SOLAR PASSIVE ARCHITECTURE

Passive, a term frequently used in energy-efficient concepts, basically refers to the architecture in
which energy is induced to flow from one living space to another by means of natural principles of
heat flow. These techniques manifest themselves best in traditional
dwellings that have withstood the test of time…..in terms of material-use, spatial distribution,
construction technology, orientation etc. Solar Passive designs involve methods of collecting, storing,
distributing and controlling thermal energy flow by natural means as opposed to the ‘active’
methods of employing mechanical devices to achieve thermal comfort.

Passive solar architecture is energy efficient and sustainable. It minimizes the impact of the building
to its immediate environment and efficiently utilizes the on-site energies and available natural
resources, thus becoming an influential player of the macroclimatic-system. A building cannot be
treated as a mere fuel-guzzling machine but should be regarded as a biological being living in its
eco-system. It should breathe in and exhale out, consume and release energy into the environment
without causing harm or imbalance in the natural structure of the macro-climate. This can only be
attained by implementing techniques that we can learn from the natural world. Man has to obey the
laws of nature.

Passive design is simple and involves techniques such as building orientation, direct-indirect heat
gain, proper use of materials, colour and texture of building envelope, shading, vegetation etc. By
judiciously using scientific design tools relevant to the climatic context one can maintain steady and
comfortable conditions within the building environment. This reduces the amount of energy that
would otherwise require running active devices to attain similar levels of comfort. At times these
simple techniques seem to be ineffective and advanced techniques of passive design need to be
incorporated such as trombe wall, solar chimney, roof ponds, wind towers, earth-air tunnel etc.

Rammed Earth systems in the Himalayas, Sun-baked Earth Brick construction in the Kathmandu
valley, Wattle and Dough of the terai are standing examples of Passive solar designs. All of these
traditional systems characteristic of the different geographic regions of Nepal employ the use of
natural materials and heavily rely on building orientation for heat gain. In the Himalayas, dwellings
are always constructed on south-facing slopes for heat gain and are closely built to reduce wind
flow. In the valley, thick sun-dried brick walls serve as thermal mass and radiate heat into internal
spaces at night-time. The terai huts are built out of locally available materials which are generally by-
products of food crops, vegetation is used for shading and evaporative cooling is employed in the
internal spaces.

Traditional dwellings generally employ simple techniques of passive solar design and vividly
demonstrate the effects these simple tools have in the habitable environment. With necessary
amendments these techniques can be used in modern structures to increase their thermal
performance.
Solar architecture
The term solar architecture refers to an approach to building design that is sensitive to Nature and
takes advantage of climatic conditions to achieve human comfort rather than depending on artificial
energy that is both costly and environmentally damaging. Unlike the conventional design approach
that treats climate as the enemy which has to be kept out of the built environment, solar
architecture endeavours to build as part of the environment using climatic factors to our advantage
and utilising the energy of Nature itself to attain required comfort levels. Nature’s energies can be
utilised in two ways - passiveand active and consequently solar architecture is classified as passive
solar and active solar architecture.
Passive solar architecture
It relies upon the design or architecture of the building itself to ensure climate control by way of
natural thermal conduction, convection and radiation. The rudiments of solar passive design were
developed and used through the centuries by many civilisations across the globe; in fact, many of
these early civilisations built dwellings that were better suited to their climatic surroundings than
those built today in most developed and developing countries. This has been largely due to the
advent of cheap fossil fuels that allowed for artificial temperature and light control at the cost of
natural light and cooling. A substantial share of world energy resources is therefore being spent in
heating, cooling and lighting of such buildings. The use of solar passive measures such as natural
cross ventilation, sufficient day-lighting, proper insulation, use of adequate shading devices coupled
with auxiliary energy systems that are renewable and environment friendly can considerably bring
down the costs as well as the energy needs of the building.
Passive solar systems
The term passive solar refers to systems that absorb, store and distribute the sun’s energy without
relying on mechanical devices like pumps and fans, which require additional energy. Passive solar
design reduces the energy requirements of the building by meeting either part or all of its daily
cooling, heating and lighting needs through the use of solar energy.
Passive heating
Heating the building through the use of solar energy involves the absorption and storage of incoming
solar radiation, which is then used to meet the heating requirements of the space. Incoming solar
radiation is typically stored in thermal mass such as concrete, brick, rock, water or a material that
changes phase according to temperature. Incoming sunlight is regulated by the use of overhangs,
awnings and shades while insulating materials can help to reduce heat loss during the night or in the
cold season. Vents and dampers are typically used to distribute warm or cool air from the system to
the areas where it is needed. The three most common solar passive systems are direct gain, indirect
gain and isolated gain. A direct gain system allows sunlight to windows into on occupied space
where it is absorbed by the floor and walls. In the indirect gain system, a medium of heat storage
such as wall, in one part of the building absorbs and stores heat, which is then transferred to the rest
of the building by conduction, convection or radiation. In an isolated gain system, solar energy is
absorbed in a separate area such as greenhouse or solarium, and distributed to the living space by
ducts. The incorporation of insulation in passive systems can be effective in conserving additional
energy.
Passive cooling
Passive solar technology can also be used for cooling purposes. These systems function by either
shielding buildings from direct heat gain or by transferring excess heat outside. Carefully designed
elements such as overhangs, awnings and eaves shade from high angle summer sun while allowing
winter sun to enter the building. Excess heat transfer can be achieved through ventilation or
conduction, where heat is lost to the floor and walls. A radiant heat barrier, such as aluminium foil,
installed under a roof is able to block upto 95% of radiant heat transfer through the roof.
Water evaporation is also an effective method of cooling buildings, since water absorbs a large
quantity of heat as it evaporates. Fountains, sprays and ponds provide substantial cooling to the
surrounding areas. The use of sprinkler systems to continually wet the roof during the hot season
can reduce the cooling requirements by 25%. Trees can induce cooling by transpiration, reducing the
surrounding temperature by 4 to 14 degrees F.
Active cooling systems of solar cooling such as evaporative cooling through roof spray and roof pond
and desiccant cooling systems have been developed alongwith experimental stratergies like earth-
cooling tubes and earth-sheltered buildings. Desiccant cooling systems are designed to dehumidify
and cool air. These are particularly suited to hot humid climates where air-conditioning accounts for
a major portion of the energy costs. Desiccant materials such as silica gels and certain salt
compounds naturally absorb moisture from humid air and release the moisture when heated, a
feature that makes them re-useable. In a solar desiccant system, the sun provides the energy to
recharge the desiccants. Once the air has been dehumidified, it can be chilled by evaporative cooling
or other methods to provide relatively cool, dry air. This can greatly reduce cooling requirements
Evaporative cooling
Evaporation occurs whenever the vapour pressure of water is lesser than the water vapour in the
surrounding atmosphere. The phase change of water from liquid to the vapour state is accompanied
by the release of a large quantity of sensible heat from the air that lowers the temperature of air
while its moisture content increases. The provision of shading and the supply of cool, dry air will
enhance the process of evaporative cooling. Evaporative cooling techniques can be broadly classified
aspassive and hybrid.
Passive direct systems include the use of vegetation for evapotranspiration, as well as the use of
fountains, pools and ponds where the evaporation of water results in lower temperature in the
room. An important technique known as ‘Volume cooler’ is used in traditional architecture. The
system is based on the use of a tower where water contained in a jar or spray is precipitated.
External air introduced into the tower is cooled by evaporation and then transferred into the
building. A contemporary version of this technique uses a wet cellulose pad installed at the top of a
downdraft tower, which cools the incoming air.

Passive solar building design

Elements of passive solar design, shown in a direct gain application

‹ In passive solar building design, windows, walls, and floors are made to collect, store, and
distribute solar energy in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the summer. This is
called passive solar design or climatic design because, unlike active solar heating systems, it doesn't
involve the use of mechanical and electrical devices.
The key to designing a passive solar building is to best take advantage of the local climate. Elements
to be considered include window placement and glazing type, thermal insulation, thermal mass, and
shading. Passive solar design techniques can be applied most easily to new buildings, but existing
buildings can be adapted or "retrofitted".
Passive energy gain
Passive solar technologies use sunlight without active mechanical systems (as contrasted to active
solar). Such technologies convert sunlight into usable heat (water, air, thermal mass), cause air-
movement for ventilating, or future use, with little use of other energy sources. A common example
is a solarium on the equator-side of a building. Passive cooling is the use of the same design
principles to reduce summer cooling requirements.
Some passive systems use a small amount of conventional energy to control dampers, shutters,
night insulation, and other devices that enhance solar energy collection, storage, and use, and
reduce undesirable heat transfer.
Passive solar technologies include direct and indirect solar gain for space heating, solar water
heating systems based on the thermosiphon or geyser pump, use of thermal mass and phase-change
materials for slowing indoor air temperature swings, solar cookers, the solar chimney for enhancing
natural ventilation, and earth sheltering.
More widely, passive solar technologies include the solar furnace and solar forge, but these typically
require some external energy for aligning their concentrating mirrors or receivers, and historically
have not proven to be practical or cost effective for widespread use. 'Low-grade' energy needs, such
as space and water heating, have proven, over time, to be better applications for passive use of solar
energy.
As a science
The scientific basis for Passive Solar Building Design[1] has been developed from a combination
of climatology, thermodynamics ( particularly heat transfer: conduction (heat), convection,
andelectromagnetic radiation ), fluid mechanics / natural convection (passive movement of air and
water without the use of electricity, fans or pumps), and human thermal comfort based on heat
index,psychrometrics and enthalpy control for buildings to be inhabited by humans or
animals, sunrooms, solariums, and greenhouses for raising plants.
Specific attention is divided into: the site, location and solar orientation of the building, local sun
path, the prevailing level of insolation ( latitude / sunshine / clouds / precipitation (meteorology) ),
design and construction quality / materials, placement / size / type of windows and walls, and
incorporation of solar-energy-storing thermal mass with heat capacity.
While these considerations may be directed toward any building, achieving an ideal optimized cost /
performance solution requires careful, holistic, system integration engineering of these scientific
principles. Modern refinements through computer modeling (such as the comprehensive U.S.
Department of Energy "Energy Plus" energy simulation software, and application of decades of
lessons learned (since the 1970s energy crisis) can achieve significant energy savings and reduction
of environmental damage, without sacrificing functionality or aesthetics. In fact, passive-solar design
features such as a greenhouse / sunroom / solarium can greatly enhance the livability, daylight,
views, and value of a home, at a low cost per unit of space.
Much has been learned about passive solar building design since the 1970s energy crisis. Many
unscientific, intuition-based expensive construction experiments have attempted and failed to
achievezero energy - the total elimination of heating-and-cooling energy bills.
Passive solar building construction may not be difficult or expensive (using off-the-shelf existing
materials and technology), but the scientific passive solar building design is a non-trivial engineering
effort that requires significant study of previous counter-intuitive lessons learned, and time to enter,
evaluate, and iteratively-refine the computer simulation input and output.
One of the most useful post-construction evaluation tools has been the use of thermography using
digital thermal imaging cameras for a formal quantitative scientific energy audit. Thermal imaging
can be used to document areas of poor thermal performance such as the negative thermal impact of
roof-angled glass or a skylight on a cold winter night or hot summer day.
The scientific lessons learned over the last three decades have been captured in sophisticated
comprehensive energy simulation computer software systems (like U.S. DOE Energy Plus, et al.),
which take time for a scientist or engineer to learn how to use.
Scientific passive solar building design with quantitative cost benefit product optimization is not easy
for a novice. The level of complexity has resulted in ongoing bad-architecture, and many intuition-
based, unscientific construction experiments that disappoint their designers and waste a significant
portion of their construction budget on inappropriate ideas.
The economic motivation for scientific design and engineering is significant. If it had been applied
comprehensively to new building construction beginning in 1980 (based on 1970's lessons learned),
America could be saving over $250,000,000 per year on expensive energy and related pollution
today.
Since 1979, Passive Solar Building Design has been a critical element of achieving zero energy by
educational institution experiments, and governments around the world, including the U.S.
Department of Energy, and the energy research scientists that they have supported for decades.
The cost effective proof of concept was established decades ago, but cultural assimilation into
architecture, construction trades, and building-owner decision making has been very slow and
difficult to change.
The new terms "Architectural Science" and "Architectural Technology" are being added to some
schools of Architecture, with a future goal of teaching the above scientific and energy-engineering
principles.

The solar path in passive design

Sun path
The ability to achieve these goals simultaneously is fundamentally dependent on the seasonal
variations in the sun's path throughout the day.
This occurs as a result of the inclination of the Earth's axis of rotation in relation to its orbit. The sun
path is unique for any given latitude.
In Northern Hemisphere non-tropical latitudes farther than 23.5 degrees from the equator:
The sun will reach its highest point toward the South (in the direction of the equator)
As winter solstice approaches, the angle at which the sun rises and sets progressively moves further
toward the South and the daylight hours will become shorter
The opposite is noted in summer where the sun will rise and set further toward the North and the
daylight hours will lengthen[4]
The converse is observed in the Southern Hemisphere, but the sun rises to the east and sets toward
the west regardless of which hemisphere you are in.
In equatorial regions at less than 23.5 degrees, the position of the sun at solar noon will oscillate
from north to south and back again during the year.[5]
In regions closer than 23.5 degrees from either north-or-south pole, during summer the sun will
trace a complete circle in the sky without setting whilst it will never appear above the horizon six
months later, during the height of winter.[6]
The 47-degree difference in the altitude of the sun at solar noon between winter and summer forms
the basis of passive solar design. This information is combined with local climatic data (degree day)
heating and cooling requirements to determine at what time of the year solar gain will be beneficial
for thermal comfort, and when it should be blocked with shading. By strategic placement of items
such as glazing and shading devices, the percent of solar gain entering a building can be controlled
throughout the year.
One passive solar sun path design problem is that although the sun is in the same relative position
six weeks before, and six weeks after, the solstice, due to "thermal lag" from the thermal mass of the
Earth, the temperature and solar gain requirements are quite different before and after the summer
or winter solstice. Movable shutters, shades, shade screens, or window quilts can accommodate
day-to-day and hour-to-hour solar gain and insulation requirements.
Careful arrangement of rooms completes the passive solar design. A common recommendation for
residential dwellings is to place living areas facing solar noon and sleeping quarters on the opposite
side.[7] A heliodon is a traditional movable light device used by architects and designers to help
model sun path effects. In modern times, 3D computer graphics can visually simulate this data, and
calculate performance predictions.[3]
Passive solar thermodynamic principles
Personal thermal comfort is a function of personal health factors (medical, psychological,
sociological and situational),ambient air temperature, mean radiant temperature, air movement
(wind chill,turbulence) and relative humidity (affecting human evaporative cooling). Heat transfer in
buildings occurs through convection, conduction, and thermal radiation through roof, walls, floor
and windows.
Convective heat transfer
Convective heat transfer can be beneficial or detrimental. Uncontrolled air infiltration from
poor weatherization / weatherstripping / draft-proofing can contribute up to 40% of heat loss during
winter;[9]however, strategic placement of operable windows or vents can enhance convection, cross-
ventilation, and summer cooling when the outside air is of a comfortable temperature and relative
humidity.[10]Filtered energy recovery ventilation systems may be useful to eliminate undesirable
humidity, dust, pollen, and microorganisms in unfiltered ventilation air.
Natural convection causing rising warm air and falling cooler air can result in an uneven stratification
of heat. This may cause uncomfortable variations in temperature in the upper and lower conditioned
space, serve as a method of venting hot air, or be designed in as a natural-convection air-flow loop
for passive solar heat distribution and temperature equalization. Natural human cooling
by perspirationand evaporation may be facilitated through natural or forced convective air
movement by fans, but ceiling fans can disturb the stratified insulating air layers at the top of a
room, and accelerate heat transfer from a hot attic, or through nearby windows. In addition,
high relative humidity inhibits evaporative cooling by humans.
Radiative heat transfer
The main source of heat transfer is radiant energy, and the primary source is the sun. Solar radiation
occurs predominantly through the roof and windows (but also through walls). Thermal
radiationmoves from a warmer surface to a cooler one. Roofs receive the majority of the solar
radiation delivered to a house. A cool roof, or green roof in addition to a radiant barrier can help
prevent your attic from becoming hotter than the peak summer outdoor air
temperature (see albedo, absorptivity, emissivity, and reflectivity).
Windows are a ready and predictable site for thermal radiation.[12] Energy from radiation can move
into a window in the day time, and out of the same window at night. Radiation uses photons to
transmit electromagnetic waves through a vacuum, or translucent medium. Solar heat gain can be
significant even on cold clear days. Solar heat gain through windows can be reduced by insulated
glazing, shading, and orientation. Windows are particularly difficult to insulate compared to roof and
walls. Convective heat transfer through and around window coverings also degrade its insulation
properties. When shading windows, external shading is more effective at reducing heat gain than
internal window coverings.
Western and eastern sun can provide warmth and lighting, but are vulnerable to overheating in
summer if not shaded. In contrast, the low midday sun readily admits light and warmth during the
winter, but can be easily shaded with appropriate length overhangs or angled louvres during
summer. The amount of radiant heat received is related to the location latitude, altitude, cloud
cover, and seasonal / hourly . Another passive solar design principle is that thermal energy can
be stored in certain building materials and released again when heat gain eases to
stabilize diurnal (day/night) temperature variations. The complex interaction
of thermodynamic principles can be counterintuitive for first-time designers. Precise computer
modeling can help avoid costly construction experiments.
Site specific considerations during design
Latitude, sun path, and insolation (sunshine)
Seasonal variations in solar gain e.g. cooling or heating degree days, solar insolation, humidity
Diurnal variations in temperature
Micro-climate details related to breezes, humidity, vegetation and land contour
Obstructions / Over-shadowing - to solar gain or local cross-winds
Design elements for residential buildings in temperate climates
Placement of room-types, internal doors & walls, & equipment in the house.
Orienting the building to face the equator (or a few degrees to the East to capture the morning sun)
Extending the building dimension along the east/west axis
Adequately sizing windows to face the midday sun in the winter, and be shaded in the summer.
Minimising windows on other sides, especially western windows. Erecting correctly sized, latitude-
specific roof overhangs, or shading elements (shrubbery, trees, trellises, fences, shutters, etc.
Using the appropriate amount and type of insulation including radiant barriers and bulk insulation to
minimise seasonal excessive heat gain or loss
Using thermal mass to store excess solar energy during the winter day (which is then re-radiated
during the night)
The precise amount of equator-facing glass and thermal mass should be based on careful
consideration of latitude, altitude, climatic conditions, and heating/cooling degree
day requirements.
Factors that can degrade thermal performance:
Deviation from ideal orientation and north/south/east/west aspect ratio
Excessive glass area ('over-glazing') resulting in overheating (also resulting in glare and fading of soft
furnishings) and heat loss when ambient air temperatures fall
Installing glazing where solar gain during the day and thermal losses during the night cannot be
controlled easily e.g. West-facing, angled glazing, skylights[16]
Thermal losses through non-insulated or unprotected glazing
Lack of adequate shading during seasonal periods of high solar gain (especially on the West wall)
Incorrect application of thermal mass to modulate daily temperature variations
Open staircases leading to unequal distribution of warm air between upper and lower floors as
warm air rises
High building surface area to volume - Too many corners
Inadequate weatherization leading to high air infiltration
Lack of, or incorrectly installed, radiant barriers during the hot season. (See also cool roof and green
roof)
Insulation materials that are not matched to the main mode of heat transfer (e.g. undesirable
convective/conductive/radiant heat transfer)
Efficiency and economics of passive solar heating
Technically, PSH is highly efficient. Direct-gain systems can utilize (i.e. convert into "useful" heat) 65-
70% of the energy of solar radiation that strikes the aperture or collector. To put this in perspective
relative to another energy conversion process, the photosynthetic efficiency theoretical limit is
around 11%.
Passive solar fraction (PSF) is the percentage of the required heat load met by PSH and hence
represents potential reduction in heating costs. RETScreen International has reported a PSF of 20-
50%. Within the field of sustainability, energy conservation even of the order of 15% is considered
substantial.
Other sources report the following PSFs:
5-25% for modest systems
40% for "highly optimized" systems
Up to 75% for "very intense" systems
In favorable climates such as the southwest United States, highly optimized systems can exceed 75%
PSF.[17]
Key passive solar building design concepts
There are six primary passive solar energy configurations:
direct solar gain
indirect solar gain
isolated solar gain
heat storage
insulation and glazing
passive cooling
Direct solar gain
Direct gain attempts to control the amount of direct solar radiation reaching the living space. This
direct solar gain is a critical part of passive solar house designation as it imparts to a direct gain.
The cost effectiveness of these configurations are currently being investigated in great detail and are
demonstrating promising results.
Indirect solar gain
Indirect gain attempts to control solar radiation reaching an area adjacent but not part of the living
space. Heat enters the building through windows and is captured and stored in thermal mass (e.g.
water tank, masonry wall) and slowly transmitted indirectly to the building
through conduction and convection. Efficiency can suffer from slow response (thermal lag) and heat
losses at night. Other issues include the cost of insulated glazing and developing effective systems to
redistribute heat throughout the living area.
Isolated solar gain
Isolated gain involves utilizing solar energy to passively move heat from or to the living space using a
fluid, such as water or air by natural convection or forced convection. Heat gain can occur through a
sunspace, solarium or solar closet. These areas may also be employed usefully as a greenhouse or
drying cabinet. An equator-side sun room may have its exterior windows higher than the windows
between the sun room and the interior living space, to allow the low winter sun to penetrate to the
cold side of adjacent rooms. Glass placement and overhangs prevent solar gain during the
summer.Earth cooling tubes or other passive cooling techniques can keep a solarium cool in the
summer.
Measures should be taken to reduce heat loss at night e.g. window coverings or movable window
insulation
Examples:
Thermosiphon
Barra system
Double envelope house
Thermal buffer zone[20]
Solar space heating system
Solar chimney
Heat storage
The sun doesn't shine all the time. Heat storage, or thermal mass keeps the building warm when the
sun can't heat it.
In diurnal solar houses, the storage is designed for one or a few days. The usual method is a custom-
constructed thermal mass. These include a Trombe wall, a ventilated concrete floor, a cistern, water
wall or roof pond.
In subarctic areas, or areas that have long terms without solar gain (e.g. weeks of freezing fog),
purpose-built thermal mass is very expensive. Don Stephens pioneered an experimental technique
to use the ground as thermal mass large enough for annualized heat storage. His designs run an
isolated thermosiphon 3m under a house, and insulate the ground with a 6m waterproof skirt.
Insulation
Main article: Building insulation
Thermal insulation or superinsulation (type, placement and amount) reduces unwanted leakage of
heat.[8] Some passive buildings are actually constructed of insulation.
[edit]Special glazing systems and window coverings
Main articles: Insulated glazing and Window covering
The effectiveness of direct solar gain systems is significantly enhanced by insulative (e.g. double
glazing), spectrally selective glazing (low-e), or movable window insulation (window quilts, bifold
interior insulation shutters, shades, etc.).
Generally, Equator-facing windows should not employ glazing coatings that inhibit solar gain.
There is extensive use of super-insulated windows in the German Passive House standard. Selection
of different spectrally selective window coating depends on the ratio of heating versus
coolingdegree days for the design location.
Glazing selection
Equator-facing glass
The requirement for vertical equator-facing glass is different from the other three sides of a
building. Reflective window coatings and multiple panes of glass can reduce useful solar gain.
However, direct-gain systems are more dependent on double or triple glazing to reduce heat loss.
Indirect-gain and isolated-gain configurations may still be able to function effectively with only
single-pane glazing. Nevertheless, the optimal cost-effective solution is both location and system
dependent.
[edit]Roof-angle glass / Skylights
Skylights admit harsh direct overhead sunlight and glare. either horizontally (a flat roof) or pitched at
the same angle as the roof slope. In some cases, horizontal skylights are used with reflectors to
increase the intensity of solar radiation (and harsh glare), depending on the roof angle of incidence.
When the winter sun is low on the horizon, most solar radiation reflects off of roof angled glass (
theangle of incidence is nearly parallel to roof-angled glass morning and afternoon ). When the
summer sun is high, it is nearly perpendicular to roof-angled glass, which maximizes solar gain at the
wrong time of year, and acts like a solar furnace. Skylights should be covered and well-insulated to
reduce natural convection ( warm air rising ) heat loss on cold winter nights, and intense solar heat
gain during hot spring/summer/fall days.
The equator-facing side of a building is south in the northern hemisphere, and north in the southern
hemisphere. Skylights on roofs that face away from the equator provide mostly-indirect illumination,
except for summer days when the sun rises on the non-equator side of the building (depending
on latitude). Skylights on east-facing roofs provide maximum direct light and solar heat gain in the
summer morning. West-facing skylights provide afternoon sunlight and heat gain during the hottest
part of the day.
Some skylights have expensive glazing that partially reduces summer solar heat gain, while still
allowing some visible light transmission. However, if visible light can pass through it, so can some
radiant heat gain (they are both electromagnetic radiation waves.
You can partially reduce some of the unwanted roof-angled-glazing summer solar heat gain by
installing a skylight in the shade of deciduous (leaf-shedding) trees, or by adding a movable insulated
opaque window covering on the inside or outside of the skylight. This would eliminate the daylight
benefit in the summer. If tree limbs hang over a roof, they will increase problems with leaves in rain
gutters, possibly cause roof-damaging ice dams, shorten roof life, and provide an easier path for
pests to enter your attic. Leaves and twigs on skylights are unappealing, difficult to clean, and can
increase the glazing breakage risk in wind storms.
"Sawtooth roof glazing" with vertical-glass-only can bring some of the passive solar building design
benefits into the core of a commercial or industrial building, without the need for any roof-angled
glass or skylights.
Skylights provide daylight. The only view they provide is essentially straight up in most applications.
Well-insulated light tubes can bring daylight into northern rooms, without using a skylight. A passive-
solar greenhouse provides abundant daylight for the equator-side of the building.
Infrared thermography color thermal imaging cameras ( used in formal energy audits ) can quickly
document the negative thermal impact of roof-angled glass or a skylight on a cold winter night or
hot summer day.
The U.S. Department of Energy states: "vertical glazing is the overall best option for sunspaces.".
Roof-angled glass and sidewall glass are not recommended for passive solar sunspaces.
The U.S. DOE explains drawbacks to roof-angled glazing: Glass and plastic have little structural
strength. When installed vertically, glass (or plastic) bears its own weight because only a small area
(the top edge of the glazing) is subject to gravity. As the glass tilts off the vertical axis, however, an
increased area (now the sloped cross-section) of the glazing has to bear the force of gravity. Glass is
also brittle; it does not flex much before breaking. To counteract this, you usually must increase the
thickness of the glazing or increase the number of structural supports to hold the glazing. Both
increase overall cost, and the latter will reduce the amount of solar gain into the sunspace.
Another common problem with sloped glazing is its increased exposure to the weather. It is difficult
to maintain a good seal on roof-angled glass in intense sunlight. Hail, sleet, snow, and wind may
cause material failure. For occupant safety, regulatory agencies usually require sloped glass to be
made of safety glass, laminated, or a combination thereof, which reduce solar gain potential. Most
of the roof-angled glass on the Crowne Plaza Hotel Orlando Airport sunspace was destroyed in a
single windstorm. Roof-angled glass increases construction cost, and can increase insurance
premiums. Vertical glass is less susceptible to weather damage than roof-angled glass.
It is difficult to control solar heat gain in a sunspace with sloped glazing during the summer and even
during the middle of a mild and sunny winter day. Skylights are the antithesis of zero energy
building Passive Solar Cooling in climates with an air conditioning requirement.
Angle of incident radiation
The amount of solar gain transmitted through glass is also affected by the angle of the incident solar
radiation. Sunlight striking glass within 20 degrees of perpendicular is mostly transmitted through
the glass, whereas sunlight at more than 35 degrees from perpendicular is mostly reflected[25]
All of these factors can be modeled more precisely with a photographic light meter and
a heliodon or optical bench, which can quantify the ratio of reflectivity to transmissivity, based
on angle of incidence.
Alternatively, passive solar computer software can determine the impact of sun path, and cooling-
and-heating degree days on energy performance. Regional climatic conditions are often available
from local weather services.
Operable shading and insulation devices
A design with too much equator-facing glass can result in excessive winter, spring, or fall day
heating, uncomfortably bright living spaces at certain times of the year, and excessive heat transfer
on winter nights and summer days.
Although the sun is at the same altitude 6-weeks before and after the solstice, the heating and
cooling requirements before and after the solstice are significantly different. Heat storage on the
Earth's surface causes "thermal lag." Variable cloud cover influences solar gain potential. This means
that latitude-specific fixed window overhangs, while important, are not a complete seasonal solar
gain control solution.
Control mechanisms (such as manual-or-motorized interior insulated drapes, shutters, exterior roll-
down shade screens, or retractable awnings) can compensate for differences caused by thermal lag
or cloud cover, and help control daily / hourly solar gain requirement variations.
Home automation systems that monitor temperature, sunlight, time of day, and room occupancy
can precisely control motorized window-shading-and-insulation devices.
Exterior colors reflecting - absorbing
Materials and colors can be chosen to reflect or absorb solar thermal energy. Using information on
a Color for electromagnetic radiation to determine its thermal radiation properties of reflection or
absorption can assist the choices.
Landscaping and gardens
Energy-efficient landscaping materials for careful passive solar choices include hardscape building
material and "softscape" plants. The use of landscape design principles for selection
of trees, hedges, and trellis-pergola features with vines; all can be used to create summer shading.
For winter solar gain it is desirable to use deciduous plants that drop their leaves in the autumn gives
year round passive solar benefits. Non-deciduous evergreen shrubs and trees can be windbreaks, at
variable heights and distances, to create protection and shelter from winter wind
chill. Xeriscaping with 'mature size appropriate' native species of-and drought tolerant plants, drip
irrigation, mulching, and organic gardening practices reduce or eliminate the need for energy-and-
water-intensive irrigation, gas powered garden equipment, and reduces the landfill waste footprint.
Solar powered landscape lighting and fountain pumps, and covered swimming pools and plunge
pools with solar water heaters can reduce the impact of such amenities.
Sustainable gardening
Sustainable landscaping
Sustainable landscape architecture
Other passive solar principles
Passive solar lighting
Passive solar lighting techniques enhance taking advantage of natural illumination for interiors, and
so reduce reliance on artificial lighting systems.
This can be achieved by careful building design, orientation, and placement of window sections to
collect light. Other creative solutions involve the use of reflecting surfaces to admit daylight into the
interior of a building. Window sections should be adequately sized, and to avoid over-
illumination can be shielded with a Brise soleil, awnings, well placed trees, glass coatings, and other
passive and active devices.[18]
Another major issue for many window systems is that they can be potentially vulnerable sites of
excessive thermal gain or heat loss. Whilst high mounted clerestory window and
traditional skylightscan introduce daylight in poorly oriented sections of a building, unwanted heat
transfer may be hard to control. Thus, energy that is saved by reducing artificial lighting is often
more than offset by the energy required for operating HVAC systems to maintain thermal comfort.
Various methods can be employed to address this including but not limited to window
coverings, insulated glazing and novel materials such as aerogel semi-transparent insulation, optical
fiberembedded in walls or roof, or hybrid solar lighting at Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
Interior reflecting
Reflecting elements, from active and passive daylighting collectors, such as light shelves, lighter wall
and floor colors, mirrored wall sections, interior walls with upper glass panels, and clear or
translucent glassed hinged doors and sliding glass doors take the captured light and passively reflect
it further inside. The light can be from passive windows or skylights and solar light tubes or
fromactive daylighting sources. In traditional Japanese architecture the Shōji sliding panel doors,
with translucent Washi screens, are an original precedent. International style, Modernist and Mid-
century modern architecture were earlier innovators of this passive penetration and reflection in
industrial, commercial, and residential applications.
Passive solar water heating
Main article: Solar hot water
There are many ways to use solar thermal energy to heat water for domestic use. Different active-
and-passive solar hot water technologies have different location-specific economic cost benefit
analysisimplications.
Fundamental passive solar hot water heating involves no pumps or anything electrical. It is very cost
effective in climates that do not have lengthy sub-freezing, or very-cloudy, weather conditions.
Other active solar water heating technologies, etc. may be more appropriate for some locations.
It is possible to have active solar hot water which is also capable of being "off grid" and qualifies as
sustainable. This is done by the use of a photovoltaic cell which uses energy from the sun to power
the pumps.[
Comparison to the Passive House standard in Europe
Passive indirect evaporative cooling techniques include roof spray and roof pond systems.
Roof spray
The exterior surface of the roof is kept wet using sprayers. The sensible heat of the roof surface is
converted into latent heat of vaporisation as the water evaporates. This cools the roof surface and a
temperature gradient is created between the inside and outside surfaces causing cooling of the
building. A reduction in cooling load of about 25% has been observed. A threshold condition for the
system is that the temperature of the roof should be greater than that of air.
There are, however, a number of problems associated with this system, not least of which is the
adequate availability of water. Also it might not be cost effective, as a result of high maintenance
costs and also problems due to inadequate water proofing of the roof.
Roof pond
The roof pond consists of a shaded water pond over an non-insulated concrete roof. Evaporation of
water to the dry atmosphere occurs during day and nighttime. The temperature within the space
falls as the ceiling acts as a radiant cooling panel for the space, without increasing indoor humidity
levels. The limitation of this technique is that it is confined only to single storey structure with flat,
concrete roof and also the capital cost is quite high.
Earth cooling tubes
These are long pipes buried underground with one end connected to the house and the other end to
the outside. Hot exterior air is drawn through these pipes where tit gives up some of its heat to the
soil, which is at a much lower temperature at a depth of 3m to 4m below the surface. This cool air is
then introduced into the house.
Special problems associated with these systems are possible condensation of water within the pipes
or evaporation of accumulated water and control of the system. The lack of detailed data about the
performance of such systems hinders the large-scale use of such systems.
Earth-sheltered buildings
During the summer, soil temperatures at certain depths are considerably lower than ambient air
temperature, thus providing an important source for dissipation of a building’s excess heat.
Conduction or convection can achieve heat dissipation to the ground. Earth sheltering achieves
cooling by conduction where part of the building envelope is in direct contact with the soil. Totally
underground buildings offer many additional advantages including protection from noise, dust,
radiation and storms, limited air infiltration and potentially safety from fires. They provide benefits
under both cooling and heating conditions, however the potential for large scale application of the
technology are limited; high cost and poor day-lighting conditions being frequent problems.
On the other hand, building in partial contact with earth offer interesting cooling possibilities. Sod
roofs can considerably reduce heat gain from the roof. Earth berming can considerably reduce solar
heat gain and also increase heat loss to the surrounding soil, resulting in increase in comfort.
Active solar architecture
It involves the use of solar collectors and other renewable energy systems like biomass to support
the solar passive features as they allow a greater degree of control over the internal climate and
make the whole system more precise. Active solar systems use solar panels for heat collection and
electrically driven pumps or fans to transport the heat or cold to the required spaces. Electronic
devices are used to regulate the collection, storage and distribution of heat within the system.
Hybrid systems using a balanced combination of active and passive features provide the best
performance.