with the royalty, and success, 156
17–19, 119–120 his themes, 36, 41, 75–76, 222
the autobiographical in his tales, his traveling, 75–79, 134–135,
4 149
his changing view of the world, his trip to Vienna, 17
86–89 turning point for him, 142
on choosing word for children, his unique style, 2
2–3 his visit to Leipzig, 16
contradictions in his works, and writing about death, 162–163
45–46 Anderson, Celia Catlett, 33–37

243
244 Index

Apollonian, 60–61 Bride of Lammermoor, The, 129–130

Arabesque, 127–128 Britain, 1
Arabian Nights, 80, 116 Brostrom, Torben, 186
Arbuthnot, May Hill, 33 Brother Ignatius, 197
Aristocratic radicalism, 179 Brown, J. R., 192
Arndt, Moritz, 17–18 Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, 198
Asbjornsen, 1–2 Browning, Robert, 198
Athenaum, (Schlegel), 121 Buchner, Ludwig, 154
Auerbach B., 158–159, 162 Bulwer-Lytton, Edward, 128
Auntie Toothache, 44 Butterfly, The, 199
and the original sin, 166
“Caffe Greco,” 136
Bacchus, 51 Canova, Antonio, 136
Bagger, Carl, 125 Canz, Wilhelmine, 154
Baggesen, Jens, 122, 133 Carstens, Fedder, 112
Bakhtin, Mikhail, 176 Castelli, I. F., 139
Balzac, 17, 136, 140, 148 Castlereagh, 19
Baudelaire, Charles, 158–159 Cech, Jon, 39–49
Belinsky, V., 166 Chamisso, 15, 131, 133, 145, 152
Bell, The, 3 Chekhov, Anton, 167
theme of, 4 Children and Books, (Arbuthnot), 33
Bentley, Richard, 97–98, 197–198 Cholera, 108, 153–154
Berlingske Tidende, (newspaper), 93 Christian VIII, 18, 94–96, 147, 151
Bettelheim, Bruno, 33, 35, 41 Christmas Greeting to my English
Bird Phoenix, The, 87–88 Friends, 98
Bissen, Herman, 195 Clod Hans, 81, 169, 187
Bjornson, Bjornstjerne, 199 language in, 177
on The Ice Maiden, 201–202 and popular hero, 177
Blanca, (Ingemann), 118 theme of, 175–176
Blicher, Steen Steensen, 85, 123 Collected Edition, 28
Blixen, Karen, 169 Collected Works, 108
Book of My Life, The Collin, Edvard, 22, 77–78, 93,
on God’s script for Andersen’s 104–105, 207
life, 77 on Andersen telling stories,
Bournonville, August, 159, 189, 201, 41–42
206 Collin, Jonas, 11, 93–94, 117
Brandes, Georg, 122, 179, 183 his death, 22, 202
Bredsdorff, Elias and father figure to Andersen,
an “Introduction” to Hans 77–78
Christian Andersen: Eighty on sending Andersen away, 15
Fairy Tales, 1–6 Complete Fairy Tales and Stories of
Bremer, Fredrika, 144 Hans Andersen, 89–90
 Index 245

Cook, Elizabeth, 36 and banned, 166

Copenhagen Workers’ Union, 164 English Romanticism, 123
Corsair, The, (Goldschmidt’s), 93 Eritis sicut Deus, (Canz), 154
Cromwell, (Hugo), 156–157 Estricht, F., 154
Cyclical time, 222 Eventyr og Historier, 2
Ewald, Johannes, 130
Dads Always Right, 2 Exile, 85
Dahl, J. C.,
Dahl, Roald, 83 Fairytale, 221
Daily News, (London), 1 Fairytale of My Life, The, 39–40,
d’Angers, David, 148 108–109
Danish Golden Age, 220 Andersen’s task in, 183
Dante, 124, 137 taking stock in his life, 183–184
Danton, 169 Fairytales and Stories, (Ingemann),
Darning Needle, The, 162 159
Das goldene Vlief, (Grillparzer), 139 Fairytales by Various Authors,
Dead Man, The, 129 (Oehlenschlager), 159
Denmark, 1 Fairytales for Children , 42, 80, 221
literary situation in 1830, Faust, (Goethe), 135, 154, 159
120–129 Feodorovna, Alexandra, 106
Denmark I Was Born, In, 103 Fibiger, Mathilde, 109
Der gestiefelte Kater, (Tieck), 158 Fichte, J.G., 121
Der Verschwender, (Raimund), 139 Firedell, Egon, 6
Dickens, Charles, 1, 21, 98, 113, First Tree, The, 4
140 Flea and the Professor, The, 165
Dickens, Henry, 21 Flight into Language,
Die Leiden des jungen Werthers (Brostrom/Lund), 186
(Goethe), 138 Flying Trunk, The, 2, 83–84
Dionysian, 60–61 Folktale, 158
Drewsen, Ingeborg, 107, 207–208 Foreign Quarterly Review, 156–157
Drop of Water, A, 48, 162 Fouque, Motte, 159
Duchess of Augustenborg, 107–109 Fragments of the Diary of a Parish
Duke of Augustenborg, 95–97 Clerk, (Steensen), 123
Dumas, Alexandre, 17, 148 Francis of Assisi, 183
Dung Beetle, The, 162 Francois de Voltaire, 183
Dying Child, The, 12, 28 Franz, Marie-Louise von, 35
Frederick VI, 16, 94–95
Eckermann, J.P., 156 Frederick VII, 206
Eckhardt, L., 189–190, 205 Freiligrath, 17–18
1864 War, 207 French Revolution, 123, 133, 167
Emperor’s New Clothes, The, 2–3, 30, French Romanticism, 147
39, 48–49, 83, 161 Friedrich August II, 18
246 Index

From the Papers of One Still Living, Hauch, Carsten, 108, 127
(Kierkegaard), 145–146 Haugaard, Erik, 34, 48–49, 89
Hauser, Kaspar, 141
Galoshes of Fortune, The, 30 Heart of Midlothian, (Scott), 98,
Garden of Eden, 2, 84 118–119, 152
Gardener and the Squire, The, 4 Hegel, Friedrich, 122
Gautier, 17 Heiberg, Johan Ludvig, 67, 120,
Geibel, Emanuel, 17–18 122, 146, 202–203
German Classicism, 158 Heine, Heinrich, 15, 17, 122,
German Literary tales, 160–161 128–129
Gerusalemme, liberata, (Tasso), 137 Henriques, 22, 207–208
Girard, Rene, 58, 60 “Her, To,” 129
Goethe, 95, 101, 118, 124, 129, 135 Hertz, Henrik, 130
on his diaries, 137 High Jumpers, The, 3
Gogol, Nicolay, 158–159, 168 Histoire de la Litterature en Danemark
Goldschmidt, M., 93, 103 et en Suede, (Marmier), 147
on Andersen, 225 Hoffmann, E.T.A., 15, 125–126, 168
Goldschmidt, Otto, 109 Holberg, Lusvig, 116, 118, 159
Gorky, M., 167 Holst, H. P., 93–94
Gozzi, Carlo, 158 Homer, 76, 124
Grieg, Edvard, 129–130 Hovmann, Fleming, 221
Griffin, George, 191 How a Genius is Murdered,
Grillparzer, F., 16, 138 (Bredsdorff), 4–5
Grimm, Jakob, 1–2, 30, 82, 157, 160 Howitt, Mary, 152
Grimm, Wilhelm, 1–2, 30, 82, 157, Hugo, Victor, 16–17, 121, 135,
160 147–148, 156
Gronbech, Bo, 39
Groundwork of Art, The, 99–100 Ib and Little Christina, 84
Grundtvig, N. F. S., 120, 122, 130 Ibsen, Henrik, 143
Guldberg, 9 Ice Maiden, The, 85, 87, 155, 198
on helping Andersen, 10–11 on death, 218
Gutzkow, Karl, 112–113 human sexuality, 218, 220
on narrator, 224
Hagiography, 182–183 and powerful tale, 201
Hanck, Henriette, 143, 145, 147 realism and fantasy in, 217–218
Handel, 154 and sin, 224
Hanfstaengel, F., 191 as story, 223–224
Hansen, Georg, 204 supernatural in, 223
Hansen, P.E., 166 theme of, 199–201
Hartmann, Emma, 104 on unity, 225
Harz Mountains, 78 Illustrated Stories, 108
 Index 247

Improvisatore, The, 28, 78, 136–137, Kotzebue, August von, 139

140, 186 Kuchler, 196
and autobiographical, 79
sculpture in, 69 Lacan, 67–68
Inchelina, 82–83 Lacoue-Labarthe, Philippe, 67–68
Ingemann, Severin, 118, 125, 131, La Divina Commedia, (Dante), 137
155–156, 225 Lady of the Lake, The, (Scott), 152
on guiding Andersen, 130 Lagerlof, Selma, 169
letter to Andersen, 189 Lahn Foundation Festival, 185
his travels to Europe, 131 Lake Geneva, 199
Italienische Reise, (Goeth), 137 Lamartine, 17, 148
Italy, 78, 135–136 La Sylphide, (Bournonville), 201
Lavrent’ev’s, A., 166
James, Henry, 198 Le Baiser de la Fee, (Stravinsky), 201
Jerdan, William, 93, 97 Lederer, Wolfgang
Jerichau-Baumann, Elizabeth, 103 on Andersen’s Literary Work,
and portrait of Andersen, 204 27–32
Johansen, Jørgen Dines, 215–225 on The Fairy Tale of Andersen’s
Jorgensen, Aage, 175–188 Life, 7–26
Jorgensen, Johannes, 183 Le Guin, Ursula, 46–48
Joseph, Franz, 18 Lehmann, Orla, 131
Journey on Foot from Holmens Canal Letters of a Ghost, (Hertz), 130
to the East Point of Amager, 79 Life Book, The
and Andersen’s first
Kafka, 43 autobiography, 181
Kaulbach, W. von., 149 Lindgren, Astrid, 83
Keats, 46–47, 49 Lind, Jenny, 20, 93, 106, 109,
Keigwin, R. P., 5 151–152
Keller, G., 158–159 her influence on Andersen, 162
Kenilworth, 130 Liszt, 107, 110–111, 149
Kiel Peace Treaty, (1814), 121–122 Literary Activity, 115
Kierkegaard, Soren, 86, 122, 130, Literary fairytale, 160–161
145–146 Literary Gazette, 93, 97
Kinderund Hausmarchen, (Grimm), Little Clause and Big Clause, 2, 28–29
158 Little Dorrit, (Dickens), 154
King Lear, (Shakespeare), 117 Little Fir Tree, The, 30, 33, 36
King Max, 190 sadness in, 34, 45
Klima, Ivan, 89 Little Ida’s Flowers, 28–29, 159
Klott-Hans, 176 Little Kirsten, (play), 111
Koch, Ida, 207–208 staged in Weimar, 112
Kofoed, Niels, 115–174 Little Match Girl, The, 30, 36
248 Index

Little Mermaid, The, 2–3, 30, 33, 36, Moe, 1–2

45, 159, 161 Molbech, Christian, 126
on immortality, 198 Moleschott, Jacob, 154
theme of, 83 Moliere, 123
Lord Byron, 122, 129–130 Moller, Elvida, 206
Lord Palmerston, 96 Moller, P.M., 123
Love on St. Nicholas Tower, 28, 118, Moorish Maid, The, 155
127 More than Pearls and Gold, 139
Lucas, E.V., 5 Mortensen, K. P., 186
Lucky Peer, 28, 181, 185, 187 Motte, Friedrich de la, 133
the divine, 180 Mulatto, (Play), 146
theme of, 178–179 Muller, Ludvig, 205
Luise, J., 146 Muse of the New Century, 87–88
Lund, Jorn, 186 and role of literature, 164
Lundbye, Johan, 97 Musset, Alfred de, 136
Lutheran Reformation, (1536), 122
Lynd, Robert, 5 Napoleon, 121, 133, 168
Lytton, Robert, 207 Napoli, (Bournonville), 189
National Romanticism, 121, 123
Macbeth, (Shakespeare), 117 Naughty Boy, The, 2, 161
Macpherson, James, 123 Neegaard, Madame, 207–208
Marie Tudor, (play), Hugo, 147 Nestroy, J., 139
Marmier, Xavier, 147, 166 Nicholas I, Tsar, 106–107
Marsak, S. J., 166 Nightingale, The, 3, 30, 33, 169–170
Marsh King’s Daughter, The, 4 on spirit over matter, 35
Masaniello, (Ingemann), 118 North and South, (Goldschmidt), 103
Medea and Ariadne on Naxos, 116 “North and the South, The,”
Meisling, S., 12, 117–118 (E.B. Browning), 198–199
Melchior, Dorothea, 22 Notre-Dame de Paris, 147
Melchior, Moritz, 207–208 Novalis, 121
Meltzer, 58, 71
Mendelssohn-Bartoldi, 16, 149 Odense, 88, 155
Messiah, (Handel), 154 and Andersen as honorary citizen
Metallic Pig, The, 162 of, 185
Metaphysical artist, 115–116 O.T., 28, 140
Michelangelo, 58–60 Odyssey, (Homer), 76, 81
Midsummer Night’s Play, Oehlenschlager, 94, 117–118, 120,
(Oehlenschlager), 180 122, 125–126, 155–156,
Millennium, The, 44 158–159
Mimesis, 67–68 his Aladdin, 177
Mimona, 108 his death, 100–101
“Minerva,” (Bissen), 195 Old House, The, 162
 Index 249

Old Oak Tree’s Last Dream, The, Prose hymn, 162

34–35 Psyche, 87 , 162, 196
Ole Lukoie, (play), 101–102 immortality in, 70–71
Only a Fiddler, 28, 139–140, 145 Mimetic rivalry, 59
and criticized by Kierkegaard, “mystery of woman, 69–70
145–146 narration of, 62–63
Order of the White Falcon, 96 on representation, 51
Orsted, Anders Sandoe, 95 and sculpture, 52, 61
Orsted, H.C., 101, 103, 112, 117, similar to The Improvisatore, 198
156, 184 two signatures of, 58
his death, 104 theme of, 197
visual in, 57
Palazzo Barberini, 198 Psychoanalysis, 67–68
Palmerston, Lord, 18, 96
Paludan-Muller, F., 151 Rachel, Elisabeth, 148
Paris, 95, 133, 147 Radziwill, Prince, 18
Parting and Meeting, 155 Rahbek, Knud Lyne, 120
Passion Play, 190 Raimund, F., 139
Paul et Virginie, 157 Rantzau- Breitenburg, Count, 16,
Paul, Jean, 125–126 144
Paul and Virginia, (Opera), 8 Raphael, 58–60, 64–65
Pepperman’s Nightcap, The Raven, The, (play), 111
and homelessness, 87 Reden an die deutsche Nation, (Fichte),
as realistic, 86 121
Peter Schlemiehl, (Chamisso), 15, 152 Red Shoes, The, 30
Petit, F., 126 Reitzel, 108, 204, 221
Pickard, P. M., 49 Republic, The, (Plato), 68
Pictures of Sweden, 205 Revue de Paris, 166
Pixy and the Grocer, The, 37 Richardson, Samuel, 123
Plato, 68 Ritter Blaubart, (Tieck), 158
Poe, Edgar Allen, 128, 158–159 Robbers of Wissenberg, The, 27
Poems, 129, 157 Rob Roy, (Scott), 152
“Poetic realism,” 122 Romantic literary tale, 158–159
Poetic Writings, 180 Rothschilds, 19
Poetry, (song), 100 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 157
Poet’s Bazaar, A, 17, 78, 82, 150 Royal Foundation, 133
Portugal, 211 Royal Theater, 117, 130, 157, 189
Prince, Alison, 93–113 Russia, 166
Prince of Nor, 94–95, 110
Princess and the Pea, The, 2, 28–29, Saga of Vaulundur, (Oehlenschlager),
39 158–159
and travel motif, 80–81 Saint-Exupery, Antoine de, 169
250 Index

Saint-Pierre, Bernardin de, 157 Snowman, The, 193

Sand, George, 136 and Andersen’s view of love, 194
Sanders, Karin, 51–74 Snow Queen, The, 3, 30, 81, 155,
Scandinavian Club, 136 159, 201
Scandinavianism, 144 end of, 225
Scharff, Harald, 189–190, 194, 205 on Gerda’s and Kai’s journey,
his injury, 206 216–217
his relationship with Andersen, and miracle, 224
203–206 most inventive, 31
Schelling, 16 opposition between God and the
Schiller, 95, 125–126, 159 Devil, 215
Schleger, Friedich, 121 subtitle of, 222
on introducing theory of theme of, 35, 215–216
arabesque, 128 on time of nature, 222–223
Schleiermacher, Friedrich, 121 use of travel, 82
Schleswig-Holstein conflict, 95–96, and written quickly, 4
99, 102–103 Sonnleithner, Joseph, 138
Schumann, Clara, 18 Soro Academy, 125
Schumann, Robert, 18, 149 Soul in Nature, (Orsted), 101, 103
Schwarzwalder Dorfgeschichten, 162 Souvenirs d’un voyage en Orient,
Scott, Walter, 5, 15, 98, 118–119, (Larmartine), 150
121, 123, 129, 137 Spain, In, 78, 155
Scribe, E., 17, 135, 139 Spaniards in Odense, 155
“Serapion Brotherhood,” 126 Spink, Reginald, 40
Shadow, The, 3, 48, 137, 142, 187 Stampe, Henrik, 205, 207
directed toward adults, 43 Stanley, Lord, 19
psyche in, 47 Steadfast Tin Soldier, The, 30, 33, 36
theme of, 4 plot of, 84
Shadow Pictures, 15 Steffens, Henrich, 120–121
Shadowy Images of a Journey to the Sterne, Laurence, 123
Harz Mountains and Saxony, 78, Story, 221
132 Story From the Dunes, A, 84–85, 155,
Shakespeare, 15, 39, 117, 119, 124, 161
129 Story of a Mother, The, 2–3, 162,
Shepherdness and the Chimneysweep, 169–170
The, 30, 159 use of travel, 82
Siboni, Giuseppe, 8–9, 117 Story of My Life, 153
Silver Penny, The, 194 Story, William Wentmore, 198
Simple Simon, 2 Stravinsky, 201
Smollett, Tobias, 123 Striegler, R., 194–195
Snail and the Rosebush, The, 196 Strindberg, August, 143, 169
 Index 251

Sufferings of Young Werther, Travers, P.L., 33

(Goethe), 159 Treaty of Friendship, The, 162
Sutkiv Kopengagene, (Lavrent’ev’s), Two Baronesses, The , 151
166 theme of 98–99
Swan and the Shadow, The,
(Mortensen), 186 Ugly Duckling, The, 30, 33, 35, 39,
Sweden, In, 79–80, 103–104, 163 82, 125, 145
technique in, 150 Uhland, Ludwig, 129
Swedish Order of the North Star, Under the Willow Tree, 20, 84
96 Undine, (Fouque), 159
Sweethearts, The, 42 United States, 1
Swineherd, The, 2 Universal Romanticism, 120–121
Switzerland, 154–155 University of Copenhagen, 117
Sylfiden, The, (Bournonville), 159 Uses of Enchantment, The,
(Bettelheim), 41
Tales of Mother Goose, (Perrault), 29
Tales Told for Children, 28–29 Valkyrie, The, (Bournonville0, 189
and published, 156 Victoria, Queen, (Scotland), 19
Tasso, (Ingemann), 133, 137 Vienna
Tegner, Esaias, 129 and uprising, 95
Tempest, The, (Shakespeare), 119 Vigny, Alfred de, 17, 136, 148
Thomsen, Grimur, 184 Virgil, 137
Thorny Path of Honor, The, 87–88, Visit to Spain, A, 205
163 Vogt, Carl, 154
Thorvaldsen, B., 16, 95, 116–117, Voigt, Christian, 13, 129, 135
136 Voigt, Riborg, 13–14, 19–20, 129
Three-Year-War, 153 Volksmarchen von Peter Lebrecht,
Tieck, L., 15, 121, 126, 131–132, (Tieck), 158
158
Tinderbox, The, 2–3, 28–29, 124–125 Walking Tour from Holmen’s Canal to
the soldier in, 178 the Eastern Point of Amager, 28,
and travel motif, 80–81 117, 126, 131
verbal energy in, 42 imagination in, 127
To Be or Not To Be, 112, 153–154 Weissenthurn, Johanna von, 139
and published, 113 Wessel, Johan Herman, 118
Tolkien, J.R.R., 37 Weyse, C.E.F., 117, 130
Tolstoy, Leo, 167 What the Old Man does is Always
Torquato Tasso, (Goethe), 138 Right, 161
Tourist, 85 Wieland, C. M., 161
Traveling Companion, The, 2, 157 Wild Swans, The, 2, 30, 35, 161
and travel motif, 81–82 Wilhelm, August, 121
252 Index

Will o’ the Wisps are in Town, 209 Wullschlager, Jackie, 189–213

and published, 210–211
Winckelman, 66 Youthful Attempts, 118–119
Wood Nymph, The, 83, 87
theme of, 88 Zipes, Jack, 33
Wordsworth, 53 “Zombie Did It, The,” 155
Wulff, Henriette, 19, 106, 108, 111, Zweiter romischer Aufenthalt,
142, 150–151 (Goeth), 137
Wulff, P.F., 117, 119