Design of Electric Vehicle

International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science (IJAERS) [Vol-5, Issue-7, July- 2018]
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijaers.5.7.5 ISSN: 2349-6495(P) | 2456-1908(O)
Design of Electric Vehicle

Kusum1, Chetan Parveer2
1
Department of EE, CBS Group of Institution, Jhajjar, Haryana, India
2
Assistant Professor, Department of EE, CBS Group of Institution, Jhajjar, Haryana, India
Abstract— The aim of this thesis work 'Design of electric which takes millions of years to get replenished in
vehicle including different power train components' is to abundance. Natural phenomenon such as volcanic aerosol
design an energy model of electric vehicle including and anthropogenic economic activities has been seen as
different power train components with the application of a significant contributors to temperature rise over past years,
design and simulation tool, which in this thesis work would apparently leading to temperature rise leading to glacier
be MATLAB Simulink software. With this design and meltdown. (1) (2). The rate of consumption of the fuel is
simulation, we expect to find the energy consumption by a just making its way higher than the rate of productions,
vehicle by virtue of different types of forces acting on which inevitably will reach on a point where it will be
vehicle when subjected to different standard driving cycles. absolutely exhausted with no more fossil fuels to satire the
This work also includes a survey of different vehicles which demand. Imagine life with mobile phones, but without any
runs on electric propulsion either only or in assisted mode electricity to charge it, seems like dark ages, not a pretty
in the present market. picture to imagine. Other prominent concern related to the
Keywords— Design, Simulation, Electric Vehicles, exhaustible use of fossil fuel is environmental issues.
Dynamics, Electrochemical cell, Vehicle Energy Impact of carbon di oxide gas (CO2) on the environment
Modelling, MATAB, Simulink, Driving Cycles, State of is not new to be known. It has been first theorized by noble
Charge, Energy, Voltage, Power, Lithium Ion Batteries, prize laureate Svante Arrhenius back in 1896. However,
Aerodynamic Drag, C-Rate. the emission of the CO2 can be divided majorly into two
causes: Natural Phenomena and Anthropogenic.
I. INTRODUCTION
The nature of the fossil fuel, as the name indicate, ‘Fossil’,
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
Fig.1: CO2 emission in 2015
The problems just do not persist with the exhaustible nature semiconductor materials, fabrication material, ultra-
of the hydrocarbons and environment. ‘Oil’ in this capacitors have played their major part in bringing back the
contemporary world scenario is not just an energy resource trend of EVs with much more economy introduced in it.
but also heavily influence the international politics and (1)With the current trend and peer pressure from the
policies of nations. Different war conflicts and wars are perspective of Environment, limited resource, and political
waged to acquire the oil. New family of storage devices interventions, vigorous researches are done through which
advanced electronic drives, fabrication of sophisticated lead to the advancement of existing technology. Intense
www.ijaers.com Page | 25
research and development is being carried out in order to FCEV . ‘Prius’ from Toyota, to name few available models.
develop new concepts, low cost, more reliability of hybrid This competition has led to the creation of such cars which
power trains. As it can be seen as future of transportation, are economically viable and are being used now. Although,
almost all major automobile manufacturers from all across there are a lot of scope in the improvement of storage
the world are jumped into the market of EV, HEV and technology, which will open new doors for EVs.
Fig.2: London electric cab company’s taxi
Since BEV’s is now being totally dependent of the Commission. "A hybrid road vehicle is one in which
electrical storage technology and will improve as storage propulsion energy, during specified operational
and energy density will improve. Nowadays, Hybrid missions, is available from two or more kinds or types
Electric vehicles are in trend. Hybrid vehicles. of energy stores, sources, or converter.
As per proposed by the Technical Committee 69 Electric Propulsion
(Electric Road Vehicles), International Electro technical
Fig.3: Representation of electric propulsion systems (4)
Electrical machines can be classified mainly into two groups depending upon nature of electricity employed, DC
machine and AC machine. Both family of machines have
their pros and cons, and found their application according to
the load requirement. DC machines were incorporated in the
1980’s decade due to its torque to load characteristics and
controllability. In spite of such fine traits, DC machine are
no longer being preferred due its size and maintenance
requirement. Now a day, latest vehicles manufacturers are
employing AC and brushless motors, including Induction
Motors, Switched Reluctance Motor and Permanent Magnet
Motors. This chapter aims to render a brief overview of
electrical machines.
DC Machine: The electrical machine which uses the direct

Fig.5: Torque vs Speed characteristics for DC machine
current as power input (motoring mode) and generating
direct current (generation mode) are termed as DC machine.
As it goes without saying all the topologies have its own
DC machines consists of two set of windings, on the rotor
advantage and drawbacks, and their application depends
(rotating body mounted on shaft) and stator (stationary part
upon the load requirement as well. Typical torque- speed
which holds current carrying conductive wiring in order to
characteristics of the DC machines are mentioned as
cause the interaction between two field fluxes, resulting in
following.
torque generation producing necessary torque to overcome
In separately excited DC machine, it is easy to control field
the inertia and friction. Simply put, force (F) experienced
and armature voltage independently. Whereas, in shunt
by any current carrying conductor of length (L) in the
winding, which has same speed torque characteristics as
magnetic field density (B) is,
separately excited machine, controlling is possible only
𝐹=𝐵×𝐼×𝐿 (1.1)
when using inserting resistance in the circuit. However, it
And when the current carrying conductor is in coil shape
is an inefficient method due to the presence of the
then, Torque (T) produced will be,
resistance in the circuit. But, if we replace the mentioned
𝑇 = 𝐵 × 𝐼 × 𝐿 × cos(𝛼) (1.2)
resistance in circuit by the power electronic devices (DC-
DC converter) we can actively control production of
𝛼 is angle between the coil plane and magnetic field (B).
proper armature and field voltage. (4)
(4)
Fig.6: Equivalent DC Armature circuit
Basic equations of DC machines are as follows;

𝑉𝑎 = 𝐸 + 𝑅 𝑎 . ; (1.3)
𝐸 = 𝐾𝑒 . Φ.ωm ; (1.4)
𝑇 = 𝐾𝑒 . Φ. Ia ; (1.5)
Where,
Fig.4: Different Schemes of stator field Winding
Va = DC supply voltage (volts); φ = flux per pole (webers);
E = emf(volts),
T = torque (N m); Ra = armature resistance(ohms); I a =
armature current(amps);
ωm = armature speed (rad/s); 𝐾𝑒 = constant.
The PM machines now a days are being preferred in the control application such as robotics and aerospace
hybrid and electrical vehicles by the manufacturers since applications. The PMSM is fed from supply via power
it has significant advantages over the conventional electronic converters with its smooth torque operation
machines such as IM and DC machine, or Synchronous depends upon the shaping of current waveform. Field
machines. Since, we already know that using excitation weakening mode is possible in PMSM by applying stator
winding in machine always comes with the excitation flux opposite to rotor flux. The speed is limited because of
penalty (8). The initial cost of the PM machines can be current rating, back- emf and maximum output of inverter.
high but when we talk about the small motors for vehicular Although, PMSM and IM have good torque response but
application, using of excitation winding can be complex slip speed calculation makes IM more complex than that
and undergo losses. In addition to this, the field winding’s of PMSM. According to construction, PMSM has lower
current will lead to the deterioration of the winding which inertia due to absence of heavy rotor cage as in IM. Both
means increase of maintenance cost. Also, absence of IM and PMSM have limited field weakening range, a
excitation winding facilitates compact arrangement of the limitation.
PM machines in the vehicle. On the other hand for the PMSM has a higher temperature and load sensitivity
heavier machines excitation penalty is more economical as which is the major drawback of PMSM, therefore, PMSMs
compared to the initial cost of PM machine. (8) are typically limited to low or medium power applications,
Discussion of PM machines is incomplete without however some of the high-power applications are
discussing permanent magnets incorporated in PM employing PMSM.
machines. The main purpose of permanent magnet is to PMSM has two main sections, rotor and stator, like in all
provide constant mmf, as a constant current source (8). The rotating machines. Stator in incorporated with three phase
magnetic flux density remains constant as long as operating sinusoidally distributed copper winding similar to AC
point is under the linear region, but as soon as operating machines winding. On the other hand, Rotor, does not
point goes beyond, knee- point (Bd) of the characteristics, have any winding but permanent magnets are settled over
some of the characteristic is lost permanently. When the the rotor instead. The three phase balanced supply is
demagnetizing field is removed beyond the limit, new provided to the stator winding which in turn establishes a
characteristic will exist but lesser than last characteristics. rotating mmf of constant amplitude in the air gap. The
But most PMs are designed to withstand considerable stator current is regulated by the position feedback of rotor
magnitude of current (up to 2-4 times the rated current). in order to maintain the frequency in synchronism to the
Some of the permanent magnets are enlisted and discussed rotor. The interaction of these stator and rotor fields results
below; in the torque development on the rotor. (8)
The PMSMs can be classified on the position and shape of
the magnets on/in rotor. Illustrative figure of the PMSM
types are provided below;
a) Face Mounted b) Inset c) Interior
Characteristics of discussed permanent magnets

Fig.7: BH curve of permanent magnets
Simply put, PM synchronous motor is a synchronous

motor which produces sinusoidal mmf, voltage and current
Fig.8:
provided by the permanent magnets. PMs used in PMS
motor ensure high flux density in air gap consequently
Face mounted, and insets are also called surface-mount
increasing power density and torque to inertia ratio. Due
PMSMs. In inset the magnets are inside the rotor surface
to PMSM’s fast response, high power density, and high
but exposed to air gap whereas in face mounted magnets
efficiency it found its application in high performance
are protruding. The magnets are attached to rotor by the 𝑎⃗ = 𝑑𝑣⃗/dt (4.3)
help of epoxy glue. It implies that the ability to perform
surface- mount PMSM during operation depends upon the The input power P for the force F, to the particle mass is,
adhesiveness of epoxy glue. But these types of PMSMs are 𝑃 = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑣⃗ = |𝐹⃗| |𝑣⃗| 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (4.4)
easier and simpler to construct. In contrast to them, in Where, θ is angle between F and v.
interior PMSM, magnets are actually buried inside the
rotor, thus mechanical strength is higher as compared to Torque T on the rigid body rotating about a fixed axis,
the previous ones. However this technology is costly and 𝑇 = 𝐽 ×; (4.5)
complicated. (8)
Where, J = polar moment of inertia of the rigid body
II. VEHICLE DYNAMICS
α = angular acceleration (rad/ s2)
Vehicle design’s fundamentals are a direct implementation
of Newton’s second law of motion, which relates force and
Also, 𝛼 = d 𝜔 /dt (4.6)
acceleration. The acceleration of vehicle is caused by the
𝜔 = 𝑑𝜃/dt (4.7)
fact of presence of non-zero resultant force. This force to
Where, ω = angular speed (rad
move the vehicle forward comes from the propulsion unit
/ sec)
overcoming the resisting force imposed by gravity, and air
θ = angular displacement.
and tire resistance. The road and aerodynamic condition
The relation between power input and torque input is
along with power available from traction unit determines
important and is given below,
the acceleration and speed of the vehicle. In this chapter
𝑃=𝑇×𝜔 (4.8)
we will get into basic governing factors affecting the
design of the vehicle focusing on electric.
Vehicle kinetics
The force from the propulsion unit is known as the tractive
The propulsion unit generates and exerts the traction force
force. Once the force required is known, energy and power
to the wheels to provide motion to the vehicle. In order to
consumption can be calculated.
move vehicle, tractive force must overcome the opposing
Centre of Gravity
According to newton’s second law of motion, force acting on the vehicle. This opposing force is known
as road load force, FRL. = + 𝐹𝑅𝑂𝐿𝐿 + 𝐹 ;
∑ 𝐹𝑖 = 𝑚 × 𝑎; (4.1) (4.9)
Where, Fi = net force, m = mass, a = acceleration. Where, FgxT = Gravitational force,
As a complex conjunction of subsystems, there exist FROLL = Rolling resistance,
different individual masses at several points of contact of FAD = Aerodynamic drag force,
the vehicle with reference to outside world leading to be a xT is tangential direction on the roadway.
bit complex task to analyze and calculate forces at each We will discuss these terms and, their cause and effect on
point of mass’ contacts. Thus, in order to simplify this the vehicle motion.
problem, we consider one location where all these points
will merge and net force due to gravity can be realized. Force due to gravity
This location is known as Centre of gravity (COG) of the The force on vehicle due to gravity is a function of slope
vehicle. For the calculation purpose, we shall consider of the road, the mathematical relation is given as follows,
vehicle to be a particle mass concentrated at the COG. 𝐹𝑔𝑥𝑇 = 𝑚 𝑔 sin β;
Where,
m = mass of the vehicle,
g = acceleration due to gravity,
β = slope angle (grade angle) with respect to horizon.
Fig.9: Center of Gravity
III. MODELLING AND SIMULATION
The motion of particle is defined by acceleration and In this chapter we will discuss and present the
velocity characteristics. let x, be the distance travelled by Simulink modelling of the electric vehicle with
the particle and v be the velocity and a be the acceleration different powertrain.
of the particle then the mathematical relation in these For modelling of simulation vehicle MATLAB and
quantities are as follows, Simulink™ (Simscape) from MATLAB is being used, due
𝑣⃗ = ⃗dx/dt (4.2) to its wide presence and easy to understand modelling
technique. The model being discussed below consists of
three major components: Power Sources, from the battery packs in order to overcome the resistance
Electromechanical device and loads by the virtue of vehicle offered by the vehicle. In addition to it, different power
motion in an open environment. The modelling does have electronic converters such as DC/DC bidirectional inverter
assumptions in order to keep work easy and not complicated and DC/AC converters are used in series with electric
to understand for a layman. Due to assumptions, the machine. All these above mentioned converter components
accuracy of the model is affected, but it will provide base to come with their own efficiencies. Due to these efficiencies,
idea being discussed in this thesis work. extra energies have to be extracted from the batteries in
The following assumptions are being taken under addition to required energy to overcome vehicle road load.
consideration These efficiencies are also being modelled in this chapter.
 Vehicle is moving with certain velocity according to Overall energy model of the electric vehicle:
standard drive cycle. With respect to following screenshot given below, the
 Vehicle’s operation weather is constant at all instants energy consumption of the vehicle from each of the
during simulation. individual energy consumption mentioned previous in the
chapter is being added in order to give a output in the terms
 Batteries initially have finite state of charge.
of the power required by the vehicle to complete different
 Using predefined standard drive cycles to assess the
driving cycles our vehicle would be subjected to. Please
results.
note that this power consumption is just the result of the
With the start of the simulation, we will define some inputs
vehicle dynamics and not include auxiliary power
in the MATLAB Editor. These values are being considered
consumptions, such as heating, air conditioning, and other
in accordance to Nissan Leaf. This model also allows us to
amenities.
observe range and power it can be taken out of any other
vehicle model, once all the parameters are known.
Efficiency Modelling:
Following is the screenshot of the MATLAB editor, with
This section of current chapter will bring some light on the
the details mention as the comment in the editor itself due
modelling of different components incorporated in the
as it is convenient.
drive train. These components facilitate power flow from
The study of the model is in accordance to variation in
the source, i.e. Electro-chemical batteries to the load, i.e.
velocity-time profile (drive cycles) and slope/s. During drive
due to vehicle dynamics and auxiliary power
cycles, the vehicle undergoes transiency due to start, stop,
consumptions.
acceleration, braking. Thus, with drawing power and energy
Fig.11: Model to estimate aggregate energy required
Machine Efficiency machines have no losses, but in real case, there are different
Machines are electromechanical device, which are meant to power losses due to different factors such as mechanical and
provide interface between mechanical and electrical electrical. Thus this loss can be measured by the
parameters. Mechanical input can be torque, force, speed mathematical relation in between machine’s output over
and the output can be current, power, and vice versa. Ideally input. (37)
Fig.12: Machine's efficiency model
Inverter Efficiency: discussion over that, thus we are limiting the work to
One of two primary types of power electronic device’s calculate the efficiency of the inverters being used, in
application used in this model is inverter. Inverters are the general. Since, this modelling is to demonstrate energy
devices which are responsible for conversion of direct consumption and comparison for different parametric
current supply to three phase currents or vice versa by the changes in the vehicle loads, therefore, I am using a
means of intelligent switching of power electronic general mathematical relation for efficiency being
devices. There are different topologies and different mentioned during lectures. It greatly simplifies the model
scheme of switching schemes of inverters. Topologies itself and easy to understand. (37)
and switching schemes are vast and requires whole
𝜂 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑙 Where,
𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜂𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒 = Efficiency of inverter,
𝑖1 ∗ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑙 + 𝑖2
Fig.13: Inverter's efficiency model

Converter efficiency:
Converter or DC/DC converter is a device which alters the Once we get the efficiency from each component as above,
voltage level into different output. Usually rated voltage of we can calculate the actual energy (current) withdrawn
electrical machine is different from that of battery terminal from the battery source and thus we can know the actual
voltage. Also, ideal battery source experiences drop of SOC of the vehicle model.
voltage, depending on different parameters such as SIMSCAPE (Battery and controlled current source)
Battery’s State of Health (SOH), lifetime, SOC, etc. In this chapter, a model has been worked out which
(37)These effects have already been discussed during includes the electrochemical battery source block from the
previous chapters in this work. Simpowersystem. We can choose any battery predefined in
The mathematical model used for the Simulink model is as the block, such as Lead Acid, Ni-based batteries, Lithium-
follows, ion batteries (38). In this model, I have considered
Where, = efficiency of DC/DC converter Lithium-ion battery model (used in Chevrolet Leaf), due
C1 = 1.02 (empirical value) to its scope in modern applications in terms of energy
C 2 = 0.005 (empirical value) (37) density, lifetime and flat profile of discharge. The
controlled current source block is being used here to
𝜂 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑙
account the variation of load. This is being controlled by
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑐1 ∗ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑙 + 𝑐2 the current input. In this case, our input current is the result
( 6.4) of the varying power requirement by the vehicle during
different driving cycles. The screenshot of the Simscape
model is mentioned down below,
Fig.14: SIMSCAPE battery and Controlled Current source block

Fig.15: Battery parameters in accordance to light electric vehicle (Leaf)
Observations each driving cycle.

In this section we will observe, energy consumed by the
vehicle, State of Charge (SOC) remaining, and their IV. TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMED
comparison. With these observations we can observe how The scope’s graphs shown below are the total energy
energy requirement varies with different profile of driving consumed by the vehicle model during the different
cycle along with the slope variation. We can also observe driving cycles. We can notice different curves in graphs,
depletion of the battery during the standard and custom they belong to different subjected slopes on the vehicle.
driving cycles, in the terms of SOC remaining at the end of
Fig.16: Energy consumed during ECE R15
Fig.17: Energy consumed during EUDC
Fig.18: Energy consumed during
State of Charges (SOCs) for different drive cycle for different slopes
In this section we can see, SOCs left after each standard driving cycle and custom cycle. Each graph contains three different
curves, which represents as different slopes. We can observe with the help of these graphs, we can conclude that slopes and
velocity profile plays a major role in the variation of SOC of the electrochemical source.
Fig.19: SOCs for SFUDS Driving Cycle
Fig.20: SOCs for HWFET Driving Cycle
Fig.21: SOC at different slopes for Custom Driving Cycle

Table.4: Power and SOC at the end of driving cycles
Driving Distance Avg. Avg. Power Time(s) Max. Slope Auxiliary Final SOC
Cycle Speed (kW) Power pu (kWh) (%)
NEDC 11.84 35.53 2.689 1200 26.06 0 0 96.64
NEDC 11.84 35.53 3.689 1200 26.06 0 1 69.64
NEDC 11.84 35.53 44.12 1200 143.43 0.25 1 40.80
NEDC 11.84 35.53 21.8 1200 71.73 0.1 1 73.58
ECE 15 1.12 20.27 12.51 200 24.20 0.1 1 97.61
ECE 15 1.12 20.27 1.686 200 6.17 0 1 99.87
ECE 15 1.12 20.27 25.89 200 54.22 0.25 1 94.66
EUDC 7.37 66.04 7.695 400 26.06 0 1 97.19
EUDC 7.37 66.04 38.21 400 71.73 0.1 1 83.60
EUDC 7.37 66.04 80.6 400 143.43 0.25 1 63.40
Table.5: Power and SOC at the end of driving cycles
Driving Distance Avg. Avg. Power Time(s) Max.Powe Slope Auxiliary Final SOC
Cycle Speed (kW) r (kWh) (%)
Artemis(Urban) 4.46 16.06 1.68 1000 22.16 0 1 99.43

Artemis(Urban) 4.46 16.06 10 1000 41.74 0.1 1 90.30
Artemis(Urban) 4.46 16.06 21.19 1000 71.05 0.25 1 77.90
Artemis(Rural) 16.02 55.5 5.12 1100 30.93 0 1 95.30
Artemis(Rural) 16.02 55.5 31.58 1100 76.16 0.1 1 63.01
Artemis(Rural) 16.02 55.5 67.41 1100 143.36 0.25 1 14.60
SUFD 3.08 27.72 2.47 400 14.75 0 1 99.41
SUFD 3.08 27.72 16.70 400 45.55 0.1 1 93.30
SUFD 3.08 27.72 34.82 400 102.42 0.25 1 85.00
HWFET 16.52 74.36 9.20 800 18.80 0 1 93.00
HWFET 16.52 74.36 42.25 800 52.75 0.1 1 63.50
HWFET 16.52 74.36 89.86 800 110.71 0.25 1 15.60
Custom 1.07 54.92 6.808 70 33.38 0 1 99.58
Custom 1.07 54.92 32.68 70 74.58 0.1 1 97.60
Custom 1.07 54.92 68.87 70 145.49 0.25 1 94.73
V. CONCLUSION Electrochemistry Helena Berg. (2016). MRS Bulletin,

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International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science (IJAERS) [Vol-5, Issue-7, July- 2018]

https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijaers.5.7.5 ISSN: 2349-6495(P) | 2456-1908(O)

Design of Electric Vehicle

Fig.1: CO2 emission in 2015

Fig.2: London electric cab company’s taxi

Fig.3: Representation of electric propulsion systems (4)

DC Machine: The electrical machine which uses the direct

Fig.6: Equivalent DC Armature circuit

Basic equations of DC machines are as follows;

a) Face Mounted b) Inset c) Interior

Characteristics of discussed permanent magnets

Simply put, PM synchronous motor is a synchronous

Fig.11: Model to estimate aggregate energy required

Fig.12: Machine's efficiency model

Fig.13: Inverter's efficiency model

Fig.14: SIMSCAPE battery and Controlled Current source block

Fig.15: Battery parameters in accordance to light electric vehicle (Leaf)

Observations each driving cycle.

Fig.16: Energy consumed during ECE R15

Fig.17: Energy consumed during EUDC

Fig.18: Energy consumed during

Fig.19: SOCs for SFUDS Driving Cycle

Fig.20: SOCs for HWFET Driving Cycle

Fig.21: SOC at different slopes for Custom Driving Cycle

Artemis(Urban) 4.46 16.06 1.68 1000 22.16 0 1 99.43

V. CONCLUSION Electrochemistry Helena Berg. (2016). MRS Bulletin,

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