Learning Outcome:

is defined as the spontaneous 28.1 Radioactive decay (1½ hours)

disintegration of certain
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At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
atomic nuclei accompanied by
the emission of alpha
Explain α, β+, βˉ and γ decays.
particles, beta particles or
State decay law and use
gamma radiation. dN
= −λN
dt

Define and determine activity, A and decay constant, λ.

Derive and use
CHAPTER 28: Radioactivity N = N 0 e − λt OR A = A0 e − λ t
(2 Hours)
Define and use half-
half-life
ln 2
T1 / 2 =
1 λ 2

28.1.1 Alpha particle (α)

28.1 Radioactive decay
An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons.
neutrons

Definition (refer to section 27.1.3).
It is identical to a helium nucleus and its symbol is
The radioactive decay is a spontaneous reaction 4 4


2 He OR 2 α
that is unplanned,
unplanned cannot be predicted and

It is positively charged particle and its value is +2e with mass
independent of physical conditions (such as of 4.002603 u.
pressure, temperature) and chemical changes.
changes
When a nucleus undergoes alpha decay it loses four nucleons,

This reaction is random reaction because the two of which are protons, thus the reaction can be represented
probability of a nucleus decaying at a given instant by general equation below:
is the same for all the nuclei in the sample.

Radioactive radiations are emitted when an unstable
A
ZX → AZ−−42Y + 4
2 He + Q
(Parent) (Daughter) (α particle)
nucleus decays. The radiations are alpha particles,

Examples of α decay :
beta particles and gamma-
gamma-rays.
rays 218 214 4 226 222 4
84 Po→ 82 Pb + 2 He + Q 88 Ra → 86 Rn + 2 He + Q
230 226 4 238 234 4
3 90Th → 88 Ra + 2 He + Q 92 U→ 90Th + 2 He + Q 4
28.1.2 Beta particle (β)
Examples of β minus decay:
234 234 0

Beta particles are electrons or positrons (sometimes is called 90Th → 91 Pa + −1 e + Q
beta-minus and beta-plus particles). 234 234 0

The symbols represent the beta-minus and beta-plus (positron) 91 Pa → 92 U + −1 e + Q
214 214 0
83 Bi→ 84 Po + −1 e + Q
are shown below:
Beta-minus 0 0 OR In beta-plus decay, a positron is emitted, this time the charge of
Beta-
(electron) : −1 e OR β − Beta-
Beta-plus
(positron) : 1e β+


the parent nucleus decreases by one as shown below:

Beta-
Beta-minus particle is negatively charged of −1e and its mass
equals to the mass of an electron.
electron
A
ZX → Z −A1Y + 0
1e + Q

Beta-
Beta - plus (positron) is positively charged of +1e (antiparticle (Parent) (Daughter) (Positron)
of electron) and it has the same mass as the electron.
electron
For example of β plus decay is
1 1 0
1 p→0 n + 1 e + v +Q

In beta-minus decay, an electron is emitted, thus the mass
number does not changed but the charge of the parent
nucleus increases by one as shown below: Neutrino is uncharged
particle with negligible
A
ZX → Z +A1Y + 0
−1 e + Q mass.
mass

(Parent) (Daughter) (β particle) 5 6

28.1.3 Gamma ray (γ) 28.1.4 Comparison of the properties between alpha

Gamma rays are high energy photons (electromagnetic
electromagnetic particle, beta particle and gamma ray.
radiation).
radiation

Table 28.1 shows the comparison between the radioactive

Emission of gamma ray does not change the parent nucleus radiations.
into a different nuclide,
nuclide since neither the charge nor the Alpha Beta Gamma
nucleon number is changed.
Charge +2e −1e OR +1e 0 (uncharged)

A gamma ray photon is emitted when a nucleus in an excited
state makes a transition to a ground state.
state Deflection by

Examples of γ decay are : electric and Yes Yes No
218 ∗ 214 4 magnetic fields
84 Po → 82 Pb + 2 He + γ
234 ∗ 234 0 Gamma ray Ionization power Strong Moderate Weak
91 Pa → 92 U + −1 e + γ
208 ∗ 208
81Ti → 81Ti + γ
Penetration power Weak Moderate Strong

It is uncharged (neutral) ray and zero mass.
mass Ability to affect a

The differ between gamma-
gamma-rays and x- x-rays of the same photographic plate Yes Yes Yes
wavelength only in the manner in which they are produced;
produced
gamma-
gamma-rays are a result of nuclear processes,
processes whereas x- Ability to produce
Yes Yes Yes
rays originate outside the nucleus.
nucleus 7 Table 28.1 fluorescence 8

Figures 28.1 and 28.2 show a deflection of α, β and γ in electric 28.1.5 Decay constant (λ)
and magnetic fields.
Law of radioactive decay states:
 dN 
For a radioactive source, the decay rate  −  is directly
directly


− B  dt 
+ proportional to the number of radioactive nuclei N
− + remaining in the source.
source
− + i.e.  dN 
− γ β + γ − ∝ N Negative sign means the number of
− + β  dt  remaining nuclei decreases with time
− α
− +

+ α dN
= − λN (28.1)
− E + dt Decay constant

Rearranging the eq. (15.1):
Radioactive dN
Figure 28.1 source Figure 28.2 decay rate
λ = − dt λ=
N number of remaining radioactive nuclei
Hence the decay constant is defined as the probability that a
radioactive nucleus will decay in one second. s−1.
second Its unit is 10
9 10

The decay constant is a characteristic of the radioactive nuclei.
From the eq. (28.3), thus the graph of N, the number of

Rearrange the eq. (28.1), we get remaining radioactive nuclei in a sample, against the time t is
dN shown in Figure 28.3.
= −λdt (28.2)
N N
t=0, N=N0 (initial
At time t=0 initial number of radioactive nuclei in the N0
sample) and after a time t, the number of remaining nuclei is Note:
N. Integration of the eq. (28.2) from t=0 to time t : From the graph (decay curve),
N dN t N = N 0 e − λt
∫ ∫
the life of any radioactive
= − λ dt
N0 N 0 nuclide is infinity,
infinity therefore to
N0 talk about the life of radioactive
[ln N ]NN 0
= − λ [t ]0
t
2 nuclide, we refer to its half-
half-life.
life
N N0
ln = − λt 4 T1 / 2 : half − life
N0 N0
8 N0
N = N 0e − λt (28.3) Exponential law of 16 time , t
radioactive decay 0 T1 / 2 2T1 / 2 3T1 / 2 4T1 / 2 5T1 / 2
11 12
Figure 28.3
28.1.6 Half-life (T1/2)
The units of the half-life are second (s), minute (min), hour

is defined as the time taken for a sample of radioactive (hr), day (d) and year (y). Its unit depend on the unit of decay
nuclides disintegrate to half of the initial number of nuclei.
nuclei constant.
constant
− λt Table 28.2 shows the value of half-life for several isotopes.

From the eq. (28.3), N = N 0e and the definition of half-life,

when t = T1/ 2 ; N = N 0 , thus Isotope Half-life

2 238
4.5 × 109 years
N0 1 92 U
= N 0e −λT1 / 2 = e −λT1 / 2 226
2 2 88 Ra 1.6 × 103 years
2 = e λT1 / 2 210
884 Po 138 days
ln 2 = ln eλT1 / 2 234
90Th 24 days
ln 2 0.693 222
Half-
Half-life T1/ 2 = = (28.4) 86 Rn 3.8 days
λ λ 214
83 Bi 20 minutes

The half-
half-life of any given radioactive nuclide is constant,
constant it
does not depend on the number of remaining nuclei.
nuclei Table 28.2
13 14

28.1.7 Activity of radioactive sample (A)  Thus

 dN 

is defined as the decay rate   of a radioactive sample.
A = −λN and N = N 0 e − λt

 dt 
Its unit is number of decays per second.
second
(
A = −λ N 0 e − λt )

Other units for activity are curie (Ci
Ci) and becquerel (Bq
Bq) – S.I. = (− λN 0 )e − λt and A0 = −λN 0
unit.

Unit conversion:
10
1 Ci = 3.7 × 10 decays per second
A = A0 e − λt (28.5)

1 Bq = 1 decay per second

Relation between activity (A) of radioactive sample and time t : Activity at time t Activity at time, t =0
dN
 From the law of radioactive decay : = −λN
dN dt
and definition of activity : A =
dt
15 16
Example 28.1 :
A radioactive nuclide A disintegrates into a stable nuclide B. The Example 28.2 :
half-life of A is 5.0 days. If the initial number of nuclide A is a. Radioactive decay is a random and spontaneous nuclear
1.0×1020, calculate the number of nuclide B after 20 days. reaction. Explain the terms random and spontaneous.
Solution : b. 80% of a radioactive substance decays in 4.0 days. Determine
9.38 × 1019 nuclei i. the decay constant,
ii. the half-life of the substance.
Solution :
λ = 0.402 day−1
T1/ 2 = 1.72 days

17 18

Example 28.3 :
Phosphorus-32 is a beta emitter with a decay constant of 5.6 × 10−7
s−1. For a particular application, the phosphorus-32 emits 4.0 × 107
beta particles every second. Determine
a. the half-life of the phosphorus-32,
b. the mass of pure phosphorus-32 will give this decay rate.
(Given the Avogadro constant, NA =6.02 × 1023 mol−1)

Solution :
T1/ 2 = 1.24 × 106 s
3.80 ×10−9 g

19 20
 Example 28.4 :
A thorium-228 isotope which has a half-life of 1.913 years decays
by emitting alpha particle into radium-224 nucleus. Calculate
a. the decay constant.
b. the mass of thorium-228 required to decay with activity of
12.0 Ci.
c. the number of alpha particles per second for the decay of 15.0 g
thorium-228.
(Given the Avogadro constant, NA =6.02 × 1023 mol−1)
Solution :
λ = 1.15 × 10 −8 s −1
1.46 ×10−2 g
A = 4.55 ×1014 α − particles/second

21 22

23 24
 Learning Outcome: 28.2 Radioisotope as tracers
28.2.1 Radioisotope

is defined as an isotope of an element that is radioactive.
radioactive
28.2 Radioisotope as tracers (½ hour)
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It is produced in a nuclear reactor, where stable nuclei are

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to: bombarded by high speed neutrons until they become
radioactive nuclei.
nuclei

Explain the application of radioisotopes as tracers.

Examples of radioisotopes:
31
a. 15 P + 1n →32 P + γ + Q
0 15
(Radio phosphorus)

32
P→32
15
0
16 S+ −1 e + Q
23 1 24
b. 11 Na + 0 n → 11 Na + γ + Q (Radio sodium)

24
11 Na→24 0
12 Mg + −1 e + Q
27 1 28
c. 13 A l+ 0 n→ 13 Al + γ +Q (Radio aluminum)

28 28
25
13 Al→14 Si+ −01 e + Q 26

28.2.2 Radioisotope as tracers Example 28.5 :

Since radioisotope has the same chemical properties as the A small volume of a solution which contained a radioactive isotope
stable isotopes then they can be used to trace the path made of sodium had an activity of 12000 disintegrations per minute when
by the stable isotopes.
isotopes it was injected into the bloodstream of a patient. After 30 hours the

Its method : activity of 1.0 cm3 of the blood was found to be 0.50 disintegrations
per minute. If the half-life of the sodium isotope is taken as 15
 A small amount of diluted radioisotope solution is prepared.
prepared hours, estimate the volume of blood in the patient.
 The solution is either swallowed by the patient or injected
Solution :
into the body of the patient.
patient
 After a while certain part of the body will have absorbed
either a normal amount, or an amount which is larger than
normal or less than normal of the radioisotope. A detector
(such as Geiger counter ,gamma camera,
camera etc..) then
measures the count rate at the part of the body
concerned.
concerned

It is used to investigate organs in human body such as kidney,
thyroid gland, heart, brain, and etc..

It also used to monitor the blood flow and measure the blood
volume.
volume 27 28
 28.2.3 Other uses of radioisotope
In medicine

To destroy cancer cells by gamma-ray from a high-activity
source of Co-60.

To treat deep-lying tumors by planting radium-226 or caesium-
137 inside the body close to the tumor.
In agriculture

To enable scientists to formulate fertilizers that will increase the
production of food.

To develop new strains of food crops that are resistant to
diseases, give high yield and are of high quality.

To increase the time for food preservation.

29 30

In industry
Example 28.6 :

To measure the wear and tear of machine part and the
effectiveness of lubricants. ( )
Radioactive iodine isotope 131 I of half-life 8.0 days is used for
53

To detect flaws in underground pipes e.g. pipes use to carry the treatment of thyroid gland cancer. A certain sample is required
natural petroleum gas. to have an activity of 8.0 × 105 Bq at the time it is injected into the
patient.

To monitor the thickness of metal sheet during manufacture by
passing it between gamma-ray and a suitable detector. a. Calculate the mass of the iodine-131 present in the sample to
In archaeology and geology produce the required activity.

To estimate the age of an archaeological object found by b. If it takes 24 hours to deliver the sample to the hospital, what
referring to carbon-14 dating. should be the initial mass of the sample?

To estimate the geological age of a rock by referring to c. What is the activity of the sample after 24 hours in the body of the
potassium-40 dating. patient?
(Given the Avogadro constant, NA =6.02 × 1023 mol−1)
1.74 ×10−10 g
N 0 = 1.90 ×10−10 g
31 A = 7.34 ×105 Bq 32
 33 34

Example 28.7 : Exercise 28.1 :

Given NA =6.02×1023 mol−1
An archeologist on a dig finds a fragment of an ancient basket
woven from grass. Later, it is determined that the carbon-14 content 1. Living wood takes in radioactive carbon-14 from the
atmosphere during the process of photosynthesis, the ratio of
of the grass in the basket is 9.25% that of an equal carbon sample
carbon-14 to carbon-12 atoms being 1.25 to 1012. When the
from the present day grass. If the half-life of the carbon-14 is 5730 wood dies the carbon-14 decays, its half-life being 5600
years, determine the age of the basket. years. 4 g of carbon-14 from a piece of dead wood gave a
total count rate of 20.0 disintegrations per minute. Determine
Solution :
the age of the piece of wood.
t = 19674 years ANS. : 8754 years
2. A drug prepared for a patient is tagged with Tc-99 which has a
half-life of 6.05 h.
a. What is the decay constant of this isotope?
b. How many Tc-99 nuclei are required to give an activity of
1.50 µCi?
c. If the drug of activity in (b) is injected into the patient 2.05 h
after it is prepared, determine the drug’s activity.
(Physics, 3rd edition, James S. Walker, Q27&28, p.1107)
35
ANS. : 0.115 h−1; 1.7×
1.7×109 nuclei; 1.19 µCi 36
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Good luck
For
2nd semester examination

37