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PHRi Functional Area 01

Talent Acquisition
Professional in Human Resources – International (PHRi)

International Human Resource Certification Institute

IHRCI ® | WWW.IHRCI.ORG
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Professional in Human Resources – International (PHRi) Workbook

Module One: Talent Acquisition

2018 Edition

Copyright © 2018 by International Human Resource Certification Institute

All rights reserved. No part of this book shall be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted by any means – electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise – without
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precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and author assume no
responsibility for errors or omissions. Neither is any liability assumed for damages resulting from the
use of the information contained herein.

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Kowloon, Hong Kong

www.ihrci.org
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Introduction
As a purchaser of the PHRi certification workbook serials, you have access to the
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a description of the key terms in HR. Also, the system consists of over 900 practice exam
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This workbook is not a textbook. These materials include workbooks and practice exams are
intended for use as an aid to preparation for the PHRi Certification Exam conducted by the
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the six key functional areas that make up the HR Certification Institute PHRi body of
knowledge. Studying these materials does not guarantee, however, that you will pass the
exam. These workbooks are not to be considered legal or professional advice.
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Table of Content
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 3
Table of Content ......................................................................................................................... 4
Part One: Job Analysis and Design ............................................................................................. 7
1. Job Analysis .................................................................................................................... 7
1.1. Applications of Job Analyses ............................................................................... 8
1.2. Elements of a Job Analysis ................................................................................ 12
1.3. Job Specification ................................................................................................ 16
2. Methods of Job Analysis ............................................................................................... 17
2.1. Self-Reports ....................................................................................................... 18
2.2. Direct Observations ........................................................................................... 18
2.3. Interviews .......................................................................................................... 19
2.4. Document Reviews ............................................................................................ 21
2.5. Questionnaires and Surveys .............................................................................. 21
3. Job Design ..................................................................................................................... 24
3.1. Comparative Framework ................................................................................... 26
3.2. Job Design and Technology ............................................................................... 30
3.3. Job Characteristics Enrichment ......................................................................... 31
3.4. Sociotechnical Systems...................................................................................... 36
Part Two: Workforce Planning .................................................................................................. 38
1. Human Resource Planning ........................................................................................... 38
1.1. Business Context ............................................................................................... 39
1.2. Workforce Supply .............................................................................................. 39
1.3. Workforce Demand ........................................................................................... 39
1.4. Workforce Gap .................................................................................................. 40
1.5. Staffing Plan ....................................................................................................... 40
2. Equating Workforce Demand to Supply ....................................................................... 41
2.1. Demand Equals Supply ...................................................................................... 42
2.2. Demand Is Less Than Supply ............................................................................. 42
2.3. Demand Is Greater Than Supply........................................................................ 42
3. Staffing Plan .................................................................................................................. 42
3.1. Demand Forecast............................................................................................... 42
3.2. Supply Forecast ................................................................................................. 43
3.3. Gap Analysis ...................................................................................................... 43
3.4. Strategy Identification ....................................................................................... 43
4. Contingent Staffing ....................................................................................................... 44
4.1. Type of Alternative Staff .................................................................................... 44
4.2. Contingent Workforce Strategy ......................................................................... 45
5. Diversity and Inclusion ................................................................................................. 47
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5.1. Inventory of Action ............................................................................................ 48

5.2. Leadership Accountability ................................................................................. 48
5.3. The Role of HR ................................................................................................... 49
6. Employment Contract .................................................................................................. 49
6.1. Implied Agreement ............................................................................................ 50
6.2. Written Agreement ........................................................................................... 50
6.3. Job offer ............................................................................................................. 50
Part Three: Workforce Recruitment ......................................................................................... 53
1. Recruiting ..................................................................................................................... 53
1.1. The Purpose of Recruitment ............................................................................. 53
1.2. The Recruitment Process................................................................................... 54
1.3. Recruitment Planning ........................................................................................ 55
2. Sources of Recruitment ................................................................................................ 55
2.1. Internal Recruiting ............................................................................................. 55
2.2. External Recruiting ............................................................................................ 63
3. Recruiting Metrics ........................................................................................................ 66
3.1. Quantity of Applicants ....................................................................................... 66
3.2. Quality of Applicants ......................................................................................... 67
3.3. Stakeholders Satisfaction .................................................................................. 67
3.4. Time to Fill ......................................................................................................... 67
3.5. Cost per Hire ...................................................................................................... 67
3.6. Yield ratios ......................................................................................................... 68
3.7. Selection Rate .................................................................................................... 68
3.8. Acceptance Rate ................................................................................................ 68
3.9. Success Base Rate .............................................................................................. 69
4. Increasing Recruiting Efficient and Effective ................................................................ 69
4.1. Résumé Mining .................................................................................................. 69
4.2. Applicant Tracking System (ATS) ........................................................................ 69
4.3. Employer Career Website .................................................................................. 70
4.4. Internal Mobility ................................................................................................ 70
4.5 Realistic Job Previews (RJPs)............................................................................... 70
4.6. Candidate Management .................................................................................... 70
4.7. Post-Hire Assessment ........................................................................................ 71
Part Four: Workforce Selection ................................................................................................ 73
1. Selection Process .......................................................................................................... 73
1.1. Stage One: Initial Screening............................................................................... 74
1.2. Stage Two: Secondary Screening ....................................................................... 74
1.3. Stage Three: Candidacy ..................................................................................... 75
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1.4. Stage Four: Verification ..................................................................................... 75

1.5. Stage Five: Final Decision .................................................................................. 75
2. Criteria, Predictors, and Performance .......................................................................... 75
2.1. Validity ............................................................................................................... 76
2.2. Reliability ........................................................................................................... 77
2.3. Combining Predictors ........................................................................................ 77
2.4. Person-Environment Fit ..................................................................................... 78
3. Initial Screening ............................................................................................................ 79
3.1. Electronic Assessment Screening ...................................................................... 80
3.2. Application Forms.............................................................................................. 81
3.3. Résumés as Applications ................................................................................... 82
4. Secondary Screening .................................................................................................... 82
4.1. Cognitive Aptitude Tests .................................................................................... 83
4.2. Psychomotor / Physical Abilities........................................................................ 83
4.3. Job Knowledge Tests .......................................................................................... 84
4.4. Work Sample Tests ............................................................................................ 84
4.5. Vocational Interest Tests ................................................................................... 84
4.6. Personality Tests ................................................................................................ 85
4.7. Integrity Test ...................................................................................................... 86
4.8. Substance Abuse Tests ...................................................................................... 86
4.9. Assessment Center (AC) .................................................................................... 86
5. Job Interview ................................................................................................................ 87
5.1. Structured vs. Unstructured Interviews ............................................................ 88
5.2. Situational Interview ......................................................................................... 88
5.3. Behavioral Interview.......................................................................................... 89
5.4. STAR technique .................................................................................................. 89
5.5. Other Types of Interviews ................................................................................. 89
5.6. Interview Procedure .......................................................................................... 91
6. Reference Check ........................................................................................................... 91
6.1. Process of Reference Check............................................................................... 92
6.2. Background Check ............................................................................................. 93
6.3. Legal Constraints on Background Investigations ............................................... 94
6.4. Medical Examinations and Inquiries ................................................................. 94
6.5. References ......................................................................................................... 95
6.6. Making the Job Offer ......................................................................................... 95
Reference.......................................................................................................................... 98
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Part One: Job Analysis and Design

1. Job Analysis
Human resource management in organizations virtually always requires an in-depth
understanding of the work that people do in that organization. The process by which this
understanding is developed is a job analysis; a job description is the documentation of the
results of that analysis. While these two terms are often used interchangeably, we strongly
recommend against such usage, as job analysis is a process and a job description is a
product of that process. Simply put, a job analysis is a systematic process for collecting and
analyzing information about a job.
In a more comprehensive and detailed definition, Scholars defined job analysis as ‘‘the
collection of data on (a)‘job-oriented’ behavior, such as job tasks and work procedures;
(b) more abstract ‘worker-oriented’ behavior, such as decision making, supervision, and
information processing; (c) behaviors involved in interactions with machines, materials,
and tools; (d) methods of evaluating performance, such as productivity and error rates; (e)
job context, such as working conditions and type of compensation systems; and (f)
personnel requirements, such as skills, physical ability, and personality traits’’ This
definition of job analysis focuses on the systematic collection of data on the observable job
behaviors of employees and what is accomplished by these behaviors and what
technologies are required to do so.

Brannick, M.T., Levine, E.L., & Morgeson, F.P. (2014). Job and Work Analysis: Methods,
Research, and Applications for Human Resource Management (2nd edition). Thousand
Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Given the importance that job analyses play in the management of human capital, it is
surprising that job analyses are not regarded as a more critical tool in the field of human
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resources. Over three decades ago, a researcher observed, ‘Although job analysis is an
essential feature of every activity engaged in by industrial-organizational psychologists, the
subject is treated in most textbooks in a manner which suggests that any fool can do it and
thus is a task which can be delegated to the lowest level technician’. Unfortunately, the
situation has not much changed, and this important function is not given the proper
degree of attention and respect either by psychologists or HR professionals.
1.1. Applications of Job Analyses
A variety of important reasons support conducting job analyses in the workplace.
These include recruitment, candidate selection, employee training and development,
performance management, organizational management and planning, and litigation
protection. Each of these will be briefly reviewed.
1.1.1. Recruitment
The first external application of job analysis is in recruitment, when the job description
becomes the basis for recruiting applicants. In beginning to fill a vacant job, the
recruiter needs to know the job responsibilities as well as the skills and other
characteristics required of candidates. Not only is it necessary for the recruiter to know
these things, but candidates need to know the kind of job for which they are applying.
The need for a job description should be obvious to all.
1.1.2. Candidate Selection
In our experience, candidate selection accounts for most job analyses. Employers need
to know in some detail the work activities involved in each job vacancy and, most
importantly, the knowledge, skills, and abilities— the competencies— required to fill
that job successfully. While most employers maintain files of job descriptions, there is
widespread understanding that many, if not most, of these job descriptions are dated
and need to be redone, especially for jobs deemed to be critically important.
The work activities of a job change over time, as do the requirements for successfully
carrying out those activities. As an example, consider the impact that the computer has
had on the work activities both in the office and on the shop floor. Administrative
positions that once had a heavy dose of taking shorthand and transcription are now
given over to a very different set of activities, ones that require a rather different set of
requirements. Similarly, the introduction of the computer onto the shop floor and into
the warehouse has produced an equally large impact on the work activities. The
tightening of bolts on the assembly line is now done by a computer-driven robot, the
contents of the warehouse are all bar coded, and most jobs require computer skills for
success. Such changes are ongoing and have enormous impact on the competency
requirements for hiring. And these changes can be specified only by a careful job
analysis.
Further, it is important to recognize that many skills are specific to a given occupation
and that these occupationally specific skills are only be identified by a job analysis.
One use of job analyses is in developing behavioral interviewing protocols for candidate
screening. The job description that is the end-product of the job analysis should
provide a clear picture of the work and activities and the requirements. These then
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should provide the basis on which to develop a behavioral interviewing protocol—

questions inquiring into a candidate’s experience in such work activities and seeking to
establish the degree to which the candidate has the necessary requirements to
perform the important work activities. This is a method for developing a behavioral
interview much preferred to the more generic approach that lacks a specific job-
relevant focus.
Another important use of job analyses is as the criteria for validity studies of any pre-
employment selection procedure, especially psychological tests. The Standards for
Educational and Psychological Testing specify that the job requirements involved in
studies of predictor-criteria relationships should be ‘‘determined by a job analysis’’. In
other words, the validity of a psychological test or any procedure for selecting job
candidates must be determined by the correlation of that procedure with an important
aspect of job performance as identified by a job analysis.
1.1.3. Employee Training and Development
Once a current job analysis becomes available, the competency of current employees
in that job becomes apparent. Employees without a high level of the identified
necessary competencies will be less productive than they otherwise should be. For
example, if a new applicant tracking system is introduced in the HR function, someone
has to be hired to manage that system. But, implicit in that decision, is the question of
the competency of the existing HR staff to use that new system. Without knowing the
answer to that question, the positive impact of the introduction of this new system will
be less than intended. Thus, the job analysis used for the new hire should lead to an
analysis of the competencies of the existing staff, and a training and development
program should be instituted to produce the necessary competencies.
The job analysis can impact on the individual training and development level as well. It
is rare that even those candidates who are the best fit developed through the job
analysis are a perfect fit. The selection process should have identified both the
candidate’s strengths— those that led to the selection—and weaknesses— those that
need to be addressed by some training and development process. This might be part of
a supervisory or mentoring process or by some actual training, either on the job or
somewhere else. In a somewhat dated example, a very experienced travel agent with
an established clientele was hired by a large travel agency. The agent, despite her
considerable experience, has little experience using the computer booking system that
had been identified as an important requirement in the job analysis. Her experience
and list of clients were sufficient to outweigh her lack of skill with the system, a lack
that could be remedied by taking a week-long training course, which was an acceptable
solution to both parties. Clearly in this case, as in all training decisions, the job analysis
is the starting point.
1.1.4. Performance Management
Another important use of job analysis is in performance management. Job analyses
play an important role in developing or modifying compensation systems and in
performance appraisal. Determining the various levels of performance on a given job is
an essential aspect of every job analysis. The knowledge of what constitutes an
outstanding level of performance, an average level, and a borderline level is a critical
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aspect of performance management and should be the basis for setting pay and
bonuses, the need for training and development, and for virtually all other aspects of
the HR function.
Job analyses have been used not only to set pay levels but also to help determine
whether different jobs require different requirements or effort, or involve different
working conditions. In either case, such differences merit different pay scales. Jobs that
involve equivalent factors, however, should lead to equal pay.
The pay level a job warrants is also important, and the job characteristics as
determined by the job analysis are frequently used to determine the level of pay.
Among the factors included in such decisions are
 Level of education, training, or experience required
 Degree of creativity involved
 Strength or stamina necessary
 Amount of responsibility
 Degree of independence of action
 Scope of influence
 Intellectual demands, including problem solving
 Risk of death, injury, or sickness
Presumably the level of each of these factors can be identified by a job analysis and
then combined in some meaningful way to determine the level of the job among the
various jobs in that organization. The job description and the combined evaluation of
these various factors provide the basis for establishing a compensation system that is
then priced according to the data produced by a salary survey of similar jobs in the
local job market.
Since such comparisons are fraught with uncertainties, they have become the basis of a
considerable amount of litigation about the equality of pay for different jobs. As just
one example of the ambiguities involved, consider the difficulties inherent in
attempting to use job analysis to justify equal pay of elementary school teachers and
truck drivers. While there is some evidence that sophisticated statistical analysis of the
results of job analyses can be used successfully to predict market compensation rates,
this can be done only for blue-collar jobs. Further, it is often argued that such an
approach captures only existing discriminatory pay polices and does little to advance
the cause of equal pay for equal work. It is safe to conclude that setting compensation
systems on the basis of job analysis is a complex and difficult process.
Job analyses are also used in the performance appraisal process. For this process, job
analyses should highlight the various work activities involved in performing a job and
the relative importance of each activity. A rational performance appraisal system would
evaluate the quality of the work performed by the individual being appraised according
to the various importance ratings. It should be far more critical for that employee being
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rated to perform the important tasks more competently than for him or her to perform
those of lesser importance competently. Unfortunately, this does not always seem to
be the case, and often employees feel that they are downgraded for not attending to
rather trivial tasks, ones not critical to fulfilling the organization’s mission. This leads to
a feeling on the part of employees that the performance appraisal process is an
unimportant managerial task, so they often discount the entire process.
1.1.5. Organizational Management and Planning
As we noted above, the appropriateness of job descriptions tends to decay over time.
Changes in the marketplace require new behaviors, technology changes jobs with warp
speed, and incumbents begin to do their jobs in idiosyncratic ways. As a result of these
and other changes, job descriptions become obsolete. Further, mergers and
acquisitions lead to a need to integrate different human resources management
systems. And a new CEO comes in and decides to rationalize the HR function, to update
the job descriptions, create a new compensation system, one based on equal pay for
equal work, none of which can be accomplished without starting with a job analysis.
When one of us became the CEO of a large professional association, he quickly learned
about employee discontent over what appeared to be favoritism in assigning job titles,
compensation, and a variety of other benefits. It appeared that the only way to deal
with this unrest was through an organization-wide review and rationalization,
beginning with job analyses. To win employee acceptance of the process, the staff was
promised that no one would suffer financially or in status.
The organization had almost five hundred employees, and the HR function was
inadequate to perform the required work. A national HR consulting firm was engaged
to create an organization-wide series of job analyses, draft current job descriptions
based on these analyses, create a uniform set of job titles, and recommend a
compensation system based on the job content involved and a regional salary survey.
This was done over a period of several months and was widely accepted by both rank-
and-file employees and the organization’s board of directors. Moreover, this work
enabled the organization to identify where additional resources were needed and
where redundancy would provide some resources to fill those gaps. But all of this
depended on the first step— the job analyses.
1.1.6. Litigation Protection
Still another use of job analyses is to reduce an organization’s exposure to litigation
based on allegations of discriminatory hiring practices. In order to ensure that all
individuals are treated fairly in the workplace, including in hiring, pay, training, and
other conditions of employment, we need to base all of our decisions on job-related
qualifications. The only way to be able to do this is through the use of job analyses. For
example, if we wish to hire a plumber, we need to ascertain that applicants can run
pipe and have a license to do so, requirements based on the job analysis. Simply stated,
if we are to hire people based on the qualifications to perform a job, we first must
determine what those requirements for doing that job are—and conducting a job
analysis is the only legal way to do this.
As we noted above, the Uniform Guidelines are quite explicit in requiring ‘‘an analysis
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of important work behaviors required for successful performance’’ as the basis for any
hiring action. Any selection process should begin with such a job analysis that
establishes the criteria against which applicants should be compared. Further, the job
analysis establishes the criteria for establishing the validity of any assessment measure
to be used in the selection process. Scholars provide a more detailed discussion of the
use of criteria to establish the validity of psychological tests and a catalogue of
commonly used tests.
While there is no absolute or certain shield against litigation, basing selection decisions
on a careful, thorough, and current job analysis and using only well-validated selection
procedures based on those job analyses will go a long way to deter frivolous filings.
One additional point is the critical importance of a careful, contemporaneous record
documenting what was done and why it was done. In our experience, one of the major
problems that our clients experience in defending themselves in HR litigation is the
failure to document properly what was done.
This catalogue of the uses of job analyses is far from complete, as we have not included
the use of job analyses in research on the nature of work and how work is changing,
studies of the structure of work, and so on. But the focus of this book is on providing
useful tools for the practicing HR professional and such conceptually focused research
is of little practical use to this audience.
1.2. Elements of a Job Analysis
1.2.1. Terms and Definition of Job Analysis
Various authors use terms such as job, position, and task to men different things.
Position: The duties and tasks carried out by one person. A position may exist even
where no incumbent fills it; it may be an open position. There are at least as many
positions in an organization as there are people.
Job: A group of positions with the same major duties or tasks: if the positions are not
identical, the similarity is great enough to justify grouping them. A job is a set of tasks
within a single organization or organizational unit.
Occupation: An occupation is a class of roughly similar jobs found in many
organizations and even in different industries. Examples include attorney, computer
programmer. Mechanic, and Gardener.
Job family: A group of jobs similar in specifiable ways, such as patterns of purposes,
behaviors, or worker attributes. An example of a job family might he clerical and
technical,” which could include receptionists, accounting clerks, secretaries, and data
entry specialists.
Element: The smallest feasible part of an activity or broader category of behavior or
work done. It might be an elemental motion, a part of a task, or a broader behavioral
category; there is little consistency in meanings of this term.
Task: A step or component in (lie performance of a duty. A task has a clear beginning
and ending; it can usually be described with a brief statement consisting of an action
verb and a further phrase.
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Duty: A relatively large part of the work done in a position or job. It consists of several
tasks related in time, sequence, outcome, or objective. A clerical duty might be “sorting
correspondence.” One task in correspondence sorting might be ‘identify letters
requiring immediate response.’
Job Description (JD): A written report of the results of job analysis. JD is a list or form
of a job’s duties, responsibilities, reporting relationships, working conditions,
performance criteria, and supervisory responsibilities. JD is the result and one product
of a job analysis.
Job Specification: A list of a job’s “human requirements”: the requisite education,
skills, knowledge, and so on – another product of a job analysis. Job Specification
should address what knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) do
job holders need to perform these tasks effectively.
Traditional job analysis has four typical components:
 A description of the work activity (WA) or tasks involved in doing the job;
 The knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSA) or competencies necessary to perform
the job;
 Data on the range of job performance; and
 The characteristics of the workplace.
The data contained in these four components provide the basis for drafting the job
description, which should provide an integrated narrative picture of the job and what is
required to fill that job successfully.
1.2.2. Work Activity (WA)
The process of a job analysis typically begins with a description of the major job
functions, the activities in which a job incumbent regularly engages— the reasons why
the job exists. One inherent problem in describing work activities is the level at which
the activity is described. At the most basic level are the job elements, “the smallest unit
into which work can be divided without analyzing separate motions, movement, and
mental processes’’.
A more useful approach is that of Functional Job Analysis, which specifies an action
verb, which describes the action performed in observable terms; (2) the outcomes or
results of that action; (3) the tools or other equipment used; and (4) the amount of
discretion allowed the worker in that action. Two examples should serve to clarify
some of the issues in this approach to WA. In the first, ‘‘The assembler takes one end of
the red wire and one end of the green wire and joins them together with a screw nut.’’
In the second, “The surgeon takes the scalpel and makes a long incision into the chest
of the comatose patient.’’ In both examples, the action is described clearly, the tools
involved are specified, the outcomes are clear, and the level of discretion is implicit and
very different. These examples represent both the approach and content of the
approach, sometimes referred to as major job requirements, to describing the WA that
we advocate.
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There two aspects to the WA process: one is the importance of the action to the
success of performing the job and the other is the frequency with which that action is
performed. Obviously, important and frequent actions constitute the bulk of the WA.
But important but infrequent actions often need to be included. For example, while
most police officers never draw and fire their handguns in the course of their careers,
when such action is required it is critical to the success of that job. Thus, descriptions
of WA should identify both the importance and frequency of actions, especially when
highly important WA occur infrequently.
1.2.3. Knowledge, Skills, and Ability (KSA)
The second question that every job analysis must address concerns the knowledge,
skills, and abilities (KSA) or competencies necessary to perform these WA.
Knowledge is defined as an organized body of information, usually of a factual or
procedural nature, that, when applied, makes the successful performance of a job
action possible. Knowledge is usually not demonstrated in the action itself but rather
by prior education, training, or testing. In observing the action, the knowledge base is
assumed and inferred rather than directly observed.
In the above example of the assembler, he or she would need to have sufficient
knowledge of the English language to follow directions, know the difference between
red and green, and know how to use a screw nut to join the two ends together. The
knowledge needed by a surgeon is far more complex and would include an intimate
understanding of the anatomy and physiology of the human body, how to monitor the
patient’s vital signs, choosing the correct scalpel for the procedure, and so on. In both
cases, however, each set of knowledge forms the basis of the success of executing the
job action.
Skill, the second necessary component for the successful execution of the job action, is
defined as the proficiency in the manual, verbal, or mental manipulation of people,
ideas, or things. A skill is always directly observable and a certain level of skill is
typically set as a standard or baseline for the successful performance of the action.
In our continuing example, the assembler must have sufficient eye-hand coordination
to pick up the two ends of the wire and the screw nut and adequate finger dexterity to
twist the wires together either by hand or mechanically and insert the twisted ends
into the wire nut. The skill set of the surgeon includes a high level of eye-hand
coordination, sufficient hand steadiness to manipulate the scalpel without untoward
injury to the patient, sufficient finger dexterity to suture major bleeding, and so on.
Thus, every job action involves an identification of the required skills and the necessary
level of those skills.
Ability is defined as the present capacity to execute a job action, to perform a job
function by applying an underlying knowledge base and the necessary skills
simultaneously. Knowledge, like ability, is not observable directly but rather is an
inferred, higher-order construct, such as problem solving, spatial ability, intelligence,
and so on. For lower-level jobs, it is relatively easy to describe the KSA required in
terms of just K and S. Abilities are typically invoked in describing higher-level technical,
professional, and managerial jobs as the WAs become more conceptual, abstract, and
 15

complex, despite the fact that they do not meet the requirements of the Uniform
Guidelines of being observable.
Thus, the assembler job could be described readily in terms of the limited knowledge
and skill required, while we might invoke such characteristics as systems-orientation,
decisiveness, meticulousness, and awareness of the operating room environment as
necessary characteristics of a successful surgeon. While most observers would agree
that these characteristics are important to surgical success, a number would question
whether these characteristics are best understood as abilities.
As a result of such questions, many experts in job analysis add a fourth factor, O for
Other, to the KSA paradigm, leading to a KSAO approach to job requirements. We
believe that both the KSA and the KSAO labels are rather awkward and difficult to
apply. Rather, we have chosen to use the term competencies as a substitute for these
other labels.
We have further proposed an approach in which we separate the technical
requirements necessary for job success from the personal/interpersonal requirements.
We insist that the more work-related characteristics can and should be included in the
job requirements analysis, while the more basic, underlying personality characteristics
should be treated separately. Thus, in the case of the surgeon, being systems-oriented
and being aware of the OR environment would be regarded as abilities, while being
decisive and meticulous would be categorized as more long-standing
personal/interpersonal characteristics, ones that would be evidenced more generally in
that person’s life.
Until recently it was very difficult to identify the personal/interpersonal requirements
of job success. The development of the Big Five approach to describing these
psychological factors and its widespread adoption, especially in selection, has made
this task much easier. The Big Five, also known as the five-factor approach, is based on
over a half-century of empirical research that has conclusively shown that five basic
factors describe the spectrum of human behavior, and that these characteristics are
quite stable over time and are, in various combinations, predictive of on-the-job
performance.
These five factors are: (1) Neuroticism; (2) Extroversion; (3) Openness to New
Experience; (4) Agreeableness; and (5) Conscientiousness, typically abbreviated as
NEOAC, called “Big Five”.
For example, it is difficult to think of a successful accountant who is not highly
conscientious or a successful sales representative who is not extroverted. Using the Big
Five provides job analysts with a uniform vocabulary for describing these intangible but
critically important job requirements.
“Competence” is commonly used for describing the job in terms of the measurable,
observable, behavioral KSAOs that an employee doing that job must exhibit to do the
job well.
1.2.4. Levels of Job Performance
After developing clarity of the WA involved in a job and the necessary competencies, a
16

job analysis must identify the necessary range of adequate job performance. Most job
analyses focus on identifying what constitutes a high level of job performance in order
to identify the competencies that separate stars from the rest of the pack. When we
are trying to understand these factors to meet promotion or training and development
requirements, this is an appropriate approach; but what if we intend to use the job
analysis for candidate selection?
Here, a very different dynamic is in play. When we examine the job performance of
incumbents, we typically learn what an experienced job holder can accomplish. But
few, if any, new hires are likely to be as productive or as competent as the typical
incumbent. Thus, in establishing the job performance requirements, we must set more
modest initial levels for new hires, a process that requires a fair degree of judgment.
One additional point, in selecting supervisors and managers from an existing
workforce, it is often the case that a top performer is chosen without recognizing that
supervisory and managerial tasks require different skills than performing the tasks
being supervised do, so such selections often do not work out satisfactorily. From this
discussion it should be clear that job performance levels need to be set as a function of
the use to which they are to be put, and that there is no substitute for common sense
in setting those limits.
1.2.5. Workplace Characteristics
Workplaces vary enormously in their norms, climate, and culture, in the level of
discomfort that workers can experience, the inherent risks posed by working there, and
other noteworthy factors. A competent and thorough job analysis identifies the
important workplace characteristics. Many approaches to job analyses pay scant
attention to describing the workplace setting unless it varies significantly from the
typical factory, office, or warehouse. We, on the other hand, strongly believe that an in-
depth understanding of the characteristics of the workplace should be an integral part
of a competent job analysis.
Once the four elements of the job analysis— the work activities (WA), the job
competencies (previously KSAs), the range of job performance, and the workplace
characteristics— have been identified, they can be combined in a thematic fashion into
a job description. We now turn our attention to the various methods of actually
conducting a job analysis.
1.3. Job Specification
Job specification is a statement of employee characteristics and qualifications required
for satisfactory performance of defined duties and tasks comprising a specific job or
function. Job specification is derived from job analysis. In other word, Job specification
as a statement of minimum qualification that person must possess to perform a given
job successfully.
While the job description describes activities to be done, it is job specifications that list
the knowledge, skills, and abilities an individual needs to perform a job satisfactorily.
Knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) include education, experience, work skill
requirements, personal abilities, and mental and physical requirements. Job
specifications for a data entry operator might include a required educational level, a
 17

certain number of months of experience, a typing ability of 60 words per minute, a

high degree of visual concentration, and ability to work under time pressure. It is
important to note that accurate job specifications identify what KSAs a person needs to
do the job, not necessarily what qualifications the current employee possesses.
Usually, the information of a job specification includes
1.3.1. Experience:
Number of years of experience in the job you are seeking to fill. Number of years of
work experience required for the selected candidate. Note whether the position
requires progressively more complex and responsible experience, and supervisory or
managerial experience.
1.3.2. Education:
State what degrees, training, or certifications are required for the position.
1.3.3. Required Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, and Characteristics (KSAOs):
State the skills, knowledge, and personal characteristics of individuals who have
successfully performed this job. Or, use the job analysis data to determine the
attributes you need from your “ideal” candidate. Your recruiting planning meeting or
email participants can also help determine these requirements for the job
specification.
Job specifications information must be converted into employee specification
information in order to know what kind of person is needed to fill a job. Employee
specification is a like a brand name which spells that the candidate with a particular
employee specification generally possess the qualities specified under job specification.
Employee specification is useful to find out the suitability of particular class of
candidates to a particular job. Thus, employee specification is useful to find out
prospective employees (target group) whereas job specification is useful to select the
right candidate for a job.
2. Methods of Job Analysis
The end-product of a job analysis is a job description, a written statement that describes:
(1) the important tasks that need to be performed to successfully hold this job; (2) the
requirements necessary to perform these tasks; (3) the levels of job performance that can
be expected at various levels of experience and expertise; and (4) those characteristics of
the work setting that impact work performance. The job description in all cases must be
data-based, and clearly the creation of such a document is a time-consuming and labor-
intensive process. This chapter provides a road map for creating such a data-based job
description.
Generally speaking, it is possible to collect data on the first three components of the job
analysis simultaneously, while data on the characteristics of the work setting requires a
separate, independent assessment. Those doing job analyses should always remember the
purpose for which the information is to be used, as this purpose provides the context for
both collecting the data and for writing the job description. This is especially true, for
example, when collecting job performance data to be used for selection of job applicants.
18

These levels obviously would be different for entry-level or trainee positions than it would
be for selecting experienced, high-level operators. There are five different methods of
collecting job analysis data. They are (1) self-reports; (2) direct observations; (3)
interviews; (4) document reviews: and (5) questionnaires and surveys. Each of these is
discussed in some detail below. It should be noted that any of these methods can be used
either by internal HR staff members or by external consultants with expertise in conducting
job analyses who have been engaged for this specific purpose.

Self-reports

Questionnaires Direct
and Surveys Observations

Combination

Document
Interviews
Reviews

Prien, E.P., Goodstein, L.D., Goodstein, J., & Gamble Jr., L.G. (2009). A Practical Guide to Job
Analysis. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.

2.1. Self-Reports
The most obvious and readily available sources of information about a job are the
incumbents currently holding that job. All too often, however, incumbent reports are
the only source used to analyze a job, because this approach is subject to attempts to
inflate the importance of one’s job and a variety of other contaminating influences.
This is especially the case when incumbents are asked to prepare in writing their own
job description with few guidelines and little supervision.
One variation on the self-report approach is to have the job analyst, typically an HR
specialist, attempt to fill the job for a brief period and report on his or her experience
in filling the job. Obviously, this approach is only appropriate for rather simple jobs that
do not require a set of specific skills or much training, and there is always a question of
how useful these self-reports are in understanding the job.
2.2. Direct Observations
Many jobs can be studied by observing an incumbent actually performing the job. In
order to reduce the ‘‘audience effect’’ of having an intrusive observer involved, a video
camera can be used to record an incumbent doing the job. Using a camera over a
period of time both eliminates the observer effect and provides an opportunity to
observe the job over a longer period of time and to take time samples of job behavior
 19

from the recording as the database.

Direct observation, however, is most useful with jobs that involve obvious physical
activity, activities that are the core of the job. For jobs that are primarily cognitive in
nature, direct observation provides little useful data. Observing a market analyst or a
theoretical physicist at work would provide us with little information about the nature
of their work. Further, neither self-reports nor direct observations provide much
information about the requirements necessary to perform these jobs nor about the
level of job performance.
2.3. Interviews
The limitations of self-report and direct observation have led to the use of interviews
as the most widely used approach to job analysis. These interviews must be conducted
by a skilled, trained interviewer who has both some understanding of the job being
analyzed and the nature of work in general, as these provide the necessary background
for asking questions and probing answers for more detailed and complete answers
from those being interviewed.
2.3.1. Individual Interviews.
There are several sources of information about a job, all of whom can be interviewed,
either singly or in small groups. These include current incumbents of the job,
supervisors of the job, and others who are often referred to as subject-matter experts
(SMEs). SMEs are those individuals, other than incumbents, who have knowledge
about the job being analyzed, such as former incumbents, managers with oversight of
the job, academic specialists, and anyone in the organization who has any specialized
knowledge of the job in question. One useful way of identifying SMEs about a
particular job is to ask incumbents, “If you’re stuck with a job problem that you’re
having trouble with, who are you most likely to ask for help?’’ These are the true SMEs,
the ones who help those on the job get out of trouble.
In the early, exploratory phase of the job analysis, the initial interviews, which usually
should be one-on-one, can be rather unstructured and open-ended as the interviewer
starts to learn about the job, the tasks involved, the necessary requirements, and the
levels of job performance. As the interviewer gains an understanding of the job and its
requirements, he or she should develop an interview protocol that provides a structure
for the ensuing interviews, one that enables the interviewer to obtain information
about specific aspects of the job under scrutiny and compare the data obtained from
different sources.
2.3.2. Group Interviews.
These follow-up interviews, usually using the focus group method, are best conducted
in a group setting with a mixed group of five or six individuals, incumbents, supervisors,
and SMEs. It is imperative that at least two of the group be incumbents—individuals
who know the job best—and more than one to ensure surfacing differing points of
view. In conducting a focus group, the facilitator should not attempt to push for
unanimity of viewpoints, but rather should understand that jobs, even what appear to
be simple jobs, are seen and performed differently and that these differences need to
20

be woven into the final job description.

The way these group interviews are introduced to the organization, the manner in
which individuals are invited to participate, and the way in which the interviews are
initiated and conducted are critical to the quality of the information collected. It must
be made clear that the purpose of these group interview(s) is to gain a better
understanding of a particular job or class of jobs, that no one will lose his or her job as
a result of this process, and that what is said in the interview is confidential in that no
statement will be attributed to a particular participant. The interviewer must be non-
judgmental, listen carefully, play back what was heard, ask questions to clarify points,
and take notes on a flip chart in the front of the room.
In conducting these groups, the HR professional should initiate the process with a
description of its purpose, together with some discussion about how the results will be
used when the process is complete. Next, the group should be prompted to begin
discussion of the job or job family to define the tasks involved— the content of the job.
It is good practice to have either a flip chart on which this data can be recorded, with
the HR professional continuing to probe until the content and structure of the job are
adequately addressed. In developing an understanding of the work involved, the
interviewer can ask incumbents to describe a typical day, what needs to be done on a
regular basis, and what the occasional exceptional requirements are. An alternative
approach is to focus attention on either the work flow or organization of individual
workers and how their tasks overlap and flow to produce work products. These
approaches typically are sufficient to produce a description of the content of the job.
The intent here is to generate content while the group has its ideas clearly in mind and
then go back and edit that content to conform to acceptable standards.
Having developed an in-depth understanding of the various tasks involved in the job,
the next step to identify the necessary requirements to perform the work and then to
describe the various levels of job performance. To identify the requirements, the
interviewer should ask about what people doing this job need to know and when they
need to know it; for example, what tools or equipment are ordinarily used on this job
and how skillful does the worker need to be in using them. Further, the interview
needs to facilitate the group to identify the requirements for success on this job.
Similarly, the group needs to establish in fairly concrete terms the various levels of job
performance that can be expected in this job. How many widgets should an expert be
able to produce in a typical day, and how many should a relative newcomer to the job
be expected to produce. At the end of an interview procedure, the interviewers should
feel confident that he or she has gained an understanding of the job being analyzed
and can now describe the typical tasks involved in the job, the requirements to perform
that job, and the various levels of job performance.
One useful technique to use in the group interview is the critical incident technique in
which the group is asked to describe critical incidents that have occurred on this job
that have involved either highly effective or highly ineffective performance. This
process has three parts: (1) describe the circumstances in which the job behavior
occurred; (2) describe in detail the job behavior itself; and (3) identify the positive or
negative consequences of that behavior. These reports of critical incidents often
highlight instances of poor judgment, of safety hazards, and of outstanding
 21

performance, as well as the role of a variety of personal characteristics on job

performance. Inquiring about critical incidents is especially useful when the job seems
routine and many of the elements of the job seem obscure to others. Our experience
has informed us that SMEs and managers are the most useful sources of critical
incident data, which is why including them in these interviews is so important.
2.4. Document Reviews
The archives of most organizations contain a variety of documents that are useful in
conducting job analyses. These include analyses of output, performance appraisals,
reports by both internal auditors and external consultants about workplace issues, and
prior job descriptions. Customer complaint records are another highly useful source
about employee job behaviors that are of particular importance to customers. Internal
memoranda about unusual events, difficulties encountered by workers on a job, or
problems in recruiting applicants for a particular job, among many such issues, can
provide worthwhile insights into a job. Reports of accidents and medical records are
useful in identifying health and safety issues in jobs. Time and attendance records are
important sources of information about the importance that workers place on doing
that job.
For many years the U.S. military has used a procedure called after-action reports, a
process for debriefing participants in any important incident to determine what went
well and what went poorly, in order to improve future performance in similar
situations. The value of such a process in identifying how to improve performance is
obvious and thus has been adopted by many non-military organizations as a way to
identify issues that need to be addressed in order to improve the organization’s
performance. The records of such after-action reports, when they exist, are a unique
and extraordinary source of information about important elements of job behavior and
their impact on organizational outcomes. The employee records every activity he/she
engages in, in a diary or work log along with the amount of time to perform each
activity to produce a complete picture of the job. Pocket dictating machines can help
remind the worker to enter data at specific times, and eliminates the challenge of
trying to remember at a later time what was done.
2.5. Questionnaires and Surveys
Using a job analysis questionnaire can substantially reduce the burden on incumbents
and SMEs for developing the information needed for a job analysis. Instead of starting
from scratch, those involved in providing information about the job answer a series of
questions about the job. The job analyst typically asks the respondents individually to
rate the importance of a variety of tasks in the job under scrutiny. The next step is to
pick out from a list the requirements necessary to perform, and, finally, to identify the
range of job performance using a rating scale. Not only does such a procedure simplify
the task for those involved in providing job information, but it also simplifies the job
analyst’s task of collating and synthesizing the information about the job, easing the
task of drafting the job description.
Basically, there are two different approaches to using a job analysis questionnaire. The
HR specialist can produce a custom designed questionnaire especially for this job or he
or she can use a commercially available questionnaire.
22

2.5.1. Custom-Designed Questionnaires.

In producing a custom designed questionnaire, the HR professional responsible for the
job analysis must develop the questionnaire using information typically obtained
individually from the job incumbent, his or her supervisor, other SMEs, and whatever
other data sets are available to the responsible professional. Then small groups of
other SMEs make the judgments required by the questionnaire and a computer
analyzes the data and provides the necessary descriptions. While using such a custom-
designed questionnaire clearly targets the job under investigation, the savings in time
and effort of using a questionnaire rather than conducting individual interviews are
modest, and a good deal of skill and understanding are required to produce a high-
quality custom-designed, job-analysis questionnaire.
2.5.2. Commercially Available Questionnaires.
The alternative to a custom-designed job-analysis questionnaire is to use one that has
been developed by job-analysis experts and is commercially available. These
instruments tend to be well-designed, are fairly reliable, and eliminate the need for an
HR professional to develop his or her own instrument. These commercially developed
instruments can simply be presented to a group of incumbents and SMEs to complete
after providing the group with a relatively straightforward set of instructions about
how to proceed. Examples of such questionnaires include the Fleishman Job Analysis
Survey and the Position Analysis Questionnaire
This approach, however, tends to have one major disadvantage, namely that the
developers of these job-analysis questionnaires have chosen to produce a single
questionnaire that covers a wide variety of jobs, from entry-level to managerial. As can
well be understood, such a one-size-fits-all approach requires that many of the items
are scored as ‘‘not part of this job’’ and so the process of answering the wide range of
items required quickly becomes a tedious one, losing the interest of the respondents.
There is an alternative approach, one that we have adopted for this workbook. Our
approach provides a set of questionnaires from which the most appropriate one can be
selected to analysis a particular job. In Appendices B through I are templates for eight
different job-analysis questionnaires, ranging from entry-level jobs involving rather
simple tasks and requiring only the most basic requirements to managerial/executive
jobs that involve quite complex tasks and requiring a high level of requirements. These
eight questionnaires have been developed by us based on our many years of
experience in working in a wide range of industries and businesses. Each of these
questionnaires is directly based on one or more actual job analyses that we have
created with one or more of our client systems.
An HR professional, after a relatively brief study, can select and directly utilize one of
these questionnaires to identify the tasks involved in the job and the job requirements
for that job, a much less time-consuming and labor-intensive job than developing one
from scratch. We need to point out that the use of a job-analysis questionnaire does
not obviate the need to augment the information from a questionnaire with data
obtained from a discussion of the job with incumbents, observing the job, consulting a
variety of records, or doing whatever is possible to develop a fuller understanding of a
job and all that it entails.
 23

In summary, in this section we have provided an overview of the various approaches to

conducting the critically important HR management tasks of actually doing a job
analysis. It should be clear from the above that the process of developing a
comprehensive, data-based job analysis is a demanding one, one that requires a high
degree of professionalism and competence on the part of the HR professionals who
attempt to do job analysis. One of the unfortunate aspects of today’s HR management
is that this critically important process does not receive the recognition it deserves. We
now turn our attention to some of the cautions and caveats that need to be observed
in doing job analyses.
There are a variety of inherent problems in using job descriptions and the underlying job
analyses on which these descriptions are based that tend to be overlooked but which, if
disregarded, seriously reduce their usefulness. These problems are a function of changes in
the nature of work and how work is performed and include changes over time, the low
accuracy of the data obtained, and the general stability of job performance.

 Changes Over Time

Job descriptions have a half-life, one that varies from job to job, from employer to
employer, and from industry to industry. There are a number of reasons for such
changes in the way jobs are performed which, in turn, affect the job analysis. One
important reason is the ways in which technology has developed and will continue to
modify the ways in which work is done. It is difficult for us to think of any job that has
not been altered substantially in the past few years as a function of technology. These
are not one-time events but are continuous adjustments that reflect the ever-
increasing pace of technological advancement. Jobs change for other reasons,
including modifications in supply chain management, the product or service mix
offered by the organization, customer requirements, and so on. Some of these
changes are by-products of technological change and others are not. But regardless of
their origin, such changes mean that job descriptions rapidly become out-of-date and
require a new job analysis to make them current.

 Low Accuracy
There is ample evidence to support the conclusion that the ratings that constitute the
core of any job analysis are less than reliable. Incumbents and supervisors may not
provide valid ratings and other data about the nature of the job. They may attempt to
inflate (or deflate) the importance of the job or of elements of the job, and they often
have quite different experience of the job under review. Furthermore, data may be
distorted for personal or political reasons, for example, over-emphasizing the
similarity of this job to other jobs, rather than its uniqueness. Or the job may not be
being performed adequately or may be misunderstood, and so on.
These factors, among others, simply mean that a competent job analysis must involve
multiple raters with a range of backgrounds and experience. The HR professional
conducting the job analysis should closely examine the data, particularly the ratings
on job analysis inventories, for gross differences and follow up with individual
discussions to resolve these differences. Here is yet another reason for
professionalism on the part of those engaged in job analysis.
24

 Lack of Stability
Finally, in many jobs there is an inherent instability in the work performed, such as
those jobs that have a seasonal variation in the tasks involved. In the most obvious
example, farmers regularly go through the cycle of preparing the fields, planting,
fertilizing and weeding, and harvesting. A competent job analysis must involve the
entire cycle. But such seasonality influences other jobs as well. The work of
accountants is intensified during the tax preparation season, as is that of retail-store
clerks during the Christmas rush. Those engaged in conducting job analyses need to
be aware of such seasonal trends and factor these in when planning their data
collection.
Another reason for the lack of stability of jobs is the tendency over time of
incumbents to improve the ways in which tasks are performed, whether or not such
improvements are known to supervisors and managers, or even if these modifications
really improve either the process or the product. If a job analysis is not current, such
changes in how work is accomplished will not be part of the job description.
In this section we have focused on why job analyses and job descriptions may not be
as accurate as expected. These concerns simply highlight the need for keeping job
descriptions very current and for having competent HR professionals conduct job
analyses. We now turn our attention to our eight job analysis templates, their
development, and how they should be used.
3. Job Design
Although job analysis, as just described, is important for an understanding of existing jobs,
organizations also must plan for new jobs and periodically consider whether they should
revise existing jobs. When an organization is expanding, supervisors and human resource
professionals must help plan for new or growing work units. When an organization is trying
to improve quality or efficiency, a review of work units and processes may require a fresh
look at how jobs are designed.
Job design is the process of Work arrangement (or rearrangement) aimed at reducing or
overcoming job dissatisfaction and employee alienation arising from repetitive and
mechanistic tasks. Through job design, organizations try to raise productivity levels by
offering non-monetary rewards such as greater satisfaction from a sense of personal
achievement in meeting the increased challenge and responsibility of one's work.
The main function of job design is to create alterations in the ways in which employees
function in the workplace in order to enhance their enthusiasm for the work they perform
and increase job satisfaction which in turn, increases productivity. There are 4 main
approaches to the creation of job design, the first being, “design for efficiency” or “job
engineering.” These terms simply refers to the expected standards of performance and the
methods by which these standards are met. Technology is a major aspect of this approach;
computers and all other forms of technology must be reliable and up to date and all
workers must be proficient in their use and comfortable and confident in their abilities to
use them.
Design for motivation or “job enrichment” involves the designation of more duties to
 25

workers. These duties should allow employees to gain a sense of greater responsibility and
accountability which in turn increases employee confidence, making tasks and duties more
enjoyable so they are completed with interest and enthusiasm. Job enrichment also
increases the effort of employees to work together as a team. “It is a vertical restructuring
method in that it gives the employee additional authority, autonomy, and control over the
way the job is accomplished”.

JOB DESIGN
Design for Mental Capacity Design for Efficiency
- Filtering Information (Industrial Engineering)
- Clear Displays and Instructions
- Memory aids

Job

Design for Safety & Health Design for Motivation

(Ergonomics) - Job Enlargement
- Job Enrichment
- Teamwork
- Flexibility

Prien, E.P., Goodstein, L.D., Goodstein, J., & Gamble Jr., L.G. (2009). A Practical Guide to Job
Analysis. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer

Design for safety and health or ergonomics, refers to products, applications or particular
tasks which are designed to lessen fatigue which may occur due to poor lighting,
improperly designed work stations, excessive fluctuations in room temperature etc. It is
extremely important for business leaders and managers to be aware of any of these
unfavorable conditions and to correct them immediately in order to assure his or her
employees are comfortable and are not being harmed during their efforts to complete
tasks.
Finally, design for mental capacity refers to the need for employers to understand the
special needs of individuals who are elderly and/or those who have disabilities, either
physical or mental. Special technology need to be available for individuals who may have
sight or hearing problems, displays on computer monitors should be adjustable to suit the
needs of those who need magnified text and special aids should be accessible to workers
who have deficits in hearing. “Managers need to consider carefully each employee’s
physical capabilities, mental skills, organizational competence and capacity for learning
before inviting an employee to take on an enriched job. Forcing more on employees than
they are capable of handling will likely hurt the business and frustrate the employees” a
researcher said.
26

The job design approach gives employees the tools they need and uses their competencies
to provide high-quality products and efficient services to its customers—closely
approaching the ideal. Although the ideal isn’t always attainable, substantial
improvements in job design that can benefit the customer, employee, and organization
usually are possible with the use of one or more of the commonly used job design
approaches.
3.1. Comparative Framework
Five of the most common approaches to job design are based on the dimensions.

 The Impact dimension is the degree to which a job design approach is linked to
factors beyond the immediate job, such as reward systems, performance appraisal
methods, leadership practices of managers, customer needs, organization structure,
physical working conditions, and team composition and norms—as well as its likely
effect on changes in effectiveness and quality.

 The complexity dimension is the degree to which a job design approach requires (1)
changes in many factors, (2) the involvement of individuals with diverse
competencies at various organizational levels; and (3) a high level of decision-
making competency for successful implementation.
3.1.1. Job Rotation
Job rotation refers to moving employees from job to job to add variety and reduce
boredom by allowing them to perform a variety of tasks. As traditionally used, job
rotation is low in both impact and complexity because it typically moves employees
from one routine job to another. Maids International, a housecleaning service
franchise, uses job rotation with its four-person housecleaning teams by, for example,
having a maid clean the kitchen in one house and the bedroom in another. However, if
all the tasks are similar and routine, job rotation may not have the desired effect of
improving employee effectiveness and job satisfaction. For example, rotating
automobile assembly-line workers from bolting bumpers on cars to bolting on tire rims
isn’t likely to reduce their boredom. However, job rotation may be of significant benefit
if it is part of a larger redesign effort and/or it is used as a training and development
approach to develop various employee competencies and prepare employees for
advancement. At times, it may be used to control the problem of repetitive stress
injuries by moving people among jobs that require different physical movements.
3.1.2. Job Engineering
A scholar established the foundation for modern industrial engineering late in the
nineteenth century. He was concerned with product design, process design, tool
design, plant layout, work measurement, and operator methods. Job engineering
focuses on the tasks to be performed, methods to be used, workflows among
employees, layout of the workplace, performance standards, and interdependencies
between people and machines. Analysts often examine these job design factors by
means of time-and-motion studies, determining the time required to do each task and
the movements needed to perform it efficiently.
A cornerstone of job engineering is specialization of labor with the goal of achieving
 27

greater efficiency. High levels of specialization are intended to (1) allow employees to
learn a task rapidly, (2) permit short work cycles so that performance can be almost
automatic and involve little or no mental effort, (3) make hiring easier because low-
skilled people can be easily trained and paid relatively low wages, and (4) reduce the
need for supervision, owing to simplified jobs and standardization.
Although traditional job engineering also can create boring jobs, it remains an
important job design approach because the resulting cost savings can be measured
immediately and easily. In addition, this approach is concerned with appropriate levels
of automation, that is, looking for ways to replace workers with machines to perform
the most physically demanding and repetitive tasks. The job engineering approach
often continues to be successfully used especially when it is combined with a concern
for the social context in which the jobs are performed. One expert who advocates the
job engineering approach while involving employees in decisions about their jobs
prescribes the following “golden rules of work design.”

 Ensure that the end product/output of the work is clearly defined, unambiguous,
and fully understood by the employees.

 Ensure that the steps/tasks to be performed to achieve the required end

product/output are clearly defined in the appropriate sequence and are fully
understood by the employees.

 Ensure that the employees know and understand where their responsibility starts
and finishes in the work process.

 Ensure that the tools, facilities, and information needed to perform the work are
readily available to and fully understood by the employees.

 Ensure that there is a process whereby the employees can suggest possible
improvements in the work design and exercise initiative in implementing them.

 Ensure that the employees are involved in the work design process.
3.1.3. Job Enlargement
Job enlargement is expansion of the number of different tasks performed by an
employee in a single job. For example, one automobile assembly-line worker’s job was
enlarged from installing just one taillight to installing both taillights and the trunk. An
auto mechanic switched from only changing oil to changing oil, greasing, and changing
transmission fluid. Job enlargement attempts to add somewhat similar tasks to the job
so that it will have more variety and be more interesting. Job enlargement is also
viewed as an extension of job engineering. However, it is more responsive to the higher
level needs of employees by providing more variety in their jobs.
The job enlargement approach often has positive effects on employee effectiveness.
However, some employees view job enlargement as just adding more routine,
repetitive tasks to their already boring job. Other employees may view it as eliminating
their ability to perform their jobs almost automatically. These employees may value the
opportunity to daydream about a big date that night or think about the upcoming
weekend. Others may simply prefer to spend their time socializing with coworkers. If
28

an enlarged job requires greater attention and concentration than the original job,
most employees typically find it more interesting or challenging, but some may view
the added demands negatively. The importance of individual differences in attempting
to anticipate or understand the reactions of employees to redesigned jobs should not
be underestimated.
3.1.4. Job Enrichment
Job enrichment refers to the empowerment of employees to assume more
responsibility and accountability for planning, organizing, performing, controlling, and
evaluating their own work. The job enrichment approach originated in the 1940s at
International Business Machines (IBM). In the 1950s, the number of companies
interested in job enrichment grew slowly. However, successful and widely publicized
experiments at AT&T, Texas Instruments (TI), and Imperial Chemicals eventually led to
an increasing awareness of job enrichment and interest in this approach in the 1960s.
The techniques used for enriching jobs often are specific to the job being redesigned.
3.1.5. Job Sharing
Job sharing is a type of flexible work arrangement in which two people work part-time
schedules to complete the work one person would do in a single full-time job. Job-
sharing can be appealing for workers who are looking to reduce their hours to provide
care for someone at home, or who are simply looking for a lighter workload without
quitting altogether. Flexible work arrangements can help employers retain experienced
workers who are looking for greater work-life balance. Job sharing can also decrease
benefits costs for employers, depending on their benefits policies.
In a job-sharing setup, two employees work part time to fill one position. Hours can
vary: They may work together part of the week, or never see each other. They will need
to determine whether to each be responsible for the position at different times, or if
each one will be responsible for different tasks. They’ll also need to figure out how to
share a workspace, computer and other equipment so they don’t waste time looking
for files.
There are two types of job shares: the "twins model," in which the job sharing
employees work together on the same projects seamlessly; and the "island model," in
which the job sharing employees work independently of one another, on different
tasks.
‘Island’ or independent job sharers tend to exist in companies where staffing is done by
head count, rather than full-time equivalency, so employers are reluctant to allow
employees to work fewer hours because it reduces productivity. The benefit to
employers is this model allows them to have two employees with two different
specialties at little added expense.
For example, if a small department needs both a trainer and an IT person but doesn't
have enough work or money to hire two such workers on a full-time basis, independent
job sharers with complementary skills could provide a solution. This model doesn’t
provide the seamless coverage the way the “twins” model does, but employers can
cross-train these employees to they can cover for each other as needed.
 29

A key benefit is that they always have coverage and are still able to offer the job
flexibility necessary to retain good workers. It is particularly helpful if one job sharing
partner has to take leave or is on vacation. The position is covered at least half time, if
not full time. The employer also has the benefit of two heads thinking about a
problem. Greater flexibility can lead to better work-life balance and higher job
satisfaction.
Job sharing can also be combined with mentoring. Older employees who aren’t quite
ready to retire but who want to reduce their hours are prime candidates for job
sharing. Offering job sharing to older employees can help retain their expertise while
allowing them to mentor and pass on institutional knowledge to their less-experienced
colleagues.
3.1.6. Sociotechnical Systems
The sociotechnical systems model focuses on organizations as made up of people with
various competencies (the social system) who use tools, machines, and techniques (the
technical system) to create goods or services valued by customers and other
stakeholders. Thus the social and technical systems need to be designed with respect
to one another—and to the demands of customers, suppliers, and other stakeholders
in the external environment. Because of its scope, sociotechnical systems are complex
and have an impact on the way work is performed throughout the organization. Recall
the relationship of this model to the other job design approaches. All organizations are
sociotechnical systems, but all don’t necessarily reflect the principles underlying this
approach.
The goal of sociotechnical systems analysis is to find the best possible match between
the technology available, the people involved, and the organization’s needs. A crucial
aspect of this approach is the recognition of task interdependence, which becomes the
basis for forming teams. After teams have been formed, the specific tasks to be
performed by team members are considered, along with the relationships among all
these tasks. This approach has been applied most successfully—as has the job
enrichment approach—to industrial organizations.
The sociotechnical systems approach emphasizes the diagnosis of demands by external
stakeholders (customers, suppliers, shareholders, regulatory agencies, creditors, and
others) and the internal adaptations needed to respond to those demands. From a job
design perspective, passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in 1990
created one such demand for many U.S.-based organizations.
3.1.7. Ergonomics
Other than those five approaches described above, another one, Ergonomics focuses
on minimizing the physical demands and risks of work. This approach helps ensure that
job demands are consistent with people’s physical capabilities to perform them
without undue risk. It involves the design of aids (ranging from hand tools to computer
software to instruments) used to perform jobs.
Consider the initiative by Dolby Laboratories at its Brisbane, California, manufacturing
facility, which employs approximately 50 assembly workers. The plant produces digital
30

cinema processors and sound equipment used in theaters. Although about 90 percent
of the electronic assembly is automated, repetitive handwork is still essential for some
operations. “There’s some hand insertion of components and some mechanical
assembly,” its production manager explained. In addition, technicians do test work and
some repairs by hand. Even though Dolby Laboratories historically has had a low rate of
reported carpal tunnel disabilities, she looked at ergonomic tools and ergonomic
training as part of an overall safety and health plan. She assembled a tool team of
assemblers who understood the requirement of using the right tool for the right job to
look at tools in the workplace. She also set up ergonomic training and instituted tool
audits.
3.2. Job Design and Technology
Technology refers to the techniques, tools, methods, procedures, and machines that
are used to transform objects (materials, information, and people). Employees use
technology to acquire inputs, transform inputs into outputs, and provide goods or
services to clients and customers. Here, our discussion focuses on the concepts of
workflow uncertainty, task uncertainty, and task interdependence as they relate to job
design. We also present some examples of how various information technologies are
being used to implement these concepts. Recall the various ways that the work of
individuals and teams is being changed by information technologies, especially through
groupware, the Internet, intranets, e-mail, mobile phones, and the like.
3.2.1. Role of Workflow Uncertainty
Workflow uncertainty is the degree of knowledge that an employee has about when
inputs will be received and require processing. When there is little workflow
uncertainty, an employee may have little discretion (autonomy) to decide which, when,
or where tasks will be performed. For the most part, the production workers at an
automobile assembly plant experience a low degree of workflow uncertainty. In fact,
the application of the job engineering approach in automobile assembly plants is
intended to minimize workflow uncertainty.
3.2.2. Role of Task Uncertainty
Task uncertainty is the degree of knowledge that an employee has about how to
perform the job and when it needs to be done. When there is little task uncertainty, an
employee knows how to produce the desired results. Through extensive training and
the standardization of jobs, management typically attempts to minimize task
uncertainty in assembly plants. Production workers in a plant experience somewhat
more task uncertainty if they work as teams to study problems and refine procedures.
At such a plant, teams often are asked to participate in proposing continuous
improvements, one of the elements in total quality management.
With high task uncertainty, few (if any) prespecified ways exist for dealing with the
job’s tasks. This condition means that experience, judgment, intuition, and problem-
solving ability usually are required of the employee. Recall the Preview Case about the
Texas Nameplate Company. Virtually all its employees are engaged in some tasks that
involve moderate to high levels of task and workflow uncertainty. For example, all
employees are encouraged to submit proposals for new initiatives, and they review
 31

progress on initiatives and goals monthly. Employees are given the flexibility to
respond quickly to unique customer requirements or complaints and changing business
needs. Teams of employees visit customer facilities to identify opportunities for
improving products and services.
3.2.3. Role of Task Interdependence
Task interdependence is the degree to which decision making and cooperation
between two or more employees is necessary for them to perform their jobs. The
construction of the structural steel framework of a high-rise building involves a high
degree of task interdependence between the crane operator, ground crew, and
assembly crew in moving and joining the steel girders and beams.
The three basic types of interdependent task relations are pooled, sequential, and
reciprocal. Pooled interdependence is the ability of an employee (or team) to act
independently of others in completing a task or tasks. Most real estate agents, who
often act as independent contractors within a real estate firm, use pooled
interdependence to coordinate their activities.
Sequential interdependence is the need for an employee (or team) to complete
certain tasks before other employees (or teams) can perform their tasks. In other
words, the outputs from some employees (teams) become the inputs for other
employees (teams). The sequence of interdependencies can be a long chain in some
mass-production activities.
Reciprocal interdependence means that the outputs from an individual (or team)
become the inputs for others and vice versa. Reciprocal interdependencies are
common in everyday life. Examples include (1) a family, (2) a basketball team, (3) a
surgical team, (4) a decision-making team, and (5) a class project assigned to a small
team of students. Reciprocal interdependence usually requires a high degree of
collaboration, communication, and team decision making.
3.3. Job Characteristics Enrichment
The job characteristics enrichment model involves increasing the amounts of skill
variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback in a job. The model
proposes that the levels of these job characteristics affect three critical psychological
states: (1) experienced meaningfulness of the tasks performed; (2) experienced
personal responsibility for task outcomes; and (3) knowledge of the results of task
performance. If all three psychological states are positive, a reinforcing cycle of strong
work motivation based on self-generated rewards is activated. A job without
meaningfulness, responsibility, and feedback is incomplete and doesn’t strongly
motivate an employee. Because of our previous coverage of motivation, we focus here
on the job characteristics and individual differences components of the model.
3.3.1. Job Characteristics
Five job characteristics hold the key to job enrichment efforts in this model. They are
defined as follows.

 Skill variety—the extent to which a job requires a variety of employee

32

competencies to carry out the work.

 Task identity—the extent to which a job requires an employee to complete a

whole and identifiable piece of work, that is, doing a task from beginning to end
with a visible outcome.

 Task significance—the extent to which an employee perceives the job as having a

substantial impact on the lives of other people, whether those people are within
or outside the organization.

 Autonomy—the extent to which the job provides empowerment and discretion to

an employee in scheduling tasks and in determining procedures to be used in
carrying out those tasks.

 Job feedback—the extent to which carrying out job-related tasks provides direct
and clear information about the effectiveness of an employee’s performance.
Skill variety, task identity, and task significance strongly influence the experienced
meaningfulness of work. Autonomy usually increases feelings and attitudes of personal
responsibility and empowerment for work outcomes. Job feedback gives an employee
knowledge about task results. This type of feedback comes from the work itself, not
from a manager’s performance appraisal.
The job of surgeon can be used to further illustrate these points. This job seems to rate
high on all the key job characteristics. It provides a constant opportunity for using
highly varied skills, abilities, and talents in diagnosing and treating illnesses. Task
identity is high because the surgeon normally diagnoses a problem, performs an
operation, and monitors the patient’s recovery. Task significance also is high because
the surgeon’s work can mean life or death to the patient. Autonomy is high because
the surgeon often is the final authority on the procedures and techniques used.
However, the growing prevalence and threat of malpractice suits may have lowered the
surgeon’s sense of autonomy in recent years. Finally, the surgeon receives direct
feedback from the job, knowing in many cases almost immediately whether an
operation is successful.
3.3.2. Individual Differences
The individual differences variable identified in this model influence how employees
respond to enriched jobs. They include competencies, strength of growth needs, and
satisfaction with contextual factors. These individual differences have an impact on the
relationship between job characteristics and personal or work outcomes in several
important ways. Managers therefore should consider them when designing or
redesigning jobs.
Competencies. Employees with the competencies needed to perform an enriched job
effectively are likely to have positive feelings about the tasks they perform. Employees
unable to perform an enriched job may experience frustration, stress, and job
dissatisfaction. These feelings and attitudes may be especially intense for employees
who desire to do a good job but realize that they are performing poorly because they
lack the necessary skills and knowledge. Accordingly, assessing carefully the
competencies of employees whose jobs are to be enriched is essential. A training and
 33

development program may be needed along with an enrichment program to help such
employees attain the needed competencies.
Growth-Need Strength. The extent to which an individual desires the opportunity for
self-direction, learning, and personal accomplishment at work is called growth-need
strength. This concept is essentially the same as Alderfer’s growth needs and Maslow’s
esteem needs and self-actualization needs concepts. Individuals with high growth
needs tend to respond favorably to job enrichment programs. They experience greater
satisfaction from work and are more highly motivated than people who have low
growth needs. High growth-need individuals are generally absent less and produce
better quality work when their jobs are enriched. Employee responses to enriched jobs
usually range from indifferent to highly positive.
Satisfaction with Contextual Factors. The extent to which employees are satisfied with
contextual factors at work often influence their willingness or ability to respond
positively to enriched jobs. Contextual factors include organizational policies and
administration, technical supervision, salary and benefit programs, interpersonal
relations, travel requirements, and work conditions (lighting, heat, safety hazards, and
the like). Employees who are extremely dissatisfied with their superiors, salary levels,
and safety measures are less likely to respond favorably to enriched jobs than are
employees who are satisfied with these conditions. Other contextual factors (e.g.,
employee satisfaction with the organizational culture, power and the political process,
travel requirements, and team norms) also can affect employee responses to their jobs.
One controversial contextual factor is the growing use of electronic monitoring of work
through the use of computers, video cameras, and telephone technologies to “listen
in on” or “observe” employees as they perform their tasks. More than 15 million
employees in the United States are electronically monitored each day. Such monitoring
often occurs without employees being aware that it is taking place. Information
technologies are being used to monitor attendance, tardiness, work speed (e.g.,
recording the number of computer keystrokes an employee performs per minute or
hour), break length and frequency, types of messages being transmitted on computer
networks, and the nature and quality of conversations with customers or others,
among other activities. Such intrusiveness raises serious ethical concerns, which focus
on the excessive invasion of privacy of employees while working, at or away from the
normal place of business, and a growing concern that “Big Brother is watching.”
3.3.3. Job Diagnosis
Various methods are used to diagnose jobs, determine whether job design problems
exist, and estimate the potential for job enrichment success. We limit our discussion to
two of these methods: structural clues and surveys.
Structural Clues Method. The structural clues method is the process of examining
contextual factors often associated with deficiencies in job design. The presence of five
specific structural factors often suggests job design problems.

 Inspectors or checkers. Autonomy usually is reduced when inspectors or checkers,

rather than employees or teams, examine outputs. Feedback is less direct because
it doesn’t come from the job itself.
34

 Troubleshooters. The existence of troubleshooters usually means that the exciting

and challenging parts of a job have been taken away from employees or teams.
Thus they have less sense of responsibility for work results. Task identity,
autonomy, and feedback usually are lessened.

 Communications and customer relations departments. These departments usually

cut the link between employees who do the job and customers or clients. They
often dilute direct feedback and task identity for those creating the products or
services.

 Labor pools. On the surface, pools of word processors, computer programmers,

and other employees are appealing because they seem to increase efficiency and
the ability to meet workload fluctuations. However, such pools often destroy
feelings of task ownership and identity.

 Narrow span of control. A manager with only a few subordinates (say, five to
seven) is more likely to become involved in the details of their day-to-day tasks
than a manager with a wider span of control. Centralization of decision making
and overcontrol may result from too narrow a span of control and seriously
reduce autonomy and a sense of empowerment.
Survey Method. Several types of questionnaires, one of which is the job diagnostic
survey (JDS), make diagnosing jobs relatively easy and systematic. You can calculate an
overall measure of job enrichment, called the motivating potential score (MPS). The
MPS formula sums the scores for skill variety, task identity, and task significance and
divides the total by 3. Thus the combination of these three job characteristics has the
same weight as autonomy and job feedback. The reason is that the job characteristics
enrichment model requires that both experienced responsibility and knowledge of
results be present for high internal job motivation. This outcome can be achieved only
if reasonable degrees of autonomy and job feedback are present.
3.3.4. Implementation Approaches
Any one of five approaches, or a combination of them, may be used to implement a job
enrichment program. All need not be used in every job enrichment effort, nor are they
mutually exclusive. The two main approaches are vertical loading and the formation of
natural work teams. The other three—establishment of customer relationships,
employee ownership of the product, and employee receipt of direct feedback—often
are used within one of the two principal approaches.
Vertical Loading. Vertical loading is the delegation to employees of responsibilities and
tasks that were formerly reserved for management or staff specialists. Vertical loading
includes the empowerment of employees to

 set schedules, determine work methods, and decide when and how to check on
the quality of the work produced;

 make their own decisions about when to start and stop work, when to take
breaks, and how to assign priorities; and

 seek solutions to problems on their own, consulting with others only as necessary,
 35

rather than calling immediately for the manager when problems arise.
Employees often schedule their own work after vertical loading, although a manager
may set deadlines or goals. Within these guidelines, employees are allowed some
freedom in setting their own schedules and pace. Flextime allows employees, within
certain limits, to vary their arrival and departure times to suit their individual needs
and desires and helps in self-scheduling of work. With the new information technology
capabilities (e.g., computer-based networks), an increasing number of jobs can be Skill
Variety Task Identity Task Significance performed, at least part of the time, at the
employee’s residence, in hotels while traveling, and at customer locations.
Natural Teams. The formation of natural teams combines individual jobs into a formally
recognized unit (e.g., a section, team, or department). The criteria for the groupings
are logical and meaningful to the employee and include the following.

 Geographic: Salespeople or information technology consultants might be given a

particular region of the state or country as their territory.

 Types of business: Insurance claims adjusters might be assigned to teams that

serve specific types of businesses, such as utilities, manufacturers, or retailers.

 Organizational: Word-processing operators might be given work that originates in

a particular department.

 Alphabetic or numeric: File clerks could be made responsible for materials in

specified alphabetical groups (A to D, E to H, and so on); library-shelf readers
might check books in a certain range of the library’s cataloging system.

 Customer groups: Employees of a public utility or consulting firm might be

assigned to particular industrial or commercial accounts.
Customer Relationships. One of the most important concepts of job enrichment is
putting employees in touch with the users of their output. The establishment of
customer relationships often is a logical outcome if natural teams are formed.
Employees too often end up working directly for their superiors rather than for
customers or clients. Consider the approach used by Home Depot, a large retailer
primarily for residential fixer-uppers. Home Depot encourages employees to build long-
term relationships with customers. Employees are trained in home repair techniques
and can spend as much time as necessary to help customers. There are no high-
pressure sales tactics, and employees are on straight salary. In order to satisfy
customers consistently, the leadership of Home Depot believes that employees must
be committed. Instead of receiving discounts on merchandise, employees get shares in
the company’s stock. Salespeople are trained not to let customers overspend.
Ownership of Product. Employees who assemble entire television sets or prepare
entire reports identify more with the finished products than do employees who
perform only parts of the job. Allowing employees to build or service entire products
or complete entire tasks is likely to generate a sense of pride and achievement. The
assignment of as much responsibility as possible in serving a certain geographic area
also may create the feeling of ownership.
36

Direct Feedback. The job-enrichment approach stresses information to the employee

directly from performance of the task. Reports or computer output may go directly to
employees, instead of just to their managers. A common technique is to let people
check their own work so that they can catch most of their own errors before others do.
This technique also increases employee autonomy. Direct communication with
customers or clients also may improve the timeliness and accuracy of feedback,
thereby eliminating distortions and delays.
3.4. Sociotechnical Systems
The sociotechnical systems model views organizations as entities with complex
relationships within their social systems. This model emphasizes grouping jobs by team
when the reciprocal and/or sequential interdependence among jobs can’t be reduced.
The use of pooled interdependence therefore tends to occur among teams rather than
among individual jobs. Use of this model involves vertical job loading to a cluster of
jobs within a team as a whole, rather than to each individual job. Management can use
the sociotechnical systems model to design work that integrates people and
technology and to optimize the relationships between the technological and social
systems. When applied to manufacturing, the needed changes in technology
sometimes are too difficult and costly to make in an existing plant. Thus the
sociotechnical systems model more frequently works best in designing jobs for an
entirely new plant.
The sociotechnical systems model has four main parts: environmental forces, the social
system, the technological system, and moderators. We don’t review environmental
forces (e.g., customers, suppliers, and regulatory agencies) further in this model.
3.4.1. Social Systems
The social system of an organization comprises those aspects of its “human side” that
can influence how individuals and teams perform tasks and their attitudes toward work
and the organization. For example, if employees characterize their organization as one
marked by distrust, backstabbing, and infighting, the creation of self-managed work
teams is likely to be counterproductive until some degree of trust and cooperation can
be established.
3.4.2. Technological Systems
Task uncertainty, workflow uncertainty, and task interdependence need to be
diagnosed. These three technological dimensions are likely to vary with the type of
production process being used or planned. For example, utilization of an assembly line
or, alternatively, small units is an important technological characteristic. Different
production processes require different approaches to job design. In a process
technology operation, most work is automated. The relatively few workers spend much
of their time monitoring dials and performing maintenance tasks. By contrast, small-
unit technologies—plumbing, appliance repair, sales, and investment advice—involve
relatively large amounts of labor to achieve the required outputs.
Another technological characteristic is the physical work setting (amount of light,
temperature, noise, pollution, geographical isolation, and orderliness). For example, if
 37

the workplace is too hot or noisy, employees may have difficulty performing tasks that
require intense thought and concentration.
Complexity of the production process also is an important technological characteristic.
The more complex the production process, the greater are the degrees of task and
workflow uncertainty and the requirements for reciprocal task interdependence.
Other important technological characteristics are the nature of raw materials used in
production and the time pressure inherent in the production process.
3.4.3. Moderators
Work roles act as moderators in the sociotechnical systems model, establishing a set of
expected employee behaviors. Work roles define the relationships between the people
who perform tasks and the technological requirements of those tasks, binding the
sociotechnical systems to each other. The vision, goals, and values of an organization
also moderate the relationship between the social and technical systems. The
sociotechnical systems model is most effective in an organization with a highly
competent and educated workforce.
The degree to which an organization operates according to the sociotechnical systems
model can be assessed in terms of six core concepts, all of which are reflected in the
Preview Case.

 Innovation—Organizational leaders and members maintain a futuristic versus

historical orientation, including a propensity for risk taking and provision of
rewards for innovation.

 Human resource development—The talents, knowledge, skills, and abilities of

organizational members are developed and tapped through job design,
supervisory roles, organizational design, and the workflow process.

 Environmental agility—The organization maintains awareness of the environment

and responds appropriately to it by recognizing customer importance, proactivity
versus reactivity, and product or service flexibility.

 Cooperation—Individuals, teams, and departments work together to accomplish

common goals through openness, mutual support, shared values, and common
rewards.

 Commitment and energy—Employees are dedicated to accomplishing

organizational goals and are prepared to expend energy in doing so.

 Joint optimization—The organization uses both its social and technical resources
effectively, including the design of technology to support teamwork and flexibility.
38

Part Two: Workforce Planning

1. Human Resource Planning

Workforce planning (also called Human Resource Planning, HRP) has traditionally been
used by organizations to ensure that the right person is in the right job at the right time.
Under past conditions of relative environmental certainty and stability, human resource
planning focused on the short term and was dictated largely by line management
concerns. Increasing environmental instability, demographic shifts, changes in technology,
and heightened international competition are changing the need for and the nature of
human resource planning in leading organizations. Planning is increasingly the product of
the interaction between line management and planners. In addition, organizations are
realizing that in order to adequately address human resource concerns, they must develop
long-term as well as short term solutions. As human resource planners involve themselves
in more programs to serve the needs of the business, and even influence the direction of
the business, they face new and increased responsibilities and challenges.
In addition, Human Resource Planning focuses on analyzing an organization’s HR needs as
the organization’s conditions change, and then supplying strategies to help respond
proactively to those changes over time. HRP helps ensure that the right numbers of the
right kinds of people are available at the right times and in the right places to translate
organizational plans into reality. This process becomes strategic when some attempt is
made to anticipate long-term HR “supplies and demands” relative to changing conditions
facing the organization, and then to use HR department programs in an effort to meet
these identified HR needs.
Workforce planning can help you attract, recruit, train, motivate, manage and retain your
employees, so that you have the “right people, with the right skills, in the right place, at
the right time”. Developing a workforce action plan is a key component of your business
planning.

Heneman III , H., Judge , T., & Kammeyer-Mueller, J. (2014). Staffing Organizations (8th
Edition). Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill Education.
 39

1.1. Business Context

Workforce planning needs to be directly linked to you business goals, and so the first
step is to think about your own business context. Ask yourself the following questions:

 What are my business goals and vision?

 Where is my business heading? Is it growing, downsizing, transitioning, shifting

skills, introducing new technology or is it in a maintenance mode?

 What are the economic conditions that impact on my industry sector and markets
and does this impact on my business?

 Who are my customers/clients?

 What is going on internally in my business and how will this impact on my

workforce requirements?

 What are the short, medium and long term goals for my business and what
workforce skills and capability will I need to achieve these business goals?
Having a good understanding of the current environment and context of the industry
your business is operating in, as well as your goals for the future of your business, will
help you to plan your workforce needs and develop strategies to turn your goals into
business success.
1.2. Workforce Supply
What do you know about your current workforce? For example, do you know the age,
qualifications, skills, knowledge, experience, strengths, weaknesses, or any workforce
issues of your staff? Perhaps your current staff have hidden potential that your
business could use, or perhaps some staff may be underemployed and have the
potential for training to up-skill them and transition them into new roles. Do you know
what your employees’ plans are for the future, and know their expectations? Who do
you expect may leave in the near and distant future?
You can gain a clear picture of your workforce’s strengths and development needs by
doing a skills stock take, analyzing the patterns in your workforce data and discussing
with your employees what their views are on issues, concerns or areas for
improvement.
1.3. Workforce Demand
Based upon your business goals and vision, think about where your business is likely to
be in 2–3 years time. Think about what is likely to shift and change? Think about your
future products and services, markets, partnerships, stage of your business cycle and
what your workforce needs may be. Consider all the possible scenarios that may
emerge in the future.
Now estimate what may happen to your workforce over the next few years. During this
step it is also helpful to consider the following factors:
40

 the age of your employees and their retirement plans;

 the increasing diversity of the population;

 skill shortages;

 the different workplace expectations across the generations;

 personal circumstance; an

 that an employee’s development needs may change as a job role changes.

Once you have an idea about where your business will be in the next 2–3 years, and
possibly in the longer term, think about what your ideal or desired workforce should
look like and what skills they will need for your business in the future.
1.4. Workforce Gap
Now you can take what you know about your current workforce and what you want
your desired future workforce to look like and compare the difference. This process is
referred to as a gap analysis.
Man jumping from one platform to another. This will give you a clear idea about the
gap between what the skills, staff numbers, job roles and experience are between your
current workforce and the workforce you will require to achieve your future workforce
goals. Once you have this information you can start to build a workforce action plan to
manage this gap and achieve your goals.
1.5. Staffing Plan
Staffing is the process of acquiring, deploying, and retaining a workforce of sufficient
quantity and quality to create positive impacts on the organization’s effectiveness.
Once you've completed a gap analysis, you can use the information you’ve gathered so
far in Steps 1–4 to help you develop your own workforce action plan. When developing
your workforce action plan think about the areas that need to be changed, managed
and developed. Then prioritise these into actions, responsibilities and timeframes
(short, medium and long term) across the following key focus areas:
1.5.1. Recruitment and Selection
Think about different ways to attract the right people, from the widest possible
sources. This may involve redefining your job structures and recruitment and selection
methods. It may also mean looking at a more diverse pool of potential employees.
1.5.2. Training and Development
Think about ways to get people working most productively for you. For example, do
you have an induction program and training processes to develop your own talented
people? Think about how you can plan for succession. Regularly review how you train
and develop your staff.
 41

1.5.3. Employee value proposition

Think about ways to build a positive culture and workplace where people will want to
work.
1.5.4. Employee retention
Think about different things you could put into place to keep your talented, valued
employees working for you, even during a downturn.
1.5.5. Leadership and communication
Think about how you can lead and communicate with your employees more effectively.
Good leadership and communication skills are at the core of building a positive
workplace.
Once you have developed and started to implement your workforce action plan it is
important to think about how you will know if your plan is working. By reviewing and
evaluating your workforce action plan you can begin to build a roadmap for any future
action that may be required.
2. Equating Workforce Demand to Supply
Staffing the upper echelons of organizations presents a number of unique challenges,
particularly when a company practices a promotion-from-within policy. Because the
planning horizon is so long, greater uncertainty exists when predicting both future
demand and future supply. The uncertainty in predicting supply is compounded by the
small numbers of people and jobs involved, which changes the prediction task from
one of estimating the percentage of a pool of employees who are likely to be with the
company x years into the future to one of estimating the probability that a few
particular individuals will still be with the company x years into the future. Providing
developmental experiences to a greater number of employees helps reduce the
uncertainty of forecasted supply, but orchestrating developmental experiences for
large numbers of employees can be very difficult logistically because development is
best accomplished by rotating employees through many key jobs throughout their
careers. Predicting who will be available and with what capabilities is only half of the
problem, of course. Equally challenging is predicting the needs of the organization.
Because the purpose of human resource planning is to ensure that the right people are
in the right place at the right time, it must be linked with the plans of the total
organization. Traditionally, there has been a weak one way linkage between business
planning and human resource planning. Business plans, where they exist, have defined
human resource needs, thereby making human resource planning a reactive exercise.
Many organizations now recognize that they can benefit from a two-way linkage
between business and human resource planning. With a two-way linkage, business
plans are considered somewhat malleable in that they are influenced by human
resource considerations, such as the cost and availability of labor. Such organizations
realize that profitability requires that business objectives be linked to people-planning
activities. If the right people are unavailable, performance goals cannot be met. A two-
way linkage is evident when astute managers no longer assume that every plan is
doable.
42

2.1. Demand Equals Supply

Should labor demand equal labor supply—a situation that could occur in very small
firms operating in a stable environment but is not likely to happen in large
organizations facing dynamic conditions—no action need be taken. The company can
simply continue doing what it is doing; nothing else is required, at least in the short
run.
2.2. Demand Is Less Than Supply
As more and more large organizations down-size, restructure, right-size, and streamline
to cut costs, increase efficiency, improve productivity, and remain competitive, the
potential for the demand for employees to be less than the available supply is a distinct
possibility. Several methods are available for equating demand and supply, such as
restricted hiring, reduced working hours, job sharing, early retirement, retraining, and
layoffs.
2.3. Demand Is Greater Than Supply
Faced with a shortage of personnel, an organization must intensify its efforts to obtain
the necessary supply of people to meet the needs of the firm. Several actions may be
taken, such as creative recruiting (seeking different sourcing), compensation incentive
(premium pay, four-day workweeks, flexible working hours, telecommuting, part-
time, employment, and child care centers), training programs (special training
programs to prepare previously unemployable individuals for positions with a firm),
and different selection standards (lowering of employment standards and coupled with
training programs).
3. Staffing Plan
In line with HR planning, staffing plans help employers analyze and respond to staffing
gaps. Many factors drive the loss of staff, including changing labor markets, wage inflation
due to competition for key skills, lack of employee engagement, and retirement. The
model below outlines how employers can evaluate and respond to such losses.
3.1. Demand Forecast
Identify how many staff are needed to meet deliverables, outputs, and performance
measures. The most accurate forecasts are one to three years into the future.
Consider:
Staffing Level: How many positions will be needed in ‘core’ job areas?
Regular Turnover: What is the projected turnover rate due to competition?
Retirement Turnover: What is the projected turnover rate due to anticipated
retirements?
Knowledge and Skill Loss: What percentage of staff’s knowledge and skills will become
outdated without any training or development?
 43

3.2. Supply Forecast

Identify what and how many staff will be available to meet staffing needs. Consider:
Internal Availability: How many employees will be promotable within the target
timeframe?
External Availability: How many people are doing similar work in the target recruitment
area? How many people are regularly hired away from other employers?.
Future Labor Supply: How many people will be entering the qualified labor pool from
schools and training programs in the target recruitment area?
Current Training and Development: What percentage of core knowledge and skill loss is
presently being mitigated by training and development efforts?
3.3. Gap Analysis
Subtract the projected supply from the projected demand. A negative result indicates
the need for a new strategy.
3.4. Strategy Identification
There are Demand-side and Supply-side staffing strategies. Consider a combination of
strategies when addressing staffing gaps.
3.4.1. Demand-side Strategies
Demand-side strategies reduce the number of positions that need to be filled. They
include:
Retention: Reduce turnover through retention incentives and employee engagement
strategies.
Reorganization: Reduce the number of management positions by expanding
supervisory span of control.
Work Process Redesign: Reduce staffing needs by streamlining workflows and
methods.
Employee Performance Management: Reduce staffing needs by improving individual
productivity.
3.4.2. Supply-side Strategies
Supply-side strategies help fill the remaining staffing gap once demand-side strategies
have reduced the number of positions that must be filled. They include:
Recruitment: Expand applicant pools through enhanced marketing (e.g., broadening
the target recruitment area, increasing advertising venues, and improved branding
strategy).
Modified Qualifications: Expand applicant pools by considering a broader range of
experience and education.
44

Workforce Development: Grow future applicant pools by supporting schools and

apprenticeship programs.
Training and Development: Keep current staff up-to-date in their knowledge and
skills through on-the-job and other training and development programs.
Succession Planning: Grow new internal applicant pools through training and
development programs.
4. Contingent Staffing
In today’s labor market, there is a shortage of workers with critical skill sets. This has
resulted in a steady, year-over-year growth in the size and cost of the contingent
workforce. As the baby boomer generation is starting to retire, companies are bridging the
critical skills gap with more contingent workforce. Many organizations regularly report that
the contingent workforce is increasingly being used for strategic reasons, such as
supplementing internal talent capabilities as well as for operational reasons such as
increasing the flexibility and responsiveness of the workforce.
Contingent staffing also referred to as alternative staffing, also called flexible staffing, it
uses alternative recruiting sources and workers who are not regular employees. Many
staffing approaches are possible other than conventional full-time arrangements where
the organization directly hires, supervises, and provides compensation and benefits to
regular employees.

Heneman III , H., Judge , T., & Kammeyer-Mueller, J. (2014). Staffing Organizations (8th
Edition). Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill Education.

4.1. Type of Alternative Staff

4.1.1. Independent contractors are self-employed individuals hired on a contract basis
 45

for specialized services.

4.1.2. Temporary employees hired to work on a specified job to supplement the regular
workforce on a short-term basis or for a specific period of time. Temporary
floaters are hired to work directly on the company's payroll on a short-term basis
or for a specific period of time to rotate among several positions or departments
as needed.
4.1.3. On-call are workers who report to work only when needed.
4.1.4. Part-time employees scheduled to work less than a regular workweek on an
ongoing basis; benefit eligibility depends on various factors.
4.1.5. Seasonal workers are part-time or "casual" workers hired to perform seasonal
work in a variety of industries.
4.1.6. Co-employment, or joint employment, generally describes a situation in which
an organization shares joint responsibility and liability for their alternative
workers with the alternative staffing supplier.
4.1.7. In an explicit joint venture, a company transfers all or substantially all employees
at a discrete site or facility to the payroll of an employee leasing firm; the
professional employer organization (PEO) leases employees back to the company
while handling most of the HR administrative functions (e.g., payroll, benefits,
personnel records management).
4.1.8. Outsourcing or managed service is an independent company with expertise in
operating a specific function contracts with a company to assume full operational
responsibility for the function (as opposed to just supplying personnel); functions
may be peripheral to the core business (e.g., security, landscaping, food services)
or closer to operations (such as managing all flexible staffing programs or the IT
function).
4.1.9. Work made for hire is something that was created by an employee while on the
job, or by an independent contractor who was hired to create the work. The
copyright on work made for hire belongs to the employer or the party who
commissioned the work. If a work is a work made for hire, the employer or other
person for whom the work was prepared is the initial owner of the copyright
unless there has been a written agreement to the contrary signed by both
parties.
4.1.10. Certain types of employees, who are classified as exempt employees, are not
entitled to overtime pay as guaranteed by regulation. If an employee is
classified as exempt (vs. non-exempt) their employer is not required to pay
them overtime pay.
4.2. Contingent Workforce Strategy
Contingent workforce offers companies the ability to tap into extensive networks of
individuals with hard-to-find skills. The benefits are many but the challenge of finding
and managing this diverse and decentralized workforce cannot to be underestimated.
Here are 4 key questions organizations must consider when developing their contingent
46

workforce strategy:
4.2.1. How can we PLAN most effectively for a total workforce?
When it comes to a contingent workforce strategy, the planning phase is extremely
important. Unfortunately, in many organizations, contingent workers are added in an ad-
hoc fashion so that it’s hard, or in many cases totally impossible, to get the total
contingent workforce picture. Organizations should start by evaluating the critical skills
needed to achieve company goals, determining where the talent gaps are, and then
developing a strategy to fill the gaps with both full-time and contingent labor. Those
spearheading this planning phase should be prepared to educate others within the
company about the high value contingent workers bring to the workplace. Providing
research about the use of contingent workers in your industry and the growth of the
contingent workforce nationally and internationally is a good place to start.
4.2.2. How will we MANAGE our contingent workforce?
Most organizations have established processes when sourcing, hiring, on-boarding,
compensating, training and reviewing full-time employees. For some reason, when it
comes to the contingent workforce, many of these standards seem to go right out the
window. This should not be the case. Organizations should think broadly about the range
of talent practices used for full-time employees, and consider how they may be applied
to the contingent workforce. Companies should also look to standardize the
management of contingent workers when possible, making it similar or identical to that
of full-time employees. The contingent workforce landscape should not be the Wild
West. There should be rules and processes in place to ensure that you are finding the
best candidates, hiring them in a timely fashion and at the right price, on-boarding them
to meet all compliance requirements, training them so they continue to develop their
knowledge of your organization and their own expertise, and providing performance
feedback on an ongoing basis. These policies were put in place for full time employees
because they enhance performance. They’ll have a similar impact on contingent workers.
4.2.3. How will we ENGAGE contingent workers and integrate them into our culture?
As a full-time employee at an organization, you are privy to a lot of information about
the company and the culture: emails from the CEO about the financial performance of
the company, interactions with co-workers that give you the flavor of how people treat
each other, events and town hall meetings where important information is shared. For
many contingent workers, this is not the case. If you have contingent workers who work
remotely or don’t have network access, don’t forget to try to share these aspects of your
organization with them. Just being part of an active corporate culture energizes your full-
time employees, and it will motivate your contingent workers as well. Look for
opportunities to share exciting company news to give them a strong sense of the
organization they are working for. Be sure to coach your hiring managers on effective
strategies to keep this workforce engaged- they are a critical part of the team’s success –
make sure to treat them as such. You can also look for opportunities to connect your
contingent workers to each other providing an additional layer of support. These efforts
will ensure that they know your organization and will represent you well when they are
out in the world.
 47

4.2.4. What Technology will we use to help us manage our contingent workforce?
Many HR technology solutions are designed exclusively for full-time talent. Within
organizations where contingent talent is a significant part of the workforce, this just
won’t work. These organizations need to leverage a technology solution that provides
total visibility into this specialized workforce. A Vendor Management System (VMS)
manages contingent labor as well as the wide variety of service categories such as
Statement of Work (SOW) projects and indirect services. A VMS can help to make the
contingent workforce a strategic component of an organization’s overall human capital
management strategy by improving operational efficiencies, cost controls, compliance,
and invoice controls for staff augmentation and professional services spend.
As the contingent workforce continues to grow, managing this unique population
requires innovative thinking and solutions. Organizations must think critically about how
they will plan for, manage, engage and integrate this complex workforce into their
comprehensive talent strategy and bolster this plan with the required technology
support. Organizations who fail to do this will lose a competitive advantage over those
who do.
5. Diversity and Inclusion
To secure growth in today’s increasingly competitive world, businesses need to leverage
the potential of the whole workforce, not just a select few employees. They need to do
more with more. The most successful organizations achieve this by creating an
environment in which everyone is empowered to develop, to contribute, and to succeed.
Diversity means all the ways we differ. Some of these differences we are born with and
cannot change. Anything that makes us unique is part of this definition of diversity.
Inclusion involves bringing together and harnessing these diverse forces and resources,
in a way that is beneficial. Inclusion puts the concept and practice of diversity into action
by creating an environment of involvement, respect, and connection—where the
richness of ideas, backgrounds, and perspectives are harnessed to create business value.
Organizations need both diversity and inclusion to be successful.
First and foremost, diversity must be defined organizationally from the top down and
confirmed from the bottom up. This includes, but is not limited to, incorporating diversity
initiatives into the mission and vision statements, the employee handbook, values
statements, human resource policies, human resource training, and press releases.
Having a separate diversity statement (similar to a mission statement) is also a good way
to underline how an organization is committed to diversity. Following this process, upper
management must also align resource allocation with diversity—committing time,
efforts, capital, and staff to promoting it.
Many companies struggle and do not realize the full potential of a diverse and inclusive
workforce. These organizations might still be focused on numbers and lack a complete
understanding of the business imperative. While diversity in organizations is increasingly
respected as a fundamental characteristic, neither acceptance nor appreciation have
equated to inclusive workplaces where unique vantage points of diverse people are
valued. Inclusion enhances an organization’s ability to achieve better business results by
engaging people from diverse backgrounds and perspectives through participatory
48

decision-making.
An organization’s journey to become inclusive begins with a critical but simple inquiry:
what actions is my organization taking to foster an inclusive work culture where
uniqueness of beliefs, backgrounds, talents, capabilities, and ways of living are welcomed
and leveraged for learning and informing better business decisions?
This inventory of actions must begin with a macro view of diversity considering
workforce, supplier diversity, philanthropy, communications, etc. Organizational systems
must be assessed to determine the degree to which equitable access is provided to all.
Several key strategies will also need to be revisited and even reinvented to facilitate total
alignment of organizational systems, processes, and structures to transform the culture.
Where gaps and barriers are identified, it is important to understand how inclusion can
address deficiencies and support effective decision-making and better business results in
these areas. Findings from the inventory are the basis of an action plan.
5.1. Inventory of Action
Work from a well-documented plan of action complete with goals, objectives and lots of
small manageable tasks to help realize change. Achieving an inclusive work environment
is a culture change initiative, but it does not require lots of large undertakings.
Incorporate diversity principles across business functions and units. Diversity supports
inclusion and should be practiced throughout all aspects of the organization, even in
developing the plan for working toward a more inclusive culture. Inclusive practices must
be integrated into product development, communications, training and education, career
and professional development, recruitment and retention and overall leadership and
management practices.
Create opportunities for cross-generational work teams and interactions. Cross-
functional teams comprised of men and women who are intergenerational and racially
diverse stimulate new thinking, which leads to greater possibilities.
Invest in team building and leadership skills, as they are of increasing importance to
benefit from diversity and to achieve inclusion. Instilling the organization with
competencies that foster successful teams and skills for leading diverse teams is a critical
success factor.
“Mind the Middle.” innovative organizations find ways to “mind the middle” without
sacrificing executive and entry levels. While some organizations show slow progress on
the diversity journey due to the lack of support from its senior leadership, many
organizations find middle management derails progress.
5.2. Leadership Accountability
Following the above expressions of strategy, leaders and managers must now be held
accountable. This means that management will carefully control diversity, minimizing the
negative elements (stereotyping, discrimination, inequity, groupthink, etc.) while
empowering the positive elements (innovative thinking, health conflict, inclusive culture,
etc.). Managers must also actively work to achieve diversity in work groups, arranging
assignments strategically to capture the inherent value of diversity. When failures in
 49

diversity management occur, managers must be accountable in taking corrective action.

Unfortunately many well-meaning diversity and inclusion initiatives fail because
organizations behave defensively, putting corporate policies in place to increase diversity
(appointing a Chief Diversity Officer, setting up diverse candidate slates, implementing
flexible working policies) and thus avoid expensive lawsuits, without helping individual
employees develop a mindset of inclusion.
Organizations that are brave enough to address inclusion as a cultural issue will reap
enormous benefits. The starting point is a few key shifts in attitude: from diversity alone
(delivered at a corporate level) to diversity and inclusion (delivered by individuals); from
demographics to diversity of thinking; and from diversity and inclusion as an issue of
compliance to an essential facet of business success.
5.3. The Role of HR
Upper management and departmental managers are not the only individuals involved in
diversity management, however. The human resource department specifically has a great
deal of responsibility in managing the overall diversity of the organization. Human
resources can consider diversity within the following areas:

 Hiring

 Compensation equality

 Training

 Employee policies

 Legal regulations

 Ensuring accessibility of important documents (e.g., translating human resource

materials into other languages so all staff can read them)

 Contracts
The role of human resources is to ensure that all employee concerns are being met and
that employee problems are solved when they arise. Human resource professionals must
also pursue corporate strategy and adhere to legal concerns when hiring, firing, paying,
and regulating employees. This requires careful and meticulous understanding of both
the legal and organizational contexts as they pertain to diversity management.
6. Employment Contract
An employment contract can be verbal, written or both to be valid. The agreement can
be either explicit or implied. With an implied contract there may be no formal agreement
in writing that an employee signs, but an employer’s promises can be binding all the
same. Anything discussed between the two parties can be construed as a spoken
employment agreement. An explicit employment contract details the employee’s job
duties, compensation and number of work hours in writing. Implicit contracts imply
expectations on the part of both employers and employees. In most cases, employees
operate under an implied and explicit employment contract.
50

6.1. Implied Agreement

Often, employment agreements are implied from verbal statements or through
information stated in employee handbooks and company policies. Implied employment
contracts come about when an employer discusses details relating to job duties,
compensation, benefits and termination of employment with an interviewee or current
employee. Likewise, much of the information published in the company’s employee
handbook is generally the same as the terms the employer would specify in a written
employment contract. To avoid creating an implied agreement, an employer must be
careful not to make specific promises during an interview or in a job offer letter. The
same goes for any information published in the employee handbook. Employers must
always make it clear verbally and in writing that the employer/employee relationship is
at will, which means that either the employer or employee can terminate employment at
any time.
6.2. Written Agreement
An employer is not obligated to enter into a written employment contract with an
employee. However, even when an employee signs a written employment contract, the
employer needs to be cautious about the wording he uses. In addition to providing
employees with written job descriptions, the employer should clarify the right to change
or add job duties. Similarly, an employer should make it clear in a written contract that
offering the employee benefits is optional. The employer should state that benefits could
change at any point, although the employee will be advised of a change before it occurs.
To protect against misunderstandings, an employer often will ask employees to sign a
document agreeing to at-will employment rather than sign an employment contract.
6.3. Job offer
A job offer letter is an informal employment contract used in private sector employment.
The job offer letter usually spells out just the basics of compensation and benefits, paid
time off, job title, and reporting relationships. Employers who use a job offer letter with
senior employees may need to offer senior level employees a job offer letter that spells
out many of the same components you would find in a formal employment contract.
Many senior employees prefer an attorney negotiated employment contract that spells
out all agreements in detail. Depending on the position the employment contract or job
offer letter defines, the employee may be required to sign a non-disclosure agreement
and/or a non-compete agreement to get hired. These are usually non-negotiable signed
documents.
Every employment contract is different. In a non-union setting, their level of detail
depends on the persistence of the employee and employer who are negotiating the
details of the contract. In any contract negotiation, legal representation is recommended.
As an employer, you also have the option of negotiating with the prospective employee if
your first offer is not accepted or your prospective employee makes a counter offer. An
employment contract generally covers:
6.3.1. Define the Position
Any employment contract should provide a prospective employee with a clear
 51

understanding of the job requirements, including the name of the position and the
essential duties it entails. The contract should also spell out the place and hours of
employment. Use concise and straightforward language, leaving no doubt as to your
expectations as an employer.
6.3.2. Length of Agreement
When preparing a contract, it must contain elements favorable to both parties.
Therefore, an employment contract should dictate an original term of employment and
stipulate conditions that are applicable to you and your employee to extend, reduce or
terminate the contract term.
6.3.3. Performance
In reviewing performance requirements for insertion in the contract, consider
establishing any skills you would like upgraded during the term of the contract. Include
production goals you want realized and revenue enhancements you require. If a sales-
based position, insert sales volume expectations and recruitment of new clients.
Incorporate any other performance barometers you plan to measure and for which you
will hold the new employee accountable.
6.3.4. Compensation
Any prospective employee expects an employment contract that defines compensation.
When you negotiate a salary and put the figures in the contract, specify a base wage and
dictate the method of payment -- salaried, hourly or commission. Commit your overtime
authorization policy to the contract. If the position involves commission payment, spell
out the percentage; how you handle draws against commissions; and how termination of
employment affects any pending contracts. If your company has an incentive program,
clearly state its objectives. Include how you handle expense accounts as well.
6.3.5. Benefits
Spell out your new employee's benefit package in the contract. Include any health,
dental, vision or other insurances you offer. Also, state any percentages of benefit
premiums the employee has to pay. If professional licenses, dues or memberships are
necessary, make it clear in the contract who pays for their acquisition and payment. Also
cover other items such as holidays, vacations, stock options, any profit sharing your
company offers and retirement plans you provide for employees.
6.3.6. Other Elements
If applicable, you may want to include covenants that include non-disclosure language,
non-solicitation periods, a non-recruit agreement and a non-compete clause. In some
states, non-compete clauses are not enforceable. Check with your attorney for laws in
your company's state of operation. You may also consider the inclusion of a property
rights clause that covers ownership of existing clients and equipment, as well as any
licenses, patents or copyrights held by your company.
6.3.7. Termination
Although not a pleasant thought, you must cover termination language. Specifically
52

explain what happens if an employee is let go with or without cause. Ensure that you
include a definition of both scenarios and cover severance terms that apply in each
incidence.
Either an employee or employer can violate the terms of an employment agreement
whether the contract is written or verbal. Frequently, allegations of breach of contract
involve issues of compensation or termination of employment. Enforcing an employment
contract varies according to state laws. For this reason, before entering into a written
employment contract, be clear on the terms and provisions of the contract. In some
states, a verbal agreement of employment is not enforceable if a company promises an
individual employment for more than one year. In the case of longer term employment,
there should be a signed, written agreement. Otherwise, employment is presumed to be
at will and can be terminated by either party.
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Part Three: Workforce Recruitment

1. Recruiting
Recruitment includes those practices and activities carried on by the organization with the
primary purpose of identifying and attracting potential employees. Recruiting is the
process of (a) generating applicants, (b) maintaining applicant status, and (c) influencing
job choice decisions. That is, (a) certain recruitment activities (e.g., advertising on a
Spanish-speaking radio station) may influence the number and type of individuals who
apply for a position, (b) certain activities (e.g., professional treatment during a site visit)
may affect whether job applicants withdraw during the recruitment process, and (c)
certain recruitment actions (e.g., the timeliness of a job offer) may influence whether a job
offer is accepted.
In other word, recruitment involves searching for and obtaining qualified job candidates in
such numbers that the organization can select the most appropriate person to fill its job
needs. In addition to filling job needs, the recruitment activity should be concerned with
satisfying the needs of the job applicants. Consequently, recruitment does not only attract
individuals to an organization, but also increases the chance of retaining them once they
are hired. This can be affected by recruiting people that can 'fit' within the culture of the
firm.
1.1. The Purpose of Recruitment
As stated above, the general purpose of recruitment is that of providing a pool of
potential qualified job candidates. Attracting the appropriate quantity of applicants is
necessary but not sufficient. The quality of applicants is the critical factor in meeting
recruitment goals. More specifically, the purposes of recruitment include the following:

 Determine the present and future recruitment needs of the organization in

conjunction with HR planning and job analysis activities.

 Increase the pool of qualified job candidates with minimum cost.

 Enhance the success rate of the selection process by reducing the number of
obviously under-qualified job applicants.

 Reduce the probability that job applicants, once recruited and selected, will leave
the organization after only a short period of time.

 Increase organizational and individual effectiveness in the short and long term.

 Evaluate the effectiveness of various recruiting techniques and sources for all
types of job applicants.
Apart from the traditional functions of recruitment mentioned above, quality
organizations -via recruitment - can attract individuals that: have a potential to add
value to the firm; be able to work in teams; and possess the new leadership skills
demanded of managers in a TQM environment. Another major decision that
organizations following a quality improvement program face is who should recruit
54

employees? Should recruitment be the preserve of management and the personnel

function, or should team members be free to 'choose' their own colleagues?
Traditionally, of course, managers and professional staff have performed this function.
Yet, there are an increasing number of instances where teams also play an important
part in the recruitment process.
1.2. The Recruitment Process
Recruiting efforts aim to translate HR plans into action. Regardless of organization size,
the following decisions about recruiting must be made:

 How many people does an organization need?

 Where will the organization get these people?

 What special skills and experience are really necessary?

 How will the organization spread its message of openings?

 How effective are the recruiting efforts?

The basic steps in a typical recruiting process are identified in the below figure:
HR Recruiter and Manager Review Job
Manager Notifies HR Unit of Opening
Ongoing General Recruiting Visibility

(Promotion , Job Posting, etc.)

Follow-up and Evaluation and

Internal Sources Are Checked
and Needed Qualifications

External Sources Used

Human Resource Plan

Tie Back to HR Plan

Selection Process

Dessler, D. (2013). Human Resource Management. Edition 13e. New York City, NY: Pearson.

In fairly large organizations, a manager notifies someone in the HR unit that an opening
exists and needs to be filled. A requisition is forwarded to the human resources
department for handling by the recruiter. The recruiter then places job postings based
on the requisition and discussions with the hiring manager or department supervisor.
Job requisitions, for the most part, are part of the checks-and-balances procedures that
many organizations follow for workforce planning and staffing actions. At the next step,
the HR representative and the manager must review the job description and job
specifications so that both have clear and up-to-date information on the job duties and
the specific qualifications desired of an applicant. Following this review, the actual
 55

recruiting effort begins. Internal sources of available recruits through transfers,

promotions, and job posting usually are checked first. Then, external sources are
contacted as required, and all applicants are screened though the selection process.
Lastly, follow-up is necessary to evaluate the effectiveness of the recruiting efforts and
to tie those efforts back into the human resource plan and ongoing recruiting activities.
1.3. Recruitment Planning
Recruitment planning begins with a clear specification of: (1) the number of people
needed and (2) when they are needed. Implicit in the later specification is a time frame
- the duration between the receipt of a curriculum vitae (CV) and the time a new hire
starts work. This time frame is sometimes referred to as 'the recruitment pipeline'.
2. Sources of Recruitment
Most employers combine the use of internal and external recruiting sources. Both
promoting from within the organization (internal recruitment) and hiring from outside the
organization (external recruitment) come with advantages and disadvantages.
Organizations that face rapidly changing competitive environments and conditions may
need to place a heavier emphasis on external sources in addition to developing internal
sources. A possible strategy might be to promote from within if a qualified applicant exists
and to go to external sources if not. However, for organizations existing in environments
that change slowly, emphasis on promotion from within may be more suitable. Once the
various recruiting policy decisions have been addressed, the actual recruiting methods can
be identified and used for both internal and external recruiting.

Managing
Requisition

Internal External
Recruiting Recruiting

Job Posting/Bidding The Internet Campus Recruiting Labor unions

Rehiring Advertising Internships Trade associations

Succession Plan Agencies Referrals Outplacement firms

Outsourcing Walk-In(s) Career/Job Fairs

Headhunter Previous applicants Social Media

Mathis, R.L. & Jackson, J.H. (2010). Human Resource Management. (13 Edition). Mason,
OH: South-Western Cengage Learning.

2.1. Internal Recruiting

The Internet has become the primary means for many employers to search for job
56

candidates and for applicants to look for jobs. The growth in Internet use is a key
reason that the following employer actions occur:

 Adjusting general employer recruiting systems to use new approaches

 Identifying new types of recruiting for specific jobs

 Training managers and HR professionals on technical recruiting sources, skills, and

responsibilities
2.1.1. E-Recruiting Means
The growth in the Internet has led both employers and employees to use Internet
recruiting tools. Internet links, Web 2.0 sites, blogs, twitters, and other types of
Internet/Web-based usages have become viable parts of recruiting. One survey of e-
recruiting software providers identified numerous firms as e-recruiting clients, and
some of them serve more than 1,000 employers. Of the many recruiting sites using
special software, the most common ones are Internet job boards, professional/career
websites, and employer websites.
Internet Job Boards Numerous Internet job boards, such as Monster and Yahoo! Hot
Jobs, provide places for employers to post jobs or search for candidates. Job boards
offer access to numerous candidates. Some Internet locations allow recruiters to
search one website, such as MyJobHunter.com, to obtain search links to many other
major job sites. Applicants can also use these websites to do one match and then send
résumés to all jobs in which they are interested. However, a number of the individuals
accessing these sites are “job lookers” who are not serious about changing jobs, but
are checking out compensation levels and job availability in their areas of interest.
Despite such concerns, HR recruiters find general job boards useful for generating
applicant responses.
Professional/Career Websites Many professional associations have employment
sections at their websites. As illustration, for HR jobs, see the Society for Human
Resource Management site, www.shrm.org, or WorldatWork, www.worldatwork.org.
The SHRM organization has established a Job Posting Center that numerous recruiters
and employers can use to post a wide range of industry openings. A number of private
corporations maintain specialized career or industry websites to focus on IT,
telecommunications, engineering, medicine, and other areas. Use of these targeted
websites may limit somewhat recruiters’ search time and efforts. Also, posting jobs on
such websites is likely to target applicants specifically interested in the job field and
may reduce the number of applications from less-qualified applicants.
Employer Websites Despite the popularity of job boards and association job sites,
many employers have learned that their own websites can be most effective and
efficient when recruiting candidates. The most successful of these websites are created
by highly prominent firms and take extensive actions to guide job seekers to their firm.
Employers include employment and career information on their websites under
headings such as “Employment” or “Careers.” This is the place where recruiting (both
internal and external) is often conducted. On many of these sites, job seekers are
encouraged to e-mail résumés or complete online applications.
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It is important for the recruiting and employment portions of an employer website to

be seen as part of the marketing efforts of the firm. The formatting of the employment
section of an organizational website must be shaped to market jobs and organizational
careers effectively. A company website should market the employer by outlining
information on the organization, including its products and services, organizational and
industry growth potential, and organizational operations. The attractiveness, usability,
and formatting of an employer’s website can affect job seekers’ view of that
organization positively or negatively. See HR On-the-Job for company website recruiting
ideas.
2.1.2. Recruiting and Internet Social Networking
The Internet has led to social networking of individuals on blogs, twitters, and a range
of websites. Many people initially use the social media more than job board sites.
Internet connections often include people who work together as well as past personal
contacts and friends.
The informal use of the Web presents some interesting recruiting advantages and
disadvantages for both employers and employees. Social networking sites allow job
seekers to connect with employees of potential hirers. For instance, some sites include
posts on what it is like to work for a boss, and job hunters can contact the posters and
ask questions. An example is LinkedIn, which has a job-search engine that allows
people to search for contacts who work for employers with posted job openings.
Firms and employers are now engaging in social collaboration by joining and accessing
social technology networks such as LinkedIn, Facebook, and many others. Posting job
openings on these sites means that millions of website users can see the openings and
can make contact online. Often those doing recruiting can send individuals to the
company website and then process candidates using electronic résumés or completed
online applications.
Job Applicants and Social Network Sites Many individuals see social media and
networking websites as a key part of online recruiting. Almost half of surveyed
employers indicated that instead of using general job boards, they were changing to
social networking and niche job sites for recruiting workers with specific skills.
However, employers who use social networking sites for recruiting must have plans and
well-defined recruiting tools to take full advantage of these sites.
A majority of LinkedIn members explicitly state that they may be contacted for reasons
concerning new career opportunities. Several of these individuals, in their LinkedIn
profiles, also include detailed descriptions of present and past work experience,
summaries of their areas of expertise, and links to references made available by former
supervisors and co-workers. Their stated contact interests, and the detailed résumé-
like profiles that often accompany these interests, indicate that the majority of
individuals registered with LinkedIn are concerned to locate opportunities that may
advance their careers. Moreover, LinkedIn’s users can include a photograph, write a
short blurb attesting to their expertise, and add media links that share presentations,
digital portfolios, or a list of books they are reading. Personal interests and the LinkedIn
groups and associations to which a person belongs are part of the profile, as are the
reasons someone may be contacted, such as career opportunities, new ventures, or
58

"getting back in touch." Individuals may enhance their profiles to achieve a desired
goal in the same way that a resume can be bolstered to improve the chances of getting
an interview.
2.1.3. Recruiting Using Special Technology Means
For a number of years, the Internet has been used by people globally. Several special
Internet tools that can be used as part of recruiting efforts are blogs, e-videos, and
twitters.
Blogs and Recruiting Both employers and individuals have used blogs as part of
recruiting to fill jobs. Firms such as Best Buy, Microsoft, Honeywell, and Manpower
have used blogs on which individuals could read and provide content. For instance,
describing job openings and recruiting needs on the Best Buy blog has resulted in
individuals responding to job areas such as finance, marketing, HR, and other
specialties. Numerous other employers have used blogs to generate recruiting results
as well.
E-Video and Recruiting With video capabilities of all types available, employers are
using videos in several ways. Some firms use videos to describe their company
characteristics, job opportunities, and recruiting means. Suppliers such as
Monstor.com, CareerTV, and others have worked with employer clients to produce
online recruitment videos.
Some of the online videos contain “employment games” for both current and potential
employees that focus on creating positive employment images. People who are
interested in working for the company can then follow up by using online job
application documentation and information. For example, MITRE, a systems
engineering firm, developed a “Job of Honor” video game that drew more than 5,000
hits in one year; more than 600 people in the United States and from 25 other
countries became registered players in the game. Participation levels like this have led
employers to increase job-related recruiting and follow-up activities using Web-based
linkages.
Recruiting through Twitter Twitter (Sina Weibo is China's version of Twitter) can be
used for many different purposes, including personal, social, legal, and employment-
related messages. The Twitter system limits messages to 140 specific characters, but
even so tweeting has rapidly become a social network recruiting method. Recruiters
send tweet messages to both active and passive job candidates, and then follow up
with longer e-mails to computers, personal contacts, and other actions to facilitate
recruiting. Since Twitter is such a relatively new service, how exactly it will be best used
for recruiting is still evolving.
2.1.4. Legal Issues in Internet Recruiting
With Internet recruiting expanding, new and different concerns have arisen. Several of
these issues have ethical and moral as well as legal implications. The following
examples illustrate some of these concerns:

 When companies use screening software to avoid looking at the thousands of

résumés they receive, are rejections really based on the qualifications needed for
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the job?

 How can a person’s protected-category and other information be collected and

analyzed for reports?

 Are too many individuals in protected categories being excluded from the later
phases of the Internet recruiting process?

 Which applicants really want jobs? If someone has accessed a job board and sent
an e-mail asking an employer about a job opening, does the person actually want
to be an applicant?

 What are the implications of Internet recruiting in terms of confidentiality and

privacy?
Loss of privacy is a potential disadvantage with Internet recruiting. Sharing information
gleaned from people who apply to job boards or even company websites has become
common. As a company receives résumés from applicants, it is required to track those
applicants and report to the federal government. But the personal information that can
be seen by employers on websites such as MySpace, Facebook, LinkedIn, and others
may be inappropriate and can possibly violate legal provisions.
Employment lawyers are issuing warnings to employers about remarks and other
characteristics posted on LinkedIn, Facebook, and Twitter. According to one survey of
employers, about three-fourths of hiring managers in various-sized companies checked
persons’ credentials on LinkedIn, about half used Facebook, and approximately one-
fourth used Twitter. Some of the concerns raised have included postings of confidential
details about an employee’s termination, racial/ethnic background, or gender and the
making of discriminatory comments. All of these actions could lead to wrongful
termination or discrimination lawsuits. Thus, because Internet usage has both
advantages and disadvantages for recruiting, legal advice should be obtained, and HR
employment-related policies, training, and enforcement should include such advice.
2.1.5. Advantages of Internet Recruiting
Employers have found a number of advantages to using Internet recruiting. A primary
one is that many employers have saved money using Internet recruiting versus other
recruiting methods such as newspaper advertising, employment agencies, and search
firms, all of which can cost substantially more.
Another major advantage is that a very large pool of applicants can be generated using
Internet recruiting. Individuals may view an employer more positively and obtain more
useful information, which can result in more individual applications. In fact, a large
number of candidates may see any given job listing, although exposure depends on
which Internet sources are used. One side benefit of Internet recruiting is that jobs
literally are posted globally, so potential applicants in other geographic areas and
countries can view job openings posted on the Internet. It also improves the ability to
target specific audiences, including more diverse persons, through the use of
categories, information, and other variables.
Internet recruiting also can save time. Applicants can respond quickly to job postings by
60

sending electronic responses, rather than using “snail mail.” Recruiters can respond
more rapidly to qualified candidates in order to obtain more necessary applicant
information, request additional candidate details, and establish times for further
communication, including interviews.
A good website and useful Internet resources also can help recruiters reach “passive”
job seekers—those who have a good job and are not really looking to change jobs but
who might consider it if a better opportunity were presented. These individuals often
do not list themselves on job boards, but they might visit a company website for other
reasons and check out the careers or employment section. A well-designed corporate
website can help stimulate interest in some passive job seekers, as well as other
potential candidates.
2.1.6. Disadvantages of Internet Recruiting
The positive things associated with Internet recruiting come with a number of
disadvantages. Because of broader exposure, Internet recruiting often creates
additional work for HR staff members and others internally. More online job postings
must be sent; many more résumés must be reviewed; more e-mails, blogs, and twitters
need to be dealt with; and expensive specialized software may be needed to track the
increased number of applicants resulting from Internet recruiting efforts.
Another issue with Internet recruiting is that some applicants may have limited
Internet access, especially individuals from lower socioeconomic groups and from
certain racial/ethnic groups. In addition, many individuals who access Internet
recruiting sources are browsers who may submit résumés just to see what happens,
but they are not actively looking for new jobs.
Internet recruiting is only one approach to recruiting, but its use has been expanding.
Information about how Internet recruiting methods compare with other, more
traditional approaches is relevant. Also, how well the Internet recruiting resources
perform must be compared to the effectiveness and integration of other external and
internal recruiting sources.
2.1.7. Internal Recruiting methods
Filling openings internally may add motivation for employees to stay and grow in the
organization rather than pursuing career opportunities elsewhere. The most common
internal recruiting methods include: organizational databases, job postings, promotions
and transfers, current-employee referrals, and re-recruiting of former employees and
applicants.
Internal Recruiting Databases and Internet-Related Sources
HR information technology systems allow HR staff to maintain background and
knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSA) information on existing employees. As openings
arise, HR can access databases by entering job requirements and then get a listing of
current employees meeting those requirements. Employment software can sort
employee data by occupational fields, education, areas of career interests, previous
work histories, and other variables. For instance, if a firm has an opening for someone
with an MBA and marketing experience, the key words MBA and marketing can be
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entered in a search field, and the program displays a list of all current employees with
these two items identified in their employee profiles.
The advantage of such databases is that they can be linked to other HR activities.
Opportunities for career development and advancement are a major reason why
individuals stay at or leave their employers. With employee databases, internal
opportunities for individuals can be identified. Employee profiles are continually
updated to include such items as additional training and education completed, special
projects handled, and career plans and desires noted during performance appraisals
and career mentoring discussions.
Job Posting
The major means for recruiting current employees for other jobs within the
organization is job posting, a system in which the employer provides notices of job
openings and employees respond by applying for specific openings. Without some sort
of job posting system, it is difficult for many employees to find out what jobs are open
elsewhere in the organization. In many unionized organizations, job posting and
bidding can be quite formal because the procedures are often spelled out in labor
agreements. Seniority lists may be used by organizations that make promotions based
strictly on seniority.
Regardless of the means used, the purpose of the job posting system is to provide
employees with more opportunities to move within the organization. When
establishing and managing a job posting system, a number of questions must be
addressed:

 What happens if no qualified candidates respond to postings?

 Must employees inform their supervisors that they are applying for another job?

 Are there restrictions on how long an employee must stay in a job before applying
for another internal one?

 What types of or levels of jobs will not be posted?

Internet/Web-Based Job Posting While many employers historically have had some
kind of job posting system in place for internal jobs, a number of companies are using
proactive efforts to get employees to apply through Web based systems. Kenexa,
Oracle, Softscape, LinkedIn, ResumePal, Facebook, and JobFox are just some of the
vendors that provide internal recruiting website job posting. The complexity of using
such job posting methods varies according to the employer and the technology
capabilities and systems available. Employees can log onto a company intranet and
create personal profiles, including career objectives, education, skill sets, and pay
expectations. They also may attach a résumé. When a job opens, the placement
program automatically mines the database for matches. Candidates then are notified
by e-mail and go through the regular hiring cycle.
Effective Job Posting For job posting efforts to be effective, especially with better-
performing employees, posting wording must be relevant and accurate. Also, the
posting should be based on the important characteristics of talented employees. Those
62

people may be most likely to respond because of the organizational reputation,

coworkers and bosses, and the possibility of more important and interesting work.
Jobs generally are posted before any external recruiting is done. The organization must
allow a reasonable period of time for present employees to check notices of available
jobs before it considers external applicants. Employees whose bids are turned down
should discuss with their supervisors or someone in the HR area what knowledge,
skills, and abilities are needed in order to improve their opportunities in the future.
Promotions and Transfers Many organizations choose to fill vacancies through
promotions or transfers from within whenever possible. Firms such as Verizon
Communications, Dow Chemical, Microsoft, and IBM have established systems to
encourage employees to learn about current and future career needs and
opportunities. Some advantages of these programs are reducing employee turnover,
enhancing individuals’ skills and talent, and improving productivity. The HR Perspective
highlights some of the opportunities of these programs.
Although often successful, internal transfer and promotion of employees within the
company may have some drawbacks. For instance, a person’s performance on one job
may not be a good predictor of performance on another, because different skills may
be required on the new job. Also, as employees transfer or are promoted to other jobs,
individuals must be recruited to fill the vacated jobs. Planning on how to fill those
openings should occur before the job transfers or promotions, not afterward.
Employee-Focused Recruiting
One reliable source of potential recruits is suggestions from current or former
employees. Because current and former employees are familiar with the employer,
most of them will not refer individuals who are likely to be unqualified or who will
make them look bad for giving the referral. Also, follow-up with former employers is
likely to be done only with persons who were solid employees previously.
Current-Employee Referrals A reliable source of people to fill vacancies is composed of
acquaintances, friends, and family members of current employees. The current
employees can acquaint potential applicants with the advantages of a job with the
company, furnish e-mails and other means of introduction, and encourage candidates
to apply. Word-of-mouth referrals and discussions can positively aid organizational
attractiveness and lead to more application decisions by those referred. However, using
only word-of-mouth or current-employee referrals can violate equal employment
regulations if protected-class individuals are underrepresented in the current
organizational workforce. Therefore, some external recruiting might be necessary to
avoid legal problems in this area.
Utilizing this source is usually one of the most effective methods of recruiting because
many qualified people can be reached at a relatively low cost. Some firms indicate that
more than 60% of new hires are due to employee referrals. In an organization with
numerous employees, this approach can develop quite a large pool of potential
employees. As an example, a Health Institute in Oklahoma used a referral program to
hire more than 500 medical technicians and nurses in relatively difficult-to-fill jobs. One
key component of this program was a referral incentive, whereby the individuals giving
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the referrals received up to $1,000 per difficult-to-fill job.

Employers in many geographic areas and occupational fields have established
employee referral incentive programs. Mid-sized and larger employers are more likely
to use employee referral bonuses. Some referral programs provide different bonus
amounts for hard-to-fill jobs compared with common openings; in these situations,
appropriate legal concerns should be met.
Re-recruiting of Former Employees and Applicants Former employees and applicants
represent another source for recruitment. Both groups offer a time-saving advantage
because something is already known about them. Seeking them out as candidates is
known as re-recruiting because they were successfully recruited previously. Former
employees are considered an internal source in the sense that they have ties to the
employer; sometimes they are called “boomerangers” because they left and came
back.
Individuals who have left for other jobs sometimes are willing to return because the
other jobs and employers turned out to be less attractive than initially thought. For
example, at Qualcomm, a California-based telecommunications firm, about 70% of
former Qualcomm individuals who left voluntarily indicated that they would return if
requested. The discussion on follow-up of exit interviews in the previous chapter
illustrated that re-recruiting can be a key recruiting contribution.
To enhance such efforts, some firms have established “alumni reunions” to keep in
contact with individuals who have left, and also to allow the companies to re-recruit
individuals as appropriate openings arise. Key issues in the decision to re-recruit
someone include the reasons why the individual left originally and whether the
individual’s performance and capabilities were good.
Another potential source consists of former applicants. Although they are not entirely
an internal source, information about them can be found in the organizational files or
an applicant database. Re-contacting those who have previously applied for jobs can be
a quick and inexpensive way to fill unexpected openings. For instance, one firm that
needed two cost accountants immediately contacted qualified previous applicants and
was able to hire two persons who were disenchanted with their current jobs at other
companies.
2.2. External Recruiting
Even when the overall unemployment rate increases, numerous jobs and/or employers
still face recruiting challenges. External recruiting is part of effective HR staffing.
Regardless of the methods used, external recruiting involves some common
advantages and disadvantages. Some of the prominent traditional and evolving
recruiting methods are highlighted next.
2.2.1. Media Sources
Media sources such as newspapers, magazines, television, radio, and billboards
typically have been widely used in external recruiting. Some firms have sent direct mail
using purchased lists of individuals in certain fields or industries. Internet usage has led
to media sources being available online, including postings, ads, videos, webinars, and
64

many other expanding media services. In some cities and towns, newspaper ads are
still very prominent, though they may trigger job searchers to go to an Internet source
for more details.
Recruiting differs depending on company and location; for instance, filling jobs at
community banks in rural areas might involve different types of recruiting from filling
jobs in larger banks in urban areas. Whatever medium is used, it should be tied to the
relevant labor market and should provide sufficient information on the company and
the job. Thus, one major key is to make the wording of job ads readable and
understandable, rather than using extensive abbreviations and omitting appealing
details.
Evaluating Media Ads HR recruiters should measure the responses that different
media generate in order to evaluate the effectiveness of various sources. The easiest
way to track responses to ads is to use different contact names, e-mail addresses, or
phone number codes in each ad, so the employer can identify which advertisement has
prompted each applicant response that is received.
Although the total number of responses to each ad should be tracked, judging the
success of an ad only by this number is a mistake. For example, it is better to have 10
responses with two qualified applicants than 30 responses with only one qualified
applicant. Therefore, after individuals are hired, follow-up should be done to see which
sources produced the employees who stay longer and perform better.
2.2.2. Competitive Recruiting Sources
Other sources for recruiting include professional and trade associations, trade
publications, and competitors. Many professional societies and trade associations
publish newsletters or magazines and have websites containing job ads. Such sources
may be useful for recruiting the specialized professionals needed in an industry.
Some employers have extended recruiting to customers. Retailers such as Wal-Mart
and Best Buy have aggressive programs to recruit customers to become employees in
stores. While in the store, customers at these firms can pick up applications, apply
online using kiosks, and even schedule interviews with managers or HR staff members.
Other firms have included employment announcements when sending out customer
bills or newsletters.
2.2.3. Employment Agencies
Employment agencies, both public and private, are a recruiting source. Every state in
the United States has its own state-sponsored employment agency. These agencies
operate branch offices in cities throughout the states and do not charge fees to
applicants or employers. They also have websites that potential applicants can use
without having to go to the offices.
Private employment agencies operate in most cities. For a fee collected from either the
employee or the employer, these agencies do some preliminary screening and put
employers in touch with applicants. Private employment agencies differ considerably in
the levels of service, costs, policies, and types of applicants they provide. One specific
type of private agency, the outplacement firm, is highlighted in the HR Perspective.
 65

“Headhunters” The size of the fees and the aggressiveness with which some firms
pursue candidates for executive and other openings have led to such firms being called
headhunters. These employment agencies focus their efforts on executive, managerial,
and professional positions. The executive search firms are split into two groups: (1)
contingency firms that charge a fee only after a candidate has been hired by a client
company, and (2) retainer firms that charge a client a set fee whether or not the
contracted search is successful. Most of the larger firms work on a retainer basis.
However, search firms are generally ethically bound not to approach employees of
client companies in their search for job candidates for another employer.
2.2.4. Labor Unions
Labor unions may be a useful source of certain types of workers. For example, in
electrical and construction industries, unions traditionally have supplied workers to
employers. A labor pool is generally available through a union, and workers can be
dispatched from the hiring hall to particular jobs to meet the needs of employers.
In some instances, labor unions can control or influence recruiting and staffing activity.
An organization with a strong union may have less flexibility than a nonunion company
in deciding who will be hired and where those people will be placed. Unions can
benefit employers through apprenticeship and cooperative staffing programs, as they
do in the building and printing industries.
2.2.5. Job Fairs and Creative Recruiting
Employers in various labor markets needing to fill a large number of jobs quickly have
used job fairs and special recruiting events. Job fairs or career fairs have been held by
economic development entities, employer and HR associations, and other community
groups to help bring employers and potential job candidates together. For instance, the
SHRM chapter in a Midwestern metropolitan area annually sponsors a job fair at which
75 to 100 employers can meet applicants. Publicity in the city draws several hundred
potential recruits for different types of jobs. However, two cautionary notes are in
order: (1) Some employers at job fairs may see attendees who are currently their
employees “shopping” for jobs with other employers; and (2) “general” job fairs are
likely to attract many people, including attendees who are not only unemployed but
also unemployable. Industry- or skill-specific events usually offer more satisfactory
candidates. Such job fairs also can attract employed candidates who are casually
looking around but may not put their résumés on the Internet.
“Virtual” job fairs with Web-based links have been used by the federal government
and others. “Drive-through” job fairs at shopping malls have been used by employers in
a number of communities. At one such event, interested persons could drive up to a
tent outside the mall, pick up applications from a “menu board” of employers, and
then park and interview in the tent with recruiters if time allowed. Such creative
recruiting methods sometimes can be used to generate a pool of qualified applicants
so that jobs can be filled in a timely manner.
2.2.6. Educational Institutions and Recruiting
College and university students are a significant source of entry-level professional and
66

technical employees. Most universities maintain career placement offices in which

employers and applicants can meet. A number of considerations affect an employer’s
selection of colleges and universities at which to conduct interviews.
Because college/university recruiting can be expensive and require significant time and
effort, employers need to determine whether both current and future jobs require
persons with college degrees in specific fields. Despite the economic changes in
industries and among employers, a majority of employers who were surveyed still plan
to have more than half of their hires be college graduates.
A number of factors determine success in college recruiting. Some employers actively
build continuing relationships with individual faculty members and career staff at
designated colleges and universities. Maintaining a presence on campus by providing
guest speakers to classes and student groups increases the contacts for an employer.
Employers with a continuing presence and support on a campus are more likely to see
positive college recruiting results.
Desirable Capabilities of College Recruits For many employers, a moderately high
grade point average (GPA) is a criterion for considering candidates for jobs during on-
campus interviews. Recruiters may use GPA benchmarks to initially screen applicants in
college recruiting decisions. Considerations beyond grades include the graduates’
leadership potential, interpersonal communication skills, and professional motivation
factors. Employers also are more likely to hire college candidates with related
experience. That is one reason why internships are very important to employers,
candidates, and college/university efforts, as the HR On-the-Job indicates.
Campus Recruiting High schools and vocational/technical schools may be valuable
sources of new employees for some organizations. Many schools have a centralized
guidance or placement office. Participating in career days and giving company tours to
school groups are ways of maintaining good contact with school sources. Cooperative
programs in which students work part-time and receive some school credits, also may
be useful in generating qualified future applicants for full-time positions.
Employers recognize that they may need to begin attracting students with capabilities
while those students are in high school. For example, GE, IBM, and other corporations
fund programs to encourage students with science and math skills to participate in
engineering internships during summers. Some employers specifically target talented
members of racial/ethnic groups in high schools and provide them with career
encouragement, summer internships, and mentoring programs as part of aiding
workforce diversity efforts.
3. Recruiting Metrics
3.1. Quantity of Applicants
Because the goal of a good recruiting program is to generate a large pool of applicants
from which to choose, quantity is a natural place to begin evaluation. The basic
measure here considers whether the quantity of recruits is sufficient to fill job
vacancies. A related question is: Does recruiting at this source provide enough qualified
applicants with an appropriate mix of protected-class individuals?
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3.2. Quality of Applicants

In addition to quantity, a key issue is whether or not the qualifications of the applicant
pool are sufficient to fill the job openings. Do the applicants meet job specifications,
and do they perform the jobs well after hire? What is the failure rate for new hires for
each recruiter? Measures that can be used include items such as performance
appraisal scores, months until promotion, production quantity, and sales volume for
each hire.
3.3. Stakeholders Satisfaction
The satisfaction of two groups is useful in evaluating recruiting. Certainly the views of
managers with openings to fill are important, because they are “customers” in a very
real sense. But the applicants (those hired and those not hired) also are an important
part of the process and can provide useful input. Managers can respond to questions
about the quality of the applicant pool, the recruiter’s service, the timeliness of the
process, and any problems that they see. Applicants might provide input on how they
were treated, their perceptions of the company, and the length of the recruiting
process and other aspects.
3.4. Time to Fill
Time to fill (also known as days to fill) is the average number of days required to hire a
person for an open job position or vacancy. The vacancy rate measures the percentage
of positions being actively recruited for at the end of the reporting period. Looking at
the length of time it takes to fill openings is a common means of evaluating recruiting
efforts. If openings are not filled quickly with qualified candidates, the work and
productivity of the organization are likely to suffer. If it takes 45 days to fill empty
positions, managers who need those employees will be unhappy. Also, as noted earlier,
unfilled positions cost money. Generally, it is useful to calculate the average amount of
time it takes from contact to hire for each source of applicants, because some sources
may produce recruits faster than others.
3.5. Cost per Hire
Cost per hire is one of the most commonly used HR metrics, this can tell you just how
much it really costs your company when you hire a new worker. Add up the total cost
of your recruitment operation, and divide this figure by the number of individuals you
successfully recruit to find out how much you are spending for each individual you
obtain through recruitment. The total cost of bringing on board a new staff member,
including recruitment, purchase of equipment, onboarding, administrative costs and
benefits. The cost-per-hire varies widely depending on the size of the company, the
number of recruitment channels they use, the seniority of the position being filled and
the strength and efficiency of in-house. Reducing the cost-per-hire is an on-going
process for HR departments and involves a range of options, including switching to a
cheaper recruitment agency, incentivizing existing employees to find suitable
candidates and making use of the company’s existing channels such as websites and
social media. HR software can also help reduce costs by allowing companies to
organize candidate data, sift through applicants and manage the whole recruitment
process cost-effectively.
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3.6. Yield ratios

One means for evaluating recruiting efforts is yield ratios, which compare the number
of applicants at one stage of the recruiting process with the number at another stage.
The result is a tool for approximating the necessary size of the initial applicant pool. It
is useful to visualize yield ratios as a pyramid in which the employer starts with a broad
base of applicants that progressively narrows. Utilize yield ratios that can be calculated
at various stages in the recruiting process as well as at the end. The ratios can
determine which recruitment source or method or type of recruiter produces the
greatest yield and identify areas that may need improvement. The source yield is
calculated as (Number of hires from a source / Number of candidates generated from a
source).

Yield Ratio
Days to fill
Final Offer Acceptances
20
67% (20/30)
Job Offer
30
75% (30/40)
Invited for final interview
40
25% (40/200)
Invited for first screening
200
10% (200/2000)
Initial Contacts
2000

Recruiting Yield Pyramid

A different approach to using yield ratios suggests that over the length of time,
organizations can develop ranges for crucial ratios. When a given indicator ratio falls
outside that range, it may indicate problems in the recruiting process.
3.7. Selection Rate
Another useful calculation is the selection rate, which is the percentage hired from a
given group of candidates. It equals the number hired divided by the number of
applicants; for example, a rate of 30% indicates that 3 out of 10 applicants were hired.
The selection rate is also affected by the validity of the selection process. A relatively
unsophisticated selection program might pick 8 out of 10 applicants for the job. Four of
those might turn out to be good employees. A more valid selection process might pick
5 out of 10 applicants but all perform well. Selection rate measures not just recruiting
but selection issues as well. So do acceptance rate and success base rate.
3.8. Acceptance Rate
Calculating the acceptance rate helps identify how successful the organization is at
hiring candidates. The acceptance rate is the percent of applicants hired divided by the
total number of applicants offered jobs. After the company goes through all the effort
 69

to screen, interview, and make job offers, hopefully most candidates accept job offers.
If they do not, then HR might want to look at reasons why managers and HR staff
cannot ‘close the deal.’ It is common for HR staff members to track the reasons
candidates turn down job offers. That analysis helps explain the rejection rate in order
to learn how competitive the employer is compared with other employers and what
factors are causing candidates to choose employment elsewhere.
3.9. Success Base Rate
A longer-term measure of recruiting effectiveness is the success rate of applicants. The
success base rate can be determined by comparing the number of past applicants who
have become successful employees against the number of applicants they competed
against for their jobs, using historical data within the organization. Also, the success
base rate can be compared with the success rates of other employers in the area or
industry using benchmarking data. This rate indicates whether the quality of the
employees hired results in employees who perform well and have low turnover. For
example, assume that if 10 people were hired at random, it might be expected that 4
of them would be satisfactorily performing employees. Thus, a successful recruiting
program should be aimed at attracting the 4 in 10 who are capable of doing well on
this particular job. Realistically, no recruiting program will attract only the people who
will succeed in a particular job. However, efforts to make the recruiting program attract
the largest proportion possible of those in the base rate group can make recruiting
efforts more productive in both the short and long term.
4. Increasing Recruiting Efficient and Effective
Evaluation of recruiting should be used to make recruiting activities more efficient. Some
common activities that are reviewed during evaluation are:
4.1. Résumé Mining
Résumés mining, also called resume crawler, is a software approach to getting the best
résumés for a fit from a big database. This technique can save recruiters countless
hours searching for resumes and will deliver results within just a few short seconds.
With a customizable resume crawler, HR professionals can simply input what they are
looking for, and it will crawl the web, searching for the talent that matches.
4.2. Applicant Tracking System (ATS)
An applicant tracking system (ATS), also called a candidate management system, is a
software application designed to help an enterprise recruit employees more efficiently.
An ATS can be used to post job openings on a corporate Web site or job board, screen
resumes, and generate interview requests to potential candidates by e-mail. Other
features may include individual applicant tracking, requisition tracking, automated
resume ranking, customized input forms, pre-screening questions and response
tracking, and multilingual capabilities. It is estimated that roughly 50 percent of all mid-
sized companies and almost all large corporations use some type of applicant tracking
system.
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4.3. Employer Career Website

An employer’s career website is the perfect place for companies to engage with the
type of individuals they want to hire. It is also the first opportunity they have to set
themselves apart from competition and leave a powerful impression. The website is a
convenient recruiting place where applicants can see what jobs are available and apply.
In short, the career site is a shop window for talent
4.4. Internal Mobility
Internal mobility is a dynamic internal process for moving talent from role to role – at
the leadership, professional and operational levels. To achieve internal mobility,
companies must adopt the principles of succession management at all ranks; provide
transparent discussion of skills and potential, as well as organizational needs; and,
focus on development across critical talent pools, based on business needs. HR
professional can us a system that tracks prospects in the company and matches them
with jobs as they come open.
4.5 Realistic Job Previews (RJPs)
A Realistic Job Preview (RJPs) is a recruiting approach that is designed to communicate
both the desirable and undesirable aspects of a job before an applicant has accepted a
job offer. Evidence shows that for certain kinds of jobs, well-designed RJPs that are
provided to the applicant at the right time in the application process can have a
significant impact on reducing early turnover and enhancing job satisfaction. RJPs can
be found in a variety of formats, including videos, verbal presentations, job tours, and
written brochures. Certain formats may be more successful with particular kinds of
jobs or with a particular audience, but use of real or multiple formats is likely to be
most effective.
4.6. Candidate Management
Candidate management or Recruitment CRM (Customer Relationship Management) is
a critical aspect of recruiting that cannot be taken lightly, be it 5 or 500 applicants. It’s
how you continue to attract the right employees and how you build a strong image and
reputation that builds your business in the long-run as an attractive place to work for
potential employees. It may not be necessary to call every applicant to inform them of
their application status. However, there are simpler and more effective ways to keep
applicants informed via better candidate management and ongoing communication,
without your ear turning red. Here’s how:
4.6.1. Give Them Feedback
The reason why so many candidates follow-up with their applications is because they
haven’t heard anything from the other side of the hiring table. After all, if you were
looking for a job, wouldn’t you expect the same? In this case, silence is not a good
practice from a candidate management perspective. Instead of ignoring those who
took the time to apply to a job listing, give applicants feedback. For instance, a simple
email that says an application has been received can take a lot of worry away from the
candidate. A direct message informing candidates to keep their eyes peeled on the
company career website for job posting updates is also a good candidate management
 71

tactic. This type of candidate management not only gives eager applicants some peace
of mind, but also makes employers look good in the process, two things that are hard
to do, but extremely important, in the current job market. Hiring managers and
recruiters may often pass on candidates because of a lack of fit, even though the
candidate may be a well-qualified person and potentially interested in or suitable for
another opening now or in the future. In such scenarios, sending the candidate to an
appropriate job opening or setting a reminder to reach out to that individual in the
future is excellent candidate management. It will help you keep the right talent in your
pipeline. Redirecting candidates may seem to be extra work for the hiring manage, but
the extra time to connect them to where they may be a better fit benefits both the
organization as well as the candidate.
4.6.2. Use Automatic Email Notifications
Don’t have time to tell an applicant they have or haven’t made it to round two? Use
automatic email notifications to help move things along. These candidate management
notifications allow recruiters to manage the workflow of the recruitment process
without tearing their hair out.
4.6.3. Communicate via Social Media
The beauty of social networking is that recruiters can get their message out to their
target audience faster, whenever, wherever. For example, if the job opening has been
filled, recruiters can take to the company Facebook page to inform applicants of the
status. They can also write a quick blog post, send out an automated thank you tweet
to everyone who applied, or even point applicants to the careers page for future
opportunities.
4.7. Post-Hire Assessment
More and more HR professionals are recognizing that post-hire assessments are
critical to a functioning workplace. Without measuring the quality of the employees
the company hires, there is no data to let management know how they can improve
productivity in the workplace. Post-hire assessments in particular can help HR gauge a
new employee’s learning curve, their level of development within the company, and
determine where their skill gaps lie.
Post-hire assessments are not only designed to determine the skill and effectiveness of
a new employee. Companies can also use post-hire assessments to gather data about
the effectiveness of their recruitment process. Post-hire assessments help find the
“leaks” in a company’s recruitment process. How well or poorly a new employee
performs on a post-hire test can indicate to managers and HR what skill areas should
be highlighted in the next pre-hire assessment. Also, post hired assessment can be a
useful tool in helping to direct the training or development of new hired employees as
they prepare for current and future assignments.
Recruiting effectiveness can be increased by using the evaluation data to target different
applicant pools, tap broader labor markets, change recruiting methods, improve internal
handling and interviewing of applicants, and train recruiters and managers. Another key
way to increase recruiting effectiveness rests with the recruiters themselves. Those
72

involved in the recruiting process can either turn off recruits or create excitement. For
instance, recruiters who emphasize positive aspects about the jobs and their employers
can enhance recruiting effectiveness. Thus, it is important that recruiters communicate
well with applicants and treat them fairly and professionally. Effective recruiting is a crucial
factor for HR management, as it leads to selecting individuals for employment who will
enhance organizational success.
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Part Four: Workforce Selection

1. Selection Process
Selecting is the process of choosing from a group of applicants that individual deemed to
be best qualified for a particular job opening. An organization’s success in its recruiting
activities significantly affects the efficiency and effectiveness of selection. An adequate
pool of applicants provides organization greater latitude in choosing employees; an
inadequate pool reduces latitude and may result in the employment of marginally qualified
candidates.
Selecting is, at best, a difficult process because it requires making judgments about people.
Three essential questions must be answered if the most qualified person is to be selected:
‘‘What is the applicants can do ability?’’; ‘‘What is the applicant’s will do ability?’’; ‘‘How
well will the applicant fit into the organization?’’ Can do ability refers to the experience
and education required to perform a specific job; will do ability refers to the level of
motivation the person will actually exhibit in performing the job; fit refers to how well the
individual will conform to the socio psychological environment or culture of the
organization. Making these determinations requires skill, effort, and time. Moreover, in an
effective selecting process, such decisions are carefully made.
Mistakes in selecting can be costly. Hiring individuals who cannot, or will not, do their jobs
leads to output and quality problems, and ultimately to employee turnover. Hiring
individuals who do not fit into the organization well leads to the same problems and may
also adversely affect the morale of other employees. Consequently, selecting must be done
carefully in order to minimize potential negative impacts, financial and otherwise, on the
organization.
As emphasized throughout this workbook, the entire human resource management
function operates in an increasingly legalistic environment. Nowhere is it more open to
potential discrimination charges and lawsuits than in selection. The challenge to an
organization in selecting employees thus is twofold: one, to select the best qualified
individual and two, to make the selection decision in accordance with the letter and spirit
of the law.
74

Gatewood, R., Field, H.S., & Barrick, M. (2015). Human Resource Selection (8th Edition).
Boston, MA: South-Western College Pub.

A generalized model of the selecting process is depicted in the Figure. Selection begins
where recruitment ends—with the applicant pool—and proceeds through five stages:
initial screening, secondary screening, candidacy, verification, and final decision. Selection
procedures vary from organization to organization; consequently, the steps outlined may
not be followed in the described sequence by every firm. Moreover, an applicant may be
rejected at any point during the first four stages. The purpose of the model is to illustrate
the basic steps, in a logical sequence that are typically followed in evaluating and
ultimately hiring a job applicant.
1.1. Stage One: Initial Screening
Once individuals are interested in applying for employment, they may do so by
submitting a resume (a common procedure for technical, professional, or managerial
positions) or by completing an employment application (standard procedure for entry-
level, operative, clerical, or other non-exempt positions). The majority of applicants will
be screened out at this point based on an individual evaluation of the resume´ or the
employment application. Applicants who submitted a resume may be asked to
complete an employment application if their credentials survive the initial review.
1.2. Stage Two: Secondary Screening
The two components of Stage two are the screening interview and testing. The
purpose of the screening interview is to eliminate from further consideration those
individuals whose qualifications, although passing preliminary inspection, do not
 75

measure up to the standards of the position. Based on the screening interview,

applicants for certain types of positions may be asked to take employment tests.
Applicants passing the screening interview who have not yet completed an
employment application will be asked to do so at this stage. On occasion, applicants
may move from completion of the employment application in Stage I directly into
employment testing before the screening interview takes place—a common procedure
for keyboardists or machine operators. If the test results are favorable, the screening
interview then takes place.
1.3. Stage Three: Candidacy
Since the vast majority of applicants are eliminated in Stages one and two, if selection
procedures are working effectively, only genuinely qualified candidates enter Stage III.
The basic component of this stage is the employment interview or series of
employment interviews, which focus on an in-depth evaluation of the applicant’s
qualifications. In some organizations, individuals successfully completing their
employment interviews are sent to an assessment center where they may complete
batteries of tests and engage in various simulations to further assess their capabilities.
Applicants completing Stage III are potential employees.
1.4. Stage Four: Verification
Stage four is concerned with verifying the reference information furnished by the
applicant. Due to the increasing number of negligent hiring cases, organizations must
be careful to exercise due diligence in verifying and documenting references.
1.5. Stage Five: Final Decision
Stage five is the decision-making stage. The information furnished by the applicant and
gathered by the organization is evaluated. If the information is favorable, a job offer is
made; if the information is unfavorable, no job offer is extended. The tentative job
offer is subject to a physical examination (typically including a drug screen) and a
background investigation. If the candidate successfully completes these two final
hurdles, a final job offer is made. The physical examination is delayed until this stage so
as to avoid any possible discrimination based upon disability. The background
investigation is delayed for similar reasons—to avoid any potential charge of
discrimination based on non–job-related factors.
In reviewing the generalized selecting model, the least time consuming, least expensive
selection activities are performed first. The most time-consuming, most expensive
activities are performed later in the process. This sequencing helps assure the cost-
effectiveness of selection.
2. Criteria, Predictors, and Performance
Regardless of whether an employer uses specific KSAs or a more general approach,
effective selection of employees involves using selection criteria and predictors of these
criteria. At the heart of an effective selection system must be the knowledge of what
constitutes good job performance. When one knows what good performance looks like on
a particular job, the next step is to identify what it takes for the employee to achieve
successful performance. These are called selection criteria. A selection criterion is a
76

characteristic that a person must possess to successfully perform work. Below figure shows
that ability, motivation, intelligence, conscientiousness, appropriate risk, and permanence
might be selection criteria for many jobs. Selection criteria that might be more specific to
managerial jobs include “leading and deciding,” “supporting and cooperating,” “organizing
and executing,” and “enterprising and performing.”
To determine whether candidates might possess certain selection criteria (such as ability
and motivation), employers try to identify predictors of selection criteria that are
measurable or visible indicators of those positive characteristics (or criteria). For example,
as the figure indicates, three good predictors of “permanence” might be individual
interests, salary requirements, and tenure on previous jobs. If a candidate possesses
appropriate amounts of any or all of these predictors, it might be assumed that the person
would stay on the job longer than someone without those predictors.
The information gathered about an applicant through predictors should focus on the
likelihood that the individual will execute the job competently once hired. Predictors can
be identified through many formats such as application forms, tests, interviews, education
requirements, and years of experience, but such factors should be used only if they are
found to be valid predictors of specific job performance. Using invalid predictors can result
in selecting the “wrong” candidate and rejecting the “right” one.

What constitutes What does it What can be seen

good job take for a person or measured to
performance on to achieve good predict the
this job? job performance? selection criteria?

Characteristics
Elements of Good Necessary to Predictors of
Achieve Good Job
Job Performance Performance Selection Criteria
(Selection Criteria)

• Quantity of work • Ability • Experience

• Quality of work • Motivation • Past performance
• Compatibility with • Intelligence • Physical skills
others • Conscientiousness • Education
• Presence at work • Appropriate risk for • Interests
• Length of service employer • Salary requirements
• Flexibility • Appropriate • Certificates/degrees
performance • Test scores
• Personality
measures
• Work references
• Previous jobs and
tenure

Mathis, R.L. & Jackson, J.H. (2010). Human Resource Management. (13 Edition). Mason,
OH: South-Western Cengage Learning.

2.1. Validity
In selection, validity is the correlation between a predictor and job performance. In
 77

other words, validity occurs to the extent that the predictor actually predicts what it is
supposed to predict. Several different types of validity are used in selection. Most
validity decisions use a correlation coefficient, an index number that gives the
relationship between a predictor variable and a criterion (or dependent) variable.
Correlations always range from −1.0 to +1.0, with higher absolute scores suggesting
stronger relationships.
Concurrent validity is one method for establishing the validity associated with a
predictor. Concurrent validity uses current employees to validate a predictor or “test.”
Concurrent validity is measured when an employer tests current employees and
correlates the scores with their performance ratings on such measures as their scores
on performance appraisals.
A disadvantage of the concurrent validity approach is that employees who have not
performed satisfactorily at work are probably no longer with the firm and therefore
cannot be tested. Also, extremely good employees may have been promoted or may
have left the company for better work situations. Any learning on the job also might
confound test scores.
Predictive validity, another method for establishing criterion-related validity is
predictive validity. To calculate predictive validity, test results of applicants are
compared with their subsequent job performance. Job success is measured by
assessing factors such as absenteeism, accidents, errors, and performance appraisal
ratings. If the employees who had one year of experience at the time of hire
demonstrate better performance than those without such experience, then the
experience requirement can be considered a valid predictor of job performance. In
addition, individual experience may be utilized as an important “selection criterion”
when making future staffing decisions.
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) has favored predictive validity
because it includes the full range of performance and test scores. However,
establishing predictive validity can be challenging for managers because a large sample
of individuals is needed (usually at least 30) and a significant amount of time must
transpire (perhaps one year) to facilitate the analysis. Because of these limitations,
other types of validity calculations tend to be more popular.
2.2. Reliability
Reliability of a predictor or “test” is the extent to which it repeatedly produces the
same results over time. For example, if a person took a test in December and scored
75, and then took the same test again in March and scored 76, the exam is probably a
reliable instrument. Consequently, reliability involves the consistency of predictors
used in selection procedures. A predictor that is not reliable is of no value in selection.
2.3. Combining Predictors
If an employer chooses to use only one predictor, such as a pencil-and-paper test, to
select the individuals to be hired, the decision becomes straightforward. If the test is
valid and encompasses a major dimension of a job, and an applicant does well on the
test, then that person should be given a job offer. When an employer uses predictors
78

such as “three years of experience,” “possesses a college degree,” and “acceptable

aptitude test score,” job applicants are evaluated on all of these requirements and the
multiple predictors must be combined in some way. Two approaches for combining
predictors are:
2.3.1. Multiple hurdles
A minimum cutoff is set on each predictor, and each minimum level must be “passed.”
For example, in order to be hired, a candidate for a sales representative job must
achieve a minimum education level, a certain score on a sales aptitude test, and a
minimum score on a structured interview.
2.3.2. Compensatory approach
Scores from individual predictors are added and combined into an overall score,
thereby allowing a higher score on one predictor to offset, or compensate for, a lower
score on another. The combined index takes into consideration performance on all
predictors. For example, when admitting students into graduate business programs, a
higher overall score on an admissions test might offset a lower undergraduate grade
point average.
2.4. Person-Environment Fit
The aim in the employee selection is to select the best possible applicant who has the
capacities that are needed in the job and who will fit with the organization. The most
used theory in the employee selection context is perhaps the theory of Person-
Environment fit. Person-environment (PE) fit refers to the degree of match between
individuals and some aspect of their work environment. On the person side,
characteristics may include interests; preferences; knowledge, skills, and abilities
(KSAs); personality traits; values; or goals. On the environment side, characteristics may
include vocational norms, job demands, job characteristics, organizational cultures and
climates, and company or group goals. Various synonyms have been used to describe
fit, including congruence, match, similarity, interaction, correspondence, and need
fulfillment.
The basic premise of PE fit is that for each individual there are particular environments
that are most compatible with that person's personal characteristics. If a person works
in those environments, positive consequences including improved work attitudes and
performance, as well as reduced stress and withdrawal behaviors, will result. Although
the premise is straightforward, research on PE fit is one of the most eclectic domains in
organizational psychology. In part this is because of the wide variety of
conceptualizations, content dimensions, and measurement strategies used to assess
fit.
2.4.1. Person-Job Fit
The first type of fit concerns the relationship between an individual and a specific job.
Labeled person-job (P-J) fit, this includes the match between a person's KSAs and the
demands of a job (demands-abilities fit), or the person's needs and interests and the
resources provided by the job (needs-supplies fit). Traditional notions of personnel
selection, which began during World War II with the selection of soldiers into specific
 79

positions in the army, emphasized the importance of hiring people who possessed the
requisite KSAs for particular jobs. Thus, P-J fit was defined from the organization's
perspective, such that the most appropriately qualified people would be hired.
P-J Fit involves the measurement of what we often refer to as “hard” information about
a candidate’s suitability for the tasks that are required for successful performance of a
specific job. “Hard” aspects of P-J Fit include things such as a candidate’s specific skills,
their levels of knowledge about specific subject matter, and their cognitive abilities. In
many cases, P-J Fit also includes “softer” measures such as the examination of an
applicant’s personality traits relative to specific job requirements. However, personality
is kind of in a no man’s land when it comes to defining fit.
2.4.2. Person-Organization Fit
Person-organization (P-O) fit, defined broadly as the compatibility between people and
organizational characteristics, is the second type of PE fit. P-O fit emphasizes the
objective fit between individuals' values and those that senior management believe
best represent the organization. The general idea behind the importance of P-O fit is
based on the attraction-selection-attrition (A-S-A) theory. According to the A-S-A
theory, individuals are attracted to organizations with similar values and organizations
tend to hire such individuals during the selection process. Finally, attrition becomes
important as the employee sees first-hand the extent to which he or she is actually
congruent with the organization, leading to a choice to either continue working for or
leave the company.
While the softer nature of the dimensions of P-O Fit means that they are often not the
best tools to use when trying to predict hard, objective aspects of job performance,
research has demonstrated many ways in which fit can have value for an organization.
Probably the most notable outcome of a good P-O Fit is increased tenure. It makes
perfect sense that the greater the fit between the values of an individual and those of
the organization, the more likely they will be to remain with that organization.
2.4.3. Person-Group Fit
A third type of PE fit is the match between individuals and members of their immediate
work groups. Most of the emphasis on person-group (P-G) or person-team fit has been
on demographic variables. The concept of relational demography suggests that
individuals' attitudes and behaviors are influenced by the demographic similarity
among teammates or coworkers. However, more recent studies have moved beyond
demographic similarity to examine fit on deeper, less directly observable
characteristics, including personality traits, goals, and KSAs. Outcomes most strongly
associated with PG fit are group-level attitudes, including cohesion and satisfaction
with coworkers, as well as contextual performance.
3. Initial Screening
Many employers conduct pre-employment screening to determine if applicants meet the
minimum qualifications for open jobs before they have the applicants fill out an
application.
80

Electronic
Assessment
Application Screening
Forms

Résumés

Pre-employment Screening

Mathis, R.L. & Jackson, J.H. (2010). Human Resource Management. (13 Edition). Mason,
OH: South-Western Cengage Learning.

3.1. Electronic Assessment Screening

The use of electronic pre-employment screening or assessment has grown. Much of
this screening utilizes computer software to review the many résumés and application
forms received during the recruiting and selection process. Large companies often use
different types of software to receive, evaluate, and track the applications of many
potential employees.
When a job posting generates 1,000 or more applications, which is not unusual with
large companies or in difficult economic times, responding to each would be a full-time
job. Electronic screening can speed up the process, commonly known as Applicant
Tracking Systems (ATS).
Applicant tracking systems provide a software interface for companies to manage their
hiring process. At a base level, this consists of opening new positions and advertising
them online — either on a corporate home page or job boards. Once recruiters open
the position and advertise it, the ATS provides an interface for candidates to apply
online and for managers and recruiters to view and search though those candidate
submissions before moving them through the hiring processing — typically from
screening to interview to offer and, of course, hire.
This may take several forms: disqualification questions; screening questions to get at
KSAs and experience; valid assessment tests; and background, drug, and financial
screening. Some of the assessments might include auditions for the job that are based
on simulations of specific job-related tasks. For example, in a call center, candidates are
given virtual customers with service problems, and branch manager candidates
demonstrate their ability to foster relationships with virtual clients and to make quick
personnel decisions with virtual employees.
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A good strategy is to use simple electronic assessment early to cut down the number of
applicants before requiring applications or interviews. That leaves a much more
qualified list of remaining applicants with which to work.
However, such assessments have a down side as well. Applicant Tracking Systems may
screen out many well-qualified candidates. Most candidates submit resumes that are
not optimized for ATS, with incorrect headings, formatting, characters, and wording. If
a resume is not formatted correctly, solid skills and achievements in the resume may be
ignored. In addition, a resume that is good for one ATS may not be good for another.
3.2. Application Forms
Some employers do not use pre-employment screening prior to having applicants fill
out an application form. Instead, they have every interested individual complete an
application first. These completed application forms then become the basis for
prescreening information. But collecting, storing, and tracking these forms can create
significant work for HR staff members.
Application forms, which are used universally, can take on different formats. Properly
prepared, the application form serves four purposes:

 It is a record of the applicant’s desire to obtain a position.

 It provides the interviewer with a profile of the applicant that can be used during
the interview.

 It is a basic employee record for applicants who are hired.

 It can be used for research on the effectiveness of the selection process.

Many employers use only one application form for all jobs, but others use several
different forms depending on the position. For example, a hotel might use one form for
management and supervisory staff and another for line employees.
Application forms should contain disclaimers and notices so that appropriate legal
protections are clearly stated. These recommended disclosures include:

 Employment-at-will: Indicates the right of the employer or the applicant to

terminate employment at any time with or without notice or cause (where
applicable by local law)

 Reference contacts: Requests permission to contact previous employers listed by

the applicant on the application form or résumé

 Employment testing: Notifies applicants of required drug tests, pencil-and-paper

tests, physical exams, or electronic or other tests that will be used in the
employment decision

 Application time limit: Indicates how long application forms are active (typically 6
months), and that persons must reapply or reactivate their applications after that
period

 Information falsification: Conveys to an applicant that falsification of application

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information can be grounds for serious reprimand or termination used in hiring

decisions.
3.3. Résumés as Applications
Applicants commonly provide background information through résumés. When the
situation arises, some labor law standards require that an employer treats a résumé as
an application form. As such, if an applicant’s résumé voluntarily furnishes some
information that cannot be legally obtained; the employer should not use that
information during the selection process. Some employers require those who submit
résumés to complete an application form as well.
Regardless of how the background information is collected, companies should be
dutiful about checking the truthfulness of the information presented on résumés and
application forms. Various accounts suggest that a noteworthy percentage of
applicants knowingly distort their past work experiences.
4. Secondary Screening
In this process, many different kinds of tests can be used to help select qualified
employees. They are used to assess various individual factors that are important for the
work to be performed. These useful employment tests allow companies to predict which
applicants will be the most successful before being hired.

Cost

Competency Interview
Behavioral
Situational Work Sample Assessment Center, AC

Non-structural interview Semi-structural interview Structural interview

Pattern Interview?
Psychomotor Abilities

Job Knowledge
Traits Cognitive Aptitude
Testing

Interest
Personality
Integrity
EQ

Correlation
Validity

Gatewood, R., Field, H.S., & Barrick, M. (2015). Human Resource Selection (8th Edition).
Boston, MA: South-Western College Pub.

However, selection tests must be evaluated extensively before being utilized as a recruiting
tool. The development of the test items should be linked to a thorough job analysis. Also,
 83

initial testing of the items should include an evaluation by knowledge experts, and
statistical and validity assessments of the items should be conducted. Furthermore,
adequate security of the testing instruments should be coordinated, and the monetary
value of these tests to the firm should be determined.
4.1. Cognitive Aptitude Tests
Cognitive aptitude or ability is a person’s capacity to learn or to perform a job that has
been previously learned. Tests that measure this characteristic are most often used in
the selection of employees who have had little or no job experience. Aptitudes or
abilities may be broken down into many factors, but the ones that are most often job-
related.

 Verbal aptitude refers to an individual’s ability to use words in thinking and

communication. Managerial, technical, and sales positions are jobs for which
verbal ability is crucial. Measurement of a person’s ability in this area is usually
accomplished by a vocabulary test.

 Numerical aptitude is the ability to perform the basic arithmetic functions of

adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. These abilities are essential in
engineering, accounting, and similar jobs.

 Perceptual Speed is the ability to identify similarities and differences rapidly,

accurately, and in detail. Perceptual speed is most likely to be used to ascertain
clerical aptitude.

 Spatial Ability is concerned with visualizing objects in space and determining their
relationship to each other. Jobs that may require this aptitude include design
engineer, tool and die maker, aviation mechanic, and assembler.

 Reasoning is the ability to analyze items or facts and make correct judgments
based on their logical implications. This aptitude is critical for executive,
managerial, or sales jobs.

 General Intelligence refers to an individual’s overall mental abilities. Tests used in

this area attempt to arrive at some global estimate of a person’s intellectual
performance or aptitude. Normally, they provide a single score such as an IQ.
However, intelligence tests with great disfavor since they tend to adversely impact
certain protected classes. This testing contains items that are unrelated to
successful job performance. Consequently, it should proceed with great caution,
making absolutely certain that the test has been validated in terms of job-
relatedness and performance.
4.2. Psychomotor / Physical Abilities
Psychomotor abilities refer to strength, dexterity, coordination, and other aspects of
physical performance. There are a number of abilities that may be measured in the
psychomotor area. Finger dexterity is the ability to make precise, skillful, coordinated
manipulations of small objects with one’s fingers. Manual dexterity refers to the ability
to make skillful, coordinated, well-directed movements of the hands and arms. Wrist-
finger speed is the ability to make rapid movements such as those involved in tapping.
84

Aiming is the ability to move the hands and fingers rapidly, accurately, and successfully
from one location to another. Arm-hand steadiness is the ability to make precise
positioning movements with minimal strength and speed. Reaction time is the speed
with which an individual responds to a stimulus.
Physical ability tests measure an individual’s abilities such as strength, endurance, and
muscular movement. At an electric utility, line workers regularly must lift and carry
equipment, climb ladders, and perform other physical tasks; therefore, testing of
applicants’ mobility, strength, and other physical attributes is job related. Some
physical ability tests measure such areas as range of motion, strength and posture, and
cardiovascular fitness.
4.3. Job Knowledge Tests
Job knowledge tests measure an applicant’s understanding of the duties and
responsibilities of the position for which he or she is applying. These tests may require
written responses, or they may be administered orally. Normally, these tests are short,
consisting of a few key questions that readily distinguish experienced from
inexperienced applicants. A primary advantage of the job knowledge test is that it is by
definition job-related.
4.4. Work Sample Tests
A work sample test is one in which the applicant completes a task or series of tasks
that are representative of, or actually a part of, the job for which the person is applying.
A typing test is probably the most common work sample test. Evidence suggests that
work sample tests can produce high predictive validities and reduce adverse impact.
Adverse impact is defined as a substantially different rate of selection in hiring,
promotion or other employment decision which works to the disadvantage of
members of a race, sex or ethnic group.
Many organizations use situational tests, or work sample tests, which require an
applicant to perform a simulated task that is a specified part of the target job.
Requiring an applicant for an administrative assistant’s job to type a business letter as
quickly as possible would be one such test. An “in-basket” test is a work sample test in
which a job candidate is asked to respond to memos in a hypothetical in-basket that
are typical of the problems experienced in that job. Once again, these tests should
assess criteria that are embedded in the job that is to be staffed.
Situational judgment tests are designed to measure a person’s judgment in work
settings. The candidate is given a situation and a list of possible solutions to the
problem. The candidate then has to make judgments about how to deal with the
situation. Situational judgment tests are a form of job simulation.
4.5. Vocational Interest Tests
Interest tests, called career interest tests, are designed to measure the degree of
interest a person has in various occupations. When individuals’ interests match those
of their occupation, they are happier with their jobs and are more likely to remain in
their chosen occupation, but the interest inventories are not valid predictors of job
performance. Consequently, interest measures should always be used in conjunction
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with aptitude and ability tests. John L. Holland developed a useful interest test with six
dimensions, called RIASEC or Strong Vocational Interest Blank (SVIB), stand for:

 Realistic - practical, physical, hands-on, tool-oriented

 Investigative - analytical, intellectual, scientific, explorative

 Artistic - creative, original, independent, chaotic

 Social - cooperative, supporting, helping, healing/nurturing

 Enterprising - competitive environments, leadership, persuading

 Conventional - detail-oriented, organizing, clerical

Another most widely used interest inventory is the Myers-Briggs Type Inventory
(MBTI). The 16 types are typically referred to by an abbreviation of four letters:

 ESTJ: extraversion (E), sensing (S), thinking (T), judgment (J)

 INFP: introversion (I), intuition (N), feeling (F), perception (P)

However, the 16 types constructs have been found to be related to the Big five
personality characteristics discussed as following.
4.6. Personality Tests
Personality tests attempt to measure a person's social interaction skills and patterns of
behavior. They report what might be described as traits, temperaments, or
dispositions. Personality tests were not perceived as valid selection method; however,
recent advances suggested much more positive conclusions about the role of
personality test in predicting job performance (especially organizational citizenship
behaviors, OCBs). Mainly, this is due to the widespread acceptance of a major
taxonomy of personality, often called the Big Five as follow:

 Emotional Stability: disposition to be calm, optimistic, and well adjusted.

 Extraversion: tendency to be sociable, assertive, active, upbeat, and talkative

 Openness to experience: tendency to be imaginative, attentive to inner feelings,

have intellectual curiosity and independence of judgment

 Agreeableness: tendency to altruistic, trusting, sympathetic, and cooperative

 Conscientiousness: tendency to purposeful, determined, dependable, and

attentive to detail
*Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) are discretionary workplace behaviors
that exceed one's basic job requirements. They are often described as behaviors that
"go above and beyond the call of duty".
**The Big five (emotional stability is the strongest) are highly correlate with trait of”
Emotional Intelligent, EQ”-ability to cope with environmental pressures and demand.
86

“Faking” is a major concern for employers using personality tests. Many test publishers
admit that test profiles can be falsified, and they try to reduce faking by including
questions that can be used to compute a social desirability or “lie” score. Researchers
also favor the use of “corrections” based on components of the test to account for
faking—a preference that also constitutes a strong argument for professional scoring of
personality tests. Another possibility is use of a “fake warning,” which instructs
applicants that faking can be detected and can result in a negative hiring impression.
4.7. Integrity Test
Integrity tests attempts to assess an applicant’s honesty and moral character. There
are two major types of integrity test: clear purpose (sometimes called overt) and
general purpose (sometimes called veiled purpose). Some evidences indicate that
applicants who score high on integrity tests also tend to score high on
conscientiousness, emotional stability, and agreeableness base on Big Five personality
model.
The polygraph, more generally and incorrectly referred to as the“lie detector,” is a
mechanical device that measures a person’s galvanic skin response, heart rate, and
breathing rate. The theory behind the polygraph is that if a person answers a question
incorrectly, the body’s physiological responses will “reveal” the falsification through the
recording mechanisms of the polygraph. Many governments in the world prohibit the
use of polygraphs for employment screening purposes by most employers. Some
agencies allow employers to use polygraphs as part of internal investigations of thefts
or losses. However, in those situations, the polygraph test should be taken voluntarily,
and the employee should be allowed to end the test at any time.
4.8. Substance Abuse Tests
Substance abuse tests are measures intended to ensure a drug-free workplace.
Concern about workplace safety issues and alcohol and/or chemical use in the
workplace has prompted many employers to require employees/applicants to submit
to drug tests.
4.9. Assessment Center (AC)
An assessment center is not a place but an assessment composed of a series of
evaluative exercises and tests used for selection and development. Most often used in
the selection process when filling managerial openings, assessment centers consist of
multiple exercises and are evaluated by multiple raters. In one assessment center,
candidates go through a comprehensive interview, a pencil-and-paper test, individual
and group simulations, and work exercises. Individual performance is then evaluated
by a panel of trained raters.
Again, AC is not necessarily a place but rather a method of evaluating candidates. They
are content-valid work samples of a managerial job and are typically used to select
internal employees with potential for promotion to managerial positions. Assessment
centers can range from one day to one week in duration, but they generally have three
characteristics: multiple means of assessment, multiple assesses, and multiple
assessors.
 87

In one example of an assessment center, candidates go through a battery of

standardized tests conducted by trained assessors. Exercises may include pencil-and-
paper tests, comprehensive interviews, individual and/or group simulation activities,
in-basket exercises, and work-related performance tests. The results are evaluated by a
panel of trained assessors.
It is crucial that the tests and exercises in an assessment center reflect the content of
the job for which individuals are being screened, and the types of problems faced on
that job. For example, a technology communications organization used a series of
assessment centers to hire employees who would interact with clients. The company
found that these centers improved the selection process and also provided new
employees with a good road map for individual development.
5. Job Interview
Job interviews are the most frequently used selection device, most organizations depend
on them for making critical hiring decisions. Given their wide use, one might think that
they are extremely valuable. The truth of the matter is that they are a high cost, damaging
and ineffective selection device (low reliability and low validity). This is true even when
they are in the hands of someone who has been trained to ask the right questions.
Selection interviewing of job applicants is done both to obtain additional information and
to clarify information gathered throughout the selection process. Interviews are commonly
conducted at two levels: first, as an initial screening interview to determine if the person
has met minimum qualifications, and then later, as an in-depth interview with HR staff
members and/or operating managers to determine if the person will fit into the designated
work area. Before the in-depth interview, information from all available sources is pooled
so that the interviewers can reconcile conflicting information that may have emerged from
tests, application forms, and references.
Interviewing for selection is imperfect and should be focused on gathering valid
information that has not been gained in other ways. Because selection interviewing is
imperfect, the focus must be on techniques that minimize errors and provide the best
information.
Interviews must be reliable and allow interviewers, despite their limitations, to pick the
same applicant capabilities again and again. High intra-rater reliability (within the same
interviewer) can be demonstrated, but only moderate to-low inter-rater reliability (across
different interviewers) is generally shown. Inter-rater reliability becomes important when
each of several interviewers is selecting employees from a pool of applicants, or if the
employer uses team or panel interviews with multiple interviewers.
Employers prefer to use interviews over other selection activities because they have high
“face validity” (i.e., interviews make sense to employers). It is often assumed that if
someone interviews well and the information obtained in the interview is useful, then the
individual will be a good hire. However, an unstructured interview does not always provide
much actual validity, causing a growth in the popularity of structured interviews. There are
various types of selection interviews are used. They range from structured to unstructured,
and they vary in terms of appropriateness for selection.
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5.1. Structured vs. Unstructured Interviews

Unstructured or nondirective interviews generally have no set format. Structured or
directive interviews generally identify questions and all applicants are asked the same
questions. Sometimes acceptable responses are specified in advance and the
responses are rated for appropriateness of content. While structured interviews may
reduce spontaneity, they ensure that similar information will be gathered from all
candidates. This makes it possible to compare qualifications and reduce equity
concerns.
Semi-structured interviewing is more flexible than standardized methods such as the
structured interview. Structured interviews keep the order and phrasing of the
questions consistent across interviews to ensure consistency in the data being
collected. In contrast, semi-structured interviews may prescribe a combination of
questions and more general topics to cover. Questions in semi-structured interviews
are more open-ended to allow interviewers to follow issues that diverge from the
guide.
Competency interview (also referred to as situational, behavioral or competency based
interview) questions are a style of semi-structured interviewing often used to evaluate
a candidate's key competencies. In the following, we would discuss two frequently
used types of semi-structured interview.

Experiences Simulation

Behavioral Interview Situational Interview

Perdition

Situation Where and when? (Provide a context)

Task What needed to be done?

Action What did you do?

Results What have you achieved?

Eder, R.W. & Harris, M.M. (1999). The Employment Interview Handbook 2nd Edition.
Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications

5.2. Situational Interview

The situational interview contains questions about how applicants might handle
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specific job situations. Interview questions and possible responses are based on job
analysis and checked by job experts to ensure content validity. The interviewer typically
codes the suitability of the answer, assigns point values, and adds up the total number
of points each interviewee has received. A variation is termed the case study interview,
which requires a job candidate to diagnose and correct organizational challenges
during the interview. Situational interviews assess what the interviewee would
consider to be the best option, not necessarily what they did in a similar situation.
5.3. Behavioral Interview
In the behavioral interview technique, applicants are asked to describe how they have
performed a certain task or handled a problem in the past, which may predict future
actions and show how applicants are best suited for current jobs. A recent study
showed that “past behavior” interviews are better at identifying achievement at work
than are situational interviews, because they focus on what applicants have actually
done in real situations rather than on what they think they might do in hypothetical
situations. An example of a behavioral interview line of questioning might be: “Tell
me about a time when you initiated a project. What was the situation? What did you
do? What were the results?”
5.4. STAR technique
The STAR (Situation, Task, Action, Results) format is a job interview technique used by
interviewers to gather all the relevant information about a specific capability that the
job requires. This interview format is said [by whom?] to have a higher degree of
predictability of future on-the-job performance than the traditional interview. This
technique is a behavioral interview technique.
5.4.1. Situation
The interviewer wants you to present a recent challenge and situation in which you
found yourself.
5.4.2. Task
What did you have to achieve? The interviewer will be looking to see what you were
trying to achieve from the situation.
5.4.3. Action
What did you do? The interviewer will be looking for information on what you did, why
you did it and what the alternatives were.
5.4.4. Results
What was the outcome of your actions? What did you achieve through your actions
and did you meet your objectives? What did you learn from this experience and have
you used this learning since?
5.5. Other Types of Interviews
5.5.1. Prescreening interviews: are useful when an organization has a high volume of
applicants for a job and face-to-face interviews are needed to judge
90

prequalification factors.
5.5.2. Patterned interview is also called a targeted interview. The interviewer asks each
applicant questions that are from the same knowledge, skill, or ability area; the
questions, however, are not necessarily the same. Patterned interview a kind of
structured interview, frequently utilized in personnel choosing, which is modeled
to cover specified particular regions, but at the same time to give the interviewer
the option to steer the conversation into side channels and pose queries on
points which need to be cleared up. Commonly referred to as semi structured
interview.
5.5.3. Stress interview: the interviewer assumes an aggressive posture to see how the
candidate responds to stressful situations. This style is used extensively in law
enforcement, air traffic control, and similar high-stress industries.
5.5.4. Directive interviews: the interviewer poses specific questions to the candidate
and keeps control. This type of interview is highly structured.
5.5.5. Nondirective interviews, the interviewer asks open questions and provides
general direction but allows the applicant to guide the process.
5.5.6. Group interviews: One type is where there are multiple job candidates that are
interviewed by one or more interviewers at the same time. This type of group
interview is usually done only where the job duties are clearly defined and where
numerous candidates can be informed and/or asked about job requirements.
The more common type of group interviews is where there are multiple people in
an organization that serve as interviewers for a single job candidate. Each
interviewer serves a different purpose and screens the candidate for specific
qualities.
5.5.7. Panel Interview: Group interviews can be further described as team interviews
and panel interviews. A team interview is used in situations where the position
relies heavily on team cooperation. It is akin to a 360-degree process.
Supervisors, subordinates, and peers are usually part of a team interview
process. In a panel interview, structured questions are spread across the group.
The individual who is most competent in the relevant area usually asks the
question.
5.5.8. Phone and Video Interviews – are often conducted entirely by phone.
Technology has also made interviewing by videoconferencing possible, saving
time and travel costs.
5.5.9. Computerized Interviews: involve computers administering the interview.
Typically the questions are presented in a multiple-choice format, one at a time,
and the applicant is expected to respond to the questions on the screen by
pressing a key.
55.10. Web-Assisted Interviews: utilize PC video cameras to conduct interviews online
via Webcasts.
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5.6. Interview Procedure

5.6.1. Structure Your Interview – a) base questions on job duties; b) use specific job-
knowledge, situational, or behaviorally-oriented questions and objective criteria
to evaluate the interviewee’s responses; c) train interviewers; d) use the same
questions with all candidates; e) use rating scales to rate answers; f) use multiple
interviewers or panel interviews; g) design questions that reduce subjectivity,
inaccurate conclusions, and bias; h) use a structured interview form; i) control
the interview; and j) take brief notes.
5.6.2. Prepare for the Interview – The interview should take place in a private room
where interruptions can be minimized. Prior to the interview, the interviewer
should review the candidate’s application and resume, as well as the job duties
and required skills and traits.
5.6.3. Establish Rapport – The interviewer should put the interviewee at ease so he/she
can find out the necessary information about the interviewee. Studies show that
people who feel more self-confident about their interviewing skills perform
better in interviews.
5.6.4. Ask Questions – The interviewer should follow the interview guide.
5.6.5. Close the Interview – Leave time to answer any questions the candidate may
have and, if appropriate, advocate your firm to the candidate. Try to end the
interview on a positive note.
5.6.6. Review the Interview – Once the candidate leaves, and while the interview is
fresh on the interviewer’s mind, he/she should review his/her notes and fill in
the structured interview guide.
6. Reference Check
Job applicants sometimes record inaccurate information on employment applications and
resume´s to present a more positive image. The purpose of reference checks is to verify
the accuracy of the data furnished. Typically, applicants are required to furnish names of
previous supervisors or names of several business references. Checks on these references
are then made by letter or telephone. Because of possible legal ramifications, reference
information provided by one organization to another organization is usually limited to
neutral information such as job title, dates of employment, and possibly pay. When
conducted by telephone, other information may be furnished: for example, absentee
record, promotions and demotions, compensation, and stated reasons for termination.
Even though limited information may be obtained through reference checking, it is
essential that an organization make a good faith effort and exercise due diligence in
checking all employee references to protect itself against possible lawsuits from employees
alleging negligent hiring and negligent referencing.
Employers are very concerned about the legal ramifications of providing information about
the performance of former employees, fearing that release of sensitive information could
lead (as it often has) to charges of defamation or self-compelled defamation by previous
employees who receive a less than satisfactory recommendation. Several countries or
states have recognized this employer dilemma and have passed legislation to exempt
92

employers from liability in providing information as long as they are acting in good faith.
Some local governments have passed legislation protecting employers from civil liability in
releasing reference information when they act in good faith. Some also have a reference
checking law, but will be only limited to hospitals, health care institutions, schools, public
health facilities, day care programs, and child care centers.
Because of the possible extension of the law to the private sector, many firms and
individuals are now reluctant to provide negative reference information about former
employees or business associates. Another problem with references is that the applicant
normally provides them. Applicants may selectively choose their references to ensure that
only positive information is furnished. It is unlikely, except where the names of previous
supervisors are requested, that an applicant would list anyone who might give an
unfavorable report. Thus, references tend to be biased in a positive manner.
Because some individuals are reluctant to state their opinions about former employees or
colleagues in writing, many organizations prefer to use the telephone when checking
references. Since there is no written record of the conversation, more information may be
collected. However, there is still a potential problem with bias—the individual providing
the reference is just as likely to offer a negatively biased as a positively biased opinion.
6.1. Process of Reference Check
The reference check is done as a means of protecting against in another type of liability
– that of hiring a poor performer. Reference checking, although an activity that has
long been deemed unproductive and ineffective, has recently turned over a new stone.
With automated reference checking, firms are able to quickly interact with a
candidate’s references through an online experience. Some suggestions for improving
the reference checking process are:

Train employment Communicate Communicate Provide feedback

specialists preferences to preferences to to references
applicants recruiting sources

Mathis, R.L. & Jackson, J.H. (2010). Human Resource Management. (13 Edition).
Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning.

 Train employment specialists. Telephone interviewing techniques, how to ask

questions, and how to probe for information are some of the topics that should be
covered.
 93

 Communicate preferences to applicants. Indicate the kind of references preferred,

former supervisors or business colleagues. Tell the applicant how references will
be contacted.

 Communicate preferences to recruiting sources. Outside parties such as

employment agencies can often obtain additional reference information on
applicants if they know the kind of information the organization is seeking.

 Provide feedback to references. Thank-you letters build goodwill for the company
and help ensure cooperation from those who may be regular suppliers of
reference information.
Even though we would like to assume that all applicants are completely honest on their
resume, most companies cannot afford to run the risk of not knowing if a candidate
has any criminal records hiding in their closet. The purpose of a background check is to
look up and gather job-relevant criminal, commercial, and financial records of an
individual before advancing further in the interview process.
6.2. Background Check
Failure to check the backgrounds of people who are hired can lead to embarrassment
and legal liability. Hiring workers who commit violent acts on the job is one example.
While laws vary from state to state, for jobs in certain industries, such as those that
provide services to children, vulnerable adults, security, in-home services, and financial
services, background checks are mandated in some states. Nationally background
checks are required for people with commercial drivers’ licenses who drive tractor-
trailer rigs and buses interstate.
The American Lawyers may say that an employer’s liability hinges on how well it
investigates an applicant’s background. Consequently, details provided on the
application form should be investigated extensively, and these efforts should be
documented.
Negligent hiring occurs when an employer fails to check an employee’s background
and the employee later injures someone on the job. There is a potential negligent
hiring problem when an employer hires an unfit employee, a background check is
insufficient, or an employer does not research potential risk factors that would prevent
the positive hire decision. Similarly, negligent retention occurs when an employer
becomes aware that an employee may be unfit for employment but continues to
employ the person, and the person injures someone.
Many organizations use outside vendors that specialize in conducting background
checks because such outside firms can provide these services much more efficiently
and effectively. Background checks have some concern that the information reported
might be inaccurate or outdated. For instance, a woman was denied employment by a
company because a background report provided by an outside firm contained adverse
information. However, after getting the report corrected, she was hired by the
company. Consequently, the information provided in criminal record checks should be
used judiciously and with caution.
A number of companies are using personal Web pages and the Internet to perform
94

background checks on employees. Many believe that websites provide a more “in-
depth” snapshot of a job candidate’s individual characteristics, regardless of the
information that has been submitted to the company through traditional means with
the application form or résumé. Online network sites such as Facebook are used to
obtain personal information, some of which involves sexual activity, drug use, and
other questionable behavior.
Unfortunately, much of the information on personal Web pages appears to be difficult
to erase or alter, so some candidates and employees just have to live with less-than-
flattering content once it is posted. Also, damaging information can be posted about
individuals by anyone on the Internet, further complicating the process of performing
fair and legitimate background checks if this information is utilized in job selection.
Background information can be obtained from a number of sources. Some of these
sources include past job records, credit history, testing records, educational and
certification records, drug tests, Social Security numbers, sex offender lists, motor
vehicle records, and military records. Running background checks on every applicant is
very expensive. Employers sometimes check only the two or three finalists or the
candidate who has received a contingent offer.
The need for background checking can be found in a wide range of positions: pharmacy
students, school teachers, janitors, bank tellers, and so on. Consider a car salesman
who sexually assaults a young woman while on a test drive. If the salesman failed to
tell his employer he was a convicted sex offender, does the employer have the
responsibility to do a background check to find out? Probably. Nothing will guarantee
that an employee will not commit a violent act at work. But employers can reduce the
risk by following a lawful process to screen applicants for signs that a person is not
appropriate.
6.3. Legal Constraints on Background Investigations
Various country laws protect the rights of individuals whose backgrounds may be
investigated during pre-employment screening. An employer’s most important action
when conducting a background investigation is to obtain from the applicant a signed
release giving the employer permission to conduct the investigation.
Safeguards are appropriate in background checks because although employee
screening has become a big business, it is not always an accurate one. When a
candidate is an internal candidate, blemishes are likely known. But when candidates
come from outside the company, problems are more likely to be hidden, at least at
first.
6.4. Medical Examinations and Inquiries
Medical information on applicants may be used to determine their physical and mental
capabilities for performing jobs. Physical standards for jobs should be realistic,
justifiable, and linked to job requirements. Even though workers with disabilities can
competently perform many jobs, they sometimes may be rejected because of their
physical or mental limitations.
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6.5. References
To improve the odds of receiving candidate honesty, you must create an atmosphere
that encourages candidates to be upfront about any aspect of their career history that
may worry them, as a simple clarification could keep them in the running.
Nevertheless, there is a need for both reference and background checks; the prior
ensures candidate fit for the specific job and prevents hiring poor performers, while
the latter protects a safe work environment. As a hiring manager, you should always
remember that regardless of how good an applicant may look on paper or sound
during the interview, you need to check their references and background to guarantee
you will get exactly what you will be paying for.
References provided by the candidate are of very limited predictive value. Would
someone knowingly pick a reference who would speak poorly of them? Of course not.
Previous supervisors and employers may provide a better prediction. Good questions
to ask previous supervisors or employers include:

 Dates of employment

 Position held

 What were the job duties?

 What strengths/weaknesses did you observe?

 Were there any problems?

 Would you rehire?

Work-related references from previous employers and supervisors provide a valuable
snapshot of a candidate’s background and characteristics. Telephoning references is
common. Managers should consider using a form that facilitates the factual verification
of information given by the applicant. Some organizations send preprinted reference
forms to individuals who are giving references for applicants. These forms often
contain a release statement signed by the applicant, so that those providing references
can see that they have been released from liability on the information they furnish.
6.6. Making the Job Offer
The final step of the selection process is offering someone employment. Job offers are
often extended over the telephone. Many companies then formalize the offer in a
letter that is sent to the applicant. It is important that the offer document be reviewed
by legal counsel and that the terms and conditions of employment be clearly identified.
Care should be taken to avoid vague, general statements and promises about bonuses,
work schedules, or other matters that might change later. These documents should
also provide for the individual to sign an acceptance of the offer and return it to the
employer, who should place it in the individual’s personnel files.
6.6.1. Offer Letter
Employment offer letters are typically reserved for lower-level employees. Generally
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speaking, offer letters are less detailed employment agreements, and their purpose is
to spell out basic terms of employment. Offer letters inform prospective employees
that they're being offered the position for which they applied; they also inform a
prospective employee of general expectations, should the prospective employee
accept the offer.
Offer letters typically contain basic employment terms. For example, they typically
explain that employment will be at-will, meaning the employer reserves the right to
terminate the employee at any time and without cause. Offer letters may also include a
description of work duties and state that the offer of employment is contingent upon a
satisfactory criminal background check. Generally, a job offer letter should include:
Salary: State the starting salary, frequency of payment and method of payment, such
as by cheque or direct deposit. If your company offers performance bonuses or stock
options, state these clearly and in full
Benefits: Briefly describe the benefits coverage provided by your company such as
dental, health and/or other types of insurance. Note that benefits information will be
communicated in further detail upon orientation of the new employee
Dates and Times: Be explicit. For instance, state when you want the signed offer
returned, the length of the probationary period (if appropriate), expectations
concerning hours of work per week, and the job start date and time
Name Relevant Documents: If your company requires new employees to sign other
documents, such as non-confidentiality or non-compete agreements, attach them to
the offer. Remember to note when you want these returned by too
6.6.2. Employment Contract
Although offer letters and employment contracts share some similar characteristics,
they are not the same. Offer letters are less formal than employment contracts.
Employee contract also referred to as all employment agreement is an agreement
between an employer and an employee that explains the employment relationship.
Offer, acceptance, and consideration (exchange of promises) are three basic elements
required for a contract to be legally binding and enforceable.
Individuals are acquired by the organization as either employees or independent
contractors. Often, someone other than the employer or offer receiver speaks on their
behalf in the establishment or modification of employment contract. These people,
called third parties, serve as agents for the employer and offer receiver.
Employment contracts may be written, oral, or even a combination of the two. A
written contract helps to clarify employment terms that call otherwise be subject to
misunderstanding and misinterpretation. While oral employment agreements are
generally just as enforceable as written ones, some terms can become hard to prove if
one side disagrees with specific terms or outright denies having agreed to them.
When a collective bargaining agreement is in place, employers cannot enter into a
separate agreement with employees covered by the terms of the bargaining
agreement.
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A disclaimer is a statement (oral or written) that explicitly limits an employee right and
reserves that right for the employer, such as confidential agreement. Disclaimers are
often used in letters of appointment, job application forms or blanks, and employee
handbooks.
Employment guarantees is a definition of the employment level to be maintained by
the investor in the privatized enterprise and the duration period of that guarantee,
definition of the group of persons covered by the guarantee, acceptable exceptions
from its application, the amount of compensation for guarantee breaches, the amount
of compensation for voluntary termination of a labor relation prior to the guarantee
expiration date.
Implied terms in an employment contract are those which are not specifically agreed
between the employer and employee.
6.6.3. Non-compete, Non-solicitation, and Confidentiality Clauses
A job offer may include restrictive covenants such as noncompete, non-solicitation, or
confidentiality clauses.
A non-compete clause (or covenant not to compete) is a term used in contract drafting,
and it refers to an agreement under which one party, usually an employee, agrees to
not pursue a similar profession or trade in competition against another party, usually
the employer. Employers require employees to sign non-compete agreements in order
to maintain a competitive edge in the market. These agreements seek to prevent the
employee’s abuse of confidential information and trade secrets obtained from his
earlier employment. In order to be enforceable, must be reasonable in both the
duration and scope. Duration refers to the length of time for which a non-compete
agreement remains valid and enforceable. Scope, on the other hand, refers to the
geographic scope – the area in which the non-compete agreement will be enforced.
There are two types of non-solicitation clauses: customer non-solicitation clauses and
employee non-solicitation clause. A non-solicitation clause typically prohibits the party
to be bound from directly or indirectly asking company employees (or customers in
some cases) to leave the company and join the departing employee in his new
business.
A confidentiality clause (typically contained in a non-disclosure agreement or NDA) is
typically used to protect trade secrets and other proprietary information, such as
research and development; designs, ideas, techniques, methods, and processes;
customer lists, and other non-public information. A confidentiality clause generally
requires the party to be bound to treat certain information (as specifically set forth in
the agreement) as confidential, and when properly drafted prohibits the party to be
bound from using or disclosing the information to third parties.
98

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