Hess 101
Hess 101
Hess 101
Course Coordinator
Dr. Alok Kumar Gupta
CURRICULUM COMMITTEE
CHAIRMAN
Prof. C. K. Ghosh
Director, National Centre for Innovations
in Distance Education (NCIDE)
IGNOU, Delhi
MEMBER
Sri Puran Chand Prof. B. K. Sharma Sri R. P. Sharma Sri Kanhaiya Lal
Joint Secretary, COBSE Retd Professor (Physics), Education Officer (Retd.), Principal (Retd)
New Delhi-110034 DESM, NCERT, New Delhi CBSE, New Delhi-110002 Dir. of Education
Former Joint Commissioner, Delhi
KVS
Dr. P. K. Mukherjee Late Sri Sher Singh Sri Jayavir Singh Dr. K. B. Thapa
Associate Professor (Physics) Principal, PGT (Physics) Assistant Professor, UIET,
Desh Bandhu College, Navyug School, Lodhi Road Holy Cross School, CSJM University, Kanpur
New Delhi Delhi-110003 Najafgarh Delhi-110043
Prof. R. R. Yadav Prof. A. K. Jha Prof. V. P. Srivastava Prof. Balak Das
Department of Physics, Department of Physics, Retd Professor (Physics), Department of Physics,
University of Allahabad, College of Commerce DESM, NCERT, New Delhi University of Lucknow,
Allahabad-211002 Patna - 800016 Lucknow - 226007
Dr. Alok Kumar Gupta
Academic Officer,
National Institute of Open Schooling,
NOIDA
COURSE COORDINATOR
Dr. Alok Kumar Gupta
Academic Officer, (Physics)
NIOS, NOIDA (U.P.)
GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATORS
Sri Krishna Graphics
C-90, West Vinod Nagar
Delhi-110092
Chairman’s Message
Dear learner,
As the needs of the society in general, and some groups in particular, keep on changing
with time, the methods and techniques required for fulfilling those aspirations also
have to be modified accordingly. Education is an instrument of change. The right type
of education at right time can bring about positivity in the outlook of society, attitudinal
changes to face the new/fresh challenges and the courage to face difficult situations.
This can be very effectively achieved by regular periodic curriculum renewal. A static
curriculum does not serve any purpose, as it does not cater to the current needs and
aspirations of the individual and society.
For this purpose only, educationists from all over the country come together at regular
intervals to deliberate on the issues of changes needed and required. As an outcome of
such deliberations, the National Curriculum Framework (NCF 2005) came out, which
spells out in detail the type of education desirable/needed at various levels of education
- primary, elementary, secondary or senior secondary.
Keeping this framework and other national and societal concerns in mind, we have
currently revised the curriculum of Physics course at Senior Secondary level, as per
the Common Core Curriculum provided by National Council of Educational Research
and Training (NCERT) and the Council of Boards of School Education in India (COBSE)
making it current and need based. Textual material production is an integral and
essential part of all NIOS programmes offered through open and distance learning
system. Therefore, we have taken special care to make the learning material user friendly,
interesting and attractive for you.
I would like to thank all the eminent persons involved in making this material interesting
and relevant to your needs. I hope you will find it appealing and absorbing.
On behalf of National Institute of Open Schooling, I wish you all a bright and successful
future.
(Dr. S. S. Jena)
Chairman, NIOS
A Note From the Director
Dear Learner,
Welcome!
The Academic Department at the National Institute of Open Schooling tries to bring
you new programmes, in accordance with your needs and requirements. After making
a comprehensive study, we found that our curriculum is more functional related to life
situations and simple. The task now was to make it more effective and useful for you.
We invited leading educationists of the country and under their guidance, we have
been able to revise and update the curriculum in the subject of Physics.
At the same time, we have also removed old, outdated information and added new,
relevant things and tried to make the learning material attractive and appealing for
you.
I hope you will find the new material interesting and exciting with lots of activities to
do. Any suggestions for further improvement are welcome.
Total Lessons = 30
Lessons for Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) = 12
Lessons for Public Examination (PE) = 18
Contents
Curriculum 411
Feedback Form 427
PHYSICS AND INDIA’S CONTRIBUTION
TOWARDS PHYSICS
Physics is the branch of science concerned with the nature and properties of matter and
energy. The subject matter of Physics includes mechanics, heat, light and other radiation,
sound, electricity, magnetism, and the structure of atoms. This is the scientific study of matter
and energy and how they interact with each other.
Maharshi Kanad, Acharya Aryabhatta and Acharya Bhaskaracharya etc. are scientists from
the ancient Indian soil whose philosophic insights were way ahead of their world
contemporaries. Maharshi Kanad was one of the earliest proponents of the atomic theory
of matter and was famous to explain all the worldly happenings in terms of atoms. Acharya
Aryabhatta was a mathematical genius of ancient India who not only suggested the rotation
of earth as the cause of day and night and revolution of earth as the cause of changes in
season but also had an idea of the force of gravity much earlier than Newton. Acharya
Bhaskaracharya was a mathematician extraordinary who set the rules for calculating location
of astronomical bodies any time. His methods of calculation are in use in some parts of
India even today.
Physics has always been an exciting subject. But fundamental discoveries in rapid succession
in the early half of the 20th century brought in profound changes in our concepts of space,
time, matter and energy. Another phenomenal characteristic of the previous century is the
reduction in the time gap between a new discovery and its applications from a decade or
so to a few years which has happened due to close linking of science and technology. It
is but natural that the future development in knowledge society will heavily depend on the
availability of well trained scientific human resource, endowed with entrepreneurship
capabilities. This should be enough motivation to study Physics, do well in the subject and
participate in the process of sustainable national growth and development.
In modern times also there are many talents of Indian Physicist and inventors who have
excelled in different areas of Physics. Some of them have also contributed in a substantial
way to advanced scientific research in many different regions of the world.
Prof. C. V. Raman (Nobel Laureate in 1930 for his Raman Effect), Prof. Homi Jehangir
Bhabha (best known as the chief architect of the Indian Atomic Energy Program), Prof.
Meghnad Saha (Astrophysicist who developed the Saha equation, which explains chemical
and physical conditions in stars), Dr. Jagadish Chandra Bose (Pioneer in the investigation
of radio and microwave optics), Dr. Satyendra Nath Bose (best known for his collaboration
with Albert Einstein in formulating a theory related to the gas like qualities of electromagnetic
radiation), Dr. Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (Nobel Laureate in 1983 for his research on
the evolutionary stages of massive stars), Dr. Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis (founded the
(i)
Indian Statistical Institute), Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, Prof. Satish Dhawan, Prof. K. S. Krishnan,
Prof. D. S. Kothari, Prof. J. V. Narlikar, Prof. E. C. G. Sundersan, Prof. Ashok Sen, Prof.
Raja Ramanna, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, Former President of India (known for his crucial
role in the development of India’s missile and nuclear weapons programs) and many more
revered physicists who have made immense contribution not only for building our national
scientific institutions but also to the global science. Today scientific developments are
inviting international collaborations. Many of our physicists are part of these international
teams.
Procedural knowledge i.e. to solve the problem for getting answers only without having
conceptual grasp is not enough. At the Senior Secondary stage one needs to develop both
procedural and conceptual knowledge for better understanding of Physics. As a self-learner,
one is required to demonstrate the ability, capacity and eagerness of Ekalavya. Confidence
in oneself and genuine interest in learning science helps in developing the skills required
to be a successful independent learner with drive and initiative. Experience shows that
interactive learning is more rewarding.
Physics may be a strong support in one’s future career. Many university degrees require
Physics as a pre requirement. Learners who choose not to take Physics seriously or to ignore
it at secondary and senior secondary level lose many future career opportunities that they
could have. The importance of mathematics for potential careers cannot be over emphasized.
To get degrees in the following areas i.e. Physical Sciences, Life and Health Sciences Space
and Communications, Engineering and Technical Sciences, like Computer Science,
Networking, Software Development, one need to have good knowledge of Physics. Learning
Physics at senior secondary stage helps in choosing a career in the following areas:
z Physics Teacher or Lecturer
z Scientist or Researcher
z Engineering and Technology
z MBBS/BDS/BAMS/BHMS - Entrance Examinations
z Indian Military/Indian Air Force/Indian Navy Services
z Service Selection Commission (SSC)
z Computing and other careers in HR and Administration
(ii)
MODULE - I
MOTION, FORCE AND ENERGY
CURRICULUM
RATIONALE
Physics is a fundamental science because it deals with the basic features of the world, such as,
time, space, motion, charge, matter and radiation. Every event that occurs in the natural world
has some features that can be viewed in these terms. Study of physics need not necessarily be taken
as a means of becoming a physicist; it is a means of rationally understanding nature. Physics lies
behind all technological advancements, such as, computer, internet, launching of rockets and
satellites, radio and T.V communications, lasers, etc. It also finds applications in such simple
activities of men as lifting a heavy weight or making a long jump. Physics is thus an all pervading
science and its study helps us in finding answers to whys and hows of our day to day happenings.
Keeping in view the issues highlighted in the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) for School
Education, present Physics curriculum has been so designed that it not only focuses on the basic
concepts of Physics but relates them to the daily life activities. The applications of the laws of
Physics and their effects on daily life have been reflected in the curriculum. The basic themes of
Physics which would be of interest to all, particularly to those who are interested in pursuing Physics
as a career in life have been selected to form core content of the curriculum. Besides, the curriculum
also includes such emerging areas as electronics, communication, nuclear physics, which find
immense applications in daily life.
Though mathematics is basic to the understanding of most of the problems of physics, in the present
course, stress has been given to avoid rigour of mathematics like integration and differentiation.
The focus has been to teach concepts of physics rather than mathematical calculations.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
The basic objectives of the sr. secondary level Physics course are to enable the learner to:
z acquire knowledge and develop understanding of concepts, fundamental laws, principles and
processes in the area of physics so that relationship between causes and effects of physical
phenomenon can be understood;
z appreciate the contributions of physics towards improving quality of life;
z promote interest in physics and foster a spirit of enquiry; and
z improve competencies of individuals in work skills required in their profession.
As a part of this process, the course also aims at developing the following abilities in the learner:
PHYSICS 411
Curriculum
z problem solving ability e.g. analyzing a situation or data, establishing relationship between cause
and effect;
z scientific temper of mind by making judgment on verified facts and not opinions, by showing
willingness to accept new ideas and discoveries; and
COURSE STRUCTURE
The physics curriculum at sr. secondary level consists of both theory and practical components.
(i) The theoretical part of the Physics curriculum includes eight modules comprise of the essential
concepts and phenomena of physics which a student at this level should know. These eight
modules contain predominantly the subject matter of mechanics, electricity, light and other
areas of physics representing the minimum knowledge required to progress into the more
advanced areas and to develop appreciation for the fact that physics plays a significant role
in most situations. The module VIII is the application oriented specific fields like semiconductors,
electronics and communication.
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Module 1: Motion, Force and Energy
Approach: Besides highlighting the importance of universal standard units of measurement,
applications of dimensions and vectors in the study of physics to be described in this module. The
physics scope, need of measurement, concept of motion and rest, cause of motion and different
types of motion has been described with the help of daily life examples. Significance of gravitation,
concept of work and energy are to be highlighted. The basics of the motion of a rigid body and
the significance of rotational motion in day to day life have been explained.
1. Unit 1.1: Physical Worlds and Measurements Supportive Video Program
z Physics Scope and Excitement 1. Unit, Dimension and Vectors Part-1
z Nature of Physical Laws 2. Unit, Dimension and Vectors Part-2
z Physics, Technology and Society
z Need of Measurement
z Units of Measurement Fundamental and Derived Units
z Systems of Units, SI Units
z Measurement of Mass, Length and Time
z Multiples and Submultiples of Units
z Accuracy of Measuring Instrument
z Errors in Measurement
z Significant Figures
z Dimensions of Physical Quantities
z Dimensional Formula and Dimensional Equations
z Applications of Dimensions
z Vectors and Scalars
z Graphical Representation of Vectors
z Addition and Subtraction of Vectors
z Resolution of Vectors
z Unit Vector
z Scalar and Vector Products
2. Unit 1.2: Motion in a Straight line Supportive Video Program
z Position, Distance and Displacement: 1. Motion in a Straight line Part-1
Position and Displacement Vectors 2. Motion in a Straight line Part-2
z Speed, Velocity and Acceleration
z Average and Instantaneous Velocity: Elementary
Concepts of Differentiation and Integration
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z Relative Motion
z Position – Time and Velocity – Time Graphs
z Uniform and Uniformly Accelerated Motion
z Equations of Motion with Constant Acceleration Including Motion under Gravity
3. Unit 1.3: Newton’s Laws of motion
z Concept of Force and Inertia
z First Law of Motion
z Concepts of Momentum
z Second Law of Motion
z Third Law of Motion
z Impulse
z Conservation of Linear Momentum and its Applications
z Equilibrium of Concurrent Forces
z Friction – Static and Kinetic, Factors Affecting Friction – Sliding and Rolling
z Free Body Diagram Technique
z Elementary Idea of Frame of Reference - Inertial and Non-Inertial
4. Unit 1.4: Motion in a Plane
z Projectile Motion (Time of Flight, Range and Maximum Height)
z Trajectory of a Projectile
z Uniform Circular Motion
z Centripetal Acceleration
z Circular Motion in Daily Life (Motion on Banked and Unbanked Roads)
z Motion in Vertical Circle
5. Unit 1.5: Gravitation
z Universal Law of Gravitation
z Acceleration Due to Gravity and its Variation with Height, Depth and Latitude (Only
Formula), Value of g at Moon
z Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
z Motion of Planets, Orbital and Escape Velocity
z Satellites – Geostationary and Polar
z Gravitational Potential and Potential Energy
z Achievements of India in the Field of Space Exploration
z Applications of satellite
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9. Unit 2.2: Properties of Fluids
z Hydrostatic Pressure and Buoyancy
z Pascal’s Law and its Applications
z Forces of Cohesion and Adhesion
z Surface Tension and Surface Energy
z Angle of Contact and Capillary Action
z Application of Surface Tension, Drops, Bubbles and Detergents
z Types of Fluid Flow
z Reynold’s Number
z Viscosity and Stoke’s Law
z Terminal Velocity
z Bernoulli’s Theorem (no derivation) and its Applications
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11. Unit 3.2: Thermodynamics
z Thermal Equilibrium - Zeroth Law of Thermo Dynamics and Concept of Temperature
z Thermodynamic Variables and Thermodynamic Equilibrium
z Thermodynamic Processes : Isothermal, Adiabatic, Reversible, Irreversible and Cyclic
Process
z Heat, Work and Internal Energy: First Law of Thermodynamics
z Phase Change, Phase Diagram, Latent Heat and Triple Point
z Carnot’s Cycle and its Efficiency - Second Law of Thermodynamics
z Heat Engine and Refrigerator
z Limitations of Carnot’s engine
12. Unit 3.3: Heat Transfer and Solar Energy
z Modes of Transfer of Heat – Conduction, Convection and Radiation
z Black Body Radiation: Kirchhoff’s Law, Absorptive and Emissive Powers, Wein’s
Displacement Law, Stefan’s Law
z Solar Energy
z Solar Constant, Green House Effect
z Newton’s Law of Cooling
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z Force on a Charged Particle in an Electric Field
z Electric Field of a Dipole in Uniform Electric Field
z Electric Flux and Gauss Theorem in Electrostatics (no derivation)
z Application of Gauss’s Theorem to find Electric Field due to a Point Charge, Uniformely
Charged Thin Spherical Cell (Field Inside and Outside), Long Wire and Infinite Plane Object
z Van de Graff Generator
16. Unit 5.2: Electric Potential and Capacitors
z Electric Potential due to a Point Charge
z Electric Potential at a Point due to a Dipole (axial and equatorial)
z Electric Potential Energy of a System of Point Charges
z Relation between Electric Field and Potential – Equipotent Surface
z Conductors and Electric Field inside a Conductor
z Electrostatic Shielding
z Capacitors and Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor
z Different type of Capacitors and their Applications
z Capacitors in Series and Parallel Combinations
z Energy stored in a Capacitor
z Dielectrics and their Polarization
z Effects of Dialectics on Capacitance
17. Unit 5.3: Electric Current
z Electric Current in a Conductor
z Concept of Drift Velocity of Electrons
z Ohm’s Law, Ohmic and Non – Ohmic Resistances
z Colour Coding of Resistors
z Free and Bound Electrons
z Combination of Resistances (Series and Parallel)
z Kirchhoff’s Laws and Their Application to Electrical Circuits
z Wheatstone Bridge Principle and its Application
z Electromotive Force and Potential Difference
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Curriculum
z Elementary Idea of Primary and Secondary Cells
z Potentiometer and its Applications
z Heating Effect of Electric Current – Joule’s Law of Heating
18. Unit 5.4 Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
z Bar Magnet and its Magnetic Field
z Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
z Bio – Savart’s Law and its Application to Find Magnetic Field at the Center of a Coil
Carrying Current (qualitative treatment)
z Ampere’s Circuital Law and its Application to Finding Magnetic Field of a Long Straight
Wire, Circular Loop (at the Center), Straight and Toroidal Solenoids
z Concept of Displacement Current
z Force on a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field; Lorentz Force
z Force on a Moving Charge in Uniform Magnetic and Electric Fields Cyclotron
z Force on a Current Carrying Wire in a Uniform Magnetic Field
z Current Loop as a Magnetic Dipole and its Magnetic Moments
z Magnetic Dipole Moment of Revolving Electron
z Magnetic field Intensity due to a Magnetic Dipole (Bar Magnet) and its Axis and
Perpendicular to its Axis
z Torque on a Magnetic Dipole (Bar Magnet) in a Uniform Magnetic Field
z Current Loop as a Magnetic Dipole and its Magnetic Moments
z Moving Coil Galvanometer and its Conversion into Ammeter and Voltmeter
z Earth’ Magnetic Field
z Ferro Magnetic Materials – Domain Theory (qualitative only)
z Electromagnets and Factors Affecting their strength
19. Unit 5.5: Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
z Faraday’s Law of Electro – Magnetic Induction
z Lenz’s Law, Eddy Currents
z Self and Mutual Induction – Choke Coil
z Alternating Current and Voltage Illustrating with Phase Diagram – Peak and rms Values
z Circuits Containing only R, L or C Separately – Phase Relationship between I & V
z LCR Series Combination (Using Phaser Diagram only) and Resonance
z Generators – AC and DC
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z Transformers and Their Applications
z Transmission of Electric Power
z Problem of Low voltage and Load Shedding (Concepts of Stabilizer and Inverters)
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23. Unit 6.4: Optical Instruments
z Simple and Compound Microscopes and their Magnifying Power
z Telescopes – Reflecting and Refracting
z Resolving Power and Rayleigh’s Criterion
z Applications in Astronomy
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27. Unit 7.4: Nuclear Fission and Fusion
z Nuclear Reactions
z Nuclear Fission and Chain Reaction
z Nuclear – Fusion - Energy in Stars
z Misuses of Nuclear Energy - Atom Bomb and Hydrogen Bomb (non evaluative in a box)
z Peaceful uses of Nuclear Energy (including latest trends)
z Hazards of Nuclear Radiation and Safety measures
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30. Unit 8.3: Communication System
z Model Communication System
z Elements of a Communication System
z Types of Signals- Analogue and Digital
z Electromagnetic Waves in Communication
z Guided Media (transmission lines and optical fibre)
z Unguided Media and Antennae – ground wave Communication, sky wave communication,
space wave communication and satellite communication
z Modulation – Analogue AM and FM, digital (PCM)
z Demodulation
z Communication Applications
LIST OF PRACTICALS
Group A
1. To determine the internal diameter and depth of a cylindrical container (like tin can, calorimeter)
using a Vernier calipers and find its capacity. Verify the result using a graduated cylinder.
2. To determine the diameter of a given wire using a screw gauge.
3. To determine the radius of curvature of a concave mirror using a spherometer.
4. To find the time period of a simple pendulum for small amplitude and draw the graph of length
of the pendulum against square of the time period. Use the graph to find the length of the
second’s pendulum.
5. To find the weight of a given body using law of parallelogram of vectors.
6. To study the Newton’s loaf of cooling by plotting a graph between cooling time and
temperature, difference between calorimeter and surroundings.
7. To determine the specific heat of a solid using the method of mixtures.
8. To measure extensions in the length of a helical spring with increasing load. Find the spring
constant of the spring extension graph.
9. To find the time required to empty a burette filled with water, to ½ of its volume, to ¼ of
its volume, to 1/8 of its volume and so on. Then plot a graph between volume of water in
the burette and time and thus study at each stage that the fractional rate of flow is same (analogy
to radio-active decay).
424 PHYSICS
Curriculum
Group B
10. To determine the wavelength of sound produced (i) in air column, (ii) the velocity of sound
in air at room temperature using a resonance column and a tuning fork.
11. To compare the frequencies of two tuning forks by finding first and second resonance positions
in a resonance tube.
12. To establish graphically the relation between the tension and length of a string of a sonometer
vibrating in its fundamental model resonating with a given tuning fork. Use the graph to
determine the mass per unit length of the string.
13. To find the value of v for different values of i in case of a concave mirror and find its focal
length (f) by plotting graph between 1/u and 1/v.
14. To find the focal length (f) of a convex lens by plotting graph between 1/u and 1/v.
15. To find the focal length (f) of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
16. Determine the focal length of a concave lens by combing it with a suitable convex lens.
17. To draw a graph between the angle of incidence (i) and angle of deviation (D) for a glass
prism and to determine the refractive index of the glass of the prism using this graph.
18. To compare the refractive indices of two transparent liquids using a concave mirror and a
single pin.
19. To set up an astronomical telescope and find its magnifying power.
Group C
20. To verify the law of combination (series and parallel) of resistances using ammeter- voltmeter
method and coils of known resistances.
21. To compare the e.m.f’s of two given primary cells by using a potentiometer.
22. To determine the specific resistance of the material of two given wires using a metre bridge.
23. To determine the internal resistance of a primary cell using a potentiometer.
24. To determine the inductance and resistance of a given coil (inductor) using a suitable series
resistance and an AC voltmeter.
25. To study decay of current in a R.C. circuit while charging the capacitor, using a galvanometer
and find the time constant of the circuit.
26. To draw the characteristic curve of a forward biased pn junction diode and to determine the
static and dynamic resistance of the diode.
27. To draw the characteristics of an npn transistor in common emitter mode. From the
characteristics find out (i) the current gain (b) of the transistor and (ii) the voltage gain A1
with a load resistance of 1 k W.
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Curriculum
28. To draw the lines of force due to a bar magnet keep (i) N-pole pointing to north (ii) N-pole
pointing to South. Locate the neutral points
29. To determine the internal resistance of a moving coil galvanometer by half deflection method,
and to convert it into a volt meter of a given range, say (0-3V), and verify it.
SCHEME OF STUDY
The course in Physics provides you with package of learning opportunities which comprise of:
z Printed Self Learning Material (SLM) in two parts i.e. Part-1 and Part-2.
z Supplementary Materials in the form of Audio and Video Programmes.
z Video tutorials in Physics available on the NIOS website (www.nios.ac.in) as well as YouTube.
The links of these tutorials have been mentioned within the SLM in the concerned lesson.
z 30 Personal Contact Programme (PCP) sessions at your study centre. Please contact your study
centre for the PCP schedule
z Apart from Face-to-Face Personal Contact Programme (PCP) at your study centre, live
Personal Contact Programmes (PCPs) through audio streaming are webcast on Mukta Vidya
Vani, which can be accessed through NIOS website (www.nios.ac.in).
SCHEME OF EVALUATION
The learner will be assessed through Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) in the form
of Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA) as well as Public Examination. The following table shows
the details:
426 PHYSICS
Units, Dimensions and Vectors MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
1
Notes
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z describe the scope of physics, nature of its laws and applications of the
principles of physics in our life;
z identify the number of significant figures in measurements and give their
importance;
z distinguish between the fundamental and derived quantities and give their
SI units;
z write the dimensions of various physical quantities;
PHYSICS 1
MODULE - 1 Units, Dimensions and Vectors
2 PHYSICS
Units, Dimensions and Vectors MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Physical laws are typical conclusions based on repeated scientific experiments
and observations over many years and which have been accepted universally
within the scientific community. Physical laws are:
• True at least within their regime of validity.
• Universal. They appear to apply everywhere in the universe.
• Simple. They are typically expressed in terms of a single mathematical
equation. Notes
• Absolute. Nothing in the universe appears to affect them.
• Stable. Unchanged since discovered (although they may have some
approximations and/or exceptions).
• Omnipotent. Everything in the universe apparently must comply with them.
PHYSICS 3
MODULE - 1 Units, Dimensions and Vectors
4 PHYSICS
Units, Dimensions and Vectors MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
In Harappan Era, signs of systematic use of measurement are found in
abundance : the equally wide roads, bricks having dimensions in the ratio 4 : 2
: 1, Ivory scale in Lothal with smallest division of 1.70 mm, Hexahedral weights
of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500 units (1 unit = 20 g)
In Mauriyan Period, the following units of length were prevalent
8 Parmanu = 1 Rajahkan
Notes
8 Rajahkan = 1 Liksha
8 Liksha = 1 Yookamadhya
8 Yookamadhya = 1 Yavamadhya
8 Yavamadhya = 1 Angul
8 Angul = 1 Dhanurmushthi
In Mughal Period, Shershah and Akbar tried to re-establish uniformity of
weights and measures. Akbar introduced gaz of 41 digits for measuring length.
For measuring area of land, bigha was the unit. 1 bigha was 60 gaz × 60 gaz.
Units of mass and volume were also well obtained in Ayurveda.
The mile, yard and foot as units of length are still used for some purposes in India
as well in some other countries. However, in scientific work we always use SI
units.
As may be noted, the SI system is a metric system. It is quite easy to handle
because the smaller and larger units of the base units are always submultiples
or multiples of ten. These multiples or submultiples are given special names.
These are listed in Table 1.2.
PHYSICS 5
MODULE - 1 Units, Dimensions and Vectors
Just to get an idea of the masses and sizes of various objects in the universe, see
Table 1.3 and 1.4. Similarly, Table 1.5 gives you an idea of the time scales involved
in the universe.
Table 1.3 : Order of magni- Table 1.4 : Order of magnitude
tude of some masses of some lengths
Mass kg Length m
Electron 10–30 Radius of proton 10–15
Radius of atom 10–10
Proton 10–27
Radius of virus 10–7
Amino acid 10–25
Radius of giant amoeba 10–4
Hemoglobin 10–22
Radius of walnut 10–2
Flu virus 10–19
Height of human being 100
Giant amoeba 10–8
Height of highest
Raindrop 10–6 mountain 104
Ant 10–2 Radius of earth 107
Human being 102 Radius of sun 109
Saturn 5 rocket 106 Earth-sun distance 1011
Pyramid 10 10
Radius of solar system 1013
Earth 1024 Distance to nearest star 1016
Sun 1030 Radius of Milky Way
Milky Way galaxy 10 41 galaxy 1021
Universe 1055 Radius of visible universe 1026
6 PHYSICS
Units, Dimensions and Vectors MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Table 1.5 : Order of magnitude of some time intervals
Interval s
Time for light to cross nucleus 10–23
Period of visible light 10–15
Period of microwaves 10–10
Half-life of muon 10–6
Notes
Period of highest audible sound 10–4
Period of human heartbeat 100
Half-life of free neutron 103
Period of the Earth’s rotation (day) 105
Period of revolution of the Earth (year) 107
Lifetime of human beings 109
Half-life of plutonium-239 1012
Lifetime of a mountain range 1015
Age of the Earth 1017
Age of the universe 1018
PHYSICS 7
MODULE - 1 Units, Dimensions and Vectors
As of now, clock with an uncertainty of 5 parts in 1015 have been developed. This
means that if this clock runs for 1015 seconds, it will gain or lose less than 5
seconds. You can convert 1015 s to years and get the astonishing result that this
clock could run for 6 million years and lose or gain less than a second. This is not
all. Researches are being conducted today to improve upon this accuracy
constantly. Ultimately, we expect to have a clock which would run for 1018 second
before it could gain or lose a second. To give you an idea of this technological
achievement, if this clock were started at the time of the birth of the universe, an
event called the Big Bang, it would have lost or gained only two seconds till now.
8 PHYSICS
Units, Dimensions and Vectors MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
case. The experiment suggested that air has some other gas heavier than
nitrogen present in it. Later he discovered this gas – Argon, and got Nobel
Prize for this discovery.
Another example is the failed experiment of Michelson and Morley. Using
Michelson’s interferometer, they were expecting a shift of 0.4 fringe width in
the interference pattern obtained by the superposition of light waves travelling
Notes
in the direction of motion of the earth and those travelling in a transverse
direction. The instrument was hundred times more sensitive to detect the shift
than the expected shift. Thus they were expecting to measure the speed of
earth with respect to ether and conclusively prove that ether existed. But when
they detected no shift, the world of science entered into long discussions to
explain the negative results. This led to the concepts of length contraction,
time dilation etc and ultimately to the theory of relativity.
Several discoveries in nuclear physics became possible due to the new technique
of spectroscopy which enabled detection, with precision, of the traces of new
atoms formed in a reaction.
PHYSICS 9
MODULE - 1 Units, Dimensions and Vectors
10 PHYSICS
Units, Dimensions and Vectors MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Significant figures in addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
(i) Addition and subtraction – Suppose we have to add three quantities, 2.7
m, 3.68 m and 0.486 m. In these quantities, the first measurement is known
upto one decimal place only, hence the sum of these numbers will be definite
upto one decimal place only. Therefore, the correct sum of these numbers
should not be written as 6.848 m but 6.8 m.
Similarly, to find the sum of quantities like 2.65 × 103 cm and 2.63 × 102 cm, Notes
all quantities should be converted to the same power of 10. These quantities
will then be, 2.65 × 103 cm and .263 × 103 cm. Since, the first number is
known upto 2 decimal places, their sum will also be upto 2 decimal places.
Hence 2.65 × 103cm + .263 × 103 cm = 2.91 × 103 cm.
The same is done with subtraction. For example the result of subtracting
2.38 cm from 4.6 cm will be 2.2 cm, not 2.22 cm.
(ii) Multiplication and division – Suppose the length of a plate is measured
as 3.003 m and its width as 2.26 m. According to Mathematical Calculation,
the area of the plate will be 6.78678 m2. But, it is not correct in scientific
measurement. There are six significant figures in this result. But, the least
number of significant figures (in the width) are only 3. Hence, the
multiplication should also be writen upto 3 significant figures. Therefore,
the correct area would be 6.79 m2.
The same method is applied for division also. For example, dividing 248.57
by 56.9 gives 4.3685413. But, the result should be recorded upto 3
significant figures only as the least number of significant figures in the given
numbers is only 3. Hence, the result will be 4.37.
Similarly, if a body travels a distance of 1452 m in 142 seconds, its speed
1452
according to mathematical calculations will be m per second or
142
10.225352 m s–1, but in scientific measurements it should be 10.2 m s–1,
as there are only 3 significant figures in the number for time.
(iii) Value of constants used in Calculation
If the radius (r) of a circle is 3.35 cm, to calculate its area (πr2) the value
of π should be taken upto two places of decimal (i.e π = 3.14, not 3.1416).
Hence, the area of this circle πr2 = (3.14 × 3.35 × 3.35) cm2 = 35.2 cm2,
not 35.23865 cm2.
(iv) If a measured quantity is multiplied by a constant, all the digits in the
product are significant that are obtained by multiplication. For example, if
the mass of a ball is 32.59 g the mass of 10 similar balls will be 32.59 × 10
= 325.90 g. Note that there are five significant figures in the number.
PHYSICS 11
MODULE - 1 Units, Dimensions and Vectors
Energy/work joule J Nm
One of the advantages of the SI system of units is that they form a coherent set in
the sense that the product or division of the SI units gives a unit which is also the
SI unit of some other derived quantity. For example, product of the SI units of
force and length gives directly the SI unit of work, namely, newton-metre (Nm)
which has been given a special name joule. Some care should be exercised in
the order in which the units are written. For example, Nm should be written in
this order. If by mistake we write it as mN, it becomes millinewton, which is
something entirely different.
Remember that in physics, a quantity must be written with correct units.
Otherwise, it is meaningless and, therefore, of no significance.
Example 1.1 : Anand, Rina and Kaif were asked by their teacher to measure the
volume of water in a beaker.
Anand wrote : 200; Rina wrote : 200 mL; Kaif wrote : 200 Lm
Which one of these answers is correct?
Solution : The first one has no units. Therefore, we do not know what it means.
The third is also not correct because there is no unit like Lm. The second one is
the only correct answer. It denotes millilitre.
Note that the mass of a book, for example, can be expressed in kg or g. You
should not use gm for gram because the correct symbol is g and not gm.
12 PHYSICS
Units, Dimensions and Vectors MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Nomenclature and Symbols
(i) Symbols for units should not contain a full stop and should remain the
same in the plural. For example, the length of a pencil should be expressed
as 7cm and not 7cm. or 7cms.
(ii) Double prefixes should be avoided when single prefixes are available,
e.g., for nanosecond, we should write ns and not mμs; for pico farad we Notes
write pF and not μμf.
(iii) When a prefix is placed before the symbol of a unit, the combination of
prefix and symbol should be considered as one symbol, which can be
raised to a positive or a negative power without using brackets, e.g., μs–
1
, cm2, mA2.
μs–1 = (10–6s)–1 (and not 10–6s–1)
(iv) Do not write cm/s/s for cm s–2. Similarly 1 poise = 1 g s–1cm–1 and not 1
g/s/cm.
(v) When writing a unit in full in a sentence, the word should be spelt with
the letter in lower case and not capital, e.g., 6 hertz and not 6 Hertz.
(vi) For convenience in reading of large numbers, the digits should be written
in groups of three starting from the right but no comma should be used:
1 532; 1 568 320.
Now, it is time to check your progress. Solve the following questions. In case
you have any problem, check answers given at the end of the lesson.
PHYSICS 13
MODULE - 1 Units, Dimensions and Vectors
14 PHYSICS
Units, Dimensions and Vectors MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
(iv) Acceleration is change in velocity per unit time, i.e., length per unit time per
unit time. Its dimensionsal formula is LT–2.
(v) Force is mass multiplied by acceleration. Its dimensions are given by the
formula MLT–2.
Similar considerations enable us to write dimensions of other physical quantities.
Note that numbers associated with physical quantities have no significance in Notes
dimensional considerations. Thus if dimension of x is L, then dimension of 3x will
also be L.
Write down the dimensions of momentum, which is product of mass and velocity
and work which is product of force and displacement.
Remember that dimensions are not the same as the units. For example, speed
can be measured in m s–1 or kilometre per hour, but its dimensions are always
given by length divided by time, or simply LT–1.
The above applications are based on the principle that the dimensions of physical
quantities on the two sides of a relation/equation/formula must be the same. This
is called ‘the Principle of Homogeneity of Dimensions’.
PHYSICS 15
MODULE - 1 Units, Dimensions and Vectors
16 PHYSICS
Units, Dimensions and Vectors MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
2. Consider a particle moving in a circular orbit of radius r with velocity v and Notes
acceleration a towards the centre of the orbit. Using dimensional analysis,
show that a ∝ v2/r .
On the other hand, there are quantities which require both magnitude and direction
for their complete description. A simple example is velocity. The statement that
the velocity of a train is 100 km h–1 does not make much sense unless we also tell
the direction in which the train is moving. Force is another such quantity. We
must specify not only the magnitude of the force but also the direction in which
the force is applied. Such quantities are called vectors. A vector quantity has
both magnitude and direction.
Some examples of vector quantities which you come across in mechanics are:
displacement (Fig. 1.3), acceleration, momentum, angular momentum and torque
etc.
To get the answer, think if there is a direction associated with energy. If not, it is
a scalar.
PHYSICS 17
MODULE - 1 Units, Dimensions and Vectors
18 PHYSICS
Units, Dimensions and Vectors MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
From the above we can say that if we translate a vector parallel to itself, it remains
unchanged. This important result is used in addition of vectors. Let us sec how.
Suppose we wish to add vectors A and B. First redraw vector A [Fig. 1.6 (a)].
For this draw a line (say pq) parallel to vector A. The length of the line i.e. pq
should be equal to the magnitude of the vector. Next draw vector B such that its
tail coincides with the tip of vector A. For this, draw a line qr from the tip of A
(i.e., from the point q ) parallel to the direction of vector B. The sum of two
vectors then is the vector from the tail of A to the tip of B, i.e. the resultant will
be represented in magnitude and direction by line pr. You can now easily prove
that vector addition is commutative. That is, A + B = B + A, as shown in Fig.
1.6 (b). In Fig. 1.6(b) we observe that pqr is a triangle and its two sides pq and
qr respectively represent the vectors A and B in magnitude and direction, and the
third side pr, of the triangle represents the resultant vector with its direction from
p to r. This gives us a rule for finding the resultant of two vectors :
r
r A s
B B
B
+
+
A B
+A
A
A
p q p q
A A
(a) (b)
PHYSICS 19
MODULE - 1 Units, Dimensions and Vectors
)+C
The resultant of more than two vectors, say
+ C)
A, B and C, can be found in the same manner
(A + B
A + (B
as the sum of two vectors. First we obtain the
B
sum of A and B, and then add the resultant of
B
B
+
+C
Notes
A
the two vectors, (A + B), to C. Alternatively,
you could add B and C, and then add A to (B
+ C) (Fig. 1.7). In both cases you get the same A
vector. Thus, vector addition is associative.
Fig. 1.7 : Addition of three
That is, A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C. vectors in two different orders
If you add more than three vectors, you will
discover that the resultant vector is the vector from the tail of the first vector
to the tip of the last vector.
Many a time, the point of application of vectors is the same. In such situations, it
is more convenient to use parallelogram law of vector addition. Let us now learn
about it.
S A
R
B R
B B
A+
q
a q
P A Q T
20 PHYSICS
Units, Dimensions and Vectors MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
(PR)2 = (PT)2 + (RT)2
= (PQ + QT)2 + (RT)2
= (PQ)2 + (QT)2 + 2PQ.QT + (RT)2
= (PQ)2 + [(QT)2 + (RT)2] + 2PQ.QT (1.1)
= (PQ)2 + (QR)2 + 2PQ.QT
Notes
= (PQ)2 + (QR)2 + 2PQ.QR (QT / QR)
R2 = A2 + B2 + 2AB.cosθ
Therefore, the magnitude of R is
R = A 2 + B2 + 2AB.cos θ (1.2)
For the direction of the vector R, we observe that
RT RT Bsin θ
tanα = = PQ + QT = (1.3)
PT A + Bcos θ
So, the direction of the resultant can be expressed in terms of the angle it makes
with base vector.
Special Cases
Now, let us consider as to what would be the resultant of two vectors when they
are parallel?
To find answer to this question, note that the angle between the two parallel
vectors is zero and the resultant is equal to the sum of their magnitudes and in the
direction of these vectors.
Suppose that two vectors are perpendicular to each other. What would be the
magnitude of the resultant? In this case, θ = 90º and cos θ = 0.
Suppose further that their magnitudes are equal. What would be the direction of
the resultant?
Notice that tan α = B/A = 1. So what is α?
Also note that when θ = π, the vectors become anti-parallel. In this case α = 0.
The resultant vector will be along A or B, depending upon which of these vectors
has larger magnitude.
Example 1.4: A cart is being pulled by Ahmed north-ward with a force of
magnitude 70 N. Hamid is pulling the same cart in the south-west direction with
a force of magnitude 50 N. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resulting
force on the cart.
PHYSICS 21
MODULE - 1 Units, Dimensions and Vectors
N
50
S
Eqn. (1.2) :
Notes
Fig. 1.9: Resultant of forces
R= (70)2 + (50)2 + 2 × 70 × 50 × cos(135) inclined at an angle
= 49.5 N
The magnitude of R = 49.5 N.
The direction is given by Eqn. (1.3):
B sinθ 50 × sin (135) 50 × cos 45
tan α = A + B cosθ = 70 + 50 cos (135) = = 1.00
70 – 50 sin 45
Therefore, α = 45.0º (from the tables). Thus R makes an angle of 45º with 70 N
force. That is, R is in North-west direction as shown in Fig. 1.9.
22 PHYSICS
Units, Dimensions and Vectors MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
2. Two vectors A and B of magnitudes 10 units and 12 units are anti-parallel.
Determine A + B and A – B.
3. Two vectors A and B of magnitudes A = 30 units and B = 60 units respectively
are inclined to each other at angle of 60 degrees. Find the resultant vector.
PHYSICS 23
MODULE - 1 Units, Dimensions and Vectors
B
p
q
A
Notes
–C=B´A
(a) (b)
Fig.1.12 (a) : Vector product of Vectors; (b) Direction of the product vector C =A × B
is given by the right hand rule. If the right hand is held so that the curling fingers
point from A to B through the smaller angle between the two, then the thumb
strectched at right angles to fingers will point in the direction of C.
which is perpendicular to the plane of paper here. Then the vector product of
these vectors, written as A × B, is a vector, say C, whose magnitude is AB sinθ
and whose direction is perpendicular to the plane Ω. The direction of the vector
C can be found by right-hand rule (Fig. 1.12 b). Imagine the fingers of your
right hand curling from A to B along the smaller angle between them. Then the
direction of the thumb gives the direction of the product vector C. If you follow
this rule, you can easily see that direction of vector B × A is opposite to that of
the vector A × B. This means that the vector product is not commutative.
Since a cross is inserted between the two vectors to indicate their vector product,
the vector product is also called the cross product.
A familiar example of vector product is the angular momentum possessed by a
rotating body.
To check your progress, try the following questions.
24 PHYSICS
Units, Dimensions and Vectors MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
5. If vector A is along the x-axis and vector B is along the y-axis, what is the
direction of vector C = A × B? What happens to C if A is along the y-axis and
B is along the x-axis?
6. A and B are two mutually perpendicular vectors. Calculate (a) A . B and (b)
A × B.
y
Y
AY
Ay
A
q f
O x
Ax
AX
Fig. 1.13 : Resolution of vector A along two sets of coordinates (x, y) and (X, Y)
It must now be clear that the components of a vector are not fixed quantities;
they depend on the particular set of axes along which components are required.
Note also that the magnitude of vector A and its direction in terms of its
components are given by
PHYSICS 25
MODULE - 1 Units, Dimensions and Vectors
A = Ax î + Ay ĵ . (1.8)
Another vector B can similarly be written as
B = Bx î + By ĵ . (1.9)
The sum of these two vectors can now be written as
A . B = (Ax î + Ay ĵ ). (Bx î + By ĵ )
Example 1.4: On a coordinate system (showing all the four quadrants) show the
following vectors:
A = 4 î + 0 ĵ , B = 0 î + 5 ĵ , C = 4 î + 5 ĵ ,
D = 6 î – 4 ĵ .
26 PHYSICS
Units, Dimensions and Vectors MODULE - 1
y Motion, Force and Energy
Solution : The vectors are given in component
form. The factor multiplying î is the x component B
and the factor multiplying ĵ is the y component. C
All the vectors are shown on the coordinate grid
-x x
(Fig. 1.14).
A
D
The components of A are Ax = 4, Ay = 0. So, the
–4 Notes
−1 ⎛
Ay ⎞
magnitude of A = 4. Its direction is tan ⎜ A ⎟ in
⎝ x⎠ -y
accordance with Eqn. (1.7). This quantity is zero, Fig. 1.14
since Ay = 0. This makes it to be along the x-axis, as it is. Vector B has x-component
= 0, so it lies along the y-axis and its magnitude is 5.
Let us consider vector C. Here, Cx = 4 and Cy = 5. Therefore, the magnitude of
C is C = 42 + 52 = 41 . The angle that it makes with the x-axis is tan–1 (Cy /Cx) =
51.3 degrees. Similarly, the magnitude of D is D = 60 . Its direction is tan–1 (Dy/
Dx) = tan–1 (0.666) = –33.7º (in the fourth quadrant).
Example 1.5: Calculate the product C . D for the vectors given in Example 1.4.
Solution : The dot product of C with D can be found using Eqn. (1.12):
C . D = CxDx + CyDy = 4×6 + 5×(-4) = 24 – 20 = 4.
The cross product of two vectors can also be written in terms of the unit vectors.
For this we first need the cross product of unit vectors. For this remember that
the angle between the unit vectors is a right angle. Consider, for example, î × ĵ .
Sine of the angle between them is one. The magnitude of the product vector is
also 1. Its direction is perpendicular to the xy - plane containing î and ĵ , which
is the z-axis. By the right hand rule, we also find that this must be the positive z-
axis. And what is the unit vector in the positive z - direction. The unit vector k̂ .
Therefore,
î × ĵ = k̂ . (1.13)
Using similar arguments, we can show,
ĵ × k̂ = î , k̂ × î = ĵ , ĵ × î = – k̂ , k̂ × ĵ = – î , î × k̂ = – ĵ , (1.14)
and î × î = ĵ × ĵ = k̂ × k̂ = 0. (1.15)
Example 1.6: Calculate the cross product of vectors C and D given in Example
(1.4).
Solution : We have
C × D = (4 î + 5 ĵ ) × (6 î – 4 ĵ )
= 24 ( î × î ) –16 ( î × ĵ ) + 30 ( ĵ × î ) –20 ( ĵ × ĵ )
PHYSICS 27
MODULE - 1 Units, Dimensions and Vectors
Notes
28 PHYSICS
Units, Dimensions and Vectors MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
z The vector product of two vectors is a vector perpendicular to the plane
containing the two vectors.
z Vectors can be resolved into components along a specified set of coordinates
axes.
Notes
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. A unit used for measuring very large distances is called a light year. It is the
distance covered by light in one year. Express light year in metres. Take
speed of light as 3 × 108 m s–1.
2. Meteors are small pieces of rock which enter the earth’s atmosphere
occasionally at very high speeds. Because of friction caused by the
atmosphere, they become very hot and emit radiations for a very short time
before they get completely burnt. The streak of light that is seen as a result
is called a ‘shooting star’. The speed of a meteor is 51 km s–1 In comparison,
speed of sound in air at about 200C is 340 m s–1 Find the ratio of magnitudes
of the two speeds.
3. The distance covered by a particle in time t while starting with the initial
velocity u and moving with a uniform acceleration a is given by s = ut + (1/
2)at2. Check the correctness of the expression using dimensional analysis.
4. Newton’s law of gravitation states that the magnitude of force between two
particles of mass m1 and m2 separated by a distance r is given by
m1m 2
F=G
r2
where G is the universal constant of gravitation. Find the dimensions of G.
5. Hamida is pushing a table in a certain direction with a force of magnitude 10
N. At the same time her, classmate Lila is pushing the same table with a
force of magnitude 8 N in a direction making an angle of 60o to the direction
in which Hamida is pushing. Calculate the magnitude of the resultant force
on the table and its direction.
6. A physical quantity is obtained as a dot product of two vector quantities. Is
it a scalar or a vector? What is the nature of a physical quantity obtained as
cross product of two vectors?
7. John wants to pull a cart applying a force parallel to the ground. His friend
Ramu suggests that it would be easier to pull the cart by applying a force at
an angle of 30 degrees to the ground. Who is correct and why?
PHYSICS 29
MODULE - 1 Units, Dimensions and Vectors
1.1
4. (i) 5 (ii) 10 (iii) 4 (iv) 4 (v) 1
Notes 5. No, in both cases, the number of significant figures will be 4.
7. Mass of the sun = 2 × 1030 kg
Mass of a proton = 2 × 10–27 kg
2×1030 kg
( No of protons in the sun = -27
=1057 .
2×10 kg
1.2
1. Dimension of length = L
Dimension of time = T
Dimensions of g = LT–2
Let time period t be proportional to lα and gβ
Then, writing dimensions on both sides T = Lα (LT–2)β = Lα+β T–2β
Equating powers of L and T,
α + β = 0, 2β = –1 ⇒ β = –1/2 and α = 1/2
l
So, t α g .
30 PHYSICS
Units, Dimensions and Vectors MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
2. Dimension of a = LT–2
Dimension of v = LT–1
Dimension of r = L
Let a be proportional to vα and rβ
Then dimensionally,
LT–2 = (LT–1)α Lβ = Lα+β T–α
Notes
Equating powers of L and T,
α + β = 1, α = 2, ⇒ α = –1
So, α ∝ v2/r
3. Dimensions of mv = MLT–1
Dimensions of Ft = MLT–2 T1 = MLT–1
Dimensions of both the sides are the same, therefore, the equation is
dimensionally correct.
1.3
1. Suppose
–A
B
A+
B–A B
(a) (b)
B
A
A
–2A
A – 2B –2B
(c) (d) B–
2A B
PHYSICS 31
MODULE - 1 Units, Dimensions and Vectors
B = −12 units
←⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ →
A = 10 units
Notes A + B = 10 + (–12)
= –2 units
also
A = 10 units –B = + 12 units
A – B = 22 units
ts
uni
3.
60
B
B=
+
A
a
60º
A = 30 units
| A + B | = 77 units
1.4
1. If A and B are parallel, the angle θ between them is zero. So, their cross
product
A × B = AB sin θ = 0.
If they are antiparallel then the angle between them is 180o. Therefore,
A × B = AB sin θ = 0, because sin 180o = 0.
2. If magnitude of B is halved, but it remains in the same plane as before,
then the direction of the vector product C = A × B remains unchanged.
Its magnitude may change.
3. Since vectors A and B rotate without change in the plane containing them,
the direction of C = A × B will not change.
32 PHYSICS
Units, Dimensions and Vectors MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
4. Suppose initially the angle between A and B is between zero and 180o. Then
C = A × B will be directed upward perpendicular to the plane. After rotation
through arbitrary amounts, if the angle between them becomes > 180o, then
C will drop underneath but perpendicular to the plane.
5. If A is along x-axis and B is along y-axis, then they are both in the xy plane.
The vector product C = A × B will be along z-direction. If A is along y-
axis and B is along x-axis, then C is along the negative z-axis. Notes
6. (a) A . B = |A| |B| cos θ = 0 when θ = 90º
(b) A × B = |A| |B| sin θ = |A| |B| as sin θ = 1 at θ = 90º
1.5
1. When A makes an angle of 60o with the x-axis:
Ax = A cos 60 = 50 . ½ = 25 units
Ay = A sin 60 = 50.√3/2 = 50 . 0.866
= 43.3 units
When A makes an angle of 30o with the x-axis
Ax = 50 cos 30 = 50 . 0.866 = 43.3 units
Ay = 50 sin 30 = 50 . ½ = 25 units
The components in the two cases are obviously not the same.
2. The position of vectors on the coordinate grid is shown in Fig. 1.14.
Suppose A makes an angle θ with the x-axis, then
tan θ = – 4/3 ⇒ θ = tan–1(– 4/3)
= –53o 6′ or 306o 54′
after taking account of the quadrant in which the angle lies.
If B makes an angle φ with the x-axis, then
tan φ = 6/–2 = –3 ⇒ φ = tan–1(–3)
= 108o 24′
3. The dot product of A and B:
A . B = (3 î – 4 ĵ ).(–2 î +6 ĵ )
because î . ĵ = ĵ . î = 0, and î . î = ĵ . ĵ = 1
The cross product of A and B:
PHYSICS 33
MODULE - 1 Units, Dimensions and Vectors
= 18 ( î × ĵ ) + 8 ( ĵ × î ) = 18 k̂ – 8 k̂ = 10 k̂
on using Eqs.(1.14) and (1.15). So, the cross product is in the direction
of z-axis, since A and B lie in the xy plane.
Speed of meteor 51 3
2. = =
Speed of sound in air of 20º C 340 20 S
⎛1⎞
5. 15.84 N and α = tan–1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
8. A . B = 30
( ) ( )
A × B = 5 ˆi − 3 ˆj × 3 ˆi − 5 ˆj is a single vector C such that |C| = 16 units
along negative z-direction.
34 PHYSICS
Motion in a Straight Line MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
2
Notes
We see a number of things moving around us. Humans, animals, vehicles can be
seen moving on land. Fish, frogs and other aquatic animals move in water. Birds
and aeroplanes move in air. Though we do not feel it, the earth on which we live
also revolves around the sun as well as its own axis. It is, therefore, quite apparent
that we live in a world that is very much in constant motion. Therefore to
understand the physical world around us, the study of motion is essential. Motion
can be in a straight line(1D), in a plane(2D) or in space(3D). If the motion of the
object is only in one direction, it is said to be the motion in a straight line. For
example, motion of a car on a straight road, motion of a train on straight rails,
motion of a freely falling body, motion of a lift, and motion of an athlete running
on a straight track, etc.
In this lesson you will learn about motion in a straight line. In the following
lessons, you will study the laws of motion, motion in plane and other types of
motion. You will also learn the concept of Differentiation and Integration.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to,
z distinguish between distance and displacement, and speed and velocity;
z explain the terms instantaneous velocity, relative velocity and average
velocity;
z define acceleration and instantaneous acceleration;
z interpret position - time and velocity - time graphs for uniform as well as
non-uniform motion;
z derive equations of motion with constant acceleration;
z describe motion under gravity;
z solve numericals based on equations of motion; and
z understand the concept of differentiation and integration.
PHYSICS 35
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Straight Line
displacement
v=
time taken
x2 – x1 Δx
= t –t = (2.1)
2 1 Δt
If the motion is in the same direction along a straight line, the average speed is the
same as the magnitude of the average velocity. However, this is always not the
case (see example 2.2).
Following examples will help you in understanding the difference between average
speed and average velocity.
Example 2.1 : The position of an object moving along the x-axis is defined as x
= 20t2, where t is the time measured in seconds and position is expressed in
metres. Calculate the average velocity of the object over the time interval from 3s
to 4s.
36 PHYSICS
Motion in a Straight Line MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Solution : Given,
x = 20t2
Note that x and t are measured in metres and seconds. It means that the constant
of proportionality (20) has dimensions ms–2.
We know that the average velocity is given by the relation
x –x
v = 2 1 Notes
t2 – t1
At t1 = 3s,
x1 = 20 × (3)2
= 20 × 9 = 180 m
Similarly, for t2 = 4s
x2 = 20 × (4)2
= 20 × 16 = 320 m
Example 2.2 : A person runs on a 300m circular track and comes back to the
starting point in 200s. Calculate the average speed and average velocity.
Solution : Given,
Total length of the track = 300m.
Time taken to cover this length = 200s
Hence,
total distance travelled
average speed =
time taken
300
= ms–1 = 1.5 ms–1
200
As the person comes back to the same point, the displacement is zero. Therefore,
the average velocity is also zero.
Note that in the above example, the average speed is not equal to the magnitude
of the average velocity. Do you know the reason?
PHYSICS 37
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Straight Line
The rate of change of the relative position of an object with respect to the other
object is known as the relative velocity of that object with respect to the other.
Example 2.3 : A train A is moving on a straight track (or railway line) from
North to South with a speed of 60km h–1. Another train B is moving from South
to North with a speed of 70km h–1. What is the velocity of B relative to the train
A?
Solution : Considering the direction from South to North as positive, we have
velocity (vB) of train B = + 70km h–1
38 PHYSICS
Motion in a Straight Line MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
and, velocity (vA) of train A = – 60km h–1
Hence, the velocity of train B relative to train A
= vB – vA
= 70 – (– 60) = 130km h–1.
In the above example, you have seen that the relative velocity of one train with
respect to the other is equal to the sum of their respective velocities. This is why Notes
a train moving in a direction opposite to that of the train in which you are travelling
appears to be travelling very fast. But, if the other train were moving in the same
direction as your train, it would appear to be very slow.
2.1.3 Acceleration
While travelling in a bus or a car, you might have noticed that sometimes it speeds
up and sometimes it slows down. That is, its velocity changes with time. Just as
the velocity is defined as the time rate of change of displacement, the acceleration
is defined as time rate of change of velocity. Acceleration is a vector quantity
and its SI unit is ms–2. In one dimension, there is no need to use vector notation
for acceleration as explained in the case of velocity. The average acceleration of
an object is given by,
Final velocity - Initial velocity
Average acceleration ( a ) = Time taken for change in velocity
v2 – v1 Δv
a = t − t = Δt (2.3)
2 1
In one dimensional motion, when the acceleration is in the same direction as the
motion or velocity (normally taken to be in the positive direction), the acceleration
is positive. But the acceleration may be in the opposite direction of the motion
also. Then the acceleration is taken as negative and is often called deceleration or
retardation. So we can say that an increase in the rate of change of velocity is
acceleration, whereas the decrease in the rate of change of velocity is retardation.
Example 2.4 : The velocity of a car moving towards the East increases from 0 to
12ms–1 in 3.0 s. Calculate its average acceleration.
Solution : Given,
v1 = 0 m s–1
v2 = 12 m s–1
t = 3.0 s
(12.0m s –1 )
a=
3.0s
= 4.0 m s–2
PHYSICS 39
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Straight Line
30
curve. Generally, the time is represented
along x-axis whereas the position of the body 20
is represented along y-axis. 10
Let us plot the position - time graph for a
body at rest at a distance of 20m from the 1 2 3 4 5
origin. What will be its position after 1s, 2s, time(s)
3s, 4s and 5s? You will find that the graph is Fig. 2.1 : Position-time graph for
a straight line parallel to the time axis, as a body at rest
shown in Fig. 2.1
Position (x) in m 10 20 30 40 50
40 PHYSICS
Motion in a Straight Line MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
In order to plot this data, take time along x-axis assuming 1cm as 1s, and position
along y-axis with a scale of 1cm
to be equal to 10m. The position-
time graph will be as shown in 50
Fig. 2.2
40 B
The graph is a straight line x2
position(m)
inclined with the x-axis. A motion 30 Dx Notes
in which the velocity of the A q
20 x1 C
moving object is constant is
known as uniform motion. Its 10
Dt
position-time graph is a straight t1 t2
line inclined to the time axis.
1 2 3 4 5
In other words, we can say that time(s)
when a moving object covers Fig. 2.2 : Position-time graph for
equal distances in equal intervals uniform motion
of time, it is in uniform motion.
PHYSICS 41
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Straight Line
Hence, average velocity of object equals the slope of the straight line AB.
It shows that greater the value of the slope (Δx/Δt) of the straight line position -
time graph, more will be the average velocity. Notice that the slope is also equal
to the tangent of the angle that the straight line makes with a horizontal line, i.e.,
tan θ = Δx/Δt. Any two corresponding Δx and Δt intervals can be used to determine
the slope and thus the average velocity during that time internal.
Example 2.5 : The position - time graphs of two bodies A and B are shown in
Fig. 2.4. Which of these has greater velocity?
A
B
Position (m)
Time (s)
Fig. 2.4 : Position-time graph of bodies A and B
Solution : Body A has greater slope and hence greater velocity.
(b) Instantaneous velocity : As you have learnt, a body having uniform motion
along a straight line has the same velocity
at every instant. But in the case of non-
4
uniform motion, the position - time graph Dx 0
is a curved line, as shown in Fig.2.5. As a Dr0
Displacement (m)
3
result, the slope or the average velocity
varies, depending on the size of the time 2 Dx
intervals selected. The velocity of the
particle at any instant of time or at some 1
point of its path is called its instantaneous Dt
velocity. 0 1 2 3 4
Note that the average velocity over a time Time (s)
42 PHYSICS
Motion in a Straight Line MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
made smaller and smaller the average velocity approaches instantaneous velocity.
In the limit Δt → 0, the slope (Δx/Δt) of a line tangent to the curve at that point
gives the instantaneous velocity. However, for uniform motion, the average and
instantaneous velocities are the same.
Example 2.6 : The position - time graph for the motion of an object for 20
seconds is shown in Fig. 2.6. What distances and with what speeds does it travel
in time intervals (i) 0 s to 5 s, (ii) 5 s to 10 s, (iii) 10 s to 15 s and (iv) 15 s to 17.5 Notes
s? Calculate the average speed for this total journey.
C D
12
position(m)
4 B
A E F
O
2.5 5 10 15 17.5 20
time(s)
Solution :
(i) During 0 s to 5 s, distance travelled = 4 m
Distance 4m 4m
= (5 – 0) s = 5 s = 0.8 m s
–1
∴ speed =
Time
(12 – 4) m 8m
∴ speed = (10 – 5) s = 5 s = 1.6 m s
–1
Distance 0
∴speed = = =0
Time 5
12 m
∴ Speed = 2.5 s = 4.8 m s–1
Now we would like you to pause for a while and solve the following questions to
check your progress.
PHYSICS 43
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Straight Line
displacement (m)
(ii) Who stays farther from 500
the school?
400
(iii) Do they both reach
300
their respective houses
at the same time? 200
A C
distance
displacement
A C
B
time (t) B
time (t)
(a) (b)
44 PHYSICS
Motion in a Straight Line MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
uniform motion is a straight line parallel to the time axis, as shown in the Fig. 2.7.
40
B C
v2
velocity (m s )
–1
velocity (ms–1)
30 M
A v = 20ms–1 B v1 L
20 P
10
A t1 t2 Notes
t
1 t1 2 3 2 4 K N D
Time (s) time (s)
Fig. 2.7 : Velocity-time graph Fig. 2.8 : Velocity-time graph for motion
for uniform motion with three different stages of constant
acceleration
PHYSICS 45
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Straight Line
velocity(ms–1)
by the body from time t1 to t2 is given by s = a
v (t2 – t1) = the area under the curve between
v2 – v1= Dv
t1 and t2 Generalising this result for Fig. 2.10, v1
b
we find that the distance travelled by the body A c
between time t1 and t2 t1 t2 – t1= Dt t2
t
time(s)
s = area of trapezium KLMN
Fig. 2.10 : Velocity-time graph of
= (½) × (KL + MN) × KN non-uniformly accelerated motion
Δv v 2 − v1
average acceleration ( a ) = = .
Δt t2 − t1
If the time interval Δt is made smaller and smaller, the average acceleration becomes
instantaneous acceleration. Thus, instantaneous acceleration
Δv dv ab
a = Δtlimit
→ 0 Δt = dt = slope of the tangent at (t = t) = bc
A
Thus, the slope of the tangent at a point on
the velocity-time graph gives the acceleration A¢ B
6
at that instant. 5
veloeity (m s )
–1
4
Example 2.7 : The velocity-time graphs for
3
three different bodies A,B and C are shown in B¢ C
2
Fig. 2.11.
1
C1
(i) Which body has the maximum acceleration O
and how much? 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (s)
(ii) Calculate the distances travelled by these
Fig. 2.11 : Velocity-time graph of
bodies in first 3s.
uniformly accelerated motion of
three different bodies
46 PHYSICS
Motion in a Straight Line MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
(iii) Which of these three bodies covers the maximum distance at the end of their
journey?
(iv) What are the velocities at t = 2s?
Solution :
(i) As the slope of the v-t graph for body A is maximum, its acceleration is
maximum: Notes
Δv 6−0 6
a= = = = 2 ms–2.
Δt 3−0 3
(ii) The distance travelled by a body is equal to the area of the v-t graph.
∴ In first 3s,
the distance travelled by A = Area OA′L
= (½) × 6 × 3 = 9m.
the distance travelled by B = Area OB′L
= (½) × 3 × 3 = 4.5 m.
the distance travelled by C = (½) × 1 × 3 = 1.5 m.
(iii) At the end of the journey, the maximum distance is travelled by B.
= (½) × 6 × 6 = 18 m.
(iv) Since v-t graph for each body is a straight line, instantaneous acceleration is
equal to average acceleration.
At 2s, the velocity of A = 4 m s–1
the velocity of B = 2 m s–1
the velocity of C = 0.80 m s–1 (approx.)
v – t graph. 20
15
(i) Describe the motion in terms of
10
velocity, acceleration and
5
distance travelled
(ii) Find the average speed. 5 10 15 20 25
time(s)
PHYSICS 47
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Straight Line
v (ms–1)
accelerated motion or decelerated
motion? Explain.
t (s)
v (ms–1)
(ii) average speed of the particle for the
time interval 0 – 22 seconds. The
particle is moving in a straight line all 0
t (s)
the time. 5 15 22
-10
48 PHYSICS
Motion in a Straight Line MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Example 2.8 : A car starting from rest has an acceleration of 10ms–2. How fast
will it be going after 5s?
Solution : Given,
Initial velocity v0 = 0
Acceleration a = 10 ms–2
Time t = 5s Notes
Using first equation of motion
v = v0 + at
we find that for t = 5s, the velocity is given by
v = 0 + (10 ms–2) × (5s)
= 50 ms–1
1 C
= (CB + OA) × OC O
2 t
t (s)
x – x0 = ½ (v + v0) t
Fig. 2.12 : v–t graph for
Since v = v0 + at, we can write uniformly accelerated motion
x – x0 = ½ (v0 + at + v0)t
= v0t + ½ at2
or x = x0 + v0t + ½ at2 (2.7)
Example 2.9 : A car A is travelling on a straight road with a uniform speed of 60
km h–1. Car B is following it with uniform velocity of 70 km h–1. When the distance
between them is 2.5 km, the car B is given a decceleration of 20 km h–1. At what
distance and time will the car B catch up with car A?
Solution : Suppose that car B catches up with car A at a distance x after time t.
For car A, the distance travelled in t time, x = 60 × t.
PHYSICS 49
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Straight Line
v – v0
t=
a
Substituting this in above expression we get
⎛ v − v0 ⎞
x – x0 = ½ (v + v0) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ a ⎠
⇒ 2a (x – x0) = v2 – v0
50 PHYSICS
Motion in a Straight Line MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Example 2.10 : A motorcyclist moves along a straight road with a constant
acceleration of 4m s–2. If initially she was at a position of 5m and had a velocity of
3m s–1, calculate
(i) the position and velocity at time t = 2s, and
(ii) the position of the motorcyclist when its velocity is 5ms–1.
Solution : We are given
Notes
x0 = 5m, v0 = 3m s–1, a = 4 ms–2.
(i) Using Eqn. (2.7)
x = x0 + v0t + ½ at2
= 5 + 3 × 2 + ½ × 4 × (2)2 = 19m
From Eqn. (2.6)
v = v0 + at
= 3 + 4 × 2 = 11ms–1
Velocity, v = 11ms–1.
(ii) Using equation
v2 = v02 + 2a (x – x0)
(5)2 = (3)2 + 2 × 4 × (x – 5)
⇒ x = 7m
Hence position of the motor cyclist (x) = 7m.
PHYSICS 51
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Straight Line
Example 2.11 : A stone is dropped from a height of 50m and it falls freely.
Calculate the (i) distance travelled in 2 s, (ii) velocity of the stone when it reaches
the ground, and (iii) velocity at 3 s i.e., 3 s after the start.
Solution : Given
Height h = 50 m and Initial velocity v0 = 0
Consider, initial position (y0) to be zero and the origin at the starting point. Thus,
the y-axis (vertical axis) below it will be negative. Since acceleration is downward
in the negative y-direction, the value of a = – g = –9.8 ms–2.
(i) From Eqn. (2.7), we recall that
y = y0 + v0t + ½ at2
For the given data, we get
y = 0 + 0 – ½ gt2 = –½ × 9.8 × (2)2
= –19.6m.
The negative sign shows that the distance is below the starting point in downward
direction.
(ii) At the ground y = –50m,
Using equation (2.8),
v2 = v 02 + 2a (y – y0)
= 0 + 2 (–9.8) (–50 – 0)
v = 9.9 ms–1
(iii) Using v = v0 + at, at t = 3s, we get
∴ v = 0 + (–9.8) × 3
v = –29.4 ms–1
This shows that the velocity of the stone at t = 3 s is 29.4 m s–1 and it is in
downward direction.
52 PHYSICS
Motion in a Straight Line MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Note : It is important to mention here that in kinematic equations, we use certain
sign convention according to which quantities directed upwards and rightwards
are taken as positive and those downwards and leftward are taken as negative.
or y + δy = f(x + δx)
or δy = f(x + δx) – y
δy f ( x + δx) – f ( x)
or =
δx δx
PHYSICS 53
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Straight Line
(x + δx).
To find the instantaneous rate of change of ‘y’ with respect to ‘x’, we will have
Notes δy
to calculate the limit of as δx tends to zero (δx → 0) .
δx
δy f ( x +δx) – f ( x)
Lt Lt
i.e.
δx→0 δx = δx → 0 δx
Thus, the instantaneous rate of change of ‘y’ with respect to ‘x’ is given by
δy
Lt .
δx → 0 δx
This is called the differential coefficient of ‘y’ with respect to ‘x’
dy
and is denoted by .
dx
Integration
Integration is a mathematical process which is reverse of differentiation. In order
to understand this concept, let a constant force F act on a body moving it through
a distance S. Then, the work done by the force is calculated by the product
W = F . S.
But, if the force is variable, ordinary algebra does not give any method to find
the work done.
For example when a body is to be moved to a long distance up above the surface
of the earth, the force of gravity on the body goes on changing as the body
moves up. In such cases a method called integration is used to calculate the
work done.
The work done by a variable force can be calculated as (see for details 6.2 work
done by a variable force)
W = ΣF ( x ) Δx
For infinitesimally small values of Δx,
W = ∑ F ( x ) dx
lim Δx→0
This may be written as
W = ∫ F ( x ) dx
54 PHYSICS
Motion in a Straight Line MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
This expression is called integral of function F(x) with respect to x, where the
symbol ‘∫ ’ denotes integration.
x n+1 d n
(i) ∫ x n dx = (for n ≠1) (i) x = nx n−1
n +1 dx Notes
1 d 1
(ii) ∫ x −1dx = ∫ dx = log x (ii) ( log x ) =
x dx x
x1 d
(iii) ∫ dx = ∫ x0 dx = =x (iii) ( x) = 1
1 dx
d d
(iv) ∫ cxdx = c ∫ xdx (c is a constant) (iv) ( cu ) = c ( u )
dx dx
d du dv dw
(v) ∫ (u + v + w)dx = ∫ udx ± ∫ vdx ± ∫ wdx (v) (u ± v ± w) = ± ±
dx dx dx dx
(vi) ∫ e x dx = e x (vi)
d x
dx
( )
e = ex
A close look at the table shows that Integration and differentiation are converse
mathematical operations.
Take a pause and solve the following questions.
PHYSICS 55
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Straight Line
Notes
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
z The ratio of the displacement of an object to the time interval is known as
average velocity.
z The total distance travelled divided by the time taken is average speed.
z The rate of change of the relative position of an object with respect to another
object is known as the relative velocity of that object with respect to the other.
z The change in the velocity in unit time is called acceleration.
z The position-time graph for a body at rest is a straight line parallel to the time
axis.
z The position-time graph for a uniform motion is a straight line inclined to the
time axis.
z A body covering equal distance in equal intervals of time, however small, is
said to be in uniform motion.
z The velocity of a particle at any one instant of time or at any one point of its
path is called its instantaneous velocity.
z The slope of the position-time graph gives the average velocity.
z The velocity-time graph for a body moving with constant acceleration is a
straight line inclined to the time axis.
z The area under the velocity-time graph gives the displacement of the body.
z The average acceleration of the body can be computed by the slope of velocity-
time graph.
z The motion of a body can be described by following three equations :
(i) v = v0 + at
(ii) x = x0 + v0 t + ½ at2
56 PHYSICS
Motion in a Straight Line MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Distinguish between average speed and average velocity.
2. A car C moving with a speed of 65 km h–1 on a straight road is ahead of
motorcycle M moving with the speed of 80 km h–1 in the same direction.
What is the velocity of M relative to A? Notes
3. How long does a car take to travel 30m, if it accelerates from rest at a rate of
2.0 m s2?
4. A motorcyclist covers half of the distance between two places at a speed of
30 km h–1 and the second half at the speed of 60 kmh–1. Compute the average
speed of the motorcycle.
5. A duck, flying directly south for the winter, flies with a constant velocity of
20 km h–1 to a distance of 25 km. How long does it take for the duck to fly
this distance?
6. Bangalore is 1200km from New Delhi by air (straight line distance) and 1500
km by train. If it takes 2h by air and 20h by train, calculate the ratio of the
average speeds.
7. A car accelerates along a straight road from rest to 50 kmh–1 in 5.0 s. What is
the magnitude of its average acceleration?
8. A body with an initial velocity of 2.0 ms–1 is accelerated at 8.0 ms–2 for
3 seconds. (i) How far does the body travel during the period of acceleration?
(ii) How far would the body travel if it were initially at rest?
9. A ball is released from rest from the top of a cliff. Taking the top of the cliff as
the reference (zero) level and upwards as the positive direction, draw (i) the
displacement-time graph, (ii) distance-time graph (iii) velocity-time graph,
(iv) speed-time graph.
10. A ball thrown vertically upwards with a velocity v0 from the top of the cliff of
height h, falls to the beach below. Taking beach as the reference (zero) level,
upward as the positive direction, draw the motion graphs. i.e., the graphs
between (i) distance-time, (ii) velocity-time, (iii) displacement-time, (iv) speed
- time graphs.
11. A body is thrown vertically upward, with a velocity of 10m/s. What will be
the value of the velocity and acceleration of the body at the highest point?
12. Two objects of different masses, one of 10g and other of 100g are dropped
from the same height. Will they reach the ground at the same time? Explain
your answer.
13. What happens to the uniform motion of a body when it is given an acceleration
at right angle to its motion?
14. What does the slope of velocity-time graph at any instant represent?
PHYSICS 57
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Straight Line
2.1
1. Yes. When body returns to its initial postion its velocity is zero but speed is
non-zero.
Notes
2+2 4
2. Average speed = = × 20 = 8.89 km h–1, average velocity = 0
2 2 9
+
8 10
3. Yes, two cars moving with same velocity in the same direction, will have zero
relative velocity with respect to each other.
4. (a) 1 m s–1
(b) 2 m s–1
2.2
1. See Fig. 2.2.
2. (i) A, (ii) B covers more distance, (iii) B, (iv) A, (v) When they are 3km from
the starting point of B.
3. In the uniform motion.
4. (a) is wrong, because the distance covered cannot decrease with time or
become zero.
2.3
1. (i) (a) The body starts with a zero velocity.
(b) Motion of the body between start and 5th seconds is uniformly
accelerated. It has been represented by the line OA.
15 − 0
a= = 3 m s–2
5−0
(c) Motion of the body between 5th and 10th second is a uniform motion
15 − 15 0
(represented by AB). a = = = 0 m s–2.
15 − 5 10
(d) Motion between 15th and 25th second is uniformly retarded.
0 − 15
(represented by the line BC). a = = – 1.5 m s–2.
25 − 15
Distance covered Area of OA BC
(ii) (a) Average speed = =
time taken (25 − 0)
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
⎜ ×15 × 5) ⎟ + (15 × 10) + ⎜ × 15 × 10 ⎟ 525
= ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠= = 10.5 m s–1.
25 50
58 PHYSICS
Motion in a Straight Line MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
(b) Deccelerated Velocity decreases with time.
⎛ 20 × 15 ⎞ ⎛ 10 × 7 ⎞
(c) Total distance covered = ⎜ ⎟m + ⎜ ⎟ m = 185 m.
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 185 ⎞ −1
∴ average speed= ⎜ ⎟ ms = 8.4 ms–1.
⎝ 22 ⎠
⎛ 20 × 15 ⎞ ⎛ 10 × 7 ⎞ Notes
Total displacement = ⎜ ⎟m − ⎜ ⎟ m = 115 m.
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
115 −1
∴ average velocity = ms = 5.22 m s–1.
22
2.4
1. Using x = x0 + v0t + ½ at2
1
40 = × a × 16
2
⇒ a = 5 ms–2
Next using v2 = v 02 + 2a (x – x0)
v = 20 m s–1,
1
20 = 0 + × 5 × t2 ⇒ t = 2 2 s
2
2. Using Eqn.(2.9), x = 21m, and using Eqn.(2.6), v = 13 m s–1.
3. At maximum height v = 0, using Eqn. (2.10), v0 = 7 10 ms–1 = 22.6 m s–1.
The body will be in the air for the twice of the time it takes to reach the
maximum height.
4. The acceleration of the ball is greater while it is thrown.
PHYSICS 59
MODULE - 1 Laws of Motion
3
Notes
LAWS OF MOTION
In the previous lesson you learnt to describe the motion of an object in terms of
its displacement, velocity and acceleration. But an important question is : what
makes an object to move? Or what causes a ball rolling along the ground to come
to a stop? From our everyday experience we know that we need to push or pull
an object if we wish to change its position in a room. Similarly, a football has to
be kicked in order to send it over a large distance. A cricket ball has to be hit hard
by a batter to send it across the boundary for a six. You will agree that muscular
activity is involved in all these actions and its effect is quite visible.
There are, however, many situations where the cause behind an action is not
visible. For example, what makes rain drops to fall to the ground? What makes
the earth to go around the sun? In this lesson you will learn the basic laws of
motion and discover that force causes motion. The concept of force developed in
this lesson will be useful in different branches of physics. Newton showed that force
and motion are intimately connected. The laws of motion are fundamental and enable
us to understand everyday phenomena.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z explain the significance of inertia;
z state Newton’s laws of motion and illustrate them with examples;
z explain the law of conservation of momentum and illustrate it with examples;
z understand the concept of equilibrium of concurrent forces;
z define coefficient of friction and distinguish between static friction, kinetic
friction and rolling friction;
60 PHYSICS
Laws of Motion MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
z suggest different methods of reducing friction and highlight the role of friction
in every-day life; and
z analyse a given situation and apply Newton’s laws of motion using free body
diagrams.
PHYSICS 61
MODULE - 1 Laws of Motion
62 PHYSICS
Laws of Motion MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
In another thought experiment, he considered two inclined planes facing each
other, as shown in Fig. 3.2. The inclination of the plane PQ is same in all the
three cases, whereas the inclination of the plane RS in Fig. 3.2 (a) is more than
that in (b) and (c). The plane PQRS is very smooth and the ball is of marble.
When the ball is allowed to roll down the plane PQ, it rises to nearly the same
height on the face RS. As the inclination of the plane RS decreases, the balls
moves a longer distance to rise to the same height on the inclined plane (Fig. Notes
3.2b). When the plane RS becomes horizontal, the ball keeps moving to attain
the same height as on the plane PQ, i.e. on a horizontal plane, the ball will
keep moving if there is no friction between the plane and the ball.
Initial Position Final Position Final Position
P A B S P A B S
h h h
h Q R Q R
(a) (b)
P
Where is the final position?
h
Q R S
(c)
You may logically ask : Why is it necessary to apply a force continuously to the
trolley to keep it moving uniformly? We know that a forward force on the cart is
needed for balancing out the force of friction on the cart. That is, the force of
friction on the trolley can be overcome by continuously pushing or pulling it.
PHYSICS 63
MODULE - 1 Laws of Motion
As you know, the state of rest or motion of a body depends on its relative position
with respect to an observer. A person in a running car is at rest with respect to
Notes another person in the same car. But the same person is in motion with respect to
a person standing on the road. For this reason, it is necessary to record
measurements of changes in position, velocity, acceleration and force with respect
to a chosen frame of reference.
Now you may like to take a break and answer the following questions.
64 PHYSICS
Laws of Motion MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
In SI units, momentum is measured in kg ms–1. Momentum is a vector quantity.
The direction of momentum vector is the same as the direction of velocity vector.
Momentum of an object, therefore, can change on account of change in its
magnitude or direction or both. The following examples illustrate this point.
Example 3.1: Aman weights 60 kg and travels with velocity 1.0 m s–1 towards
Manoj who weights 40 kg, and is moving with 1.5 m s–1 towards Aman. Calculate
their momenta. Notes
Solution : For Aman
momentum = mass × velocity
= (60 kg) × (1.0 m s–1)
= 60 kg ms–1
For Manoj
momentum = 40 kg × (– 1.5 ms–1)
= – 60 kg ms–1
Note that the momenta of Aman and Manoj have the same magnitude but they
are in opposite directions.
Example 3.2: A 2 kg object is allowed to fall freely at t = 0 s. Callculate its
momentum at (a) t = 0, (b) t = 1 s and (c) t = 2 s during its free-fall.
Solution : (a) As velocity of the object at t = 0 s is zero, the initial momentum of
the object will also be zero.
(b) At t = 1s, the velocity of the object will be 9.8 ms–1 [use v = v0 + at] pointing
downward. So the momentum of the object will be
p1 = (2 kg) × (9.8 ms–1) = 19.6 kg ms–1 pointing downward.
(c) At t = 2 s, the velocity of the object will be 19.6 m s–1 pointing downward. So
the momentum of the object will now be
p2 = (2 kg) × (19.6 ms–1) = 39.2 kg ms–1 pointing downward.
Thus, we see that the momentum of a freely-falling body increases continuously
in magnitude and points in the same direction. Now think what causes the
momentum of a freely-falling body to change in magnitude?
Example 3.3: A rubber ball of mass 0.2 kg strikes a rigid wall with a speed of
10 ms–1 and rebounds along the original path with the same speed. Calculate the
change in momentum of the ball.
Solution : Here the momentum of the ball has the same magnitude before and
after the impact but there is a reversal in its direction. In each case the magnitude
of momentum is (0.2 kg)×(10 ms–1) i.e. 2 kg ms–1.
PHYSICS 65
MODULE - 1 Laws of Motion
Δp
or F =k
Δt
where k is constant of proportionality.
By expressing momentum as a product of mass and velocity, we can rewrite this
result as
⎛ Δv ⎞
F = k m⎜ ⎟
⎝ Δt ⎠
Δv
F =kma (as = a) (3.1)
Δt
The value of the constant k depends upon the units of m and a. If these units are
chosen such that when the magnitude of m = 1 unit and a = 1 unit, the magnitude
of F is also be 1 unit. Then, we can write
66 PHYSICS
Laws of Motion MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
1 = k . 1. 1
i.e., k =1
Using this result in Eqn. (3.1), we get
F =ma (3.2)
In SI units, m = 1 kg, a = 1 m s–2. Then magnitude of external force
Notes
F = 1 kg × 1 ms–2 = 1 kg ms–2
= 1 unit of force (3.3)
This unit of force (i.e., 1 kg m s–2) is called one newton.
Note that the second law of motion gives us a unit for measuring force. The SI
unit of force i.e., a newton may thus, be defined as the force which will produce
an acceleration of 1 ms–2 in a mass of 1 kg.
Example 3.3: A ball of mass 0.4 kg starts rolling on the ground at 20 ms–1 and
comes to a stop after 10s. Calculate the force which stops the ball, assuming it to
be constant in magnitude throughout.
Solution : Given m= 0.4 kg, initial velocity u = 20 ms–1, final velocity v = 0
m s–1 and t = 10s. So
m(v – u ) 0.4 kg ( − 20 ms –1 )
|F| = m|a| = =
t 10 s
⎛ 0 − 10 m s –1 ⎞
∴ –50 N = 10 kg ⎜ ⎟
⎝ t ⎠
PHYSICS 67
MODULE - 1 Laws of Motion
Notes
68 PHYSICS
Laws of Motion MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Here by ‘action’ and ‘reaction’ we mean force. F2
Thus, when a book placed on a table exerts
some force on the table, the latter, also exerts
a force of equal magnitude on the book in the
F1
upward direction, as shown in Fig. 3.3. Do
the forces F1 and F2 shown here cancel out?
It is important to note that F1 and F2 are acting
Notes
on different bodies and therefore, they do not Fig 3.3 : A book placed on a table
cancel out. exerts a force F1 (equal to its
weight mg) on the table,
The action and reaction in a given situation while the table exerts a
appear as a pair of forces. Any one of them force F2 on the book.
cannot exist without the other.
If one goes by the literal meaning of words, reaction always follows an action,
whereas action and reaction introduced in Newton’s third law exist simultaneously.
For this reason, it is better to state Newton’s third law as when two objects
interact, the force exerted by one object on the other is equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction to the force exerted by the latter object on the former.
Vectorially, if F12 is the force which object 1 experiences due to object 2 and F21
is the force which object 2 experiences due to object 1, then according to Newton’s
third law of motion, we can write
F12 = –F21 (3.4)
3.4.2 Impulse
The effect of force applied for a short duration is called impulse. Impulse is defined
as the product of force (F) and the time duration (Δt) for which the force is
applied.
i.e., Impulse = F.Δt
If the initial and final velocities of body acted upon by a force F are u and v
respectively then we can write
mv −mu
Impulse = . Δt
Δt
= mv – m u
= pf – pi
= Δp
That is, impulse is equal to change in linear momentum.
Impulse in a vector quantity and its SI unit is kgms–1 (or N s).
PHYSICS 69
MODULE - 1 Laws of Motion
70 PHYSICS
Laws of Motion MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Newton’s third law can also be used to arrive at the same result. Consider an
isolated system of two bodies A and B which interact with each other for time Δt.
If FAB and FBA are the forces which they exert on each other, then in accordance
with Newton’s third law
FAB = – FBA
Δp A Δp B
or =– Notes
Δt Δt
or ΔpA + ΔpB = 0 or
or Δptotal = 0
or ptotal = constant
That is, there is no change in the momentum of the system. In other words, the
momentum of the system is conserved.
Here, negative sign shows that v2 is in a direction opposite to v1. Since m << M,
the recoil velocity of the gun will be considerably smaller than the velocity of the
bullet.
b) Collision : In a collision, we may regard the colliding bodies as forming a
system. In the absence of any external force on the colliding bodies, such as the
force of friction, the system can be considered to be an isolated system. The
forces of interaction between the colliding bodies will not change the total
momentum of the colliding bodies.
Collision of the striker with a coin of carrom or collision between the billiared
balls may be quite instructive for the study of collision between elastic bodies.
Example 3.5 : Two trolleys, each of mass m, coupled together are moving with
initial velocity v. They collide with three identical stationary trolleys coupled
together and continue moving in the same direction. What will be the velocity of
the trolleys after the impact?
PHYSICS 71
MODULE - 1 Laws of Motion
72 PHYSICS
Laws of Motion MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
F1
F
F2 F (F1 + F2 )
F2
For equilibrium, the sum (F1 + F2 ) must be equal and opposite to F3 i.e.
F3 = −(F1 + F2 ) or F1 + F2 + F3 = 0
Or, the sum or resultant of two forces must be equal and opposite to the third
force or for equilibrium, their vector sum must be zero.
3.6 FRICTION
You may have noticed that when a batsman hits a ball to make it roll along the
ground, the ball does not continue to move forever. It comes to rest after travelling
some distance. Thus, the momentum of the ball, which was imparted to it during
initial push, tends to be zero. We know that some force acting on the ball is
responsible for this change in its momentum. Such a force, called the frictional
force, exists whenever bodies in contact tend to move with respect to each other.
It is the force of friction which has to be overcome when we push or pull a body
horizontally along the floor to change its position.
Force of friction is a contact force and always acts along the surfaces in a
direction opposite to that of the motion of the body. It is commonly known that
friction is caused by roughness of the surfaces in contact. For this reason deliberate
attempts are made to make the surfaces rough or smooth depending upon the
requirement.
Friction opposes the motion of objects, causes wear and tear and is responsible
for loss of mechanical energy. But then, it is only due to friction that we are able
to walk, drive vehicles and stop moving vehicles. Friction thus plays a dual role in
our lives. It is therefore said that friction is a necessary evil.
PHYSICS 73
MODULE - 1 Laws of Motion
fs
FN
fs (max)
Fext fk
smooth sliding
fs
Fext
mg (at rest)
Fig. 3.5 : Forces acting on the block Fig. 3.6 : Variation of force of friction
with external force
74 PHYSICS
Laws of Motion MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
wood on wood or rubber on concrete, etc. Values of μs and μk for a given pair
of materials depend on the roughness of surfaces, there cleanliness,
temperature, humidity etc.
FN
Notes
mg
PHYSICS 75
MODULE - 1 Laws of Motion
ACTIVITY 3.1
Place a heavy book or a pile of books on a table and try to push them with your
fingers. Next put three or more pencils below the books and now push them
again. In which case do you need less force? What do you conclude from your
experience?
76 PHYSICS
Laws of Motion MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Fluid Friction
Bodies moving on or through a liquid or gas also face friction. Shooting stars
(meteors) shine because of the heat generated by air-friction. Contrary to solid
friction, fluid friction depends upon the shape of the bodies. This is why fishes
have a special shape and fast moving aeroplanes and vehicles are also given a
fish-like shape, called a stream-line shape. Fluid friction increases rapidly with
increase in speed. If a car is run at a high speed, more fuel will have to be burnt Notes
to overcome the increased fluid (air) friction. Car manufactures advise us to
drive at a speed of 40-45 km h–1 for maximum efficiency.
F
⇒ a = m +m
1 2
PHYSICS 77
MODULE - 1 Laws of Motion
m1
T T m2 F m1 + m2 F
(m 1 + m 2 ) g
Notes
Fig 3.9: Free body diagram for two blocks connected by a string
or
F m I
T = GH m + m JK .F
1 Fig 3.10
1 2
Apply ΣF = ma once again to the free body diagram of m2 and see whether you
get the same expressions for a and T.
Example 3.9 : Two masses m1 and m2 (m1 > m2) are connected
at the two ends of a light inextensible string that passes over
a light frictionless fixed pulley. Find the acceleration of the
masses and the tension in the string connecting them when
the masses are released. T
T
m1
Solution : Let a be acceleration of mass m1 downward. The
acceleration of mass m2 will also be a only but upward. m2
FG m - m IJ
1 2 FG 2m m IJ
1 2
Fig 3.11
1H
a = m + m .g
2 K T = m +m a
1 2 H K
At this stage you can check the prediction of the results thus obtained for the
extreme values of the variables (i.e. m1 and m2). Either take m1 = m2 or m1 >> m2
and see whether a and T take values as expected.
78 PHYSICS
Laws of Motion MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Example 3.10 : A trolley of mass M = 10 kg is connected to a block of mass m =
2 kg with the help of massless inextensible string passing over a light frictionless
pulley as shown in Fig. 3.12 (a). The coefficient of
kinetic friction between the trolley and the surface (μk)
M
= 0.02. Find,
a) acceleration of the trolley, and (a) m
19.6 kg ms −2 − 1.96 kg ms −2
= 12 kg
= 1.47 ms–2
So a = 1.47 ms–2
From equation (2) T = mg – ma = m (g – a)
= 2 kg (9.8 ms–2 – 1.47 ms–2)
= 2 kg (8.33 ms–2)
So T = 16.66 N
PHYSICS 79
MODULE - 1 Laws of Motion
80 PHYSICS
Laws of Motion MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
at a distance of 4 cm from the axis of rotation. Calculate the net centrifugal
force acting on the particle.
4. What must the angular speed of the rotation of earth so that the centrifugal
force makes objects fly off its surface? Take g = 10 m s–2.
5. In the reference frame attached to a freely falling body of mass 2 kg, what is
the magnitude and direction of inertial force on the body?
Notes
PHYSICS 81
MODULE - 1 Laws of Motion
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Which of the following will always be in the direction of net external force
acting on the body?
(a) displacement (b) velocity
(c) acceleration (d) Change is momentum.
2. When a constant net external force acts on an object, which of the following
may not change?
(a) position (b) speed
(c) velocity (d) acceleration
Justify your answer with an example each.
3. A 0.5 kg ball is dropped from such a height that it takes 4s to reach the
ground. Calculate the change in momentum of the ball.
4. In which case will there be larger change in momentum of a 2 kg object:
(a) When 10 N force acts on it for 1s ?
(b) When 10 N force acts on it for 1m ?
Calculate change in momentum in each case.
5. A ball of mass 0.2 kg falls through air with an acceleration of 6 ms–2. Calculate
the air drag on the ball.
6. A load of mass 20 kg is lifted with the help of a rope at a constant acceleration.
The load covers a height of 5 m in 2 seconds. Calculate the tension in the
rope. In a rocket m changes with time. Write down the mathmatical form of
Newton’s law in this case and interpret it physically.
7. A ball of mass 0.1 kg moving at 10 m s–1 is deflected by a wall at the same
speed in the direction shown. What is the magnitude of the change in
momentum of the ball?
82 PHYSICS
Laws of Motion MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
45º
Wall
45º
Notes
Fig. 3.14
8. Find the average recoil force on a machine gun that is firing 150 bullets per
minute, each with a speed of 900 m s–1. Mass of each bullet is 12 g.
9. Explain why, when catching a fast moving ball, the hands are drawn back
while the ball is being brought to rest.
10. A constant force of magnitude 20 N acts on a body of mass 2 kg, initially at
rest, for 2 seconds. What will be the velocity of the body after
(a) 1 second from start? (b) 3 seconds from start?
11. How does a force acting on a block in the direction shown here keep the
block from sliding down the vertical wall?
30°
Wall
Fig 3.15
12. A 1.2 kg block is resting on a horizontal surface. The coefficient of static
friction between the block and the surface is 0.5. What will be the magnitude
and direction of the force of friction on the block when the magnitude of the
external force acting on the block in the horizontal direction is
(a) 0 N ? (b) 4.9 N ? (c) 9.8 N ?
13. For a block on a surface the maximum force of static friction is 10N. What
will be the force of friction on the block when a 5 N external force is applied
to it parallel to the surface on which it is resting?
14. What minimum force F is required to keep a 5 kg block at rest on an inclined
plane of inclination 300. The coefficient of static friction between the block
and the inclined plane is 0.25.
PHYSICS 83
MODULE - 1 Laws of Motion
3.1
1. No. The statement is true only for a body which was at rest before the
application of force.
2. Inertial mass
3. Yes, as in uniform circular motion.
4. A force can change motion. It can also deform bodies.
3.2
1. Object of smaller mass
2. (a) Yes (b) No.
3. Momentum of the falling ball increases because gravitational force acts on it
in the direction of its motion and hence velocity increases.
84 PHYSICS
Laws of Motion MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
4. In case (b) the change in momentum will be larger. It is the F Δt product that
⎛ ⎞ Δp
gives the change in momentum. ⎜⎝ as F ∝ Δt ⎟⎠
5. No. Though the speed is constant, the velocity of the object changes due to
change in direction. Hence its momentum will not be constant.
3.3 Notes
1. The jumper is thrown upwards by the force which the ground exerts on the
jumper. This force is the reaction to the force which the jumper exerts on the
ground.
2. (a) The force with which a man kicks a football is action and the force
which the football exerts on the man will be its reaction.
(b) The force with which earth pulls the moon is action and the force which
the moon exerts on the earth will be its reaction.
(c) If the force which the ball exerts on the wall is the action then the force
which the wall exerts on the ball will be its reaction.
3. No. The arguement is not correct. The almirah moves when the push by the
person exceeds the frictional force between the almirah and the floor. He
does not get pushed backward due to a large force of friction that he
experiences due to the floor. On a slippery surface, he will not be able to
push the almirah foward.
3.4
FN
fs
sin q
mg q q
mg mg cos q
Fig. 3.17
2. 40 N
3. (a) (5 × 9.8) N
(b) F = (5 × 2) N + (5 × 9.8) N = 59 N
PHYSICS 85
MODULE - 1 Laws of Motion
–ma ma
F mg
Fig. 3.18
(2) To the passenger sitting inside, a centrifugal force (–mv2/r) acts on the car.
The greater v is the larger r would be. To an observer standing on the road,
the car moving in a curve has a centripetal acceleration given by v2/r. Once
again, the greater is v, the larger will be r.
(3) The net centrifugal force on the particle is F = mω2r = (6 × 10–10 kg) × (2π ×
103 rad s–1)2 × (0.04 m) = 9.6 × 10–4 N.
(4) For an object to fly off centrifugal force (= centripetal force) should be just
mv 2
more than the weight of a body. If r is the radius of the earth then = mg
r
as v = rω
r 2ω 2
=g
r
or, angular speed ω = g/r
∴ Any angular speed more than g / r will make objects fly off.
86 PHYSICS
Laws of Motion MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
|v| = 40 m s–1
∴ ΔP = m (v – u) = (0.5 × 40) = 20 kg m s–2
4. When 10 N force acts for 1s.
5. 0.76 N
7. 250 N.
Notes
8. 27 N
10. (a) 10 m s–1 (b) 20 m s–1
12. (a) 0 N (b) 4.9 N (c) ~7.5 N
13. 5 N
14. 14.2 N
15. (a) 2 m s–2 (b) 6 N
16. 3 kg
18. 20 m
PHYSICS 87
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Plane
4
Notes
MOTION IN A PLANE
In the preceding two lessons you have studied the concepts related to motion in
a straight line. Can you describe the motion of objects moving in a plane, i.e, in
two dimensions, using the concepts discussed so far. To do so, we have to introduce
certain new concepts. An interesting example of motion in two dimensions is the
motion of a ball thrown at an angle to the horizontal. This motions is called a
projectile motion.
In this lesson you will learn to answer questions like : What should be the
position and speed of an aircraft so that food or medicine packets dropped from
it reach the people affected by floods or an earthquake? How should an athlete
throw a discuss or a javelin so that it covers the maximum horizontal distance?
How should roads be designed so that cars taking a turn around a curve do not
go off the road? What should be the speed of a satellite so that it moves in a
circular orbit around the earth? And so on.
Such situations arise in projectile motion and circular motion. Generally, circular
motion refers to motion in a horizontal circle. However, besides moving in a
horizontal circle, the body may also move in a vertical circle.We will introduce
the concepts of angular speed, centripetal acceleration, and centripetal force to
explain this kind of motion.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z explain projectile motion and circular motion and give their examples;
z explain the motion of a body in a vertical circle;
z derive expressions for the time of flight, range and maximum height of a
projectile;
z derive the equation of the trajectory of a projectile;
z derive expressions for velocity and acceleration of a particle in circular
motion; and
z define radial and tangential acceleration.
88 PHYSICS
Motion in a Plane MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
4.1 PROJECTILE MOTION
The first breakthrough in the description of projectile motion was made by Galileo.
He showed that the horizontal and vertical motions of a slow moving projectile
are mutually independent. This can be understood by doing the following activity.
Take two cricket balls. Project one of them horizontally from the top of building.
At the same time drop the other ball downward from the same height. What will Notes
you notice?
You will find that both the balls hit the ground at the same time. This shows that
the downward acceleration of a projectile is the same as that of a freely falling
body. Moreover, this takes place independent of its horizontal motion. Further,
measurement of time and distance will show that the horizontal velocity continues
unchanged and takes place independent of the vertical motion.
In other words, the two important properties of a projectile motion are :
(i) a constant horizontal velocity component
(ii) a constant vertically downward acceleration component.
The combination of these two motions results in the curved path of the projectile.
Refer to Fig. 4.1. Suppose a boy at A throws a ball with an initial horizontal
speed. According to Newton’s second law there will be no acceleration in the
horizontal direction unless a horizontally directed force acts on the ball. Ignoring
friction of air, the only force acting on the ball once it is free from the hand of the
boy is the force of gravity.
A B
vH
vv vA
vv vH
vv
C vH
D
vv
Hence the horizontal speed vH of the ball does not change. But as the ball moves
with this speed to the right, it also falls under the action of gravity as shown by
the vector’s vv representing the vertical component of the velocity. Note that v =
v 2H + v v2 and is tangential to the trajectory.
PHYSICS 89
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Plane
V0 hmax
q0
O x
90 PHYSICS
Motion in a Plane MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Horizontal motion vx = vox, since ax = 0 (4.3a)
x = voxt = v0 cos θ0t (4.3b)
Vertical motion vy = voy – g t = v0 sin θ0 – gt (4.3c)
y = voyt – ½g t2 = v0 sin θ0t – ½g t2 (4.3d)
The vertical position and velocity components are also related through Eqn. (2.10)
Notes
as
– g y = ½ (v 2y – v oy2 ) (4.3e)
You will note that the horizontal motion, given by Eqns. (4.3a and b), is motion
with constant velocity. And the vertical motion, given by Eqns. (4.3c and d), is
motion with constant (downward) acceleration. The vector sum of the two
respective components would give us the velocity and position of the projectile
at any instant of time.
Now, let us make use of these equations to know the maximum height, time of
flight and range of a projectile.
(a) Maximum height : As the projectile travels through air, it climbs upto some
maximum height (h) and then begins to come down. At the instant when the
projectile is at the maximum height, the vertical component of its velocity is
zero. This is the instant when the projectile stops to move upward and does not
yet begin to move downward. Thus, putting vy = 0 in Eqns. (4.3c and e), we get
0 = voy – g t,
Thus the time taken to rise taken to the maximum height is given by
v oy v 0 sin θ0
t = g = g (4.4)
At the maximum height h attained by the projectile, the vertical velocity is zero.
Therefore, applying v2 – u2 = 2 a s = 2 g h, we get the expression for maximum
height:
v 02 sin 2 θ0
h= (as v = 0 and u = v0 sin θ) (4.5)
2g
Note that in our calculation we have ignored the effects of air resistance. This is
a good approximation for a projectile with a fairly low velocity.
Using Eqn.(4.4) we can also determine the total time for which the projectile is in
the air. This is termed as the time of flight.
PHYSICS 91
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Plane
(2sin θ0 cos θ0 )
= v02
g
Since 2 sin θ cos θ = sin 2θ, the range R is given by
v 02 sin 2θ0
R= (4.7)
g
From Eqn. (4.7) you can see that the range of a projectile depends on
z its initial speed v0, and
z its direction given by θ0.
Now can you determine the angle at which a disc, a hammer or a javelin should
be thrown so that it covers maximum distance horizontally? In other words, let
us find out the angle for which the range would be maximum?
Clearly, R will be maximum for any given speed when sin 2θ0 = 1 or 2θ0 = 900.
Thus, for R to be maximum at a given speed v0, θ0 should be equal to 450.
Let us determine these quantities for a particular case.
Example 4.1 : In the centennial (on the occasion of its centenary) Olympics held
at Atlanta in 1996, the gold medallist hammer thrower threw the hammer to a
distance of 19.6m. Assuming this to be the maximum range, calculate the initial
speed with which the hammer was thrown. What was the maximum height of the
hammer? How long did it remain in the air? Ignore the height of the thrower’s
hand above the ground.
Solution : Since we can ignore the height of the thrower’s hand above the ground,
the launch point and the point of impact can be taken to be at the same height. We
take the origin of the coordinate axes at the launch point. Since the distance
92 PHYSICS
Motion in a Plane MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
covered by the hammer is the range, it is equal to the hammer’s range for θ0 =
450. Thus we have from Eqn.(4.7):
v 02
R= g
or v0 = Rg
Notes
It is given that R = 19.6 m. Putting g = 9.8 ms–2 we get
The maximum height and time of flight are given by Eqns. (4.5) and (4.6),
respectively. Putting the value of v0 and sin θ0 in Eqns. (4.5) and (4.6), we get
( )
2
2 ⎛1⎞
9.8 2 m 2 s –2 × ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
Maximum height, h = = 4.9 m
2 × 9.8ms –2
Time of flight, T =
(
2 × 9.8 2 m s –1 ) ×
1
=2s
–2
9.8 m s 2
Now that you have studied some concepts related to projectile motion and their
applications, you may like to check your understanding. Solve the following
problems.
PHYSICS 93
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Plane
Notes
3. An athelete set the record for the long jump with a jump of 8.90 m. Assume
his initial speed on take off to be 9.5 ms–1. How close did he come to the
maximum possible range in the absence of air resistance?
Take g = 9.78 ms–2.
g
y = (tan θ0) x – x2 (4.8 b)
2(v0 cos θ0 ) 2
94 PHYSICS
Motion in a Plane MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Eqns. (4.5) to (4.7) are often handy for solving problems of projectile motion.
For example, these equations are used to calculate the launch speed and the angle
of elevation required to hit a target at a known range. However, these equations
do not give us complete description of projectile motion, if distance covered are
very large. To get a complete description, we must include the rotation of the
earth also. This is beyond the scope of this course.
Now, let us summarise the important equations describing projectile motion Notes
launched from a point (x0, y0) with a velocity v0 at an angle of elevation, θ0.
Equations of Projectile Motion:
ax = 0 ay = – g (4.9 a)
vx = v0 cos θ0 vy = v0 sin θ – g t (4.9 b)
x = x0 + (v0 cos θ0)t y = y0 + (v0 sin θ) t –(½) g t2 (4.9 c)
Equation of trajectory:
g
y = y0 + (tan θ) (x – x0) – (x – x0)2 (4.9 d)
2(v0 cos θ0 ) 2
Note that these equations are more general than the ones discussed earlier. The
initial coordinates are left unspecified as (x0, y0) rather than being placed at (0,0).
Can you derive this general equation of the projectile trajectory? Do it before
proceeding further?
Thus far you have studied motion of objects in a plane, which can be placed in the
category of projectile motion. In projectile motion, the acceleration is constant
both in magnitude and direction. There is another kind of two-dimensional motion
in which acceleration is constant in magnitude but not in direction. This is uniform
circular motion. Generally, circular motion refers to motion in a horizontal circle.
However, motion in a vertical circle is also possible. You willl earn about them in
the following section
Evangelista Torricelli
(1608 – 1647)
Italian mathematician and a student of Galelio Galili, he
invented mercury barometer, investigated theory of
projectiles, improved telescope and invented a primitive
microscope. Disproved that nature abhors vacuum,
presented torricellis theorem.
PHYSICS 95
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Plane
r2 – r1 Δr
vav = = (4.10 a)
t2 – t1 Δt
Notes The motion of a gramophone record, a grinding wheel at constant speed, the
moving hands of an ordinary clock, a vehicle turning around a corner are examples
of circular motion. The movement of gears, pulleys and wheels also involve circular
motion. The simplest kind of circular motion is uniform circular motion. The
most familiar example of uniform circular motion are a point on a rotating fan
blade or a grinding wheel moving at constant speed.
One of the example of uniform circular motion is an artificial satellite in circular
orbit around the earth. We have been benefitted immensely by the INSAT series
of satellites and other artificial satellites. So let us now learn about uniform circular
motion.
= v
|v 2|
P2
t2 P2
|v1| = v
r2
D–r
t1 r1 P1 P1
r
(a) (b)
The vector Δr is shown in Fig. 4.4a. Now suppose you make the time interval Δt
smaller and smaller so that it approaches zero. What happens to Δr? In particular,
what is the direction of Δr? It approaches the tangent to the circle at point P1 as
Δt tends to zero. Mathematically, we define the instantaneous velocity at point P1
as
limit Δr dr
v = Δt → 0 =
Δt dt
96 PHYSICS
Motion in a Plane MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Thus, in uniform circular motion, the velocity vector changes continuously. Can
you say why? This is because the direction of velocity is not constant. It goes on
changing continuously as the particle travels around the circle (Fig. 4.4b). Because
of this change in velocity, uniform circular motion is accelerated motion. The
acceleration of a particle in uniform circular motion is termed as centripetal
acceleration. Let us learn about it in some detail.
Centripetal acceleration : Consider a particle of mass m moving with a uniform Notes
speed v in a circle. Suppose at any instant its position is at A and its motion is
directed along AX. After a small time Δt, the particle reaches B and its velocity is
represented by the tangent at B directed along BY.
Let r and r′′ be the position vectors and v and v′ ; the velocities of the particle at
A and B respectively as shown in Fig. 4.5 (a). The change in velocity Δv is obtained
using the triangle law of vectors. As the path of the particle is circular and velocity
is along its tangent, v is perpendicular to r and v′ is perpendicular to Δr. As the
⎛ Δv ⎞
average acceleration ⎜ a = ⎟ is along Δv, it (i.e., the average acceleration) is
⎝ Δt ⎠
perpendicular to Δr.
Let the angle between the position vectors r and r′′ be Δθ. Then the angle between
velocity vectors v and v′ will also be Δθ as the velocity vectors are always
perpendicular to the position vectors.
To determine the change in velocity Δv due to the change in direction, consider a
point O outside the circle. Draw a line OP parallel to and equal to AX (or v) and
a line OQ parallel to and equal to BY (or v′). As |v| = |v′ |, OP = OQ. Join PQ. You
get a triangle OPQ (Fig. 4.5b)
X
v
Y
B v¢
A P
r¢
r Dq v
Dv
C Dq
O Q
v¢
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.5
Now in triangle OPQ, sides OP and OQ represent velocity vectors v and v′′ at A
and B respectively. Hence, their difference is represented by the side PQ in
PHYSICS 97
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Plane
ACTIVITY 4.1
Take a small piece of stone and tie it to one end of a string. Hold the other end
with your fingers and then try to whirl the stone in a horizontal or vertical circle.
Start with a small speed of rotation and increase it gradually. What happens when
the speed of rotation is low? Do you feel any pull on your fingers when the stone
98 PHYSICS
Motion in a Plane MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
is whirling. What happens to the stone when you leave the end of the string you
were holding? How do you explain this?
ACTIVITY 4.2
Take an aluminium channel of length one metre and bend it in the form shown in Notes
the diagram with a circular loop in the middle. Take help of some technical preson
if required.
Fig. 4.6: The ball will loop if it starts rolling from a point high enough on the incline
Roll down a glass marble from different heights of the channel on the right hand
side, and see whether the marble is able to loop the loop in each case or does it
need some minimum height (hence velocity) below which the marble will not be
able to complete the loop and fall down. How do you explain it?
woler
mercury
Action of a
centrifuge
Fig. 4.7: When mercury and water are rotated in a dish, the water stays inside.
Centripetal force, like gravitational force, is greater for the more dense substance.
PHYSICS 99
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Plane
Mud
Notes
(iii) Planetary motion : The Earth and the other planets revolving round the sun
get necessary centripetal force from the gravitational force between them
and the sun.
2πr 2π × 15 m
speed of the capsule, v = = (60/24) s = 38 ms–1
T
100 PHYSICS
Motion in a Plane MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Q
V2
T2
ME
O
T1
V1
Notes
F
mS
Fig. 4.9
mv12
T1 − mg =
r
mv12
or T1 = + mg
r
Note that at P, the force (T1 – mg) acts along PO and provides the centripetal
force.
Similarly at Q,
mv22
T2 + mg =
r
mv22
or T2 = − mg
r
For the body to move along the circle without any slaking of the string,
T2 ≥ 0
i.e. the minimum value of the tension should be zero at Q.
mv22
When, T2 = 0, mg =
r
PHYSICS 101
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Plane
or w1 = 5 g r
which shows that the angular velocity is also changing as the body moves in
a vertical circle.
102 PHYSICS
Motion in a Plane MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
What is the direction and magnitude of this force? This is what you will learn in
this section. Then we will apply Newton’s laws of motion to uniform circular
motion. This helps us to explain why roads are banked, or why pilots feel pressed
to their seats when they fly aircrafts in vertical loops.
Let us first determine the force acting on a particle that keeps it in uniform circular
motion. Consider a particle moving with constant speed v in a circle of radius r.
From Newton’s second law, the net external force acting on a particle is related Notes
to its acceleration by
mv 2 mv 2
F = − r̂ , |F| = (4.19)
r r
This net external force directed towards the centre of the circle with magnitude
given by Eqn. (4.19) is called centripetal force. An important thing to understand
and remember is that the term ‘centripetal force’ does not refer to a type of
force of interaction like the force of gravitation or electrical force. This term
only tells us that the net force of a certain magnitude acting on a particle in
uniform circular motion is directed towards the centre. It does not tell us how
this force is provided.
Thus, the force may be provided by the gravitational attraction between two
bodies. For example, in the motion of a planet around the sun, the centripetal
force is provided by the gravitational force between the two. Similarly, the
centripetal force for a car travelling around a bend is provided by the force of
friction between the road and the car’s tyres and/or by the horizontal component
of normal reaction of banked road. You will understand these ideas better when
we apply them in certain concrete situations.
PHYSICS 103
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Plane
FN FN
sin q
X q O
Fr mg FN sin q
mg
Let us now analyse the free body diagram for the car to obtain an expression for
the angle of banking, θ, which is adjusted for the sharpness of the curve and the
maximum allowed speed.
Consider the case when there is no frictional force acting between the car tyres
and the road. The forces acting on the car are the car’s weight mg and FN, the
force of normal reaction. The centripetal force is provided by the horizontal
component of FN. Thus, resolving the force FN into its horizontal and vertical
components, we can write
m v2
FN sin θ = (4.20a)
r
Since there is no vertical acceleration, the vertical component of FN is equal to
the car’s weight:
FN cos θ = m g (4.20b)
We have two equations with two unknowns, i.e., FN and θ. To determine θ, we
eliminate FN. Dividing Eqn. (4.20 a) by Eqn. (4.20 b), we get
m v2 / r v2
tan θ = m g = r g
v2
or θ = tan –1
(4.21)
rg
104 PHYSICS
Motion in a Plane MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
How do we interpret Eqn. (4.21) for limits on v and choice of θ? Firstly, Eqn.(4.21)
tells us that the angle of banking is independent of the mass of the vehicle. So
even large trucks and other heavy vehicles can ply on banked roads.
Secondly, θ should be greater for high speeds and for sharp curves (i.e., for lower
values of r). For a given θ, if the speed is more than v, it will tend to move
towards the outer edge of the curved road. So a vehicle driver must drive within
prescribed speed limits on curves. Otherwise, the will be pushed off the road. Notes
Hence, there may be accidents.
Usually, due to frictional forces, there is a range of speeds on either side of v.
Vehicles can maintain a stable circular path around curves, if their speed remains
within this range. To get a feel of actual numbers, consider a curved path of
radius 300 m. Let the typical speed of a vehicle be 50 ms–1. What should the angle
of banking be? You may like to quickly use Eqn.(4.21) and calculate θ.
(50 ms –1 ) 2
θ = tan –1
(300 m) (9.8 ms –2 )
= tan–1 (0.017) = 10
mg
Fig. 4.11: (a) Aircrafts in vertical loops, (b) Free-body diagram for the pilot
at the lowest point.
The forces acting on him are mg and the normal force N exerted by the seat. The
net vertically upward force is N – mg and this provides the centripetal acceleration:
PHYSICS 105
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Plane
So the pilots feel as though force of gravity has been magnified by a factor of 3.7.
If this force exceeds set limits, pilots may even black out for a while and it could
be dangerous for them and for the aircraft.
2. Calculate the maximum speed of a car which makes a turn of radius 100 m
on a horizontal road. The coefficient of friction between the tyres and the
road is 0.90. Take g = 10 ms–2.
3. An interesting act performed at variety shows is to swing a bucket of water
in a vertical circle such that water does not spill out while the bucket is
inverted at the top of the circle. For this trick to be performed sucessfully,
the speed of the bucket must be larger than a certain minimum value. Derive
an expression for the minimum speed of the bucket at the top of the circle in
terms of its radius R. Calculate the speed for R = 1.0 m.
106 PHYSICS
Motion in a Plane MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
vx = v0 cos θ vy = v0 sin θ –g t
x = x0 + (v0 cos θ) t y = y0 + (v0 sin θ) –½ –g t2
v 02 sin 2θ
z Height h = g
2v 0 sin θ
z Time of flight T = g
Notes
2
v sin 2θ
0
z Range of the projectile R =
g
g
z Equation of the Trajectory of a projectile y = (tan θ0) x – x2
2(v0 cos θ0 ) 2
z Circular motion is uniform when the speed of the particle is constant. A
particle undergoing uniform circular motion in a circle of radius r at constant
speed v has a centripetal acceleration given by
v2
ar = – r̂
r
where r̂ is the unit vector directed from the centre of the circle to the particle.
The speed v of the particle is related to its angular speed ω by v = r ω.
z The centripetal force acting on the particle is given by
m v2
F = m ar = = m r ω2
r r̂
z When a body moves in a vertical circle, its angular velocity cannot remain
constant.
z The minimum velocities at the highest and lowest points of a vetical circle
are gr and 5gr respectively
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Why does a cyclist bend inward while taking a turn on a circular path?
2. Explain why the outer rail is raised with respect to the inner rail on the curved
portion of a railway track?
3. If a particle is having circular motion with constant speed, will its acceleration
also be constant?
4. A stone is thrown from the window of a bus moving on horizontal road.
What path will the stone follow while reaching the ground; as seen by a
observer standing on the road?
PHYSICS 107
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Plane
r
m
45° 45°
R M
4.1
(1) (a), (b), (d)
108 PHYSICS
Motion in a Plane MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
(2) (a) Yes (b) Yes (c) The ball with the maximum range.
(3) Maximum Range
v 02 (9.5 ms –1 ) 2
g
= 9.78 ms –2 = 9.23 m
4.3
(1) This is similar to the case of banking of roads. If the aircraft banks, there is a
component of the force L exerted by the air along the radius of the circle to
provide the centripetal acceleration. Fig. 4.15 shows the free body diagram.
The radius of curvature is
2
v2 ⎛ 100 ms –1 ⎞
R = g tan θ = ⎜ 10 ms –2 × tan 30o ⎟ = 10 3 m = 17.3 m
0 ⎝ ⎠
L
L cos q
q
30º
q L sin q
mg
Fig. 4.15
PHYSICS 109
MODULE - 1 Motion in a Plane
x mg
–ma
ma
F a
mg
This is the minimum value of the bucket’s speed at the top of the vertical
circle. For R = 1.0 m and taking g = 10 ms–2 we get
v = 10 m s–1 = 3.2 ms–1
7. 900 3 m
110 PHYSICS
Motion in a Plane MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
8. 1.05 × 10–3 ms–1
9. 77.1 m
vy = 250 ms–1
Vertical height = 500 m Notes
Horizontal range = 3125 m
11. t = 20 s, 999.9 m
mgr
12. v =
m
13. 125 N
PHYSICS 111
MODULE - 1 Gravitation
5
Notes
GRAVITATION
Have you ever thought why a ball thrown upward always comes back to the
ground? Or a coin tossed in air falls back on the ground. Since times immemorial,
human beings have wondered about this phenomenon. The answer was provided
in the 17th century by Sir Isaac Newton. He proposed that the gravitational force
is responsible for bodies being attracted to the earth. He also said that it is the
same force which keeps the moon in its orbit around the earth and planets bound
to the Sun. It is a universal force, that is, it is present everywhere in the universe.
In fact, it is this force that keeps the whole universe together.
In this lesson you will learn Newton’s law of gravitation. We shall also study the
acceleration caused in objects due to the pull of the earth. This acceleration,
called acceleration due to gravity, is not constant on the earth. You will learn the
factors due to which it varies. You will also learn about gravitational potential
and potential energy. You will also study Kepler’s laws of planetary motion and
orbits of artificial satellites of various kinds in this lesson. Finally, we shall recount
some of the important programmes and achievements of India in the field of
space research.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z state the law of gravitation;
z analyse the variation in the value of the acceleration due to gravity with
height, depth and latitude;
z distinguish between gravitaitonal potential and gravitational potential energy;
z identify the force responsible for planetary motion and state Kepler’s laws
of planetary motion;
112 PHYSICS
Gravitation MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
z calculate the orbital velocity and the escape velocity;
z explain how an artificial satellite is launched;
z distinguish between polar and equatorial satellites;
z state conditions for a satellite to be a geostationary satellite;
z calculate the height of a geostationary satellite and list their applications;
and
Notes
z state the achievements of India in the field of satellite technology.
m1m2
or F =G r2 (5.1)
PHYSICS 113
MODULE - 1 Gravitation
114 PHYSICS
Gravitation MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Example 5.1 : Kepler’s third law states (we shall discuss this in greater details
later) that if r is the mean distance of a planet from the Sun, and T is its orbital
period, then r 3 / T 2 = const. Show that the force acting on a planet is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance.
Solution : Assume for simplicity that the orbit of a planet is circular. (In reality,
the orbits are nearly circular.) Then the centripetal force acting on the planet is
Notes
mv 2
F=
r
2πr
where v is the orbital velocity. Since v = rω = , where T is the period, we can
T
rewrite above expression as
2
⎛ 2πr ⎞
F = m ⎜⎝ ⎟ r
T ⎠
4π2 mr
or F=
T2
1 4π 2 m
or F∝ (Q is constant for a planet)
r2 K
Before proceedins further, it is better that you check your progress.
PHYSICS 115
MODULE - 1 Gravitation
mM
F =G (5.6)
R2
where M is the mass of the earth and R is its radius. From Eqns. (5.5) and (5.6),
we get
mM
mg = G
R2
M
or g =G (5.7)
R2
Remember that the force due to gravity on an object is directed towards the
center of the earth. It is this direction that we call vertical. Fig. 5.3 shows
vertical directions at different places on the earth. The direction perpendicular to
the vertical is called the horizontal direction.
Once we know the mass and the radius of the earth, or of any other celestial body
such as a planet, the value of g at its surface can be calculated using Eqn. (5.7).
On the surface of the earth, the value of g is taken as 9.8 ms–2.
116 PHYSICS
Gravitation MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Given the mass and the radius of a satellite or B
a planet, we can use Eqn. (5.7) to find the
Ver
acceleration due to the gravitational attraction
tica
of that satellite or planet.
l fo
rB
Before proceeding further, let us look at Eqn. A
(5.7) again. The acceleration due to gravity Vertical for A
rC
produced in a body is independent of its mass. l fo Notes
ca
This means that a heavy ball and a light ball erti
C V
will fall with the same velocity. If we drop
these balls from a certain height at the same
Fig. 5.3 : The vertical direction at
time, both would reach the ground any place is the direction towards
simultaneously. the centre of earth at that point
ACTIVITY 5.1
Take a piece of paper and a small pebble. Drop them simultaneously from a
certain height. Observe the path followed by the two bodies and note the times at
which they touch the ground. Then take two pebbles, one heavier than the other.
Release them simultaneously from a height and observe the time at which they
touch the ground.
Under the influence of gravity, a body falls vertically downwards towards the
earth. For small heights above the surface of the earth, the acceleration due to
gravity does not change much. Therefore, the equations of motion for initial and
final velocities and the distance covered in time t are given by
PHYSICS 117
MODULE - 1 Gravitation
118 PHYSICS
Gravitation MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
to calculate the forces between individual particles a body is made of and then
finding the resultant of all these forces.
You should remember that G and g represent different physical quantities. G is
the universal constant of gravitation which remains the same everywhere, while
g is acceleration due to gravity, which may change from place to place, as we
shall see in the next section.
Notes
You may like to answer a few questions to check your progress.
GM
gh =
( R + h) 2
GM
= 2
⎛ h⎞
R ⎜1 + ⎟
2
⎝ R⎠
PHYSICS 119
MODULE - 1 Gravitation
where g = GM/R2 is the value of acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the
earth. Therefore,
Notes 2 2
g ⎛ h⎞ 2h ⎛ h⎞
+
g h = ⎜⎝ R ⎟⎠ = 1 + R + ⎜⎝ R ⎟⎠
1
Since (h/R) is a small quantity, (h/R)2 will be a still smaller quantity. So it can be
neglected in comparison to (h/R). Thus
g
gh = (5.10)
⎛ 2h ⎞
⎜⎝1 + ⎟⎠
R
120 PHYSICS
Gravitation MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
mass of the sphere of radius (r – d). The mass M′ of the sphere of radius (r – d)
is
4π
M′ = ρ (R – d)3 (5.10)
3
–2
9.8 ms
g
2.45 ms–2
O R 2R r
Fig. 5.5 : Variation of g with distance from the centre of the earth
(R − d ) ⎛ d⎞
gd = g = g ⎜⎝1 − ⎟⎠ , 0 ≤ d ≤ R
R R
(5.12)
On the basis of Eqns. (5.9) and (5.12), we can conclude that g decreases with
both height as well as depth.
PHYSICS 121
MODULE - 1 Gravitation
63
45
km
3490
Notes Core km 24
1.93 × 10 kg
Mantle
24
4.01 × 10 kg
25km
CRUST
22
3.94 × 10 kg
Fig. 5.6 :Structure of the earth (not to scale). Three prominent layers of the
earth are shown along with their estimated masses.
Refer to Fig. 5.6 You will note that most of the mass of the earth is
concentrated in its core. The top surface layer is very light. For very small
depths, there is hardly any decrease in the mass to be taken into account for
calculating g, while there is a decrease in the radius. So, the value of g
increases up to a certain depth and then starts decreasing. It means that
assumption about earth being a uniform sphere is not correct.
122 PHYSICS
Gravitation MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
The mass of the earth = 5.97 × 1024 kg
Using Eqn. (5.7), we get
g at the poles = [6.67 × 10–11 × 5.97 × 1024 / (6.357 × 106)2] ms–2
= 9.853 ms–2
Example 5.4 : Now let us calculate the value of g at λ = 60º, where radius of
Notes
earth is 6371 km.
Solution : The period of rotation of the earth, T = 24 hours = (24 × 60 × 60) s
∴ frequency of the earth’s rotation = 1/T
angular frequency of the earth ω = 2π/T = 2π/(24 × 60 × 60)
= 7.27 × 10–5
∴Rω2 cos λ = 6.371 × 106 × (7.27 × 10-5)2 × 0.5 = 0.017 ms–2
Since g0 = g – Rω2 cos λ, we can write
gλ (at latitude 60 degrees) = 9.853 – 0.017 = 9.836 ms–2
PHYSICS 123
MODULE - 1 Gravitation
dU = –F.dr
In case of gravitational force between two masses M and m separated by a
distance r,
GMm
F =
r2
∴ gravitational potential energy
GMm
dU = dr
r2
r
1 GMm
or U = GMm ∫ dr = −
∞
r2 r
It shows that the gravitational potential energy between two particles of masses
M and m separated by a distance r is given by
GMm
U = − + a constant
r
The gravitational potential energy is zero when r approaches infinity. So the
−GMm
constant is zero and U =
r
124 PHYSICS
Gravitation MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Gravitational Potential (V) of mass M is defined as the gravitational potential
energy of unit mass. Hence,
U GM
Gravitational potential, V = =−
m r
It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is J/kg.
Notes
ACTIVITY 5.2
Calculate the weight of an object of mass 50 kg at distances of 2R, 3R, 4R, 5R
and 6R from the centre of the earth. Plot a graph showing the weight against
distance. Show on the same graph how the mass of the object varies with distance.
Try the following questions to consolidate your ideas on mass and weight.
PHYSICS 125
MODULE - 1 Gravitation
Kepler formulated three laws which govern the motion of planets. These are:
1. The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the foci (Fig. 5.7).
(An ellipse has two foci.)
Planet
C
B
O
A
Sun
D
Ellipse
Fig. 5.7 : The path of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of its foci. If the time
taken by the planet to move from point A to B is the same as from point C to D,
then according to the second law of Kepler, the areas AOB and COD are equal.
2. The area swept by the line joining the planet to the sun in unit time is constant
through out the orbit (Fig 5.7)
3. The square of the period of revolution of a planet around the sun is proportional
to the cube of its average distance from the Sun. If we denote the period by
T and the average distance from the Sun as r, T2 α r3.
Let us look at the third law a little more carefully. You may recall that Newton
used this law to deduce that the force acting between the Sun and the planets
126 PHYSICS
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Motion, Force and Energy
varied as 1/r2 (Example 5.1). Moreover, if T1 and T2 are the orbital periods of
two planets and r1 and r2 are their mean distances from the Sun, then the third law
implies that
2 3
T1 r1
2 = 3 (5.15)
T2 r2
The constant of proportionality cancels out when we divide the relation for one
Notes
planet by the relation for the second planet. This is a very important relation. For
example, it can be used to get T2, if we know T1, r1 and r2.
Example 5.5 : Calculate the orbital period of planet mercury, if its distance from
the Sun is 57.9 × 109 m. You are given that the distance of the earth from the Sun
is 1.5 × 1011 m.
Solution : We know that the orbital period of the earth is 365.25 days. So, T1 =
365.25 days and r1 = 1.5 × 1011 m. We are told that r2 = 57.9×109 m for mercury.
Therefore, the orbital period of mercury is given by T2
2 3
T2 r2
2 = 3
T1 r1
(365.25) 2 × (57.9 × 10 9 ) 3 m 3
2 3
T1 r2
T2 = = days
r1
3
(1.5 × 1011 ) 3 m 3
= 87.6 days.
In the same manner you can find the orbital periods of other planets. The data is
given below. You can also check your results with numbers in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Some data about the planets of solar system
Name of Mean distance Radius Mass
the planet from the Sun (in terms (x103 km) (Earth Masses)
of the distance of earth)
Mercury 0.387 2.44 0.53
Venus 0.72 6.05 0.815
Earth 1.0 6.38 1.00
Mars 1.52 3.39 0.107
Jupiter 5.2 71.40 317.8
Saturn 9.54 60.00 95.16
Uranus 19.2 25.4 14.50
Neptune 30.1 24.3 17.20
Pluto 39.4 1.50 0.002
PHYSICS 127
MODULE - 1 Gravitation
1/ 3
⎡ r13T2 2 ⎤
1/3
⎡ (603 RE3 ) (12 day2 ) ⎤
r2 = ⎢ 2 ⎥ = ⎢ 2 2 ⎥ = 6.6 RE.
⎣ T1 ⎦ ⎣ 27.3 day ⎦
Remember that the distance of the satellite is taken from the centre of the earth.
To find its height from the surface of the earth, we must subtract RE from 6.6 RE.
The required distance from the earth’s surface is 5.6 RE. If you want to get this
distance in km, multiply 5.6 by the radius of the earth in km.
2π r
vorb = (5.16)
T
There is another way also to calculate the orbital velocity. The centripetal force
experienced by the planet is mυorb2
/ r , where m is its mass. This force must be
supplied by the force of gravitation between the Sun and the planet. If M is the
G m Ms
mass of the Sun, then the gravitational force on the planet is . Equating
r2
the two forces, we get
mυorb
2
G M s
= ,
r r2
so that,
G Ms
vorb = (5.17)
r2
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Motion, Force and Energy
Notice that the mass of the planet does not enter the above equation. The orbital
velocity depends only on the distance from the Sun. Note also that if you substitute
v from Eqn. (5.16) in Eqn. (5.17), you get the third law of Kepler.
It is obvious that the escape velocity will depend on the mass of the body it is
trying to escape from, because the gravitational pull is proportional to mass. It
will also depend on the radius of the body, because smaller the radius, stronger is
the gravitational force.
2G M
vesc = (5.18)
R
PHYSICS 129
MODULE - 1 Gravitation
It is not that the force of gravity ceases to act when an object is launched with
escape velocity. The force does act. Both the velocity of the object as well as the
force of gravity acting on it decrease as the object goes up. It so happens that the
Notes force becomes zero before the velocity becomes zero. Hence the object escapes
the pull of gravity.
Earth
130 PHYSICS
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You have already studied the motion of a projectile. If you project a body at an
angle to the horizontal, it follows a parabolic path. Now imagine launching bodies
with increasing force. What happens is shown in Fig. 5.8. Projectiles travel
larger and larger distances before falling back to the earth. Eventually, the projectile
goes into an orbit around the earth. It becomes an artificial satellite. Remember
that such satellites are man-made and launched with a particular purpose in mind.
Satellites like the moon are natural satellites.
Notes
In order to put a satellite in orbit, it is first lifted to a height of about 200 km to
minimize loss of energy due to friction in the atmosphere of the earth. Then it is
given a horizontal push with a velocity of about 8 kms–1.
The orbit of an artificial satellite also obeys Kepler’s laws because the controlling
force is gravitational force between the satellite and the earth. The orbit is elliptic
in nature and its plane always passes through the center of the earth.
Remember that the orbital velocity of an artificial satellite has to be less than the
escape velocity; otherwise it will break free of the gravitational field of the earth
and will not orbit around the earth. From the expressions for the orbital velocity
of a satellite close to the earth and the escape velocity from the earth, we can
write
vsec
vorb = (5.19)
2
Polar plane
GN
GS
Artificial satellites have generally two types of orbits (Fig. 5.9) depending on the
purpose for which the satellite is launched. Satellites used for tasks such as
remote sensing have polar orbits. The altitude of these orbits is about 800 km. If
the orbit is at a height of less than about 300 km, the satellite loses energy because
of friction caused by the particles of the atmosphere. As a result, it moves to a
PHYSICS 131
MODULE - 1 Gravitation
Descending orbit
West looking
Ascending orbit
East looking
Applications of Satellites
Artificial satellites have been very useful to mankind. Following are some of
their applications:
1. Weather Forecasting : The satellites collect all kinds of data which is
useful in forecasting long term and short term weather. The weather chart
that you see every day on the television or in newspapers is made from the
data sent by these satellites. For a country like India, where so much
depends on timely rains, the satellite data is used to watch the onset and
progress of monsoon. Apart from weather, satellites can watch unhealthy
trends in crops over large areas, can warn us of possible floods, onset and
spread of forest fire, etc.
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2. Navigation : A few satellites together can pinpoint the position of a place
on the earth with great accuracy. This is of great help in locating our own
position if we have forgotten our way and are lost. Satellites have been
used to prepare detailed maps of large chunks of land, which would
otherwise take a lot of time and energy.
3. Telecommunication : We have already mentioned about the transmission
of television programmes from anywhere on the globe to everywhere Notes
became possible with satillites. Apart from television signals, telephone
and radio signals are also transmitted. The communication revolution
brought about by artificial satellites has made the world a small place, which
is sometimes called a global village.
4. Scientific Research : Satellites can be used to send scientific instruments
in space to observe the earth, the moon, comets, planets, the Sun, stars and
galaxies. You must have heard of Hubble Space Telescope and Chandra
X-Ray Telescope. The advantage of having a telescope in space is that
light from distant objects does not have to go through the atmosphere. So
there is hardly any reduction in its intensity. For this reason, the pictures
taken by Hubble Space Telescope are of much superior quality than those
taken by terrestrial telescopes.
Recently, a group of Europeon scientists have observed an earth like planet
out-side our solar system at a distance of 20 light years.
5. Monitoring Military Activities : Artificial satellites are used to keep an
eye on the enemy troop movement. Almost all countries that can afford
cost of these satellites have them.
PHYSICS 133
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134 PHYSICS
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PHYSICS 135
MODULE - 1 Gravitation
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. You have learnt that the gravitational attraction is mutual. If that is so, does
an apple also attract the earth? If yes, then why does the earth not move in
response?
Notes 2. We set up an experiment on earth to measure the force of gravitation between
two particles placed at a certain distance apart. Suppose the force is of
magnitude F. We take the same set up to the moon and perform the experiment
again. What would be the magnitude of the force between the two particles
there?
3. Suppose the earth expands to twice its size without any change in its mass.
What would be your weight if your present weight were 500 N?
4. Suppose the earth loses its gravity suddenly. What would happen to life on
this plant?
5. Refer to Fig. 5.6 which shows the structure of the earth. Calculate the values
of g at the bottom of the crust (depth 25 km) and at the bottom of the
mantle (depth 2855 km).
6. Derive an expression for the mass of the earth, given the orbital period of the
moon and the radius of its orbit.
7. Suppose your weight is 500 N on the earth. Calculate your weight on the
moon. What would be your mass on the moon?
8. A polar satellite is placed at a height of 800 km from earth’s surface. Calculate
its orbital period and orbital velocity.
5.1
1. Moon’s time period T = 27.3d
= 27.3 × 24 × 3600 s
Radius of moon’s orbit R = 3.84 × 108 m
2πR
Moon’s orbital speed v =
T
Centripetal accleration = v2/R
4π2 R 2 1 4π 2 R
= . =
T2 R T2
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4π 2 × 3.84 × 108 m
= (27.3 × 24 × 3600)2 s 2
4π2 × 3.84
= (27.3 × 2.4 × 3.6) 2 × 10–2 ms–2
= .00272 ms–2
Notes
If we calculate centripetal acceleration on dividing g by 3600, we get the
same value :
9.8
= ms–2
3600
= 0.00272 ms–2
G m1 m2
2. F =
r2
Force × r 2 Nm 2
F is force ∴ G = (mass) 2 = kg 2
m1 m2
3. F = G
r2
If m1 = 1kg, m2 = 1kg, r = 1m, then F = G
or G is equal to the force between two masses of 1kg each placed at a distance
of 1m from each other
4. (i) F α 1/r2, if r is doubled, force becomes one-fourth.
(ii) F α m1m2, if m1 and m2 are both doubled then F becomes 4 times.
m1 m2
(iii) F α ,
r2
50 kg × 60 kg Nm 2
5. F = G 1 m2 ; G = 6.68 × 10 –11
kg 2
Nm 2 3000 kg 2
= 6.67 × 10 –11
kg 2
. 1 m2
PHYSICS 137
MODULE - 1 Gravitation
GM
1. g =
R2
Nm 2 5.97 ×1024 kg
= 6.67 × 10 –11
.
kg 2 (6.371×106 ) 2 m 2
Notes
6.97 × 59.7 N
= 6.371 × 6.371 kg = 9.81 m s–2
2. g at poles
GM
gpole = R 2
pole
6.97 × 59.7 N
= 6.371 × 6.371 kg = 9.81 ms–2
Similarly,
6.97 × 59.7 N
geguator = 6.378 × 6.378 kg = 9.79 ms–2
6.67 × 7.3 N
= 1.74 × 1.74 × 10–1 kg = 1.61 m s–2
5.3
1. Let g at distance r from the centre of the earth be called g1.
Outside the earth,
g r2
then g = 2
1 R
138 PHYSICS
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Motion, Force and Energy
If g1 = g/2 ⇒ r2 = 2R2 ⇒ r = 2 R = 1.412 R
∴ Height from earth’s surface = 1.4142 R – R
= 0.4142 R
2. Inside the earth g varies as distance from the centre of the earth. Suppose at
depth d, g is called gd.
Notes
gd R–d
Then g =
R
If gd = 80%, then
0.8 R–d
=
1 R
∴ d = 0.2 R
3. In example 5.3, we calculated ω = 7.27 × 10–5 rad s–1
∴ Rω2 cos 30º = 6.37 × 106 × (7.27 × 10–5)2 s–2 . 3 2 = 0.029 ms–2
g at poles = 9.853 m s2
(Calculated in example 5.2)
∴ g at Delhi = 9.853 ms–2 – 0.029 ms–2
= 9.824 ms–2
4. Using formula (5.9),
g –2
gh = = 9.81 m s
2h 2000 km
1+ 1+
R 6371 km
9.81 m s –2
= 28371 km = 7.47 m s–2
6371 km
Using variation with r
GM
g=
( R + h) 2
Nm 2 5.97 × 1024 kg
= 6.67 × 10–11 .
kg 2 (7.371 × 106 )2 m 2
= 7.33 ms–2
This gives more accurate results because formula (5.9) is for the case h << R.
In this case h is not << R.
PHYSICS 139
MODULE - 1 Gravitation
M Nm 2 6 ×1023 kg
∴ gMars = G = 6.67 × 10–11 . = 2.16
R2 kg 2 (4.3×106 )2 m 2
So, your weight will become roughly 1/4th that on the earth. Mass remains
constant.
3. Balances with two pans actually compare masses because g acts on both the
pans and gets cancelled. The other type of balance, spring balance, measures
weight. The balance with two pans gives the same reading on the moon as on
the earth. Spring balance with give weight as 1/6th that on the earth for a bag
of potatoes.
4. SI unit of Gravational potential is J/kg.
5.5
1. Yes. Wherever the force between bodies is gravitational, Kepler’s laws will
hold.
2. According to Kepler’s third law
T12 r13
T22
= r3 or T2 α r3 ⇒ T α r3/2
2
T2 = 108.9 min
140 PHYSICS
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Motion, Force and Energy
3. According to Kepler’s third law
2 3
Tearth rearth
2
Tsedna
= r3 [Distance from the Sun]
sedna
∴ Tsedna = 797.5 yr
4. If v is the orbital velocity of the satellite of mass m at a distance r from the
centre of the earth, then equating centripltal force with the gravitational force,
we have
mv 2 GmM GM
= ⇒v=
r r2 r
4π 2 r 2 GM 4π2.r 3
2 = ⇒ T2 =
T r GM .
or T2 α r3.
5.6
2GM
1. vesc =
R
= Nm 2 5.97 × 1024 kg
2 × 6.67 × 10 –11 .
kg 2 6.371 × 106 m
2 × 6.67 × 5.97 × 10
= 103 ms–1
6.371
1
2. vesc α
R
PHYSICS 141
MODULE - 1 Gravitation
M
3. vesc α
R
5.7
4π 2 GM
1. (R + h) T 2 = ( R + h ) 2
GM 2
⇒ (R + h)3 = T
4π2
500
7. Weight = N , mass 50 kg on moon as well as on earth
6
1
8. T 1 h , v = 7.47 km s–1
2
142 PHYSICS
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Motion, Force and Energy
6
Notes
You know that motion of objects arises due to application of force and is described
by Newton’s laws of motion. You also know how the velocity (speed and direction)
of an object changes when a force acts on it. In this lesson, you will learn the
concepts of work and energy. Modern society needs large amounts of energy to
do many kinds of work. Primitive man used muscular energy to do work. Later,
animal energy was harnessed to help people do various kinds of tasks. With the
invention of various kinds of machines, the ability to do work increased greatly.
Progress of our civilization now critrcally depends the on the availability of usable
energy. Energy and work are, therefore, closely linked.
From the above discussion you will appreciate that the rate of doing work improved
with newer modes, i.e. as we shifted from humans → animals → machines to
provide necessary force. The rate of doing work is known as power.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z define work done by a force and give unit of work;
z calculate the work done by an applied force;
z state work-energy theorem;
z define power of a system;
z calculate the work done by gravity when a mass moves from one point to
another;
z explain the meaning of energy;
z obtain expressions for gravitational potential energy and elastic potential
energy;
PHYSICS 143
MODULE - 1 Work Energy and Power
6.1 WORK
The word ‘work’ has different meaning for different people. When you study,
you do mental work. When a worker carries bricks and cement to higher floors of
Notes a building, he is doing physical work against the force of gravity. But in science,
work has a definite meaning. The technical meaning of work is not always the
same as the common meaning. The work is defined in the following way :
Let us suppose that a constant force F acting on an object results in displacement
d i.e. moves it by a distance d along a straight line on a horizontal surface, as
shown in Fig. 6.1. The work done by a force is the product of the magnitude of
force component in the direction of displacement and the displacement of this
object.
F F
d
Fig 6.1 : A force F on a block moves it by a horizontal distance d. The direction of
force makes an angle θ with the horizontal direction.
If force F is acting at angle θ with respect to the displacement d of the object, its
component along d will be F cos θ. Then work done by force F is given by
W = F cosθ.d (6.1)
In vector form, the work done is given by:
W = F. d (6.2)
Note that if d = 0, W = 0. That is, no work is done by a force, whatever its
magnitude, if there is no displacement of the object. Also note that though both
force and displacement are vectors, work is a scalar.
ACTIVITY 6.1
You and your friends may try to push the wall of a room. Irrespective of the
applied force, the wall will not move. Thus we say that no work is done.
The unit of work is defined using Eqn.(6.2). If the applied force is in newton and
displacement is in metre, then the unit of work is joule.
144 PHYSICS
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Motion, Force and Energy
(Unit of Force)×(Unit of displacement) = newton . metre = Nm (6.3)
This unit is given a special name, joule, and is denoted by J.
One joule is defined, as the work done by a force of one newton when it produces
a displacement of one metre. Joule is the SI unit of work.
Example 6.1 : Find the dimensional formula of work.
Notes
Solution : W = Force × Distance
= Mass × Acceleration × distance
Dimension of work = [M] × [LT–²] × [L]
= [ML²T–2]
In electrical measurements, kilowatt-hour (kW h) is used as unit of work. It is
related to joule as
1kW h = 3.6 × 106 J
You will study the details of this unit later in this lesson.
Example 6.2 : A force of 6 N is applied on an object at an angle of 60º with the
horizontal. Calculate the work done in moving the object by 2m in the horizontal
direction.
Solution : From Eqn. (6.2) we know that
W = Fd cosθ
= 6×2 × cos 60º
= 6×2 × (½)
=6J
Example 6.3 : A person lifts 5 kg potatoes from the ground floor to a height of
4m to bring it to first floor. Calculate the work done.
Solution : Since the potatoes are lifted, work is being done against gravity.
Therefore, we can write
Force = mg
= 5 kg× 9.8 m s–²
= 49 N
Work done = 49 × 4 (N m)
= 196 J
PHYSICS 145
MODULE - 1 Work Energy and Power
F v v F
Fig. 6.2 : A car is moving on a horizontal road. a) A force F is applied in the direction
of the moving car. It gets accelerated. b) A force F is applied in opposite direction so
that the car comes to rest after some distance.
Figure 6.2 (b) shows the same car moving in the +x direction, but the force F is
applied in the opposite direction to stop the car. Here, angle θ = 180º. Therefore,
W = Fd cos 180º.
= –Fd (6.5)
Hence, the work done by the force is negative. In fact, the work done by a force
shall be negative for θ lying between 90º and 270º.
From the above examples, we can conclude that
a) When we press the accelerator of the car, the force is in the direction of
motion of the car. As a result, we increase the speed of the car. The work
done is positive.
b) When we apply brakes of a car, the force is applied in a direction opposite to
its motion. The car loses speed and may finally come to rest. Negative work
is said to have been done.
c) In case the applied force and displacement are as right angles, i.e. θ = 90º, no
work is said to be done.
146 PHYSICS
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Motion, Force and Energy
6.1.2 Work Done by the Force of Gravity
Fig.6.3(a) shows a mass m being lifted to a height h and Fig. 6.3(b) shows the
same mass being lowered by a distance h. The weight of the object is mg in both
cases. You may recall from the previous lesson that weight is a force.
In Fig. 6.3 (a), the work is done against the force mg (downwards) and the
displacement is upward (θ = 180º). Therefore, Notes
W = Fd cos 180º
= – mgh
mg
h h
F
mg
(a) (b)
Fig 6.3 : (a) The object is lifted up against the force of gravity, (b) The object is
lowered towards the earth.
In the Fig. 6.3(b), the mass is being lowered. The force mg and the displacement
d are in the same direction (θ = 0º). Therefore, the work done
W = Fd cos 0º
= + mgh (6.6)
You must be very careful in interpreting the results obtained above. When the
object is lifted up, the work done by the gravitational force is negative but the
work done by the person lifting the object is positive. When the object is being
lowered, the work done by the gravitational force is positive but the workdone
by the person lowering the object is negative. In both of these cases, it is assumed
that the object is being moved without acceleration.
PHYSICS 147
MODULE - 1 Work Energy and Power
148 PHYSICS
Work Energy and Power MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
F
F
Notes
Dx x xi x xf
Fig 6.4 : A varying force F moves the object from the initial position xi to final position
xf. The variation of force with distance is shown by the solid curve (arbitrary)
and work done is numerically equal to the shaded area.
The width of the strips can be made as small as possible so that the areas of all
strips added together are equal to the total area enclosed between xi and xf.. It
will give the total work done by the force between xi and xf :
W= ∑ F ( x) Δx
lim Δx → 0
(6.9)
x=0
(a)
F
(b)
x
F
(c)
xm
x=0
Fig. 6.5 : A spring-mass system whose one end is rigidly fixed and mass m, rests on a
smooth horizontal surface. (a) The relaxed position of the spring’s, free end at x = 0;
(b) The spring is compressed by applying external force F and (c) Pulled or elongated
by an external force F. The maximum compression/ elongation is xm.
PHYSICS 149
MODULE - 1 Work Energy and Power
A simple calculation can be done to derive an expression for the work done. At x
= 0, the force Fs = 0. As x increases, the force Fs increases and becomes equal to
F when x = xm. Since the variation of the force is linear with displacement, the
⎛ 0 + Fs ⎞
average force during compression (or extension) can be approximated to ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
Fs
= . The work done by the force is given by
2
W = force . displacement
Fs
= . x,
2
1
W= k xm × xm
2
1
= k x2 m (6.11)
2
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Motion, Force and Energy
The work done can also be obtained graphically. It is shown in Fig. 6.6.
Fs
Fs=kxm
x Notes
x=xm
Fig. 6.6: The work done is numerically equal to the area of the shaded triangle.
1
= base × height
2
1
W= x × kxm
2 m
1
= kx ² (6.12)
2 m
ACTIVITY 6.2
PHYSICS 151
MODULE - 1 Work Energy and Power
1 m = 2 kg
W= kx²
2 F
1
= × 100 × (0.1)² Fig. 6.8: A mass m = 2 kg is attached to
2 a spring on a horizontal surface.
= 50 × 0 .01 = 0.5 J
As explained earlier, the work doen by the restioning force in the spring = – 0.5 J.
6.3 POWER
You have already learnt to calculate the work done by a force. In such calculations,
we did not consider whether the work is done in one second or in one hour. In
our daily life, however, the time taken to perform a particular work is important.
For example, a man may take several hours to load a truck with cement bags,
whereas a machine may do this work in much less time. Therefore, it is important
to know the rate at which work is done. The rate at which work is done is
called power.
If ΔW work is done in time Δt, the average power is defined as
Work done
Average Power = time taken
152 PHYSICS
Work Energy and Power MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
ΔW
P= (6.14)
Δt
If the rate of doing work is not constant, this rate may vary. In such cases, we
may define instantaneous power P
⎛ ΔW ⎞ dW
P = Δlimit =
t → 0 ⎜⎝ Δt ⎟⎠ dt
(6.15)
Notes
The definition of power helps us to determine the SI unit of power:
ΔW
P=
Δt
The power of an agent doing work is 1W, if one joule of work is done by it in one
second. The more common units of power are kilowatt (kW) and megawatt (MW).
James Watt
(1736–1819)
Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer, James Watt is
renowned for improving the efficiency of a steam engine. This
paved the way for industrial revolution.
He, introduced horse power as the unit of power. SI unit of
power watt is named in his honour. Some of the important
inventions by James Watt are : a steam locomotive and an
attachment that adapted telescope to measure distances.
⎡ L⎤ ⎡L⎤
= [M] × ⎢T2 ⎥ × ⎢T⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣⎦
–3
= [ML²T ]
PHYSICS 153
MODULE - 1 Work Energy and Power
103 J
= × 3600 s
1s
= 36,00,000 J = 3.6× 106 J
Or 1 kW h = 3.6 MJ (mega joules) (6.17)
The electrical energy that is consumed in homes is measured in kilowatt-hour. In
common man’s language : 1kW h = 1 Unit of electrical energy consumption.
v 22 = v12 + 2as
154 PHYSICS
Work Energy and Power MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
v 22 – v12
or a= (6.18)
2s
Combining this result with Newton’s second law of motion, we can write
v 22 – v12
F=m ×
2s
We know that work done by the force is given by Notes
W = Fs
v 22 – v12
Hence, W=m × s
2s
1 2 1
= mv 2 – mv12
2 2
= K2 – K1 (6.19)
1 2 1
where K2= mv 2 and K1 = mv12 respectively denote the final and initial kinetic
2 2
energies.
(K2 – K1) denotes the change in kinetic energy, which is equal to the work done
by the force.
Kinetic Energy is a scalar quantity. It depends on the product of mass and the
square of the speed. It does not matter which one of the two (m and v) is small
1
and which one is large. It is the total value m v 2 that determines the kinetic
2
energy.
Work-Energy Theorem
The work-energy theorem states that the work done by the resultant of all
forces acting on a body is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the body.
PHYSICS 155
MODULE - 1 Work Energy and Power
1
s = ut + at²
2
1
= (4×2) + (3×4)
2
= 8 +6 = 14 m
Work done W =F×S
= 30 × 14 = 420 J
(iii) The initial Kinetic Energy
1 2
K1 = mv1
2
1
= (10 ×16) = 80 J
2
156 PHYSICS
Work Energy and Power MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
PHYSICS 157
MODULE - 1 Work Energy and Power
68.6 × 107 J
=
3600 s
= 1.91 × 105 W
We know that 746 W = 1 hp
1.91× 105
∴ P= = 2.56 × 10² = 256 hp.
746
Example 6.8 : Hydroelectric power generation uses falling water as a source of
energy to turn turbine blades and generate electrical power. In a power station,
1000 × 10³ kg water falls through a height of 51 m in one second.
(i) Calculate the work done by the falling water?
(ii) How much power can be generated under ideal conditions?
Solution :
(i) The potential energy of the water at the top = mgh
P.E. = (1000 × 10³ kg) × (9.8 m s–2) × (51 m).
158 PHYSICS
Work Energy and Power MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
= 9.8 × 51 × 106 J
= 500 × 106 J
Water loses all its potential energy. The same is converted into work in moving
the turbine blades. Therefore
W = Force × distance
= mg × h
Notes
= 1000 × 103 × 9.8 × 51 J
= 500 × 106 J
= 500 M J
(ii) The work done per second is given by
P = W/t
500 M J
=
1s
= 500 MW
Ideal conditions mean that there is no loss of energy due to frictional forces. In
practice, there is the always some loss in machines. Such losses can be minimized
but can never be eliminated.
PHYSICS 159
MODULE - 1 Work Energy and Power
160 PHYSICS
Work Energy and Power MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
m
= × 2gh1
2
= mgh1 (6.22)
The total energy at the point P is
Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy = mgh1+ mgh2
= mgh (6.23) Notes
This is same as the potential energy at the highest point. Thus, the total Energy
is conserved.
(b) Conservation of Mechanical Energy for a Mass Oscillating on a Spring
Fig. 6.11 shows a spring whose one end is fixed to a rigid wall and the other end
is connected to a wooden block lying on a smooth horizontal table. This free end
is at x0 in the relaxed position of the spring. A block of mass m moving with speed
v along the line of the spring collides with the spring at the free end, and compresses
it by xm. This is the maximum compression. At x0, the total energy of the spring-
1
mass system is mv². It is the kinetic energy of the mass. The potential energy of
2
the spring is zero. At the point of extreme compression, the potential energy of
1 2
the spring is k xm and the kinetic energy of the mass is zero. The total energy
2
1 2
now is k xm . Obviously, this means that
2
1 2 1
k xm = mv 2 (6.24)
2 2
x
0
x0
0
xm
Fig. 6.11 : A block of mass m moving with velocity v on a horizontal surface collides
with the spring. The maximum compression is xm.
PHYSICS 161
MODULE - 1 Work Energy and Power
162 PHYSICS
Work Energy and Power MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
= 12.25 × 4
v² = 49.00
Hence v = 7.0 ms–1
Note: This can also be obtained from the equations of motion:
v² = v 02 + 2gx Notes
= 0 + 2 × 9.8 × 2.5
v² = 49
v = 7 ms–1
PHYSICS 163
MODULE - 1 Work Energy and Power
v v=0
A Path 1 B
Fig. 6.14: A block which is given an initial speed v on a rough horizontal surface,
moves along a straight line path 1 and comes to rest at B. It starts with the
same speed υ at A but now moves along a different path 2.
164 PHYSICS
Work Energy and Power MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
2. A ball of mass 0.5 kg is at A at a height of 10m above the A
ground. Solve the following questions by applying work-energy 4m
principle. In free fall B
10 m
a) What is the speed of the ball at B?
b) What is the speed of the ball at the point C? C
c) How much work is done by gravitational force in Fig. 6.16
bringing the ball from A to C (give proper sign)? Notes
3. A block at the top of an inclined plane slides
down. The length of the plane BC = 2m and it
makes an angle of 30° with horizontal. The mass C
2m
of the block is 2 kg. The kinetic energy of the
block at the point B is 15.6 J. How much of the B 30º
A
potential energy is lost due to non-conservative Fig. 6.17
forces (friction). How much is the magnitude
of the frictional force?
Energy (E)
PHYSICS 165
MODULE - 1 Work Energy and Power
Notes
vAi vBi vAf vBf
vAi vBi
Now applying the laws of conservation of momentum and kinetic energy, we get
For conservation of momentum
mAvAi + mAvBi = mAvAf + mBvBf (6.28)
For conservation of kinetic energy
1 1 1 1
mA v Ai2 + mBi = mA v Af2 + mB v Bf2 (6.29)
2 2 2 2
There are only two unknown quantities (velocities of the balls after collision) and
there are two independent equations [Eqns. (6.28) and (6.29)]. The solution is
not difficult, but a lengthy one. Therefore, we quote the results only
(vBf – vAf )= – (vBi – vAi) (6.30)
2mBv Bi v Ai (mA – mB )
vAf = + mA + mB (6.31)
mA + mB
2mAv Ai (m – mA ) v Bi
vBf = – + B (6.32)
mA + mB (mA + mB )
166 PHYSICS
Work Energy and Power MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
We now discuss some special cases.
CASE I : Suppose that the two balls colliding with each other are identical i.e.
mA= mB= m. Then the second term in Eqns. (6.31 and (6.32) will drop out resulting
in
vAf = vBi (6.33)
and vBf = vAi (6.34) Notes
That is, if two identical balls collide “head-on”, their velocities after collision get
interchanged.
After collision:
i) the velocity of A is same as that of B before collision.
ii) the velocity of B is same as that of A before collision.
Now, think what would happen if one of the balls is at rest before collision?
Let B be at rest so that vBi = 0. Then vAf = 0 and vBf = vAi
After collision, A comes to rest and B moves with the velocity of A before collision.
Similar conclusion can be drawn about the kinetic energy of the balls after collision.
Complete loss of kinetic energy or partial loss of kinetic energy (mA # mB) by A
is same as the gain in the kinetic energy of B. These facts have very important
applications in nuclear reactors in slowing down neutrons.
CASE II : The second interesting case is that of collision of two particles of
unequal masses.
i) Let us assume that mB is very large compared to mA and particle B is initially at
rest :
mB>> mA and vBi = 0
Then, the mass mA can be neglected in comparison to mB. From Eqns. (6.31) and
(6.32), we get
vAf ≈ –vAi
and vBf ≈ 0
After collision, the heavy particle continues to be at rest. The light particle returns
back on its path with a velocity equal to its the initial velocity.
This is what happens when a child hits a wall with a ball.
These results find applications in Physics of atoms, as for example in the case
where an α – particle hits a heavy nucleus such as uranium.
PHYSICS 167
MODULE - 1 Work Energy and Power
168 PHYSICS
Work Energy and Power MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
for the external force acting on the spring and negative for the restoring
force offered by spring. x is compression or elongation of the spring.
z The unit of k is newton per metre (N m–1.)
z Power is the time rate of doing work. P = W/t its unit is J/s i.e., watt (W)
z Mechanical energy of a system exists in two forms (i) kinetic energy and (ii)
Potential energy. Notes
1
z Kinetic energy of mass m moving with speed v is E = mv². It is a scalar
2
quantity.
z The Work-Energy Theorem states that the work done by all forces is equal
to the change in the kinetic energy of the object.
W = Kf – Ki = ΔK
z Work done by a conservative force on a particle is equal to the change in
mechanical energy of the particle, that is change in the kinetic energy + the
change in potential energy. In other words the mechanical energy is conserved
under conservative forces.
Δ E = (Ef – Ei) + (Ef – Ei)
= (ΔE)P + (ΔE)k
z Work done by a conservative force on an object is zero for a round trip of the
object (object returning back to its starting point).
z Work done by a conservative force does not depend on the path of the moving
object. It depends only on its initial and final positions.
z Work done is path dependent for a non-conservative force. The total
mechanical energy is not conserved.
z The potential energy of a particle is the energy because of its position in
space in a conservative field.
z Energy stored in a compressed or stretches spring is known as elastic potential
1
energy. It has a value kx², where k is spring constant and x is diplacement.
2
z The energy stored in a mass m near the earth’s surface is mgh. It is called the
gravitational potential energy. Here h is change in vertical co-ordinate of the
mass. The reference level of zero potential energy is arbitrary.
z Energy may be transformed from one kind to another in an isolated system,
but it can neither be created nor destroyed. The total energy always remains
constant.
PHYSICS 169
MODULE - 1 Work Energy and Power
170 PHYSICS
Work Energy and Power MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
12. An object of mass 6 kg. is resting on a horizontal surface. A horizontal force
of 15 N is constantly applied on the object. The object moves a distance of
100m in 10 seconds.
(a) How much work does the applied force do?
(b) What is the kinetic energy of the block after 10 seconds?
(c) What is the magnitude and direction of the frictional force (if there is Notes
any)?
(d) How much energy is lost during motion?
13. A, B, C and D are four point on a hemispherical cup placed inverted on the
ground. Diameter BC = 50 cm. A 250 g particle
at rest at A, slide down along the smooth surface A
of the cup. Calculate it’s
D
(a) Potential energy at A relative to B. R E
2
(b) Speed at the point B (Lowest point). B R C
O
R
(c) Kinetic and potential energy at D.
Do you find that the mechanical energy of the block is conserved? Why?
14. The force constant of a spring is 400 N/m. How much work must be done on
the spring to stretch it (a) by 6.0 cm (b) from x = 4.0 cm to x = 6.0 cm, where
x = 0 is the relaxed position of the spring.
15. The mass of a car is 1000 kg. It starts from rest and attains a speed of
15 m s–1 in 3.0 seconds. Calculate
(a) The average power of the engine.
(b) The work done on the car by the engine.
6.1
1. The force always works at right angle to the motion of the particle. Hence no
work is done by the force.
2. (a) Work done is zero (i) when there is no displacement of the object. (ii)
When the angle between force and the displacement is 90º.
When a mass moves on a horizontal plane the work done by gravitation
force is zero.
PHYSICS 171
MODULE - 1 Work Energy and Power
W = F.d = (2 î + 3 ĵ ) . (– î + 2 ĵ )
–2 + 6 = 4
5. F = (5 î + 3 ĵ ) d = (3 î + 4 ĵ )
(a) | d | = 9 + 16 = 25 = 5 m
(b) | F | = 25 + 9 = 34 = 5.83
(c) W = F.d = (5 î + 3 ĵ ) . (3 î + 4 ĵ )
= 15 + 12 = 27 J
6.2
1. Spring constant is defined as the restoring force per unit displacement. Thus,
it is measured in N m–1.
10N 10N
2. k = = = 100 N m
1cm 1/100m
⎛ N⎞
As F = kx for x = 50 cm. F = ⎜⎝100 ⎟⎠ (0.5 m)
m
= 50 N.
1 2 1 100N ⎛ 5 5 ⎞ 2
W = kx = 2 × m × ⎜⎝ 100 × 100 ⎟⎠ m
2
= 1.25 N m = 1.25 J.
6.3
mgh (100×9.8×8 )
1. P = = J = 784 W.
t 10 s
10 × 746
2. 10 H.P = (10 × 746) W = W
1000
= 7.46 kW
172 PHYSICS
Work Energy and Power MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
6.4
1
1. k.E. = mv2. It is never negative because
2
m E
(b) When m becomes , E becomes
2 2
1 2
3. P.E. of spring = kx = 3.6 J
2
2 × 3.6 2 × 3.6
∴ x2 = = = 0.04 m
k 180
90 km
4. v2 = u2 – 2as Final velocity is zero and initial velocity is = 25m s–1
h
u2 25 × 25
∴ = a = 2 × 15 = 20.83 m s–2
2s
W 20830 × 15
Power = = = 12498 W
t 25
6.5
1. (a) O, no change in P.E.
(b) Change in P.E. = mgh = 2 × 9.8 × 4 = 78.4 J
(c) Change in P.E. = 78.4 J.
(d) – 78.4 J.
PHYSICS 173
MODULE - 1 Work Energy and Power
19.6 × 2
v2 =
0.5
AC = BC sin30º
1
=2× =1
2
Change in P.E. from C to B = mgh = 2 × 9.8 × 1 = 19.6 J
But the K.E. at B is = 15.6 J
Energy lost = 19.6 – 15.6 = 4J
This loss is due to frictional force
4J = F × d = F × 2
F = 2N
4. When the bob of a simple pendulum oscillates, its K.E. is max at x = 0 and
min at x = xm. The P.E. is min at x = 0 and max at x = xm. Hence A represents
the P.E. curve.
5. No.
6.6
1. (a) No, because, it will go against the low of conservation of linear
momentum.
(b) yes.
v
2.
A B C
vA = 0, vB = 0, vC = v
Q This condition only satisfies the laws of conservation of (i) linear
momentum and (ii) total kinetic energy.
174 PHYSICS
Work Energy and Power MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
2mBv Bi v Ai (mA – mB )
3. vAf = + mA + mB
mA + mB
2 × 4 × ( −40) 50 ( −2)
= −
6 6
220
= −
6
= – 35ms–1.
2mAv Ai (m – mA ) v Bi
vBf = – + B
mA + mB (mA + mB )
2 × 2 × 50 ( −40)( 4 − 2)
= +
6 6
200 80
= −
6 6
120
= = 20 ms–1.
6
Thus ball A returns back with a velocity of 35 m s–1 and ball B moves on with
a velocity of 20 m s–1.
4. (a) 1.76 ms–1.
(b) 81 J and 1.58 J
(c) Inelastic collision
(d) 79.42 J
5. yes, but the total energy of both the balls together after collision is the same
as it was before collision.
PHYSICS 175
MODULE - 1 Work Energy and Power
1 19
10. m s–1, m s–1
4 6
176 PHYSICS
Motion of Rigid Body MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
7
Notes
So far you have learnt about the motion of a single object, usually taken as a
point mass. This simplification is quite useful for learning the laws of mechanics.
But in real life, objects consist of very large number of particles. A tiny pebble
contains millions of particles. Do we then write millions of equations, one for
each particle? Or is there a simpler way? While discovering answer to this question
you will learn about centre of mass and moment of inertia, which plays the same
role in rotational motion as does mass in translational motion.
You will also study an important concept of physics, the angular momentum. If
no external force acts on a rotating system, its angular momentum in conserved.
This has very important implications in physics. It enables us to understand how
a swimmer is able to somersault while diving from a diving board into the water
below.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z define the centre of mass of a rigid body;
z explain why motion of a rigid body is a combination of translational and
rotational motions;
z define moment of inertia and state theorems of parallel and perpendicular
axes;
z define torque and find the direction of rotation produced by it;
z write the equation of motion of a rigid body;
z state the principle of conservation of angular momentum; and
z calculate the velocity acquired by a rigid body at the end of its motion on an
inclined plane.
PHYSICS 177
MODULE - 1 Motion of Rigid Body
178 PHYSICS
Motion of Rigid Body MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Suppose that the two particles are at heights 2
z1 and z2 from a horizontal surface (Fig. 7.1). C
Suppose further that the gravitational force 1
is uniform in the small region in which the
two particles move about. The force on each
z1 z z2
particle will be mg. The total force acting
on the system is therefore 2mg. We have
Notes
now to find a point C somewhere in the Fig. 7.1 : Two particle system
system so that if a force 2mg acts at that
point located at a height z from the horizontal surface, the motion of the system
would be the same as with two forces. The potiential energies of particles 1 and
2 are mgz1 and mgz2, respectively. The potential energy of the particle at C is
2mgz. Since this must be equal to the combined potential energy of the two
particles, can write
2 mgz = mgz1 + mgz2 (7.1)
z1 + z2
or z = (7.2)
2
Note that the point C lies midway between the two particles. If the two masses
were unequal, this point would not have been in the middle. If the mass of particle
1 is m1 and that of particle 2 is m2, Eqn. (7.1) modifies to
(m1 + m2) gz = m1gz1 + m2 gz2 (7.3)
m1 z1+ m2 z2
so that z = (m + m ) (7.4)
1 2
The point C is called the centre of mass (CM) of the system. As such, it is a
mathematical tool and there is no physical point as CM.
To grasp this concept, study the following example carefully.
Example 7.1 : If in the above case, the mass of one particle is twice that of the
other, let us locate the CM.
Solution : m1= m and m2= 2 m, Then Eqn. (7.4) gives
m z1 + 2 m z2 z1 + 2 z2
z = ( m + 2 m) =
3
When a body consists of several particles, we generalise Eqn (7.4) to define its
CM : If the particle with mass m1 has coordinates (x1, y1, z1) with respect to some
coordinate system, mass m2 has coordinates (x2, y2, z2) and so on (Fig.7.2), the
coordinates of CM are given by
PHYSICS 179
MODULE - 1 Motion of Rigid Body
∑m
i
i xi m2
C° x2, y2, z2
= N (7.5)
m4 m
∑m i
O
5
i =1 x
Notes
N
∑m i xi z
= i =1
∑m i zi
and z= i =1 (7.7)
M
N N
where ∑m
i =1
i denotes the sum over all the particles and, therefore, ∑m i is the
i =1
180 PHYSICS
Motion of Rigid Body MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
In the case of a rigid body, the sum of the internal forces is zero because they
cancel each other in pairs. Therefore, the acceleration of individual particles of
the body are due to the sum or resultant of the external forces. In the light of this,
we may write Eqn. (7.9) as
M a = Fext (7.10)
This shows that the CM of a body moves as though the entire mass of the body
were located at that point and it was acted upon by the sum of all the external Notes
forces acting on the body. Note the simplification introduced in the derivation by
defining the centre of mass. We donot have to deal with millions of individual
particles now, only the centre of mass needs to be located to determine the motion
of the given body. The fact that the motion of the CM is determined by the external
forces and that the internal forces have no role in this at all leads to very interesting
consequences.
You are familiar with the motion of a projectile. Can you recall what path is
traced by a projectile?
The motion is along a parabolic path. Suppose Y
the projectile is a bomb which explodes in mid air
Explosion
and breaks up into several fragments. The
explosion is caused by the internal forces. There
is no change in the external force, which is the Path of
CM
force of gravity. The centre of mass of the
projectile, therefore, continues to be the same O X
parabola on which the bomb would have moved Fig. 7.3 : Centre of mass of a
if it had not exploded (Fig. 7.3). The fragments projectile
may fly in all directions on different parabolic paths
but the centre of mass of the various fragments will lie on the original parabola.
You might have now understood the importance of the concept of centre of
mass of a rigid body. You will encounter
more examples of importance in y
subsequent sections. Let us therefore see
how the centre of mass of a system is m4 (0, 1.0) m3
(1.0, 1.0)
obtained by taking a simple example. 0 .7 ) .5 ,
C (0
Example 7.2 : Suppose four masses, 1.0 (0, 0.7)
kg, 2.0 kg, 3.0 kg and 4.0 kg are located
at the corners of a square of side 1.0 m.
Locate its centre of mass? m1 (0, 0) (1.0,0)
O m2 x
Solution : We can always make the square (0.5, 0)
lie in a plane. Let this plane be the (x,y)
plane. Further, let us assume that one of Fig. 7.4 : Locating CM of four masses
placed at the corners of a square
the corners coincides with the origin of
PHYSICS 181
MODULE - 1 Motion of Rigid Body
= 0.7 m
The CM has coordinates (0.5 m, 0.7 m) and is marked C in Fig.7.4. Note that the
CM is not at the centre of the square although the square is a symmetrical figure.
What could be the reason for the CM not being at the centre? To discover answer
to this question, calculate the coordinates of CM if all masses are equal.
182 PHYSICS
Motion of Rigid Body MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Pyramid and cone
On line joining vertex with centre of base
and at h/4 of the height measured from the
base.
Two things must be remembered about the centre of mass : (i) It may be outside
the body as in case of a ring. (ii) When two bodies revolve around each other,
they actually revolve around their common centre of mass. For example, stars in
a binary system revolve around their common centre of mass. The Earth-Sun
system also revolves around its common centre of mass. But since mass of the
Sun is very large as compared to the mass of earth, the centre of mass of the
system is very close to the centre of the Sun.
Now it is time to check your progress.
PHYSICS 183
MODULE - 1 Motion of Rigid Body
ACTIVITY 7.1
Take a wooden block. Make two or three marks on any of its surfaces. Now keep
the marked surface in front of you and push
the block along a horizontal floor. Note the
paths traced by the marks. All these marks
have paths parallel to the floor and, therefore,
parallel to one another (Fig. 7.6). You can Fig. 7.6 : A wooden block moving
along the floor performs
easily see that the lengths of the paths are
translational motion.
also equal.
ACTIVITY 7.2
Let us now perform another simple
experiment. Take a cylindrical piece of wood.
On its plane face make a mark or two. Now
roll the cylinder slowly on the floor, keeping
A
the plane face towards you. You would notice B B
A B A
that the mark such as A in Fig. 7.7, has not
only moved parallel to the floor, but has also Fig. 7.7 : Rolling motion of a
performed circular motion. So, the body has cylinder: The point A has not only
moved parallel to the floor but also
performed both translational and rotational
performed circular motion
motion.
184 PHYSICS
Motion of Rigid Body MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
While the general motion of a rigid body consists of both translation and rotation,
it cannot have translational motion if one point in the body is fixed; it can then
only rotate. The most convenient point to fix for this purpose is the CM of the
body.
You might have seen a grinding stone (the chakki).
The handle of the stone moves in a circular path.
All the points on the stone also move in circular Notes
paths around an axis passing through the centre of
the stone (Fig.7.8).
The motion of a rigid body in which all its ABC
constituent particles describe concentric circular
paths is known as rotational motion.
We have noted above that translational motion of Fig. 7.8 : Pure rotation of a
grinding stone
a rigid body can be described by an equation similar
to that of a single particle. You are familiar with
such equations. Therefore, in this
lesson we concentrate only on the A
A
rotational motion of a rigid body. A B
B
B A
The rotational motion can be B
obtained by keeping a point of the
body fixed so that it cannot have B
A
any translational motion. For the
sake of mathematical convenience,
this point is taken to be the CM. Fig. 7.9 : Rotation of the earth
The rotation is then about an axis
passing through the CM. A good example of rotational motion is the earth’s
rotation about its own axis (Fig. 7.9). You have studied in earlier lessons that the
mass of the body plays a very important role.
It determines the acceleration acquired by
the body for a given force. Can we define a
similar quantity for rotational motion also? m1
Let us find out. r
1
m3 m2
7.3.1 Moment of Inertia r2
r3
Let C be the centre of mass of a rigid body.
Suppose it rotates about an axis through this
point (Fig.7.10).
Suppose particles of masses m1, m2, m3...are Fig. 7.10 : Rotation of a plane
located at distances r1, r2, r3...from the axis lamina about an axis passing
of rotation and are moving with speeds v1, through its centre of mass
PHYSICS 185
MODULE - 1 Motion of Rigid Body
Notes i =1
⎛1⎞
= ∑ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ m v
i =1
i
2
i (7.11)
i =n
where ∑
i =1
indicates the sum over all the particles of the body.
You have studied in lesson 4 that angular speed (ω) is related to linear speed (v)
through the equation v = r ω. Using this result in Eqn. (7.11), we get
i =n
∑ ⎛⎜⎝ 2 ⎞⎟⎠ m (r ω)
1 2
T = i i (7.12)
i =1
Note that we have not put the subscript i with w because all the particles of a
rigid body have the same angular speed. Eqn. (7.12) can now be rewritten as
1 ⎛ i =n 2⎞
T = 2 ⎜ ∑ mi ri ⎟ ω
2
⎝ i=1 ⎠
1
= I ω2 (7.13)
2
The quantity I = Σ mi ri
i
2
(7.14)
= 4m r2
186 PHYSICS
Motion of Rigid Body MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
2
⎛ L ⎞ L
= 4 m⎜ ⎟ (Since r = ).
⎝ 2⎠ 2
= 2 m L2
I = m r + 2m r + m r + 2m r
2 2 2 2
= 6m r2
Note that moment of inertia has changed from 2mL2 to 3 mL2.
Table 7.2 Moments of inertia of a few regular and uniform bodies.
is is
Ax Ax
R Annular cylinder (or
Hoop about R1 ring) about cylinder
central axis R2 axis
M
I = MR2 I= ( R12 + R22 )
2
is
Ax Axis
Solid cylinder Solid cylinder (or disk)
about cylindrical about a central diameter
l axis L
M R2 M R2 M 2 l2
R I= I= +
2 4 12
R
PHYSICS 187
MODULE - 1 Motion of Rigid Body
2 M R2 2 M R2
I= I=
5 3
Axis Axis
3 M R2
M R2 I=
I= 2
2
Refer to Eqn.(7.13) again and compare it with the equation for kinetic energy of
a body in linear motion. Can you draw any analogy? You will note that in rotational
motion, the role of mass has been taken over by the moment of inertia and the
angular speed has replaced the linear speed.
A. Physical significance of moment of inertia
The physical significance of moment of inertia is that it performs the same role
in rotational motion that the mass does in linear motion.
Just as the mass of a body resists change in its state of linear motion, the moment
of inertia resists a change in its rotational motion. This property of the moment
of inertia has been put to a great practical use. Most machines, which produce
rotational motion have as one of their components a disc which has a very large
moment of inertia. Examples of such machines are the steam engine and the
automobile engine. The disc with a large moment of inertia is called a flywheel.
To understand how a flywheel works, imagine that the driver of the engine wants
to suddenly increase the speed. Because of its large moment of inertia, the flywheel
resists this attempt. It allows only a gradual increase in speed. Similarly, it works
against the attempts to suddenly reduce the speed, and allows only a gradual
decrease in the speed. Thus , the flywheel, with its large moment of inertia, prevents
jerky motion and ensures a smooth ride for the passengers.
188 PHYSICS
Motion of Rigid Body MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
We have seen that in rotational motion, angular velocity is analogous to linear
velocity in linear motion. Since angular acceleration (denoted usually by α) is the
rate of change of angular velocity, it must correspond to acceleration in linear
motion.
B. Equations of motion for a uniformly rotating rigid body
Consider a lamina rotating about an axis passing through O and normal to its
Notes
plane. If it is rotating with a constant angular velocity ω, as shown, then it will
turn through an angle θ in t seconds such that
θ =ωt 7.16(a)
However, if the lamina is subjected to constant O
torque (which is the turning effect of force), it q
will undergo a constant angular acceleration. The
following equations describe its rotational motion: P¢
P
ωf = ωi + α t 7.16(b)
Fig. 7.12 : Rotation of a lamina
where ωi is initial angular velocity and ωf is final about a fixed nail
angular velocity.
Similarly, we can write
1
θ = ωi t + α t2 7.16(c)
2
PHYSICS 189
MODULE - 1 Motion of Rigid Body
190 PHYSICS
Motion of Rigid Body MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
(ii) Theorem of perpendicular axes
Let us choose three mutually perpendicular axes, two of which, say x and y are in
the plane of the body, and the third, the z–axis, is perpendicular to the plane
(Fig.7.13). The perpendicular axes theorem states that the sum of the moments
of inertia about x and y axes is equal to the moment of inertia about the z–
axis.
I = MR2
Notes
z
Id
90°
Id
O
y
x
Fig. 7.15 : Theorem of perpendicular axes Fig. 7.16 : Moment of inertia of a hoop
That is,
Iz = Ix + Iy (7.18)
We now illustrate the use of these theorems by the following example.
Let us take a hoop shown in Fig. 7.16. From Table 7.2 you would recall that
moment of inertia of a hoop about an axis passing through its centre and
perpendicular to the base is M R2, where M is its mass and R is its radius. The
theorem of perpendicular axes tells us that this must be equal to the sum of the
moments of inertia about two diameters which are perpendicular to each other as
well as to the central axis. The symmetry of the hoop tells us that the moment of
inertia about any diameter is the same as about any other diameter. This means
that all the diameters are equivalent and any two perpendicular diameters may
be chosen. Since the moment of inertia about each is the same, say
Id, Eqn.(7.18) gives
M R2 = 2 Id
and therefore
Id = (½) MR2
So, the moment of inertia of a hoop about any of its diameter is (½) M R2.
Let us now take a point P on the rim. Consider a tangent to the hoop at this point
which is parallel to the axis of the hoop. The distance between the two axes is
obviously equal to R. The moment of inertia about the tangent can be calculated
using the theorem of parallel axes. It is given by
Itan = M R2 + M R2 = 2 M R2.
It must be mentioned that many of the entries in Table 7.2 have been computed
using the theorems of parallel and perpendicular axes.
PHYSICS 191
MODULE - 1 Motion of Rigid Body
ACTIVITY 7.3
Have you ever noticed that it is easy to open the door by applying force at a point
Notes far away from the hinges? What happens if you try to open a door by applying
force near the hinges? Carry out this activity a few
times. You would realise that much more effort is
needed to open the door if you apply force near
the hinges than at a point away from the hinges. O
Why is it so? Similarly, for turning a screw we use
r
a spanner with a long handle. What is the purpose S
of keeping a long handle? Let us seek answers to
F q
these questions now. B
A
Suppose O is a fixed point in the body and it can
rotate about an axis passing through this point Fig. 7.17 : Rotation of a body
(Fig.7.17). Let a force of magnitude F be applied
at the point A along the line AB. If AB passes through the point O, the force F
will not be able to rotate the body. The farther is the line AB from O, the greater
is the ability of the force to turn the body about the axis through O. The turning
effect of a force is called torque. Its magnitude is given by
τ = F s = F r sin θ (7.19)
where s is the distance between the axis of rotation and the line along which the
force is applied.
The units of torque are newton-metre, or Nm. The
torque is actually a vector quantity. The vector from
of Eqn.(7.19) is
O t
τ =r×F (7.20)
which gives both magnitude and direction of the r
torque. What is the direction in which the body would S
turn? To discover this, we recall the rules of vector q
F
product (refer to lesson 1) : τ is perpendicular to the
plane containing vectors r and F, which is the plane
of paper here (Fig.7.18). If we extend the thumb of Fig. 7.18 : Right hand
the right hand at right angles to the fingers and curl thumb rule
the fingers so as to point from r to F through the
smaller angle, the direction in which thumb points is the direction of τ.
192 PHYSICS
Motion of Rigid Body MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Apply the above rule and show that the turning effect of the force in Fig. 7.18 is
normal to the plane of paper downwards. This corresponds to clockwise rotation
of the body.
Example 7.5 : Fig.7.19 shows a bicycle pedal. Suppose your foot is at the top
and you are pressing the pedal downwards. (i) What torque do you produce? (ii)
Where should your foot be for generating maximum torque?
Notes
F
F
B
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.19 : A bicycle pedal (a) at the top when τ = 0; (b) when τ is maximum
Solution : (i) When your foot is at the top, the line of action of the force passes
through the centre of the pedal. So, θ = 0, and τ = Fr sinθ = 0.
(ii) To get maximum torque, sinθ must have its maximum value, that is θ must be
90º. This happens when your foot is at position B and you are pressing the pedal
downwards.
If there are several torques acting on a body, the
net torque is the vector sum of all the torques. Do
F
you see any correspondence between the role of A
torque in the rotational motion and the role of force b
in the linear motion? Consider two forces of equal F
B a
magnitude acting on a body in opposite directions
o
(Fig.7.20). Assume that the body is free to rotate
about an axis passing through O. The two torques Fig. 7.20 : Two opposite
on the body have magnitudes forces acting on body
τ 1 = (a + b) F
and τ 2 = a F.
You can verify that the turning effect of these torques are in the opposite directions.
Therefore, the magnitude of the net turning effect on the body is in the direction
of the larger torque, which in this case is τ1 :
τ = τ1 – τ2 = bF (7.21)
We may therefore conclude that two equal and opposite forces having different
lines of action are said to form a couple whose torque is equal to the product
of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance between them.
PHYSICS 193
MODULE - 1 Motion of Rigid Body
i=0 ⎝ i ⎠
= I α. (7.22)
because α is same for all the particles at a given instant.
The similarity between this equation and F = m a shows that τ performs the same
role in rotational motion as F does in linear motion. A list of corresponding
quantities in rotational motion and linear motion is given in Table 7.3. With the
help of this table, you can write any equation for rotational motion if you know
its corresponding equation in linear motion.
Table 7.3 : Corresponding quantities in rotational and translational motions
Translational Motion Rotation about a Fixed Axis
Displacement x Angular displacement θ
dx dθ
Velocity v = Angular velocity ω=
dt dt
dv dω
Acceleration a= Angular acceleration α=
dt dt
Mass M Moment of inertia I
Force F=ma Torque τ=Iα
Work
Kinetic energy
W=
½M v2
z F dx Work
Kinetic energy
W= z
(½) I ω2
τ dθ
194 PHYSICS
Motion of Rigid Body MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
With the help of Eqn.(7.22) we can calculate the angular acceleration produced
in a body by a given torque.
Example 7.6 : A uniform disc of mass 1.0 kg and radius
0.1m can rotate about an axis passing through its centre
and normal to its plane without friction. A massless string
goes round the rim of the disc and a mass of 0.1 kg hangs
at its end (Fig.7.22). Calculate (i) the angular acceleration Notes
of the disc, (ii) the angle through which the disc rotates
in one second, and (iii) the angular velocity of the disc
Im
after one second. Take g = 10 ms–2
Solution : (i) If R and M denote the radius and mass of
the disc, from Table 7.2, we recall that its moment of
inertia is given by I = (½) M R2. If F denotes the magnitude 0.1 kg
of force (= m g) due to the mass at the end of the string
then τ = F R. Eqn. (7.22) now gives Fig. 7.22
α = τ /I = FR/I = 2F/MR
2
2 × (0.1kg) × (10ms – )
= = 20 rad s–2.
(1.0 kg) × (0.1 m)
(ii) For angle θ through which the disc rotates, we use Eqn.(7.16). Since the
initial angular velocity is zero, we have
θ = (½) × 20 × 1.0 = 10 rad
(iii) For the velocity after one second, we have
ω = α t = 20 × 1.0 = 20 rad s–1
Now, you may like to check your progress.Try the following questions.
PHYSICS 195
MODULE - 1 Motion of Rigid Body
Notes
ACTIVITY 7.4
If you can get hold of a stool which can rotate without much friction, you can
perform an interesting experiment. Ask a friend to sit on the stool with her arms
folded. Make the stool rotate fast. Measure the speed of rotation. Ask your friend
to stretch her arms and measure the speed again. Do you note any change in the
speed of rotation of the stool? Ask her to fold
her arms once again and observe the change in z
the speed of the stool.
Let us try to understand why we expect a change
vi
in the speed of rotation of the stool in two cases
: sitting with folded and stretched hands. For P
this, let us again consider a rigid body rotating ri
about an axis, say z–axis through a fixed point O O
in the body. All the points of the body describe
circular paths about the axis of rotation with the
centres of the paths on the axis and have angular Fig. 7.23 : A rigid body rotating
velocity ω. Consider a particle like P at distance about an axis through ‘O’
ri from the axis (Fig. 7.20). Its linear velocity is
vi = riω and its momentum is therefore mi ri ω. The product of linear momentum
and the distance from the axis is called angular momentum, denoted by L. If
we sum this product for all the particles of the body, we get
F mrI
L = ∑i mi ω ri ri = GH Σ JK ω
i
i i
2
=Iω (7.23)
Remember that the angular velocity is the same for all the particles and the term
within brackets is the moment of inertia. Like the linear momentum, the angular
momentum is also a vector quantity. Eqn. (7.23) gives only the component of the
vector L along the axis of rotation. It is important to remember that I must refer
to the same axis. The unit of angular momentum is kg m2 s–1
196 PHYSICS
Motion of Rigid Body MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
Recall now that the rate of change of ω is α and I α = τ. Therefore, the rate of
change of angular momentum is equal to torque. In vector notation, we write
the equation of motion of a rotating body as
dL dω
=τ =I =Iα (7.24)
dt dt
Notes
7.4.1 Conservation of angular momentum
dL
Eqn. (7.24) shows that if there is no net torque acting on the body, = 0.
dt
This means that there is no change in angular momentum, i.e. the angular
momentum is constant. This is the principle of conservation of angular
momentum. Along with the conservation of energy and linear momentum, this is
one of the most important principles of physics.
The principle of conservation of angular momentum allows us to answer questions
such as : How the direction of toy umbrella floating in air remains fixed? The
trick is to make it rotate and thereby impart it some angular momentum. Once it
goes in air, there is no torque acting on it. Its angular momentum is then constant.
Since angular momentum is a vector quantity, its constancy implies fixed direction
and magnitude. Thus, the direction of the toy umbrella remains fixed while it is in
air.
In the case of your friend on the rotating stool; when no net torque acts on the
stool, the angular momentum of the stool and the person on it must be conserved.
When the arms are stretched, she causes the moment of inertia of the system to
increase. Eqn. (7.23) then implies that the angular velocity must decrease. Similarly,
when she folds her arms, the moment of inertia of the system decreases. This
causes the angular velocity to increase. Note that the change is basically caused
by the change in the moment of inertia due to change in distance of particles from
the axis of rotation.
Let us look at a few more examples of conservation of angular momentum.
Suppose we have a spherical ball of mass M and radius R. The ball is set rotating
by applying a torque on it. The torque is then removed. When there is no external
torque, whatever angular momentum the ball has acquired must be conserved.
Since moment of inertia of the ball is (2/5) M R2 (Table 7.2), its angular momentum
is given by
2
L = M R2ω (7.25)
5
where ω is its angular velocity. Imagine now that the radius of the ball somehow
decreases. To conserve its angular momentum, ω must increase and the ball must
PHYSICS 197
MODULE - 1 Motion of Rigid Body
Example 7.7 : Shiela stands at the centre of a rotating platform that has frictionless
bearings. She holds a 2.0 kg object in each hand at 1.0 m from the axis of rotation
of the system. The system is initially rotating at 10 rotations per minute. Calculate
a) the initial angular velocity in rad s–1, b) the angular velocity after the objects
are brought to a distance of 0.2 m from the axis of rotation, and (c) change in the
kinetic energy of the system. (d) If the kinetic energy has increased, what is the
198 PHYSICS
Motion of Rigid Body MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
cause of this increase? (Assume that the moment of inertia of Shiela and platform
ISP stays constant at 1.0 kg m2.)
Solution : (a) 1 rotation = 2π radian
10 × 2π radian
∴ initial angular velocity ω = 60 s = 1.05 rad s–1
Notes
(b) The key idea here is to use the law of conservation of angular momentum.
The initial moment of inertiaIi = I SP+ m ri 2 + m ri 2
PHYSICS 199
MODULE - 1 Motion of Rigid Body
200 PHYSICS
Motion of Rigid Body MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
where I is the moment of inertia. The total energy of the body due to translation
and rotation is the sum of these two kinetic energies. An interesting case, where
both translational and rotational motion are involved, is the motion of a body on
an inclined plane.
Example 7.8 : Suppose a rigid body has mass M, radius R and moment of inertia
I. It is rolling down an inclined plane of height h (Fig.7.26). At the end of its
journey, it has acquired a linear speed v and an angular speed ω. Assume that the Notes
loss of energy due to friction is small and can be neglected. Obtain the value of v
in terms of h.
M
h
Solution : The principle of conservation of energy implies that the sum of the
kinetic energies due to translation and rotation at the foot of the inclined plane
must be equal to the potential energy that the body had at the top of the inclined
plane. Therefore,
1
Mv 2
+ ½ I ω2 = M g h (7.28)
2
1 1 v2
M v2 + I 2 = M g h (7.29)
2 2 R
To take a simple example, let the body be a hoop. Table 7.2 shows that its moment
of inertia about its own axis is MR2. Eqn.(7.29) then gives
1 1 M R2 v 2
M v2 + =Mgh
2 2 R2
or v = gh (7.30)
Do you notice any thing interesting in this equation? The linear velocity is
independent of mass and radius of the hoop. Its means that a hoop of any
material and any radius rolls down with the same speed on the inclined plane.
PHYSICS 201
MODULE - 1 Motion of Rigid Body
Secret of Pulsars
An interesting example of the conservation of angular momentum is provided
by pulsating stars. These are called pulsars. These stars send pulses of radiation
of great intensity towards us. The pulses are periodic and the periodicity is
extremely precise. The time periods range between a few milliseconds to a
few seconds. Such short time periods show that the stars are rotating very
fast. Most of the matter of these stars is in the form of neutrons. (The neutrons
and protons are the building blocks of the atomic nuclei.) These stars are also
called neutron stars. These stars represent the last stage in their life. The secret
of their fast rotation is their tiny size. The radius of a typical neutron star is
only 10 km. Compare this with the radius of the Sun, which is about 7 × 105
km. The Sun rotates on its axis with a period of about 25 days. Imagine that
the Sun suddenly shrinks to the size of a neutron star without any change in its
mass. In order to conserve its angular momentum, the Sun will have to rotate
with a period as short as the fraction of a millisecond.
z The moment of inertia plays the same role in rotational motion as does the
mass in linear motion.
202 PHYSICS
Motion of Rigid Body MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
z The turning effect of a force F on a rigid body is given by the torque τ = r ×
F.
z Two equal and opposite forces constitute a couple. The magnitude of turning
effect of torque is equal to the product of one of the forces and the
perpendicular distance between the line of action of forces.
z The application of an external torque changes the angular momentum of the
Notes
body.
z When no net torque acts on a body, the angular momentum of the body
remains constant.
z When a cylindrical or a spherical body rolls down an inclined plane without
slipping, its speed is independent of its mass and radius.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. The weight Mg of a body is shown generally as acting at the centre of mass
of the body. Does this mean that the earth does not attract other particles?
2. Is it possible for the centre of mass of a body to lie outside the body? Give
two examples to justify your answer?
3. In a molecule of carbon monoxide (CO), the nuclei of the two atoms are
1.13 × 10–10m apart. Locate of the centre of mass of the molecule.
4. A grinding wheel of mass 5.0 kg and diameter 0.20 m is rotating with an
angular speed of 100 rad s–1. Calculate its kinetic energy. Through what
distance would it have to be dropped in free fall to acquire this kinetic energy?
(Take g = 10.0 m s–2).
5. A wheel of diameter 1.0 m is rotating about a fixed axis with an initial angular
speed of 2rev s–1. The angular acceleration is 3 rev s–2.
(a) Compute the angular velocity after 2 seconds.
(b) Through what angle would the wheel turned during this time?
(c) What is the tangential velocity of a point on the rim of the wheel at t =
2 s?
(d) What is the centripetal acceleration of a point on the rim of the wheel at
t = 2 s?
6. A wheel rotating at an angular speed of 20 rads–1 is brought to rest by a
constant torque in 4.0 seconds. If the moment of inertia of the wheel about
PHYSICS 203
MODULE - 1 Motion of Rigid Body
7.1
1. Yes, because the distances between points on the frame cannot change.
2. No. Any disturbance can change the distance between sand particles. So, a
heap of sand cannot be considered a rigid body.
7.2
1. The coordinates of given five masses are A (–1, –1), B (–5, –1), C (6, 3), D
(2, 6) and E (–3, 0) and their masses are 1 kg, 2kg, 3kg, 4kg and 5kg
respectively.
Hence, coordinates of centre of mass of the system are
204 PHYSICS
Motion of Rigid Body MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
-1× 1 – 5 × 2 + 6 × 3 + 2 × 4 – 3 × 5
x = 1+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 =0
–1× 1 − 1 × 2 + 3 × 3 + 4 × 6 + 0 × 5 30
y = 1+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = = 2.0
15
3
2 × 0 + 1× + 3× 0
2 3
y = = m
1+ 2 + 3 12 2 kg X
3 kg
⎛ 3.5 3⎞
Hence, the co-ordinates of the centre of mass are ⎜⎜ 6 , 12 ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
3. Let the two particles be along the x-axis and let their x-coordinates be o and
x. The coordinate of CM is
m1 × 0 + m2 × x m2 x
X= m1 + m2 = m +m , Y = 0
1 2
m2 x m1 x
x – X = x – m +m = m +m
1 2 1 2
X m2
∴ = m
x+X 1
Thus, the distances from the CM are inversely proportional to their masses.
7.3
1. Moment of inertia of the system about an axis perpendicular to the plane
passing through one of the corners and perpendicular to the plane of the
square,
= m r2 + m (2 r2) + m r2 = 4 m r2
M.I. about the axis along the side = m r2 + m r2 = 2 m r2
PHYSICS 205
MODULE - 1 Motion of Rigid Body
7.4
1. Angular momentum
⎛ d2 d2 ⎞
+
L =⎜ 4 4⎠ω
m m ⎟
⎝
m d 2ω
L=
2
2. Angular momentum about an axis of rotation (diameter).
r2
L=Iω=m ×ω
4
m r2
as M.I about a diameter =
4
(0.2) 2 m 2
∴ L = 20 kg × × 10 rad s–1 = 0.2 kg m2 s–1.
4
3. According to conservation of angular momentum
I1ω = (I1 + I2) ω1
where I1 is M.I. of the original wheel and I2 that of the other wheel, ω is the
initial angular speed and ω1 is the common final angular speed.
⎛ m 2⎞
m r2 ω = ⎜⎝ m r +
2
r ⎟ω
2 ⎠ 1
3 2
ω= ω1 ⇒ ω1 = ω
2 3
4. Let the present period of revolution of earth be T and earlier be T0. According
to the conservation of angular momentum.
2 ⎛ 2π ⎞ 2 ⎛ 2π ⎞
M (25 R)2 × ⎜ T ⎟ = M R2 × ⎜ T ⎟
5 ⎝ 0 ⎠ 5 ⎝ ⎠
206 PHYSICS
Motion of Rigid Body MODULE - 1
Motion, Force and Energy
2 ⎛ 2π ⎞
= M R2 × ⎜ T ⎟
5 ⎝ ⎠
It gives, T0 = 6.25 T
Thus, period of revolution of earth in the past T0 = 6.25 times the present
time period.
7.5
2 Notes
1. Using (I = M R2), Eqn. (7.29) for a solid sphere
5
1 1
mv2 + I ω2 = m g h
2 2
1 1 2 v2
or, mv2 + × m r2 . 2 = m g h
2 2 5 r
Q ω = v /r.
10
It gives v = .g h
7
m R2
2. For a solid cylinder, I =
2
1 1 1 1 m R2 v2 3
∴ Total K.E m v2 + I ω2 = m v2 + . 2 = m v2
2 2 2 2 2 R 4
Q ω = v /r
1
m v2 2
Hence, fraction of translational K.E. = 32 =
3
m v2
4
4
Proceeding as in Q.1 above : v = gh
3
PHYSICS 207
SENIOR SECONDARY COURSE
PHYSICS
STUDENT’S ASSIGNMENT – 1
1
Maximum Marks: 50 Time : 1 Hours
2
INSTRUCTIONS
z Answer All the questions on a seperate sheet of paper
z Give the following information on your answer sheet:
z Name
z Enrolment Number
z Subject
z Assignment Number
z Address
z Get your assignment checked by the subject teacher at your study centre so that you get positive
feedback about your performance.
PHYSICS 209
10. A footballer can kick a 0.5 kg ball with a maximum speed of 10m s-1. What is the maximum horizontal
distance to which he can kick the ball? (2)
11. The displacement of a particle is given by y = at +bt2, where a and b are constants and t is time. Find the
dimensional formula of b/a.
12. The length of the second’s hand of a clock is 10 cm. Calculate the speed of its tip. (2)
13. If by some freak of nature the earth collapses to 1/8th of its present volume, what would be the duration
of a day ?. Explain. (4)
14. Calculate the mean distance of a hypothetical planet from the sun which has a period of revolution of
100 years. You may take the distance between the sun and the earth as 1.5
15. A block of mass 2 kg is placed on plane surface. Its inclination from the horizontal may be changed. The
block is just at the verge of sliding when the inclination of the plans is 300, calculate the acceleration with
which the bock will slide down when the inclination of the plane is 450. (4)
16. A constant force of 20 N acts for 2s on a body of mass 2 kg initially at rest. How much distance will this
body move in 3s from start? (4)
17. Draw a load-extension graph for a spring. How will you use this graph to calculate (i) force constant of
the spring?
(ii) work done in compressing the spring by a distance x ?
18. Two masses of 3 kg and 5 kg one attached to a massless string and the string is passed
over a frictionless pulley as shown in fig. Calculate the tension in the string and acceleration
of the 3 kg block. (4)
19. Three rods each of mass per unit length 1 kg m-1 and length 20 cm form an equilateral 3 kg
triangle. Determine (i) The center of mass of the system. (ii) Moment of inertia of the 5 kg
system about an axis passing through, the centre of mass and normal to its plane. (5)
20. A body of mass m at rest is hit head-on elastically by a body of mass m kg moving with a speed of u.
Find the magnitude and direction of motion of each body after collision. (5)
210 PHYSICS
MODULE - II
MECHANICS OF SOLIDS AND FLUIDS
8
Notes
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF
SOLIDS
In the previous lessons you have studied the effect of force on a body to produce
displacement. The force applied on an object may also change its shape or size.
For example, when a suitable force is applied on a spring, you will find that its
shape as well as size changes. But when you remove the force, it will regain
original position. Now apply a force on some objects like wet modelling clay or
molten wax. Do they regain their original position after the force has been
removed? They do not regain their original shape and size. Thus some objects
regain their original shape and size whereas others do not. Such a behaviour of
objects depends on a property of matter called elasticity.
The elastic property of materials is of vital importance in our daily life. It is used
to help us determine the strength of cables to support the weight of bodies such
as in cable cars, cranes, lifts etc. We use this property to find the strength of
beams for construction of buildings and bridges. In this unit you will learn about
nature of changes and the manner in which these can be described.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z distinguish between three states of matter on the basis of molecular theory;
PHYSICS 213
MODULE - 2 Elastic Properties of Solids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids 8.1 MOLECULAR THEORY OF MATTER : INTER-
MOLECULAR FORCES
We know that matter is made up of atoms and molecules. The forces which act
between them are responsible for the structure of matter. The interaction forces
between molecules are known as inter-molecular forces.
Notes The variation of inter molecular Repulsion
forces with inter molecular
separation is shown in Fig. 8.1.
Force F
When the separation is large,
the force between two distance R
molecules is attractive and O
weak. As the separation Attraction R0
decreases, the net force of
attraction increases up to a Fig. 8.1 : Graph between inter-molecular force and
particular value and beyond Inter molecular separation.
this, the force becomes
repulsive. At a distance R = R 0 the net force between the molecules is zero. This
separation is called equilibrium separation. Thus, if inter-molecular separation
R > R0 there will be an attractive force between molecules. When R < R0 , a
repulsive force will act between them.
In solids, molecules are very close to each other at their equilibrium separation
( 10–10 m). Due to high intermolecular forces, they are almost fixed at their
positions. You may now appreciate why a solid has a definite shape.
In liquids, the average separation between the molecules is somewhat larger
( 10–8 m). The attractive force is weak and the molecules are comparatively
free to move inside the whole mass of the liquid. You can understand now why a
liquid does not have fixed shape. It takes the shape of the vessel in which it is
filled.
In gases, the intermolecular separation is significantly larger and the molecular
force is very weak (almost negligible). Molecules of a gas are almost free to
move inside a container. That is why gases do not have fixed shape and size.
214 PHYSICS
Elastic Properties of Solids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
The size of atom was also estimated. In the biography of Buddha (Lalitavistara), and Fluids
the estimate of atomic size is recorded to be of the order 10–10 m, which is very
close to the modern estimate of atomic size.
8.2 ELASTICITY
You would have noticed that when an external force is applied on an object, its Notes
shape or size (or both) change, i.e. deformation takes place. The extent of
deformation depends on the material and shape
Bow
of the body and the external force. When the
deforming forces are withdrawn, the body tries
to regain its original shape and size. string
You may compare this with a spring loaded
with a mass or a force applied on the string
of a bow or pressing of a rubber ball. If you
apply a force on the string of the bow to pull Fig 8.2 : Force applied on the
it ( Fig 8.2), you will observe that its shape string of a bow changes it shape
changes. But on releasing the string, the bow
regains its original shape and size.
The property of matter to regain its original shape and size after removal of the
deforming forces is called elasticity.
PHYSICS 215
MODULE - 2 Elastic Properties of Solids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids Due to inter-atomic forces, solid takes such a shape that each atom remains in a
stable equilibrium. When the body is deformed, the atoms are displaced from
their original positions and the inter-atomic distances change. If in deformation,
the separation increases beyond their equilibrium separation (i.e., R >R0), strong
attractive forces are developed. However, if inter–atomic separation decreases
(i.e. R < R0), strong repulsive forces develop. These forces, called restoring
forces, drive atoms to their original positions. The behaviour of atoms in a solid
Notes
can be compared to a system in which balls are connected with springs.
Now, let us learn how forces are applied to deform a body.
8.2.3 Stress
When an external force or system of forces is applied on a body, it undergoes a
change in the shape or size according to nature of the forces. We have explained
that in the process of deformation, internal restoring force is developed due to
molecular displacements from their positions of equilibrium. The internal restoring
force opposes the deforming force. The internal restoring force acting per
unit area of cross-section of a deformed body is called stress.
In equilibrium, the restoring force is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
to the external deforming force. Hence, stress is measured by the external force
per unit area of cross-section when equilibrium is attained. If the magnitude of
deforming force is F and it acts on area A, we can write
restoring force deforming force ( F )
Stress = = area ( A)
area
F
or Stress = (8.1)
A
The unit of stress is Nm–2 . The stress may be longitudinal, normal or shearing.
Let us study them one by one.
(i) Longitudinal Stress : If the deforming forces are along the length of the
body, we call the stress produced as longitudinal stress, as shown in its two
forms in Fig 8.3 (a) and Fig 8.3 (b).
F F
(a)
F F
(b)
216 PHYSICS
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Mechanics of Solids
(ii) Normal Stress : If the deforming forces are applied uniformly and normally and Fluids
all over the surface of the body so that the change in its volume occurs
without change in shape (Fig. 8.4), we call the stress produced as normal
stress. You may produce normal stress by applying force uniformly over the
entire surface of the body. Deforming force per unit area normal to the surface
is called pressure while restoring force developed inside the body per unit area
normal to the surface is known as stress.
Notes
F
F
F
F F F F F
F F
F F
F
F
(a) (b)
(iii) Shearing Stress : If the deforming forces act tangentially or parallel to the
surface (Fig 8.5a) so that shape of the body changes without change in volume,
the stress is called shearing stress. An example of shearing stress is shown in
Fig 8.5 (b) in which a book is pushed side ways. Its opposite face is held fixed by
the force of friction.
A
F
PH
F
YS
ICS
F
F
Fig. 8.5: (a) Shearing stress; (b) Pushing a book side ways
8.2.4 Strain
Deforming forces produce changes in the dimensions of the body. In general,
the strain is defined as the change in dimension (e.g. length, shape or
volume) per unit dimension of the body. As the strain is ratio of two similar
quantities, it is a dimensionless quantity.
Depending on the kind of stress applied, strains are of three types : (i) linear
strain,(ii) volume (bulk) strain, and (iii) shearing strain.
PHYSICS 217
MODULE - 2 Elastic Properties of Solids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids (i) Linear Strain : If on application of a
longitudinal deforming force, the length l F
of a body changes by Δl (Fig. 8.6), then l Dl
Fig. 8.6: Linear strain
change in length Δl
linear strain = original length =
l
Dp
Notes (ii) Volume Strain : If on application of a uniform
pressure Δp, the volume V of the body changes
by ΔV ( Fig 8.7) without change of shape of the
body, then Dp
change in volume ΔV DV
Volume strain = original volume = V
V Dp
(i) Shearing strain: When the deforming forces are Fig. 8.7: Volume strain
tangential (Fig 8.8), the shearing
Dx x
strain is given by the angle θ through F
which a line perpendicular to the fixed
plane is turned due to deformation.
y q
(The angle θ is usually very small.)
Then we can write
A
F
Δx Fixed
θ= y
Fig. 8.8 : Shearing strain
Elastic limit F
C E
B Breaking Point
Stress
A
Plastic behaviour
Elastic behaviour
Permanent Set
Strain X
O D
218 PHYSICS
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Mechanics of Solids
on this curve that are of particular importance. and Fluids
PHYSICS 219
MODULE - 2 Elastic Properties of Solids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids of energy is absorbed by the material and appears as heat. (You can feel it by
touching the rubber band with your lips.) This phenomenon is called elastic
hysteresis.
Elastic hysteresis has an important application in shock absorbers. A part of
energy transferred by the deforming force is retained in a shock absorber and
only a small part of it is transmitted to the body to which the shock absorber is
Notes attached.
Stress
smaller than the extension produced
in the rubber wire. But to produce
same strain in the two wires,
significantly higher stress is required
in the steel wire than in rubber wire. 0 Strain
Large amount of stress needed for 2 4 6 8
deformation of steel indicates that Fig. 8.10: Stress-strain curve for rubber
magnitude of internal restoring force
produced in steel is higher than that in rubber. Thus, steel is more elastic than
rubber.
Example 8.1 : A load of 100 kg is suspended by a wire of length 1.0 m and cross
sectional area 0.10 cm2. The wire is stretched by 0.20 cm. Calculate the (i) tensile
stress, and (ii) strain in the wire. Given, g = 9.80 ms–2.
Solution :
F Mg
(i) Tensile stress = =
A A
Δl 0.20 × 10–2 m
(ii) Tensile strain = = 1.0 m
l
= 0.20 × 10–2
220 PHYSICS
Elastic Properties of Solids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
Example 8.2 : Calculate the maximum length of a steel wire that can be suspended and Fluids
without breaking under its own weight, if its breaking stress = 4.0 x 108 Nm–2,
density = 7.9 × 103 kg m–3 and g = 9.80 ms–2
Solution :The weight of the wire W = Alρg, where, A is area of cross section of
the wire, l is the maximum length and ρ is the density of the wire. Therefore, the
W
breaking stress developed in the wire due to its own weight = ρlg. We are told Notes
A
that
breaking stress is 4.0 x 108 Nm–2. Hence
4.0 ×108 Nm– 2
l = (7.9×103 kg m–3 ) (9.8 ms – 2 )
= 0.05 × 105 m
= 5 × 103 m = 5 km.
Now it is time to take a break and check your understanding
PHYSICS 221
MODULE - 2 Elastic Properties of Solids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids This constant of proportionality E is a measure of elasticity of the substance and
is called modulus of elasticity. As strain is a dimensionless quantity, the modulus
of elasticity has the same dimensions (or units) as stress. Its value is independent
of the stress and strain but depends on the nature of the material. To see this, you
may like to do the following activity.
Notes
ACTIVITY 8.1
Arrange a steel spring with its top fixed with a rigid support on a wall and a
metre scale along its side, as shown in the Fig. 8.11.
Add 100 g load at a time on the bottom of the hanger Steel
spring
in steps. It means that while putting each 100 g load,
you are increasing the stretching force by 1N. Measure
the extension. Take the reading upto 500 g and note
the extension each time.
Plot a graph between load and extension. What is the hanger
shape of the graph? Does it obey Hooke’s law? meter
scale
The graph should be a straight line indicating that the
ratio (load/ extension) is constant.
Fig. 8.11: Hooke’s law
Repeat this activity with rubber and other materials.
apparatus
You should know that the materials which obey
Hooke’s law are used in spring balances or as force measurer, as shown in the
Fig. 8.11. You would have seen that when some object is placed on the pan, the
length of the spring increases. This increase in length shown by the pointer on the
scale can be treated as a measure of the increase in force (i.e., load applied).
Robert Hooke
(1635 – 1703)
Robert Hooke, experimental genius of seventeenth century, was
a contemporary of Sir Isaac Newton. He had varied interests and
contributed in the fields of physics, astronomy, chemistry, biology,
geology, paleontology, architecture and naval technology. Among other
accomplishments he has to his credit the invention of a universal joint, an early
proto type of the respirator, the iris diaphragm, anchor escapement and
balancing spring for clocks. As chief surveyor, he helped rebuild London after
the great fire of 1666. He formulated Hooke’s law of eleasticity and correct
theory of combustion. He is also credited to invent or improve meteorological
instruments such as barometer, anemometer and hygrometer.
222 PHYSICS
Elastic Properties of Solids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
8.3.1 Moduli of Elasticity and Fluids
In previous sections, you have learnt that there are three kinds of strain. It is
therefore clear that there should be three modulli of elasticity corresponding to
these strains. These are Young’s modulus, Bulk Modulus and Modulus of
rigidity corresponding to linear strain, volume strain and shearing strain,
respectively. We now study these one by one.
(i) Young’s Modulus: The ratio of the longitudinal stress to the longitudinal Notes
strain is called Young’s modulus for the material of the body.
Suppose that when a wire of length L and area of cross-section A is stretched by
a force of magnitude F, the change in its length is equal to ΔL. Then
F
Longitudinal stress =
A
ΔL
and Longitudinal strain =
L
F/A F×L
Hence, Young’s modulus Y = = A × ΔL
ΔL/L
If the wire of radius r is suspended vertically with a rigid support and a mass M
hangs at its lower end, then A = πr2 and F = M g.
M gL
∴ Y = π r2 ∆ L (8.3)
The SI unit of Y in is N m–2. The values of Young’s modulus for a few typical
substances are given in Table. 8.1. Note that steel is most elastic.
Table 8.1. Young’s modulus of some typical materials
(ii) Bulk Modulus: The ratio of normal stress to the volume strain is called bulk
modulus of the material of the body.
PHYSICS 223
MODULE - 2 Elastic Properties of Solids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids If due to increase in pressure P, volume V of the body decreases by ΔV without
change in shape, then
Normal stress = ΔP
Volume strain = ΔV/V
ΔP ΔP
Bulk modulus B = =V (8.4)
Notes ΔV/V ΔV
The reciprocal of bulk modulus of a substance is called compressibility :
1 1 ΔV
k = = (8.5)
B V ΔP
Gases being most compressible are least elastic while solids are most elastic or
least compressible i.e. Bsolid > Bliquid > Bgas
(iii) Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus: The ratio of the shearing stress to
shearing strain is called modulus of rigidity of the material of the body.
If a tangential force F acts on an area A and θ is the shearing strain, the modulus
of rigidity
Shearing stress F /A F
η = Shearing strain = = (8.6)
θ Αθ
You should know that both solid and fluids have bulk modulus. However, fluids
do not have Young’s modulus and shear modulus because a liquid can not sustain
a tensile or shearing stress.
Example 8.3 : Calculate the force required to increase the length of a wire of
steel of cross sectional area 0.1 cm2 by 50%. Given Y = 2 × 1011 N m–2.
Solution : Increase in the length of wire = 50%. If ΔL is the increase and L is the
ΔL 1
normal length of wire then =
L 2
F×L
∴ Y = A × ΔL
Y × A × ΔL (2 × 1011 Nm – 2 ) (0.1 × 10 –4 m2 ) × 1
or F = =
L 2
= 0.1 × 107 N = 106 N
Example 8.4 : When a solid rubber ball is taken from the surface to the bottom of
a lake, the reduction in its volume is 0.0012 %. The depth of lake is 360 m, the
density of lake water is 103 kgm–3 and acceleration due to gravity at the place is
10 m s–2. Calculate the bulk modulus of rubber.
224 PHYSICS
Elastic Properties of Solids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
Solution : and Fluids
Increase of pressure on the ball
P = hρg = 360m × 103 kgm–3 × 10 ms–3
= 3.6 × 106 Nm–2
ΔV 0.0012 Notes
Volume strain = = = 1.2 × 10-5
V 100
PV 3.6 × 106
Bulk Modulus B = = 1.2 × 10 –5 = 3.0 × 1011 Nm–2
ΔV
PHYSICS 225
MODULE - 2 Elastic Properties of Solids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids The value of Poisson’s ratio depends only on the nature of material and for most
of the substances, it lies between 0.2 and 0.4. When a body under tension suffers
no change in volume, i.e. the body is perfectly incompressible, the value of
Poisson’s ratio is maximum i.e. 0.5. Theoretically, the limiting values of Poisson’s
ratio are –1 and 0.5.
Notes
ACTIVITY 8.2
Take two identical wires. Make one wire to execute torsional vibrations for some
time. After some time, set the other wire also in similar vibrations. Observe the
rate of decay of vibrations of the two wires.
You will note that the vibrations decay much faster in the wire which was vibrating
for longer time. The wire gets tired or fatigued and finds it difficult to continue
vibrating. This phenomenon is known as elastic fatigue.
Δx 0.01 cm
∴ Shearing strain = y = 20 cm
Hence, = 0.005
Shearing stress 104 Nm –2
Modulus of rigidity η = Shearing strain =
.0005
= 2 × 107 N m–2
226 PHYSICS
Elastic Properties of Solids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
Example 8.6 : A 10 kg mass is attached to one end of a copper wire of length 5 and Fluids
m long and 1 mm in diameter. Calculate the extension and lateral strain, if Poisson’s
ratio is 0.25. Given Young’s modulus of the wire = 11 × 1010 N m–2.
Solution : Here L= 5 m, r = 0.05 × 10-3 m, y = 11 × 1010 Nm–2 F = 10 × 9.8 N,
and σ = 0.25.
Extension produced in the wire
Notes
–2
F. l (10 kg) × (9.8ms ) × (5m)
Δl = = 3.14 (0.5 ×10 –3 m)2 × (11×1010 Nm – 2 )
πr Y
2
490
= m
8.63 × 104
= 5.6 × 10-3 m
Δl
longitudinal streain = α =
l
5.6 × 10 –3 m
=
5m
= 1.12 × 10-2
lateral strain(β)
Poission’s ratio (σ) = longitudinal strain(α)
∴ lateral strain β = σ × α
= 0.125 × 1.12 × 10-2
= 0.14 × 10–3.
Now take a break to check your progress.
Elastic energy is a kind of potential energy and it is the energy which is associated
with the state of compression or extension of an elastic object like a spring.
The force involved here is the spring force. If we compress or extend a spring,
we change the relative locations of the coil of the spring. In case of a rubber
like tube we change the relative locations of its different layers. A restoring
force resists the change and result in work done by us due to which increases
the elastic potential energy of the spring or such like objects increases.
PHYSICS 227
MODULE - 2 Elastic Properties of Solids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids Suppose the spring constant of a spring is k. If the spring is stretched through
a distance x at any instant (Fig. 8.3.3), then the force applied is given by,
F = kx
Notes
(a)
r
(b)
r
(c)
dx
Fig. 8.13
dW = kx.dx
Therefore, the total work done in stretching the spring through a total distance
r from its equilibrium position (Fig. 8.3.3) is given by
r
r ⎡ x2 ⎤ 1 2
W = ∫0 kxdx = k ⎢ ⎥ = kr
⎣ 2 ⎦0 2
228 PHYSICS
Elastic Properties of Solids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
4. Two wires are made of the same metal. The length of the first wire is half and Fluids
that of the second and its diameter is double that of the second wire. If equal
loads are applied on both wires, find the ratio of increase in their lengths?
5. A wire increases by 10–3 of its length when a stress of 1 × 108 Nm-2 is applied
to it. Calculate Young’s modulus of material of the wire.
6. Calculate the elastic potential energy stored in a spring of spring constant
200 Nm–1 when it is stretched through a distance of 10 cm. Notes
4M g l3
δ=
γ b d3
It is now easy to understand as to why the cross-section of girders and rails is
kept I-shaped (Fig. ii). Other factors remaining same, δ α d–3. Therefore, by
increasing thickness, we can decrease depression under the same load more
effectively. This considerably saves the material without sacrificing strength
for a beam clamped at both ends and loaded in the middle (Fig.iii), the sag in
the middle is given by
M g l3
δ=
4 b d3γ
(ii) (iii
Thus for a given load, we will select a material with a large Young’s modulus
Y and again a large thickness to keep δ small. However, a deep beam may
have a tendency to buckle (Fig iv). To avoid this, a large load bearing surface
PHYSICS 229
MODULE - 2 Elastic Properties of Solids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids is provided. In the form I-shaped cross-section, both these
requirements are fulfilled.
In cranes, we use a thick metal rope to lift and move heavy
loads from one place to another. To lift a load of 10 metric
tons with a steel rope of yield strength 300 mega pascal, it
can be shown, that the minimum area of cross section required
Notes will be 10 cm or so. A single wire of this radius will practically
be a rigid rod. That is why ropes are always made of a large
number of turns of thin wires braided together. This provides
ease in manufacturing, flexibility and strength. (iv)
230 PHYSICS
Elastic Properties of Solids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
z Young’s modulus is the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain. and Fluids
z Bulk modulus is the ratio of normal stress to volume strain.
z Modulus of rigidity is the ratio of the shearing stress to shearing strain.
z Poisson’s ratio is the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain.
z The work done in stretching a spring is stored as elastic potential energy of
the spring.
Notes
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Define the term elasticity. Give examples of elastic and plastic objects.
2. Explain the terms stress, strain and Hooke’s Law.
3. Explain elastic properties of matter on the basis of inter-molecular forces.
4. Define Young’s modulus, Bulk modulus and modulus of rigidity.
5. Discuss the behaviour of a metallic wire under increasing load with the help
of stress-strain graph.
6. Why steel is more elastic than rubber.
7. Why poission’s ratio has no units.
8. In the three states of matter i.e., solid, liquid and gas, which is more elastic
and why?
9. A metallic wire 4m in length and 1mm in diameter is stretched by putting a
mass 4kg. Determine the alongation produced. Given that the Young’s
modulus of elasticity for the material of the wire is 13.78 × 1010 N m–2.
10. A sphere contracts in volume by 0.02% when taken to the bottom of sea
1km deep. Calculate the bulk modulus of the material of the sphere. You
make take density of sea water as 1000 kgm–3 and g = 9.8ms–2.
11. How much force is required to have an increase of 0.2% in the length of a
metallic wire of radius 0.2mm. Given Y = 9 × 1010 N m–2.
12. What are shearing stress, shearing strain and modulus of rigidity?
13. The upper face of the cube of side 10cm is displaced 2mm parallel to itself when
a tangential force of 5 × 105 N is applied on it, keeping lower face fixed. Find out
the strain?
14. Property of elasticity is of vital importance in our lives. How does the plasticity
helps us?
15. A wire of length L and radius r is clamped rigidly at one end. When the other
end of wire is pulled by a force F, its length increases by x. Another wire of
the same material of length 2L and radius 2r, when pulled by a force 2F, what
will be the increase in its length.
PHYSICS 231
MODULE - 2 Elastic Properties of Solids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
8.1
1. If R > R0 , the nature of force is attractive and if (ii) R < R0 it is repulsive.
Notes 2. Longitudinal stress and linear strain.
3. The ratio will decrease.
4. The stress corresponding to breaking point is known as breaking stress.
5. 0.12 × 1010N m–2.
8.2
1. Both have same units since strain has no unit?
2. As compressibility of liquids and gases is more than solids, the bulk modulus
is reciprocal of compressibility. Therefore solids are more elastic than liquid
and gases.
3. Half.
4. 1 : 8
5. 1 × 1011N m– 2.
6. 1 J
232 PHYSICS
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Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids
9
Notes
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
In the previous lesson, you have learnt that interatomic forces in solids are
responsible for determining the elastic properties of solids.Does the same hold
for liquids and gases? (These are collectively called fluids because of their nature
to flow in suitable conditions). Have you ever visited the site of a dam on a river
in your area / state/ region? If so, you would have noticed that as we go deeper,
the thickness of the walls increases. Did you think of the underlying physical
principle? Similarly, can you believe that you can lift a car, truck or an elephant by
your own body weight standing on one platform of a hydraulic lift? Have you
seen a car on the platform of a hydraulic jack at a service centre? How easily is it
lifted? You might have also seen that mosquitoes can sit or walk on still water,
but we cannot do so. You can explain all these observations on the basis of
properties of liquids like hydrostatic pressure, Pascal’s law and surface tension.
You will learn about these in this lesson.
Have you experienced that you can walk faster on land than under water? If you
pour water and honey in separate funnels you will observe that water comes out
more easily than honey. In this lesson we will learn the properties of liquids which
cause this difference in their flow.
You may have experienced that when the opening of soft plastic or rubber water
pipe is pressed, the stream of water falls at larger distance. Do you know how a
cricketer swings the ball? How does an aeroplane take off? These interesting
observations can be explained on the basis of Bernoulli’s principle. You will learn
about it in this lesson.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you would be able to :
z calculate the hydrostatic pressure at a certain depth inside a liquid;
PHYSICS 233
MODULE - 2 Properties of Fluids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids z describe buoyancy and Archimedes Principle;
z state Pascal’s law and explain the functioning of hydrostatic press , hydraulic
lift and hydraulic brakes.;
z explain surface tension and surface energy ;
z derive an expression for the rise of water in a capillary tube;
z differentiate between streamline and turbulent motion of fluids;
Notes
z define critical velocity of flow of a liquid and calculate Reynold’s number;
z define viscosity and explain some daily life phenomena based on viscosity of
a liquid; and
z state Bernoulli’s Principle and apply it to some daily life experiences.
From the previous lesson you may recall that solids develop shearing stress when
deformed by an external force, because the magnitude of inter-atomic forces is
very large. But fluids do not have shearing stress and when an object is submerged
in a fluid, the force due to the fluid acts normal to the surface of the object (Fig.
9.2). Also, the fluid exerts a force on the container normal to its walls at all
points.
234 PHYSICS
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Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids
Notes
The normal force or thrust per unit area exerted by a fluid is called pressure. We
denote it by P :
Thrust
P= (9.1)
area
PHYSICS 235
MODULE - 2 Properties of Fluids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids P1 A – P2A – ρ g h A = 0
⇒ P1 – P 2 = ρ g h (9.2)
So, the pressure P at the bottom of a column of liquid of height h is given by
P = ρgh
Notes That is, hydrostatic pressure due to a fluid increases linearly with depth. It is for
this reason that the thickness of the wall of a dam has to be increased with increase
in the depth of the dam.
If we consider the upper face of the cylinder to be at the open surface of the
liquid, as shown in Fig.(9.4), then P2 will have to be replaced by Patm (Atmospheric
pressure). If we denote P1 by P, the absolute pressure at a depth below the
surface will be
P – Patm + ρ g h
or P = Patm + ρ g h (9.3)
free surface of
the liquid
P2
P1
Fig. 9.4 : Cylinder in a liquid with one face at the surface of the liquid
Note that the expression given in Eqn. (9.3) does not show any term having area
of the cylinder It means that pressure in a liquid at a given depth is equal,
irrespective of the shape of the vessel (Fig 9.5).
Fig. 9.5 : Pressure does not depend upon shape of the versel.
236 PHYSICS
Properties of Fluids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
Example 9.1: A cemented wall of thickness one metre can withstand a side pressure and Fluids
of 105 Nm–2. What should be the thickness of the side wall at the bottom of a
water dam of depth 100 m. Take density of water = 103 kg m–3 and g = 9.8 ms–2.
Solution: The pressure on the side wall of the dam at its bottom is given by
P=hdg
= 100 × 103× 9.8 Notes
= 9.8 × 105 Nm–2
Using unitary method, we can calculate the thickness of the wall, which will
withstand pressure of 9.8×105 Nm–2. Therefore thickness of the wall
9.8 × 10 5 Nm
–2
t=
10 5
–2
Nm
= 9.8 m
He took a tube of about 1 m long filled with mercury of density 13,600 kg m–3
and placed it vertically inverted in a mercury tub as shown is Fig. 9.6. He observed
that the column of 76 cm of mercury above the free surface remained filled in the
tube.
In equi1ibrium, atmospheric pressure equals the pressure exerted by the mercury
column. Therefore,
Patm = h ρ g = 0.76 × 13600 × 9.8 Nm–2
= 1.01 × 10 5 Nm–2
= 1.01 × 105 Pa
PHYSICS 237
MODULE - 2 Properties of Fluids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids 9.2 BUOYANCY
It is a common experience that lifting an object in water is easier than lifting it in
air. It is because of the difference in the upward forces exerted by these fluids on
these object. The upward force, which acts on an object when submerged in a
fluid, is known as buoyant force. The nature of buoyant force that acts on objects
placed inside a fluid was discovered by. Archimedes Based on his observations,
Notes he enunciated a law now known as Archimedes principle. It state that when an
object is submerged partially or fully in a fluid, the magnitude of the buoyant
force on it is always equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
The different conditions of an object under buoyant force is shown in Fig 9.7.
B B
W W
W B
Fig. 9.7:
(a) : The magnitude of (b) : A totally submerged (c) : A totally submerged
buoyant force B on the object of density less than object denser than the fluid
object is exactly equal that of the fluid sinks.
to its weight experiences a net upward
in equilibrium. force.
Another example of buoyant force is provided by the motion of hot air balloon
shown in Fig. 9.8. Since hot air has less density than
cold air, a net upward buoyant force on the balloon makes
it to float.
Floating objects
You must have observed a piece of wood floating on the
surface of water. Can you identify the forces acting on it
when it is in equilibrium? Obviously, one of the forces is
due to gravitational force, which pulls it downwards.
However, the displaced water exerts buoyant force which
acts upwards. These forces balance each other in
equilibrium state and the object is then said to be floating Fig. 9.8: Hot air
on water. It means that a floating body displaces the balloon floating in air
fluid equal to its own weight.
238 PHYSICS
Properties of Fluids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
Archimedes and Fluids
(287- 212 B.C)
A Greek physicist, engineer and mathematician was perhaps
the greatest scientist of his time. He is well known for
discovering the nature of buoyant forces acting on objects.
The Archimedes screw is used even today. It is an inclined
rotating coiled tube used originally to lift water from the hold of ships. He also Notes
invented the catapult and devised the system of levers and pulleys.
Once Archimedes was asked by king Hieron of his native city Syracuse to
determine whether his crown was made up of pure gold or alloyed with other
metals without damaging the crown. While taking bath, he got a solution,
noting a partial loss of weight when submerging his arm and legs in water. He
was so excited about his discovery that he ran undressed through the streets
of city shouting “ Eureka, Eureka’’, meaning I have found it.
force F1
Pressure on the smaller piston, P = =
area A1
PHYSICS 239
MODULE - 2 Properties of Fluids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids Car
Inlet valve
Platform Release valve
F1 Heavy Air-line
A1 Load
A2 Large
Compressed
piston Oil
F2
Notes
air
Fig. 9.9: Hydraulic lift Fig. 9.10: Hydraulic jack
According to Pascal’s law, the same pressure is transmitted to the larger cylinder
of area A2.
Hence the force acting on the larger piston
F1
F2 = pressure × area = × A2 (9.4)
A1
It is clear from Eqn. ( 9.4) that force F2 > F1 by an amount equal to the ratio
(A2/A1). With slight modifications, the same arrangement is used in hydraulic
press, hydraulic balance, and hydraulic Jack, etc.
C
(C) Hydraulic Brakes
While traveling in a bus or a car, we see Fig. 9.11(a) : Hydraulic balance
how a driver applies a little force by his
foot on the brake paddle to stop the
vehicle. The pressure so applied gets Cotton M L
transmitted through the brake oil to the Bales Pump
piston of slave cylinders, which, in turn, Q a P Plunger
pushes the break shoes against the break
Press S
drum in all four wheels, simultaneously. Plunger
The wheels stop rotating at the same b
time and the vehicle comes to stop
Fig. 9.11(b) : Hydraulic press
instantaneously.
240 PHYSICS
Properties of Fluids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids
INTEXT QUESTIONS 9.1
1. Why are the shoes used for skiing on snow made big in size?
2 Calculate the pressure at the bottom of an ocean at a depth of 1500 m. Take
the density of sea water 1.024 × 103 kg m–3, atmospheric pressure=1.01 × 105
Pa and g = 9.80 ms–2. Notes
3. An elephant of weight 5000 kg f is standing on the bigger piston of area 10
m2 of a hydraulic lift. Can a boy of 25 kg wt standing on the smaller piston of
area 0.05m2 balance or lift the elephant?
4. If a pointed needle is pressed against your skin, you are hurt but if the same
force is applied by a rod on your skin nothing may happen. Why?
5. A body of 50 kg f is put on the smaller piston of area 0.1m2 of a big hydraulic
lift. Calculate the maximum weight that can be balanced on the bigger piston
of area 10m2 of this hydraulic lift.
ACTIVITY 9.1
1. Prepare a soap solution.
2. Add a small amount of glycerin to it.
3. Take a narrow hard plastic or glass tube. Dip its one end in the soap solution
so that some solution enters into it.
4. Take it out and blow air at the other end with your mouth.
5. Large soap bubble will be formed.
6. Give a jerk to the tube to detach the bubble which then floats in the air.
To understand as to how surface tension arises, let us refresh our knowledge of
intermolecular forces. In the previous lesson, you have studied the variation of
intermolecular forces with distance between the centres of molecules/atoms.
PHYSICS 241
MODULE - 2 Properties of Fluids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids The intermolecular forces are of two types: cohesive and adhesive. Cohesive
forces characterise attraction between the molecules of the same substance,
whereas force of adhesion is the attractive force between the molecules of two
different substances. It is the force of adhesion which makes it possible for us to
write on this paper. Gum, Fevicol etc. show strong adhesion.
We hope that now you can explain why water wets glass while mercury does not.
Notes
ACTIVITY 9.2
To show adhesive forces between glass and water molecule.
1. Take a clean sheet of glass
2. Put a few drops of water on it
3. Hold water containing side downward.
4. Observe the water drops.
Glass sheet
Water drops
The Adhesive forces between glass and water molecules keep the water drops
sticking on the glass sheet, as shown in Fig. 9.12.
242 PHYSICS
Properties of Fluids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
in the upper half of sphere of influence attracting these molecules is less than and Fluids
those in the lower half. If we consider the molecules of liquid on the upper half of
the surface of the liquid or liquid-air interface, even then the molecules will
experience a net downward force because of less number of molecules of liquid.
Therefore, if any liquid molecule is brought to the surface layer, work has to be
done against the net inward force, which increases their potential energy. This
means that surface layer possesses an additional energy, which is termed as surface
Notes
energy.
For a system to be in equilibrium, its potential energy must be minimum. Therefore,
the area of surface must be minimum. That is why free surface of a liquid at rest
tends to attain minimum surface area. This produces a tension in the surface,
called surface tension.
Surface tension is a property of the liquid surface B
due to which it has the tendency to decrease its
surface area. As a result, the surface of a liquid acts F
like a stretched membrane You can visualise its
existence easily by placing a needle gently on water F
surface and see it float.
A
Let us now understand this physically. Consider an
imaginary line AB drawn at the surface of a liquid at Fig. 9.14 : Direction of
surface tension on a liquid
rest, as shown in Fig 9.14. The surface on either side surface
of this line exerts a pulling force on the surface on the
other side.
The surface tension of a liquid can be defined as the force per unit length in
the plane of liquid surface :
T = F/L (9.5)
where surface tension is denoted by T and F is the magnitude of total force acting
in a direction normal to the imaginary line of length L, (Fig 9.14) and tangential
to the liquid surface. SI unit of surface tension is Nm–1 and its dimensions are
[MT–2].
Let us take a rectangular frame, as shown in Fig. 9.15 having a sliding wire
on one of its arms. Dip the frame in a soap solution and take out. A soap
film will be formed on the frame and have two surfaces. Both the surfaces
are in contact with the sliding wire, So we can say that surface tension acts
on the wire due to both these surfaces.
Let T be the surface tension of the soap solution and L be the length of the wire.
PHYSICS 243
MODULE - 2 Properties of Fluids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids Dx
F=T×2
L F F
Notes
Fig. 9.15: A Film in equilibirum
The force exerted by each surface on the wire will be equal to T × L. Therefore,
the total force F on the wire = 2TL.
Suppose that the surfaces tend to contract say, by Δx. To keep the wire in
equilibrium we will have to apply an external uniform force equal to F. If we
increase the surface area of the film by pulling the wire with a constant speed
through a distance Δx, as shown in Fig. 9.15b, the work done on the film is given
by
W = F × Δx = T × 2L × Δx
where 2L × Δx is the total increase in the area of both the surfaces of the film. Let
us denote it by A. Then, the expressopm for work done on the film simplifies to
W =T×A
This work done by the external force is stored as the potential energy of the new
surface and is called as surface energy. By rearranging terms, we get the required
expresion for surface tension :
T = W/A (9.6)
Thus, we see that surface tension of a liquid is equal to the work done in
increasing the surface area of its free surface by one unit. We can also say
that surface tension is equal to the surface energy per unit area.
We may now conclude that surface tension
z is a property of the surface layer of the liquid or the interface between a
liquid and any other substance like air;
z tends to reduce the surface area of the free surface of the liquid;
z acts perpendicular to any line at the free surface of the liquid and is tangential
to its meniscus;
z has genesis in intermolecular forces, which depend on temperature; and
z decreases with temperature.
A simple experiment described below demonstrates the property of surface tension
of liquid surfaces.
244 PHYSICS
Properties of Fluids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids
ACTIVITY 9.3
Take a thin circular frame of wire and dip it in a soap solution. You will find that
a soap film is formed on it. Now take a small circular loop of cotton thread and
put it gently on the soap film. The loop stays on the film in an irregular shape as
shown in Fig. 9.16(a). Now take a needle and touch its tip to the soap film inside Notes
the loop. What do you observe?
Thread T
Thread T
T
A Soap film Soap film
A
T
T
Fig 9.16 (a) : A soap film with Fig. 9.16 (b) : The shape of the thread
closed loop of thread without inner soap film
You will find that the loop of cotton thread takes a circular shape as shown in Fig
9.16(b). Initially there was soap film on both sides of the thread. The surface on
both sides pulled it and net forces of surface tension were zero. When inner side
was punctured by the needle, the outside surface pulled the thread to bring it into
the circular shape, so that it may acquire minimum area.
Leg of mosquito
T cos q T cos q
q q T Leg of mosquito
T sin q T sin q
mg
(a) (b)
Fig. 9.17 : The weight of a mosquito is balanced by the force of surface tension
= 2π rT cos θ (a) Dip in the level to form concave surface, and (b) magnified image
PHYSICS 245
MODULE - 2 Properties of Fluids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids acting tangentially on the free surface, therefore, acts at a certain angle to the
horizontal. Its vertical component acts upwards. The total force acting vertically
upwards all along the line of contact of certain length balances the weight of the
mosquito acting vertically downward, as shown in Fig 9.17.
R (Resultant
P Q force)
T T P Q
T r
T T Q
P
Fig. 9.18
246 PHYSICS
Properties of Fluids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
ΔA = 4π (r + Δr)2 – 4πr2 P0 and Fluids
r + Dr
= 8π r Δr
where we have neglected the term containing second
power of Δr. air
= TΔA = T. 8π r Δr (9.7)
If the drop is in equilibrium, this extra surface energy is equal to the work done
due to expansion under the pressure difference or excess pressure P:
Work done = P ΔV = P. 4π r2 Δr (9.8)
On combining Eqns. (9.7) and (9.8), we get
P. 4π r2 Δr = T.8 π r Δr
Or P = 2 T/ r (9.9)
PHYSICS 247
MODULE - 2 Properties of Fluids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids Solution:
(i) Excess pressure inside a soap bubble of radius r is
P = 4T/r
4 × 2.5 × 10 –2
= Nm–1
1 × 10 –3 m
Notes = 100 Nm–2
(ii) Excess pressure inside an air bubble in water
= 2T ′/ r
2 × 7.2 × 10 –2 Nm –1
=
1 × 10 –3 m
= 144 Nm–2
(iii) Excess pressure inside a spherical drop of water =2T ′/ r
= 144 Nm–2
Soap
molecules
water
248 PHYSICS
Properties of Fluids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
You now know that surface tension of soap solution is smaller than that of pure and Fluids
water but the surface tension of detergent solutions is smaller than that of soap
solution. That is why detergents are more effective than soap. A detergent dissolved
in water weakens the hold of dirt particles on the cloth fibers which therefore, get
easily detached on squeezing the cloth.
The addition of detergent, whose molecules attract water as well as oil, drastically
reduces the surface tension (T) of water-oil. It may even become favourable to Notes
form such interfaces, i.e. globes of dirt surrounded by detergent and then by
water. This kind of process using surface active detergents is important for not
only cleaning the clothes but also in recovering oil, mineral ores etc.
PHYSICS 249
MODULE - 2 Properties of Fluids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids in a paraffin wax container, the surface of water becomes convex. Similarly, when
mercury is filled in a glass jar, its surface become convex. Thus, we see that shape
of the liquid surface in a container depends on the nature of the liquid, material of
container and the medium above free surface of the liquid. To characterize it, we
introduce the concept of angle of contact.
It is the angle that the tangential plane to the liquid surface makes with the
Notes tangential plane to the wall of the container, to the point of contact, as
measured from within the liquid, is known as angle of contact.
Fig. 9.21 shows the angles of
contact for water in a glass jar and
paraffin jar. The angle of contact is
acute for concave spherical
meniscus, e.g. water with glass and
obtuse (or greater than 900) for
q q
convex spherical meniscus e.g.
water in paraffin or mercury in
glass tube.
Various forces act on a molecule
in the surface of a liquid contained
Fig 9.21 : Nature of free surface when water is
in a vessel near the boundary of the filled in (a) glass jar, and (b) paraffin wax jar
menisus. As the liquid is present
only in the lower quadrant, the resultant cohesive force acts on the molecule at P
symmetrically, as shown in the Fig.9.22(a). Similarly due to symmetry, the resultant
adhesive force Fa acts outwards at right angles to the walls of the container vessel.
The force Fc can be resolved into two mutually perpendicular components Fc cos
P
Fa Fa Fc sin q
Fc q
Fc Fc
Fc cos q
Fa Fa
Fc
F
F Fc
(a) (b) (c)
250 PHYSICS
Properties of Fluids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
θ acting vertically downwards and Fc sin θ acting at right angled to the boundary, and Fluids
The value of the angle of contact depends upon the relative values of Fc and Fa.
CASE 1: If Fa > Fc sin θ, the net horizontal force is outward and the resultant of
(Fa – Fc sin θ) and Fc cos θ lies outside the wall. Since liquids can not sustain
constant shear, the liquid surface and hence all the molecules in it near the boundary
adjust themselves at right angles to Fc so that no component of F acts tangential
to the liquid surface. Obviously such a surface at the boundary is concave spherical Notes
( Since radius of a circle is perpendicular to the circumference at every point.)
This is true in the case of water filled in a glass tube.
Case 2 : If Fa < Fc sin θ the resultant F of (Fc sin θ – Fa) acting horizontally and
Fc cos θ acting vertically down wards is in the lower quadrant acting into the
liquid. The liquid surface at the boundary, therefore, adjusts itself at right angles
to this and hence becomes convex spherical. This is true for the case of mercury
filled in the glass tube.
Case 3 :When Fa = Fc sinθ, the resultant force acts vertically downwards and
hence the liquid surface near the boundary becomes horizontal or plane.
PHYSICS 251
MODULE - 2 Properties of Fluids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids PB = PA – 2T/R (9.12)
where T is surface tension at liquid-air interface and R is the radius of concave
surface.
A
Notes B
h
A D E
D
B C C
(a) (b)
Thus liquid begins to rise in the capillary tube to a certain height h (Fig 9.23 b) till
the pressure of liquid column of height h becomes equal to 2T/R..Thereafter,
water stops rising. In this condition
h ρ g = 2 T/R (9.13)
h p g = 2T/ r /cos θ
Q
S
or h = 2T cosθ / r ρ g (9.14) Fig. 9.24 : Angle of
contact
It is clear from the above expression that if the radius
of tube is less (i.e. in a very fine bore capillary), liquid rise will be high.
252 PHYSICS
Properties of Fluids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids
9.7 VISCOSITY
If you stir a liquid taken in a beaker with a glass rod
in the middle, you will note that the motion of the
liquid near the walls and in the middle is not same
(Fig.9.25). Next watch the flow of two liquids (e.g.
glycerin and water) through identical pipes. You will
find that water flows rapidly out of the vessel whereas
glycerine flows slowly. Drop a steel ball through each
liquid. The ball falls more slowly in glycerin than in
water. These observations indicate a characteristic
Fig. 9.25: Water being
property of the liquid that determines their motion.
stirred with a glass rod
This property is known as viscosity. Let us now learn
how it arises.
9.7.1 Viscosity
We know that when one body slides over the other, a frictional force acts between
them. Similarly, whenever a fluid flows, two adjacent layers of the fluid exert a
tangential force on each other; this force acts as a drag and opposes the relative
motion between them. The property of a fluid by virtue of which it opposes the
relative motion in its adjacent layers is known as viscosity.
Fig. 9.26 shows a liquid flowing through a tube. The layer of the liquid in touch
with the wall of the tube can be assumed to be stationary due to friction between
the solid wall and the liquid. Other layers are in motion and have different velocities
Let v be the velocity of the layer at a distance x from the surface and v + dv be the
velocity at a distance x + dx.
PHYSICS 253
MODULE - 2 Properties of Fluids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids Moving
Q v + dv
P v
Notes
x + dx x
Rest
Fig. 9.26 : Flow of a liquid in a tube: Different layers move with different velocities
F α A dv/dx
or F = – η A (dv/dx) (9.15)
The SI unit of coefficient of viscosity is Nsm–2. In cgs system, the unit of viscosity
is poise.
254 PHYSICS
Properties of Fluids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
9.8.1 Streamline Motion and Fluids
The path followed by fluid particles is called line of flow. If every particle passing
through a given point of the path follows the
same line of flow as that of preceding particles,
the flow is said to be streamlined. A streamline
can be represented as the curve or path whose
tangent at any point gives the direction of the Notes
liquid velocity at that point. In steady flow, the
streamlines coincide with the line of flow Fig. 9.27: Streamline flow
(Fig. 9.27).
Note that streamlines do not intersect each other because two tangents can then
be drawn at the point of intersection giving two directions of velocities, which is
not possible.
When the velocity of flow is less than the critical velocity of a given liquid flowing
through a tube, the motion is streamlined. In such a case, we can imagine the
entire thickness
of the stream of the liquid to be made up of a large number of plane layers (laminae)
one sliding past the other, i.e. one flowing over the other. Such a flow is called
laminar flow.
If the velocity of flow exceeds the critical velocity vc, the mixing of streamlines
takes place and the flow path becomes zig-zag. Such a motion is said to be
turbulent.
A2
A1
A
Fig. 9.28: Liquid flowing through a tube
PHYSICS 255
MODULE - 2 Properties of Fluids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids Mass of the liquid entering per second at point A = A1 v1 ρ
Similarly, mass of the liquid leaving per second at point B = A2 v2 ρ
Since there is no accumulation of fluid inside the tube, the mass of the liquid
crossing any section of the tube must be same. Therefore, we get
A1 v1 ρ = A2 v2 ρ
Notes or A1 v1 = A2 v2
This expression is called equation of continuity.
1 1
Experiments show that vc α η ; vc α and vc α .
ρ d
= 1575
Since 1575 < 2000, the flow is unsteady.
256 PHYSICS
Properties of Fluids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
9.9 STOKES’ LAW and Fluids
George Stokes gave an empirical law for the magnitude of the tangential backward
viscous force F acting on a freely falling smooth spherical body of radius r in a
highly viscous liquid of coefficient of viscosity η moving with velocity v. This is
known as Stokes’ law.
According to Stokes’ law Notes
Fαη rv
or F=Kηrv
where K is constant of proportionality. It has been found experimentally that K =
6π.
Hence Stokes’ law can be written as
F = 6π η r v (9.17)
Stokes’ Law can also be derived using the method of dimensions as follows:
According to Stokes, the viscous force depends on:
z coefficient of viscosity (η) of the medium
z radius of the spherical body (r)
z velocity of the body (v)
Then F α ηa rb vc
or F = K ηa rb vc
where K is constant of proportionality
Taking dimensions on both the sides, we get
[MLT–2] = [ML–1T–1]a [L]b [LT–1]c
or [MLT–2] = [Ma L–a+b+c T–a-c]
Comparing the exponents on both the sides and solving the equations we get a =
b = c = 1.
Hence F =Kηrv
v
The forces acting on the body will be
(i) Weight of the body W acting downward. W
viscous liquid
(ii) The viscous force F acting vertically upward.
Fig. 9.29 : Force acting on a
(iii) The buoyant force B acting upward. sphere falling in viscous fluid
PHYSICS 257
MODULE - 2 Properties of Fluids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids Under the action of these forces, at some instant the net force on the body becomes
zero, (since the viscous force increases with the increase of velocity). Then, the
body falls with a constant velocity known as terminal velocity. We know that
magnitude of these forces are
F = 6π η r v0
where v0 is the terminal velocity.
Notes
W = (4/3) π r3 ρg
and B = (4/3) π r3 σg
The net force is zero when object attains terminal velocity. Hence
4 4
6π η r v0 = π r3 ρg – π r3 σg
3 3
2r 2 (ρ – σ) g
Hence v0 = (9.18)
9η
A. Parachute
When a soldier jumps from a flying aeroplane, he falls with acceleration due to
gravity g but due to viscous drag in air, the acceleration goes on decreasing till
he acquires terminal velocity. The soldier then descends with constant velocity
and opens his parachute close to the ground at a pre-calculated moment, so that
he may land safely near his destination.
258 PHYSICS
Properties of Fluids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids
9 × 1.8 × 10 × 0.12
–5
= m
2 (1000 – 1.21) 9.8
= 10–5 m
Notes
INTEXT QUESTIONS 9.4
1. Differentiate between streamline flow and turbulent flow?
2. Can two streamlines cross each other in a flowing liquid?
3. Name the physical quantities on which critical velocity of a viscous liquid
depends.
4. Calculate the terminal velocity of a rain drop of radius 0.01m if the coeflicient
of viscosity of air is 1.8 × 10–5 Ns m–2 and its density is 1.2 kg m–3. Density of
water = 1000 kg m–3. Take g = 10 m s–2.
5. When a liquid contained in a tumbler is stirred and placed for some time, it
comes to rest, Why?
PHYSICS 259
MODULE - 2 Properties of Fluids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids 9.10.1 Energy of a Flowing Fluid
Flowing fluids possess three types of energy. We are familiar with the kinetic and
potential energies. The third type of energy possessed by the fluid is pressure
energy. It is due to the pressure of the fluid. The pressure energy can be taken as
the product of pressure difference and its volume. If an element of liquid of mass
m, and density d is moving under a pressure difference p, then
Notes Pressure energy = p × (m/d) joule
Pressure energy per unit mass = (p/d) J kg–1
PA22
U2
U2
PA11
h2
U1
h2
Fig. 9.30
We consider a tube of varying cross section shown in the Fig. 9.30. Suppose at
point A the pressure is P1, area of cross section A1, velocity of flow v1, height
above the ground h1 and at B, the pressure is P2 ,area of cross-section A2 velocity
of flow = v2 , and height above the ground h2.
Since points A and B can be any two points along a tube of flow, we write
Bernoulli’s equation
260 PHYSICS
Properties of Fluids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
P + 1/2 dv2 + h dg = Constant. and Fluids
That is, the sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy of a fluid
remains constant in streamline motion.
P1 P1
H1 h P2 h1
h2
Main V V Main
A2 V 2 A 2 A 1 r1 V
pipe
pipe
A B
Venturimeter
It consists of a manometer, whose two limbs are connected to a tube having two
different cross-sectional areas say A1 and A2 at A and B, respectively. Suppose the
main pipe is horizontal at a height h above the ground. Then applying Bernoulli’s
theorem for the steady flow of liquid through the venturimeter at A and B, we can
write
Total Energy at A = Total Energy At B
1 mp1 1 mp2
m υ12 + mgh + = m υ22 + mgh +
2 d 2 d
PHYSICS 261
MODULE - 2 Properties of Fluids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids On rearranging terms we can write,
v12 d ⎡⎛ v 2 ⎞ ⎤
2
d
( p1 – p2) = ( v2 – v1 ) = 2 ⎢⎜ v ⎟ − 1⎥
2 2
(9.19)
2 ⎣⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎦
It shows that points of higher velocities are the points of lower pressure (because
of the sum of pressure energy and K.E. remain constant). This is called Venturi’s
Principle.
Notes
For steady flow through the ventrurimeter, volume of liquid entering per second
at A = liquid volume leaving per second at B. Therefore
A1v1 = A2v2 (9.20)
(The liquid is assumed incompressible i.e., velocity is more at narrow ends and
vice versa.
Using this result in Eqn. (9.19), we conclude that pressure is lesser at the narrow
ends;
v12 d ⎡ A12 ⎤
p1 – p2 = ⎢ A2 − 1⎥
2 ⎣ 2 ⎦
1 2 ⎡⎛ A ⎞ 2 ⎤
= dv1 ⎢⎜ 1 ⎟ − 1⎥
2 ⎢⎣⎝ A 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
2( p1 – p2 )
v1 = ⎛ A2 ⎞ (9.21)
d ⎜ 12 ⎟ –1
⎝ A2 ⎠
If h denotes level difference between the two limbs of the venturimeter, then
p1 – p2 = h d g
From this we note that v1 ∝ h since all other parameters are constant for a
given venturimeter. Thus
v1 = K h;
where K is constant.
The volume of liquid flowing per second is given by
V = A1 v1 = A1 × K h
or V = K′h
where K′ = K A1 is another constant.
262 PHYSICS
Properties of Fluids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
Bernaulli’s principle has many applications in the design of many useful appliances and Fluids
like atomizer, spray gun, Bunsen burner, carburetor, Aerofoil, etc.
(i) Atomizer : An atomizer is shown in Fig. 9.33. When the rubber bulb A is
squeezed, air blows through the tube B and comes B O
out of the narrow orifice with larger velocity creating A
a region of low pressure in its neighborhood. The liquid N
C
(scent or paint) from the vessel is, therefore, sucked Notes
into the tube to come out to the nozzles N. As the Vessel
liquid reaches the nozzle, the air stream from the tube
B blows it into a fine spray. Fig. 9.33 : Atomizer
(ii) Spray gun : When the piston is moved in, it blows the air out of the narrow
hole ‘O’ with large velocity creating a region of low Piston
pressure in its neighborhood. The liquid (e.g. insecticide) O
is sucked through the narrow tube attached to the vessel N
end having its opening just below ‘O’. The liquid on
reaching the end gets sprayed by out blown air from the
Fig. 9.34: Spray gun
piston (Fig. 9.34).
(iii) Bunsen Burner : When the gas emerges out of the
nozzle N, its velocity being high the pressure becomes Flame
low in its vicinity. The air, therefore, rushed in through Mixture of
gas and air
the side hole A and gets mixed with the gas. The mixture N Air
then burns at the mouth when ignited, to give a hot blue A
Gas
flame (Fig.9.35).
(iv) Carburetor : The carburetor shown in Fig. 9.36. is a Fig. 9.35: Bunsen
Burner
device used in motor cars for supplying a proper mixture
of air and petrol vapours to the cylinder of the engine.
The energy is supplied by the explosion of this mixture inside the cylinders of the
engine. Petrol is contained in the float chamber. There is a decrease in the pressure
on the side A due to motion of the piston.This causes the air from outside to be
sucked in with large velocity. This causes a low pressure near the nozzle B (due
B
Float
chamber
PHYSICS 263
MODULE - 2 Properties of Fluids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids to constriction, velocity of air sucked is more near B) and, therefore, petrol
comes out of the nozzle B which gets mixed with the incoming. Air. The mixture
of vaporized petrol and air forming the fuel then enters the cylinder through the
tube A.
(Sometimes when the nozzle B gets choked due to deposition of carbon or some
impurities, it checks the flow of petrol and the engine not getting fuel stops
Notes working. The nozzle has therefore, to be opened and cleaned.
(v) Aerofoil : When a solid moves in air , streamlines are formed . The shape of
the body of the aeroplane is designed specially as shown in the Fig. 9.37. When
the aeroplane runs on its runway, high velocity streamlines of air are formed. Due
to crowding of more streamlines on the upper side, it becomes a region of more
velocity and hence of comparatively low pressure region than below it. This
pressure difference gives the lift to the aeroplane.
P v1
Aerofoil
v2
P2
Low velocity region
(high pressure region)
Based on this very principle i.e., the regions of high velocities due to crowding of
steam lines are the regions of low pressure, following are interesting
demonstrations.1
(a) Attracted disc paradox : When air is blown through a narrow tube handle
into the space between two cardboard sheets [Fig. 9.38] placed one above the
other and the upper disc is lifted with the handle, the lower disc is attracted to
stick to the upper disc and is lifted with it. This is called attracted disc paradox,
P2
264 PHYSICS
Properties of Fluids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
(b) Dancing of a ping pong ball on a jet of water: and Fluids
If a light hollow spherical ball (ping-pong ball or table
tennis ball) is gently put on a vertical stream of water P1 v1 v2 P2
coming out of a vertically upward directed jet end of a
tube, it keeps on dancing this way and that way without
falling to the ground (Fig.9.39). When the ball shifts to Jet end
the lefts , then most of the jet streams pass by its right side Notes
thereby creating a region of high velocity and hence low
pressure on its right side in comparison to that on the left
Fig. 9.39: Dancing
side and the ball is again pushed back to the center of the Pring Pongball
jet stream .
(c) Water vacuum pump or aspirator or filter pump : Fig. 9.40 shows a filter
pump used for producing moderately low pressures.
Water from the tap is allowed to come out of the narrow Air
jet end of the tube A . Due to small aperture of the
nozzle, the velocity becomes high and hence a low-
pressure region is created around the nozzle N. Air is,
therefore, sucked from the vessel to be evacuated Air
through the tube B; gets mixed with the steam of water
and goes out through the outlet. After a few minutes., Fig. 9.40 : Filter Pump
the pressure of air in the vessel is decreased to about 1
cm of mercury by such a pump
(d) Swing of a cricket ball:
When a cricketer throws a spinning ball, it moves along a curved path in the air.
This is called swing of the ball. It is clear from Fig. 9.41. That when a ball is
moved forward, the air occupies the space left by the ball with a velocity v (say).
When the ball spins, the layer of air around it also moves with the ball, say with
the velocity ‘u’. So the resultant velocity of air above the ball becomes (v – u)
and below the ball becomes (v + u). Hence, the pressure difference above and
below the ball moves the ball in a curved path.
v
u
Curved path
of the ball
u
v
PHYSICS 265
MODULE - 2 Properties of Fluids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids Example 9.3: Water flows out of a small hole in
A VA = 0
the wall of a large tank near its bottom (Fig. 942).
What is the speed of efflux of water when the
height of water level in the tank is 2.5m?
hA
Solution: Let B be the hole near the bottom. B vB
Imagine a tube of flow A to B for the water to hB
Notes flow from the surface point A to the hole B. We
can apply the Bernoulli’s theorem to the points A Fig. 9.42
and B for the streamline flow of small mass m.
Total energy at B = Total energy at A
At A, vA= 0, pA= p = atmospheric pressure, h = height above the ground.
At B, vB = v = ?, pB = p, hB = height of the hole above the ground.
Let hA – hB = H = height of the water level in the vessel = 2.5m
and d = density of the water.
Applying the Bernoulli’s Principle and substituting the values we get,
½m v B2 = mg (hA – hB)
or vB = 2g (hA – hB )
= 2 × 9.8 × 2.5
= 7 m s–1
266 PHYSICS
Properties of Fluids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids
2T cos θ
h= rd g
z The excess pressure P on the concave side of the liquid surface is given by
2T
P= , where T is surface tension of the liquid
R
2T
P= , for air bubble in the liquid and
R
4T ′
P= , where T ′ is surface tension of soap solution, for soap bubble in air
r
z Detergents are considered better cleaner of clothes because they reduce the
surface tension of water-oil.
z The property of a fluid by virtue of which it opposes the relative motion
between its adjacent layers is known as viscosity.
PHYSICS 267
MODULE - 2 Properties of Fluids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids z The flow of liquid becomes turbulent when the velocity is greater than a
certain value called critical velocity (vc) which depends upon the nature of
the liquid and the diameter of the tube i.e. (η.P and d).
z Coefficient of viscosity of any liquid may be defined as the magnitude of
tangential backward viscus force acting between two successive layers of
unit area in contact with each other moving in a region of unit velocity gradient.
Notes
z Stokes’ law states that tangential backward viscous force acting on a spherical
mass of radius r falling with velocity ‘v’ in a liquid of coefficient of viscosity
η is given by
F = 6π η r v.
z Bernoulli’s theorem states that the total energy of an element of mass (m) of
an incompressible liquid moving steadily remains constant throughout the
motion. Mathematically, Bernoullis’s equation as applied to any two points A
and B of tube of flow
1 mPA 1 mPB
m vA2 + m g h + = m vB2 + m g hB +
2 A d 2 d
TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Derive an expression for hydrostatic pressure due to a liquid column.
2. State pascal’s law. Explain the working of hydraulic press.
3. Define surface tension. Find its dimensional formula.
4. Describe an experiment to show that liquid surfaces behave like a stretched
membrane.
5. The hydrostatic pressure due to a liquid filled in a vessel at a depth 0.9 m is
3.0 N m2. What will be the hydrostatic pressure at a hole in the side wall of
the same vessel at a depth of 0.8 m.
6. In a hydraulic lift, how much weight is needed to lift a heavy stone of mass
1000 kg? Given the ratio of the areas of cross section of the two pistons is 5.
Is the work output greater than the work input? Explain.
7. A liquid filled in a capillary tube has convex meniscus. If Fa is force of adhesion,
Fc is force of cohesion and θ = angle of contact, which of the following
relations should hold good?
(a) Fa > Fc sinθ; (b) Fa < Fc sinθ; (c) Fa cosθ = Fc; (d) Fa sinθ > Fc
8. 1000 drops of water of same radius coalesce to form a larger drop. What
happens to the temperature of the water drop? Why?
268 PHYSICS
Properties of Fluids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
9. What is capillary action? What are the factors on which the rise or fall of a and Fluids
liquid in a capillary tube depends?
10. Calculate the approximate rise of a liquid of density 103 kg m–3 in a capillary
tube of length 0.05 m and radius 0.2 × 10–3 m. Given surface tension of the
liquid for the material of that capillary is 7.27 × 10–2 N m–1.
11. Why is it difficult to blow water bubbles in air while it is easier to blow soap
bubble in air? Notes
12. Why the detergents have replaced soaps to clean oily clothes.
13. Two identical spherical balloons have been inflated with air to different sizes
and connected with the help of a thin pipe. What do you expect out of the
following observations?
(i) The air from smaller balloon will rush into the bigger balloon till whole
of its air flows into the later.
(ii) The air from the bigger balloon will rush into the smaller balloon till the
sizes of the two become equal.
What will be your answer if the balloons are replaced by two soap bubbles of
different sizes.
14. Which process involves more pressure to blow a air bubble of radius 3 cm
inside a soap solution or a soap bubble in air? Why?
15. Differentiate between laminar flow and turbulent flow and hence define critical
velocity.
16. Define viscosity and coefficient of viscosity. Derive the units and dimensional
formula of coefficient of viscosity. Which is more viscous : water or glycerine?
Why?
17. What is Reynold’s number? What is its significance? Define critical velocity
on the basis of Reynold’s number.
18. State Bernoulli’s principle. Explain its application in the design of the body
of an aeroplane.
19. Explain Why :
(i) A spinning tennis ball curves during the flight?
(ii) A ping pong ball keeps on dancing on a jet of water without falling on
to either side?
(iii) The velocity of flow increases when the aperture of water pipe is
decreased by squeezing its opening.
(iv) A small spherical ball falling in a viscous fluid attains a constant velocity
after some time.
PHYSICS 269
MODULE - 2 Properties of Fluids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids (v) If mercury is poured on a flat glass plate; it breaks up into small spherical
droplets.
20. Calculate the terminal velocity of an air bubble with 0.8 mm in diameter
which rises in a liquid of viscosity of 0.15 kg m–1 s–1 and density 0.9 g m–3.
What will be the terminal velocity of the same bubble while rising in water?
For water η = 10–2 kg m–1 s–1.
Notes 21. A pipe line 0.2 m in diameter, flowing full of water has a constriction of
diameter 0.1 m. If the velocity in the 0.2 m pipe-line is 2 m s–1. Calculate
(i) the velocity in the constriction, and
(ii) the discharge rate in cubic meters per second.
22. (i) With what velocity in a steel ball 1 mm is radius falling in a tank of
glycerine at an instant when its acceleration is one-half that of a freely
falling body?
(ii) What is the terminal velocity of the ball? The density of steel and of
glycerine are 8.5 gm cm–3 and 1.32 g cm–3 respectively; viscosity of
glycerine is 8.3 Poise.
23. Water at 20ºC flows with a speed of 50 cm s–1 through a pipe of diameter of
3 mm.
(i) What is Reynold’s number?
(ii) What is the nature of flow?
Given, viscosity of water at 20ºC as = 1.005 × 10–2 Poise; and
Density of water at 20ºC as = 1 g cm–3.
24. Modern aeroplane design calls for a lift of about 1000 N m–2 of wing area.
Assume that air flows past the wing of an aircraft with streamline flow. If the
velocity of flow past the lower wing surface is 100 m s–1, what is the required
velocity over the upper surface to give a desired lift of 1000 N m–2? The
density of air is 1.3 kg m–3.
25. Water flows horizontally through a pipe of varying cross-section. If the
pressure of water equals 5 cm of mercury at a point where the velocity of
flow is 28 cm s–1, then what is the pressure at another point, where the
velocity of flow is 70 cm s–1? [Tube density of water 1 g cm–3].
9.1
1. Because then the weight of the person applies on a larger area hence pressure
on snow decreases.
270 PHYSICS
Properties of Fluids MODULE - 2
Mechanics of Solids
2. P = Pa + ρ gh and Fluids
P = 1.5 × 107 Pa
2.5
3. Pressure applied by the weight of the boy = = 500 N m–2.
0.05
5000
Pressure due to the weight of the elephant = = 500 N m–2. Notes
10
∴ The boy can balance the elephant.
4. Because of the larger area of the rod, pressure on the skin is small.
50 w
5. = , w = 5000 kg wt.
0.1 10
9.2
1. Force of attraction between molecules of same substance is called force of
cohesion and the force of attractive between molecules of different substance
is called force of adhesion.
2. Surface tension leads to the minimum surface area and for a given volume,
sphere has minimum surface area.
3. No, they have tightly bound molecules.
4. Due to surface tension forces.
5. For air bubble in water
2T 2 × 727 × 10–3
P= = = 72.7 N m–2.
r 2 × 10–2
4T ′ 4 × 25 × 10–3
P′ = = = 2.5 N m–2.
r′ 4 × 10–2
9.3
1. No.
2. Yes, the liquid will rise.
3. Mercury has a convex meniscus and the angle of contact is obtuse. The fall in
the level of mercury in capillary makes it difficult to enter.
PHYSICS 271
MODULE - 2 Properties of Fluids
Mechanics of Solids
and Fluids 2T 2 × 7.2 × 10 –2
4. r = h ρ g =
3 × 1000 × 10
= 4.8 × 10–6m.
5. Due to capillary action.
Notes 9.4
1. If every particle passing through a given point of path follows the same line
of flow as that of preceding particle the flow is stream lined, if its zig-zag, the
flow is turbulent.
2. No, otherwise the same flow will have two directions.
3. Critical velocity depends upon the viscous nature of the liquid, the diameter
of the tube and density of the liquid.
4. .012 ms–1
5. Due to viscous force.
9.5
1. High velocity of air creates low pressure on the upper part.
2. Decreasing in the area creates large pressure.
3. The fluid should be incompressible and non-viscous on (very less). The mo-
tion should be steamlined.
1
4. (P1 – P2) = d ( v 22 – v12 )
2
5. So that the stream lines with the two surfaces are different. More swing in the
ball will be obtained.
272 PHYSICS
SENIOR SECONDARY COURSE
PHYSICS
STUDENT’S ASSIGNMENT – 2
1
Maximum Marks: 50 Time : 1 Hours
2
INSTRUCTIONS
z Answer All the questions on a seperate sheet of paper
z Give the following information on your answer sheet:
z Name
z Enrolment Number
z Subject
z Assignment Number
z Address
z Get your assignment checked by the subject teacher at your study centre so that you get positive
feedback about your performance.
Strain Strain
(a) (b)
2. Two wires A and B having equal lengths and made of the same metal are subjected to equal loads. If
extension in A is twice the extension in B what is the ratio of the radii of A and B. (1)
3. Why are the walls of a dam made thicker at the base? (1)
4. A balloon filled with helium gas does not rise in air indefinitely but halts after a certain height.
Why? (1)
5. How does the viscosity of a gas change with increase in temperature of the gas? (1)
6. Which is more elastic iron or rubber? (1)
PHYSICS 273
7. Is Surface tension dependent on the area of the surface? (1)
8. For what values of Raynold number is the flow of a fluid stream-lined. (1)
9. When solid rubber ball is taken from the surface to bottom of a lake the reduction in its volume is
0.0012%. The depth of the lake is 0.360 km, density of water is 1g cm–3 and acceleration due to gravity
is 10 N kg–1. Calculate bulk modulus of rubber. [Ans : 3 × 1011N m–2] (2)
10. Show the variation of stress with strain when a metallic wire of uniform cross.section is subjected to an
increasing load. (2)
11. Explain why the detergents should have small angle of contact. (2)
12. A 40 kg girl, wearing high heel shoes, balances on a single heel which is circular and has a diameter
10 mm. What is the pressure exerted by the heel on the floor? (2)
13. (i) Why does a spinning cricket ball in air not follow a parabolic trajectory?
(ii) Discuss the magnus effect. (2 + 2)
14. State Bernoulli’s principle.
A fully loaded aircraft has a mass 330 tonnes and total wing area 500 m2. It is in level flight with a speed
of 960 km h–1. Estimate the pressure difference between the lower and upper surfaces of the wings.
Also estimate the fractional increase in the speed of the air on the upper surface of the wing relative to
the lower surface. The density of air is 1.2 kg m–3.
⎧ F –2 V2 – V1 ΔP ⎫
⎪ΔP ' = A = 6.5 ×10 Nm , V = = 0.08⎪
3
2
⎪ av Pv ⎪
Hint : ⎨ ⎬ (4)
⎪V – V = 2ΔP ⎪
⎪⎩ 2 1 P(V2 + V1 ) ⎪⎭
15. A smooth spherical body of density(ρ) and radius(r), falling freely in a highly viscous liquid of density
σ and coefficient of viscosity(η) with a velocity (v), state the law for the magnitude of the tangential
backward viscous force (F) acting on the body. Obtain the expression for the constant velocity acquired
by the spherical body in the liquid. (4)
16. Increasing surface area costs energy. Discuss the behaviour of molecules in a liquid and hence explain
surface energy. (4)
17. A soap bubble has two surfaces of equal surface area i.e. the outer and the inner but pressure inside is
different from the pressure outside. Obtain the expression for the difference in pressure inside a soap
bubble floating in air. (4)
18. State equation of continuity and prove it. (4)
19. What is the function of a flow meter? Obtain the expression for the volume of liquid flowing per second
through a venturimeter. (5)
20. State three assumptions required to develop Bernoulli’s equation. Show that pressure energy, kinetic
energy, and potential energy per unit Volume of a fluid remains constant in a stream line motion. (5)
or
If a capillary tube is dipped in water what do you observe? What do you call this phenomenon? Obtain
the expression for this phenomenon relating the symbols T, r, h, θ, f and g where symbols have their
usual meaning. Also discuss what would happen if the thin tube of uniform bore immersed in water is of
insufficient length.
274 PHYSICS
MODULE - III
THERMAL PHYSICS
10
Notes
As you have studied in the previous lessons, at standard temperature and pressure,
matter exists in three states – solid, liquid and gas. These are composed of atoms/
molecules which are held together by intermolecular forces. At room temperature,
these atoms/molecules have finite thermal energy. If thermal energy increases,
molecules begin to move more freely. This state of matter is said to be the gaseous
state. In this state, intermolecular forces are very weak and very small compared
to their kinetic energy.
Under different conditions of temperature, pressure and volume, gases exhibit
different properties. For example, when the temperature of a gas is increased at
constant volume, its pressure increases. In this lesson you will learn the kinetic
theory of gases which is based on certain simplifying assumptions.You will also
learn the kinetic interpretation of temperature and its relationship with the kinetic
energy of the molecules. Why the gases have two types of heat capacities and
concept of thermal expansion will also be explained in this lesson.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z define heat capacity and specific heat;
z state principle of caorimetry;
z explain thermal expansion;
z derive relation between α, β and γ;
z state the assumptions of kinetic theory of gases;
1
z derive the expression for pressure P = ρc 2 ;
3
z explain how rms velocity and average velocity are related to temperature;
z derive gas laws on the basis of kinetic theory of gases;
PHYSICS 277
MODULE - 3 Kinetic Theory of Gases
Thermal Physics
z give kinetic interpretation of temperature and compute the mean kinetic energy
of a gas;
z explain degrees of freedom of a system of particles;
z explain the law of equipartition of energy;
z explain why a gas has two heat capacities; and
z derive the relation cp – cV = R/J.
Notes
10.1 THERMAL ENERGY
During a year, the spring (Basant) season, when the temperature is not as high
as in summer and not as low as in winter, is very pleasant. How does this change
in temperature affect our day to day activities? How do things change their
properties with change in temperature? Is there any difference between
temperature and heat? All such questions will be discussed in the following
sections.
The term temperature and heat are often used interchangeably in everyday
language. In Physics, however, these two terms have very different meaning.
Supply of heat does often increase the temperature but does it happen so when
water boils or freezes? Why the wind in the coastal areas often reverses direction
after the Sun goes down? Why does ice melt when kept on the palm of hand
and why does the palm feel cool? All these facts will be explained in this chapter.
278 PHYSICS
Kinetic Theory of Gases MODULE - 3
Thermal Physics
10.1.2 Calorimetry
When two bodies at different temperatures are kept in contact, transfer of heat
takes place from the body at higher temperature to the body at lower
temperature till both the bodies acquire the same temperature. The specific heat
of a material and other physical quanties related to this heat transfer are
measured with the help of a device called calorimeter and the process of the
measurement is called calcorimetry. Notes
PHYSICS 279
MODULE - 3 Kinetic Theory of Gases
Thermal Physics
Thus, α is defined as the change in length of unit length of the substance whose
temperature is increased by 1°C.
In superficial expansion, the change in area is directly proportional to the original
area and change in temperature:
ΔA ∝ A0 Δθ
Notes or ΔA = β A0 Δθ
ΔV ∝ V0 Δθ
or ΔV = γV0 Δθ
Δl = αl Δθ
= αl ( ∵ Δθ = l °C )
or, new length l ′ = l + Δl = l + αl = l (1 + α )
Dq = 1°C
Fig. 10.1
280 PHYSICS
Kinetic Theory of Gases MODULE - 3
Thermal Physics
Δl
Thus, α=
l
ΔA l 2 (1 + α)2 − l 2
And β= =
A l2
= 1 + α 2 + 2α − 1 Notes
Since α is very small therefore α2 may be neglected. We therefore have
β = 2α
ΔV l 3 (1 + α)3 − l 3
similarly, γ= =
V l3
or, γ = l 3 + α3 + 3α 2 + 3α − l 3
As α is very small, the term α2 and α3 may be neglected. We , therefore, have
∴ γ = 3α.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 (°C)
temperature
Fig. 10.2
PHYSICS 281
MODULE - 3 Kinetic Theory of Gases
Thermal Physics
Now, it can be understood why a pond or lake freezes at its surface whereas
water may remain below it in liquid state. As the pond cools, the colder, denser
water at the surface initially sinks to the bottom. When the temperature of the
entire water body reaches 4°C, this flow stops. The temperating of surface water
keeps on decreasing and freezes ultimately at 0°C. As water freezes at the
surface, it remains there since ice is a bad conductor of heat; and since ice is
less denser than water the ice continues to build up at the surface whereas water
Notes
near the bottom remains at 4°C. If this had not happened fish and all the marine
life would not have survived.
⎛ V −V ⎞
γv = ⎜ 2 1 ⎟
⎝ V1Δθ ⎠Δp =0
⎛ p − p1 ⎞
and similarly γp =⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ p1Δθ ⎠ Δv =0
282 PHYSICS
Kinetic Theory of Gases MODULE - 3
Thermal Physics
(i) A gas consists of a very large number of identical rigid molecules, which
move with all possible velocities randomly. The intermolecular forces between
them are negligible.
(ii) Gas molecules collide with each other and with the walls of the container.
These collisions are perfectly elastic.
(iii) Size of the molecules is negligible compared to the separation between them.
Notes
(iv) Between collisions, molecules move in straight lines with uniform velocities.
(v) Time taken in a collision is negligible as compared to the time taken by a
molecule between two successive collisions.
(vi) Distribution of molecules is uniform throughout the container.
To derive an expression for the pressure exerted by a gas on the walls of the
container, we consider the motion of only one molecule because all molecules are
identical (Assumption i). Moreover, since a molecule moving in space will have
velocity components along x, y and z–directions, in view of assumption (vi)it is
enough for us to consider the motion only along one dimension, say x-axis.(Fig.
10.1). Note that if there were N (= 6 ×1026 molecules m–3), instead of considering
3N paths, the assumptions have reduced the roblem to only one molecule in one
dimension. Let us consider a molecule having velocity C in the face LMNO. Its x,
y and z components are u, v and w, respectively. If the mass of the molecule is m
and it is moving with a speed u along x–axis, its momentum will be mu towards
the wall and normal to it. On striking the wall, this molecule will rebound in the
opposite direction with the same speed u, since the collision has been assumed to
be perfectly elastic (Assumption ii). The momentum of the molecule after it
rebounds is (–mu). Hence, the change in momentum of a molecule is
mu – (–mu) = 2mu
If the molecule travels from face LMNO to the face ABCD with speed u along x–
axis and rebounds back without striking any other molecule on the way, it covers
a distance 2l in time 2l/u. That is, the time interval between two successive
collisions of the molecules with the wall is 2l/u.
According to Newton’s second law of motion, the y
rate of change of momentum is equal to the l B
impressed force. Therefore l L
M A
Rate of change of l
l
Change in momentum
momentum at ABCD = w u x
Time O C
N D
2mu mu 2 z
= = Fig. 10.3 : Motion of a
2l / u l
molecule in a container
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This is the rate of change of momentum of one molecule. Since there are N
molecules of the gas, the total rate of change of momentum or the total force
exerted on the wall ABCD due to the impact of all the N molecules moving along
x-axis with speeds, u1, u2, ..., uN is given by
( u1 + u 22 + u 32 + ... + u N2 )
m 2
Force on ABCD =
l
Notes
We know that pressure is force per unit area. Therefore, the pressure P exerted
on the wall ABCD of areas l 2 by the molecules moving along x-axis is given by
m
l
( u 12 + u 22 + ... + u N2 )
P =
l2
=
m
l3
( u 12 + u 22 + ... + u N2 ) (10.1)
–
If u 2 represents the mean value of the squares of all the speed components along
x-axis, we can write
u 2 = u 1 + u 2 + u 3 + ... + u N
– 2 2 2 2
N
–
or N u 2 = u12 + u22 + u32 + ... + u N2
Substituting this result in Eqn. (10.1), we get
Nmu 2
P = (10.2)
l3
It can be shown by geometry that
c2 = u2 + v2 + w2
since u, v and w are components of c along the three orthogonal axes. This relation
also holds for the mean square values, i.e.
–
c–2 = u 2 + v 2 + w
–2
– –2
so that u2 = c
3
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Substituting this result in Eqn. (10.2), we get
1 Nm –
P = c2
3 l3
But l 3 defines the volume V of the container or the volume of the gas. Hence,
we get
1 1 Notes
PV = Nm c–2 = M c–2 (10.3)
3 3
Note that the left hand side has macroscopic properties i.e. pressure and volume
and the right hand side has only microscopic properties i.e. mass and mean square
speed of the molecules.
Eqn (10.3) can be re-written as
1 Nm –
P = c2
3 V
mN
If ρ = is the density of the gas, we can write
V
1 –
P = ρ c2
3
3P
or c–2 = ρ (10.4)
If we denote the ratio N/V by number density n, Eqn. (10.3) can also be expressed
as
1
P = m n c2 (10.5)
3
The following points about the above derivation should be noted:
(i) From Eqn. (10.4) it is clear that the shape of the container does not play
any role in kinetic theory; only volume is of significance. Instead of a cube
we could have taken any other container. A cube only simplifies our
calculations.
(ii) We ignored the intermolecular collisions but these would not have affected
the result, because, the average momentum of the molecules on striking the
walls is unchanged by their collision; same is the cose when they collide
with each other.
(iii) The mean square speed c–2 is not the same as the square of the mean speed.
This is illustrated by the following example.
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Suppose we have five molecules and their speeds are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 units, respectively.
Then their mean speed is
1+ 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
= 3 units
5
Its square is 9 (nine).
On the other hand, the mean square speed is
Notes
12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 55
= = 11
5 5
Thus we see that mean square speed is not the same as square of mean speed.
Example 10.1 : Calculate the pressure exerted by 1022 molecules of oxygen,
each of mass 5 × 10–2 6 kg, in a hollow cube of side 10 cm where the average
translational speed of molecule is 500 m s–1.
Solution : Change in momentum 2m u = 2 × (5 × 10–26 kg) × (500 m s–1)
= 5 × 10–23 kg m s–1.
Time taken to make successive impacts on the same face is equal to the time
spent in travelling a distance of 2 × 10 cm or 2 × 10–1 m. Hence
2 × 10 –2 m
Time = 500 ms –1 = 4 × 10–4 s
5 × 10−23 kg ms −1
∴ Rate of change of momentum = = 1.25 × 10–19 N
4 × 10−4 s
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4. What is meant by specific heat of a substance?
5. Define coefficient of cubical expansion.
6. A steel wire has a length of 2 m at 20°C. Its length becomes 2.01 m at 120°C.
Calculate coefficient of linear expansion α of the material of wire.
3 1 Nmc 2 1
RT = = m NA c–2
2 2 n 2
N
where = NA is Avogadro’s number. It denotes the number of atoms or molecules
n
in one mole of a substance. Its value is 6.023×1023 per gram mole. In terms of NA,
we can write
3 ⎛ R ⎞T 1
⎜ ⎟ = m c–2
2 ⎝ A⎠
N 2
1 –
But m c 2 is the mean kinetic energy of a molecule. Therefore, we can write
2
1 – 3 ⎛ R ⎞ 3
m c2 = ⎜ N ⎟ T = kT (10.6)
2 2 ⎝ A⎠ 2
R
where k = N (10.7)
A
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3
Hence, kinetic energy of a gram mole of a gas is RT
2
This relationship tells us that the kinetic energy of a molecule depends only on
the absolute temperature T of the gas and it is quite independent of its mass. This
fact is known as the kinetic interpretation of temperature.
Clearly, at T = 0, the gas has no kinetic energy. In other words, all molecular
Notes
motion ceases to exist at absolute zero and the molecules behave as if they are
frozen in space. According to modern concepts, the energy of the system of
electrons is not zero even at the absolute zero. The energy at absolute zero is
known as zero point energy.
From Eqn.(10.5), we can write the expression for the square root of c–2 , called
root mean square speed :
3kT 3RT
crms = c2 = =
m M
This expression shows that at any temperature T, the crms is inversely proportional
to the square root of molar mass. It means that lighter molecule, on an average,
move faster than heavier molecules. For example, the molar mass of oxygen is 16
times the molar mass of hydrogen. So according to kinetic theory, the hydrogen
molecules should move 4 times faster then oxygen molecules. It is for this reason
that lighter gases are in the above part of our atmosphere. This observed fact
provided an early important evidence for the validity of kinetic theory.
1
PV = M c–2
3
When the temperature of a given mass of the gas is constant, the mean square
speed is constant. Thus, both M and c–2 on the right hand side of Eqn. (10.3) are
constant. Thus, we can write
P V = Constant (10.9)
This is Boyle’s law, which states that at constant temperature, the pressure of a
given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to the volume of the gas.
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(ii) Charle’s Law
From Eqn. (10.3) we know that
1
PV = M c–2
3
1 M –
or V= c2
3 P
Notes
i.e, V ∝ c–2 , if M and P do not vary or M and P are constant. But c–2 ∝ T
∴ V ∝T (10.10)
This is Charle’s law : The volume of a given mass of a gas at constant pressure
is directly proportional to temperature.
Robert Boyle
(1627 – 1691)
British experimentalist Robert Boyle is famous for his law
relating the pressure and volume of a gas (PV = constant).
Using a vacuum pump designed by Robert Hook, he
demonstrated that sound does not travel in vacuum. He proved
that air was required for burning and studied the elastic properties of air.
A founding fellow of Royal Society of London, Robert Boyle remained a
bachalor throughout his life to pursue his scientific interests. Crater Boyle on
the moon is named in his honour.
(iii) Gay Lussac’s Law – According to kinetic theory of gases, for an ideal gas
1 M –
P = c2
3 V
For a given mass (M constant) and at constant volume (V constant),
P ∝ c–2
But c–2 ∝ T
∴ P∝T (10.11)
which is Gay Lussac’s law. It states that the pressure of a given mass of a gas is
directly proportional to its absolute temperature T, if its volume remains
constant.
(iv) Avogadro’s Law
Let us consider two different gases 1 and 2. Then from Eqn. (10.3), we recall that
1 –
P1 V1 = m1 N1 c12
3
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1 –
and P2 V2 = m2 N2 c22
3
If their pressure and volume are the same, we can write
P1V2 = P2V2
Notes 1 – 1 –
Hence m1 N1 c12 = m2 N2 c22
3 3
Since the temperature is constant, their kinetic energies will be the same, i.e.
1 – 1 –
m1 c12 = m2 c22
2 2
Using this result in the above expression, we get N1 = N2. (10.12)
That is, equal volume of ideal gases under the same conditions of temperature
and pressure contain equal number of molecules. This statement is Avogadro’s
Law.
(v) Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
Suppose we have a number of gases or vapours, which do not react chemically.
– – –
Let their densities be ρ1, ρ2, ρ3 ... and mean square speeds c12 , c22 , c32 ... respectively.
We put these gases in the same enclosure. They all will have the same volume.
Then the resultant pressure P will be given by
1 –2 1 – 1 –
P = ρ1 c1 + ρ2 c22 + ρ3 c32 + ...
3 3 3
1 –2 1 –2 1 –2
Here ρ c , ρ c , ρ c ... signify individual (or partial) pressures of different
3 1 1 3 2 2 3 3 3
gases or vapours. If we denote these by P1, P2, P3, respectively we get
P = P1 + P2 + P3 +.... (10.13)
In other words, the total pressure exerted by a gaseous mixture is the sum of
the partial pressures that would be exerted, if individual gases occupied the
space in turn. This is Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
(vi) Graham’s law of diffusion of gases
Graham investigated the diffusion of gases through porous substances and found
that the rate of diffusion of a gas through a porous partition is inversely
proportional to the square root of its density. This is known as Graham’s law
of diffusion.
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On the basis of kinetic theory of gases, the rate of diffusion through a fine hole
will be proportional to the average or root mean square velocity crms. From Eqn.
(10.4) we recall that
3P
c–2 = ρ
—
3P
or c 2 = crms = Notes
ρ
That is, the root mean square velocities of the molecules of two gases of densities
ρ 1 and ρ 2 respectively at a pressure P are given by
3P 3P
(crms)1 = ρ1 and (crms)2= ρ
2
Thus,
= 1927 m s–1
Example 10.3 : At what temperature will the root mean square velocity of
hydrogen be double of its value at S.T.P., pressure being constant (STP = Standard
temperature and pressure).
Solution : From Eqn. (10.8), we recall that
crms α T
c 2c0 T
∴ c0 = c0 = T0
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Squaring both sides, we get
T
4 = T
0
or T = 4T0
Since T0 = 273K, we get
Notes
T = 4×273K = 1092K = 8190C
Example 10.4 : Calculate the average kinetic energy of a gas at 300 K. Given k
= 1.38 × 10–23 JK–1.
Solution : We know that
1 3
M c–2 = k T
2 2
Since k = 1.38 × 10–23 J K–1 and T= 300 K, we get
3
∴ E = (1.38 × 10–23 J K–1) (300 K)
2
= 6.21 × 10–21 J
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road has a flyover at some point and you take the flyover route. Now, you do
not have any freedom to turn left or right, which means that your freedom has
get restricted. You can move only along the flyover and we say that your degree
of freedom is ‘1’.
Refer to Fig. 10.4. A string is tied in a taut manner from one end A to other
end B between two opposite walls of a room. An ant is moving on it. Then
its degree of freedom is ‘1’. Notes
A B
Fig. 10.4
Now suppose it falls on the floor of the room. Now, it can move along x or
y direction independently. Hence its degrees of freedom is two. And if the ant
has wings so that it can fly. Then it can move along x, y or z direction
independently and its degree of freedom is ‘3’.
A monatomic molecule is a single point in space and like the winged ant in the
above example has 3 degrees of freedom which are all translational. A diatomic
molecule which is made up of two atoms, in addition to translator y motion
can also rotate about two mutually perpendicular axes. Hence a diatomic
molecule has (3 + 2 = 5) degrees of freedom: three translational and two
rotational.
Since the motion of a molecule can be along x, y, and z directions equally probably,
the average value of the components of velocity c (i.e., u, v and w) along the
three directions should be equal. That is to say, for a molecule all the three directions
are equivalent :
u = v = w
– – – 1 –
and u 2 = v2 = w 2 = c 2
3
Since c2 = u2 + –v 2 + w2
c–2 = u–2 + –v 2 + w
–2
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1
Multiplying throughout by m, where m is the mass of a molecule, we have
2
1 – 1 1 –
m u 2 = m –v 2 = m w 2
2 2 2
1 –
But m u 2 = E = total mean kinetic energy of a molecule along x–axis. Therefore,
2
3
Notes Ex = Ey = Ez. But the total mean kinetic energy of a molecule is k T. Hence, we
2
get an important result :
1
E x = E y = Ez =kT
2
Since three velocity components u, v and w correspond to the three degree of
freedom of the molecule, we can conclude that total kinetic energy of a dynamical
1
system is equally divided among all its degrees of freedom and it is equal to k
2
T for each degree of freedom. This is the law of equipartition of energy and was
deduced by Ludwing Boltzmann. Let us apply this law for different types of
gases.
So far we have been considering only translational motion. For a monoatomic
molecule, we have only translational motion because they are not capable of
rotation (although they can spin about any one of the three mutually perpendicular
axes if it is like a finite sphere). Hence, for one molecule of a monoatomic gas,
total energy
3
E = kT (10.15)
2
A diatomic molecule can be visualised as if two spheres are joined by a rigid rod.
Such a molecule can rotate about any one of the three mutually perpendicular
axes. However, the rotational inertia about an axis along the rigid rod is negligible
compared to that about an axis perpendicular to the rod. It means that rotational
1 1
energy consists of two terms such as I ω2y and I ω2z .
2 2
Now the special description of the centre of mass of a diatomic gas molecules
will require three coordinates. Thus, for a diatomic gas molecule, both rotational
and translational motion are present but it has 5 degrees of freedom. Hence
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
E = 3 ⎜ kT ⎟ + 2 ⎜ kT ⎟
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
5
= kT (10.16)
2
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Ludwing Boltzmann
(1844 – 1906)
Born and brought up in Vienna (Austria), Boltzmann completed
his doctorate under the supervision of Josef Stefan in 1866.
He also worked with Bunsen, Kirchhoff and Helmholtz. A very
emotional person, he tried to commit suicide twice in his life
and succeeded in his second attempt. The cause behind these attempts, people Notes
say, were his differences with Mach and Ostwald.
He is famous for his contributions to kinetic theory of gases, statistical
mechanics and thermodynamics. Crater Bolzmann on moon is named in his
memory and honour.
ΔQ
c = m ΔT (10.18)
Thus, specific heat capacity of a material is the heat required to raise the
temperature of its unit mass by 1 ºC (or 1 K).
The SI unit of specific heat capacity is kilo calories per kilogram per kelvin (kcal
kg–1K–1). It may also the expressed in joules per kg per K. For example the specific
heat capacity of water is
1 kilo cal kg–1 K–1 = 4.2 × 103 J kg–1 K–1.
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The above definition of specific heat capacity holds good for solids and liquids
but not for gases, because it can vary with external conditions. In order to study
the heat capacity of a gas, we keep the pressure or the volume of a gas constant.
Consequently, we define two specific heat capacities :
(i) Specific heat at constant volume, denoted as cV.
(ii) Specific heat at constant pressure, denoted as cP.
Notes
(a) The specific heat capacity of a gas at constant volume (cv) is defined as
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a gas
through 1K, when its volume is kept constant :
⎛ ΔQ ⎞
cv = ⎜ ⎟ (10.19)
⎝ ΔT ⎠V
(b) The specific heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure (cP) is defined as
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a gas
through 1K when its pressure is kept constant.
⎛ ΔQ ⎞
cp = ⎜ ⎟ (10.20)
⎝ ΔT ⎠ P
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A
P
V1 V2
R
c p – cv = (10.27)
J
where J = 4.18 cal is the mechanical equivalent of heat.
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Example 10.5 : Calculate the value of cp and cv for a monoatomic, diatomic and
triatomic gas molecules.
Solution : We know that the average KE for 1 mol of a gas is given as
3
E = RT
2
Notes
Now cv is defined as the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 mole of a gas
at constant volume by one degree i.e. if ET denotes total energy of gas at T K and
ET + 1signifies total energy of gas at (T + 1) K, then cv = ET+1 – ET .
3
(i) We know that for monoatomic gas, total energy = RT
2
3 3 3
∴ monoatomic gas cV = R (T + 1) – R T = R.
2 2 2
3 5
Hence cp = cV + R = R + R = R.
2 2
5
(ii) For diatomic gases, total energy = RT
2
5 5 5
∴ cV = R (T + 1) – R R T = R
2 2 2
5 7
cp = cV + R = R + R = R.
2 2
(iii) You should now find out cV and cp for triatomic gas.
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the same behaviour, it became clear that the motion of the particles, now
called Brownian motion, was caused by unbalanced forces due to impacts of
water molecules. Brownian motion provided a direct evidence in favour of
kinetic theory of matter. The Brownian displacement was found to depend on.
(i) Size of the particles of the suspension – smaller the particles, more the
chances of inbalanced impacts and more pronounced the Brownian motion.
Notes
(ii) The Brownian motion also increases with the increase in the temperature
and decreases with the viscosity of the medium.
Due to mutual collisions, the molecules of a fluid also move on zig-zag paths.
The average distance between two successive collisions of the molecules is
called mean free path. The mean free path of a molecule is given by
1
σ= 2 n π d2
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i) Specific heat capacity at constant volume (cV)
ii) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure (cp)
These are related as cp = W + cV
R
cp – cV =
J
Notes z The degrees of freedom of a system of particles are the number of independent
ways in which the particles of the system can move.
z The law of equipartition of the energy states that the total kinetic energy of
a dynamical system is distributed equally among all its degrees of freedom
1
and it is equal to k T per degree of freedom.
2
3
z Total energy for a molecule of (i) a monatomic gas is k T, (ii) a diatomic
2
5
gas is , and (iii) a triatomic gas is 3 k T.
2
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Can we use Boyle’s law to compare two different ideal gases?
2. What will be the velocity and kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance
at absolute zero temperature?
3. If the absolute temperature of a gas is raised four times, what will happen to
its kinetic energy, root-mean square velocity and pressure?
4. What should be the ratio of the average velocities of hydrogen molecules
(molecular mass = 2) and that of oxygen molecules (molecular mass = 32) in
a mixture of two gases to have the same kinetic energy per molecule?
5. If three molecules have velocities 0.5, 1 and 2 km s–1 respectively, calculate
the ratio between their root mean square and average speeds.
6. Explain what is meant by the root-mean square velocity of the molecules of
a gas. Use the concepts of kinetic theory of gases to derives an expression
for the root-mean square velocity of the molecules in term of pressure and
density of the gas.
7. i) Calculate the average translational kinetic energy of a neon atom at 25 0C.
ii) At what temperature does the average energy have half this value?
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8. A container of volume of 50 cm3 contains hydrogen at a pressure of 1.0 Pa
and at a temperature of 27 0C. Calculate (a) the number of molecules of the
gas in the container, and (b)their root-mean square speed.
( R= 8.3 J mol–1 K–1 , N = 6 × 1023 mol–1. Mass of 1 mole of hydrogen
molecule = 20 × 10–3 kg mol–1).
9. A closed container contains hydrogen which exerts pressure of 20.0 mm Hg
at a temperature of 50 K. Notes
(a) At what temperature will it exert pressure of 180 mm Hg?
(b) If the root-mean square velocity of the hydrogen molecules at 10.0 K is
800 m s–1, what will be their root-mean square velocity at this new tem-
perature?
10. State the assumptions of kinetic theory of gases.
11. Find an expression for the pressure of a gas.
12. Deduce Boyle’s law and Charle’s law from kinetic the theory of gases.
13. What is the interpretation of temperature on the basis of kinetic theory of
gases?.
14. What is Avagardo’s law? How can it be deduced from kinetic theory of gases
15. Calculate the root-mean square of the molecules of hydrogen at 0°C and at
100 0C (Density of hydrogen at 0°C and 760 mm of mercury pressure = 0.09
kg m–3).
16. Calculate the pressure in mm of mercury exerted by hydrogen gas if the
number of molecules per m3 is 6.8 × 1024 and the root-mean square speed of
the molecules is 1.90 × 10 m s–1. Avogadro’s number 6.02 × 1023 and molecular
weight of hydrogen = 2.02).
17. Define specific heat of a gas at constant pressure. Derive the relationship
between cp and cV.
18. Define specific heat of gases at constant volume. Prove that for a triatomic
gas cV = 3R
19. Calculate cP and cV for argon. Given R = 8.3 J mol–1 K–1.
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2. The gas which follows the kinetic theory of molecules is called as an ideal
gas.
1 –
3. P = ρ c2
3
4. The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the
Notes temperature of its unit mass through 1°C or 1K.
5. The coefficient of cubical expansion is defined as the change in volume per
unit original volume per degree rise in temperature.
6. 0.00005 °C–1
10.2
1. Average speed c–
= 700 m s–1
= 510,000 m2 s–2
10.3
1
1. For each degree of freedom, energy = kT
2
5
∴ for 5 degrees of freedom for a molecule of nitrogen, total energy = k T.
2
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5
2. cV for a diatomic molecule = R
2
5
cV = × 8.3 J mol–1 K–1 = 20.75 J mol–1 K–1.
2
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11
Notes
THERMODYNAMICS
You are familiar with the sensation of hotness and coldness. When you rub your
hands together, you get the feeling of warmth. You will agree that the cause of
heating in this case is mechanical work.This suggests that there is a relationship
between mechanical work and thermal effect. A study of phenomena involving
thermal energy transfer between bodies at different temperatures forms the subject
matter of thermodynamics, which is a phenomenological science based on
experience. A quantitative description of thermal phenomena requires a definition
of temperature, thermal energy and internal energy. And the laws of
thermodynamics provide relationship between the direction of flow of heat, work
done on/by a system and the internal energy of a system.
In this lesson you will learn three laws of thermodynamics : the zeroth law, the
first law and the second law of thermodynamics. These laws are based on
experience and need no proof. As such, the zeroth, first and second law introduce
the concept of temperature, internal energy and entropy, respectively. While the
first law is essentially the law of conservation of energy for a thermodynamic
system, the second law deals with conversion of heat into work and vice versa.You
will also learn that Carnot’s engine has maximum efficiency for conversion of
heat into work.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z draw indicator diagrams for different thermodynamic processes and show
that the area under the indicator diagram represents the work done in the
process;
z explain thermodynamic equilibrium and state the Zeroth law of
thermodynamics;
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z explain the concept of internal energy of a system and state first law of
thermodynamics;
z apply first law of thermodynamics to simple systems and state its limitations;
z define triple point;
z state the second law of thermodynamics in different forms; and
z describe Carnot cycle and calculate its efficiency. Notes
11.1.1 Heat
Energy has pervaded all facets of human activity ever since man lived in caves. In
its manifestation as heat, energy is intimate to our existence. The energy that
cooks our food, lights our houses, runs trains and aeroplanes originates in heat
released in burning of wood, coal, gas or oil. You may like to ask : What is heat?
To discover answer to this question, let us consider as to what happens when we
inflate the tyre of a bicycle using a pump. If you touch the nozzle, you will observe
that pump gets hot. Similarly, when you rub you hands together, you get the
feeling of warmth. You will agree that in these processes heating is not caused by
putting a flame or something hot underneath the pump or the hand. Instead, heat
is arising as a result of mechanical work that is done in compressing the gas in the
pump and forcing the hand to move against friction. These examples, in fact,
indicate a relation between mechanical work and thermal effect.
We know from experience that a glass of ice cold water left to itself on a hot
summer day eventually warms up. But a cup of hot coffee placed on the table
cools down. It means that energy has been exchanged between the sysem – water
or coffee – and its surrounding medium. This energy transfer continues till thermal
equilibrium is reached. That is until both – the system and the suroundings – are
as the same temperature. It also shows that the direction of energy transfer is
always from the body at high temprature to a body at lower temperature. You
may now ask : In what form is energy being transferred? In the above examples,
energy is said to be transfered in the form of heat. So we can say that heat is the
form of energy transferred between two (or more) systems or a system and its
surroundings because of temperature difference.
You may now ask. What is the nature of this form of energy? The answer to this
question was provided by Joule through his work on the equivalence of heat and
mechanical work : Mechanical motion of molecules making up the system is
associated with heat.
The unit of heat is calorie. One calorie is defined as the quantity of heat energy
required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water from 14.5oC to 15.5oC. It is
denoted as cal.
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Kilocalorie (k cal) is the larger unit of heat energy :
1 kcal = 103 cal.
Also 1 cal = 4.18 J
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The indicator diagram can be used to obtain an expression for the work done. It
is equal to the area under the P-V diagram (Fig. 11.1). Suppose that pressure is P
at the start of a very small expansion ΔV. Then, work done by the system.
ΔW = P ΔV (11.1)
= Area of a shaded strip ABCD
Now total work done by the system when it expands from V1 to V2 = Area of Notes
P1P2V2V1P1 Note that the area depends upon the shape of the indicator diagram.
The indicator diagram is widely used in P
calculating the work done in the process
of expansion or compression. It is found P1
more useful in processes where P.DV
D P2
relationship between P and V is not known. A
The work done on the system increases
its energy and work done by the system
reduces it. For this reason, work done on V
V1 B C V2
the system is taken as negative. You must
Fig. 11.1 : Indicater Diagram
note that the area enclosed by an isotherm
(plot of p versus V at constant temperature) depends on its shape. We may conclude
that work done by or on a system depends on the path. That is, work does not
depend on the initial and final states.
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11.2.1 Thermodynamic Process
If any of the thermodynamic variables of a system change while going from one
equilibrium state to another, the system is said to execute a thermodynamic process.
For example, the expansion of a gas in a cylinder at constant pressure due to
heating is a thermodynamic process. A graphical representation of a thermodynamic
process is called a path.
Notes Now we will consider different types of thermodynamic processes.
(i) Reversible process : If a process is executed so that all intermediate stages
between the inital and final states are equilibrium states and the process can
be executed back along the same equilibrium states from its final state to its
initial state, it is called reversible process. A reversible process is executed
very slowly and in a controlled manner. Consider the following examples :
• Take a piece of ice in a beaker and heat it. You will see that it changes to
water. If you remove the same quantity of heat of water by keeping it
inside a refrigerator, it again changes to ice (initial state).
• Consider a spring supported at one end. Put some masses at its free end
one by one. You will note that the spring elongates (increases in length).
Now remove the masses one by one. You will see that spring retraces
its initial positions. Hence it is a reversible process.
As such, a reversible process can only be idealised and never achieved
in practice.
(ii) Irreversible process : A process which cannot be retraced along the same
equilibrium state from final to the initial state is called irreversible process.
All natural process are irrerersible. For example, heat poduced during friction,
sugar dissolved in water, or rusting of iron in the air. It means that for
irrerersible process, the intermediate states are not equilibrium states and
hence such process can not be represented by a path. Does this mean that
we can not analyse an irrerersible process? To do so, we use quasi-static
process, which is infinitesimally close to the equilibrium state.
(iii) Isothermal process : A thermodynamic process that occurs at constant
temperature is an isothermal process. The expansion and compression of a
perfect gas in a cylinder made of perfectly conducting walls are isothermal
processes. The change in pressure or volume is carried out very slowly so
that any heat developed is transferred into the surroundings and the
temperature of the system remains constant. The thermal equilibrium is always
maintained. In such a process, ΔQ, ΔU and ΔW are finite.
(iv) Adiabatic process : A thermodynamic process in which no exchange of
thermal energy occurs is an adiabatic process. For example, the expansion
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and compression of a perfect gas in a cylinder made of perfect insulating
walls. The system is isolated from the surroundings. Neither any amount of
heat leaves the system nor enters it from the surroundings. In this process,
therefore ΔQ = 0 and ΔU = –ΔW.
The change in the internal energy of the system is equal to the work done on
the system. When the gas is compressed, work is done on the system. So,
ΔU becomes positive and the internal energy of the system increases. When Notes
the gas expands, work is done by the system. It is taken as positive and ΔU
becomes negative. The internal energy of the system decreases.
(v) Isobaric process : A thermodynamic process that occurs at constant pressure
is an isobaric process. Heating of water under atmospheric pressure is an
isobaric process.
(vi) Isochoric process : A thermodynamic process that occurs at constant volume
is an isochoric process. For example, heating of a gas in a vessel of constant
volume is an isochoric process. In this process, volume of the gas remains
constant so that no work is done, i.e. ΔW = 0. We therefore get ΔQ = ΔU.
In a Cyclic Process the system returns back to its initial state. It means that there
is no change in the internal energy of the system. ΔU = 0.
∴ ΔQ = ΔW.
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B
Ice
D e
lin
lin
m
ea
e
C St
e A
P t lin P
fr os
ar
Ho E
F
Notes T
Fig. 11.2: Phase diagram of water
Refer to Fig. 11.2, which shows phase diagram of water. You can see three
curves CD; AB and EF. Curve CD shows the variation of melting point of
ice with pressure. It is known as a fusion curve. Curve AB shows variation
of boiling point of water with pressure. It is known as vaporization curve.
Curve EF shows change of ice directly to steam. It is known as a sublimation
curve. This curve is also known as Hoarfrost Line.
If you extend the curve AB, CD and EF (as shown in the figure with dotted
lines), they meet at point P. This point is called triple point. At triple point,
all three phases co-exist.
On heating a liquid, its temperature also rises till its boiling point is reached.
At the boiling point, the heat we supply is used up in converting the liquid
into its gaseous state. The amount of heat required to convert unit mass of
liquid in its gaseous state at constant temperature is called latent heat of
vaporization of the liquid.
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kinetic energy of the molecules constitutes the internal kinetic energy
of the body.
(b) Internal potential energy : The energy arising due to the inter-molecular
forces is called the internal potential energy.
The internal energy of a metallic rod is made up of the kinetic energies of
conduction electrons, potential energies of atoms of the metal and the vibrational
Notes
energies about their equilibrium positions. The energy of the system may be
increased by causing its molecules to move faster (gain in kinetic energy by adding
thermal energy). It can also be increased by causing the molecules to move against
inter-molecular forces, i.e., by doing work on it. Internal energy is denoted by
the letter U.
Internal energy of a system = Kinetic energy of molecules + Potential energy of
molecules
Let us consider an isolated thermodynamic system subjected to an external force.
Suppose W amount of work is done on the system in going from initial state i to
final state f adiabatically. Let Ui and Uf be internal energies of the system in its
initial and final states respectively. Since work is done on the system, internal
energy of final state will be higher than that of the initial state.
According to the law of conservation of energy, we can write
Ui – Uf = – W
Negative sign signifies that work is done on the system.
We may point out here that unlike work, internal energy depends on the initial
and final states, irrespective of the path followed. We express this fact by saying
that U is a function of state and depends only on state variables P, V, and T. Note
that if some work is done by the system, its internal energy will decrease.
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Suppose that ΔQ amount of heat is given to the system and – ΔW work is done
on the system. Then increase in internal energy of the system, ΔU, according to
the first law of thermodynamics is given by
ΔU = ΔQ – ΔW (11.3 a)
This is the mathematical form of the first law of thermodynamics. Here ΔQ, ΔU
and ΔW all are in SI units.
Notes
The first law of thermodynamics can also be written as
ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW (11.3 b)
The signs of ΔQ, ΔU and ΔW are known from the following sign conventions :
1. Work done (ΔW) by a system is taken as positive whereas the work done on
a system is taken as negative. The work is positive when a system expands.
When a system is compressed, the volume decreases, the work done is
negative. The work done does not depend on the initial and final
thermodynamic states; it depends on the path followed to bring a change.
2. Heat gained by (added to) a system is taken as positive, whereas heat lost by
a system is taken as negative.
3. The increase in internal energy is taken as positive and a decrease in internal
energy is taken as negative.
If a system is taken from state 1 to state 2, it is found that both ΔQ and ΔW
depend on the path of transformation. However, the difference (ΔQ – ΔW) which
represents ΔU, remains the same for all paths of transformations.
We therefore say that the change in internal energy ΔU of a system does not
depend on the path of the thermodynamic transformations.
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in the target cannot be changed into the kinetic energy of bullet to make it
fly. It means that this law fails to provide the conditions under which heat
can be changed into work. Moreover, it has obvious limitations in indicating
the extent to which heat can be converted into work.
Now take a pause and answer the following questions :
Notes
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It is impossible for any process to have as its sole result to transfer heat from
a colder body to a hotter body without any external work.
Thus, the second law of thermodynamics plays a unique role for practical devices
like heat engine and refrigerator.
A (P1,V1)
T1
H1, T1
B (P2,V2)
T2
D
P (P4,V4) T1
H2, T2 C (P3,V3)
T2
E F G H
V
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In Carnot cycle, the working substance is subjected to four operations : (a)
isothermal expansion, (b) adiabatic expansion, (c) isothermal compression and
(d) adiabatic compression. Such a cycle is represented on the P-V diagram in Fig.
11.4. To describe four operations of Carnot’s cycle, let us fill one gram. mol. of
the working substance in the cylinder (Fig. 11.5). Original condition of the
substance is represented by point A on the indicator diagram. At this point, the
substance is at temperature T1, pressure P1 and volume V1.
Notes
(a) Isothermal expansion : The cylinder is put in thermal contact with the
source and allowed to expand. The volume of the working substance increases
to V2. Thus working substance does work in raising the piston. In this way,
the temperature of the working substance would tend to fall. But it is in
thermal contact with the source. So it will absorb a quantity of heat H1
from the source at temperature T1. This is represented by the point B. At B,
the values of pressure and volume are P2 and V2 respectively. On the indicator
diagram (Fig. 11.4), you see that in going from A to B, temperature of the
system remains constant and working substance expands. We call it
isothermal expansion process. H1 is the amount of heat absorbed in the
isothermal expansion process. Then, in accordance with the first law of
thermodynamics, H1 will be equal to the external work done by the gas
during isothermal expansion from A to B at temperature T1. Suppose W1 is
the external work done by the gas during isothermal expansion AB. Then it
will be equal to the area ABGEA. Hence
W1 = Area ABGEA
(b) Adiabatic expansion : Next the cylinder is removed from the source and
placed on a perfectly non-conducting stand. It further decreases the load on
the piston to P3. The expansion is completely adiabatic because no heat can
enter or leave the working substance. Therefore, the working substance
performs external work in raising the piston at the expense of its internal
energy. Hence its temperature falls. The gas is thus allowed to expand
adiabatically until its temperature falls to T2, the temperature of the sink. It
has been represented by the adiabatic curve BC on the indicator diagram.
We call it adiabatic expansion. If the pressure and volume of the substance
are P3 and V3, respectively at C, and W2 is the work done by the substance
from B to C, then
W2 = Area BCHGB.
(c) Isothermal compression : Remove the cylinder from the non-conducting
stand and place it on the sink at temperature T2. In order to compress the
gas slowly, increase the load (pressure) on the piston until its pressure and
volume become P4 and V4, respectively. It is represented by the point D on
the indicator diagram (Fig. 11.4). The heat developed (H2) due to compression
will pass to the sink. Thus, there is no change in the temperature of the
system. Therefore, it is called an isothermal compression process. It is shown
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by the curve CD (Fig. 11.4). The quantity of heat rejected (H2) to the sink
during this process is equal to the work done (say W3) on the working
substance. Hence
W3 = Area CHFDC
(d) Adiabatic compression : Once again place the system on the non-conducting
stand. Increase the load on the piston slowly. The substance will under go an
adiabatic compression. This compression continues until the temperature Notes
rises to T1 and the substance comes back to its original pressure P1 and
volume V1. This is an adiabatic compression process and represented by the
curve DA on the indicator diagram (Fig. 11.4). Suppose W4 is the work
done during this adiabatic compression from D to A. Then
W4 = Area DFEAD
During the above cycle of operations, the working substance takes H1 amount of
heat from the source and rejects H2 amount of heat to the sink. Hence the net
amount of heat absorbed by the working substance is
ΔH= H1 – H2
Also the net work done (say W) by the engine in one complete cycle
W = Area ABCHEA – Area CHEADC
= Area ABCD
Thus, the work done in one cycle is represented on a P-V diagram by the area of
the cycle.
You have studied that the initial and final states of the substance are the same. It
means that its internal energy remains unchanged. Hence according to the first
law of thermodynamics
W = H1 – H2
Therefore, heat has been converted into work by the system, and any amount of
work can be obtained by merely repeating the cycle.
H1 - H 2 H
or η = H1
= 1- 2
H1
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It can be shown that for Carnot’s engine,
H 2 T2
=
H1 T1
T2
Hence, η =1– T
1
Notes Note that efficiency of carnot engine does not depend on the nature of the working
substance. Further, if no heat is rejected to the sink, η will be equal to one. But
for H2 to be zero, T2 must be zero. It means that efficiency η can be100% only
when T2 = 0. The entire heat taken from the hot source is converted into work.
This violates the second law of thermodynamics. Therefore, a steam engine can
operate only between finite temperature limits and its efficiency will be less than
one.
It can also be argued that the Carnot cycle, being a reversible cycle, is most
efficient; no engine can be more efficient than a Carnot engine operating between
the same two temperatures.
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z According to Clausius statement of second law, heat can not flow from a
colder body to a hotter body without doing external work on the working
substance.
z The three essential requirements of any heat engine are :
(i) source from which heat can be drawn
Notes (ii) a sink into which heat can be rejected.
(iii) working substance which performs mechanical work after being
supplied with heat.
z Carnot’s engine is an ideal engine in which the working substance is subjected
to four operations (i) Isothermal expansion (ii) adiabatic expansion (iii)
isothermal compression and (iv) adiabatic compression. Such a cycle is called
a Carnot cycle.
z Efficiency of a Carnot engine is given only
H2
η=1– H1 , H1 = Amount of heat absorbed and H2 = Amount of heat
rejected.
T2
= 1 – T , T1 = Temperature of the source, and T2 = Temperature of the sink.
1
z Efficiency does not depend upon the nature of the working substance.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Distinguish between the terms internal energy and heat energy.
2. What do you mean by an indicator diagram. Derive an expression for the
work done during expansion of an ideal gas.
3. Define temperature using the Zeroth law of thermodynamics.
4. State the first law of thermodynamics and its limitations.
5. What is the difference between isothermal, adiabetic, isobaric and isochoric
processes?
6. State the Second law of thermodynamics.
7. Discuss reversible and irreversible processes with examples.
8. Explain Carnot’s cycle. Use the indicator diagram to calculate its efficiency.
9. Calculate the change in the internal energy of a system when (a) the system
absorbs 2000J of heat and produces 500 J of work (b) the system absorbs
1100J of heat and 400J of work is done on it.
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10. A Carnot’s engine whose temperature of the source is 400K takes 200 calories
of heat at this temperature and rejects 150 calories of heat to the sink. (i)
What is the temperature of the sink. (ii) Calculate the efficiency of the engine.
11.2
1. (i) Internal energy (ii) on
2. It states that the amount of heat given to a system is equal to the sum of the
change in internal energy of the system and the external energy.
11.3
1. (i) False (ii) True
2. (i) 2000 K (ii) 8583.1K
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12
Notes
In the previous lesson you have studied the laws of thermodynamics, which govern
the flow and direction of thermal energy in a thermodynamic system. In this
lesson you will learn about the processes of heat transfer. The energy from the
sun is responsible for life on our beautiful planet. Before reaching the earth, it
passes through vacuum as well as material medium between the earth and the
sun. Do you know that each one of us also radiates energy at the rate of nearly 70
watt? Here we will study the radiation in detail. This study enables us to determine
the temperatures of stars even though they are very far away from us.
Another process of heat transfer is conduction, which requires the presence of a
material medium. When one end of a metal rod is heated, its other end also becomes
hot after some time. That is why we use handles of wood or similar other bad
conductor of heat in various appliances. Heat energy falling on the walls of our
homes also enters inside through conduction. But when you heat water in a pot,
water molecules near the bottom get the heat first. They move from the bottom
of the pot to the water surface and carry heat energy. This mode of heat transfer
is called convection. These processes are responsible for various natural
phenomena, like monsoon which are crucial for existence of life on the globe.You
will learn more about these processes of heat transfer in this unit.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z distinguish between conduction convection and radiation;
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z describe green house effect and its consequencies for life on earth; and
z apply laws governing black body radiation.
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by the cooler and denser water, which moves downwards. Thus, a convection
current of hotter water going up and cooler water coming down is set up. The
water gradually heats up. These convection currents can be seen as KMnO4 colours
them red.
In radiation, heat energy moves in the form of waves. You will learn about the
characteristics of these waves in a later section. These waves can pass through
Notes vacuum and do not require the presence of any material medium for their
propagation. Heat from the sun comes to us mostly by radiation.
We now study these processes in detail.
12.1.1 Conduction
Consider a rectangular slab of area of cross- d
section A and thickness d. Its two faces are
maintained at temperatures Th and Tc (< Th ), as
shown in Fig. 12.3. Let us consider all the factors
on which the quantity of heat Q transferred from A A
Tc
one face to another depends. We can intuitively
Th
feel that larger the area A, the greater will be the
heat transferd (Q α A). Also, greater the thickness,
Fig. 12.3 : Heat conduction
lesser will be the heat transfer (Q α 1/d). Heat
through a slab of thickness d
transfer will be more if the temperature difference and surface area A, when the
between the faces, (Th – Tc), is large. Finally longer faces are kept at temperatures
the time t allowed for heat transfer, greater will Th and Tc.
be the value of Q. Mathematically, we can write
A(Th – Tc ) . t
Q α
d Table 12.1 : Thermal
Conductivity of some
materials
KA(Th – Tc ) t
Q = (12.1) Material Thermal
d
conductivity
where K is a constant which depends on the nature of (Wm–1 K–1)
the material of the slab. It is called the coefficient of Copper 400
thermal conductivity,or simply, thermal conductivity
Aluminium 240
of the material. Thermal conductivity of a material
is defined as the amount of heat transferred in one Concrete 1.2
second across a piece of the material having area of Glass 0.8
cross-section 1m2 and edge 1m when its opposite faces Water 0.60
are maintained at a temperature difference of 1 K. Body talc 0.20
The SI unit of thermal conductivity is W m–1 k–1. The Air 0.025
value of K for some materials is given in Table 12.1
Thermocole 0.01
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Example 12.1 : A cubical thermocol box, full of ice. has side 30 cm and thickness
of 5.0 cm. If outside temperature is 45°C, estimate the amount of ice melted in
6 h. (K for thermocol is 0.01 J s–1 m–1 °C–1 and latent heat of fusion of ice is
335 J g–1.
Solution : The quantity of heat transferred into the box through its one face can
be obtained using Eq. (12.1) :
KA(Th – Tc )t Notes
Q =
d
= (0.01 J s –1 m–1°C –1) × (900 × 10 –4 m2) × (45ºC)
× (6 × 60 × 60 s) / (5 × 10–2 m)
= 10496 J
Since the box has six faces, total heat passing into the box
Q = 10496 × 6 J
The mass of ice melted m, can be obtained by dividing Q by L :
m = Q/L
10496J
= 335 Jg –1 × 6
= 313 × 6 g = 1878 g
We can see from Table 12.1 that metals such as copper and aluminium have high
thermal conductivity. This implies that heat flows with more ease through
copper.This is the reason why cooking vessels and heating pots are made of
copper. On the other hand, air and thermocol have very low thermal conductivities.
Substances having low value of K are sometimes called thermal insulators. We
wear woollen clothes during winter because air trapped in wool fibres prevents
heat loss from our body. Wool is a good thermal insulator because air is trapped
between its fibres. The trapped heat gives us a feeling of warmth. Even if a few
cotton clothes are put on one above another, the air trapped in-between layers
stops cold. In the summer days, to protect a slab of ice from melting, we put it in
a ice box made of thermocol. Sometimes we wrap the ice slab in jute bag, which
also has low thermal conductivity.
12.1.2 Convection
It is common experience that while walking by the side of a lake or a sea shore on
a hot day, we feel a cool breeze. Do you know the reason? Let us discover it.
Due to continuous evaporation of water from the surface of lake or sea, the
temperature of water falls. Warm air from the shore rises and moves upwards
(Fig.12.4). This creates low pressure area on the shore and causes cooler air
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from water surface to move to the shore. The
net effect of these convection currents is the
transfer of heat from the shore,which is hotter,
to water, which is cooler. The rate of heat
shore water
transfer depends on many factors.There is no
simple equation for convection as for
conduction. However, the rate of heat Fig. 12.4 : Convection currents.
Notes
transfer by convection depends on the Hot air from the shore rises and
temperature difference between the surfaces moves towards cooler water. The
and also on their areas. convection current from water to
the shores is experienced as cool
Now let us check how much you have learnt breeze.
about the methods of heat transfer.
12.1.3 Radiation
Radiation refers to continuous emission of energy from the surface of a body.
This energy is called radiant energy and is in the form of electromagnetic waves.
These waves travel with the velocity of light (3 × l08 ms–1) and can travel through
vacuum as well as through air. They can easily be reflected from polished surfaces
and focussed using a lens.
All bodies emit radiation with wavelengths that are chracteristic of their
temperature. The sun, at 6000 K emits energy mainly in the visible spectrum. The
earth at an ideal radiation temperature of 295 K radiates energy mainly in the far
infra-red (thermal) region of electromagnetic spectrum. The human body also
radiates energy in the infra-red region.
Let us now perform a simple experiment. Take a piece of blackened platinum
wire in a dark room. Pass an electrical current through it. You will note that the
wire has become hot. Gradually increase the magnitude of the current. After
sometime, the wire will begin to radiate. When you pass a slightly stronger current,
the wire will begin to glow with dull red light. This shows that the wire is just
emitting red radiation of sufficient intensity to affect the human eye. This takes
place at nearly 525°C. With further increase in temperature, the colour of the
emitted rediation will change from dull red to cherry red (at nearly 900°C) to
orange (at nearly 1100°C), to yellow (at nearly 1250°C) until at about 1600°C, it
becomes white. What do you infer from this? It shows that the temperature of a
luminous body can be estimated from its colour. Secondly, with increase in
temperature, waves of shorter wavelengths (since red light is of longer wavelength
than orange. yellow etc.) are also emitted with sufficient intensity. Considering
in reverse order, you may argue that when the temperature of the wire is below
525°C, it emits waves longer than red but these waves can be detected only by
their heating effect.
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3000 K
than this value (Fig. 12.5).
Evidently area between each curve
and the horizontial axis represents
0° C
the total rate of radiation at that
temperature. You may study the
l (mm)
curves shown in Fig. 12.5 and verify
the following two facts. Fig. 12.5 : Variation in intensity with
wavelength for a black body at different
1) The rate of radiation at a temperatures
particular temperature
(represented by the area between each curve and the holizontal axis) increases
rapidly with temperature.
2) Each curve has a definite energy maximum and a corresponding wavelength
λm (i.e. wavelength of the most intense wave). The λm shifts towards shorter
wavelengths with increasing temperature.
This second fact is expressed quantitatively by what is known as Wien’s
displacement law. It states that λm shifts towards shorter wavelengths as the
temperature of a body is increased. This law is., strictly valid only for black
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bodies. Mathematically, we say that the product λm T is constant for a body
emitting radiation at temperature T:
λm T = constant (12.2)
The constant in Eqn. (12.2) has a value 2.884 × 10–3 mK. This law furnishes us
with a simple method of determining the temperature of all radiating bodies
including those in space. The radiation spectrum of the moon has a peak at λm =
Notes
14 micron. Using Eqn. (12.2), we get
2884 micron K
T= 14 micron = 206K
Wilhelm Wien
(1864 – 1928)
The 1911 Nobel Leureate in physics, Wilhelm Wien, was son of a land owner
in East Prussia. After schooling at Prussia, he went to Germany for his college.
At the University of Berlin, he studied under great physicist
Helmholtz and got his doctorate on diffraction of light from
metal surfaces in 1886.
He had a very brilliant professional carrer. In 1896, he
succeeded Philip Lenard as Professor of Physics at Aix-la-
chappelle. In 1899, he become Professor of Physics at
University of Giessen and in 1900, he succeeded W.C.
Roentgen at Wurzberg. In 1902, he was invited to succeed Ludwig Boltzmann
at University of Leipzig and in 1906 to succeed Drude at University of Berlin.
But he refused these invitations. In 1920, he was appointed Professor of Physics
at munich and he remained there till his last.
328 PHYSICS
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Thermal Physics
A perfectly white body, in contrast, defined as a body with aλ = 0, tλ = 0 and rλ =
1. A piece of white chalk approximates to a perfectly white body.
This implies that good emitters are also good absorbers. But each body must
either absorb or reflect the radiant energy reaching it. So we can say that a good
absorber must be a poor reflector (or good emitter).
eλ
But from Kirchoffs Law = Eλ
aλ
eλ = Eλ aλ (12.5)
where Eλ is the emission from a black body. If now walls are assumed to be
opaque (i.e. t = 0), from Eqn. (12.3), we can write
a λ = 1 – rλ (12.6)
Substituting this result in Eqn. (12.5), we get
eλ = Eλ (1 – rλ )
eλ
or Eλ = (12.7)
1 – rλ
On comparing Eqns. (12.4) and (l2.7), we note that the radiation emerging
out of the hole will be identical to the radiation from a perfectly black emissive
surface. Smaller the hole, the more completely black the emitted radiation
is. So we see that the uniformly heated enclosure with a small cavity
behaves as a black body for emission.
Such an enclosure behaves as a perfectly black body towards incident
radiation also. Any radiation passing into the hole will undergo multiple
PHYSICS 329
MODULE - 3 Heat Transfer and Solar Energy
Thermal Physics
reflections internally within the enclosure and will
be unable to escape outside. This may be further
improved by blackening the inside.Hence the
enclosure is a perfect absorber and behaves as a P C
perfectly black body.
Fig. 12.6 shows a black body due to Fery. There
Notes is a cavity in the form of a hollow sphere and its
inside is coated with black material. It has a small Fig. 12.6 : Fery’s black body
conical opening O. Note the conical projection
P opposite the hole O. This is to avoid direct radiation from the surface
opposite the hole which would otherwise render the body not perfectly black.
ACTIVITY 12.1
You have studied that black surface absorbs heat radiations more quickly than a
shiny white surface. You can perform the following simple experiment to observe
this effect.
Take two metal plates A and B. Coat one surface of A as black and polish one
surface of B. Take an electric heater. Support these on vertical stands such that
the coated black surface and coated white surface face the heater. Ensure that
coated plates are equidstant from the heater. Fix one cork each with wax on the
uncoated sides of the plates.
r
eate
Polished or white ch
tri e
coated metal surface ec plat
El etal black
M ted
coa
Cork
Cork
B A
Fig. 12.7 : Showing the difference in heat absorption of a black and a shining surface
330 PHYSICS
Heat Transfer and Solar Energy MODULE - 3
Thermal Physics
Switch on the electric heater. Since both metal plates are identical and placed at
the same distance from the heater, they receive the same amount of radiation
from it. You will observe that the cork on the blackened plate falls first. This is
becasuse the black surface absorbs more heat than the white surface. This proves
that black surfaces are good aborbers of heat radiations.
or E = εEb
Note that both E and Eb are temperature dependent. Emissivity is also not a
constant. It shows small variation with temperature.
When the radiant energy falls on a body, a part of the energy is absorbed. The
ability of the body to absorb radiant energy falling on it is known as its
absorptive power.
The total absorptive power of a body is defined as the ratio of the energy
absorbed to the energy falling. The absorptive power (a) is the fraction of the
incident energy which is absorbed. For a perfectly black body, a = 1.
Sometimes it is interesting to know the ability of a body to absorb radiation
of a given wavelength. Under such situation, spectral absorptive power term,
aλ, is used. Thus, spectral absorptive power for perfectly black body abλ =1.
It is experimentally found that the good emitters of thermal radiation are also
good absorbers. This shows that the emissive power and absorptive power are
closely related.
PHYSICS 331
MODULE - 3 Heat Transfer and Solar Energy
Thermal Physics
E =Ae σ T4 (12.8)
where σ is Stefan-Boltzmann constant and has the value 5.672 × 10 -8
Jm –2 s –1 K –4. The temperature is expressed is kelvin, e is emissivity or relative
emittance. It depends on the nature of the surface and temperature. The value of
e lies between 0 and 1; being small for polished metals and 1 for perfectly black
materials.
Notes
From Eqn. (12.8) you may think that if the surfaces of all bodies are continually
radiating energy, why don’t they eventually radiate away all their internal energy
and cool down to absolute zero. They would have done so if energy were not
supplied to them in some way. In fact, all objects radiate and absorb energy
simultaneously. If a body is at the same temperaturture as its surroundings, the
rate of emission is same as the rate of absorption; there is no net gain or loss of
energy and no change in temperature. However, if a body is at a lower temperture
than its surroundings, the rate of absorption will be greater than the rate of emission.
Its temperature will rise till it is equal to the room temperature. Similarly, if a
body is at higher temperature, the rate of emission will be greater than the rate of
absorption. There will be a net energy loss. Hence, when a body at a temperature
T1 is placed in surroundings at temperature T2, the amount of net energy loss per
second is given by
Enet = Ae σ (T14 – T24) for T1 > T2 (12.5)
Example 12.2 : Determine the surface area of the filament of a 100 W incandescent
lamp at 3000 K. Given σ = 5.7 × 10-8 W m–2 K–4, and emissivity e of the filament
= 0.3.
Solution: According to Stefan-Boltzmann law
E = eA σ T4
where E is rate at which energy is emitted, A is surface area, and T is tempeature
of the surface. Hence we can rewrite it as
E
A=
eσ T 4
100 W
A = 0.3 × (5.7 × 10–8 Wm−2 K−4 × (3000K)4
= 7.25 × 10 –5 m2
Now it is time for you to check your understanding.
332 PHYSICS
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Thermal Physics
PHYSICS 333
MODULE - 3 Heat Transfer and Solar Energy
Thermal Physics
∈ = (4π r2) σ T4
where r is radius of sun and T is its temperature.
If R is radius of the orbit of the planet, then
2
∈ ⎛r⎞
E= =
2 ⎜⎝ R ⎟⎠
σ T4 (12.6)
4πR
Notes
And the solar constant (E′) at any other planet orbiting at distance R′ from the
sun would be
2
⎛ r ⎞
⎟ σT
4
E′ = ⎜ (12.7)
⎝ R′ ⎠
E′ ⎛R⎞
2
Hence =⎜ ⎟ (12.8)
E ⎝ R′ ⎠
The distance of mars is 1.52 times the distance of earth from the sun. Therefore,
the solar constant at mars
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
E′ = E × ⎜⎝ ⎟
1.52 ⎠
= 6 × 102 W m–2
2. Greenhouse Effect
The solar radiations in appropriate amount are necessary for life to flourish on
earth. The atmosphere of earth plays an important role to provide a comfortable
temperature for the living organisms. One of the processes by which this is done
is greenhouse effect.
CO2 blanket
In a greenhouse, plants, flowers, grass etc. are enclosed
in a glass structure. The glass allows short wavelength
radiation of light to enter. This radiation is absorbed by
plants. It is subsequently re-radiated in the form of longer
wavelength heat radiations – the infrared. The longer
wavelength radiations are not allowed to escape from the
greenhouse as glass is effectively opaque to heat. These
Fig. 12.8 : Green
heat radiations are thus trapped in the greenhouse keeping house effect
it warm.
An analogous effect takes place in our atmosphere. The atmosphere, which
contains a trace of carbon dioxide, is transparent to visible light. Thus, the sun’s
light passes through the atmosphere and reaches the earth’s surface. The earth
absorbs this light and subsequently emits it as infrared radiation. But carbon dioxide
334 PHYSICS
Heat Transfer and Solar Energy MODULE - 3
Thermal Physics
in air is opaque to infra-red radiations.CO2 reflects these radiations back rather
than allowing them to escape into the atmosphere. As a result, the temperature of
earth increases. This effect is referred to as the greenhouse effect.
Due to emission of huge quantities of CO2 in our atmosphere by the developed as
well as developing countries, the greenhouse effect is adding to global warming
and likely to pose serious problems to the existence of life on the earth. A recent
report by the UN has urged all countries to cut down on their emissions of CO2, Notes
because glaciers have begun to shrink at a rapid rate. In the foreseable future,
these can cause disasters beyond imagination beginning with flooding of major
rivers and rise in the sea level. Once the glaciers melt, there will be scarcity of
water and erosion in the quality of soil. There is a lurking fear that these together
will create problems of food security. Moreover, changing weather patterns can
cause droughts & famines in some regions and floods in others.
In Indian context, it has been estimated that lack of positive action can lead to
serious problems in Gangetic plains by 2030. Also the sea will reclaim vast areas
along our coast lie, inundating millions of people and bring unimaginable misery
and devastation. How can you contribute in this historical event?
If (T–T0) is very small, each of the term T3, T2T0 , T T02 and T03 may be
approximated to T03 . Hence
∴ E = eσ (T – T0) 4 T03 A
= k (T – T0)
where k = 4eσ T03 A. Hence,
Eα (T – T0) (12.11)
This is Newton’s law of cooling.
PHYSICS 335
MODULE - 3 Heat Transfer and Solar Energy
Thermal Physics
K (Th – Tc ) At
Q=
d
336 PHYSICS
Heat Transfer and Solar Energy MODULE - 3
Thermal Physics
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. A thermosflask (Fig.12.9) is made of a double walled glass bottle enclosed in
metal container. The bottle contains some liquid whose temperature we want
to maintain, Look at the diagram carefully and explain how the construction
of the flask helps in minimizing heat transfer due to conduction convection
Notes
and radiation.
Cork Stopper
CUP
inner glass container
(silvered surface)
vacuum
outer metal
container
(brightly
polished)
Insulating
material
Fig. 12.9
2. The wavelength corresponding, to emission of energy maxima of a star is
4000 Aº. Compute the temperature of the star.(1Aº = 10–8 cm).
3. A blackened solid copper sphere of radius 2cm is placed in an evacuated
enclosure whose walls are kept at 1000° C. At what rate must energy be
supplied to the sphere to keep its temperature constant at 127° C.
4. Comment on the statement “A good absorber must be a good emitter”
5. A copper pot whose bottm surface is 0.5cm thick and 50 cm in diameter rests
on a burner which maintains the bottom surface of the pot at 110°C. A steady
heat flows through the bottom into the pot where water boils at atmospheric
pressure. The actual temperature of the inside surface of the bottom of the
pot is 105°C. How many kilograms of water boils off in one hour?
6. Define the coefficient of thermal conductivity. List the factors on which it
depends.
7. Distinguish between conduction and convection methods of heat (transfer).
8. If two or more rods of equal area of cross-section are connected in series,
show that their equivalent thermal resistance is equal to the sum of thermal
resistance of each rod.
[Note : Thermal resistance is reciprocal of thermal conductivity]
9. Ratio of coefficient of thermal conductivities of the different materials is
4:3. To have the same thermal resistance of the two rods of these materials
of equal thickness. what should be the ratio of their lengths?
PHYSICS 337
MODULE - 3 Heat Transfer and Solar Energy
Thermal Physics
10. Why do we feel warmer on a winter night when clouds cover the sky than
when the sky is clear?
11. Why does a peice of copper or iron appear hotter to touch than a smilar
piece of wood even when both are at the same temperature?
12. Why is it more difficult to sip hot tea from a metal cup than from a china-clay
cup?
Notes 13. Why are the woollen clothes warmer than cotton clothes?
14. Why do two layers of cloth of equal thickness provide warmer covering than
a single layer of cloth of double the thickness?
15. Can the water be boiled by convection inside an earth satellite?
16. A. 500 W bulb is glowing. We keep our one hand 5 cm above it and other 5
cm below it. Why more heat is experienced at the upper hand?
17. Two vessels of different materials are identical in size and in dimensions.
They are filled with equal quantity of ice at O°C. If ice in both vessles metls
completely in 25 minutes and in 20 minutes respectively compare the (thermal
conductivities) of metals of both vessels.
18. Calculate the thermal resistivity of a copper rod 20.0 cm. length and 4.0 cm.
in diamter.
Thermal conductivity of copper = 9.2 x 10–2 temperature different acrosss
the ends of the rod be 50°C. Calculate the rate of heat flow.
J m
= s m2 º C
338 PHYSICS
Heat Transfer and Solar Energy MODULE - 3
Thermal Physics
surface area 1m2 and thickness 1m, when they are kept at a temperature
difference of 1°C.
5. During the day, land becomes hotter than water and air over the ocean is
cooler than the air near the land. The hot dry air over the land rises up and
creates a low pressure region. This causes see breeze because the moist air
from the ocean moves to the land. Since specific thermal capacity of water is
higher than that of sand, the latter gets cooled faster and is responsible for the Notes
reverse process during the night causing land breezes.
12.2
2880μK
=
300Κ
= 9.6μ
2. Hint: Because light colours absorb less heat.
3. Hint: (a) λmT = S (b) t = σ T4
4. 66.4 W.
12.3
1. Solar constant x .area
= 2.7 × 105 W
2. Constant addition of CO2 in air will increase greenhouse effect causing global
warming due to which glaciers are likely to melt and flood the land mass of
the earth.
3. Exponential decay
PHYSICS 339
SENIOR SECONDARY COURSE
PHYSICS
STUDENT’S ASSIGNMENT – 3
INSTRUCTIONS
z Answer All the questions on a seperate sheet of paper
z Give the following information on your answer sheet:
z Name
z Enrolment Number
z Subject
z Assignment Number
z Address
z Get your assignment checked by the subject teacher at your study centre so that you get positive
feedback about your performance.
PHYSICS 341
13. State first law of thermodynamics. Figure shows three paths through which a gas can be taken from the
state 1 to state 2. Calculate the work done by the gas in each of the three paths. (4)
Volume
1
Path1 → 2 w12 = (10 + 3) × 103 × 15 × 10−6 = 0.3t 20cc
10cc
2 1 3
14. The P - V diagram of a certain process (carnot cycle) is reflected in figure a.Represent it on T-V and T-
S diagrams. (4)
Temperature (T)
A B
D C
O Volume (V)
(a)
Hint :
Temperature (T)
A B A B
Pressure (P)
D C D C
O Entropy (s) O Volume (V)
15. Differentiate between isothermal, adiabatic, isobaric and isochoric processes. (4)
16. State Zeroth and first law of thermodynamics. Discuss the limitations of first law of thermodynamics.
(4)
17. State and explain second law of thermodynamics. (4)
18. What do you mean by the following terms :
(i) thermal conductivity of a solid (ii) variable state of a metallic rod (iii) steady state of a matallic rod
(iv) coefficient of thermal conductivity. (4)
19. Briefly describe a carnot cycle and derive an expression for efficiency of this cycle. (5)
20. What is a heat engine? Obtain an expression for its efficiency. Explain the workig principle of a
referigerator. Obtain an expression for its coefficient of performance. Also obtain a relation between
coefficient of performance of a refrigerator and efficiency of a heat engine. 2 + 2 + 1 = (5)
342 PHYSICS
MODULE - IV
OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES
13
Notes
You are now familiar with motion in a straight line, projectile motion and circular
motion. These are defined by the path followed by the moving object. But some
objects execute motion which are repeated after a certain interval of time. For
example, beating of heart, the motion of the hands of a clock, to and fro motion
of the swing and that of the pendulum of a bob are localised in space and repetitive
in nature. Such a motion is called periodic motion. It is universal phenomenon.
In this lesson, you will study about the periodic motion, particularly the oscillatory
motion which we come across in daily life. You will also learn about simple
harmonic motion. Wave phenomena – types of waves and their characteristics–
form the subject matter of the next lesson.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z show that an oscillatory motion is periodic but a periodic motion may not be
necessarily oscillatory;
z define simple harmonic motion and represent it as projection of uniform
circular motion on the diameter of a circle;
z derive expressions of time period of a given harmonic oscillator;
z derive expressions for the potential and kinetic energies of a simple harmoic
oscillator; and
z distinguish between free, damped and forced oscillations.
PHYSICS 345
MODULE - 4 Simple Harmonic Motion
ACTIVITY 13.1
Suppose that the displacement y of a particle, executing simple harmonic motion,
is represented by the equation :
y = a sin θ (13.1)
or y = a cos θ (13.2)
346 PHYSICS
Simple Harmonic Motion MODULE - 4
Oscillations and Waves
From your book of mathematics, obtain the values of sin θ and cos θ for θ = 0,
300, 600, 900, 1200, 1500, 1800, 2400, 3000, 3300 and 3600. Then assuming that a =
2.5cm, determine the values of y corresponding to each angle using the relation y
= a sin θ. Choose a suitable scale and plot a graph between y and θ. Similarly,
using the relation y = a cosθ, plot another graph between y and θ. You will note
that both graphs represents an oscillation between +a and – a. It shows that a
certain type of oscillatory motion can be represented by an expression containing
Notes
sine or cosine of an angle or by a combination of such expressions.
Periodic Motion
When an object repeats its motion after a definite interval of time, its motion
is said to be periodic.
Let the position of an object change from O
to B, from B to O; then from O to A and
finally from A to O, after a fixed interval of
A B
time T. O
x = af(T) = 0 at t = 0
x = af(T + T/4) = a at t = T/4
⎛ T⎞ T
x = af ⎜ T + ⎟ = 0 at t =
⎝ 2⎠ 2
⎛ 3T ⎞ 3T
x = af ⎜ T + ⎟ = − a at t =
⎝ 4 ⎠ 4
x = af(T + T) = 0 at t = T
......................................
......................................
Thus, x is function of t and it repeats its motion after an interval T. Hence, the
motion is periodic.
Now check your progress by answering the following questions.
PHYSICS 347
MODULE - 4 Simple Harmonic Motion
P M
wt
wt
X
a a X t(s)
O O T/4 T/2 3T/4 T
Y¢ –a
348 PHYSICS
Simple Harmonic Motion MODULE - 4
Oscillations and Waves
To derive the equation of simple harmonic motion, let us consider a point M
moving with a constant speed v in a circle of radius a (Fig. 13.2) with centre O.
At t = 0, let the point be at X. The position vector OM specifies the position of
the moving point at time t,. It is obvious that the position vector OM, also called
the phaser, rotates with a constant angular velocity ω = v /a. The acceleration of
the point M is v2/a = a ω2 towards the centre O. At time t, the component of this
acceleration along OY = aω2 sin ωt. Let us draw MP perpendicular to YOY′.
Notes
Then P can be regarded as a particle of mass m moving with an acceleration aω2
sin ωt. The force on the particle P towards O is therefore given by
F = maω2 sin ωt
But sin ωt = y/a. Therefore
F = mω2y (13.3)
The displacement is measured from O towards P and force is directed towards O.
Therefore,
F = – mω2y
Since this force is directed towards O, and is proportional to displacement ‘y’ of
P from O. we can say that the particle P is executing simple harmonic motion.
Let us put mω2 = k, a constant. Then Eqn. (13.3) takes the form
F =–ky (13.4)
The constant k, which is force per unit displacement, is called force constant.
The angular frequency of oscillations is given by
ω2 = k / m (13.5)
In one complete rotation, OM describes an angle 2π and it takes time T to complete
one rotation. Hence
ω = 2π/T (13.6)
On combining Eqns. (13.5) and (13.6), we get an expression for time period :
T = 2π k / m (13.7)
This is the time taken by P to move from O to Y, then through O to Y′ and back
to O. During this time, the particle moves once on the circle and the foot of
perpendicular from its position is said to make an oscillation about O as shown in
Fig.13.1.
Let us now define the basic terms used to describe simple harmonic motion.
PHYSICS 349
MODULE - 4 Simple Harmonic Motion
kT 2
or m =
4π 2
k
When the tray is empty, m = 9 kg and T = 1s.Therefore
k (1) 2
9 =
4π 2 Fig. 13.3
350 PHYSICS
Simple Harmonic Motion MODULE - 4
Oscillations and Waves
spring is pulled horizontally towards the right through a distance of 4.0 cm and
then set free. Calculate (i) the frequency (ii) maximum acceleration and (iii)
maximum speed of the mass.
Solution : ω = k / m = 1600 / 4
Fig. 13.4
= 20 rad s–1.
Therefore v = 20/2π = 3.18 Hz. Maximum acceleration = a ω2 = 0.04 × 400 = Notes
16 m s–2, and vmax = a ω = 0.04 × 20 = 0.8 m s–1.
P
(ii)
kx
P
(iii)
x
P
(iv)
P
(v)
kx
Let us suppose that there is no loss of energy due to air resistance and friction.
We choose x–axis along the horizontal direction. Initially, that is, at t = 0, the
block is at rest and the spring is in relaxed condition [Fig.13.5(i)]. It is then pulled
horizontally through a small distance [Fig. 13.5 (ii)]. As the spring undergoes an
extension x, it exerts a force kx on the block. The force is directed against the
extension and tends to restore the block to its equilibrium position. As the block
returns to its initial position [Fig. 13.5 (iii)], it acquires a velocity v and hence a
kinetic energy K = (1/2) m v2. Owing to inertia of motion, the block overshoots
the mean position and continues moving towards the left till it arrives at the
PHYSICS 351
MODULE - 4 Simple Harmonic Motion
2π k
ω = =
T m
m
Hence T = 2π (13.8)
k
This result shows that acceleration due to gravity does not influence vertical
oscillations of a spring–mass system.
Galileo Galilei
(1564-1642)
Son of Vincenzio Galilei, a wool merchant in Pisa, Italy, Galileo
is credited for initiating the age of reason and experimentation
in modern science. As a child, he was interested in music, art
and toy making. As a young man, he wanted to become a doctor.
To pursue the study of medicine, he entered the University of
Pisa. It was here that he made his first discovery - the isochronosity of a
pendulum, which led Christian Huygen to construct first pendulum clock.
352 PHYSICS
Simple Harmonic Motion MODULE - 4
Oscillations and Waves
For lack of money, Galileo could not complete his studies, but through his
efforts, he learnt and developed the subject of mechanics to a level that the
Grand Duke of Tuscany appointed him professor of mathematics at the
University of Pisa.
Galileo constructed and used telescope to study celestial objects. Through his
observations, he became convinced that Copernican theory of heliocentric
universe was correct. He published his convincing arguments in the form of a Notes
book, “A Dialogue On The Two Principal Systems of The World”, in the year
1632. The proposition being at variance with the Aristotelian theory of
geocentric universe, supported by the Church, Galileo was prosecuted and
had to apologize. But in 1636, he published another book “Dialogue On Two
New Sciences” in which he again showed the fallacy in Aristotle’s laws of
motion.
Because sophisticated measuring devices were not available in Galileo’s time,
he had to apply his ingenuity to perform his experiments. He introduced the
idea of thought-experiments, which is being used even by modern scientists,
in spite of all their sophisticated devices.
PHYSICS 353
MODULE - 4 Simple Harmonic Motion
l
Hence, T = 2π (13.9)
g
354 PHYSICS
Simple Harmonic Motion MODULE - 4
Oscillations and Waves
4π 2
Example 13.3 : Fig. 13.9 shows an oscillatory system comprising two blocks of
masses m1 and m2 joined by a massless spring of spring constant k. The blocks are
pulled apart, each with a force of m1 m2
magnitude F and then released. Calculate
the angular frequency of each mass.
Assume that the blocks move on a Fig. 13.9 : Oscillatory system of masses
smooth horizontal plane. attached to a spring
Solution : Let x1 and x2 be the displacements of the blocks when pulled apart.
The extension produced in the spring is x1 + x2. Thus the acceleration of m1 is k (x1
+ x2)/m1 and acceleration of m2 is k(x1 + x2)/m2. Since the same spring provides
the restoring force to each mass, hence the net acceleration of the system
comprising of the two masses and the massless spring equals the sum of the
acceleration produced in the two masses. Thus the acceleration of the system is
k ( x1 + x2 ) kx
a= = μ
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
⎜ + ⎟
⎝ m1 m2 ⎠
where x = x1 + x2 is the extension of the spring and μ is the reduced mass of the
system. The angular frequency of each mass of the system is therefore,
ω = k /μ (13.10)
Such as analysis helps us to understand the vibrations of diatomic molecules like
H2, Cl2, HCl, etc.
PHYSICS 355
MODULE - 4 Simple Harmonic Motion
C
R
r q
in q
mg s mg l
co
sq Y k k
O mg
Notes
356 PHYSICS
Simple Harmonic Motion MODULE - 4
Oscillations and Waves
rectangular strip is (ky Δy). This area equals the
work done against the restoring force ky when
C
the displacement changes by a small amount Δy.
PQ
The area of the triangle OBC is, therefore, equal ky
F
to the work done in the time displacement changes
1 2 y
from O to OB (= y) = ky . This work done O MN B
2 y Notes
against the conservative force is the potential Fig.13.13 : Graph between the
energy U of the oscillator. Thus, the potential displacement y and the restoring
energy of the oscillator when the displacement is force ky
y is
1 2
U = ky
2
But ω2 = k/m. Therefore, substituting k = mω2 in above expression we get
1
U = mω2y2
2
Further as y = a sin ωt, we can write
1
U = mω2a2sin2ωt (13.15)
2
On combining this result with Eqn. (13.14), we find that total energy of the
oscillator at any instant is given by
E =U+K
1
= mω2a2 (sin2ωt + cos2ωt)
2
1
= ma2ω2 (13.16)
2
E
The graph of kinetic energy K, potential energy
U and the total energy E versus displacement y E
is shown in Fig.13.14. From the graph it is evident K
that for y = 0, K = E and U = 0. As the
U
displacement y from the mean position increases,
the kinetic energy decreases but potential energy
a O a
increases. At the mean position, the potential –y y
energy is zero but kinetic energy is maximum. At Fig.13.14 : Variation of potential
the extreme positions, the energy is wholly energy U, kinetic energy K, and
potential. However, the sum K + U = E is total energy E with displacement
from equilibrium position
constant.
PHYSICS 357
MODULE - 4 Simple Harmonic Motion
Activity 13.2
Take a simple harmonic oscillator comprising a metal block B suspended from a
fixed support S by a spring G. (Fig. 13.15(a). Place a tall glass cylinder filled two
thirds with water, so that the block is about 6 cm below the surface of water and
about the same distance above the bottom of the beaker. Paste a millimetre scale
(vertically) on the side of the cylinder just opposite the pointer attached to the
block. Push the block a few centimetres downwards and then release it. After
each oscillation, note down the uppermost position of the pointer on the millimetre
scale and the time. Then plot a graph between time and the amplitude of
oscillations. Does the graph [Fig. 13.15 (b)] show that the amplitude decreases
with time. Such oscillations are said to be damped oscillations.
S
G
y (t)
B t (s)
(a) (b)
Fig. 13.15 : Damped vibrations : (a) experimental setup; (b) graphical representation
358 PHYSICS
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Oscillations and Waves
13.6 FREE AND FORCED VIBRATIONS : RESONANCE
To understand the difference between these phenomena, let us perform the
following activity :
PHYSICS 359
MODULE - 4 Simple Harmonic Motion
360 PHYSICS
Simple Harmonic Motion MODULE - 4
Oscillations and Waves
z Simple harmonic motion is to and fro motion under the action of a restoring
force, which is proportional to the displacement of the particle from its
equilibrium position and is always directed towards the mean position.
z Time period is the time taken by a particle to complete one oscillation.
z Frequency is the number of vibrations completed by the oscillator in one
second.
z Phase angle is the angle whose sine or cosine at the given instant indicates the Notes
position and direction of motion of the particle.
z Angular frequency is the rate of change of phase angle. Note that ω = 2π/T =
2πv where ω is the angular frequency in rads–1, v is the frequency in hertz
(symbol : Hz) and T is the time period in seconds.
z Equation of simple harmonic motion is
y = a sin (ωt + φ0)
or y = a cos (ωt + φ0)
where y is the displacement from the mean position at a time, φ0 is the initial
phase angle (at t = 0).
z When an oscillatroy system vibrates on its own, its vibrations are said to be
free. If, however, an oscillatory system is driven by an external system, its
vibrations are said to be forced vibrations. And if the frequency of the driver
equals to the natural frequency of the driven, the phenomenon of resonance is
said to occur.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Distinguish between a periodic and an oscillatory motion.
2. What is simple harmonic motion?
3. Which of the following functions represent (i) a simple harmonic motion (ii)
a periodic but not simple harmonic (iii) a non periodic motion? Give the
period of each periodic motion.
(1) sin ωt + cos ωt (2) 1 + ω2 + ωt
π
(3) 3 cos (ωt – )
4
4. The time period of oscillations of mass 0.1 kg suspended from a Hooke’s
spring is 1s. Calculate the time period of oscillation of mass 0.9 kg when
suspended from the same spring.
5. What is phase angle? How is it related to angular frequency?
PHYSICS 361
MODULE - 4 Simple Harmonic Motion
Fig.13.17
13.1
1. A motion which repeats itself after some fixed interval of time is a periodic
motion. A to and fro motion on the same path is an oscillatory motion. A
periodic motion may or may not be oscillatory but oscillation motion is perodic.
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Oscillations and Waves
2. (ii), (iv), (v);
3. (i) To and fro motion of a pendulum.
(ii) Motion of a planet in its orbit.
13.2
1. Return force on the ball when displaced a distance x from the equilibrium Notes
position is mg sin θ = mg θ = mg x/r. ∴ ω = g/r .
3. ω2 = k/m and hence v = 1/2π k / m . Note that when the mass is displaced,
only one of the bands exerts the restoring force.
13.3
1. K.E is maximum at mean position or equilibrium position; acceleration is
maximum when displacement is maximum.
2. As the pendulum oscillates it does work against the viscous resistance of air
and friction at the support from which it is suspended. This work done is
dissipated as heat. As a consequence the amplitude decreases.
13.4
1. When an oscillatory system called the driver applies is periodic of force on
another oscillatory system called the driven and the second system is forced
to oscillate with the frequency of the first, the phenomenon is known as forced
vibrations. In the particular case of forced vibrations in which the frequency
of the driver equals the frequency of the driven system, the phenomenon is
known as resonance.
2. The table top is forced to vibrate not with its natural frequency but with the
frequency of the tuning fork. Therefore, this observation demonstrates forced
vibrations. Since a large area is set into vibrations, the intensity of the sound
increases.
3. The sound board or box is forced to vibrate with the frequency of the note
produced by the instrument. Since a large area is set into vibrations, the intensity
of the note produced increases and its duration decreases.
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⎛a⎞
11. A = a + b , θ = tan ⎜ ⎟
2 2 –1
⎝ ⎠
b
Notes 2
12. × 10 – 3 m s –1
π
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Oscillations and Waves
14
Notes
WAVE PHENOMENA
You would have noticed that when a stone is dropped into still water in a pond,
concentric rings of alternate elevations and depressions emerge out from the
point of impact and spread out on the surface of water. If you put a straw piece
on the surface of water, you will observe that it moves up and down at its place.
Here the particles of water are moving up and down at their places. But still
there is something which moves outwards. We call it a wave. Waves are of different
types : Progressive and stationary, mechanical and electro-magnetic. These can
also be classified as longitudinal and transverse depending on the direction of
motion of the material particles with respect to the direction of propagation of
wave in case of mechnical waves and electric and magnetic vectors in case of
e.m. waves. Waves are so intimate to our existence.
Sound waves travelling through air make it possible for us to listen. Light waves,
which can travel even through vacuum make us see things and radio waves carrying
different signals at the speed of light connect us to our dear ones through differents
forms of communication. In fact, wave phenomena is universal.
The working of our musical instruments, radio, T.V require us to understand
wave phenomena. Can you imagine the quality of life without waves? In this
lesson you will study the basics of waves and wave phenomena.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z explain propagation of transverse and longitudinal waves and establish the
relation v = vλ ;
z write Newton’s formula for velocity of longitudinal waves in a gas and explain
Laplace’s correction;
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MODULE - 4 Wave Phenomena
ACTIVITY 14.1
Take a long coiled spring, called slinky, and stretch
it along a smooth floor or bench, keeping one end
fixed and the other end free to be given movements (a)
. Hold the free end in your hand and give it a jerk
side–ways.[Fig 14.1(a)]. You will observe that a
kink is produced which travels towards the fixed
end with definite speed . This kink is a wave of (b)
short duration. Keep moving the free end
continuously left and right. You will observe a train (c)
of pulses ravelling towards the fixed end. This is a Fig. 14.1 : Wave motion on a
transverse wave moving through the spring [Fig. slinky (a) pulse on a slinky,
14.1 (b)]. (b) transverse wave, and
(c) longitudinal Wave
There is another type of wave that you can
generate in the slinky . For this keep the slinky straight and give it a push along
its length . A pulse of compression thus moves on the spring. By moving the hand
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Oscillations and Waves
backwards and forwards at a constant rate you can see ulternate compressions
and rarefactions travelling along its length . These are called longitudinal waves
[Fig. 14.1(c)].
(a) t=0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(b) T
t=
8
T
(c) t=
4
3T
(d) t=
8
T
(e) t=
2
5T
(f) t=
8
3T
(g) t=
4
7T
(h) t=
8
(i) t=8
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Oscillations and Waves
Dividing Eqn. (14.3) by Eqn. (14.4), we get an expression for the wave velocity:
ω 2πv
v = =
k 2π/λ
or v = vλ (14.5)
Let us now explain how the logitudinal waves propagate. Notes
x
A C B
For every arrow directed to the right, we draw a proportionate line upward.
Similarly, for every arrow directed to the left, a proportionate line is drawn
downward. On drawing a smooth curve through the heads of these lines, we find
that the graph resembles the displacement-time curve for a transverse wave. If
we look at the solid circles, we note that around the positions A and B, the
particles have crowded together while around the position C, they have separated
farther. These represent regions of compression and rarefaction. That is, there
are alternate regions where density (pressure) are higher and lower than average.A
sound wave propagating in air is very similar to the longitudinal waves that you
can generate on your spring (Fig. 14.4).
Let us now derive equation of a simple harmonic wave.
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MODULE - 4 Wave Phenomena
Notes
Fig. 14.4 : Longitudinal waves on a spring are analogous to sound waves.
O x X
P
–A
Y¢ l
Then the phase of vibrations at that time at the point P lags behind by a phase,
say φ. Then
y = a sin (ωt – φ) (14.7)
Let us put OP = x. Since phase change per unit distance is k, we can write φ = kx.
Hence,
Eqn. (14.7) take the form y(x, t) = a sin (ωt – kx) (14.8)
Further as ω = 2π/t and k = 2π/λ, we can rewrite Eqn (14.8) as
⎛ t x⎞
y (x, t) = a sin 2π ⎜ – ⎟ (14.9)
⎝T λ⎠
In terms of wave velocity (v = λ/T), this equation can be expressed as
2π
y = a sin (v t – x) (14.10)
λ
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Oscillations and Waves
In deriving Eqn. (14.8) we have taken initial phase of the wave at O as zero.
However, if the initial phase angle at O is φ0 , the equation of the wave would be
y (x,t) = a sin [(ωt – kx) + φ0] (14.11)
2π 2π
Δφ = kΔx = Δx = – (x2 – x1) (14.13)
λ λ
where Δx is called the path difference between these two points. Here the negative
sign indicates that a point positioned later will acquire the same phase at a later
time.
Phase difference at the same position over a time interval Δt :
We consider two waves at the same position at a time interval Δt. For the first
wave, phase φ , is given by
2π 2π
φ1 = t1 – x
T λ
and for the another wave phase
2π 2π
φ2 = t2 – x.
T π
The phase difference between them
2π
Δφ = φ2 – φ1 = (t2 – t1)
T
= 2πv (t2 – t1) [14.13(a)]
= 2π v (Δt)
Example 14.1 : A progressive harmonic wave is given by y = 10–4 sin (100πt –
0.1πx). Calculate its (i) frequency, (ii) wavelength and (iii) velocity y and x are in
metre.
Solution: comparing with the standard equation of progressive wave
⎛ 2πt 2πx ⎞
y = A sin ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ T λ ⎠
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MODULE - 4 Wave Phenomena
2π
(ii) = 0.1 π ⇒ λ = 20 m
λ
(iii) v = vλ = 1000 ms–1
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Oscillations and Waves
14.2 VELOCITY OF LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE
WAVES IN AN ELASTIC MEDIUM
P
v = (14.15)
ρ
For air, at standard temperature and pressure P = 1.01 × 105 Nm–2 and ρ = 1.29
kg m–3. On substituting these values in Eqn.(14.15) we get
Clouds collide producing thunder and lightening, we hear sound of thunder after
the lightening. This is because the velocity of light is very much greater than the
velocity of sound in air. By measuring the time interval between observing the
lightening and hearing the sound, the velocity of sound in air can be determined.
Using an improved technique, the velocity of sound in air has been determined as
333 ms–1 at 00C. The percent error in the value predicted by Newton’s formula
333 – 280
and that determined experimentally is × 100% = 16%. This error is
333
too high to be regarded as an experimental error. Obviously there is something
wrong with Newton’s assumption that during the passage of sound, the
compression and the rarefaction of air take place isothermally.
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MODULE - 4 Wave Phenomena
γP
v =
ρ
Since density is ratio of mass perumit volume, this expression takes the form
γPV
=
M
Using the equation of state PV = nRT, where n is number of moles in mass m of
the gas
γRT
v= M
n
γRT
= (14.17 a)
m
Where m denotes the gram molecular mass. This result shows that
v α T
⎛ t ⎞
⇒ v = vo ⎜1 + ⎟ +................
⎝ 2 × 273 ⎠
333
~ 333 + t
546
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Oscillations and Waves
(ii) Effect of pressure
When we increase pressure on a gas, it gets compressed but its density increases
in the same proportion as the pressure i.e. P/ρ remains constant. It means that,
pressure has no effect on the velocity of sound in a gas.
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MODULE - 4 Wave Phenomena
ACTIVITY 14.2
Produce two wave crests of different amptitudes on
a stretched slinky, as shown in Fig. 14.6 and watch (a)
carefully. The crests are moving in the opposite
directions. They meet and overlap at the point (b)
midway between them [Fig. 14.6(b)] and then
separate out. Thereafter, they continue to move in (c)
the same direction in which they were moving before
crossing each other. Moreover, their shape also does
(d)
not change [Fig. 14.6(c)].
Now produce one crest and one trough on the slinky
as shown in Fig. 14.6(d). The two are moving in the (e)
opposite direction. They meet [Fig. 14.6(e)], overlap
and then separate out. Each one moves in the same
direction in which it was moving before crossing (f)
and each one has the same shape as it was having
before crossing. Repeat the experiment again and Fig. 14.6 : Illustrating principle
observe carefully what happens at the spot of of superpositionof
waves
overlapping of the two pulses [(Fig. 14.6(b) and (e)].
You will note that when crests overlap, the resultant is more and when crest
overlaps the through, the resultant is on the side of crest but smaller size.We may
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Oscillations and Waves
summarize this result as : At the points where the two pulses overlap, the resultant
displacement is the vector sum of the displacements due to each of the two wave
pulses. This is called the principle of superposition.
This activity demonstrates not only the principle of superposition but also shows
that two or more waves can traverse the same space independent of each other.
Each one travels as if the other were not present. This important property of the
waves enable us to tune to a particular radio station even though the waves Notes
broadcast by a number of radio stations exist in space at the same time. We make
use of this principle to explain the phenomena of interference of waves, formation
of beats and stationary or standing waves.
ACTIVITY 14.3
Fasten one end of a slinky to a fixed support as shown in (Fig. 14.7 (a). Keeping
the slinky horizontal, give a jerk to its free end so as to produce a transverse
wave pulse which travells towards the fixed end of the slinky (Fig. 14.7(a)). You
will observe that the pulse bounces back from the fixed end. As it bounces back,
the crest becomes a trough travels back in the opposite direction. Do you know
the reason? As the pulse meets the fixed end, it exerts a force on the support. The
equal and opposite reaction not only reverses the direction of propagation of the
wave pulse but also reverses the direction of the displacement of the wave pulse
(Fig. 14.7(b)). The support being much heavier than the slinky, it can be regarded
as a denser medium. The wave pulse moving in the opposite direction is called
the reflected wave pulse. So, we can say that when reflection takes place from
a denser medium, the wave undergoes a phase change of π, that is, it suffers a
phase reversal.
(a)
(b)
(a) (b)
Fig. 14.7 : Reflection from a denser Fig.14.8(a) : A pulse travelling down towards
medium : a phase the free end, (b) on reflection from
reversal. the free end direction of its displacement
remains unchanged
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MODULE - 4 Wave Phenomena
ACTIVITY 14.4
Suspend a fixed rubber tube from a rigid support (Fig. 14.8 a). Then generate a
Notes wave pulse travelling down the tube. On reflection from the free end, the wave
pulse travels upward but without any change in the direction of its displacements
i.e. crest returns as crest. Why? As the wave B1 B2 B3 D
pulse reaches the free end of the tube, it gets
E
reflected from a rarer boundary. (Note that air
is rarer than the rubber tube.) Hence there is Fig. 14.9 : Longitudinal waves are
no change in the direction of displacement of reflected from a denser medium
the wave pulse. Thus on reflection from a without change of type but with
rarer medium, no phase change takes place. change of sign
You may now raise the question : Do longitudinal waves also behave similarly?
Refer to Fig. 14.9, which shows a row of bogies. Now suppose that the engine E
moves a bit towards the right. The buffer spring between the engine E and the
first bogie gets compressed and pushes bogie B1 towards the right. It then tries to
go back to its original shape. As this compressed spring expands, the spring
between the 1st and the 2nd bogie gets compressed. As the second compressed
spring expands, it moves a bit towards the 3rd bogie. In this manner the
compression arrives at the last buffer spring in contact with the fixed stand D. As
the spring between the fixed stand and the last bogie expands, only the last bogie
moves towards the left. As a result of this, the buffer spring between the next two
bogies on left is compressed. This process continues, till the compression reaches
between the engine and the first bogie on its right. Thus, a compression returns as
a compression. But the bogies then move towards the left. In this mechanical
model, the buffer spring and the bogies form a medium. The bogies are the particles
of the medium and the spring between them shows the forces of elasticity.
Thus, when reflection takes place from a denser medium, the longitudinal
waves are reflected without change of type but with change in sign. And on
reflection from a rare medium, a longitudinal wave is reflected back without
change of sign but with change of type. By ‘change of type’ we mean that
rarefaction is reflected back as compression and a compression is reflected back
as rarefaction.
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3. Two similar wave pulses travelling in the opposite directions on a string
meet. What happens (i) when the waves are in the same phase? (ii) the
waves are in the opposite phases?
4. What happens when a transverse wave pulse travelling along a string meets
the fixed end of the string?
5. What happens when a wave pulse travelling along a string meets the free
end of the string? Notes
6. What happens when a wave of compression is reflected from (i) a rarer
medium (ii) a denser medium?
2π
where ω= 2π/T is angular frequency and k = is wave number.
λ
Since, the two waves are travelling in the same direction with the same velocity
along the same line, they overlap. According to the principle of superposition,
the resultant displacement at the given location at the given time is
y = y1 + y2 = a1 sin (ωt – kx) + a2 sin [(ωt – kx) + φ]
If we put (ωt – kx) = θ, then
y = a1 sinθ + a2 sin (θ + φ)
= a1 sinθ + a2 sinθ cosφ + a2 sinφ cosθ
Let us put a2 sinφ = A sinα
and a1 + a2 cosφ = A cos α
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MODULE - 4 Wave Phenomena
In Eqn. (14.18), φ is the phase difference between the two superposed waves. If
path difference, between the two waves corresponds to phase difference φ , then
2πp 2π
φ= , where is the phase change per unit distance.
λ λ
λ λ
When the path difference is an even multiple of , i.e., p = 2m , then phase
2 2
difference is given by φ = (2π/λ) × (2m λ/2) = 2mπ. Since cos2π = +1, from Eqn.
(14.18) we get
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Oscillations and Waves
I max (a1 + a2 ) 2
If a1 = a2, the intensity of resultant wave is zero. These results show that interference
is essentially redistribution of energy in space due to superposition of waves.
14.4.2 Beats
Notes
We have seen that superposition of waves of same frequency propagating in the
same direction produces interference. Let us now investigate what would be the
outcome of superposition of waves of nearly the same frequency. First let us
perform an activity.
ACTIVITY 14.5
Take two tuning forks of same frequency 512 Hz. Let us name them as A and B.
Load the prong of the tuning fork B with a little wax. Now sound them together
by a rubber hammer. Press their stems against a table top and note what you
observe. You will observe that the intensity of sound alternately becomes maximum
and minimum. These alternations of maxima and minima of intensity are called
beats. One alternation of a maximum and a minimum is one beat. On loading the
prong of B with a little more wax, you will find that no. of beats increase. On
further loading the prongs of B, no beats may be heard. The reason is that our ear
is unable to hear two sounds as separate produced in an interval less than one
tenths of a second. Let us now explain how beats are produced.
(a) Production of beats : Suppose we have two tuning forks A and B of
frequencies N and N + n respectively; n is smaller than 10. In one second, A
completes N vibrations but B completes N + n vibrations. That is, B completes n
more vibrations in one second than the tuning fork A. In other words, B gains n
vibrations over A in 1s and hence it gains 1 vib. in (1/n) s. and half vibration over
A in (1/2n) s. Suppose at t = 0, i.e. initially, both the tuning forks were vibrating
in the same phase. Then after (1/2n)s, B will gain half vibration over A. Thus after
1
s it will vibrate in oposite phase. If A sends a wave of compression then B
2n
sends a wave of rarefaction to the observer. And, the resultant intensity received
by the ear would be zero. After (1/n)s, B would gain one complete vibration. If
now A sends a wave of compression, B too would send a wave of compression to
the observer. The intensity observed would become maximum. After (3/2n)s, the
two forks again vibrate in the opposite phase and hence the intensity would again
become minimum. This process would continue. The observer would hear 1 beat
in (1/n)s, and hence n beats in one second. Thus, the number of beats heard in
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MODULE - 4 Wave Phenomena
(a) v1 = 12 Hz
Notes
(b) v2 = 10 Hz
(c) Beats
Fig.14.11 : (a) Displacement time graph of frequency 12 Hz. (b) displacement time graph of
frequency 10 Hz. Superposition of the two waves produces 2 beats per second.
(b) Graphic method : Draw a 12 cm long line. Divide it into 12 equal parts of 1
cm. On this line draw 12 wavelengths each 1 cm long and height 0.5 cm. This
represents a wave of frequency 12 Hz. On the line (b) draw 10 wavelengths each
of length 1.2 cm and height 0.5 cm. This represents a wave of frequency 10Hz.
(c) represents the resultant wave. Fig, 14.11 is not actual waves but the
displacement time graphs. Thus, the resultant intensity alternately becomes
maximum and minimum. The number of beats produced in one second is Δv.
Hence, the beat frequency equals the difference between the frequencies of the
waves superposed.
Example 14.3 : A tuning fork of unknown frequency gives 5 beats per second
with another tuning of 500 Hz. Determine frequency of the unknown fork.
Solution : v′ = v ± n = 500 ± 5
⇒ The frequency of unknown tuning fork is either 495 Hz or 505 Hz.
Example 14.4 : In an interference pattern, the ratio of maximum and minimum
intensities is 9. What is the amplitude ratio of the superposing waves?
2 2
Imax ⎛ a1 + a2 ⎞ ⎛1+ r ⎞ a2
Solution : I = ⎜ a − a ⎟ ⇒ 9=⎜ ⎟ , where r =
⎝1– r ⎠ a1 .
min ⎝ 1 2⎠
1+ r
=3
1− r
1
You can easily solve it to get r = , i.e., amplitude of one wave is twice that of
2
the other.
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Superposition of two identical collinear waves travelling with the same speed
in opposite directions leads to formation of stationary waves. They are called
stationary waves, because the wave form does not move forward, but alternately
shrinks and dilates. The energy merely surges back and forth and on an average,
there is no net flow of energy past a point.
y = A cos ωt
The points where the amplitude is zero are referred to as nodes. At these points
Δy/Δx = maximum, that is strain is maximum. Obviously, the spacing between
two nearest points is λ/2.
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MODULE - 4 Wave Phenomena
It may be pointed out here that at nodes, the particle velocity is zero and at
antinodes, particle velocity Δy/Δt is maximum. Therefore, it follows that the
average flow of energy across any point is zero. The energy merely surges back
Notes and forth. That is why, these waves have been named stationary or standing waves.
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2. What is the distance between two successive nodes, and between a node
and next antinode?
3. Pressure nodes are displacement antinodes and pressure antinodes are
displacement nodes. Explain.
4. Stationary waves of frequency 170Hz are formed in air. If the velocity of the
waves is 340 ms–1, what is the shortest distance between (i) two nearest
nodes (ii) two nearest antinode (iii) nearest node and antinode? Notes
14.6.1 Pitch
The term pitch is the characteristic of musical notes that enables us to classify a
note as ‘high’ or ‘low’. It is a subjective quantity which cannot be measured by
an instrument. It depends on frequency. However, there does not exist any one-
to-one correspondence between the two. A shrill, sharp or acute sound is said to
be of high pitch. But a dull, grave and flat note is said to be of low pitch. Roaring
of lion, though of high intensity, is of low pitch. On the other hand, the buzzing of
mosquito, though of low intensity, is of high pitch.
14.6.2 Loudness
The loudness of sound is a subjective effect of intensity of sound received by
listeners ear. The intensity of waves is the average amount of energy transported
by the wave per unit area per second normally across a surface at a given point.
There is a large range of intensities over which the ear is sensitive. As such,
logarithmic scale rather than arithmetic intensity scale is more convenient.
Threshold of hearing and Intensity of Sound
The intensity level β of a sound wave is defined by the equation.
β = 10 log I/I0 (14.21)
where I0 is arbitrarily chosen reference intensity, taken as 10–12 Wm–2. This
value corresponds to the faintest sound that can be heard. Intensity level is
expressed in decibels, abbreviated db. If the intensity of a sound wave equals
I0 or 10–12 Wm–2, its intensity level is then I0 = 0 db. Within the range of
audibility, sensitivity of human ear varies with frequency. The threshold
audibility at any frequency is the minimum intensity of sound at that
frequency, which can be detected.
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Intensity db
hertz tone of intensity 40db is presented to 80
both ears. 60
The range of frequencies and intensities to 40
Notes which ear is sensitive have been represented 20 Threshold
of hearing
in a diagram in Fig. 14.13, which is in fact 0
20 100 10,000 20,000
a graph between frequency in hertz versus Frequency in hertz
intensity level 1 in decibels. This is a graph Fig. 14.13 : Auditory area between
of auditory area of good hearing. The threshold of hearing and
following points may be noted. threshold of feeling
z The lower part of the curve shows that the ear is most sensitive for
frequencies between 2000 Hz to 3000 Hz, where the threshold of hearing
is about 5db. Threshold of hearing in general, is zero decibel.
z At intensities above those corresponding to the upper part of the curve,
the sensation changes from one of hearing to discomfort and even
pain. This curve represents the threshold of feeling.
z Loudness increases with intensity, but there is no definite relation
between the two.
z Pure tones of same intensity but different frequencies do not necessarily
produce equal loudness.
z The height of the upper curve is constant at a level of 120 db for all
frequencies.
The intensity of sound waves depends on the following factors :
z Amplitude of vibration : I α a2 where a is amplitude of the wave.
z Distance between the observer and the Source : I α 1/r2 where r is the
distance of the observer from the source (provided it is a point source).
z Intensity is directly proportional to the square of frequency of the
wave (I α v2).
z Intensity is directly proportional to the density of the medium (I α
ρ).
14.6.3 Quality
It is the characteristic of sound waves which enables us to distinguish between
two notes of the same pitch and intensity but sounded by two different instruments.
No instrument, except a tuning fork, can emit a pure note; a note of one particular
frequency. In general, when a note of frequency n is sounded, in addition to it,
388 PHYSICS
Wave Phenomena MODULE - 4
Oscillations and Waves
notes of higher frequencies 2n, 3n, 4n ... may also be produced. These notes,
have different amplitudes and phase relations. The resultant wave form of the
emitted waves determines the quality of the note emitted. Quality, like loudness
and pitch is a subjective quantity. It depend on the resultant wave form.
PHYSICS 389
MODULE - 4 Wave Phenomena
λ λ λ λ
l = + + +
2 4 2 4
Notes 2l
λ=
3
A A A
l/4
l/4 N
l/4
l/2
L
N
A l/2 A l/2
N N N
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 14.15 : Harmonics of a closed organ pipe. The curves represented wave form of the
longitudinal standing waves.
Therefore, the frequency of the note emitted is
v 3v
n3 = = = 3n1
λ 2l
The note produced is called the 3rd harmonic or 2nd overtone.
(b) Closed pipe : The simplest manner in which the air column can vibrate in a
closed pipe is shown in Fig. 14.15(a). There is an antinode at the open end and a
node at the closed end. The wave length of the wave produced is given by
l = λ/4 or λ = 4l
Therefore, the frequency of the note emitted is
n1 = v /λ = v /41
The note produced is called fundamental note. On blowing harder one more
node and antinode will be produced (Fig. 14.15(b)). The wavelength of the note
produced is given by
λ λ 3λ 4l
l =
+ = or λ =
2 4 4 3
The frequency of the note emitted will be
v 3v
n3 = = = 3n1
λ 4l
390 PHYSICS
Wave Phenomena MODULE - 4
Oscillations and Waves
The note produced is called the first overtone or the 3rd harmonic of the
fundamental, blowing still harder one more node and one more antinode will be
produced Fig. 14.15(C). The wavelength of the note produced is then given by
λ λ λ 5λ 4l
l = + + + or λ =
2 2 4 4 5
The frequency of the note emitted then will be Notes
v 5v
n3 = = = 5n1
λ 4l
The note produced is called the second overtone or the 5th harmonic of the
fundamental. On comparison with the notes emitted by the open and closed pipe,
you will find that the open pipe is richer in overtones. In closed pipe, the even
order harmonics are missing.
Example 14.5 : Two organ pipes – one open and the other closed – are of the
same length. Calculate the ratio of their fundamental frequencies.
PHYSICS 391
MODULE - 4 Wave Phenomena
392 PHYSICS
Wave Phenomena MODULE - 4
Oscillations and Waves
4. Restriction on use of loudspeakers and amplifiers.
5. Restricting the use of fire crackers, bands and loud speakers during religious,
political and marriage processions.
6. Planting trees on roads for intercepting the path of sound.
7. Intercepting the path of sound by sound absorbing materials.
Notes
8. Using muffs and cotton plugs.
Shock Waves
When a source of waves is travelling faster than the sound waves, shock
waves are produced. The familiar example is the explosive sound heared by
an observer when a supersonic plane flies past over the head of the observer.
It may be pointed out that the object which moves with a speed greater than
the speed of sound is itself a source of sound.
E = Ex X
x-z plane
E E
Ex0 B
k z
(direction of
By0 propagation)
Exo B
Exc
By
y
Fig. 14.16 : Electrical and Magnetic fields in em waves
PHYSICS 393
MODULE - 4 Wave Phenomena
394 PHYSICS
Wave Phenomena MODULE - 4
Oscillations and Waves
There is no sharp dividing point between one class of e.m. waves and the next.
The different parts are as follows :
⎧v = 60Hz to 50Hz ⎫
(i) The low frequency radiations ⎨ ⎬ : generated from
⎩λ = 5 × 10 m to 6 × 10 m ⎭
6 6
⎧⎪λ = 10 –3 m to 0.3m ⎫⎪
(iii) Microwaves ⎨ ⎬ : These are generated by oscillating
⎩⎪v = 10 Hz to 10 Hz ⎭⎪
11 9
heat waves, are produced by hot bodies and molecules. These are readily
absorbed by most materials. The temperature of the body, which absorbs
these radiations, rises. Infrared radiations have many practical and scientific
applications including physical therapy infrared photography etc. These are
detected by a thermopile.
⎧⎪λ = 4 × 10 –7 m to 7 × 10 –7 m ⎫⎪
(v) Visible light ⎨ ⎬ : These are the e.m. waves
⎪⎩v = 7.5 × 10 Hz to 4.3 × 10 Hz ⎪⎭
14 14
that human eye can detect or to which the human retina is sensitive. It forms
a very small portion of the whole electromagnetic spectrum. These waves
are produced by the rearrangement of electrons in atoms and molecules.
When an electron-jumps from outer orbit to inner orbit of lower energy, the
balance of energy is radiated in the form of visible radiation. The various
wavelengths of visible lights are classified with colours, ranging from violet
(λ = 4 × 10–7m) to red (λ = 7 × 10–7). Human eye is most sensitive to yellow-
green light (λ = 5 × 10–7m). Light is the basis of our communitation with the
world around us.
PHYSICS 395
MODULE - 4 Wave Phenomena
⎪⎧λ = 4 × 10 m to 4 × 10 m ⎪⎫
–13 –8
energy electrons bombard a metal target (with high melting point) such as
tungsten. X-rays find their important applications in medical diagnostics
and as a treatment for certain forms of cancer. Because, they destroy living
tissues, care must be taken to avoid over-exposure of body parts. X-rays are
also used in study of crystal-structure. They are detected by photographic
plates.
⎪⎧λ = 6 × 10 m to 10 m ⎪⎫
–17 –10
nuclei such as cobalt (60) and ceasium (137) and also during certain nuclear
reactions in nuclear reactors. These are highly penetrating and cause serious
damage when absorbed by living tissues. Thick sheets of lead are used to
shield the objects from the lethal effects of gamma rays.
Depending on the medium, various types of radiations in the spectrum will show
different characteristic behaviours. For example, while whole of the human body
is opaque to visible light, human tissues are transparent to X-rays but the bones
are relatively opaque. Similarly Earth’s atmosphere behaves differently for different
types of radiations.
396 PHYSICS
Wave Phenomena MODULE - 4
Oscillations and Waves
Visible
Notes
Fig. 14.17: Electromagnetic spectrum
PHYSICS 397
MODULE - 4 Wave Phenomena
It is important to note that the wave originated at a moving source does not affect
the speed of the sound. The speed v is the property of the medium. The wave
forgets the source as it leaves the source. Let us suppose that the source, the observer
and the sound waves travel from left to right. Let us first consider the effect of
motion of the source. A particular note which leaves the sources at a given time
after one second arrives at the point A such that SA = v. In this time, the source
moves a distance vs. Hence all the n waves that the source had emitted in one
second are contained in the space x = v – vs. Thus length of each wave decreased to
v – vs
λ′ = ...(14.22)
n
S A
v
(a)
vs
S A
v – vs
(b)
Fig. 14.18 : Crowding of waves when source is moving
398 PHYSICS
Wave Phenomena MODULE - 4
Oscillations and Waves
Now let us consider the effect of motion of the observer. A particular wave
which arrives at O at a particular time after one second will be at B such that OB
= v. But in the mean time, the observer moves from O to O′. Hence only the
waves contained in the space O′B have passed across the observer in one second.
The number of the waves passing across the observer in one second is therefore,
n′ = (v – v0)/λ′ (14.23)
Notes
v
S O B
vs
B
O¢
v – vs
PHYSICS 399
MODULE - 4 Wave Phenomena
⎛ vs ⎞
= λ ⎜⎝1 – ⎟⎠
v
On rearranging terms, we can write
Notes λ′ – λ vs
=–
λ v
Δλ vs
or =
λ v
Δλ
we are told that = 0.032/100. And since v = c = 3 × 108 ms–1, we get
λ
Δλ
vs = v = – (3 × 108 ms–1 × 0.032/100) = – 9.6 × 104 ms–1.
λ
The negative sign shows that the star is receding away. This made the
astrophysists to conclude that the world is in a state of expansion
400 PHYSICS
Wave Phenomena MODULE - 4
Oscillations and Waves
speed of light in vacuum, irrespective of the wavelength of light, the velocity
of the source or the observer. In 1983, the velocity of light in vacuum, was
declared a universal constant with a value 299792458 ms–1.
However, the Autralian researcher Barry Setterfield and Trevn Norwah have
studied, the data of 16 different experiments on the speed of light in vacuum,
carried out over the last 300 years, by different scientists at different places.
According to them, the speed of light in vacuum is decreasing with time. If Notes
this hypothesis is sustained and coroborated by experiements, it will bring in
thorough change in our world view. Major areas in which this change will
be enormous are : Maxwell’s laws, atomic structure, radioactive decay,
gravitation, concepts of space, time and mass etc.
and v = E / ρ respectively.
PHYSICS 401
MODULE - 4 Wave Phenomena
TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. How will you define a wave in the most general form?
2. Explain using a suitable mechanical model, the propagation of (i) transverse
waves (ii) longitudinal wave. Define the term wavelength and frequency.
3. Define angular frequency ω and propagation constant k and hence show
that the velocity of the wave propagation is v = ω/k = nλ.
4. Derive the equation of a simple harmonic wave of angular frequency of (i)
transverse (ii) longitudinal waves.
5. What are the essential properties of the medium for propagation of (i)
transverse waves (ii) longitudinal waves.
6. Derive an expression for the intensity of the wave in terms of density of the
medium, velocity of the wave, the amplitude of the wave and the frequency
of the wave.
7. Write Newton’s formula for the velocity of sound in a gas and explain
Laplace’s correction.
8. When do two waves interfere (i) constructively (ii) destructively?
9. Show using trigonometry that when two simple harmonic waves of the same
angular frequency ω and same wavelenght λ but of amplitudes a1 and a2 are
superposed, the resultant amplitude is A = a22 + a22 + 2a1 a2 cos θ , where θ is
the phase difference between them. What would be the value of A, for θ = 0,
(ii) for θ = 2π, and (iii) for θ = (2m + 1)π?
402 PHYSICS
Wave Phenomena MODULE - 4
Oscillations and Waves
10. What are beats? How are they formed? Explain graphically.
11. Discuss graphically the formation of stationary waves. Why are these wave
called stationary waves? Define nodes and antinodes.
12. State three differences between stationary and travelling waves.
13. Derive the equation of a stationary wave and show that displacement nodes
are pressure antinodes and displacement antinodes are pressure nodes?
Notes
14. What are the characteristics of musical sounds. Explain.
15. What is a decibel (symbol) db)? What is meant by ‘threshold of hearing’ and
‘threshold of feeling’?
16. What is meant by quality of sound? Explain with examples?
17. Discuss the harmonics of organ pipes. Show that an open pipe is richer in
harmonics.
18. Show that (i) the frequency of open organ pipes. is two times the frequency
of the fundamental note of a closed pipe of same length (ii) to produce a
fundamental note of same frequency, the length of the open pipe must be
two times the length of the closed pipe.
19. Describe an experiment to demonstrate existence of nodes and antinodes in
an organ pipes?
20. State the causes of noise pollution, its harmful effects and methods of
minimising it.
21. Explain Doppler’s effect and derive an expression for apparant frequency.
How does this equation get modified if the medium in which the sound
travels is also moving.
22. Discuss the applications of Doppler’s effect in (i) measuring the velocity of
recession of stars, (ii) velocity of enemy plane by RADAR and (iii) velocity
of enemy boat by SONAR?
23. Calculate the velocity of sound in a gas in which two waves of wavelengths
1.00m and 1.01m produce 10 beats in 3 seconds.
24. What will be the length of a closed pipe if the lowest note has a frequency
256Hz at 20C. Velocity of sound at 0C = 332 ms–1.
25. The frequency of the sound waves emitted by a source is 1 kHz. Calculate
the frequency of the waves as perceived by the observer when (a) the source
and the observer are stationary, (b) the source is moving with a velocity of
50ms–1 towards the observer, and (c) the source is moving with a velocity of
50ms–1 away from the observer. Velocity of sound in air is 350ms–1.
26. Write the characteristic properties of e.m. waves which make them different
from sound waves.
PHYSICS 403
MODULE - 4 Wave Phenomena
E
(vi) The ratio in free space of e.m. wave is called ______________.
H
(vii) The frequency range of F.M. band is ________________.
(viii)___________signal is frequency modulated in T.V. broadcasting.
14.1
1. See section 14.1.4.
2π
2. If p be the path difference, then the phase difference is θ = p.
λ
3. φ
14.2
1. Newton assumed that compression and rarefaction caused by sound waves
takes place under isothermal condition.
3. Newton assumed that isothermal conditions instead of adiabatic conditions
for sound propagation.
4. 3570C.
404 PHYSICS
Wave Phenomena MODULE - 4
Oscillations and Waves
T
5. v=
m
1 T
6. Therefore, n =
λ m
Further, for the simplest mode of vibration, at the two ends of the string, there
are nodes and in between the two nodes is an antinode. Therefore, l = l/2 or λ = Notes
T
2l, hence n = λ/2l . If the string vibrates in p segments, the λ = p l/2 or λ =
m
T
2l/p. Then n = (p/2l) .
m
14.3
For answers to all questions see text.
14.4
1. 25/9.
2. Beats with frequency 4Hz are produced.
3. Frequency of beat is Δv.
4. 517, on loading the frequency of A decreases from 517 to 507.
14.5
1. No energy swings back and forth in a segment.
2. Distance between two successive nodes is λ/2, and between a node and
antinode is λ/4.
4. (i) 1m, (ii) 1m, (iii) 1/4m.
14.6
1. Pitch increases with increase in frequency.
2. Timbre
3. Timbre
4. Open pipe
5. For a closed pipe in case of fundamental note l = λ/4 or λ = 4l, therefore n
= v/λ = v/4l.
For an open pipe l = λ/2. Therefore n′ = v /2l.
Comparing (i) and (ii) we find that n′ = 2n
PHYSICS 405
MODULE - 4 Wave Phenomena
14.7
(i) microwaves.
(ii) yellow–green (λ = 5 × 10–7 m)
Notes
(iii) Sun.
(iv) X – rays.
(v) thermopile.
2. (i) ultra voilet
(ii) r – rays.
3. Microwaves
4. Ozone.
5. Perpendicular to each other.
14.8
c – v0
1. n′ = n
c
1450 – 100
= 40 × 103 ×
1450
135
= 40 × × 10 = 37.2 KHz.
145
340 + 16
2. n′ = 200 ×
340 – 16
356
= 200 × = 220 Hz.
224
406 PHYSICS
SENIOR SECONDARY COURSE
PHYSICS
STUDENT’S ASSIGNMENT – 4
INSTRUCTIONS
z Answer All the questions on a seperate sheet of paper
z Give the following information on your answer sheet:
z Name
z Enrolment Number
z Subject
z Assignment Number
z Address
z Get your assignment checked by the subject teacher at your study centre so that you get positive
feedback about your performance.
(a) y = 1 + ωt.
PHYSICS 407
6. Is there a deviation in the direction of propagation of a sound wave in passing from air to water?
Explain. (1)
7. What happens when a transverse wave pulse travelling on a string meets the fixed end of the
string? (1)
8. What happens to the speed of em waves as they enter from vacuum to a material medium. (1)
9. Draw reference circle for the SHM represented by –
⎛ π⎞
x = 3 sin ⎜ 2πr + ⎟
⎝ 4⎠
Indicate the initial position of the particle, the radius of the circle and the angular speed of the
rotating particle. For simplicity, the sense of rotation may be taken to be anticlockwise. In the
given expression x is in cm and t is in seconds. (2)
10. Two waves having intensities in the ratio 1 : 9, superpose to produce interference pattern on a
screen. Find the ratio of maximum and minimum intensities in the interference pattern. (2)
11. Two tuning forks A and B are marked 480 hz each. When they are sounded together they give 5
beats s–1. What can you say about the frequency marked on the tuning forks. How can you find
the ratio vA / vB? (2)
12. (a) Name the em waves used in aircraft navigation by radar?
(b) Which gas in atmosphere absorbs u-v radiation? (2)
13. Write Laplace’s formula for the speed of sound in air. Using the formula explain why the speed of
sound in air (a) increases with temperature (b) increases with humidity. (4)
14. A transverse harmonic wave on a string is described by
y(x1t) = 3.0 sin(36t + 0.018x)
find (i) amplitude of particle velocity. (ii) wave velocity. (4)
15. A bat emits urasonic waves of frequency 103 KHz in air. If the waves strike a water surface, find
the difference in the wave lengths of transmilted sound and reflected sound. (speed of sound in
air is
-1 -1
350 ms and is water 1500 ms ). (4)
16. A wire stretched between two rigid supports vibrates in its fundamental mode with a frequency
of 50 Hz. The mass of the wire is 3.5 × 10-2 kg and its linear density is 4.0 × 10-2 kg m-1. What is
(a) the speed of a transverse wave on the string and (b) the tension in the string? (4)
17. A pipe 20 cm long is closed at one end. Which harmonic mode of the pipe is resonantly excited by
a 430 Hz source? Will the same source be in resonance with the pipe if both ends are open. (4)
18. Explain why :
(i) solids can support both transverse as well as longitudinal waves, however, only lougitudinal
can propagate in gases.
408 PHYSICS
(ii) the shape of a pulse get distorted during propagation in a dispersive medium.
(iii) in a sound wave displacement node is pressure antinode and vice-versa.
(iv) a note played on voilin and sitar has the same frequency but the two may still be distinguished
from each other. (4)
19. Discuss the applications of doppler effect in measuring
(i) the velocity of recession of stars (ii) velocity of enemy boat by SONAR. (5)
20. The transverse displacement of a string of length 1.5 m and mass .03 kg which is clamped at both
ends, is given by (5)
⎛ 2πx ⎞
y = 0.068m ⎜ ⎟ cos (120πt )
⎝ 3 ⎠
when x and y are in m and t in s.
(i) Does it represent travelling wave or stationary wave?
(ii) Interpret the wave as a result of superposition of two waves.
(iii) Determine the frequency, wavelength and speed of each super posing wave.
PHYSICS 409
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15
Notes
So far you have learnt about mechanical, thermal and optical systems and various
phenomena exhibited by them. The importance of electricity in our daily life is
too evident. The physical comforts we enjoy and the various devices used in daily
life depend on the availability of electrical energy. An electrical power failure
demonstrates directly our dependence on electric and magnetic phenomena; the
lights go off, the fans, coolers and air-conditioners in summer and heaters and
gysers in winter stop working. Similarly, radio, TV, computers, microwaves can
not be operated. Water pumps stop running and fields cannot be irrigated. Even
train services are affected by power failure. Machines in industrial units can not
be operated. In short, life almost comes to a stand still, sometimes even evoking
public anger. It is, therefore, extremely important to study electric and magnetic
phenomena.
In this lesson, you will learn about two kinds of electric charges, their behaviour
in different circumstances, the forces that act between them, the behaviour of the
surrounding space etc. Broadly speaking, we wish to study that branch of physics
which deals with electrical charges at rest. This branch is called electrostatics.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z state the basic properties of electric charges;
z explain the concepts of quantisation and conservation of charge;
z explain Coulomb’s law of force between electric charges;
z define electric field due to a charge at rest and draw electric lines of force;
z define electric dipole, dipole moment and the electric field due to a dipole;
PHYSICS 1
MODULE - 5 Electric Charge and Electric Field
Electricity and
Magnetism z state Gauss’ theorem and derive expressions for the electric field due to a
point charge, a long charged wire, a uniformly charged spherical shell and
a plane sheet of charge; and
z describe how a van de Graaff generator functions.
ACTIVITY 15.1
Take a hard rubber rod and rub it with fur or wool. Next you take a glass rod and
rub it with silk. Suspend them (rubber rod and a glass rod) separately with the
help of non-metallic threads, as shown in Fig. 15.1.
Glass-rod
rubber-rod
Attraction
Repulsion
rubber-rod
rubber-rod
(a) (b)
Fig. 15.1: Force of attraction/repulsion between charges: a) a charged rubber rod repels
another charged rubber rod : like charges repel each other; and b) a charged glass
rod attracts a charged rubber rod : unlike charges attract each other.
2 PHYSICS
Electric Charge and Electric Field MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Now bring rubber rod rubbed with wool near these rods one by one. What do Magnetism
you observe? You will observe that
z when a charged rubber rod is brought near the charged (suspended) rubber
rod, they show repulsion [Fig. 15.1(a)]; and
z when the charged rubber rod is brought near the (suspended) charged glass
rod, they show attraction [Fig 15.1(b)].
Notes
Similar results will be obtained by bringing a charged glass rod.
On the basis of these observations, we can say that
z A charged rubber rod attracts a charged glass rod but repels a charged rubber
rod.
z A charged glass rod repels a charged glass rod but attracts a charged rubber
rod.
From these activities we can infer that the rubber rod has acquired one kind of
electricity and the glass rod has acquired another kind of electricity. Moreover,
like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
Franklin (Benjamin Franklin, 1706 -1790) suggested that the charge on glass rod
is to be called positive and that on the rubber rod is to be called negative. We
follow this convention since then.
Once a body is charged by friction, it can be used to charge other conducting
bodies by
conduction, i.e., by touching the charged body with an uncharged body; and
induction, i.e., by bringing the charged body close to an uncharged conductor
and earthing it. Subsequently, the charged body and the earthing are removed
simultaneously.
PHYSICS 3
MODULE - 5 Electric Charge and Electric Field
Electricity and
Magnetism That is, rubber gains negative charge and fur gains an equal amount of positive
charge. Any other kind of charge (other than positive and negative) has not been
found till today.
4 PHYSICS
Electric Charge and Electric Field MODULE - 5
Electricity and
it. From experimental observations, he showed that the electrical force between Magnetism
two static point charges q1 and q2 placed some distance apart is
– directly proportional to their product ;
– inversely proportional to the square of the distance r between them;
– directed along the line joining the two charged particles ; and
Notes
– repulsive for same kind of charges and attractive for opposite charges.
The magnitude of force F can then be expressed as
q1 × q2
F =k (15.1)
r2
1 q1 × q2
For free space, we write F = × (15.2)
4πε0 r2
1 1
where constant of proportionality k = for free space (vacuum) and k =
4πε0 4πε
for a material medium. ε0 is called permittivity of free space and ε is the permittivity
of the medium. It means that if the same system of charges is kept in a material
medium, the magnitude of Coulomb force will be different from that in free space.
The constant k has a value which depends on the units of the quantities involved.
The unit of charge in SI system is coulomb (C). The coulomb is defined in terms
of the unit of current, called ampere. (You will learn about it later.) In SI system of
units, the value of k is
1 N m2
k = = 9 × 109 (15.3)
4πε0 C2
since ε0 = 8.85 × 10–12 C² N–1 m–2.
Thus in terms of force, one coulomb charge can be defined as : If two equal
charges separated by one metre experience a force of 9 × 109 N, each charge
has a magnitude of one coulomb. The value of electronic charge e is 1.60 ×
10–19 C.
Note that
z Coulomb’s law is also an inverse square law just like Newton’s law of
Gravitation, which you studied in lesson 6.
z Coulomb’s law holds good for point charges only.
z Coulomb’s force acts at a distance, unlike mechanical force.
PHYSICS 5
MODULE - 5 Electric Charge and Electric Field
Electricity and
Magnetism
How Big is One Coulomb?
The unit of electrical charge is coulomb. Have you ever thought : How big
a coulomb is? To know this, let us calculate the magnitude of force between
two charges, each of one coulomb, placed at a distance of one metre from
one another:
Notes q1 × q2
F =k×
r2
1×1
= 9.0 × 109 ×
12
= 9.0 × 109 ≈ 1010 N
If the mass of a loaded passenger bus is 5000 kg, its weight mg = (5000 ×
10) N (assume g ≈ 10 m s–²) = 5 × 104 N.
Let us assume that there are 10,000 such loaded buses in Delhi. The total
weight of all these buses will be 5 × 104 × 10,000 = 5 × 108 N. If there
are 10 cities having same number of buses as those in Delhi, the total weight
of all these loaded buses will be 5 × 109 N. It means that the force between
two charges, each of 1C and separated by on metre is equivalent to the
weight of about two hundred thousand buses, each of mass 5000 kg.
F0 (in vaccum) ε
= = εr
F (in medium) ε 0
6 PHYSICS
Electric Charge and Electric Field MODULE - 5
Electricity and
15.2.1 Vector Form of Coulomb’s Law Magnetism
You know that force is a vector quantity. It means that force between two charges
should also be represented as a vector. That is, Eqn. (15.1) should be expressed
in vector form. Let us learn to do so now.
Let there be two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r (Fig. 15.3).
Suppose that F12 denotes the force experienced by q1 due to the charge q2 and F21
denotes the force on q2 due to charge q1. We denote the unit vector pointing from Notes
q1 to q2 by r̂12 . Then from Fig. 15.3 (a), it follows that
1 2q q
F12 = k | r 2 | rˆ12 (15.4)
12
r r
F12 F21 F12 F21
+ + + –
q1 q2 q1 q2
(a) (b)
Fig. 15.3 : Two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r : a) the direction of
forces of repulsion between two positive charges, and b) the direction of forces
of attraction between a positive and a negative charge.
The positive sign in Eqn. (15.4) indicates that the force is repulsive and the negative
sign in Eqn. (15.5) indicates that the force is attractive.
The Coulomb’s law obeys the principle of action and reaction between two charges
q1 and q2. Therefore,
F12 = – F21
(15.6)
In general, we can write the expression for force between two charges as
q1 q2
F12 = k × r̂12 (15.7)
r2
PHYSICS 7
MODULE - 5 Electric Charge and Electric Field
Electricity and q3
q1 q2 q3
Magnetism
F12 = k | r 2 | rˆ12
12
r14
q1 q3 r13
F13 = k | r 2 | rˆ13
13
q q
and
1 4
F14 = k | r 2 | rˆ14 (15.8) q1 r12 q2
Notes 14
Fig. 15.4: Principle of superpo-
The resultant of all these forces, i.e., the total force sition
F experienced by q1 is their vector sum:
F = F12 + F13 + F14 + … (15.9)
This is known as principle of superposition.
Example 15.1 : A charge +q1 = 12C is placed at a distance of 4.0 m from another
charge +q2 = 6C, as shown in the Fig. 15.5. Where should a negative charge q3 be
placed on the line joining q1 and q2 so that the charge q3 does not experience any
force?
Solution : Let q3 be placed between q1 and q2 at a distance of x metre from q1. (It
can be easily seen that on placing q3 on the left of q1 or on the right of q2 or at any
position other than the one between the line joining q1 and q2 , the resultant force
can not be zero.) The force exerted on q3 by q1 will be
q1 q3
F31 = k r̂ towards q1
r312 31
q3 q1
∴ F31 = k
x2
The magnitude of force on q3 due to q2 is given by
q3 q2
F32 = k
(4 – x) 2 towards q2
4m
+ +
x q2
q1 q3
The resultant force on q3 will be zero when F31 = F32. Therefore, on substituting
the numerical values, we get
8 PHYSICS
Electric Charge and Electric Field MODULE - 5
Electricity and
12q 6q3 Magnetism
k × 2 3 = k × (4 – x)2
x
Note that 6q3k is common on both sides and cancels out. Therefore, on
simplification, we get
2 1
2 = (4 – x)2
x
Notes
or 2(4 – x)² = x² The roots of a quadratic
equation of the form
⇒ x² – 16x + 32 = 0
ax2 + bx + c = 0
On solving this, we get two values of x : 2.35 m and are given by
13.65 m. The latter value is inadmissible because it
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
goes beyond q2. Therefore, the charge q3 should be x =
2a
placed at a distance of 2.35 m from q1. In this case, a = 1, b = – 16
and c = 32.
It is a reasonable solution qualitatively also. The
16 ± 256 − 4 × 32
charge q1 is stronger than q2. Hence the distance ∴ x =
2
between q1 and q3 should be greater than that = 2.35, 13.65
between q2 and q3.
Example 15.2 : Two charges, each of 6.0 × 10–10 C, are separated by a distance
of 2.0 m. Calculate the magnitude of Coulomb force between them.
Solution : We know that the magnitude of Coulomb force between two charges
is given by Eqn. (15.2) :
q1 . q2
F =k
r2
Given, q1 = q2 = 6.0 × 10–10C and r = 2.0 m, Therefore on putting these values, we
get
(9 ×10 9 N m2C – 2 )× (6 .0 ×10– 10 C)2
F =
2 2 m2
PHYSICS 9
MODULE - 5 Electric Charge and Electric Field
Electricity and
2. There are three point charges of equal B +q
Magnetism
magnitude q placed at the three corners of a
right angle triangle, as shown in Fig. 15.2. AB
= AC. What is the magnitude and direction of
the force exerted on – q?
C
Notes A –q +q
Fig. 15.2 : Three charges placed
at the three corners of
a right angle triangle.
15.3 ELECTRIC FIELD
To explain the interaction between two charges placed at a distance, Faraday
introduced the concept of electric field. The electric field E at a point is defined
as the electric force F experienced by a positive test charge q0 placed at that point
divided by the magnitude of the test charge. Mathematically, we write
F
E = q (15.10)
0
F
E = qlim
0→0 q (15.11)
0
10 PHYSICS
Electric Charge and Electric Field MODULE - 5
Electricity and
B B
Magnetism
+ + + + + P
+ +
P ++ F¢
F +
C + + A + C + + A +
+ + +
+
+ + + q0 + + + q¢0
q q
D D
q > > q0 q q0
charge density. As a result, the electrical force experienced by the test charge q0
will also change, say from F to F′. That is, the force in the presence of test charge
is different from that in its absence. But without q0 , the force cannot be measured.
If q0 is infinitesimally small in comparison to q, the charge distribution on the
sphere will be minimally affected and the results of measurement will have a
value very close to the true value. That is, F′ will be very nearly equal to F. We
hope you now appreciate the point as to why the test charge should be
infinitesimally small.
Let there be a point charge q. A test charge q0 is placed at a distance r from q. The
force experienced by the test charge is given by
qq0
F= k (15.12)
r 2 r̂
The electric field is defined as the force per unit charge. Hence
q
E =k× (15.13)
r 2 r̂
If q is positive, the field E will be directed away from it. If q is negative, the field
E will be directed towards it. This is shown in Fig. 15.7.
+q –q
Fig. 15.7 : Direction of electric field due to positive and negative charges
The principle of superposition applies to electric field also. If there are a number
of charges q1, q2, q3, ..., the corresponding fields at a point P according to Eqn.
(15.13) are
PHYSICS 11
MODULE - 5 Electric Charge and Electric Field
Electricity and
Magnetism q1 q2 q3
E1 = k × r̂1 , E2 = k × 2 r̂2 and E3 = k × r̂3
r12 r2 r32
The total field at point P due to all charges is the vector sum of all fields. Thus,
E = E 1 + E2 + E 3 + …
Notes N
qi rˆi
or E = k∑ 2 (15.15)
i =1 ri
where ri is the distance between P and charge qi and r̂i is the unit vector directed
from qiˆ to P. The force on a charge q in an electric field E is
F =qE (15.16)
Example 15.3 : The electric force at some point due to a point charge q = 3.5µC
is 8.5×10–4 N. Calculate the strength of electric field at that point.
Solution : From Eq. (15.16) we can write
F 8.5 ×10–4 N
E= =
q 3.5 ×10–6 C
= 2.43 ×102 NC –1
Example 15.4 : Three equal positive point charges are placed at the three corners
of an equilateral triangle, as shown in Fig. 15.8. Calculate the electric field at the
centroid P of the triangle.
C +q
Solution : Suppose that a test charge
q0 has been placed at the centroid P of
the triangle. The test charge will
q0 P
experienced force in three directions
making same angle between any two +q +q
of them. The resultant of these forces A B
at P will be zero. Hence the field at P is
Fig. 15.8 : Electric field at the centroid of an
zero.
equilateral triangle due to equal
charges at its three corners is zero.
12 PHYSICS
Electric Charge and Electric Field MODULE - 5
Electricity and
2. The Δ ABC is defined by AB = AC = 40 cm. A
Magnetism
And angle at A is 30°. Two charges, each of
magnitude 2 × 10–6 C but opposite in sign,
are placed at B and C, as shown in Fig. 15.9.
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the
field at A.
3. A negative charge is located in space and the Notes
electric field is directed towards the earth. B –q
C
+q Fig. 15.9
What is the direction of the force on this
charge?
4. Two identical charges are placed on a plane surface separated by a distance d
between them. Where will the resultant field be zero?
PHYSICS 13
MODULE - 5 Electric Charge and Electric Field
Electricity and
Magnetism Similarly, the electric field E2 at P due to – q is given by
q
E2 = k × in the direction PA
(r + l )2
The resultant field E at P will be in the direction of E1, since E1 is greater than
E2 [as (r – l) is less than (r + l)]. Hence
kq kq
Notes E = –
(r – l )2 (r + l )2
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
= kq ⎢ (r − l ) 2 − (r + l )2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ (r + l )2 − (r − l )2 ⎤
= kq ⎢ (r 2 − l 2 )2
⎥
⎣ ⎦
4lr
= kq ×
(r – l 2 )2
2
2pr
= k
(r – l 2 )2
2
2p r
E = × 4
4πε 0 r (1 – l 2 / r 2 )2
If r >> l, l²/r² will be very small compared to 1. It can even be neglected and the
expression for electric field then simplifies to
2p
E = (15.18)
4πε 0 r 3
It shows that electric field is in the direction of p and its magnitude is inversely
proportional to the third power of distance of the observation point from the
centre of the dipole.
CASE II : Electric field due to a dipole at a point on the perpendicular bisector :
Broad-on position
Suppose that point P lies on the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the
charges shown in Fig. 15.12. Note that AB = 2l, OP = r, and AO = OB = l.
14 PHYSICS
Electric Charge and Electric Field MODULE - 5
Electricity and
E1 E1
E1 sin q Magnetism
P
q
E2 E1 cosq + E2 cos q P
q
r
E2 sin q
q q Notes
A B E2
–q O +q
(a) (b)
Fig. 15.12 : a) Field at point P on the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the charges,
and b) resolution of field in rectangular components.
The angle θ is shown in Fig. 15.12(a). From right angled Δs PAO and PBO, we
can write
l2 + r2
AP = BP =
The field at P due to charge + q at B in the direction of BP can be written as
q
E1 = k
l + r2
2
field at P is given by
kq 2l
E = ×
(l + r 2 )
2
(l + r 2 )
2
PHYSICS 15
MODULE - 5 Electric Charge and Electric Field
Electricity and
Magnetism 2lq
=k
(l + r 2 )3/ 2
2
2lq
=k
r (1 + l 2 / r 2 )3/ 2
3
But p = 2lq. If r 2 >> l 2, the factor l2/r2 can be neglected in comparison to unity.
Notes Hence
p
E = (15.19)
4πε 0 r 3
Note that electric field due to a dipole at a point in broad-on position is inversely
proportional to the third power of the perpendicular distance between P and the
line joining the charges.
If we compare Eqns. (15.18) and (15.19), we note that the electric field in both
cases is proportional to 1/r3. But there are differences in details:
z The magnitude of electric field in end-on-position is twice the field in the
broad-on position.
z The direction of the field in the end-on position is along the direction of
dipole moment, whereas in the broad-on position, they are oppositely directed.
72
= × 10–14 Nm
2
= 36 × 10–14 Nm
If a dipole is placed in a non-uniform electric field, the forces on the charges – q
and + q will be unequal. Such as electric field will not only tend to rotate but also
displace the dipole in the direction of the field.
PHYSICS 17
MODULE - 5 Electric Charge and Electric Field
Electricity and
Magnetism direction. But for stationary negative charge, the lines start from infinity and
terminate at the point charge in radially inward direction (towards the point charge).
You must understand that the electric field lines in both cases are in all directions
in the space. Only those which are in the plane containing the charge are shown
here.
Notes
+q –q
(a) (b)
Fig. 15.14 : Electrical field lines of single point charges : a) The field lines of positive charge,
and b) the field lines of negative charge.
Fig 15.15(a) shows a sketch of electric field lines of two equal and similar positive
charges placed close to each other. The lines are almost radial at points very close
to the positive charges and repel each other, bending outwards. There is a point P
midway between the charges where no lines are present. The fields of the two
charges at this point cancel each other and the resultant field at this point is zero.
Fig. 15.15(b) depicts the field lines due to a dipole. The number of lines leaving
the positive charge is equal to the number of lines terminating on the negative
charge.
+ –
+ P +
(a) (b)
Fig. 15.15 : Electric field lines due to a system of two point charges : a) Two positive charges
at rest, and b) The field lines due to a dipole start from the positive charge and
terminate on the negative charge.
You must remember the following properties of the electric field lines :
z The field lines start from a positive charge radially outward in all directions
and terminate at infinity.
z The field lines start from infinity and terminate radially on a negative charge.
18 PHYSICS
Electric Charge and Electric Field MODULE - 5
Electricity and
z For a dipole, field lines start from the positive charge and terminate on the Magnetism
negative charge.
z A tangent at any point on field line gives the direction of electric field at that
point.
z The number of field lines passing through unit area of a surface drawn
perpendicular to the field lines is proportional to the field strength on this
Notes
surface.
z Two field lines never cross each other.
q
E =k×
r2
The direction of the electric field is normal to the surface and points outward.
Let us consider a small element of area Δs on the spherical surface. Δs is a vector
whose magnitude is equal to the element of area Δs and its direction is
perpendicular to this element (Fig.15.16). The electric flux Δφ is defined as the
scalar product of Δs and E :
Δφ = E . Δs
The total flux over the entire spherical surface is obtained by summing all such
contributions:
φE = Δs∑→ 0 Ei . Δsi
i
(15.21)
Since the angle between E and Δs is zero, the total flux through the spherical
surface is given by
q
φE = k × Σ Δs
r2
q
φE = k × × 4π r2
r2
PHYSICS 19
MODULE - 5 Electric Charge and Electric Field
Electricity and
Magnetism On substituting for k = 1/4πε0, we get
1
φE = × 4πq
4πε0
= q/ε0 (15.22)
The spherical surface of the sphere is referred to as Gaussian surface. Eqn.
Notes (15.22) is known as Gauss’ law. It states that the net electric flux through a
closed gaussian surface is equal to the total charge q inside the surface
divided by ε0.
Gauss’ law is a useful tool for determining the electric field. You must also note
that gaussian surface is an imaginary mathematical surface. It may not necessarily
coincide with any real surface.
20 PHYSICS
Electric Charge and Electric Field MODULE - 5
Electricity and
sphere at every point. The normal to the element of area Δs is parallel to E. Magnetism
According to Gauss’ law, we can write
φE = ∑i Ei.Δ
Δsi = q/ε0
Since cos θ = 1 and E is same on all points on the surface, we can write
φ E = E × 4πr² Notes
or q/ε0 = E × 4πr²
q
⇒ E = 4πε r 2 (15.23)
0
If there is a second charge q0 placed at a point on the surface of the sphere, the
magnitude of force on this charge would be
F = q0 × E
so that
qq0
F = 4πε r 2 (15.24)
0
Do you recogmise this result? It is expression for Coulomb’s force between two
static point charges.
PHYSICS 21
MODULE - 5 Electric Charge and Electric Field
Electricity and
Magnetism Let the length of the gaussian cylinder be l. The total charge enclosed in the
cylinder is q = σ l l. The area of the curved surface of the cylinder is 2 πrl.
For the flat surfaces at the top and bottom of the cylinder, the normals to these
areas are perpendicular to the electric field (cos 90° = 0). These surfaces, therefore,
do not contribute to the total flux. Hence
Notes φE = Σ E. Δs E
= E × 2 πrl
This shows that electric field varies inversely with distance. This is illustrated in
Fig. 15.19.
Electrostatic Filter
You must have seen black smoke and dirt particles coming out of a chimney
of a thermal power station or brick klin. The smoke consists of not only
gases but large quantities of small dust (coal) particles. The smoke along
with the dirt is discharged into the atmosphere. The dust particles settle
down on earth and pollute the soil. The gases contribute to global warming.
These are extremely injurious to living systems (health). It is therefore
essential that the dirt is removed from smoke before it is discharged into the
atmosphere.
A very important application of
electrical discharge in gases by
application of high electric field is the Clean air
construction of a device called
Electrostatic Filter or Precipitator.
dirty gases
The basic diagram of the device is
shown here. The central wire inside a
metallic container is maintained at a
very high negative potential (about 100
dust exist
kV). The wall of the container is
connected to the positive terminal of a high volt battery and is earthed. A
weight W keeps the wire straight in the central part. The electric field thus
created is from the wall towards the wire. The dirt and gases are passed
22 PHYSICS
Electric Charge and Electric Field MODULE - 5
Electricity and
through the container. An electrical discharge takes place because of the Magnetism
high field near the wire. Positive and negative ions and electrons are
generated. These negatively charged particles are accelerated towards the
wall. They collide with dust particles and charge them. Most of the dust
particles become negatively charged because they capture electrons or
negative ions. They are attracted towards the wall of the container. The
container is periodically shaken so that the particles leave the surface and Notes
fall down at the bottom of the container. These are taken out through the
exit pipe.
The undesirable dust particles are thus removed from the gases and the
clean air goes out in the atmosphere. Most efficient systems of this kind
are able to remove about 98% of the ash and dust from the smoke.
Q
ΣE Δs cos 0° =
ε0
Q
or ΔE ⋅ 4πr 2 =
ε0
Q
or E=
4πε0 r 2
PHYSICS 23
MODULE - 5 Electric Charge and Electric Field
Electricity and
Magnetism From the result we can conclude that for a point external to the spherical shell,
the entire charge on the shell can be treated as though located at its centre. The
electric field decreases with distance.
+ +
(b) Field at an Internal Point
O r
+
Let P′ be an internal point distant r from the centre of the P¢ +
shell. Draw a concentric sphere passing through the point +
P′. +
+
+
Applying Gauss’ Law,
Fig. 15.21
Q
ΣE Δs cos 0° =
ε0 R
Q
or E ⋅ 4πr 2 =
ε0
⇒ E = 0 as Q = 0
the electric field at an internal point of the shell
is zero. The same result is applicable to a charged
Q
solid conducting sphere. 1
E = 4peo R 2
E
The variation of the electric field with the radial
distance r has been shown in Fig 15.22.
r=R
Fig. 15.23
24 PHYSICS
Electric Charge and Electric Field MODULE - 5
Electricity and
For symmetry reasons, the electric field will be perpendicular to the sheet, Magnetism
directed away from it, if σ > 0. Let P be the point in front of the sheet where
we want to find the electric field. Draw a Gaussian surface in the form of a
cylinder with its axis parallel to the field and one of its circular caps passing
through P. The other circular cap of the cylinder lies symmetrically opposite at
P′, on the other side of the sheet, being situated at the same distance as P.
The electric flux through both the circular caps is Notes
→ → → →
E ⋅ Δ s + E ⋅ Δ s = E Δs + E Δs
= 2 E Δs
The electric flux through the curved surface of the Gaussian surface is
→ →
E ⋅ Δ s = E Δs cos 90° = 0. Hence, the total electric flux through the Gaussian
cylinder is
→ →
φE = ∑ E ⋅ Δ s
= 2 E Δs
As the charge enclosed by the Gaussian cylinder is σΔs, using Gauss’ Law we
have
1
2 E Δs = σΔs
ε0
σ
or E=
2ε 0
Please note that the electric field is independent of the distance from the sheet.
PHYSICS 25
MODULE - 5 Electric Charge and Electric Field
Electricity and
Magnetism
+ +
+
+ S +
+ C2
P2 + T
+
+
+
Notes +
+ Insulating
+ Stand
+
+
C1
Power P1 M
Supply
To
Earth
Fig. 15.24
26 PHYSICS
Electric Charge and Electric Field MODULE - 5
Electricity and
By using Van de Graaff generator, voltage upto 5 million volts (MV) have been Magnetism
achieved. Some generators have even gone up to creation of such high voltages
as 20 MV.
Van de Graaff generator is used to accelerate the ion beams to very high energies
which are used to study nuclear reactions.
Notes
1
where k = = 9.0 × 109 Nm²C–².
4πε0
PHYSICS 27
MODULE - 5 Electric Charge and Electric Field
Electricity and
Magnetism z Charge is conserved and quantised in terms of electronic charge.
z The electric field E due to a charge q at a point in space is defined as the force
experienced by a unit test charge q0 :
q
E = F/ q0 = k × r̂
r2
Notes z Superposition principle can be used to obtain the force experienced by a
charge due to a group of charges. It is also applicable to electric field at a
point due to a group of charges.
z Electric dipole is a system of two equal and unlike charges separated by a
small distance. It has a dipole moment | p| = qr; the direction of p is from
negative charge to positive charge along the line joining the two charges.
z The electric field due to a dipole in end-on position and broad-on position is
respectively given by
1 2p
E = 4πε r 3
0
1 p
and E = – .
4 π ε0 r3
z Electric field lines (line of force) are only a pictorial way of depicting field.
z Electric flux is the total number of electric lines of force passing through an
area and is defined as φE = E . A .
1
z Gauss’s law states that the total flux passing through a closed area is
ε0
times the total charge enclosed by it.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. A + 12μ C charge is at x =20 cm and a –18 μ C (– q) charge is at x = 29 cm
on the x-axis. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the force on a charge
of 18μC. What is the direction of force on 12μC charge?
2. Two point Charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance of 3.0 m experience a
mutual force of 16 × 10–15 N. Calculate the magnitude of force when q1 = q2
= q. What will be the magnitude of force if separation distance is changed to
6.0 m?
28 PHYSICS
Electric Charge and Electric Field MODULE - 5
Electricity and
3. There are two points A and B separated by a distance x. If two point charges Magnetism
+ q each are on the points A and B, the force between them is F. The point
charges are now replaced by two identical metallic spheres having the same
charge + q on each. The distance between their centers is again x only. Will
the force between them change? Give reasons to support your answer.
4. The force of repulsion between two point chargers placed 16 cm apart in
vaccum is 7.5 × 10–10 N. What will be force between them, if they are placed Notes
in a medium of dielectric constant k = 2.5?
5. Compare the electrical force with the gravitational force between two protons
separated by a distance x. Take charge on proton as 1.60 × 10–19 C, mass of
proton as 1.67 × 10–27 kg and Gravitational constant G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2 kg–2.
6. Four identical point charges +q each are placed at the four corners (one q at
one corner) of a square of side 1. Find the force experienced by a test charge
q0 placed at the center of the square.
7. When are the electric field lines parallel to each other?
8. How many electrons should be removed from a metallic sphere to give it a
positive charge = 6.4 × 10–7C.
9. Consider an electric dipole of q = 3.0 × 10–6 C and 2l = 4 × 10–10 m. Calculate
the magnitude of dipole moment. Calculate electric field at a point r = 6 × 10–6 m
on the equatorial plane.
10. A Charge – q = 15 × 10-6 C is placed on a metallic sphere of radius R=3.0 mm.
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the electric field at a point r =15 cm
from the center of the sphere. What will be the magnitude and direction of the
field at the same point if 3.0 mm sphere is replaced by 9.0 mm sphere having
the same Charge.
11. A charge of +15μC is located at the center of a sphere of radius 20 cm.
Calculate the electric flux through the surface of the sphere.
12. A proton is placed in a uniform electric field E = 8.0 × 104 NC–1. Calculate
the acceleration of the proton.
13. Two point charges q1 and q2 are 3.0 cm apart and (q1 + q2) = 20μC. If the
force of repulsion between them is 750N, calculate q1 and q2.
15.1
1. (i)Yes (ii) Charge = 3.2 × 10–17 C.
PHYSICS 29
MODULE - 5 Electric Charge and Electric Field
Electricity and
Magnetism 2. A has charge + Q. When A and B are brought in contact, charge will get
distributed equally.
(i) Yes., (ii) + Q/2
3. q = 4.8 × 10–16
Since Ne = q, we get
15.2
1. Q1 = 16μC, Q2 = qµC and r = 12m
Since
1 q1q2
F = 4πε
0 r2
q2
2. The force at A due to charge at B, F1 = k where AB = a
a2
Since AB = AC, the force at A due to charge at B is
q2
F2 = k
a2
R2 = F12 +F22 = 2 F 2
R = F 2 at 45°
15.3
1. (a) E along the + x axis.
(b) along the + y axis.
(c) at 45° with the x axis
2. AB = AC = 40 cm
kq 9 ×109 Nm 2 C –2 × (2 × 10 –6 C)
| E1 | = = | E |
2 = 2
= 1.125 × 105 NC –1
2 (0.40m)
r
30 PHYSICS
Electric Charge and Electric Field MODULE - 5
Electricity and
The resultant of E1 and E2 will be parallel to BC. Hence Magnetism
R2 = E12 + E22 + 2E1 E2 cos 150
= 2 E 2 + 2 E 2 cos (180-30)
⎛ 3⎞
= 2 E 2 – 2 E 2 × cos 30 = 2 E 2 ⎜⎜1+ 2 ⎟⎟ = 4.723 × 1010 N2C–2.
⎝ ⎠
Notes
Direction will be parallel to BC in the direction B→C.
E1
q = 75°
A
30° E2
75° 75°
B C
3. E is directed towards the earth. The force on –ve charge will be vertically
upwards.
4. The field will be zero at the mid point between the charge.
15.4
1. (i) Yes (ii) not necessarily (iii) Yes.
Q
2. E = 4πε r 2
0
∴ Q = 4 πε0 r 2 E
1
= (3 × 106 NC–1) × (9 × 109 Nm 2 C –2 ) × (25 × 10–4m2)
= 8.3 × 10 – 7 C
3. (a) F = 0, τ = 0
(b) F ≠ 0 τ = 0
PHYSICS 31
MODULE - 5 Electric Charge and Electric Field
Electricity and
Magnetism Answers to Problems in Terminal Exercise
1. 240 N towards negative x–direction force on +12 µC charge is towards + x
direction.
2. q = 4 × 10–3C 4. 3 × 10–10N
5. Electric force is 1036 times the gravitational force.
6. zero. 8. 4 × 1012 electrons
Notes
9. 12 × 10–16 Cm. 0.5 × 1015 or Nc–1
10. 6 × 106 NC–1 towards the centre, same field.
11. 1.7 × 106 μm 12. 7.6 × 1012 ms–2
13. 15 µC and 5 µC.
32 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
16
Notes
In modules 2 and 3, you learnt about the direction of flow of fluids and thermal
energy. You may recall that the level of water in a container determines the direction
in which it flows. If the level of water in one container is higher than that in the
other, water will flow from higher level to lower level, irrespective of the quantity
of water in the containers. Temperature plays a similar role in case of flow of
thermal energy from one object to another. Thermal energy always flows from a
body at higher temperature to the one at lower temperature. Here also, the direction
of flow does not depend on the quantity of thermal energy possessed by an object.
Electric potential plays a similar role in the flow of charges from one point to
another. The positive charge always moves from a point at higher potential to a
point at lower potential. A positive test charge, when left free in an electric field,
moves in the direction of the electric field. From this behaviour of a positive test
charge, you may be tempted to say that the electric field (E) and electric potential
(V) are closely related. In this lesson, you will learn to establish a relation between
these physical quantities. You will also learn about a device called capacitor,
which is used to store charge, filter alternating current and finds wide applications
in electronic circuitory as well as power transmission.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z explain the meaning of electric potential at a point and potential difference;
z derive expressions for electric potential due to a point charge and a dipole;
z explain the principle of capacitors and state their applications;
z derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor;
z obtain equivalent capacitance in grouping of capacitors;
PHYSICS 33
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors
Electricity and
Magnetism z calculate the energy stored in a capacitor; and
z explain polarization of dielectric materials in an electric field.16.1
The potential at a point is taken positive when work is done against the field by a
positive charge but negative when work is done by the electric field in moving the
unit positive charge from infinity to the point in the field.
Consider two points A and B in an electric field (Fig. 16.1). If a test charge q0 is
moved from point A to point B along any path by an external force, the amount of
work done by the external force is given by
WAB = q0 (VB – VA) (16.1)
Thus, potential difference between points A and B will be
WAB
VAB = VB – VA = q (16.2)
0
1 q
Ep = 4πε × 2 (16.3)
0 r
Fig. 16.2 : Work done per unit charge in moving a charge q0 from infinity to a point P in an
electric field E is the potential at that point.
PHYSICS 35
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors
Electricity and
Magnetism Similarly, the electric field at point A will be
1 q
EA = 4πε r 2 (16.4)
0 A
If points P and A are very close, the average field EAP between these points can be
taken as the geometric mean of EP and EA :
Notes
EAP = EA × E p
1 q 1 q
= ×
4πεo rA 4πεo r 2
2
1 q
= 4πε r r (16.5)
0 A
Therefore, the magnitude of force experienced by a test charge q0over this region
will be
1 q q0
FAP = qo EAP = (16.6)
4πε0 rA r
1 q qo
= × (rA – r)
4πε0 rA r
q q0 ⎛1 1 ⎞
= ×⎜ – ⎟ (16.7)
4πε 0 ⎝ r rA ⎠
and so on. The total work done in moving the charge from infinity to the point P
will be
36 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
q q0 ⎛1 1 1 1 1 1 1⎞ Magnetism
W = × ⎜ – + – + – ... + ... – ⎟
4πε 0 ⎝ r rA rA rB rB rC ∞⎠
q q0 ⎛1 1 ⎞
= ×⎜ – ⎟
4πε 0 ⎝r ∞⎠
q q0 Notes
= (16.9)
4πε 0 r
W
VP =
q0
1 q
= (16.10)
4πε 0 r
1 (– q)
V1 = × r
4πε0 1
and
1 q
V2 = ×
4πε0 r2
PHYSICS 37
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors
Electricity and
Magnetism Total potential at P due to both the charges of the dipole is given by
V = V1 + V2
That is,
q ⎡1 1⎤
V = 4πε ⎢ r – r ⎥ (16.12)
0 ⎣ 2 1⎦
Notes
To put this result in a more convenient form, we draw normals from A and B on
the line joining O and P. From Δ BOD, we note that OD = l cos θ and from Δ
OAC we can write OC = l cos θ. For a small dipole (AB<<OP), from Fig. 16.4,
we can take PB = PD and PA = PC . Hence
r1 = r + l cos θ
r2 = r – l cos θ
Using these results in Eqn (16.12), we get
q ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
V = ⎢ (r - l cos θ) − (r + l cos θ) ⎥
4πε0 ⎣ ⎦
q ⎡ (2l cos θ) ⎤
= ⎢ 2 2 ⎥
4πε0 ⎣ (r -l cos θ) ⎦
2
q × 2l cos θ
=
4πε0 r 2
Fig. 16.4 : Electric potential at
a point P due to an
where we have neglected the term containing second
electric dipole. power of l since l<<r.
In terms of dipole moment (p = q × 2l ), we can express this result as
p cos θ
V= (16.13)
4πε0 r 2
This result shows that unlike the potential due to a point charge, the potential due
to a dipole is inversely proportional to the square of the distance.
Let us now consider its special cases.
Special Cases
Case I : When point P lies on the axial line of the dipole on the side of positive
charge, θ = 0 and cos θ =1. Then Eqn. (16.13) reduces to
p
VAXIS = (16.14)
4πε 0 r 2
38 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Case II : When point P lies on the axial line of the dipole but on the side of Magnetism
negative charge, θ = 180º and cos θ = –1. Hence
p
VAXIS = – (16.15)
4πε 0 r 2
Case III : When point P lies on the equatorial line of the dipole (perpendicular
bisector of AB), θ = 90º and cos θ = 0. Then
Notes
Vequatorial = 0 (16.16)
That is, electric potential due to a dipole is zero at every point on the equatorial
line of the dipole. When a dipole is kept in 3D space, the equatorial line will lie in
the plane of the paper. The potential at all points in this plane will be same, i.e.
zero. Such a surface is referred to as equipotential surface.The electric field is
always perpendicular to an equipotential surface. No work is done in moving a
charge from one point to another on the equipotential surface.
Electricity and
Magnetism Suppose that a point charge q1 is located at a point P1 with position vector r1 in
space. Assume that point charge q2 is at infinity. This is to be brought to the point
P2 having position vector r2 where P1P2 = r12, as shown in Fig. 16.6. We know
that electric potential at P2 due to charge q1 at P1 is
1 q1
V2 = (16.17)
4πε0 | r12 |
Notes
From the definition of potential, work done in bringing charge q2 from infinity to
point P2 is
W = (Potential at P2) × value of charge
This work is stored in the system of charges q1 and q2 in the form of electric
potential energy U. Thus,
q1 × q2
U = 4πε | r | (16.18)
0 12
In case the two charges have same sign, work is done against the repulsive force
to bring them closer and hence, electric potential energy of the system increases.
On the other hand, in separating them from one another, work is done by the
field. As a result, potential energy of the system decreases. If charges are of
opposite sign, i.e. one is positive and the other is negative, the potential energy of
the charge system decreases in bringing the charges closer and increases in
separating them from one another.
For a three point charge system (Fig. 16.6), Eqn. (16.18) can be written as
1 ⎛ q1q2 + q1q3 + q2 q3 ⎞
U = ⎜ ⎟ (16.19)
4πε0 ⎝ r12 r13 r23 ⎠
Proceeding in the same way, we can calculate the potential energy of a system of
any number of charges.
By combining Eqns. (16.3) and (16.13), the potential energy of a dipole in a
uniform electric field can be written as
Uθ = – pE cosθ = – p.E (16.20)
where p is the dipole moment in electric field E and θ is the angle between p and
E.
40 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
ΔV = (Force on unit positive charge) × (AB) Magnetism
= E. Δr = E(Δr) cos 180O
= – E Δr
ΔV
or E =–
Δr
(16.21)
The negative sign indicates that work is done against the electric field. Notes
Hence, at any point, the electric field is equal to negative rate of change of potential
with distance (called potential gradient) at that point in the direction of field.
Remember that electric potential is a scalar quantity but electric potential gradient
is a vector as it is numerically equal to electric field.
From the above relation, for a uniform electric field, we can write
VA − VB
E = (16.22)
d
Here VA and VB are potentials at points A and B, respectively separated by a
distance d.
Example 16.1 : In a 10 volt battery, how much work is done when a positively
charged particle having charge 1.6 × 10 –19 C is moved from its negative terminal
to the positive terminal?
Solution : According to Eqn. (16.2)
VAB = WAB / qO
Since VAB= 10 V and q0 = 1.6 × 10–19 C, we get
WAB = (10V) × (1.6 × 10–19C)
= 1.6 × 10–18 J
Example 16.2 : A point charge q is at the origin of Cartesian co-ordinate system.
The electric potential is 400 V and the magnitude of electric field is 150 N C–1 at
a point x. Calculate x and q.
Solution : The electric field
V
E =
x
On inserting the numerical values, we get
400
150 =
x
or x = 2.67 m
Recall that electric field is given by the expression
1 q
E =
4πε0 x 2
PHYSICS 41
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors
Electricity and
Magnetism 1
We subsitute = 9 × 109 N C–2 m2, E = 150 N C–1 and x = 2.67 m and obtain
4πε0
(150 N C –1 ) × (2.67m) 2
q = 9 × 109 N C –2
= 11.9 × 10–8 C
Notes
42 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
own fields, which are in a direction opposite to E. The transfer of electrons from Magnetism
FGHK to ABCD continues till E becomes equal to E1. Such a state of electrostatic
equilibrium is reached usually in 10–16 s. We then say that equilibrium is reached
almost instantaneously. If there is a cavity inside a conductor, the electric field
inside the cavity is zero (Fig. 16.7(b)).
These results are true for a charged conductor or when charges are induced on a
neutral conductor by an external electric field.
Notes
This property of a conductor is used in Electrostatic Shielding — a phenomenon
of protecting a certain region of space from external electric fields. To protect
delicate instruments from external electric fields, they are enclosed in hollow
conductors. That is why in a thunder storm accompanied by lightning, it is safer
to be inside a car or a bus than outside. The metallic body of the car or bus
provides electrostatic shielding from lightning.
Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium exhibit the following properties :
z There is no electric field inside a conductor.
z The electric field outside a charged conductor is perpendicular to the surface
of the conductor, irrespective of the shape of the conductor.
z Any charge on the conductor resides on the surface of the conductor.
(a) (b)
Fig.16.7 : Electrostatic shielding: (a) External electric field E pulls free electrons on the
surface ABCD. The surface FGHK, which is deficient in electrons, becomes positively
charged;the net field inside the conductor is zero. (b) If there is a cavity inside a
conductor, the field inside the cavity is zero.
16.3 CAPACITANCE
Let us consider two conductors having equal but opposite charges +Q and – Q
on them. There is a potential difference V between them. Such a system of
conductors is called a capacitor. Experimentally it is found that the potential
difference is directly proportional to charge on a conductor. As charge increases,
PHYSICS 43
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors
Electricity and
Magnetism the potential difference between them also increases but their ratio remains
constant. This ratio is termed as capacitance of the capacitor:
C =Q/V (16.23)
The capacitance is defined as the ratio between the charge on either of the
conductors and the potential difference between them. It is a measure of the
capability of a capacitor to store charge.
q r
C = = 4πε0r = (16.25)
q / 4πε0 r 9 × 109
This shows that capacitance of a spherical conductor is directly proportional to
its radius. In fact, it is numerically equal to its radius divided by 9 × 109,
where radius is taken in metre. For example, the capacitance of a sphere of radius
0.18 m is
0.18
C = × 10–9 F = 20 pF
9
44 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
further charge given to it would leak out.) The Magnetism
capacitance of this plate is equal to q/V.
Now bring another insulated metal plate B near plate A.
By induction, negative charge is produced on the nearer
face of B and equal positive charge develops on its farther
face (Fig. 16.8a). The induced negative charge tends to
decrease whereas induced positive charge tends to
Notes
increase the potential of A. If plate B is earthed
(Fig.16.8b), the induced positive charge on it, being free,
flows to earth. (In reality, it is the negative charge that
flows from the earth to the plate. Positive charges in the
plate are immobile.) But negative charge will stay as it
is bound to positive charge on A. Due to this induced
negative charge on B, the potential of A decreases and Fig.16.8 : Working
its capacitance increases. principle
of a capacitor
Hence, we can say that capacitance of an insulated
conductor can be increased by bringing near it an uncharged earthed conductor.
This is the basic principle of a capacitor. Capacitors are used for storing large
amounts of electric charge and hence electrical energy in a small space for a small
interval of time.
A Parallel Plate Capacitor
A parallel plate capacitor is one of the simplest
capacitors in which two parallel metallic plates, each
of area A, are separated from one another by a small
distance d. An insulating medium like air, paper, mica,
glass etc separates the plates. The plates are connected
to the terminals of a battery, as shown in Fig. 16.9.
Suppose that these plates acquire +q and –q charge
when the capacitor is fully charged. These charges
set up a uniform electric field E between the plates.
When the separation d is small compared to the size Fig. 16.9 : Working principle
of the plates, distortion of electric field at the of a capacitor
boundaries of the plates can be neglected.
If σ is surface charge density on either plate, the magnitude of electric field
between the plates is given by
σ q
E= =
ε0 ε0 A
PHYSICS 45
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors
Electricity and
Magnetism Hence, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor, whose plates are separated by d
and have air in-between them is given by
q q
C0 = =
V qd / ε 0 A
ε0 A
= (16.26)
Notes d
It shows that capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is directly proportional to
the area of the plates and inversely proportional to their separation. It means that
to obtain high capacitance, area of the plates should be large and separation
between them should be small.
If the plates of a capacitor are separated by a dielectric material other than air
or vacuum, the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by
εA kε0Α
C = =
d d
1 q1 q2
FV = (16.28)
4πε0 r 2
1 q1 q2
Fm = (16.29)
4πε r 2
Fv̂ ε
= = εr (16.30)
Fm ε0
46 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
where εr (or K) is relative permittivity. It is also termed as dielectric constant of Magnetism
the medium. Note that it is the ratio of permittivity of the material medium to the
permittivity of free space. We can also define the dielectric constant of a medium
as the ratio of the electrostatic force of interaction between two point charges
held at certain distance apart in air or vacuum to the force of interaction between
them held at the same distance apart in the material medium.
The dielectric constant can also be expressed as
Notes
Capacitance with dielectric between the plates
K = Capacitance with vacuum between the plates
Cm
= C
0
Thus
Cm = KC0 (16.31)
For metals, K = ∞, for mica K ≈ 6, and for paper K = 3.6.
PHYSICS 47
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors
Electricity and
Magnetism Total charge on all the capacitors of the combination is :
q = q1 + q2 + q3
q = (C1 + C2 + C3 + …)V (16.33)
Let Cp be the equivalent capacitnace in parallel combination. Then
q = Cp V
Notes
From these relations, we get
q = Cp V = (C1 + C2 + C3 )V
In general, we can write
n
Cp = C1 + C2 + C3 = ∑ C i (16.34)
i =1
48 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
If Cs is the total capacitance of the series grouping, then Magnetism
q
V =
Cs
and V = V1 + V2 + V3 (16.36)
q q q q
Hence = + + Notes
Cs C1 C2 C3
1 1 1 1
or = + + (16.37)
Cs C1 C2 C3
1 n
1
Cs = ∑C
i =1 i
Types of Capacitors
There are three common varieties of capacitors in commercial use. Their
schematic diagrams are shown in Fig.16.12.
1. Paper capacitor: Several large thin sheets of paraffin impregnated paper
or mylar are cut in proper size (rectangular). Several sheets of metallic
foils are also cut to the same size. These are spread one over the other
alternately. The outer sheet is mylar, then over it a sheet of metal foil,
again over it a sheet of mylar and then a sheet of metal foil and so on. The
entire system is then rolled in the form of a cylinder to form a small device.
2. Metal plate capacitors: A large number of metals are alternately joined
to two metal rods as shown in Fig.16.12 (b). The entire plate system is
immersed in silicon oil which works as dielectric material between the
plates. High voltage capacitors are usually of this type. Variable capacitors
of micro farad capacitance are usually of this type and use air as dielectric.
One set of plates is fixed and the other set is movable. The movable
plates, when rotated, change their effective area, thereby changing the
capacitance of the system. You might see such capacitors in a radio
receiver. Variable capacitance helps in tuning to different radio stations.
Aluminum
roil
metallic
Paper
metal
Paper oil
Paper
Paper and Oxide film
(a) electrolyte
(b) (c)
Fig.16.12 : Different types of capacitors : a) paper capacitor, b) variable capacitor, and
c) electrolytic capacitor
PHYSICS 49
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors
Electricity and
Magnetism 3. Electrolytic capacitor: An electrolytic capacitor is shown Fig. 16.12(c).
A metal foil is rolled in the shape of a cylinder with increasing diameter
so that there is always a space between one surface and the other. The
system is immersed in an electrolyte in the form of a solution. This solution
is conducting because of ions in the solution. A voltage is applied between
the electrolyte and the metallic foil. Because of the conducting nature of
Notes the electrolyte, a thin layer of metal oxide, which is an insulator, is formed
on the foil. The oxide layer works as dielectric material. Since the
dielectric layer is extremely thin, the system provides a very high value
of capacitance. It is important in this type of capacitor to mark the positive
and negative terminals. A wrong connection of positive and negative
terminals removes the oxide layer. (The capacitor then starts conducting.)
This type of capacitor is used in storing large amount of charge at low
voltage.
Example 16.3 :The capacitance of a parallel plate air capacitor is 22.0 µF. The
separation between the plates is d. A dielectric slab of thickness d/2 is put in-
between the plates. Calculate the effective capacitance, if the dielectric constant
K = 5.
Solution: The Capacitance of the air capacitor is given by
ε0 A
C0 = = 22.0 μF
d
The new system can be considered as a series combination of two capacitors:
K ε0 A 2K ε0 A
C1 = = = 2 KC0
d /2 d
ε0 A 2ε0 A
and C2 = = = 2C0
d /2 d
50 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
The effective capacitance C is given by Magnetism
1 1 1
= C + C
C 1 2
C1 C2
or C = C +C
1 2
Notes
2 KC0 × 2C0
= 2 KC + 2C
0 0
2 KC 0
= K +1
10 × 22 ×10–6F
=
6
= 36.7 μF
Electricity and
Magnetism The work done during charging is given by
W = Charge × potential difference
q 1 q2
=q =
2C 2 C
Hence potential energy
1 1 q2 1
Notes U = qV = = CV 2 (16.38)
2 2 C 2
This energy is stored in the electric field between the plates. The stored energy is
directly proportional to the capacitance. It also increases as potential difference
increases. However, every capacitor can store only a limited amount of energy.
An automatic discharge will take place when the potential difference becomes
more than its threshold value.
It is dangerous to touch the plates of a charged capacitor. The capacitor may get
discharged through your body resulting in an electric shock. Such a shock could
be fatal for high value capacitors when fully charged.
52 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
where α is constant of proportionality and is called atomic/molecular polarizability. Magnetism
Let us now consider a non-polar slab ABCD placed in an electric field E maintained
between the plates of a capacitor. As shown in Fig.16.13, the dielectric slab gets
polarised. The nuclei of dielectric molecules are displaced towards the negative
plate and electrons towards the positive plate. Because of polarisation, an electric
field Ep is produced within the dielectric, which is opposite to E. Hence, due to
the presence of a non-polar dielectric, the field between the plates is reduced, i.e.
effective electric field in a polarised dielectric is given by Notes
E(effective) = E - Ep (16.39)
Thus, the potential difference between the capacitor plates is correspondingly
reduced (as V= Ed ), increasing the value of capacitance of the capacitor (as
C = q/V ).
A B
–+ –+ –+
E
–+ –+ –+
–+ –+ –+ EP
+ –+ –+ –+ –
–+ –+ –+
–+ –+ –+
D C
Applications of Electrostatics
Electrostatics provides basis for the theory of electromagnetics, apart from
useful assistance in many fields of science and technology.
z Capacitors are essential parts of most electronic and electrical circuitry.
These play a very crucial role in power transmission.
z Gold leaf electroscope – the simple device used for detecting charge,
paved the way for cosmic ray research.
z Lightning conductor devised by Benjamin Franklin is still used to protect
sky-scrappers from the strokes of lightning and thunder.
z The working of photocopiers, so common these days, is based on the
principle of electrostatics.
PHYSICS 53
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors
Electricity and
Magnetism
54 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
z Capacitance of a conductor depends on its shape, size and nature of medium, Magnetism
rather than its material.
z The capacitance of a dielectric filled parallel plate capacitor becomes K times
the capacitance with air or vacuum as dielectric.
z Relative permittivity is the ratio of capacitance with dielectric between the
plates to the capacitance with air or vacuum between the plates.
z In series combination of capacitors, the equivalent capacitance is less than Notes
the least of any of the individual capacitances.
z In parallel combination of capacitors, the equivalent capacitance is equal to
the sum of individual capacitances.
z Due to the presence of a non-polar dielectric, the field between the plates of
a capacitor is reduced.
TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Calculate the potential at a point P at a distance of 30 cm from a point charge
q = 20 μC
2. Three point charges q1, q2 and q3, each of magnitude 200 μC, are placed at
the corners A, B and C respectively of an equilateral triangle. The length of
the side is 10cm. Calculate the potential energy of the system.
3. The potential difference between the plates of a capacitor separated by 3mm
is 12.0 V. Calculate the magnitude of E between the plates?
4. Two ions having charges +e and – e are 4.0 × 10–10 m apart. Calculate the
potential energy of the system.
5. The plates A and B of a parallel plate capacitor have a potential difference of
15 V. A proton (m = 1.67 × 10–27 kg) is moved from the positive plate A to B.
Calculate the speed of the proton near plate B.
6. Show that dimensionally the quantities Vq and (½)mv2 are equivalent. The
symbols carry the usual meaning.
7. Under what condition, the electric field between the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor is uniform?
8. A metallic sphere of radius r has a charge +q. Calculate the work done in
moving a test charge q0 from one end of a diameter to its other end.
9. A parallel plate air capacitor of value C0 is charged to a potential V0 between
the plates and +q0 is charge on one plate. Separation between plates is d. A
dielectric of dielectric constant K = 3 fills the space between the plates. Which
of these quantities will change and why. (i) capacitance (ii) charge (iii) po-
tential difference and (iv) field density?
PHYSICS 55
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors
Electricity and
Magnetism 10. Examine the following network of capacitors. The potential difference be-
tween A and B is 16V :
Notes
123456789012345
123456789012345
123456789012345
123456789012345
K =2
123456789012345
1
123456789012345
123456789012345
123456789012345
123456789012345
K =4
123456789012345
2
56 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
16.1
1. The potential at r (r > R)
1 q Notes
V = 4πε
0 r
2. The field around a point charge possesses spherical symmetry. Thus every
point on the surface of the sphere is equipotential. And no work is done
when a charge moves on an equipotantial surface
dV
3. E = – Since V is constant, E is zero.
dr
We can obtain the same result using Eqn. (16.22) :
VA -VB
E= . Since VA = VB ,E is zero
d
4. No. Not necessarily. When E = 0, the potential is either constant or zero.
5. Two equipotential surfaces never intersect. If they do so, at the point of
intersection we can draw two normals giving directions of electric field.
16.2
Q
Q Work done Q× Q
1. C = = = Work done
V Charge
Q2
=
N.m.
The basic unit is
C
A =
s
m
∴ C2 = A2 s2 and newton = mass × acc = kg
s2
A 2s 2
C 2
2 A 2s4
Capacitance = = kg m = kg m 2
Nm
s2
= A2 s4 (kg m2)–1
2. In a capacitor, E is uniform between this plates. Potential difference between
the plates
VA – VB = E × d.
PHYSICS 57
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors
Electricity and
Magnetism 3. C0 , E0 , V0 for air capacitor and
C, E, V for dielectric capacitor. Then
C V E
k = C ,k= 0 k= 0.
0 V E
4. C = 1.0 μ F = 1.0 × 10–6 F.
d = 50 cm = 0.5m.
Notes
ε0 A
C =
d
Cd
∴ A= . Since ε0 = 8.85 × 10–12,
ε0
1.0 ×10 –6 × 0.5
A= 8.85 ×10-12
5 × 10 –7
= 8.85 × 10 –12
= 0.56 × 105 m2
16.3
1 (a) 3 mF (b) 16 mF 2. 12.2μF
3. (a) 96mC (b) 0.480 C (c) 12 v (d) 40 mF
1 1 (C0V0 ) 2 1
4. (a) C0 V02 (b) 2 C R = C0V02
2 0 2k
(c) The energy in the first case is more, because same energy is used up for
sucking in the dielectric slab.
64 32 16
(c) V, V, V, 8V, 8V
7 7 7
16
11. 36 μF. 12. μF.
5
13. 1 : 7 14. (a) 3.5 × 10 –11 J (b) 6 × 10–11Nm.
15. 32 μF
58 PHYSICS
Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
17
Notes
ELECTRIC CURRENT
In our daily life we use electricity for various activities. The electric lamps and
tubes light our houses, we listen music on a tape recorder or radio, see different
programmes on television, enjoy cool breeze from electric fan or cooler, and use
electric pump to irrigate fields. In fact, electricity is a unique gift of science to
mankind. We can not imagine life without electricity in the modern world. At
home you might have observed that as soon as you switch on an electrtc lamp, it
starts glowing. Why does it happen? What is the function of a switch?
In the preceding lessons of this module, you have studied about static electric
charges and forces between them. In this lesson, you will learn about electric
charges in motion. You will also learn that the rate of flow of charge through a
conductor depends on the potential difference across it. You will also study the
distribution of current in circuits and Kirchhoff’s laws which govern it. Elementary
idea of primary and secondary cells will also be discussed in this lesson.
Physics is an experimental science and the progress it has made to unfold laws of
nature became possible due to our ability to verify theoretical predictions or
reproduce experimental results. This has led to continuous improvement in
equipment and techniques. In this lesson you will learn about potentiometer, which
is a very versatile instrument. It can be used to measure resistance as well as
electro-motive force using null method.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z state Ohm’s law and distinguish between ohmic and non-ohmic resistances;
z obtain equivalent resistance for a series and parallel combination of
resistors;
z distinguish between primary and secondary cells;
PHYSICS 59
MODULE - 5 Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism z apply Kirchhoff’s rules to closed electrical circuits;
z apply Wheatstone bridge equation to determine an unknown resistance;
and
z explain the principle of potentiometer and apply it to measure the e.m.f and
internal resistance of a cell.
Δq
Iav = (17.1)
Δt
A
+ +
If the rate of flow of charge varies with time, the current also varies with time.
The instantaneous current is expressed as :
dq
I = (17.2)
dt
60 PHYSICS
Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
The SI unit of current is ampere. Its symbol is A : Magnetism
1 coulom b
1 ampere = 1 second (17.3)
Dx
ud
A q q A
ud Dx
Fig. 17.2 : The charges move with a speed vd through a surface of area A. The number of
charges in a length Δx is nA vd Δt.
Δq
so that = I = nAevd (17.4)
Δt
PHYSICS 61
MODULE - 5 Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism George Simon Ohm
(1787-1854)
German physicist, George Simon Ohm is famous for the
law named after him. He arrived at the law by considering
an analogy between thermal and electrical conduction. He
also contributed to theory of sirens, interference of polarised
Notes light in crystals etc. Ohm, the practical unit of resistance, is
named in his honour.
V
⇒ =R (17.5)
I
where constant of proportionality R signifies the electrical resistance offered by a
conductor to the flow of electric current. Resistance is the property of a conductor
by virtue of which it opposes the flow of current through it. The I–V graph for a
metallic conductor is a straight line (Fig. 17.3(a)).
I I
1
Slope =
R
V V
(a) (b)
Fig. 17.3 : Current-voltage graph for a) an ohmic device, and b) a semiconductor diode
62 PHYSICS
Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
show non ohmic character. For semiconductor diode, Ohm’s law does not hold good Magnetism
even for low values of voltage. Fig. 17.3(b) shows a non-linear I–V graph for a
semiconductor diode.
ACTIVITY 17.1
Aim : To study conduction of electricity through an electrolyte. Notes
PHYSICS 63
MODULE - 5 Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism 17.2.1 Resistance and Resistivity
Let us now study the factors which affect the resistance of a conductor. You can
perform two simple experiments. To do so, set up a circuit as shown in Fig. 17.6.
ACTIVITY 17.2
Notes
Take a long conducting wire of uniform cross A B
section. Cut out pieces of different lengths,
say l1, l2, l3, etc from it. This makes sure that
wires have same area of cross-section.
Connect l1 between A and B and note down – +
A
the current through this wire. Let this current + – Rh
be I. Perform the same experiment with wires Fig. 17.6 : Electrical circuit to study
of lengths l2 and l3, one by one. Let the factors affecting resistance of
currents in the wires be I2 and I3 respectively. conductors
Plot a graph between l–1 and I. You will find that the graph is a straight line and
longer wires allow smaller currents to flow. That is, longer wires offer greater
resistance [Fig.17.7(a)]. Mathematically, we express this fact as
R ∝l (17.6)
I I
1 A
A
(a) (b)
Fig. 17.7 : a) The graph between I and 1/l for wires of uniform cross-section and b) the graph
between current and area of cross section for wires of same length
ACTIVITY 17.3
Take wires of the same length of a given material but having different areas of
cross section, say A1 , A2 , A3 etc. Connect the wires between A and B one by one
and note down the currents I1 , I2 , I3 etc. in each case. A plot of I and A will give
64 PHYSICS
Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
a straight line. Wires of greater cross sectional area allow greater currents to Magnetism
flow. You may say that wires of larger area of cross-section offer smaller resistance
[Fig. 17.7 (b)]. Mathematically, we can write
1
R ∝ (17.7)
A
On combining Eqns.(17.6) and (17.7), we can write Notes
l
R ∝
A
l
or R =ρ (17.8)
A
where ρ is a constant for the material at constant temperature. It is called the
specific resistance or resistivity of the material. By rearranging terms, we can
write
RA
ρ = (17.9)
l
If l = 1m and A = 1m2, then ρ = R ohm-metre. Thus resistivity of a material is the
resistance offered by a wire of length one metre and area of cross section one m2.
The unit of resistivity is ohm metre (Ωm)
Reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity (specific conductance) and is denoted
by σ :
1
σ = ρ (17.10)
V 220 volt
R = = 0.2 amp. = 1100 Ω
I
Example 17.2 : A total of 6.0 × 1016 electrons pass through any cross section of
a conducting wire per second. Determine the value of current in the wire.
PHYSICS 65
MODULE - 5 Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism Solution : Total charge passing through the cross-section in one second is
ΔQ = ne = 6.0 × 1016 × 1.6 × 10–19 C = 9.6 × 10–3C
ΔQ 9.6 × 10 −3 C
∴ I = =
Δt 1s
= 9.6 × 10–3 A
= 9.6 mA
Notes
Example 17.3 : Two copper wires A and B have the same length. The diameter of
A is twice that of B. Compare their resistances.
Solution : From Eqn. (17.8) we know that
l l
RA = ρ and RB = ρ
π rA2 π rB2
RA rB2
∴ =
RB rA2
Since diameter of A = 2 × diameter of B , we have rA = 2rB. Hence
Resistance of B will be four times the resistance of A.
Example 17.4 : The length of a conducting wire is 60.0 m and its radius is 0.5cm.
A potential difference of 5.0 V produces a current of 2.5 A in the wire. Calculate
the resistivity of the material of the wire.
V 5.0 V
Solution : R = = = 2.0 Ω
I 2.5 A
Radius of the wire = 0.5 cm = 5.0 × 10–3 m
Area of cross section A = πR2 = 3.14 × (5.0 × 10–3) 2 m2 = 78.5 × 10–6 m2
2.0 × 78.5 × 10 −6 Ωm 2
∴ ρ = = 2.6 × 10–6 Ωm
60.0 m
66 PHYSICS
Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
3. A potential difference of 8 V is applied across the ends of a conducting wire Magnetism
of length 3m and area of cross section 2cm2. The resulting current in the wire
is 0.15A. Calculate the resistance and the resistivity of the wire.
4. Do all conductors obey Ohm’s law? Give examples to support your answer.
5. 5 × 1017 electrons pass through a cross-section of a conducting wire per
second from left to right. Determine the value and direction of current.
Notes
17.3 GROUPING OF RESISTORS
An electrical circuit consists of several components and devices connected
together. Some of these are batteries, resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes,
transistors etc. (They are known as circuit elements.) These are classified as
resistive and reactive. The most common resistive components are resistors, keys,
rheostats, resistance coils, resistance boxes and connecting wires. The reactive
components include capacitors, inductors and transformers. In addition to many
other functions performed by these elements individually or collectively, they
control the current in the circuit. In the preceding lesson you learnt how grouping
of capacitors can be used for controlling charge and voltage. Let us now discuss
the role of combination of resistors in controlling current and voltage.
Two types of groupings of resistors are in common use. These are : series grouping
and parallel grouping. We define equivalent resistance of the combination
as a single resistance which allows the same current to flow as the given
combination when the same potential difference is applied across it.
PHYSICS 67
MODULE - 5 Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism That is, the equivalent resistance of a series combination of resistors is equal to
the sum of individual resistances. If we wish to apply a voltage across a resistor
(say electric lamp) less than that provided by the constant voltage supply source,
we should connect another resistor (lamp) in series with it.
R1 R2
A V1 V2 D A D
Notes R1 R2
() + –
I V Battery
(a) (b)
Fig. 17.8 : a) Two resistors connected in series to a battery, and b) two lamps joined in series
connected to a dc source.
I2
R2 I2
R2
I A D
I + –
+ – ( )
Battery
V
(a) (b)
Fig. 17.9 : a) Two resistors connected in parallel. The battery supplies the same voltage to
both resistors, and b) lamps connected in parallel to a battery.
The main current divides into two parts. Let I1 and I2 be the currents flowing
through resistors R1 and R2 , respectively. Then I1 = V/R1 and I2 = V/R2.
The main current is the sum of I1 and I2. Therefore, we can write
V V
⇒ I = I1 + I2 = +
R1 R2
68 PHYSICS
Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
If the equivalent resistance of combination is R, we write V = IR or I = V/R: Magnetism
V V V
I = = +
R R1 R2
1 1 1
∴ = + (17.12a)
R R1 R2
R1 R2
or R = R +R (17.12b) Notes
1 2
From Eqn. (17.12a) we note that reciprocal of equivalent resistance of parallel
combination is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of individual resistances.
The process may be extended for any number of resistors, so that
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + + ... (17.13)
R R1 R2 R3 R4
Note that the equivalent resistance of parallel combination is smaller than the
smallest individual resistance. You may easily see this fact by a simple electrical
circuit having a resistor of 2 Ω connected across a 2V battery. It will draw a
current of one ampere. When another resistor of 2 Ω is connected in parallel, it
will also draw the same current. That is, total current drawn from the battery is
2A. Hence, resistance of the circuit is halved. As we increase the number of
resistors in parallel, the resistance of the circuit decreases and the current drawn
from the battery goes on increasing.
In our homes, electrical appliances such as lamps, fans, heaters etc. are connected
in parallel and each has a separate switch. Potential difference across each remains
the same and their working is not influenced by others. As we switch on bulbs
and fans, the resistance of the electrical circuit of the house decreases and the
current drawn from the mains goes on increasing (Fig.17.10).
P
S2
S3
S1
MAINS
H F B
N
Fig. 17.10 : Arrangement of appliances in our homes. These are connected in parallel so that
every appliance is connected to 220 V main supply. The total current drawn from
the mains is the sum of the currents drawn by each appliance.
Example 17.5 : For the circuit shown in Fig. 17.11, calculate the value of resistance
R2, and current I2 flowing through it.
Solution: If the equivalent resistance of parallel combination of R1 and R2 is R,
then
R R 10 R
R = R + R = 10 + R
1 2 2
1 2 2
PHYSICS 69
MODULE - 5 Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism According to Ohm’s law, I = 10A
50 I1 I2
R = = 5Ω +
10
50V 10Ω R1 R2
–
10 R2
∴ 10 + R2 = 5
Fig. 17.11 : Two resistors in
Notes ⇒ 10 R2 = 50 + 5 R2 or R2 = 10 Ω parallel
Since R1 and R2 are equal, current will be equally divided between them. Hence,
I2 = 5A
Example 17.6 : For the circuit shown in Fig. 17.12, calculate the equivalent
resistance between points a and d.
Solution : 15Ω and 3Ω resistors are connected in parallel. The equivalent
resistance of this combination is
15 × 3 45 5
R1 = 15 + 3 Ω = 18 = 2 = 2.5Ω
Now we can regard the resistances 5Ω, R1 = 2.5Ω and 7Ω as connected in series.
Hence, equivalent resistance between points a and d is
R = (5 + 2.5 + 7) = 14.5 Ω
15W
a b c
5W
3W 7W
d
Fig. 17.12: A combination of series and parallel groupings
Example 17.7 : Refer to the network shown in Fig. 17.13. Calculate the equivalent
resistance between the points (i) b and c (ii) c and d, and (iii) a and e.
5W
a b 10W c 2W 4W d
3W 30W
7W
3W
f e
Fig. 17.13 : A combination of series and parallel groupings of resistors
70 PHYSICS
Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Solution : Magnetism
(i) Three resistors (5Ω, 10Ω and 30Ω) are connected in parallel. Therefore,
equivalent resistance is given by
1 1 1 1 6 + 3 + 1 10
= + + = = Ω
R1 5 10 30 30 30
or R1 = 3 Ω Notes
(ii) The resistors with resistances 2Ω and 4Ω are in series. The equivalent resistance
R2 = (2 + 4) = 6Ω
(iii) The resistances 7Ω and 3Ω are in parallel. So equivalent resistance
1 ⎛1 1⎞ 3+ 7 10
R3 = ⎜⎝ + ⎟⎠ = =
7 3 21 21
21
or, R3 = Ω = 2.1 Ω
10
Now we can treat equivalent resistance R1 and R2 to be in series. Therefore
R4 = R1 + R2 = (3 + 6) = 9Ω
1 1
= +
9 2.1
1 10 37
= + =
9 21 63
63
R5 = Ω = 1.70 Ω
57
(iv) Finally R5 and 3Ω (between a and b) are in series. Hence
R = (1.70 + 3) = 4.79 Ω
Note : For ease and convenience, you should draw a new equivalent circuit after
every calculation.
PHYSICS 71
MODULE - 5 Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism 2. The electric supply in a town is usually at 220 V. Sometimes the voltage
shoots upto 300 V and may harm your T V set and other gadgets. What
simple precaution can be taken to save your appliances?
3. Calculate the equivalent resistance between points A and B for the following
circuit :
Notes 10W 7W
A B
2W
5W
72 PHYSICS
Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Yellow 4 104 Magnetism
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Grey 8 108
White 9 109
Notes
Suppose that four colours on a resistor are Blue, Grey, Green and Silver. Then
The first digit will be 6 (blue)
The second digit will be 8 (Grey)
The third colour signifies multiplier 105 (Green)
The fourth colour defines tolerance = 10% (Silver)
Hence value of the resistance is
68 × 105 ± 10%
= 68 × 105 ± (68 × 105 × 10/100)
= 68 × 105 ± 68 × 104
= (6.8 ± 0.68) MΩ
Superconductors
Temperature dependence of resistivity led scientists to study the behaviour
of materials at very low temperatures. They observed that certain metals
and their alloys lost their resistivity completely below a certain temperature,
called transition temperature, which is specific to the material. In such
materials, current, once set up, remained, unchanged for ever without the
use of an external source to maintain it. Such materials were termed as
superconductors.
It was soon realised that superconductors, if they may exist near room
temperature, will bring in revolutionary changes in technology. (These have
PHYSICS 73
MODULE - 5 Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism been termed as high temperature superconductors.) For example, energy
efficient powerful electromagnets made of superconducting coils may levitate
vehicles above a magnetic track and make a high speed transportation system
possible.
Efforts are being made to develop high temperature superconductors. The
work done so far suggests that oxides of copper, barium and ytterium are
Notes showing good possibilities. A superconductor (T2 Ba2 Ca2 Cu3O10) which
can exist at –153ºC has been developed. India is a front runner in this area of
research.
(ρ − ρ0 ) 1 Δρ
or α = ρ (T – T ) = ρ ΔT
0 0 0
r
where Δρ = (ρ – ρ0) and ΔT = T – T0.
The resistivity versus temperature graph for a
metal like copper is shown in Fig. 17.14(a). The
curve is linear over a wide range of
temperatures. T
(a)
You may recall that resistance of a conductor Fig. 17.14 : Typical resistivity–
is proportional to its resistivity. Therefore, temperature graph for
temperature variation of resistance can written a metal
as :
R = R0 [1 + α (T – T0)] (17.15)
The resistances corresponding to two different temperatures T1 and T2 are given
by
R1 = R0 [1 + α (T1 – T0)] (17.16)
and
R2 = R0 [1 + α (T2 – T0)] (17.17)
On combining these equations, we can write an expression for temperature
coefficient ofresistivity :
(R − R ) 1 ΔR
α = R (T − T ) = R ΔT
2 1
(17.18)
0 2 1 0
74 PHYSICS
Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
If R0 = 1Ω and (T2 – T1) = 1°C, then α = ( R2 – R1). Thus temperature coefficient Magnetism
of resistance is numerically equal to the change in resistance of a wire of
resistance 1ΩΩ at 0° C when the temperature changes by 1° C. This property
of metals is used in making resistance thermometers.
The resistivity of alloys also increases
with increase in temperature. But the
increase is very small compared to that
Notes
for metals. For alloys such as manganin,
constantan and nichrome, the
r
temperature coefficient of resistivity is
vanishingly small (∼10 –6 °C –1 )and
resistivity is high. That is why these
materials are used for making resistance
wires or standard resistances. T
(b)
Semiconductors such as germanium and
silicon have resistivities which lie Fig. 17.14(b) : Resistivity of semiconductors
decreases with temperature
between those of metals and insulators.
The resistivity of semiconductors usually decreases with increase in temperature
[Fig.17.14(b)]. This gives a negative temperature coefficient of resistance. This
will be discussed in detail in the lesson on semiconductors.
ACTIVITY 17.4
Connect a cell in a circuit having a resistor R and key K. A voltmeter of very high
resistance is connected in parallel to the cell, as shown in Fig.17.15. When key K
is closed, voltmeter reading will decrease. Can you give reasons for this decrease
in the voltmeter reading? Actually when key K
E r
is open, no current flows through the loop having
Ir
cell and voltmeter: (The resistance in the circuit
is infinite.) Hence the voltmeter reading gives I V
e.m.f. E of the cell, which is the potential I
()
PHYSICS 75
MODULE - 5 Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism introduces a resistance r, called internal resistance of the cell. Let current I be
flowing in the circuit. Potential drop Ir across internal resistance r due to current
flow acts opposite to the e.m.f. of the cell. Hence, the voltmeter reading will be
E – Ir = V
or E = V + Ir {17.19)
Notes Thus while drawing current from a cell, e.m.f. of the cell is always greater than
the potential difference across external resistance, unless internal resistance is
zero.
E.M.F. of a cell depends on :
– the electrolyte used in the cell;
– the material of the electrodes; and
– the temperature of the cell.
Note that the e.m.f. of a cell does not depend on the size of the cell, i.e. on the
area of plates and distance between them. This means that if you have two cells
of different sizes, one big and one small, the e.m.f.s can be the same if the material
of electrods and electrolyte are the same. However, cells of larger size will offer
higher resistance to the passage of current through it but can be used for a longer
time.
Example 17.8 : When the current drawn from a battery is 0.5A, potential difference
at the terminals is 20V. And when current drawn from it is 2.0A, its voltage
reduces to 16V. Calculate the e.m.f. and internal resistance of the battery.
Solution : Let E and r be the e.m.f. and internal resistance of battery. When
current I is drawn from it, the potential drop across internal resistance of the cell
is Ir. Then we can write
V = E – Ir
For I = 0.5A and V = 20 volt, we have
20 = E – 0.5 r (i)
For I = 2.0A and V = 16 volt, we can write
16 = E – 2r (ii)
We can rewrite Eqns. (i) and (ii) as
2E – r = 40
and E – 2r = 16
Solving these,we get
E = 21.3 V and r = 2.67Ω
76 PHYSICS
Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
17.6.1 Elementary Idea of Primary and Secondary cells Magnetism
We have seen that to pass electric current through a conductor continuously
we have to maintain a potential difference between its ends. For the purpose,
generally, we use a device called chemical cell.
Chemical calls are of two types :
(i) Primary Cells : In these cells, the chemical energy is directly converted
into electrical energy. The material of a primary cell is consumed as we Notes
use the cell and, therefore, it cannot be recharged and reused. Dry cell,
Daniel Cell, Voltaic Cell etc are examples of primary cells.
(ii) Secondary Cells : These are chemical cells in which electrical energy is
stored as a reversible chemical reaction. When current is drawn from the
cells the chemical reaction runs in the reverse direction and the original
substances are obtained. These cells, therefore, can be charged again and
again. Acid-accumulator, the type of battery we use in our inverter or car,
is a set of secondary cells.
(i) Kirchhoff’s First Rule (Junction Rule) : It states that the sum of all currents
directed towards a junction (point) in an electrical network is equal to the sum
of all the currents directed away from the junction.
I1
I I2
A
I3
Fig. 17.16 : Kirchhoff’s first rule : Sum of currents coming to a junction is equal to the sum of
currents going away from it.
PHYSICS 77
MODULE - 5 Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism Refer to Fig. 17.16.If we take currents approaching point A as positive and those
leaving it as negative, then we can write
I = I1 + I2 + I3
or I – (I1 + I2 + I3) = 0 (17.20)
In other words, the algebraic sum of all currents at a junction is zero.
Notes
Kirchhoff’s first rule tells us that there is no accumulation of charge at any point
if steady current flows in it. The net charge coming towards a point should be
equal to that going away from it in the same time. In a way, it is an extension of
continuity theorem in electrical circuits.
(ii) Kirchhoff’s Second Rule (Loop Rule) : This rule is an application of law of
conservation of energy for electrical circuits. It tells us that the algebraic sum of
the products of the currents and resistances in any closed loop of an electrical
network is equal to the algebraic sum of electromotive forces acting in the loop.
While using this rule, we start from a point on the loop and go along the loop
either clockwise or anticlockwise to reach the same point again. The product of
current and resistance is taken as positive when we traverse in the direction of
current. The e.m.f is taken positive when we traverse from negative to positive
electrode through the cell. Mathematically, we can write
∑ IR = ∑ E (17.21)
Let us consider the electrical network shown in Fig. 17.17. For closed mesh
ADCBA, we can write
I1R1 – I2R2 = E1 – E2
Similarly, for the mesh DHGCD
I2R2 + (I1 + I2) R3 = E2
And for mesh AHGBA
I1R1 + I3 R3 = E1
At point D I1 + I2 = I3
78 PHYSICS
Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
In more general form, Kirchhoff’s second rule is stated as : The algebraic sum of Magnetism
all the potential differences along a closed loop in a circuit is zero.
Example 17.9 : Consider the network shown in Fig. 17.18. Current is supplied
to the network by two batteries. Calculate the values of currents I1, I2 and I3. The
directions of the currents are as indicated by the arrows.
Notes
PHYSICS 79
MODULE - 5 Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism 17.7.1 Wheatstone Bridge
You have learnt that a resistance can be measured by Ohm’s law using a voltmeter
and an ammeter in an electrical circuit. But this measurement may not be accurate
for low resistances. To overcome this difficulty, we use a wheatstone bridge. It is
an arrangement of four resistances which can be used to measure one of them in
terms of the other three.
Notes
80 PHYSICS
Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
(iii) Both points B and D are at the same potential: In this case, no current Magnetism
will flow through the galvanometer and it will show no deflection, i.e. the
galvanometer is in null condition. In this condition, the Wheatstone bridge
is said to be in the state of balance.
The points B and D will be at the same potential only when the potential drop
across P is equal to that across R. Thus
Notes
I1P = I3 R (1 7.22)
But I1 = I2 + IG
and I4 = I3 + IG (17.23)
Applying Kirchhoff’s first rule at junctions B and D in the null condition (IG = 0),
we get
I1 = I2
and I3 = I4 (1 7.24)
Also potential drop across Q will be equal to that across S. Hence
I2Q = I4S (17.25)
Dividing Eqn. (17.22) by Eqn. (17.25), we obtain
I1P I3 R
I 2Q = I4S (17.26)
P R
Q = S (17.27)
This is the condition for which a Wheatstone bridge will be balanced. From Eqn.
(17.27), we find that the unknown resistance S is given by
QR
S =
P
You can easily see that measurement of resistance by Wheatstone bridge method
has the following merits.
(i) The balance condition given by Eqn. (17.27) at null position is independent
of the applied voltage V. In other words, even if you change the e.m.f of the cell,
the balance condition will not change.
(ii) The measurement of resistance does not depend on the accuracy of calibration
of the galvanometer. Galvanometer is used only as a null indicator (current
detector).
PHYSICS 81
MODULE - 5 Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism The main factor affecting the accuracy of measurement by Wheatstone bridge is
its sensitivity with which the changes in the null condition can be detected. It has
been found that the bridge has the greatest sensitivity when the resistances in all
the arms are nearly equal.
Example 17.9: Calculate the value of R shown in Fig.17.20. when there is no
current in 50Ω resistor.
Notes
Solution: This is Wheatstone bridge where
galvanometer has been replaced by 50Ω resistor.
The bridge is balanced because there is no current
in 50Ω resistor. Hence,
20 40
=
10 R
82 PHYSICS
Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
17.8 POTENTIOMETER Magnetism
You now know how to measure e.m.f. of a source or potential difference across
a circuit element using a voltmeter. (An ideal voltmeter should have infinite
resistance so that it does not draw any current when connected across a source of
e.m.f.) Practically it is not possible to manufacture a voltmeter which will not
draw any current. To overcome this difficulty, we use a potentiometer, which
draws no current from it. It employs a null method. The potentiometer can also Notes
be used for measurement of internal resistance of a cell, the current flowing in a
circuit and comparison of resistances.
Electricity and
Magnetism If r is the resistance per unit length of the wire, and k is the potential drop across
unit length of the wire, then
R = rl
and E =kl
E
or k =
l
Notes
For length l1 of wire, potential drop is given by
E
V1= kl1 = l1 (17.28)
l
Thus potential falls linearly with distance along the wire from the positive to the
negative end.
We wish to measure an unknown voltage V. The positive terminal of the cell is
connected to end A of the wire and negative terminal through a galvanometer to
the jockey having variable contact Y. Note that for V > E, it will not be possible to
obtain a null point. So we use a standard cell of emf E (> V), as shown in Fig.17.22.
To check this, insert keys K and K1 and tap at ends A and B. The galvanometer
should show deflection in opposite directions. If so, all is well with the circuit.
Insert key K1 and start moving jockey from A towards B. Suppose that at position
Y′ potential drop across the length AY of the wire is less than voltage V. The
current in the loop AY′ XA due to voltage V exceeds the current due to potential
difference across AY′. Hence galvanometer shows some deflection in one direction.
Then jockey is moved away, say to Y′′ such that potential drop across AY′′ is
greater than the voltage V. If galvanometer shows deflection in the other direction,
the voltage drop across AY′′ is greater than that across AY′. Therefore, the jockey
is moved slowly between Y′ and Y′′. A stage is reached, say at point Y, where
potential drop across AY is equal to voltage V. Then points X and Y will be at the
same potential and hence the galvanometer will not show any deflection, i.e. null
point is achieved. If l1 is the length between A and Y, then
El1
V = kl1 = (17.29)
l
Thus, the unknown voltage V is measured when no current is drawn
The measurements with potentiometer have following advantages :
z When the potentiometer is balanced, no current is drawn from the circuit on
which the measurement is being made.
z It produces no change in conditions in a circuit to which it is connected.
z It makes use of null method for the measurement and the galvanometer used
need not be calibrated.
84 PHYSICS
Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
17.8.3 Comparison of E.M.Fs of two Cells Magnetism
You have learnt to measure the e.m.f. of a cell using a potentiometer. We shall
now extend the same technique for comparison of e.m.fs of two cells. Let us
take, for example, a Daniel cell and a Leclanche cell and let E1 and E2 be their
respective e.m.fs.
Refer to circuit diagram shown in Fig.17.23. The cell of e.m.f. E1 is connected in
the circuit through terminals 1 and 3 of key K1. The balance point is obtained by Notes
moving the jockey on the potentiometer wire as explained earlier. Note that e.m.f
of cell E should be greater than the emfs of E1 and E2 seperately. (Otherwise,
balance point will not be obtained.) Let the balance point on potentiometer be at
point Y1 and length AY1 = l1. The cell of e.m.f. E2 is connected in the circuit
through terminals 2 and 3 of the key K2. Suppose balance is obtained at point Y2
and length AY2 = l2.
Fig. 17.23 : Circuit diagram for comparison of e.m.fs of two cells E1 and E2.
Applying potentiometer principle, we can write
E1 = kl1 and E2 = kl2
where k is the potential gradient along the wire AB. Hence
E1 l1
E2 = l (17.30)
2
PHYSICS 85
MODULE - 5 Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism AB. The key K1 is kept open and on moving the jockey, a balance is obtained with
the cell E1 at point, say Y1. Let AY1 = l1. Then we can write
E1 = kl1 (17.31a)
Notes
Now key K1 is closed. This introduces a resistance across the cell. A current, say
I1, flows in the loop E1RK1E1 due to cell E . Using Ohm’s law, we can write
E1
I1 =
R+r
where r is internal resistance of the cell. It means that terminal potential difference
V1 of the cell will be less than E1 by an amount I1r. The value of V1 is
E1
V1 = I1R = R
R+r
Then, potential difference V1 is balanced on the potentiometer wire without change
in current I. Let the balance point be at point Y2 such that AY2 = l2. Then
V1 = kl2
(17.31b)
Using Eqns. (17.31a,b) we get
E1 l1 R+r
V1 = l2 =
R
⎛l1 ⎞
or r = R ⎜ l – 1⎟ (17.32)
⎝ 2 ⎠
86 PHYSICS
Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Solution: Let e.m.f. of battery be E volt. The potential gradient for 5 m length is Magnetism
E
k1 = Vm–1
5
When the length of potentiometer wire is 7 m, potential gradient is
E
k2 = Vm–1
7 Notes
Now, if null point is obtained at length l2, then
E
E1 = k 2 l 2 = l2
7
Here same cell is used in two arrangements. Hence
E E
= l2
5 7
⇒ l 2 = 7 / 5 = 1.4m
The conduction electrons frequently collide with the atoms in the solid. The free
electrons drift slowly in a direction opposite to the direction of the applied electric
field. The average drift velocity is of the order of 10– 4ms–1. This is very small
compared to the average speed of free electrons between two successive collisions
(106ms–1). On applying an electric field, the conduction electrons get accelerated.
PHYSICS 87
MODULE - 5 Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism The excess energy gained by the electrons is lost during collisions with the atoms.
The atoms gain energy and vibrate more vigorously. The conductor gets heated
up. Fig. 17.25 shows how the motion of electrons is modified when an electric
field is applied is applied.
Let us now obtain an expression for the drift velocity of conduction electrons.
Let e and m be the charge and mass respectively of an electron. If E is the electric
Notes field, the force on the electron is eE. Hence acceleration experienced by the electron
is given by
eE
a =
m
If τ is the average time between collisions, we can write the expression for velocity
of drifting electrons in terms of electric field as
eE
vd = τ
m
On combining this result with Eqn. (17.4), we obtain the expression for current :
I = – neAvd
eE
= –neA τ
m
Ane2 E
= – τ
m
⎛ ∂V ⎞
Since electric field is negative spatial gradient of potential ⎜ E = – ⎟ we can
⎝ ∂r ⎠
rewrite the expression for current as
ne 2 A V
I = + τ (17.33)
m l
V m l
⇒ = 2 =R (17.34)
I ne τ A
Notes
Fig. 17.26 : A circuit containing a battery and a resistor. The power consumed depends on the
potential difference between the points a and b, the current through the resistor.
The rate of loss of potential energy by moving charge ΔQ in going through the
resistor is
ΔU ΔQ
=V = VI (17. 36)
Δt Δt
where I is the current in the circuit and V is potential difference between the ends
of the resistor.
It is assumed that the resistance of the connecting wires is negligible. The total
loss is in the resistor R only. Rate of loss of energy is defined as power :
P = VI
Since V = IR, we can write
P = I 2R = V 2/R (17.37)
The SI unit of power is watt (W).
The electrical power lost in a conductor as heat is called joule heat. The heat
produced is proportional to : (i) square of current (I), (ii) resistance of conductor
(R), and (iii) time for which current is passed (t).
The statement Q = I 2 Rt, is called Joule’s law for heating effect of current.
Example: 17.11 : A 60W lamp is connected to 220V electricity supply in your
home. Calculate the power consumed by it, the resistance of its filament and the
current through it.
Solution : We know that I = P/V
60W 3
∴ = = A = 0.27A
220V 11
PHYSICS 89
MODULE - 5 Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism Resistance of the lamp
V
R =
I
220V
=
3/11A
220 × 11
Notes = Ω = 807Ω
3
The lamp consumes 60J of energy per second. It will consume 60 Wh energy in
one hour and 60 × 24 = 1440 Wh energy in one day.
Energy consumed per day = 1.440 kWh
In common man’s language, it is known as 1.4 unit of energy.
90 PHYSICS
Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
z Drift velocity is the average velocity with which electrons move opposite to
the field when an electric field exists in a conductor.
z Electric current through any cross-sectional area is the rate of transfer of
charge from one side to other side of the area. Unit of current is ampere and
Notes
is denoted by A.
z Ohm’s law states that the current flowing through a conductor is proportional
to the potential difference when physical conditions like pressure and
temperature remain unchanged.
z Ratio V/I is called resistance and is denoted by R. Unit of resistance is ohm
(denoted by Ω)
z Resistivity (or specific resistance) of a material equals the resistance of a wire
of the material of one metre length and one m2 area of cross section. Unit of
resistivity is ohm metre.
z For a series combination of resistors, the equivalent resistance is sum of
resistances of all resistors.
z For a parallel combination of resistors, inverse of equivalent resistance is
equal to the sum of inverses of all the resistances.
z Primary cells cannot be recharged and reused, whereas, secondary cells can
be charged again and again.
z Kirchhoff’s rules help us to study systematically the complicated electrical
circuits. The first rule states that the sum of all the currents directed towards
a point in an electrical network is equal to the sum of all currents directed
away from the point. Rule II : The algebraic sum of all potential differences
along a closed loop in an electrical network is zero.
z The Wheatstone bridge circuit is used to measure accurately an unknown
resistance (S) by comparing it with known resistances (P, Q and R). In the
balance condition,
P/Q = R/S.
z The e.m.f. of a cell is equal to the potential difference between its terminals
when a circuit is not connected to it.
z A potentiometer measures voltages without drawing current. Therefore, it
can be used to measure e.m.f. of a source that has appreciable internal
resistance.
eE
z Drift velocity of electrons in a conductor is given by vd = − τ.
m
z Power consumed in an electrical circuit through Joule heating is given by
V2
p = VI = I 2R = .
R
PHYSICS 91
MODULE - 5 Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism
TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Explain the drift of free electrons in a metallic conductor under external electric
field. Derive an expression for drift velocity.
2. Define electric current and discuss Ohm’s law.
Notes 3. Define resistivity of a conductor. How does the resistance of a wire depend
on the resistivity of its material, its length and area of cross-section?
4. Define electrical conductivity. Write its unit. How does electrical conductivity
depend on free electron concentration of the conductor?
5. Explain the difference between ohmic and non-ohmic resistances. Give some
examples of non-ohmic resistances.
6. What is the effect of temperature on the
resistivity of a material? Why does electrical
conductivity of a metal decrease with increase
in temperature?
7. The colours on the resistor shown here are red, orange, green and gold as
read from left to right. How much is the resistance according to colour code?
8. Three resistors of resistances R1, R2 and R3 are connected (i) in series, and (ii)
in parallel. Calculate the equivalent resistance of combination in each case.
9. What is the difference between emf and potential difference between the
electrodes of a cell. Derive relation between the two.
10. Expalin the difference between primary cells and secondary cells.
11. State Kirchhoff’s rules governing the currents and electromotive forces in an
electrical network?
12. Give theory of Wheatsone’s bridge method for measuring resistances.
13. Discuss the theory of potentiometer.
14. How will you measure unknown potential difference with the help of a
potentiometer?
15. Describe potentiometer method of comparing e.m.f. of two cells.
16. How will you determine internal resistance of a cell with the help of a
potentiometer? What factors are responsible for internal resistance of a cell ?
17. A wire of length 1 m and radius 0.1 mm has a resistance of 100Ω. Calculate
the resistivity of the material.
18. Consider a wire of length 4m and cross-sectional area 1mm2 carrying a current
of 2A. If each cubic meter of the material contains 1029 free electrons, calculate
the average time taken by an electron to cross the length of the wire.
92 PHYSICS
Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
19. Suppose you have three resistors, each of value 30Ω. List all the different Magnetism
resistances that you can obtain by combining them.
20. The potential difference between the terminals
of a battery of e.m.f. 6.0V and internal resistance
1Ω drops to 5.8V when connected across an
external resistor. Find the resistance of the
external resistor. Notes
21. For the circuit shown here, calculate the value
of current I and equivalent resistance R.
22. Examine the following network containing a
lamp, a capacitor and a battery. The lamp is
lighted when connected directly to the battery.
What happens to it in this circuit when the switch
is closed.
23. The following Wheatstone’s bridge is balanced.
Calculate
(a) the value of equivalent resistance R in the
circuit, and
(b) the current in the arms AB and DC.
17.1
1. (a) The current reduces to half as resistance of the wire is doubled.
(b) The current is doubled as resistance is halved.
2. Resistivity is a property of the material of wire. It will not change with change
in length and area of cross-section.
ρ = 2 × 10–8 Ωm
V 8 800
3. R = = = = 53.3 Ω
I 0.15 15
Pl 800 3 800 × 2 × 10 −4
R= A ⇒ = ρ ⇒ ρ = = 35.5 × 10–4 Ωm.
15 2 × 10 −4 15 × 3
4. No. Only metallic conductor obey Ohm’s law upto a certain limit.
Semiconductors and electrolytes do not obey Ohm’s law.
PHYSICS 93
MODULE - 5 Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism q n | e | 5 × 1017 × 1.6 ×10 −19
5. I = = = A = 0.8 × 10–3A = 0.8 mA
τ t 1
17.2
Notes
1. In parallel. They may draw different currents needed for their operation and
are operated separately using different switches.
2. We use a voltage stablizer
R R
3. R = R1 + R + R + R4
2 3
2 3
10
=2+ +7
3
= 12. 3 Ω
17.3
1. Applying Kirchhoff’s second rule on loop ABCDA, we get
2I1 + 4I1 + 3I3 = 24
6I1 + 3I3 = 24 ...(1) ⇒ 2I1 + I3 = 8 ....(1)
Similarly, for loop DCBFD, we can write
–3I3 + 6I2 = 12 ⇒ 2I2 – I3 = 4 ...(2)
Also applying Kirchoff’s first rule at junction D we get
I2 + I3 = I1
Substituting in (1) we get
2I2 + 3I3 = 8
2I2 – I3 = 4
4I3 = 4
I3 = 1A
Substituting in (2)
2I2 = 5 ⇒ I2 = 2.5 A
P 6 1 R 3 1
2. Q = 12 = 2 and = =
S 6 2
94 PHYSICS
Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
P R Magnetism
Q
=
S ∴ bridge is balanced
Hence VB = VD and I2 = 0
V 12 2
I1 = = = A
I 18 3
Notes
and
12 4
I – I1 = = A
9 3
17.4
1. V = E – Ir as I increases V decreases.
2. R20 = R0 (1 + 20 α)
R40 = R0 ( 1+ 40α)
R40 1 + 40 α
=
R20 1 + 20 α
1 + 40 α 30.16 0.16
= =1+
1 + 20 α 30 30
20 α 0.16
1+ =1+
1 + 20 α 30
20 α 0.16
=
1 + 20 α 30
V 3 30 2
3. I = = = = A
R 4.5 45 3
2
V = ∑ – Ir ⇒ 3 = 5 − r
3
2×3
∴r= = 3Ω
2
PHYSICS 95
MODULE - 5 Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism E2 l 2 1.02 30 3
4. = ⇒ = ⇒ E1 = 0.51 × = 1.53V
E1 l1 E1 45 2
E2 l 2
5. =
E1 l1
Notes E1 2
=
3 3
E1 = 2 V
6. P = IV
= 3 × 0.3 × 500
= 45 WaH.
P 40 2 100 5
7. I= ⇒ I1 = = A and I 2 = = A
V 220 11 220 11
V2 40 2 V2 220 × 220
R= ⇒ I1 = = A ⇒ R1 = = 1210Ω
P 220 11 P 40
220 × 220
and R2 = = 484Ω
100
96 PHYSICS
Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
18
Notes
In lesson 15, you learnt how charged rods attract each other or small bits of
paper. You might have also played with magnets – the substances having the
property of attracting small bits of iron. But did you ever think of some relation
between electricity and magnetism? Such a relationship was discovered by
Oersted in 1820. Now we know, for sure, how intimately magnetism and
electricity are related.
In this lesson, you will learn the behaviour of magnets and their uses as also the
magnetic effects of electric current. The behaviour of current carrying conductors
and moving charges in a magnetic field are also discussed. On the basis of these
principles, we will discuss the working of electric devices like motors and
measuring devices like an ammeter, a voltmeter and a galvanometer.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z define magnetic field and state its SI unit;
z list the elements of earth’s magnetic field and write the relation between
them;
z describe the magnetic effect of electric current : Oersted’s experiment;
z state Biot-Savart’s law and explain its applications;
z explain Ampere’s circuital law and its application;
z describe the motion of a charged particle in uniform electric field and
magnetic field;
z explain the construction and working of a cyclotron;
PHYSICS 97
MODULE - 5 Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism z derive an expression for the force experienced by a current carrying conductor
placed in a uniform magnetic field;
z derive an expression for the force between two infinitely long current carrying
conductors placed parallel to each other; and
z explain the working principle of a galvanometer, an ammeter and a voltmeter.
Fig. 18.1 : Unlike poles of two magnets attract each other and like poles repel.
98 PHYSICS
Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
18.1.1 Magnetic Field Lines Magnetism
Interactions between magnets or a magnet and a piece of iron essentially represent
action at a distance. This can be understood in terms of magnetic field. A very
convenient method to visualize the direction and magnitude of a field is to draw
the field lines :
z The direction of magnetic field vector B at any point is given by the tangent
to the field line at that point.
Notes
z The number of field lines that pass through unit area of a surface held
perpendicular to the lines is proportional to the strength of magnetic field in
that region. Thus, the magnetic field B is large where the field lines are closer
together and smaller where they are far apart.
Fig 18.2: Magnetic field lines passing through two parallel surfaces
Fig 18.2 shows a certain number of field lines passing through parallel surfaces
S1 and S2. The surface area of S1 is same as that of S2 but the number of field
lines passing through S1 is greater than those passing through S2. Hence, the
number of lines per unit area passing through S1 is greater than that through
S2. We can, therefore, say that the magnetic field in the region around P is
stronger than that around Q.
z Outside the magnet, the field lines run from north pole to south pole and
inside it, these run from south pole to north pole forming closed curves (Fig.
18.3).
z Two magnetic field lines can never cross each other.
PHYSICS 99
MODULE - 5 Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism 2. You are provided two identical looking iron bars. One of these is a magnet.
Using just these two, how will you identify which of the two is a magnet.
3. You are given a thread and two bar magnets. Describe a method by which
you can identify the polarities of the two magnets.
ACTIVITY 18.1
Let us perform an experiment with a magnetic needle. (You can actually perform
the experiment with a globe containing a bar magnet along its axis of rotation
with north pole of the magnet pointing south.) Suspend the needle freely in
such a manner that it can rotate in horizontal as well as vertical planes. If the
needle is near the equator on earth’s surface, it rests in horizontal plane. Suppose
this needle is taken to places in the northern hemisphere. The needle rotates in
the vertical plane and the north pole dips towards the earth, as we move towards
geographical north pole. Finally at a point very near to Hudson bay in Canada,
the north pole of the needle will point vertically downward. This place, located
at 6º east of north, is considered to be the south pole of the earth’s magnet.
100 PHYSICS
Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
This place is about 650 km away from the earth’s geographical north pole. Magnetism
If we take the same magnetic needle to places in the southern hemisphere,
the south pole of the needle will dip downward and point vertically
downward at a point 650 km west of the geographical south. This point
could be considered as the N pole of the earth’s magnet. From this we
conclude that the magnetic axis of the earth does not coincide with the
geographical axis.
Notes
An important aspect of earth’s magnetic field is that it does not remain constant;
its magnitude and direction change with time.
PHYSICS 101
MODULE - 5 Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism The angle which the megnetic meridian at a place makes with the
geographical meridian is called the declination at that place.
(c) Horizontal component
Fig. 18.5 shows that PR is the resultant magnetic field at the point P. PH
represents the horizontal component and PF the vertical component of the
earth’s magnetic field in magnitude and direction. Let the magnetic field at the
Notes point P be B. The horizontal component
BH = B cos δ (18.1)
and the vertical component
BV = B sin δ (18.2)
By squarring and adding Eqns. (18.1) and (18.2), we get
BH2 + BV2 = B2 cos2δ + B2 sin2δ = B2 (18.3)
On dividing Eqn. (18.2) by Eqn. (18.1), we have
BV
BH = tan δ (18.4)
ACTIVITY 18.2
Take a 1.5 volt battery, a wire about 1 m in length, a campass needle and a match
box. Wind 10-15 turns of the electric wire on its base. Under the windings, place
a campass needle, as shown in Fig. 18.6. Place the match box on the table so as to
have the wires running along the north – south direction. Connect the free ends
of the wire to the battery. What happens to the needle? You will observe that
102 PHYSICS
Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
needle shows deflection. This means that there is a magnetic field in and around Magnetism
the coil. The deflection will reverse if you reverse the direction of current by
changing the terminals of the battery. When there is no
Notes
current in the wire, the compass needle points in the north – south direction (Fig.
18.7 a, b & c). When a magnetic needle is brought close to a vertical current
carrying wire, the magnetic field lines are concentric circles around the wire, as
shown in Fig 18.7 (d).
(c) When direction of current is reversed, (d) Circular field lines around a straight
direction of deflection is reversed current carrying conductor
PHYSICS 103
MODULE - 5 Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism 18.3 BIOT-SAVART’S LAW
Biot-Savart’s law gives a quantitative relationship between current in conductor
and the resulting magnetic field at a point in the space around it. Each part of a
current carrying conductor contributes to magnetic field around it. The net value
of B at a point is thus the combined effect of all the individual parts of the conductor.
As shown in Fig. 18.8, the net magnetic field due to any current carrying conductor
Notes is the vector sum of the contributions due to the current in each infinitesimal
element of length Δ l .
Experiments show that the field B due to an element Δ l depends on
– current flowing through the conductor, I;
– length of the element Δ l ;
– inversely proportional to the square of the distance of observation point
P from the element Δ l ; and
– the angle between the element and the line joing the element to the
observation point.
Thus, we can write
I Δl sinθ
| ΔB0 | α
r2
μ 0 I d l sinθ
= (18.5)
4π r2
where μ0 is permeability of vacuum. Its value is 4π × 10–7 WA–1m–1. The value of
permeability of air is also nearly equal to μ0
If the conductor is placed in a medium other than air, the value of the field is
altered and is given by B = μ B 0 . Here μ represents the permeabilty of the
medium.
Direction of B : Magnetic field at a point
is a vector quantity. The direction of B
may be determined by applying the right
hand grip rule. To apply this rule, let us
consider the direction of the field produced
in some simple cases. As shown in the Fig.
18.9 (a), grasp the wire in your right hand
so that the thumb points in the direction of
the current. Then the curled fingers of the
hand will point in the direction of the
magnetic field. To represent the magnetic Fig. 18.8 : Magnetic field at P due to a
field on paper, let us consider that current current element Δl
is flowing into the plane of the paper. Then
according to the right hand rule, the field lines shall be in the plane of the paper
(Fig.18.9 b).
104 PHYSICS
Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
The direction of ΔB is normal to the plane of the coil. Since the field due to every
element of the circular coil will be in the same direction, the resultant is obtained
by adding all the contributions at the centre of the loop. Therefore
μ0 I μI
B = ∑ ΔB = Σ Δl = 0 2 . 2πr
4π r 2
4π r
Hence, magnetic field at the centre of a coil of radius r carrying current I is given
by
μ0
B = I (18.6)
2r
PHYSICS 105
MODULE - 5 Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism In case there is more than one loop of wire (say there are n turns), the field is
given by
μ 0 nI
B = 2r
You can check the direction of the net field using the rule given in Fig. 18.7. You
can use right hand rule in any segment of the coil and will obtain the same result.
Notes (Another simple quick rule to identify the direction of magnetic field due to a
current carrying coil is the so called End-rule, illustrated in Fig. 18.11 (a, b).
(a) (b)
()
When an observer looking at the circular coil at its either end finds the current to
be flowing in the clockwise sense, the face of the coil behaves like the south pole
of the equivalent magnet, i.e., B is directed inwards. On the other hand, if the
current is seen to flow in the anticlockwise sense, the face of the coil behaves like
the north pole of the equivalent magnet or the field is directed out of that end.
106 PHYSICS
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Electricity and
18.4 AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW Magnetism
v∫ B . dl = μ0I (18.7)
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MODULE - 5 Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism μ0 I
or B = (18.8)
2πr
This gives the magnetic field around an infinitely long straight current carrying
conductor.
Solenoids and toroids are widely used in motors, generators, toys, fan-windings,
Notes transformers, electromagnets etc. They are used to provide uniform magnetic
field. When we need large fields, soft iron is placed inside the coil.
(b) Magnetic field due to a solenoid
A solenoid is a straight coil having a large
number of loops set in a straight line with a
common axis, as shown in Fig. 18.14. We know
that a current I flowing through a wire, sets up
a magnetic field around it. Suppose that the
length of the solenoid is l and it has N number
of turns. To calculate the magnetic field inside
the solenoid along its axis (Fig 18.14), we can
treat it to be a section of a toroidal solenoid of Fig. 18.14 : A solenoid
a very large radius. Thus :
|B| = μ0 nI
The direction of the field is along the axis of the solenoid. A straight solenoid is
finite. Therefore, |B| = μ0 nI should be correct well inside the solenoid, near its
centre.
For solenoids of small radius, the magnitude of B at the ends is given by
μ 0 nI
|B| = (18.9)
2
The solenoid behaves like a bar magnet and the magnetic field is as shown in Fig.
18.15.
(a) (b)
Fig. 18.15: Solenoid behaves like a bar magnet : a) Magnetic field due to a bar magnet, and
b) magnetic field due to a current carrying solenoid
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Electricity and
18.4.2 Application of Ampere’s Circuital Law Magnetism
(b) Magnetic Field due to a Straight Solenoid
A solenoid is a straight coil having a large number of loops set in a straight
line with a common axis, as shown in Fig. 18.4.2. We know that a current I
flowing through a wire, sets up a magnetic field around it. Suppose that the
length of the solenoid is A and it has N number of turns.
Notes
The magnetic field inside the solenoid, in its middle, is uniform and parallel to
its axis. Outside the solenoid, however, the field is negligibly weak. These
statements hold true, strictly speaking, if the length of the solenoid is very large
as compared to its diameter. For a long solenoid, whose windings are very tightly
and uniformly wound, the magnetic field inside it is fairly uniform everywhere
and is zero outside it.
d c
a I b
Fig. 18.4.2
Let us take a rectangular loop abcd as shown in Fig 18.4.2. Along the path ab,
the magnetic field is uniform. Hence, for this path B . dA = BA. Along the paths
cd, as the magnetic field is weak it may be taken as zero. Hence, for this path
B . dA = 0. The two short sides bc and da also do not contribute anything to
B . dA as B is either zero (outside the solenoid), or perpendicular to dA (inside
the solenoid).
If n be the number of turns per unit length along the length of the solenoid,
then the number of turns enclosed by the rectangular loop of length A is nA. If
each turn of the solenoid carries a current i, then the total current threading
the loop is nAi. Hence, from Ampere’s circuital law,
∑ B ⋅ d A = μ0 (nli)
or BA = μ0 nli
or B = μ0 ni
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MODULE - 5 Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism (c) Magnetic field due to a toroid
A toroid is basically an endless solenoid which may be formed by bending a
straight solenoid so as to give it a circular shape.
Notes
B
dl
P
O—r—
Fig. 18.4.3
Suppose, we want to find the magnetic field at a point P, inside the toroid, whose
distance from the centre O is r. Draw a circle passing through the point P and
concentric with the toroid. The magnetic field will everywhere be tangential to
the circle, its magnitude being the same at all points of it. So, we can write:
∑ B ⋅ d A = ∑ Bd A = B∑ d A
But ∑ d A = 2πr , the circumference of the circular path.
Therefore,
∑ B ⋅ d A = 2πrB
If N be the total number of turns and i the current flowing through the windings
of the toroid, then the total current threaded by the circular path of radius r
is Ni. Hence, from Ampere’s circuital law,
∑ B ⋅ d A = μ0 Ni
or 2πrB = μ0 Ni
μ0 Ni
or B=
2πr
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18.4.3 Electromagnets and Factors Affecting their Strength Magnetism
We have seen that a current-carrying solenoid behaves as a bar magnet, with
one end behaving as north pole and the other as south pole depending on the
direction of flow of current. The polarity of such magnets is determined by the
end rule and the strength of the magnetic field is given by
B = μ0 nI Notes
where μ0 is the permeability of free space, n is the number of turns per unit
length and I is the current flowing through the solenoid.
It is clear that the solenoid remains a magnet as long as the a current is flowing
through it. Thus, a current-carrying solenoid is called an electromagnet.
S2
S1 I
C
I
Plates of Capacitor
Fig. 18.4.4
Applying Ampere's circuital law to the contour C and the surface S1, we find
v∫ B⋅d A = μ0 I
PHYSICS 111
MODULE - 5 Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism However, applying Ampere’s circuital law to the contour C and the surface S2,
as there is no current through this surface, we get
v∫ B⋅d A = 0
The above two equations are mutually contradictory. To avoid this contradiction,
Maxwell assumed that a current exists between the capacitor plates. He called
Notes this current displacement current and showed that this current arises due to the
variation of electric field with time.
A simple expression for the displacement current can be derived as follows.
Consider a parallel plate capacitor. Let q be the charge on the capacitor plates
at any instant t.
The electric field inside the capacitor is given by
q
E=
Aε0
When A is the surface area of the plates. Therefore, the electric flux through
the capacitor is
q
φ E = EA =
ε0
The rate of change of the instantaneous flux can be written as
Δφ E 1 Δq I
= =
Δt ε 0 Δt ε 0
So, we can write
Δφ E
ε0 =I
Δt
The expression on the left hand side is equivalent to a current, which though
equal to the conduction current I is actually different from it as it is not associated
with the motion of free charges. It is called displacement current. Unlike the
conduction current I, the displacement current arises whenever the electric field
and hence the electric flux changes with time.
Adding displacement current to the conduction currents I, Maxwell modified
the Ampere’s circuital law in the form,
⎛ Δφ ⎞
∑ B ⋅d A = μ 0 ⎜ I + ε 0 E ⎟
⎝ Δt ⎠
Maxwell’s modification of Ampere’s law tells us that, in addition to conduction
current, a time–varying electric field can also produce magnetic field.
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Electricity and
calculate the magnitude of B (a) near the centre of the solenoid on and about Magnetism
the axis; (b) near the ends on its axis; and (c) outside the solenoid near the
middle.
Solution :
a) At the centre or near it
B = μ0 nI
3 × 250
Notes
= 4π × 10 × –7
×4
0.5
= 16π × 1500 × 10–7 T
= 24π × 10–4 T
b) At the ends
1
Bends = B = 12π × 10–4 T
2 centre
c) Outside the solenoid the field is zero.
Example 18.2: Calculate the distance from a long straight wire carrying a current
of 12A at which the magnetic field will be equal to 3 × 10–5 T.
μ0 I μ0 I
Solution : B= ⇒r=
2πr 2πB
2 × 10 –7 × 12
∴ r= 3 × 10 –5
= 0.25 m
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MODULE - 5 Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism 4. A 10 cm long solenoid is meant to have a magnetic field 0.002T inside it,
when a current of 3A flows through it. Calculate the required no. of turns.
5. Derive an expression for the field due to a toroid using Ampere's circuital
law.
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Electricity and
If there are N free electrons in the conductor, the net force on it is given by Magnetism
F = N e vd B = nA Δl evd B (18.11)
where n denotes the number of free electrons per unit volume. But neAvd = I.
Hence
∴ F = I Δl B (18.12)
If conductor makes an angle θ with B , then |F| = I Δl B sinθ.
Notes
I B
B
Fig. 18.18: a) Uniform magnetic field, b) field due to current carrying inductor, and c) force
on a current carrying conductor
The direction of the force is again given by Fleming’s left hand rule.
Eqn. (18.12) can be used to define the unit of magnetic field in terms of the force
experiencd by a current carrying conductor. By rearranging terms, we can write
F
B=
IΔl
Since F is taken in newton, I in ampere and Δl in metre, the unit of B will be
NA–1 m–1. It is called tesla (T).
l l
r r
(a) (b)
Fig. 18.19: Experimental demonstration of force between two parallel wires carrying current
PHYSICS 115
MODULE - 5 Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism Fig 18.19 shows two parallel wires separated by distance r and carrying currents
I1 and I2, respectively. The magnetic field due to one wire at a distance r from it is
μ0 I1
B1 = .
2πr
μ0 I 2
Similarly, the field due to second wire at a distance r from it will be B2 = .
2πr
Notes
These fields are perpendicular to the length of the wires and therefore the force
on a length l, of the other current carrying conductor is given by
μ0 I1
F=BIl= I l
2πr 2
or force per unit length
F μ I I
= 0 1 2 (18.13)
l 2πr
The forces are attractive when the currents are in the same direction and repulsive
when they are in opposite directions.
Eqn (18.13) can be used to define the unit of current. If I1 = I2 = 1A, l = 1m and
r = 1m, then
μ0
F= = 2 × 10–7 N
2π
Thus, if two parallel wires carrying equal currents and placed 1 m apart in
vacuum or air experience a mutual force of 2 × 10–7 N m–1, the current in each
wire is said to be one ampere.
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To know the radius R of the circular path of the charged particle, we note that the Magnetism
magnetic force q υ B provides the particle with the centripetal force (m υ2/R) that
keeps it moving in a circle. So we can write
mυ 2
q υ B=
R
On rearrangement, we get
mυ Notes
R= (18.14)
qB
The radius of the path traced by a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field is
directly proportional to its momentum (mv) and inversely proportional to its
charge and the magnetic field. It means that greater the momentum, larger the
circle, and stronger the field, the smaller the circle. The time period of rotation of
the particle in a circular path is given by
2πR 2π m
T= = Bq (18.14 a)
υ
Note that the time period is independent of velocity of the particle and radius of
the orbit. It which means that once the particle is in the magnetic field, it would
go round and round in a circle of the same radius. If m, B, q, remain constant, the
time period does not chnage even if v and R are changed.
Now think, what happens to R and T if a) field B is made stronger; b) field B is
made weaker; c) field B ceases to exist; d) direction of B is changed; d) the
particle is made to enter the magnetic field at a higher speed; f) the particle enters
at an angle to B; and g) the charged particle loses its charge.
F qE
a= =
m m
The acceleration will be in the direction of the force. If it is a positive charge,
it will accelerate in the direction of the field and if it is a negative charge it will
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MODULE - 5 Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism accelerate in a direction opposite that of the field. The velocity and displacement
of charged particle can also be calculated by using the equations of motion:
⎛ qE ⎞
v =u +⎜ ⎟t
⎝ m ⎠
1 ⎛ qE ⎞2
Notes s = ut + ⎜ ⎟t
2⎝ m ⎠
vsinq
v
q B
vcosq
Fig. 18.5.4
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Electricity and
18.5.5 Cyclotron Magnetism
The cyclotron is a device invented by E.O. Lawrence in 1929, that is used for
accelerating charged particles (such as protons, deutron or α–particles) to high
velocities. It consists of two semi-circular hollow metallic disks DD, called dees,
on account of their shape resembling the letter D of English alphabet. They are
insulated from one another with a small gap between them. The dees are placed
in an evacuated chamber. Notes
18.5.5
A magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the dees (out of the paper in Fig)
is maintained with the help of an electromagnet having flat pole–pieces. A rapidly
oscillating potential difference is applied between the dees with the help of an
oscillator. This produces an oscillating electric field in the gap between the dees.
Consider a charged particle of mass m and charge q in the gap between the dees.
The particle is accelerated by the electric field towards one of them. Inside the
dees, it moves with constant speed in a semicircle in a clockwise direction. If
the frequency of the oscillator is equal to the frequency of revolution of the
charged particle, then it reaches the gap at the instant when the opposite dee
becomes negative because of the reversal of the direction of electric field.
The frequency of revolution of the charged particle is given by (see Eq. 18. 14a):
1 v Bq
v= = =
T 2πR 2πm
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MODULE - 5 Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism by the radius R of the dees. The high energy charged particle finally comes out
through an opening in the dee.
Example 18.3 : Refer to Fig. 18.21 and calculate the force between wires carrying
current 10A and 15A, if their length is 5m. What is the nature of this force ?
Solution : When currents flow in two long parallel wires in the same direction,
the wires attract each other and the force of attraction is
Notes given by
F μ0 I1 I 2 2 × 10 –7 × 10 × 15
= = = 10–4 N m–1
l 2πr 3
∴ F = 5 × 10–4 N
Fig. 18.21 The force is attractive in nature.
Example 18.4 : An electron with velocity 3 ×107 ms–1 describes a circular path in
a uniform magnetic field of 0.2T, perpendicular to it. Calculate the radius of the
path.
Solution :
mυ
We know that R = Bq
Here, me = 9 × 10–31 kg, e = 1.6 × 10–19 C, v = 3 × 107 m s–1 and B = 0.2 T. Hence
9 × 10 –31 × 3 × 107
R = 0.2 × 1.6 × 10 –19
= 0.85 × 10–3 m
= 8.5 × 10–4 m
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On multiplying the numerator and denominator by 2πr2, we can rewrite it as Magnetism
μ0 2 I . πr 2 μ 2I A μ0 2M
B = = 0 3 =
4πr 3
4πr 4π r 3
where A is area of coil and M is magnetic moment. This shows that a current
carrying coil behaves like a magnetic dipole having north and south poles. One
face of the loop behaves as north pole while the other behaves as south pole. Notes
Let us now undertake a simple activity.
ACTIVITY 18.3
Suspend a bar magnet by a thread between pole pieces of a horse shoe magnate,
as shown in Fig 18.22.
What will happen when the bar magnet shown in Fig. 18.24(a) is displaced slightly
sideways? Since like poles repel, the bar magnet experiences a torque and tends
to turn through 180º and get aligned, as shown in Fig. 18.22 (b). Since a current
loop behaves as a magnet, it will align in an external field in the same way.
You have already studied the following equations in the lesson on electrostatics.
The electric field of a dipole at a far point on its axis is given by
1 2P
E = 4πμ (18.15 b)
0 x3
The magnetic field due to a current carrying coil is given by
μ 0 2 NIA μ 2M
B= = 0 (18.15 c)
4π x 3
4π x3
where M is the magnetic dipole moment.
PHYSICS 121
MODULE - 5 Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism A comparison between these expressions leads us to the following analogies :
z A current loop behaves as a magnetic dipole with magnetic moment
M = NIA (18.15 d)
z Like the poles of a magnetic dipole, the two faces of a current loop are
inseparable.
Notes z A magnetic dipole in a uniform magnetic field behaves the same way as an
electric dipole in a uniform electric field.
z A magnetic dipole also has a magnetic field around it similar to the electric
field around an electric dipole.
Thus magnetic field due to a magnetic dipole at an axial point is given by
μ 0 2M
B= (18.16)
4π x3
whereas the field at an equatorial point is given by
μ0 M
B=– (18.17)
4π x3
Magnetism in Matter
Based on the behaviour of materials in magnetic field, we can divide them
broadly into three categories : (i) Diamagnetic materials are feebly repelled
by a magnet. (ii) Paramagnetic materials are feebly attracted by a magnet.
(iii) Ferromagnetic materials are very strongly attracted by a magnet.
Substances like iron, nickel and cobalt are ferromagnetic. Let us study
ferromagnetic behaviour of materials in some details.
Ferromagnetic materials, when placed even in a weak magnetic field, become
magnets, because their atoms act as permanent magnetic dipoles. The atomic
dipoles tend to align parallel to each other in an external field. These dipoles
are not independent of each other. Any dipole strongly feels the presence of
a neighboring dipole. A correct explanation of this interaction can be given
only on the basis of quantum mechanics. However, we can qualitatively
understand the ferromagnetic character along the following lines.
A ferromagnetic substance contains small regions called domains. All magnetic
dipoles in a domain are fully aligned. The magnetization of domains is
maximum. But the domains are randomly oriented. As a result, the total
magnetic moment of the sample is zero. When we apply an external magnetic
field, the domains slightly rotate and align themselves in the direction of the
field giving rise to resultant magnetic moment. The process can be easily
understood with the help of a simple diagram shown in Fig.18.23.
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Electricity and
Magnetism
Example 18.5 : The smallest value of magnetic moment is called the Bohr
eh
Magneton μB = . It is a fundamental constant. Calculate its value.
4πm
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Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
Fig. 18.24: Force on the sides of a rectangular loop when (a) the loop is parallel to the field,
and (b) the coil is perpendicular to the field.
The sides ad and bc of the loop are parallel to B. So no force will act on them.
Sides ab and cd are however, perpendicular to B, and these experience maximum
force. We can easily find the direction of the force on ab and cd.
In fact, | Fab | =| Fcd | and these act in opposite directions. Therefore, there is no
net force on the loop. Since Fab and Fcd do not act along the same line, they exert
a torque on the loop that tends to turn it. This holds good for a current loop of
any shape in a magnetic field.
In case the plane of the loop were perpendicular to the magnetic field, there
would neither be a net force nor a net torque on it (see Fig 18.26 (b)).
Torque = force × perpendicular distance between the force
= B IL. b sin θ
Refer to Fig. 18.25 which shows a loop PQRS carrying current I. θ is the angle
between the magnetic field B and the normal to the plane of the coil n. The
torque is then
τ = NBIL b sin θ
where N is the number of turns of the coil. We can rewrite it as
|ττ | = NBI A sin θ (18.18)
where A is area of the coil = L x b
|ττ| = |B| | M | sin θ (18.19)
where M = NIA is known as the magnetic moment of the current carrying coil.
Thus, we see that the torque depends on B, A, I, N and θ
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Electricity and
coil were always along or parallel to the magnetic field. This is achieved by Magnetism
making the pole pieces of the magnet curved and placing a soft iron core at the
centre so as to give a radial field.
The soft iron core placed inside the loop would
also make the magnetic field stronger and uniform
resulting in greater torque (Fig. 18.26).
Fig. 18.26: Constant torque on a Notes
18.6.1 (a) Magnetic Dipole coil in a radial field
The term magnetic dipole includes
(i) a current-carrying circular coil of wire, and
(ii) a small bar magnet
The magnetic field due to a magnetic dipole at a point
(i) situated at a distance r on the axis of the dipole is given by :
μ 0 2M
B =
4π r 3
(ii) situated at a distance r on the equatorial line is given by :
μ0 M
B =
4π r 3
This implies that the field has a cylindrical symmetry about the dipole axis.
τ = M×B
⇒ τ = M × B sin θ
18.6.2 Galvanometer
From what you have learnt so far, you can think of an instrument to detect current
in any circuit. A device doing precisely this is called a galvanometer, which works
on the principle that a current carrying coil, when placed in a magnetic field,
experiences a torque.
PHYSICS 125
MODULE - 5 Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism A galvanometer consists of a coil wound on a non-magnetic frame. A soft iron
cylinder is placed inside the coil. The assembly is supported on two pivots attached
to springs with a pointer. This is placed between the pole pieces of a horse shoe
magnet providing radial field (see Fig. 18.27).
Scale
Notes
Coil
N Sp S
Pivot
Soft-iron
core
Uniform radial
magnetic field
α∝I
That is, deflection produced in a galvanometer is proportional to the current
flowing through it provided N, B A and k are constant. The ratio α/I is known as
current sensitivity of the galvanometer. It is defined as the deflection of the coil
per unit current. The more the current stronger the torque and the coil turns
more. Galvanometer can be constructed to respond to very small currents (of the
order of 0.1μA).
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Sensitivity of a galvanometer : In order to have a more sensitive galvanometer, Magnetism
z N should be large;
z B should be large, uniform and radial;
z area of the coil should be large; and
z tortional constant should be small. Notes
The values of N and A cannot be increased beyond a certain limit. Large values
of N and A will increase the electrical and inertial resistance and the size of the
galvanometer. B can be increased using a strong horse shoe magnet and by mounting
the coil on a soft iron core. The value of k can be decreased by the use of materials
such as quartz or phospher bronze.
Ig G
so that S= I –I (18.21)
g
PHYSICS 127
MODULE - 5 Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism As G and S are in parallel, the effective resistance R of the ammeter is given by
GS
R= .
G+S
As the shunt resistance is small, the combined resistance of the galvanometer and
the shunt is very low and hence, ammeter resistance is lower than that of the
Notes galvanometer. An ideal ammeter has almost negligible resistance. That is why
when it is connected in series in a circuit, all the current passes through it without
any observable drop.
(b) Voltmeter : A voltmeter is used to measure the potential difference between
two points in a circuit. We can convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter by
connecting a high resistance in series with the galvanometer coil, as shown in Fig
18.29. The value of the resistance depends on the range of voltmeter and can be
calculated as follows :
A high resistance, say R is connected in series with the galvanometer coil. If the
potential difference across AB is V volt, then total resistance of the voltmeter will
be G + R. From Ohm’s law, we can write
Ig (G + R) = V
V
or G+R= I
g
V
⇒ R= –G (18.22)
Ig
This means that if a resistance R is connected in series with the coil of the
galvanometer, it works as a voltmeter of range 0-V volts.
Now the same scale of the galvanometer which was recording the maximum
potential Ig × G before conversion will record the potential V after conversion
into voltmeter. The scale can be calibrated accordingly. The resistance of the
voltmeter is higher than the resistance of galvanometer. Effective resistance of
the voltmeter, is given by
RV = R + G
The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinite. It is connected in parallel to the
points across which potential drop is to be measured in a circuit. It will not draw
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Electricity and
any current. But the galvanometer coil deflects. Seems impossible! Think about Magnetism
it.
Example 18.6 : A circular coil of 30 turns and radius 8.0 cm, carrying a current
of 6.0 A is suspended vertically in a uniform horizontal magnetic field of magnitude
1.0 T. The field lines make an angle of 90º with the normal to the coil. Calculate
the magnitude of the counter torque that must be applied to prevent the coil from
turning. Notes
Solution : Here, N= 30, I = 6.0 A, B = 1.0 T, θ = 90º, r = 8.0 cm = 8 × 10–2 m.
22
Area (A) of the coil = πr2 = × (8 × 10–2)2 = 2.01 × 10–2 m2
7
∴ Torque = N I B A sinθ
= 30 × 6 × 1: 0 × (2.01 × 10–2) × sin90º
= 30 × 6 × (2.01 × 10–2)
= 3.61 Nm
2.5 × 10 –3 × 12
= 2 – 2.5 × 10 –3
= 15 × 10–3 Ω
So, for converting the galvanometer into an ammeter for reading 0 – 2V, a shunt
of 15 × 10–3 Ω resistance should be connected parallel to the coil.
(b)For conversion into voltmeter, let R be the resistance to be connected in series.
V
R= I –G
g
10
= 2.5 × 10 –3 – 12 = 4000 – 12
= 3988 Ω
PHYSICS 129
MODULE - 5 Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism Thus, a resistance of 3988 Ω should be connected in series to convert the
galvanometer into voltmeter.
μ 0 2M
z Magnetic field at the axis of a magnetic dipole is given by B = and
4π x 3
μ 0 2M
on the equatorial line by B = .
4π x 3
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z Unit of magnetic field is tesla. Magnetism
μ0 I
z Field at the centre of a flat coil carrying current is given by |B| = .
2r
Ampere’s circuital law gives the magnitude of the magnetic field around a
conductor v∫ B . dl = μ0 I
Notes
z The Lorentz force on a moving charge q is F = q (v × B) and its direction is
given by Fleming’s left hand rule.
z The mechanical force on a wire of length L and carrying a current of I in a
magnetic field B is F = B I L .
z Mutual force per unit length between parallel straight conductors carrying
F μ0 I1I 2
currents I1 and I2 is given by = .
L 2πr
μ0 Ni
z Magnetic field due to a toroid, B =
2πr
mυ
z A charged particle traces a circular path of radius R = .
Bq
Bq
z Cyclotron frequency ν c =
2mπ
z A current loop behaves like a magnetic dipole.
z A current carrying coil placed in a magnetic field experiences a torque given
by
τ = N B I A sinθ
= N B I A, (if θ = 90º)
z Galvanometer is used to detect electric current in a circuit.
z An ammeter is a shunted galvanometer and voltmeter is a galvanometer with
a high resistance in series. Current is measured by an ammeter and potential
difference by a voltmeter.
TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. A small piece of the material is brought near a magnet. Complete the following
by filling up the blanks by writing Yes or No.
PHYSICS 131
MODULE - 5 Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism Material Repulsion Attraction
weak strong weak strong
Diamagnetic
Paramagnetic
Ferromagnetic
Notes
2. You have to keep two identical bar magnets packed together in a box. How
will you pack and why?
N S OR N S
N S S N
3. The magnetic force between two poles is 80 units. The separation between
the poles is doubled. What is the force betweem them?
4. The length of a bar magnet is 10 cm and the area of cross-section is 1.0 cm2.
The magnetization I = 102 A/m. Calculate the pole strength.
5. Two identical bar magnets are placed on the same line end to end with north
pole facing north pole. Draw the lines of force, if no other field is present.
6. The points, where the magnetic field of a magnet is equal and opposite to
the horizontal component of magnetic field of the earth, are called neutral
points
(a) Locate the neutral points when the bar magnet is placed in magnetic
meridian with north pole pointing north.
(b) Locate the neutral points when a bar magnet is placed in magnetic meridian
with north pole pointing south.
7. If a bar magnet of length 10 cm is cut into two equal pieces each of length 5
cm then what is the pole strength of the new bar magnet compare to that of
the old one.
8. A 10 cm long bar magnet has a pole strength 10 A.m. Calculate the magnetic
field at a point on the axis at a distance of 30 cm from the centre of the bar
magnet.
9. How will you show that a current carrying conductor has a magnetic field
arround it? How will you find its magnitude and direction at a particular
place ?
10. A force acts upon a charged particle moving in a magnetic field, but this
force does not change the speed of the particle, Why ?
11. At any instant a charged particle is moving parallel to a long, straight current
carrying wire. Does it experience any force ?
132 PHYSICS
Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
12. A current of 10 ampere is flowing through a wire. It is kept perpendicular to Magnetism
a magnetic field of 5T. Calculate the force on its 1/10 m length.
13. A long straight wire carries a current of 12 amperes. Calculate the intensity
of the magnetic field at a distance of 48 cm from it.
14. Two parallel wire, each 3m long, are situated at a distance of 0.05 m from
each other. A current of 5A flows in each of the wires in the same direction.
Notes
Calculate the force acting on the wires. Comment on its nature ?
15. The magnetic field at the centre of a 50cm long solenoid is 4.0 × 10–2 NA–1
m–1 when a current of 8.0A flows through it, calculate the number of turns in
the solenoid.
16. Of the two identical galvanometer one is to be converted into an ammeter
and the other into a milliammeter. Which of the shunts will be of a larger
resistance ?
17. The resistance of a galvanometer is 20 ohms and gives a full scale deflection
for 0.005A. Calculate the value of shunt required to change it into an ammeter
to measure 1A. What is the resistance of the ammeter ?
18. An electron is moving in a circular orbit of radius 5 × 10–11 m at the rate of
7.0 × 1015 revolutions per second. Calculate the magnetic field B at the
centre of the orbit.
19. Calculate the magnetic field at the centre of a flat circular coil containing
200 turns, of radius 0.16m and carrying a current of 4.8 ampere.
20. Refer to Fig. 18.30 and calculate the magnetic field at A, B and C.
Fig. 18.30
18.1
1. Suspend the magnet with a thread at its centre of mass. Let it come to
equilibrium. The end of the magnet which points towards geographical north
is its north pole.
PHYSICS 133
MODULE - 5 Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Electricity and
Magnetism 2. Bring the ends of any two bars closer together. If there is attraction between
them, one of the bars is a magnet and the other is an iron bar. Now lay down
one of these bars on the table and strock along its length with the other. If
uniform force is experienced, the bar in hand is a magnet and that on the table
is iron piece. If non-uniform force is experienced, reverse is the case.
3. Suspending one of the bar magnets with thread, we can find its south pole.
Notes Then the end of the second magnet, which is repelled by the first, is its south
pole.
18.2
1. (i)electrical (ii) magnetic as well as electrical.
2. A conductor in equilibrium is neutral i.e. it has no net electrical current. Due
to their random motion, thermal electrons cancel the magnetic fields
produced by them.
3. In first case length of wire l1 = 2 πr In second case length of wire l2 = (2π
r2)2.
But l1 = l2
r
∴ 2πr = 4πr2 ⇒ r2 =
2
μ0 nI
Using |B| =
2r
μ0 I μ0 .2 . I 2 μ0 I
|B1| = , |B2| = = =4B
2r r r
2×
2
That is, the magnetic B at the centre of a coil with two turns is four times
stronger than the field in first case.
18.3
1. c
2. Both laws specify magnetic field due to current carrying conductors.
3. (i) B, (ii) A, (iii) C.
n 10 –7 × n .0002 × 107
4. B = μ0 I ⇒ 4π × × 3A = 0.002 or n = = 50 turns
l 0.1m 12π
134 PHYSICS
Magnetism and Magnetic Effect of Electric Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
18.4 Magnetism
1. The nature of the force will be attractive because the stream of protons is
equivalent to electrons in the opposite direction.
2. The force exerted by a magnetic field on a moving charge is perpendicular to
the motion of the charge and the work done by the force on the charge is
zero. So the KE of the charge does not change. In an electric field, the
deflection is in the direction of the field. Hence the field accelerates it in the Notes
direction of field lines.
3. The direction of current in each turn of the spring is the same. Since parallel
currents in the same direction exert force of attraction, the turns will come
closer and the body shall be lifted upward, whatever be the direction of the
current in the spring.
18.5
1. Radial magnetic field is one in which plane of the coil remains parallel to it.
2. This increases the strength of magnetic field due to the crowding of magnetic
lines of force through the soft iron core, which in turn increases the sensitivity
of the galvanometer.
3. Ammeter has the lowest resistance whereas voltmeter has the highest
resistance. In an ammeter a low resistance is connected in parallel to the
galvanometer coil whereas in a voltmeter, a high resistance is connected in
series with it.
4. A low resistance Rs should be connected in parallel to the coil :
G Ig 20 × 20 × 10 –3
Rs= I – I = 3 – 20 × 10 –3 = 0.13 Ω
g
625
15. turns. 17. 0.1Ω.
π
18. 4.48 πT 19. 1.2π mT
20. BA = 2 × 10–7 T, BB = π × 10–7 T and BC = 10–7 T.
PHYSICS 135
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism
19
Notes
ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION AND
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Electricity is the most convenient form of energy available to us. It lights our
houses, runs trains, operates communication devices and makes our lives
comfortable. The list of electrical appliances that we use in our homes is very
long. Have you ever thought as to how is electricity produced?
Hydro-electricity is produced by a generator which is run by a turbine using the
energy of water. In a coal, gas or nuclear fuel power station, the turbine uses
steam to run the generator. Electricity reaches our homes through cables from
the town substation. Have you ever visited an electric sub-station? What are the
big machines installed there? These machines are called transformers. Generators
and transformers are the devices, which basically make electricity easily available
to us. These devices are based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
In this lesson you will study electromagnetic induction, laws governing it and the
devices based on it. You will also study the construction and working of electric
generators, transformers and their role in providing electric power to us. A brief
idea of eddy current and its application will also be undertaken in this chapter.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z explain the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction with simple
experiments;
z explain Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws of electromagnetic induction;
z explain eddy currents and its applicaitons;
136 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
z describe the phenomena of self-induction and mutual induction; Magnetism
z describe the working of ac and dc generators;
z derive relationship between voltage and current in ac circuits containing a
(i) resistor, (ii) inductor, and or (iii) capacitor;
z analyse series LCR circuits; and
z explain the working of transformers and ways to improve their efficiency.
Notes
19.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
In the previous lesson you have learnt that a steady current in a wire produces a
steady magnetic field. Faraday initially (and mistakenly) thought that a steady
magnetic field could produce electric current . Some of his investigations on
magnetically induced currents used an arrangement similar to the one shown in
Fig.19.1. A current in the coil on the left produces
a magnetic field concentrated in the iron ring.
The coil on the right is connected to a + G
galvanometer G, which can indicate the presence – S
of an induced current in that circuit. It is observed
that there is no deflection in G for a steady current
flow but when the switch S in the left circuit is Fig. 19.1: Two coils are wrapped
closed, the galvanometer shows deflection for a around an iron ring.
moment. Similarly, when switch S is opened, The galvanometer G
deflects for a moment
momentary deflection is recorded but in opposite
when the switch is
direction. It means that current is induced only opened or closed.
when the magnetic field due to the current in the
circuit on the left changes.
y y
G G
x x
S S
(a) (b)
Fig. 19.2 : a) A current is induced in the coil if the magnet moves towards the coil, and
b) the induced current has opposite direction if the magnet moves away from the
coil.
PHYSICS 137
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism The importance of a change can also be demonstrated by the arrangement shown
in Fig.19.2. If the magnet is at rest relative to the coil, no current is induced in the
coil. But when the magnet is moved towards the coil, current is induced in the
direction indicated in Fig. 19.2a. Similarly, if the magnet is moved away from the
coil, the a current is induced in the opposite direction, as shown in Fig.19.2b.
Note that in both cases, the magnetic field changes in the neighbourhood of the
coil. An induced current is also observed to flow through the coil, if this is moved
Notes
relative to the magnet. The presence of such currents in a circuit implies the
existence of an induced electromotive force (emf) across the free ends of the
coil, i.e., x and y.
138 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
The magnetic flux for the entire surface is obtained by summing such contributions Magnetism
over the surface. Thus,
Notes
Fig. 19.3: a) The magnetic flux for an infinitesimal area ds is given by dφB = B.ds, and
b) The magnetic flux for a surface is proportional to the number of lines
intersecting the surface.
From this we note that weber (Wb), the unit of magnetic flux and volt (V), the
unit of emf are related as 1V = 1Wb s–1.
Now consider that an emf is induced in a closely wound coil. Each turn in such a
coil behaves approximately as a single loop, and we can apply Faraday’s law to
determine the emf induced in each turn. Since the turns are in series, the total
induced emf εr in a coil will be equal to the sum of the emfs induced in each turn.
We suppose that the coil is so closely wound that the magnetic flux linking each
turn of the coil has the same value at a given instant. Then the same emf ε is
induced in each turn, and the total induced emf for a coil with N turns is given by
⎛ d φB ⎞
ε r = N ε = N ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ (19.4)
dt
where φB is the magnetic flux linked with a single turn of the coil.
Let us now apply Faraday’s law to some concrete situations.
Example 19.1 : The axis of a 75 turn circular coil of radius 35mm is parallel to a
uniform magnetic field. The magnitude of the field changes at a constant rate
PHYSICS 139
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism from 25mT to 50 mT in 250 millisecond. Determine the magnitude of induced
emf in the coil in this time interval.
Solution : Since the magnetic field is uniform and parallel to the axis of the coil,
the flux linking each turn is given by
φB = BπR2
Notes where R is radius of a turn. Using Eq. (19.4), we note that the induced emf in the
coil is given by
d φB d ( B πR 2 ) dB ⎛ B2 – B1 ⎞
εr = N =N = N π R2 = N π R2 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
dt dt dt t
since normal to the cross sectional area of the solenoid is in the direction of
magnetic field.
2πvt
Fig.19.4 : a) A long solenoid and a concentric ring outside it, and b) cross-sectional view of
the solenoid and concentric ring.
d φB
Hence |ε| = = 2πvAB0 cos2πvt.
dt
= 2π . (50s–1 ) (8 × 10–4m2) (1.2 T)cos2πvt
= 0.3 cos 2πvt volts
= 0.3 cos 100πt V
140 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
The current in the ring is I = ε/R. Therefore Magnetism
(0.3cos100πt ) V
I = (1.0Ω)
= +0.3 cos 100 π t A
Fig.19.5: a) A bar magnet approaching a metal ring, and b) the magnetic field of the
induced current opposes the approaching bar magnet.
PHYSICS 141
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism The current induced in the ring creates a secondary magnetic field in it. This
induced magnetic field can be taken as produced by a bar magnet, as shown in
Fig.19.5 (b). Recall that induced magnetic field repels or opposes the original
magnetic field. This opposition is a consequence of the law of conservation of
energy, and is formalized as Lenz’s law. When a current is induced in a
conductor, the direction of the current will be such that its magnetic effect
opposes the change that induced it.
Notes
The key word in the statement is ‘oppose’-it tells us that we are not going to get
something for nothing. When the bar magnet is pushed towards the ring, the
current induced in the ring creates a magnetic field that opposes the change in
flux. The magnetic field produced by the induced current repels the incoming
magnet. If we wish to push the magnet towards the ring, we will have to do work
on the magnet. This work shows up as electrical energy in the ring. Lenz’s law
thus follows from the law of conservation of energy. We can express the combined
form of Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws as
dφ
ε =– (19.5)
dt
142 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
an increasing magnetic field pointing into the plane of the paper. The eddy Magnetism
currents are circular and point in the anticlockwise direction.
× × × × × ×
× ×
× ×
× × Notes
× ×
× × × × × ×
Fig. 19.1.3
The eddy currents produced in metallic bodies encounter little resistance and,
therefore, have large magnitude. Obviously, eddy currents are considered
undesirable in many electrical appliances and machines as they cause appreciable
energy loss by way of heating. Hence, to reduce these currents, the metallic
bodies are not taken in one solid piece but are rather made in parts or strips,
called lamination, which are insulated from one another.
Eddy currents have also been put to some applications. For example, they are
used in induction furnaces for making alloys of different metals in vacuum. They
are also used in electric brakes for stopping electric trains.
PHYSICS 143
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism 19.2 INDUCTANCE
When current in a circuit changes, a changing magnetic field is produced around
it. If a part of this field passes through the circuit itself, current is induced in it.
Now suppose that another circuit is brought in the neighbourhood of this circuit.
Then the magnetic field through that circuit also changes, inducing an emf across
it. Thus, induced emfs can appear in these circuits in two ways:
Notes
z By changing current in a coil, the magnetic flux linked with each turn of the
coil changes and hence an induced emf appears across that coil. This property
is called self-induction.
z for a pair of coils situated close to each other such that the flux associated with
one coil is linked through the other, a changing current in one coil induces an
emf in the other. In this case, we speak of mutual induction of the pair of coils.
19.2.1 Self-Inductance
Let us consider a loop of a conducting material carrying electric current. The
current produces a magnetic field B. The magnetic field gives rise to magnetic
flux. The total magnetic flux linking the loop is
dφ = B. ds
In the absence of any external source of magnetic flux (for example, an adjacent
coil carrying a current), the Biot-Savart’s law tells us that the magnetic field and
hence flux will be proportional to the current (I) in the loop, i.e.
φ ∝I or φ = LI (19.6)
where L is called self-inductance of the coil. The circuit elements which oppose
change in current are called inductors. These are in general, in the form of coils
of varied shapes and sizes. The symbol for an inductor is . If the coil
is wrapped around an iron core so as to enhance its magnetic effect, it is symbolised
by putting two lines above it, as shown here . The inductance of an
indicator depends on its geometry.
(a) Faraday’s Law in terms of Self-Inductance: So far you have learnt that if
current in a loop changes, the magnetic flux linked through it also changes and
gives rise to self–induced emf between the ends. In accordance with Lenz’s law,
the self-induced emf opposes the change that produces it.
To express the combined form of Faraday’s and Lenz’s Laws of induction in
terms of L, we combine Eqns. (19.5) and (19.6) to obtain
dφ dI
ε =– = –L (19.7a)
dt dt
⎛ I 2 – I1 ⎞
= –L ⎜⎝ ⎟ (19.7b)
t ⎠
144 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
where I1 and I2 respectively denote the initial and final values of current at t = 0 Magnetism
and t = τ. Using Eqn. (19.7b), we can define the unit of self-inductance:
unit of emf
units of L =
units of dI / dt
volt Notes
=
am pere / second
= ohm-second
An ohm-second is called a henry, (abbreviated H). For most applications, henry
is a rather large unit, and we often use millihenry, mH (10–3 H) and microhenry
μH (10–6H) as more convenient measures.
The self-induced emf is also called the back emf. Eqn.(19.7a) tells us that the
back emf in an inductor depends on the rate of change of current in it and
opposes the change in current. Moreover, since an infinite emf is not possible,
from Eq.(19.7b) we can say that an instantaneous change in the inductor current
cannot occur. Thus, we conclude that current through an inductor cannot change
instantaneously.
The inductance of an inductor depends on its geometry. In principle, we can
calculate the self-inductance of any circuit, but in practice it is difficult except for
devices with simple geometry. A solenoid is one such device used widely in
electrical circuits as inductor. Let us calculate the self-inductance of a solenoid.
(b) Self-inductance of a solenoid : Consider a long solenoid of cross-sectional
area A and length l, which consists of N turns of wire. To find its inductance, we
must relate the current in the solenoid to the magnetic flux through it. In the
preceding lesson, you used Ampere’s law to determine magnetic field of a long
solenoid:
|B| = μ0nI
where n = N/l denotes is the number of turns per unit length and I is the current
through the solenoid.
The total flux through N turns of the solenoid is
μ0 N 2 AI
φ = N |B| A = (19.8)
l
and self-inductance of the solenoid is
φ μ0 N 2 A
L = = (19.9)
I l
PHYSICS 145
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism Using this expression, you can calculate self-inductance and back emf for a typical
solenoid to get an idea of their magnitudes.
19.2.2 LR Circuits
Suppose that a solenoid is connected to a battery through a switch (Fig.19.9).
Beginning at t = 0, when the switch is closed, the battery causes charges to move
in the circuit. A solenoid has inductance (L) and resistance (R), and each of these
influence the current in the circuit. The inductive and resistive effects of a solenoid
are shown schematically in Fig.19.10. The inductance (L) is shown in series with
the resistance (R). For simplicity, we assume that total resistance in the circuit,
including the internal resistance of the battery, is represented by R. Similarly, L
includes the self-inductance of the connecting wires. A circuit such as that shown
in Fig.19.9, containing resistance and inductance in series, is called an LR circuit.
The role of the inductance in any circuit can be understood qualitatively. As the
current i(t) in the circuit increases (from i = 0 at t = 0), a self-induced emf ε = –
L di/dt is produced in the inductance whose sense is opposite to the sense of the
increasing current. This opposition to the increase in current prevents the current
from rising abruptly.
L R
+ –
146 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
If there been no inductance in the circuit, the current would have jumped Magnetism
immediately to the maximum value defined by ε0/R. But due to an inductance coil
in the circuit, the current rises gradually and reaches a steady state value of ε0/R
as t → τ. The time taken by the current to reach about two-third of its steady
state value is equal to by L/R, which is called the inductive time constant of the
circuit. Significant changes in current in an LR circuit cannot occur on time scales
much shorter that L/R. The plot of the current with time is shown in Fig. 19.10. Notes
You can see that greater the value of L, the larger is the back emf, and longer it
takes the current to build up. (This role of an
inductance in an electrical circuit is somewhat similar
to that of mass in mechanical systems.) That is why
while switching off circuits cortaining large inductors,
you should the mindful of back emf. The spark seen
while turning off a switch connected to an electrical Fig.19.10 : Variation of current
appliance such as a fan, computer, geyser or an iron, with time in a LR–
cirucit.
essentially arises due to back emf.
PHYSICS 147
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism where M is called the mutual inductance of the pair of coils. Also back emf induced
across the second coil
dφ
e2 = –
dt
dI ⎛ I2 – I1 ⎞
= –M = –M ⎜⎝ ⎟ (19.11)
Notes dt t ⎠
where the curent in coil A changes from I1 to I2 in t seconds.
The mutual inductance depends only on the geometry of the two coils, if no
magnetic materials are nearby. The SI unit of mutual inductance is also henry
(H), the same as the unit of self-inductance.
Example 19.3 : A coil in one circuit is close to another coil in a separate circuit.
The mutual inductance of the combination is 340 mH. During a 15 ms time interval,
the current in coil 1 changes steadily from 28mA to 57 mA and the current in coil
2 changes steadily from 36 mA to 16 mA. Determine the emf induced in each coil
by the changing current in the other coil.
Solution : During the 15ms time interval, the currents in the coils change at the
constant rates of
di1 57mA – 23mA
= = 2.3 As–1
dt 15ms
From Eq. (19.11), we note that the magnitudes of the induced emfs are
Remember that the minus signs in Eq. (19.11) refer to the sense of each induced
emf.
148 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
INTEXT QUESTIONS 19.5
1. Consider the sense of the mutually induced emf’s in Fig.19.11, according to
an observer located to the right of the coils. (a) At an instant when the current
i1 is increasing, what is the sense of emf across the second coil? (b) At an
instant when i2 is decreasing, what is the sense of emf across the first coil?
Notes
2. Suppose that one of the coils in Fig.19.11 is rotated so that the axes of the
coils are perpendicular to each other. Would the mutual inductance remain
the same, increase or decrease? Explain.
PHYSICS 149
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism Im
Irms = = 0.707 Im (19.13b)
2
The relation between V and I depends on the circuit elements present in the circuit.
Let us now study a.c. circuits containing (i) a resistor (ii) a capacitor, and (iii) an
inductor only
Notes
George Westinghouse
(1846-1914)
If ac prevails over dc all over the world today, it is due to the
vision and efforts of George Westinghouse. He was an
American inventor and enterpreneur having about 400 patents
to his credit. His first invention was made when he was only
fifteen year old. He invented air brakes and automatic railway signals, which
made railway traffic safe.
When Yugoslav inventor Nicole Tesla (1856-1943) presented the idea of
rotating magnetic field, George Westinghouse immediately grasped the
importance of his discovery. He invited Tesla to join him on very lucrative
terms and started his electric company. The company shot into fame when
he used the energy of Niagra falls to produce electricity and used it to light
up a town situated at a distance of 20km.
Vm cos ω t
= (19.14a)
R
The quantity Vm/R has units of volt per ohm,(i.e., ampere). It represents the
maximum value of the current in the circuit. The current changes direction with
time, and so we use positive and negative values of the current to represent the
two possible current directions. Substituting Im, the maximum current in the circuit,
for Vm/R in Eq. (19.14a), we get
I = Im cos ωt (19.14b)
150 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Fig.19.14 shows the time variation of the potential difference between the ends Magnetism
of a resistor and the current in the resistor. Note that the potential difference and
current are in phase i.e., the peaks and valleys occur at the same time.
Notes
Fig. 19.14 : Time variation of current and voltage in a purely resistive circuit
⎛ I2 +0⎞
Pav = (I2 R)av = R(I 2 )av = R ⎜ m ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ I2 ⎞
Pav = R ⎜ m ⎟ = R I 2 rm s (19.15)
⎝ 2 ⎠
Note that the same power would be produced by a constant dc current of value
(Im 2 ) in the resistor. It would also result if we were to connect the resistor to
a potential difference having a constant value of Vm 2 volt. The quantities
Im 2 and Vm 2 are called the rms values of the current and potential difference.
The term rms is short for root-mean-square, which means “the square root of the
mean value of the square of the quantity of interest.” For an electric outlet in an
Indian home where Vm = 310V, the rms value of the potential difference is
Vrms = Vm 2 ~ 220V
PHYSICS 151
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism This is the value generally quoted for the potential difference. Note that when
potential difference is 220 V, the peak value of a.c voltage is 310V and that is
why it is so fatal.
Unlike a resistor, the current I and potential difference V for a capacitor are not in
phase. The first peak of the current-time plot occurs one quarter of a cycle before
152 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
the first peak in the potential difference-time plot. Hence we say that the capacitor Magnetism
current leads capacitor potential difference by one quarter of a period. One
quarter of a period corresponds to a phase difference of π/2 or 90°. Accordingly,
we also say that the potential difference lags the current by 90°.
Rewriting Eq. (19.17) as
Vm Notes
I = – 1/(ωC ) sin ωt (19.18)
and comparing Eqs. (19.14a) and (19.18), we note that (1/ωC) must have units
of resistance. The quantity 1/ωC is called the capacitive reactance, and is denoted
by the symbol XC :
1
XC =
ωC
1
= (19.19)
2πvC
Capacitive reactance is a measure of the extent to which the capacitor limits the
ac current in the circuit. It depends on capacitance and the frequency of the
generator. The capacitive reactance decreases with increase in frequency and
capacitance. Resistance and capacitive reactance are similar in the sense that
both measure limitations to ac current. But unlike resistance, capacitive reactance
depends on the frequency of the ac (Fig.19.17). The concept of capacitive reactance
allows us to introduce an equation analogous to the equation I = V/R :
Vrms
Irms = X (19.20)
C
PHYSICS 153
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism that whereas both the current and the potential difference vary with angular
frequency w, the power varies with angular frequency 2w. The average power is
zero. The electric energy stored in the capacitor during a charging cycle is
completely recovered when the capacitor is discharged. On an average, there is
no energy stored or lost in the capacitor in a cycle.
Notes
1 1
XC = = = 31.8Ω
ωC 2 π (50 rads –1
)(100 ×10 –6 F)
Assuming that ammeter does not influence the value of current because of its low
resistance, the instantaneous current in the capacitor is given by
V 220
I = X cos ωt = cos ωt
C 31.8
6.92
=
2
= 4.91A
Now answer the following questions.
154 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
INTEXT QUESTIONS 19.7
1. Explain why current in a capacitor connected to an ac generator increases
with capacitance.
2. A capacitor is connected to an ac generator having a fixed peak value (Vm)
but variable frequency. Will you expect the current to increase as the frequency Notes
decreases?
3. Will average power delivered to a capacitor by an ac generator to be zero?
Justify your answer.
4. Why do capacitive reactances become small in high frequency circuits, such
as those in a TV set?
PHYSICS 155
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
Fig. 19.20 : Time variation of the potential differeence across an inductor and the
currentflowing through it. These are not in phase
the potential difference by π/2 rad (or 90°). This is what we would expect from
Lenz’s law. Another way of seeing this is to rewrite Eq. (19.23b) as
Vm ⎛ π⎞
I= cos ⎜⎝ ωt – ⎟⎠
ωL 2
Because V = Vm cos ωt, the phase difference (–π/2) for I means that current lags
village by π/2. This is in contrast to the current in a capacitor, which leads the
potential difference. For an inductor, the current lags the potential difference.
The quantity ωL in Eq.(19.23b) has units of resistance and is called inductive
reactance. It is denoted by symbol XL :
XL = ωL = 2 πvL (19.24)
Like capacitive reactance, the inductive reactance, XL, is expressed in ohm.
Inductive reactance is a measure of the extent to which the inductor limits ac
current in the circuit. It depends on the inductance and the frequency of the
generator. Inductive reactance increases, if either frequency or inductance
increases. (This is just the opposite of capacitive reactance.) In the limit frequency
goes to zero, the inductive reactance goes to zero. But recall that as ω → 0,
capcative reactance tends to infinity (see Table 19.1). Because inductive effects
vanish for a dc source, such as a battery, zero inductive reactance for zero frequency
is consistent with the behaviour of an inductor connected to a dc source. The
frequency variation of XL is shown in Fig. 19.21.
Fig.19.21 : The reactance of an inductor (XL = 2πvL) as a function of frequency. The inductive
reactance increases as the frequency increases.
156 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Table 19.1: Frequency response of passive circuit elements
Magnetism
Circuit Opposition to Value at Value at
element flow of current low-frequency high-frequency
Resistor R R R
1
Capacitor XC = ∞ 0 Notes
ωC
Inductor XL = ωL 0 ∞
Vrms
Irms = X (19.25)
L
Vm2 V2
= sin ωt cos ωt = m sin 2 ωt (19.26)
ωL 2ωL
Fig. 19.21: Time variation of potential difference, current and power in an inductive circuit
Example 19.6 : An air cored solenoid has a length of 25cm and diameter of
2.5cm, and contains 1000 closely wound turns. The resistance of the coil is
measured to be 1.00Ω. Compare the inductive reactance at 100Hz with the
resistance of the coil.
PHYSICS 157
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism Solution : The inductance of a solenoid, whose length is large compared to its
diameter, is given by
μ0 N 2 πa 2
L =
l
where N denotes number of turns, a is radius, and l is length of the solenoid. On
Notes substituting the given values, we get
= 2.47 × 10–3 H
The inductive reactance at a frequency of 100Hz is
⎛ rad ⎞
XL = ωL = 2π ⎜ 100 ⎟ (2.47 × 10–3) H
⎝ s ⎠
= 1.55Ω
Thus, inductive reactance of this solenoid at 100Hz is comparable to the intrinsic
(ohmic) resistance R. In a circuit diagram, it would be shown as
L = 2.47 H and R = 1.00 Ω
158 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
E = Em cos ωt Notes
(i) The potential difference across the resistor VR = I0R and it will be in-phase
with current.
(ii) Amplitude of P.D. across the capacitor VC = I0 XC and it lags behind the
current by an angle π/2 and (iii) amplitude of P.D. across the inductor VL =
I0XL and it leads the current by an angle π/2.
Due to different phases, we can not add voltages
algebraically to obtain the resultant peak voltage
across the circuit. To add up these voltages, we draw
a phasor diagram showing proper phase relationship
of the three voltages (Fig.19.23). The diagram clearly θ
shows that voltages across the inductor and capacitor
are in opposite phase and hence net voltage across
the reactive components is (VL – VC). The resultant
peak voltage across the circuit is therefore given by Fig. 19.23: Phasor diagram
of voltages across
E0 = (VL – VC ) 2 + VR2 LCR.
= {
I 02 ( X L – X C )2 + R 2 }
E0
or I0 = ( X L – X C )2 + R 2
The opposition to flow of current offered by a LCR circuit is called its impedance.
The impedance of the circuit is given by
2
Erms E0 ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜⎝ 2πvL – ⎟⎠ + R
2
Z= I = I = ( X L – X C )2 + R 2 = (19.27)
rms 0 2πvC
PHYSICS 159
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism Also from Fig.19.23 it is clear that in LCR circuit,
the emf leads (or lags) the current by an angle φ,
given by
θ VL – VC X L I0 – X C I0 X – XC
tanφ = VR = RI 0 = L (19.28)
R
Notes This means that R, X L, X C and Z can also be
represented on a phasor diagram similar to voltage
Fig. 19.24 : Phasor diagram (Fig.19.24).
for Z
Resonance
You now know that inductive reactance (XL) increases and capacitive reactance
(XC) decreases with increase in frequency of the applied ac source. Moreover,
these are out of phase. Therefore, there may be a certain frequency vr for which
XL = XC :
1
i.e. 2π vrL = 2πv C
r
1
⇒ vr = (19.29)
2π LC
This frequency is called resonance frequency and at this frequency, impedance
has minimum value : Ζmin = R. The circuit now becomes purely resistive. Voltage
across the capacitor and the inductor, being equal in magnitude, annul each other.
Since a resonant circuit is purely resistive, the net voltage is in phase with current
(φ = 0) and maximum current flows through the circuit. The circuit is said to be
in resonance with applied ac. The graphs given in Fig.19.25 show the variation of
peak value of current in an LCR circuit with the variation of the frequency of the
applied source. The resonance frequency of a given LCR circuit is independent of
resistance. But as shown in Fig.19.25, the peak value of current increases as
resistance decreases.
ω (rad s–1) →
Fig.19.25 : Variation of peak current in a LCR circuit with frequency for (i) R = 100 Ω, and
(ii) R = 200 Ω
160 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
The phenomenon of resonance in LCR circuits is utilised to tune our radio/TV Magnetism
receivers to the frequencies transmitted by different stations. The tuner has an
inductor and a variable capacitor. We can change the natural frequency of the L-
C circuit by changing the capacitance of the capacitor. When natural frequency of
the tuner circuit matches the frequency of the transmitter, the intercepting radio
waves induce maximum current in our receiving antenna and we say that particular
radio/TV station is tuned to it.
Notes
Power in a LCR Circuit
You know that a capacitor connected to an ac source reversibly stores and releases
electric energy. There is no net energy delivered by the source. Similarly, an
inductor connected to an ac source reversibly stores and releases magnetic energy.
There is no net energy delivered by the source. However, an ac generator delivers
a net amount of energy when connected to a resistor. Hence, when a resistor, an
inductor and a capacitor are connected in series with an ac source, it is still only
the resistor that causes net energy transfer. We can confirm this by calculating the
power delivered by the source, which could be a generator.
The instantaneous power is the product of the voltage and the current drawn
from the source. Therefore, we can write
P = VI
On substituting for V and I, we get
⎡Vm ⎤
P = Vm cos ωt ⎢ cos (ωt + φ)⎥
⎣Z ⎦
Vm2 φ
= [cos φ + cos (ωt + )] (19.30)
2Z 2
The phase angle φ and angular frequency ω play important role in the power
delivered by the source. If the impedance Z is large at a particular angular
frequency, the power will be small at all times. This result is consistent with the
idea that impedance measures how the combination of elements impedes (or limits)
ac current. Since the average value of the second term over one cycle is zero, the
average power delivered by the source to the circuit is given by
Vm2
Average Power = cosφ (19.31)
2Z
Vm Vm
= . cosφ = Vrms Irms cosφ (19.32)
2 2Z
PHYSICS 161
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism cosφ is called power factor and is given by
R R
cosφ = = (19.33)
Z R + ( X L – X C )2
2
The power factor delimits the maximum average power per cycle provided by
the generator. In a purely resistive circuit (or in a resonating circuit where XL =
Notes R
XC), Z = R, so that cosφ = = 1. That is, when φ = 0, the average power
R
dissipated per cycle is maximum: Pm = Vrms Irms.
On the other hand, in a purely reactive circuit, i.e., when R = 0, cosφ = 0 or φ =
900 and the average power dissipated per cycle P = 0. That is, the current in a
pure inductor or pure capacitor is maintained without any loss of power. Such a
current, therefore, is called wattless current.
162 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
where B is the field, n̂ is a unit vector normal to the plane of the loop of area A. Magnetism
If the angle between the field direction and the loop at any instant is denoted by
θ, φ (t) can be written as
φ (t) = AB cosθ
When we rotate the loop with a constant angular velocity ω, the angle θ changes
as
θ = ωt (19.34) Notes
∴ φ (t) = AB cos ωt
Now, using Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, we can calculate the emf
induced in the loop :
dφ
ε(t) = – = ω AB sin ωt (19.35)
dt
The emf induced across a coil with N number of turns is given by
ε(t) = N ω AB sin ωt (19.35a)
= ε 0 sin ωt
That is, when a rectangular coil rotates in a uniform magnetic field, the induced emf
is sinusoidal.
An A.C. generator consists of four main parts (see in Fig.19.27 : (i) Armature, (ii)
Field magnet, (iii) Slip-rings, (iv) Brushes.
An armature is a coil of large number of turns of insulated copper wire wound on
a cylindrical soft iron drum. It is capable of rotation at right angles to the magnetic
field on a rotor shaft passing through it along the axis of the drum. This drum of soft
iron serves two purpose : it supports the coil, and increases magnetic induction
through the coil. A field magnet is provides to produce a uniform and permanent
radial magnetic field between its pole pieces.
Slip Rings provide alternating current H Armature coil
generated in armature to flow in the C
device connected across them through
brushs. These are two metal rings to N Field magnet
A D
which the two ends of the armatures Metal brush S
are connected. These rings are fixed R1 (Slip ring)
B
to the shaft. They are insulated from Load resistor R 1
the shaft as well as from each other. R2 (Slip ring)
B2
Brushes are two flexible metal or Metal brush Rotating shaft
carbon rods [B1 and B2 (Fig. 19.27)],
which are fixed and constantly in touch Handle
with revolving rings. It is with the help Fig.19.27 : Schematics of an ac generator
of these brushes that the current is passed on from the armature and rings to the
main wires which supply the current to the outer circuit.
PHYSICS 163
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
164 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
and charging the battery. The essential parts of dynamo are (i) field magnet, (ii) Magnetism
armature, (iii) commutator split rings and (iv) brushes.
Armatures and field magnets differ in dynamo and alternator. In the dynamo,
the field magnets are stationary and the armature rotates while in an alternator,
armature is stationary (stator) and the field magnet (rotor) rotates.
In a dynamo, ac waveform or the sine wave produced by an a.c. generator is
converted into d.c. form by the split ring commutator. Each half of the commuter Notes
is connected permanently to one end of the loop and the commutator rotates
with the loop. Each brush presses against one segment of the commutator. The
brushes remain stationary while the commutator rotates. The brushes press against
opposite segments of the
commutator and every time the C H
H C
voltage reverses polarity, the split
rings change position. This means
that one brush always remains N D S N A S
A D
positive while the other becomes B2 B1 B2 B1
negative, and a d.c. fluctuating R2 R1 L R2 R1 L
voltage is obtained across the
brushes.
(a) (b)
A dynamo has almost the same parts
as an ac dynamo but it differs from
the latter in one respect: In place of
and current
e.m.f. at brushes
slip ring , we put two split rings R1
e.m.f.
is known as commutator.
e.m.f.
PHYSICS 165
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism ring R1 comes into contact with B1 to B2. Thus, current in the external circuit
always flows in the same direction. The current produced in the outer circuit is
graphically represented in Fig.19.29(c) as the coil is rotated from the vertical
position, perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force. The current generated by
such a simple d.c. dynamo is unidirectional but its value varies considerably and
even falls to zero twice during each rotation of the coil.
Notes One way of overcoming this variation would be to use two coils, mutually at
right angles, and to divide the commutator ring into four sections, connected to
the ends of the coils. In such a case, both these coils produce emf of the same
type but they differ in phase by π/2. The resultant current or emf is obtained by
superposition of the two, as shown in Fig. 19.29(d). In this way, the fluctuations
are cosiderally reduced. Similarly, in order to get a steady current, we use a large
number of coils, each consisting of good many turns. The commutator ring is
divided into as many segments as the number of ends of coils, so that the coils
work independently and send current into the outer circuit. The resultant current
obtained is shown in Fig.19.29(e) which is practically parallel to the time axes.
166 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
voltage is heavily loaded (more than the specified value), the supplier will Magnetism
either shed the load by cutting the supply from the power source, or request
the consumers to decrease the load by switching off the (heating or cooling)
applicances of higher wattages. This process is known as load shedding.
In case of load shedding, you can use inverters. Inverters are low frequency
oscillator circuits which convert direct current from battery to alternating
Notes
current of desired value and frequency (230V and 50Hz).
19.5 TRANSFORMER
Transformer is a device that changes (increases or decreases) the magnitude of
alternating voltage or current based on the phenomenon of electromagnetic
induction. A transformer has at least two windings of insulated copper wire linked
by a common magnetic flux but the windings are electrically insulated from one
another. The transformer windings connected to a supply source, which may be
an ac main or the output of a generator, is called primary winding. The transformer
winding connected to the load RL is called the secondary winding. In the secondary
winding, emf is induced when a.c. is applied to the primary. The primary and
secondary windings, though electrically isolated from each other, are magnetically
coupled with each other.
Basically, a transformer is a device which transfers electric energy (or power)
from primary windings to secondary windings. The primary converts the changing
electrical energy into magnetic energy. The secondary converts the magnetic energy
back into electric energy.
An ideal transformer is one in which
z the resistance of the primary and secondary coils is zero;
z there is no flux leakage so that the same magnetic flux is linked with each turn
of the primary and secondary coils; and
z there is no energy loss in the core.
Fig. 19.30 illustrates the configuration of a typical transformer. It consists of two
coils, called primary and secondary, wound on a core (transformer). The coils,
made of insulated copper wire, are wound around a ring of iron made of isolated
laminated sheets instead of a solid core. The laminations minimize eddy currents
in iron. Energy loss in a transformer can be reduced by using the laminations of
“soft” iron for the core and thick high conductivity wires for the primary and
secondary windings.
PHYSICS 167
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism
Notes
dφ
Ep = –Np
dt
dφ
or Es = –Ns
dt
Ep Np
= (19.36)
Es Ns
Ip Es Np
so that Is = E = N = k. (19.37)
p s
Thus when the induced emf becomes k times the applied emf, the induced current
1
is times the original current. In other words, what is gained in voltage is lost in
k
current.
168 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
19.5.1 Types of transformers Magnetism
There are basically two types of transformers.
(i) A step-up transformer increases the voltage (decreases the current) in secondary
windings. In such transformers (Fig.19.31a) the number of turns in secondary is
more than the number of turns in primary.
Notes
Energy output
η = Energy input × 100%
Power output
= Power input × 100%
PHYSICS 169
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism Electrical Power Transmission
You have learnt how electricity is generated using ac or dc generators. You
must have come across small units of generating sets in shops, offices and
cinema halls. When power goes off, the mains is switched over to generator.
In commercial use, generators which produce power of million of watts at
about 15kV (kilo volt) is common. These generating plants may be hundreds
Notes
of kilometers away from your town. Very large mechanical power (kinetic
energy) is, therefore, necessary to rotate the rotor which produces magnetic
field inside enormously large coils. The rotors are rotated by the turbines.
These turbines are driven by different sources of energy.
To minimise loss of energy, power is transmitted at low current in the
transmission lines. For this power companies step up voltage using
transformers. At a power plant, potential difference is raised to about 330kV.
This is accompanied by small current. At the consumer end of the transmission
lines, the potential difference is lowered using step down transformers.
You may now like to know how high potential difference used to transmit
electrical power over long distances minimises current. We explain this with
an example. Suppose electrical power P has to be delivered at a potential
difference V by supply lines of total resistance R. The current I = P/V and the
loss in the lines is I 2R = P2R/V 2. It means that greater V ensures smaller
loss. In fact, doubling V quarters the loss.
Electrical power is, thus, transmitted more economically at high potential
difference. But this creates insulation problems and raises installation cost.
In a 400kV supergrid, currents of 2500 A are typical and the power loss is
about 200kW per kilometer of cable, i.e., 0.02% (percent) loss per kilometer.
The ease and efficiency with which alternating potential differences are
stepped-up and stepped-down in a transformer and the fact that alternators
produces much higher potential difference than d.c. generators (25kV
compared with several thousand volts), are the main considerations
influencing the use of high alternating rather than direct potential in most
situations. However, due to poor efficiency and power thefts, as a nation,
we lose about} Rs. 50,000 crore annually.
Psec
Efficiency = × 100
Ppri
170 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
1730 W Magnetism
∴ = × 100 = 92%
1880 W
N1 1 0 0 tu rn s
I2 = × I1 = × 3 A = 0 .6 A
N2 5 0 0 tu rn s
d φB
e=
dt
PHYSICS 171
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism z Induced closed loops of current are set up on the body of the conductor
(usually a sheet) when it is placed in a changing magnetic field. These currents
are called eddy currents.
z If the current changes in a coil, a self-induced emf exists across it.
z For a long, tightly wound solenoid of length l , cross - sectional area A,
Notes having N number of turns, the self–inductance is given by
μ0 N 2 A
L=
l
I m2 R
The average power in such a circuit is Pav =
2
z In a purely capacitive ac circuit, the current leads the voltage by 900. The
average power in such a circuit is zero.
z In a purely inductive ac circuit, the current lags the voltage by 900. The
average power in such a circuit is zero.
Vm Vm
z In a series LCR circuit, Im = = ,
Z [ R + ( X L – X C ) 2 ]½
2
172 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
z A transformer is a static electrical device which converts an alternating high Magnetism
voltage to low alternating voltage and vice versa.
z The transformers are of two types: Step-up to increase the voltage, and Step-
down : to decrease the voltage.
z The secondary to primary voltage ratio is in the same proportion as the
secondary to primary turns ratio i.e.
Notes
Vs Ns
Vp = Np
TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Each loop in a 250-turn coil has face area S = 9.0 × 10–2 m2. (a) What is the
rate of change of the flux linking each turn of the coil if the induced emf in
the coil is 7.5V? (b) If the flux is due to a uniform magnetic field at 450 from
the axis of the coil, calculate the rate of change of the field to induce that
emf.
2. (a) In Fig.19.32 what is the direction of the induced current in the loop when
the area of the loop is decreased by pulling on it with the forces labelled F? B
is directed into the page and perpendicular to it.
(b) What is the direction of the induced current in the smaller loop of
Fig.19.31b when a clockwise current as seen from the left is suddenly
established in the larger loop, by a battery not shown?
F F
(a) (b)
Fig. 19.32
PHYSICS 173
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism 3. (a) If the number of turns in a solenoid is doubled, by what amount will its
self-inductance change?
(b) Patrol in a vehicle’s engine is ignited when a high voltage applied to a
spark plug causes a spark to jump between two conductors of the plug. This
high voltage is provided by an ignition coil, which is an arrangement of two
coils wound tightly one on top of the other. Current from the vehicle’s battery
Notes flows through the coil with fewer turns. This current is interrupted periodically
by a switch. The sudden change in current induces a large emf in the coil with
more turns, and this emf drives the spark. A typical ignition coil draws a
current of 3.0 A and supplies an emf of 24kV to the spark plugs. If the
current in the coil is interrupted every 0.10ms, what is the mutual inductance
of the ignition coil?
4. (a) Why is the rms value of an ac current always less than its peak value?
(b) The current in a 2.5μF capacitor connector to an ac source is given by
I = – 4.71 sin 377t μA
Calculate the maximum voltage across the capacitor.
5. (a) Calculate the capacitive reactance (for C = 2 μF) and the inductive
reactance (for L = 2 mH) at (i) 25Hz and (ii) 50Hz.
(b) Calculate the maximum and rms currents in a 22 μH inductor connected
to a 5V (rms) 100MHz generator.
6. A series LCR circuit with R = 580Ω, L = 31mH, and C =47 nF is driven by an
ac source. The amplitude and angular frequency of the source are 65 V and
33 krad/s. Determine (a) the reactance of the capacitor, (b) the reactance of
the inductor, (c) the impedance of the circuit, (d) the phase difference between
the voltage across the source and the current, and (e) the current amplitude.
Does current lead behind or lag the voltage across the source?
7. What is electromagnetic induction? Explain Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic
induction.
8. State Lenz’s law. Show that Lenz’s law is a consequence of law of
conservation of energy.
9. What is self-induction? Explain the physical significance of self-inductance.
10. Distinguish between the self-inductance and mutual-inductance. On what
factors do they depend?
11. How much e.m.f. will be induced in a 10H inductor in which the current
changes from 10A to 7A in 9 × 10–2s?
12. Explain why the reactance of a capacitor decreases with increasing frequency,
whereas the reactance of an inductor increases with increasing frequency?
13. What is impedance of an LCR series circuit? Derive an expression for power
dissipated in a.c. LCR circuit.
174 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
14. Suppose the frequency of a generator is increased from 60Hz to 120Hz. Magnetism
What effect would this have on output voltage?
15. A motor and a generator basically perform opposite functions. Yet some one
makes a statement that a motor really acts as a motor and a generator at the
same time? Is this really true?
16. A light bulb in series with an A.C. generator and the primary winding of a
transformer glows dimly when the secondary leads are connected to a load, Notes
such as a resistor, the bulb in the primary winding will brighten, why?
17. If the terminals of a battery are connected to the primary winding of
transformer, why will a steady potential differences not appear across the
secondary windings.
18. The power supply for a picture tube in a colour television (TV) set typically
requires 15,000V A.C. How can this potential difference be provided if only
230V are available at a household electric outlet?
19. Would two coils acts as transformer without an iron core? If so, why not
omit the core to save money?
20. An ac source has a 10-volt out-put. A particular circuit requires only a 2V
A.C. input. How would you accomplish this? Explain.
21. A person has a single transformer with 50 turns on one part of the core and
500 turns on the other. Is this a step-up or a step-down transformer? Explain.
22. Some transformers have various terminals or “taps” on the secondary so that
connecting to different tap puts different functions of the total number of
secondary windings into a circuit? What is the advantage of this?
23. A transformer in an electric welding machine draws 3A from a 240V A.C.
power line and delivers 400A. What is the potential difference across the
secondary of the transformer?
24. A 240-V, 400W electric mixer is connected to a 120-V power line through a
transformer. What is the ratio of turns in the transformer? and How much
current is drawn from the power line?
25. The primary of a step-up transformer having 125 turns is connected to a
house lighting circuit of 220 Vac. If the secondary is to deliver 15,000 volts,
how many turns must it have?
26. The secondary of a step-down transformer has 25 turns of wire and primary
is connected to a 220V ac. line. If the secondary is to deliver 2.5 volt at the
out-put terminals, how many turns should the primary have?
27. The primary of a step-down transformer has 600 turns and is connected to a
120V ac line. If the secondary is to supply 5 volts at its terminal and electron
current of 3.5A, find the number of turns in the secondary and the electron
current in the primary?
PHYSICS 175
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism 28. A step-up transformer with 352 turns in the primary is connected to a 220V
ac line. The secondary delivers 10,000 volts at its terminal and a current of
40 milliampere.
(a) How many turns are in the secondary?
(b) What is the current in the primary?
Notes (c) What power is drawn from the line?
19.1
1. N = 1000, r = 5 × 10–2m and B1 = 10T B2 = 0T
a) For t = 1s,
( B2 – B1 ) 2
|e| = N πr
t
−4
10 × π × 25×10
= 10 ×
3
1
= 25πV
= 25 × 3.14 = 78.50V
b) For t = 1ms
−4
103 × 10π × 25×10
|e| =
10 −3
= 78.5 × 103V
dφ
2. Since φ = A + Dt2, e1 = = 2Dt
dt
∴ e = Ne1 = 2N Dt
= 2 × 250 × 15t = 7500t
Fort = 0, e1 = 0 and hence e = 0V
Fort = 3s, e = 22500V
3. φ = B.S = BS cosθ
176 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
dφ Magnetism
|e| = N
dt
dB
|e| = NS cosθ Q θ is constt
dt
19.2
1. As we look on the coil from magnet side Anticlockwise for both A and B.
2. In all the loops except loop E there is a change in magnetic flux. For each of
them the induced current will be anticlockwise
3. Yes, there is an induced current in the ring. The bar magnet is acted upon by
a repulsive force due to the induced current in the ring.
4. To minimise loss of energy due to eddy currents.
19.3
dI N 2 A ( I 2 – I1 )
1. e= L =ω
dt l t
4π × 10 −7 × π ×10 −2 × (2.5 − 0)
=
1 × 10 −3
= 10–6 V
2. Because, current in the two parallel strands flow in opposite directions and
oppose the self induced currents and thus minimize the induction effects.
dI
3. 3.5 × 10–3 = 9.7 × 10–3 ×
dt
dI 3.5
= = = 0.36A s−1
dt 9.7
19.4
1. Because, the inductor creates an inertia to the growth of current by inducing
a back emf
PHYSICS 177
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism L
2. 2.2 × 10–3 =
R
⇒ L = 2.2 × 68 × 10–3H
= 150mH
Notes 19.5
1. (a)If i1 is increasing, the flux emerging out of the first coil is also increasing.
Therefore, the induced current in the second coil will oppose this flux by a
current flowing in clockwise sense as seen by O. Therefore B will be positive
and A negative.
(b)If i2 is decreasing, flux emerging out of the first coil is decreasing. To
increase it the induced current should flow in out anticlockwise sense leaving
C at positive potential and D at negative.
2. No, the mutual inductance will decrease. Because, when the two coils are at
right angles coupling of flux from one coil to another coil will be the least.
19.6
1. It actually does but we can not detect it, because the frequency of our domestic
ac is 50Hz. Our eye can not detect changes that take place faster than 15
times a second.
Erms 220 V
2. (i) Irms = = = 8.8A.
R 25 Ω
19.7
1
1. Capacitive reactance XC = . As C increases XC decreases and I increases.
2πvC
178 PHYSICS
Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current MODULE - 5
Electricity and
discharged. Thus the maximum charge on capacitor and hence maximum Magnetism
current flowing through the capacitor increases though Vm is constant.
3. Because the energy stored in the capacitor during a charging half cycle is
completely recovered during discharging half cycle. As a result energy stored
in the capacitor per cycle is zero.
1 Notes
4. Capacitative reactance XC = as v increases XC decreases. This is so
2πvC
because on capacitor plates now more charge accumulates.
19.8
1. In accordance with Lenz’s law a back emf is induced across the inductor
dI
when ac is passed through it. The back emf e = –L .
dt
Vrms
2. Irms = X frequency increases, XL (= 2π vL) increases, hence Irms decreases.
L
19.9
1. (i) The a.c. generator has slip rings whereas the d.c. generator has a split
rings commutator.
(ii) a.c. generator produces current voltage in sinusoidal form but d.c. generator
produces current flowing in one direction all through.
2. Four essential parts of a generator are armature, field magnet, slip rings and
brushes.
3. The commutator converts a.c. wave form to d.c. wave form.
4. Attached to the bicycle for lighting purpose.
19.10
1. No, because the working of a transformer depends on the principle of
electromagnetic induction, which requires time varying current.
2. Because the ratio of the voltage in primary and secondary coils is proportional
to the ratio of number of their turns.
3. No, they are reciprocal to each other.
4. Step-down transformer.
PHYSICS 179
MODULE - 5 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
Electricity and
Magnetism 1 1
5. (a) (i) × 104 Ω (ii) × 104 Ω
π 2π
(b) (i) 0.1 πΩ (ii) 0.2 πΩ
6. (a) 6.7 × 102 Ω (b) 99 Ω (c) 813.9 Ω (d) 4 rad
(e) 0.16 A (f) Current lags
Notes 11. 333.3V 23. 1.8A.
10
24. 1 : 2 , A. 25. 8522 turns
3
1
26. 2200 turns 27. 25 turns, A.
7
20
28. (a) 16000 lurns, (b) A (c) 400W
11
180 PHYSICS
SENIOR SECONDARY COURSE
PHYSICS
STUDENT’S ASSIGNMENT – 5
INSTRUCTIONS
z Answer All the questions on a seperate sheet of paper
z Give the following information on your answer sheet:
z Name
z Enrolment Number
z Subject
z Assignment Number
z Address
z Get your assignment checked by the subject teacher at your study centre so that you get positive
feedback about your performance.
12. Explain the principle of operation of a step-up transformer with regard to turns ratio. (3)
13. State kirchloffs laws and use them to find values of I1, I2, and I3 shown in the given network: (4)
14. State Gauss’ theorem in electrostatics. Use it to find field due to a line harge of linear charge
density λ. at a distance γ from it.
15. (a) Show that when two capacitors of capacitance C1 and C2 are joined in series, their net
1 1 1
capacitance is given by C where c = c + c .
1 2
(b) Find the value of capacitance that must be put in series with a 12 MF capacitor to get a net
capacitance of 3 MF. (2 + 2)
16. State priot savarts law and use it to find magnetic field at the centre of a circular loop haring N
turns of radius R each and carrying current I.
17. Obtain an expression for tongue experienced by the coil of a galvanometer when current I is
passed through it? What purpose does radial magnetic field serve in a moving coil galvanometer?
18. State Faraday’s laws of electronagnetic induction and Lenz’s law. An air coil is connected in
series with a bulb and a battery of suitable e.m.f. What will happen to the brightness of the bulb
when an iron rod is inserted in the coil? (4)
19. What is a dielectric? How does it behave in an electrostatic field? How is introduction of a
dielectric slab between the plates of an air-filled parallel plate capacitor able to increase its
capacitance? Explain with suitable labelled diagrams. (5)
182 PHYSICS
20. A series LCR circuit with R = 80 Ω , L = 100 mtt and C = 25MF is driven by an ac source of e.m.f ε =
100 sin (1000t) volt. Find
(a) Xl, Xc and Z.
(b) rms current in the circuit
(c) power dissipation in the circuit
(d) resonant frequency
(e) impedance of the circuit at resonance (5)
Ans :
1. 90N along +× axis.
1
2. E×
r3
3. Spherical, with point at its centre
4. Specific resistance will remain unchanged
5. Yellow, violet, black, silver
6. Zero
7. To the left of the observer.
8. Inductive
9. 1.8 × 109 NC-1
ε
10. V = ε – Ir, I = so, V = 1.6 volt
R+r
2
11. Current in the circuit, I = ampere
3
2
⎛2⎞ 8
P = I R = ⎜ ⎟ ( 6 ) watt = watts
2
⎝3⎠ 3
PHYSICS 183
MODULE - VI
OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
20
Notes
REFLECTION AND
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Light makes us to see things and is responsible for our visual contact with our
immediate environment. It enables us to admire and adore various beautiful
manifestations of mother nature in flowers, plants, birds, animals, and other forms
of life. Can you imagine how much shall we be deprived if we were visually
impaired? Could we appreciate the brilliance of a diamond or the majesty of a
rainbow? Have you ever thought how light makes us see? How does it travel
from the sun and stars to the earth and what is it made of? Such questions have
engaged human intelligence since the very beginning. You will learn about some
phenomena which provide answers to such questions.
Look at light entering a room through a small opening in a wall. You will note the
motion of dust particles, which essentially provide simple evidence that light travels
in a straight line. An arrow headed straight line represents the direction of
propagation of light and is called a ray; a collection of rays is called a beam. The
ray treatment of light constitutes geometrical optics. In lesson 22, you will learn
that light behaves as a wave. But a wave of short wavelength can be well
opproximated by the ray treatment. When a ray of light falls on a mirror, its
direction changes. This process is called reflection. But when a ray of light falls
at the boundary of two dissimilar surfaces, it bends. This process is known as
refraction. You will learn about reflection from mirrors and refraction from lenses
in this lesson. You will also learn about total internal reflection. These phenomena
find a number of useful applications in daily life from automobiles and health care
to communication.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z explain reflection at curved surfaces and establish the relationship between
the focal length and radius of curvature of spherical mirrors;
PHYSICS 187
MODULE - 6 Reflection and Refraction of Light
188 PHYSICS
Reflection and Refraction of Light MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
Note that the reflecting surface of a convex mirror curves outwards while that of Instruments
a concave mirror curves inwards. We now define a few important terms used for
spherical mirrors.
The centre of the sphere, of which the mirror is a part, is called the centre of
curvature of the mirror and the radius of this sphere defines its radius of curvature.
The middle point O of the reflecting surface of the mirror is called its pole. The
straight line passing through C and O is said to be the principal axis of the Notes
mirror. The circular outline (or periphery) of the mirror is called its aperture and
the angle (∠MCM ′) which the aperture subtends at C is called the angular
aperture of the mirror. Aperture is a measure of the size of the mirror.
A beam of light incident on a spherical mirror parallel to the principal axis converges
to or appears to diverge from a common point after reflection. This point is
known as principal focus of the mirror. The distance between the pole and the
principal focus gives the focal length of the mirror. A plane passing through the
focus perpendicular to the principal axis is called the focal plane.
We will consider only small aperture mirrors and rays close to the principal axis,
called paraxial rays. (The rays away from the principal axis are called marginal or
parapheral rays.)
PHYSICS 189
MODULE - 6 Reflection and Refraction of Light
190 PHYSICS
Reflection and Refraction of Light MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
20.2 DERIVATION OF MIRROR FORMULA Instruments
We now look for a relation between the object distance (u), the image distance
(v) and the local length f of a spherical mirror. We make use of simple geometry
to arrive at a relation, which
surprisingly is applicable in all
situations. Refer to Fig.
20.5,which shows an object AB Notes
placed in front of a concave
mirror. The mirror produces an
image A′B′.
AX and AY are two rays from
the point A on the object AB, M
is the concave mirror while XA′
and YA′ are the reflected rays. Fig. 20.5 : Image formation by a concave mirror:
Using sign conventions, we can mirror formula
write
In optics it is customary to
object distance, OB = – u,
denote object distance by v.
focal length, OF = – f, You should not confuse it
with velocity.
image distance, OB′ = –v,
and radius of curvature OC = – 2f
Consider ΔABF and ΔFOY. These are similar triangles. We can, therefore, write
AB FB
= (20.1)
OY OF
Similarly, from similar triangles ΔXOF and ΔB′A′F, we have
XO OF
= (20.2)
A′B′ FB′
But AB = XO, as AX is parallel to the principal axis. Also A′B′= OY. Since left
hand sides of Eqns. (20.1) and (20.2) are equal, we equate their right hand sides.
Hence, we have
FB OF
= (20.3)
OF FB′
Putting the values in terms of u, v and f in Eqn. (20.3), we can write
−u − (− f ) −f
−f = −v − (− f )
−u + f −f
−f = −v + f
PHYSICS 191
MODULE - 6 Reflection and Refraction of Light
Notes 1 1 1
= + (20.4)
f v u
We next introduce another important term magnification. This indicates the ratio
of the size of image to that of the object :
size of the image h2
m = size of the object = h
1
A′B′ –v
But =
AB –u
h2 v
∴ m = – = (20.5)
h1 u
Since a real image is inverted, we can write
A′B′ v
m = =– (20.5b)
AB u
To solve numerical problems, remember the following steps :.
1. For any spherical mirror, use the mirror formula:
1 1 1
= +
f v u
2. Substitute the numerical values of the given quantities with proper signs.
3. Do not give any sign to the quantity to be determined; it will automatically be
obtained with the relevant sign.
4. Remember that the linear magnification is negative for a real image and positive
for a virtual image.
5. It is always better to draw a figure before starting the (numerical) work.
192 PHYSICS
Reflection and Refraction of Light MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
3. As the position of an object in front of a concave mirror of focal length 25cm Instruments
is varied, the position of the image also changes. Plot the image distance as
a function of the object distance letting the latter change from –x to + x.
When is the image real? Where is it virtual? Draw a rough sketch in each
case.
4. Give two situations in which a concave mirror can form a magnified image
of an object placed in front of it. Illustrate your answer by a ray diagram. Notes
5. An object 2.6cm high is 24cm from a concave mirror whose radius of curvature
is 16cm. Determine (i) the location of its image, and (ii) size and nature of
the image.
6. A concave mirror forms a real image four times as tall as the object placed
15cm from it. Find the position of the image and the radius of curvature of
the mirror.
7. A convex mirror of radius of curvature 20cm forms an image which is half
the size of the object. Locate the position of the object and its image.
8. A monkey gazes in a polished spherical ball of 10cm radius. If his eye is
20cm from the surface, where will the image of his eye form?
sin i
sin r = μ12
where μ12 is a constant, called the refractive index of second medium with respect
to the first medium, and determines how much bending would take place at the
interface separating the two media. It may also be expressed as the ratio of the
PHYSICS 193
MODULE - 6 Reflection and Refraction of Light
c1
μ12 =
c2
Refractive indices of a few typical substances are given in Table 20.1.Note that these
values are with respect to air or vacuum. The medium having larger refractive index
Notes is optically denser medium while the one having smaller refractive index is called rarer
medium. So water is denser than air but rarer than glass. Similarly, crown glass is
denser than ordinary glass but rarer than flint glass.
Table 20.1 : Refractive
If we consider refraction from air to a medium like glass, which is optically denser
indices of some common
materials
than air[Fig. 20.6 (a)], then ∠r is less than ∠i. On the other hand, if the ray passes
from water to air, ∠r is greater than ∠i [Fig. 20.6(b)]. That is, the refracted ray
Medium μ bends towards the normal on the air–glass interface and bends away from the
Vacuum/air 1 normal on water–air interface.
Water 1.33
Ordinary glass 1.50
Crown glass 1.52
Dense flint glass 1.65
Diamond 2.42
(a) (b)
194 PHYSICS
Reflection and Refraction of Light MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
sided polygon gives the correct value of π up to seven places while the Instruments
classical method only gave this value upto two correct places. Snell also
published some books including his work on comets. However, his biggest
contribution to science was his discovery of the laws of refraction. However,
he did not publish his work on refraction. It became known only in 1703,
seventy seven years after his death, when Huygens published his results in
“Dioptrics”. Notes
sin iw
sin ig = μ wg (20.6)
Now, let us consider separate air-glass and air-water interfaces. By Snell’s law,
we can write
sin ia
sin ig = μ ag
and
sin ia
sin iw = μ aw
sin iw μag
= (20.8)
sin ig μaw
μag
μ wg = (20.9)
μaw
PHYSICS 195
MODULE - 6 Reflection and Refraction of Light
⎛ 1.3 ⎞ 1
or sin ig = ⎜ ⎟ ×
⎝ 1.5 ⎠ 2
= 0.4446
or ig = 25o41′
Example 20.2 : Calculate the speed of light in water if its refractive index with
respect to air is 4/3. Speed of light in vacuum = 3 × 108 ms–1.
Solution : We know that
c
μ =
v
c
or v =
μ
(3 × 108 ms –1 )
=
4/3
3 × 108 × 3
=
4
= 2.25 × 108 ms–1
Example 20.3 : The refractive indices of glass and water are 1.52 and 1.33
respectively. Calculate the refractive index of glass with respect to water.
Solution : Using Eqn. (20.9), we can write
μag 1.52
μ wg = = = 1.14
μaw 1.33
196 PHYSICS
Reflection and Refraction of Light MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
Instruments
INTEXT QUESTIONS 20.3
1. What would be the lateral displacement when a light beam is incident normally
on a glass slab?
2. Trace the path of light if it is incident on a semicircular glass slab towards its
centre when ∠i < ∠ic and ∠i > ∠ic. Notes
3. How and why does the Earth’s atmosphere alter the apparant shape of the
Sun and Moon when they are near the horizon?
4. Why do stars twinkle?
5. Why does a vessel filled with water appear to be shallower (less deep) than
when without water? Draw a neat ray diagram for it.
6. Calculate the angle of refraction of light incident on water surface at an
angle of 52º. Take μ = 4/3.
ACTIVITY 20.1
Take a stick, cover it with cycle grease and then dip it in water or take a narrow
glass bottle, like that used for keeping Homeopathic medicines, and dip it in
water. You will observe that the stick or the bottle shine almost like silver. Do
you know the reason? This strange effect is due to a special case of refraction.
We know that when a ray of light travels from an optically denser to an optically
rarer medium, say from glass to air or from water to air, the refracted ray bends
away from the normal. This means that the angle of refraction is greater than the
angle of incidence. What happens to the refracted ray when the angle of incidence
is increased? The bending of refracted ray also increases. However, the maximum
value of the angle of refraction can be 90o. The angle of incidence in the denser
medium for which the angle of refraction in rarer medium, air in this case,
equals 90º is called the critical angle, iC. The refracted ray then moves along the
boundary separating the two media. If the angle of incidence is greater than the
critical angle, the incident ray will be reflected back in the same medium, as
shown in Fig. 20.7(c). Such a reflection is called Total Internal Reflection and
the incident ray is said to be totally internally reflected. For total internal reflection
to take place, the following two conditions must be satisfied.
z Light must travel from an optically denser to an optically rarer medium.
z The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the critical
angle for the two media.
PHYSICS 197
MODULE - 6 Reflection and Refraction of Light
Fig. 20.7 : Refraction of light as it travels from glass to air for a) i < ic , b) i = ic and
c) i > ic
sin ic = μ ga
angle
or
Water 1.33 48.75o
μ ag = 1 1
Crown glass 1.52 41.14o Hence =
μ ga sin ic
Diamond 2.42 24.41o
The critical angles for a few substances are given in Table 20.2
Dense flint
glass 1.65 37.31o Example 20.4 : Refractive index of glass is 1.52. Calculate the critical angle for
glass air interface.
Solution : We know that
μ = 1/sin ic
1
sin ic = 1/μ =
1.52
∴ ic = 42º
Much of the shine in transparent substances is due to total internal reflection. Can
you now explain why diamonds sparkle so much? This is because the critical
angle is quite small and most of the light entering the crystal undergoes multiple
internal reflections before it finally emerges out of it.
In ordinary reflection, the reflected beam is always weaker than the incident beam,
even if the reflecting surface is highly polished. This is due to the fact that some
198 PHYSICS
Reflection and Refraction of Light MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
light is always transmitted or absorbed. But in the case of total internal reflection, Instruments
cent percent (100%) light is reflected at a transparent boundary.
Totally Reflecting Prisms : A prism with right angled isosceles trianglur base or
a totally reflecting prism with angles of 90o, 45o and 45o is a very useful device for
reflecting light.
Refer to Fig. 20.9(a). The symmetry of the prism allows light to be incident on O
at an angle of 45º, which is greater than the critical angle for glass i.e. 42o. As a
result, light suffers total internal reflection and is deviated by 90º.
PHYSICS 199
MODULE - 6 Reflection and Refraction of Light
Notes
Let ∠OAN = i, the angle of incidence and ∠CAB = r, the angle of refraction.
Using the proper sign convention, we can write
PO = – u ; PI = –v ; PC = + R
Let α, β, and γ be the angles subtended by OA, IA and CA, respectively with the
principal axis and h the height of the normal dropped from A on the principal axis.
In ΔOCA and ΔICA, we have
i =α+γ (i is exterior angle) (20.10)
and r =β+γ (r is exterior angle) (20.11)
PHYSICS 201
MODULE - 6 Reflection and Refraction of Light
AM AM h
β ≈ tan β = = =
MI PI −v
AM AM h
and γ ∼ tan γ = = =
MC PC R
202 PHYSICS
Reflection and Refraction of Light MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
Basic Nomenclature Instruments
Thin lens : If the thickness of a
lens is negligible in comparison to
the radii of curvature of its curved
surfaces, the lens is referred to as
a thin lens. We will deal with thin
lenses only. Notes
Principal axis is the line joining
the centres of curvature of two
surfaces of the lens.
Optical centre is the point at the
centere of the lens situated on the
principal axis. The rays passing Fig. 20.12 : Types of lenses
through the optical centre do not
deviate.
Principal focus is the point at which rays parallel and close to the principal axis
converge to or appear to diverge. It is denoted by F (Fig. 20.13) Rays of light can
pass through a lens in either direction. So every lens has two principal focii, one
on its either side.
Focal length is the distance between the optical centre and the principal focus. In
Fig. 20.13, OF is focal length (f). As per the sign convention, OF is positive for a
convex lens and negative for a concave lens.
Focal plane is the plane passing through the focus of a lens perpendicular to its
principal axis.
PHYSICS 203
MODULE - 6 Reflection and Refraction of Light
µ1 µ2 µ1
I
N1 N2
A B
Q
1 2
Notes
P C2 O I I'
R2 R1
u v1
v =u'
Since the lens used is actually L
thin, points A and B may be
considered very close to point Fig. 20.14 : Point image of a point object for by a thin double convex lens
a and hence C 1A is taken
equal to C1Q and C2B as C2Q. A ray from P strikes surface 1 at A. C1 N1 is normal to surface 1 at the point A.
The ray PA travels from the rarer medium (air) to the denser medium (glass), and
bends towards the normal to proceed in the direction AB. The ray AB would meet
the principal axis C2C1 at the point I ′ in the absence of the surface 2. Similarly,
another ray from P passing through the optical centre O passes through the Point
I ′. I ′ is thus the virtual image of the object P.
Then object distance OP = u and image distance OI ′ = v1 (say). Using Eqn.
(20.14) we can write
μ 1 μ −1
− = (20.15)
v1 u R1
Due to the presence of surface 2, the ray AB strikes it at B. C2N2 is the normal to
it at point B. As the ray AB is travelling from a denser medium (glass) to a rarer
medium (air), it bends away from the normal C2N2 and proceeds in the direction
BI and meets another ray from P at I. Thus I is image of the object P formed by
the lens. It means that image distance OI = v.
Considering point object O, its virtual image is I ′ (due to surface 1) and the final
image is I. I ′ is the virtual object for surface 2 and I is the final image. Then for
the virtual object I ′ and the final image I, we have, object distance OI ′ = u′ = v1
and image distance OI = v.
On applying Eqn. (20.12) and cosidering that the ray AB is passing from glass to
air, we have
(1/ μ) 1 (1/ μ) −1
+ =
v v1 R2
1 1 1− μ
or, −
μv v1 = μR2
204 PHYSICS
Reflection and Refraction of Light MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
Multiping both sides by μ, we get Instruments
1 μ μ −1
− = (20.16)
v v1 R2
Adding Eqns. (20.15) and (20.16), we have
1 1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
– = (μ – 1) ⎜ – ⎟ (20.17)
v u ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ Notes
It u = ∞, that is the object is at infinity, the incoming rays are parallel and after
refraction will converge at the focus (v = f ). Then Eqn. (20.17) reduces to
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= (μ – 1) ⎜ – ⎟ (20.18)
f ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
Y f1 x2
F1 O F2 A1
A x1
f2 Y1
v
L 1 B1
Fig. 20.5.3
PHYSICS 205
MODULE - 6 Reflection and Refraction of Light
– y′ – f1
=
y – x1
– y′ x2
Notes =
y f2
or f = x1x2
F A1
2f A F O O 2f
u
v u
v
B1
Fig. 20.5.4
206 PHYSICS
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Optics and Optical
Adding (i) and (ii) we get Instruments
x +D
v =
2
and, subtracting (ii) from (i) we get
D −x
u = Notes
2
Substituting these values in the lens formula, we get.
1 1 1
= –
f v (– u )
1 2 2 2 2
= + = +
f x + D D– x D + x D– x
1 2 ( D – x + D + x)
=
f D2 − x2
1 4D
= 2 2
f D –x
D2 – x2
or f =
4D
Thus, keeping the positions of the object and screen fixed we can obtain equally
clear, bright and sharp images of the object on the screen corresponding to the
two positions of the lens. This again is a very convenient way of finding f of
a lens.
PHYSICS 207
MODULE - 6 Reflection and Refraction of Light
Notes Example 20.5 : The radii of curvature of a double convex lens are 15cm and
30cm, respectively. Calculate its focal length. Also, calculate the focal length
when it is immersed in a liquid of refractive index 1.65. Take μ of glass = 1.5.
Solution : From Eqn. (20.18) we recall that
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= (μ – 1) ⎜ R – R ⎟
f ⎝ 1 2 ⎠
Here R1= + 15cm, and R2 = –30cm. On substituting the given data, we get
1 ⎛1 1 ⎞
= (1.5 – 1) ⎜ – ⎟
f ⎝ 15 –30 ⎠
⇒ f = 20 cm
When the lens is immersed in a liquid, μ will be replaced by μlg:
μag
μlg =
μ al
1.5 10
= =
1.65 11
Therefore
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= (μ – 1) ⎜ – ⎟
fl lg
⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛1 1 ⎞
= ⎜ – 1⎟ ⎜ – ⎟
⎝ 11 ⎠ ⎝ 15 –30 ⎠
1
=–
110
∴ f = –110cm
As f is negative, the lens indeed behaves like a concave lens.
208 PHYSICS
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Optics and Optical
spectacles. However, when asked about the power of their lens, they simply quote Instruments
a positive or negative number. What does this number signify? This number is the
power of a lens in dioptre. The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its
focal length in metre:
1
P =
f
The S1 unit of power of a lens is m–1. Dioptre is only a commercial unit generally Notes
used by opticians. The power of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave
lens is negative. Note that greater power implies smaller focal length. Using lens
maker’s formula, we can relate power of a lens to its radii of curvature:
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= (μ – 1) ⎜ – ⎟
f ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
or P = (μ – 1) ⎜ R – R ⎟
⎝ 1 2 ⎠
Example 20.6 : Calculate the radius of curvature of a biconvex lens with both
surfaces of equal radii, to be made from glass (μ = 1.54), in order to get a power
of +2.75 dioptre.
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
Solution : P = (μ – 1) ⎜ R – R ⎟
⎝ 1 2 ⎠
P = +2.75 dioptre
μ = 1.54
R1 = R
and R2 = – R
Substuting the given values in lens makers formula, we get
⎛2⎞
2.75 = (0.54) ⎜ R ⎟
⎝ ⎠
0.54 × 2
R =
2.75
= 0.39 m
= 39 cm
PHYSICS 209
MODULE - 6 Reflection and Refraction of Light
Notes
Note that lens A forms the image of object O at I1. This image serves as the
virtual object for lens B and the final image is thus formed at I. If v be the object
distance and v1 the image distance for the lens A, then using the lens formula, we
can write
1 1 1
– = (20.19)
v1 u f1
1 – 1 = 1 (20.20)
v v1 f2
Note that in writing the above expression, we have taken v1 as the object distance
for the thin lens B.
Adding Eqns. (20.19) and (20.20), we get
1 1 1 1
– = + (20.21)
v u f1 f2
If the combination of lenses is replaced by a single lens of focal length F such that
it forms the image of O at the same position I, then this lens is said to be equivalent
to both the lenses. It is also called the equivalent lens for the combination. For
the equivalent lens, we can write
1 1 1
– = (20.22)
v u F
1 1 1
where = + . (20.23)
F f1 f2
210 PHYSICS
Reflection and Refraction of Light MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
If P is power of the equivalent lens and P1 and P2 are respectively the powers of Instruments
individual lenses, then
P = P1 + P2 (20.24)
Note that Eqns.(20.23) and (20.24) derived by assuming two thin convex lenses
in contact also hold good for any combination of two thin lenses in contact (the
two lenses may both be convex, or concave or one may be concave and the other
convex). Notes
Example 20.7 : Two thin convex lenses of focal lengths 20cm and 40cm are in
contact with each other. Calculate the focal length and the power of the equivalent
lens.
1 1 1
Solution : The formula for the focal length of the combination = f + f
F 1 2
gives
1 1 1
= +
F 20 40
3
=
40
40
or F = = 13.3cm = 0.133cm
3
Power of the equivalent lens is
1 1
P = = = +7.5 dioptre.
F 0.133
PHYSICS 211
MODULE - 6 Reflection and Refraction of Light
Fig. 20.16 :Spherical aberration in a) spherical mirror, and b) lens. Ip is image formed by
the paraxial rays and Im that formed by the marginal rays.
212 PHYSICS
Reflection and Refraction of Light MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
The other methods to minimize spherical aberration in lenses are : use of Instruments
plano convex lenses or using a suitable combination of a convex and a concave
lens.
Chromatic Aberration in Lenses
A convex lens may be taken as equivalent to two small-angled prisms placed
base to base and the concave lens as equivalent to such prisms placed vertex Notes
to vertex. Thus, a polychromatic beam incident on a lens will get dispersed.
The parallel beam will be focused at different coloured focii. This defect of
the image formed by spherical lenses is called chromatic aberration. It occurs
due to the dispersion of a polychromatic incident beam (Fig. 20.17. Obviously
the red colour is focused farther from the lens while the blue colour is focused
nearer the lens (in a concave lens the focusing of the red and blue colours
takes place in the same manner but on the opposite side of it).
Fr
Fr Fv
Fv
R
f =
2
PHYSICS 213
MODULE - 6 Reflection and Refraction of Light
v
m =
u
z Refraction of light results in change in the speed of light when it travels from
one medium to another. This causes the rays of light to bend towards or away
from the normal.
Notes
z The refractive index μ determines the extent of bending of light at the interface
of two media.
z Snell’s law is mathematically expressed as
sin i
= μ12
sin r
where i is the angle of incidence in media 1 and r is the angle of refraction in
media 2.
z Total internal reflection is a special case of refraction wherein light travelling
from a denser to a rarer media is incident at an angle greater than the critical
angle:
1
μ = sin i
C
v
m=
u
1 1 1
and = –
f v u
are simple relationships between the focal length (f), the refractive index, the
radii of curvatures (R1, R2), the object distance (u) and the image distance (v).
z Newton's formula can be used to measure the focal length of a lens.
z Displacement method is a very convenient way of finding focal length of a
lens.
214 PHYSICS
Reflection and Refraction of Light MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
z Power of a lens indicates how diverging or converging it is: Instruments
1
P =
f
Power is expressed in dioptre. (or m–1 in SI units)
z The focal length F of an equivalent lens when two their lenses of focal lengths
f1 and f2 one kept in contact is given by
Notes
1 1 1
= f + f
F 1 2
TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. List the uses of concave and convex mirrors.
2. What is the nature and position of image formed when the object is at (i)
infinity (ii) 2 f (iii) f in case of concave mirror and convex mirror.
3. List the factors on which lateral displacement of an incident ray depends as it
suffers refraction through a parallel-sided glass slab? Why is the lateral
displacement larger if angle of incidence is greater. Show this with the help of
a ray diagram.
4. State conditions for total internal reflection of light to take place.
5. How is +1.5 dioptre different from –1.5 dioptre? Define dioptre.
6. Why does the intensity of light become less due to refraction?
7. A lamp is 4m from a wall. Calculate the focal length of a concave mirror
which forms a five times magnified image of the lamp on the wall. How far
from the wall must the mirror be placed?
8. A dentist’s concave mirror has a radius of curvature of 30cm. How far must
it be placed from a cavity in order to give a virtual image magnified five
times?
9. A needle placed 45cm from a lens forms an image on a screen placed 90cm on
the other side of the lens. Identify the type of the lens and determine its focal
length. What is the size of the image, if the size of the needle is 5.0cm?
10. An object of size 3.0cm is placed 14cm in front of a concave lens of focal
length 21 cm. Describe the nature of the image by the lens. What happens if
the object is moved farther from the lens?
11. An object is placed at a distance of 100cm from a double convex lens which
forms a real image at a distance of 20cm. The radii of curvature of the surfaces
PHYSICS 215
MODULE - 6 Reflection and Refraction of Light
F3 F2 F1
P3 P2 P1
5cm
7cm
10cm
2.5cm
35cm
5cm
216 PHYSICS
Reflection and Refraction of Light MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
3. f = –15cm; f = +15cm. Instruments
4. The dish antennas are curved so that the incident parallel rays can be focussed
on the receiver.
20.2
1. The upper part of the mirror must be convex and its lower part concave.
2. Objects placed close to a concave mirror give an enlarged image. Convex Notes
mirrors give a diminished erect image and have a larger field of view.
3. for |u| > f, we get real image; u = –2f is a special case when an object kept as
the centre of curvature of the mirror forms a real image at this point itself (v
= –2f ). For u < f, we get virtual image.
PHYSICS 217
MODULE - 6 Reflection and Refraction of Light
20.3
Notes 1. No lateral displacement.
6. 36.20
20.4
1. Total internal reflection cannot take place if the ray travels from a rarer to a
denser medium as the angle of refraction will always be less than the angle of
incidence.
2. Yes the critical angle will change as
1 μ ag
μag = sin i μωg =
c μ aw
218 PHYSICS
Reflection and Refraction of Light MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
Instruments
3.
The intensity in the second case is more due to total internal reflection.
4. 20cm, ic = sin–1 0.8 Notes
20.5
2. No. Changing the position of R1 and R2 in the lens maker’s formula does not
affect the value of f. So the image will be formed in the same position.
3. Substitute R1 = R; R2 = –R and μ = 1.5 in the lens maker’s formula. You will
get f = R.
4. Concave lens. But it is shaped like a convex lens.
5. This happens when the refractive index of the material of the lens is the same
as that of the liquid.
6. f = 22.2 cm and P = 4.5 dioptre
7. Yes, by placing a convex and a concave lens of equal focal length in contact.
8. – 40cm, – 2.5 dioptre
PHYSICS 219
MODULE - 6 Dispersion and Scattering of Light
21
Notes
In the previous lesson you have learnt about reflection, refraction and total internal
reflection of light. You have also learnt about image formation by mirrors and
lenses and their uses in daily life. When a narrow beam of ordinary light is refracted
by a prism, we see colour bands. This phenomenon has to be other than reflection
or refraction. The splitting of white light into its constituent colours or wavelengths
by a medium is called dispersion. In this lesson, you will study about this
phenomenon. A beautiful manifestation of this phenomenon in nature is in the
form of rainbow. You will also learn in this lesson about the phenomenon of
scattering of light, which gives sky its blue colour and the sun red colour at
sunrise and sunset. Elementary idea of Raman effect will also be discussed in this
lesson.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z explain dispersion of light;
z derive relation between the angle of deviation (δ), angle of prism (A) and
refractive index of the material of the prism (μ);
z relate the refractive index with wavelength and explain dispersion through a
prism;
z explain formation of primary and secondary rainbows;
z explain scattering of light and list its applications.and; and
z explain Raman effect.
220 PHYSICS
Dispersion and Scattering of Light MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
such events, light is considered as having wave nature. (You will learn about it in Instruments
the next lesson.) As you know, light waves are transverse electromagnetic waves
which propagate with speed 3 × 108 ms–1 in vacuum. Of the wide range of
electromagnetic spectrum, the visible light forms only a small part. Sunlight
consists of seven different wavelengths corresponding to seven colours. Thus,
colours may be identified with their wavelengths. You have already learnt that
the speed and wavelength of waves change when they travel from one medium to
another. The speed of light waves and their corresponding wavelengths also change Notes
with the change in the medium. The speed of a wave having a certain wavelength
becomes less than its speed in free space when it enters an optically denser medium.
The refractive index μ has been defined as the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum
to the speed of light in the medium. It means that the refractive index of a given
medium will be different for waves having wavelengths 3.8 × 10–7 m and 5.8 ×
10–7 m because these waves travel with different speeds in the same medium. This
variation of the refractive index of a material with wavelength is known as
dispersion. This phenomenon is different from refraction. In free space and even
in air, the speeds of all waves of the visible light are the same. So, they are not
separated. (Such a medium is called a non-dispersive medium.) But in an optically
denser medium, the component wavelengths (colours) travel with different speeds
and therefore get separated. Such a medium is called dispersive medium. Does
this suggest that light will exhibit dispersion whenever it passes through an optically
denser medium. Let us learn about it now.
PHYSICS 221
MODULE - 6 Dispersion and Scattering of Light
Read the following example carefully to fix the ideas on variation of the refractive
index with the wavelength of light.
Example 21.1: A beam of light of average wavelength 600nm, on entering a
glass prism, splits into three coloured beams of wavelengths 384 nm, 589 nm and
760 nm respectively. Determine the refractive indices of the material of the prism
for these wavelengths.
Solution : The refractive index of the material of the prism is given by
c
μ =
v
where c is speed of light in vacuum, and v is speed of light in the medium (prism).
Since velocity of a wave is product of frequency and wavelength, we can write
c = vλa and v = vλm
where λa and λm are the wavelengths in air and medium respectively and v is the
frequency of light waves. Thus
vλ a λa
μ = vλ m = λ
m
PHYSICS 223
MODULE - 6 Dispersion and Scattering of Light
Applying the principle of reversibility of light rays and under the condition ∠e =
∠i, we can write ∠r1 = ∠r2 = ∠r , say
224 PHYSICS
Dispersion and Scattering of Light MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
On substituting this result in Eqn. (21.4), we get Instruments
∠Α
∠r = (21.7)
2
The light beam inside the prism, under the condition of minimum deviation, passes
symmetrically through the prism and is parallel to its base. The refractive index of
the material of the prism is therefore given by
Notes
⎛ A + δm ⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟
sin i ⎝ 2 ⎠
μ = = A (21.8)
sin r sin
2
sin i i
μ = sin r = r or i = μr1
1 1
sin e e
Also μ = sin r = r or e = μr2
2 2
Therefore,
∠i + ∠e = μ (∠r1 + ∠r2)
Using this result in Eqns. (26.4) and (26.5), we get
μ ∠A = ∠A + ∠δ
or ∠δ = (μ – 1)∠A (21.9)
We know that μ depends on the wavelength of light. So deviation will also depend
on the wavelength of light. That is why δV is different from δR. Since the velocity
of the red light is more than that of the violet light in glass, the deviation of the
red light would be less as compared to that of the violet light.
δV > δR.
This implies that μV > μR. This change in the refractive index of the material with
the wavelength of light is responsible for dispersion phenomenon.
PHYSICS 225
MODULE - 6 Dispersion and Scattering of Light
δV – δR
ω = δY
We can express this result in terms of the refractive indices using Eqn. (21.9) :
(μ V – 1) ∠A – (μ R – 1)∠A
ω = (μ V – 1)∠A
μV – μR Δμ
= μ –1 = μ –1 (21.10)
Y
Example 21.2 : The refracting angle of a prism is 30′ and its refractive index is
1.6. Calculate the deviation caused by the prism.
Solution : We know that δ = (μ – 1) ∠A
On substituting the given data, we get
1o 0.6
δ = (1.6 – 1) × = = 0.3o = 18′
2 2
Example 21.3 : For a prism of angle A, the angle of minimum deviation is A/2.
Calculate its refractive index, when a monochromatic light is used. Given A = 60o
Solution : The refractive index is given by
⎛ A + δm ⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟
μ = ⎝ 2 ⎠
sin ( A / 2)
⎛ A + A/2 ⎞ ⎛3 ⎞
sin ⎜ A ⎟ ⎛3 ⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ A ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝4 ⎠
μ= = = = 2 = 1.4
sin ( A / 2) ⎛ A⎞ ⎛ A⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
226 PHYSICS
Dispersion and Scattering of Light MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
Instruments
INTEXT QUESTIONS 21.1
1. Most ordinary gases do not show dispersion with visible light. Why?
2. With your knowledge about the relative values of μ for the component colours
of white light, state which colour is deviated more from its original direction?
3. Does dispersion depend on the size and angle of the prism? Notes
4. Calculate the refractive index of an equilateral prism if the angle of minimum
deviation is equal to the angle of the prism.
Rainbow formation
Dispersion of sunlight through suspanded water drops in air produces a
spectracular effect in nature in the form of rainbow on a rainy day. With
Sun at our back, we can see a brighter and another fainter rainbow. The
brighter one is called the primary rainbow and the other one is said to be
secondary rainbow. Sometimes we see only one rainbow. The bows are
in the form of coloured arcs whose common centre lies at the line joining
the Sun and our eye. Rainbow can also be seen in a fountain of water in
the evening or morning when the sun rays are incident on the water drops
at a definite angle.
Primary Rainbow
The primary rainbow is formed by two refractions and a single internal
reflection of sunlight in a water drop. (See Fig. 21.5(a)). Descartes
explained that rainbow is seen through the rays which have suffered
minimum deviation. Parallel rays from the Sun suffering deviation of
137º.29′ or making an angle of 42º.31′ at the eye with the incident ray,
after emerging from the water drop, produce bright shining colours in the
bow. Dispersion by water causes different colours (red to violet) to make
their own arcs which lie within a cone of 43o for red and 41o. for violet
rays on the outer and inner sides of the bow (Fig. 21.5 (b)).
Fig. 21.5 : (a) A ray suffering two refractions and one internal reflection in a drop of water.
Mean angle of minimum deviation is 137º29′, and (b) dispersion by a water drop.
PHYSICS 227
MODULE - 6 Dispersion and Scattering of Light
Notes
ACTIVITY 21.1
Take a glass jar or a trough, fill it with water and add a little milk to it. Now allow
a narrow beam of light from a white bulb to fall on it. Observe the light at 90o.
You will see a bluish beam through water. This experiment shows that after
scattering, the wavelenghts of light become a peculiarly different in a given direction
(Fig. 21.14).
The phenomenon of scattering is a two step process : absorption of light by the
scattering particle and then instant re-emission by it in all possible directions.
Thus, this phenomenon is different from reflection. The scattered light does not
obey the laws of reflection. It is important to note that the size of the particle
must be less than the wavelength of light incident on it. A bigger sized particle
will scatter all the wavelengths equally. The intensity of scattered light is given by
Rayleigh’s law of scattering. According to this law, the intensity of scattered
light is inversely proportional to the fourth power of its wavelength:
1
Iα
λ4
PHYSICS 229
MODULE - 6 Dispersion and Scattering of Light
1
Iα
λ4
Since 3934Å is the smallest wavelength, it will be scattered most intensely.
On the basis of scattering of light, we can explain why sky appears blue, clouds
appear white and the sun appears red at sunrise as well as at sunset.
C.V. Raman
(1888 – 1970)
Chandra Shekhar Venkat Raman is the only Indian national
to receive Nobel prize (1930) in physics till date. His love
for physics was so intense that he resigned his job of an officer
in Indian finance department and accepted the post of Palit
Professor of Physics at the Department of Physics, Calcutta University. His
main contributions are : Raman effect on scattering of light, molecular
diffraction of light, mechanical theory of bowed strings, diffraction of X-
rays, theory of musical instruments and physics of crystals.
As Director of Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and later as the founder
Director of Raman Research Institute, he did yeoman’s to Indian science
and put it on firm footings in pre-independence period.
230 PHYSICS
Dispersion and Scattering of Light MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
Example 21.5 : What will be the colour of the sky for an astronant in a spaceship Instruments
flying at a high attitude.
Solution : At a high attitude, in the absence of dust particle and air molecules,
the sunlight is not scattered. So, the sky will appear black.
(B) White colour of the clouds
The clouds are formed by the assembly of small water drops whose size becomes Notes
more than the average wavelength of the visible light (5000Å). These droplets
scatter all the wavelengths with almost equal intensity. The resultant scattered
light is therefore white. So, a thin layer of clouds appears white. What about
dense clouds?
(C) Red colour of the Sun at Sunrise and Sunset
We are now able to understand the red colour of the Sun at sunrise and sunset. In
the morning and evening when the Sun is near the horizon, light has to travel a
greater distance through the atmosphere. The violet and blue wavelengths are
scattered by dust particles and air molecules at an angle of about 90o. The sunlight
thus becomes devoid of shorter wavelengths and the longer wavelength of red
colour reaches the observer (Fig. 21.9). So the Sun appears to us as red.
Fig. 21.9 : Red colour of the sun at sunset and sunrise (blue is scattered away).
At noon, the Sun is overhead and its distance from the observer is comparatively
less. The blue colour is also scattered less. This results in the Sun appearing
white, as a matter of fact, crimson.
PHYSICS 231
MODULE - 6 Dispersion and Scattering of Light
232 PHYSICS
Dispersion and Scattering of Light MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
z The angle of deviation and refractive index for a small-angled prism are Instruments
connected by the ralation δ = (μ–1)A.
z The rainbow is formed by dispersion of sunlight by raindrops at definite angles
for each colour so that the condition of minimum deviation is satisfied.
z Rainbows are of two types : primary and secondary. The outer side of the
primary rainbow is red but the inner side is violet. The remaining colours lie
in between to follow the order (VIBGYOR). The scheme of colours gets Notes
reversed in the secondary rainbow.
z The blue colour of the sky, the white colour of clouds and the reddish colour
of the Sun at sunrise and sunset are due to scattering of light. The intensity of
scattered light is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ I α 4 ⎟ . This is called Rayleigh’s law. So the blue colour is scattered more
⎝ λ ⎠
than the red.
z When light radiation undergoes scattering from a transparent substance, then
frequency of scatered radiation may be greater or less than frequency of incident
ratiation. This phenomenon is known as Raman effect.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. For a prism, show that i + e = A + δ.
2. Would you prefer small-angled or a large-angled prism to produce dispersion.
Why?
3. Under what condition is the deviation caused by a prism directly proportional
to its refractive index?
4. Explain why the sea water appears blue at high seas.
5. The angle of minimum deviation for a 600 glass prism is 390. Calculate the
refractive index of glass.
6. The deviation produced for red, yellow and violet colours by a crown glass
are 2.84o, 3.28o and 3.72o respectively. Calculate the dispersive power of the
glass material.
7. Calculate the dispersive power for flint glass for the following data : μC =
1.6444, μD= 1.6520 and μF= 1.6637, where C, D & F are the Fraunhofer
nomenclatures.
8. A lens can be viewed as a combination of two prisms placed with their bases
together. Can we observe dispersion using a lens. Justify your answer.
9. Human eye has a convex lens. Do we observe dispersion with unaided eye?
PHYSICS 233
MODULE - 6 Dispersion and Scattering of Light
21.1
1. The velocity of propagation of waves of different wavelengths of visible light
is almost the same in most ordinary gases. Hence, they do not disperse visible
Notes
light. Their refractive index is also very close to 1.
2. Violet, because λr > λv and the velocity of the red light is more than that of the
violet light inside an optically denser medium.
3. No
sin 60º
4. μ = sin 30º = 3 = 1.732
21.2
1. It absorbs sunlight
2. It becomes clear of dust particles and bigger water molecules. The scattering
now takes place strictly according to Rayleigh’s law.
3. We can take sodium thiosulphate solution in a round bottom flask and add a
small quality of sulphuric acid. On illuminating this solution with a high power
bulb, we can see a scenario similar to the colour of the sun at sunrise and
sunset.
4. At very high altitudes no centres (particles) of scattering of sunlight are present.
So the sky appears dark.
5. The spectral lines having frequency greater than the frequency of incident
radiation are known as anti stokes' lines.
234 PHYSICS
Wave phenomena and Light MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
Instruments
22
Notes
In the preceding two lessons of this module, you studied about reflection,
refraction, dispersion and scattering of light. To understand these, we used the
fact that light travels in a straight line. However, this concept failed to explain
redistribution of energy when two light waves were superposed or their bending
around corners. These observed phenomena could be explained only on the basis
of wave nature of light. Christian Huygens, who was a contemporary of Newton,
postulated that light is a wave and the wave theory of light was established beyond
doubt through experimental observations on interference and diffraction. In this
lesson, you will also learn about polarisation, which conclusively proved that
light is a wave and transverse in nature.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z state Huygens’ principle and apply it to explain wave propagation;
z explain the phenomena of interference and diffraction of light;
z explain diffraction of light by a single-slit; and
z show that polarisation of light established its wave nature; and
z derive Brewster’s law.
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ACTIVITY 22.1
Take a wide based trough full of water and drop a small piece of stone in it. What
do you observe? You will see that circular ripples due to the up and down motion
of water molecules spread out from the point where the stone touched the water
surface. If you look carefully at these ripples, you will notice that each point on
the circumference of any of these ripples is in the same state of motion i.e., each
point on the circumference of a ripple oscillates with the same amplitude and in
the same phase. In other words, we can say that the circumference of a ripple is
the locus of the points vibrating in the same phase at a given instant and is
known as the wavefront. Therefore, the circular water ripples spreading out from
the point of disturbance on the water surface represent a circular wavefront.
Obviously, the distance of every point on a wavefront is the same from the point
of disturbance, i.e., the source of waves.
For a point source emitting light in an isotropic medium, the locus of the points
where all waves are in the same phase, will be a sphere. Thus, a point source of
light emits spherical wavefronts. (In two dimensions, as on the water surface,
the wavefronts appear circular.) Similarly, a line source of light emits cylindrical
wavefronts. The line perpendicular to the wavefront at a point represents the
direction of motion of the wavefront at that point. This line is called the ray of
light and a collection of such rays is called a beam of light. When the source of
light is at a large distance, any small portion of the wavefront can be considered
to be a plane wavefront.
The Huygens’principle states that
z Each point on a wavefront becomes a source of secondary disturbance which
spreads out in the medium.
z The position of wavefront at any later instant may be obtained by drawing a
forward common envelop to all these secondary wavelets at that instant.
z In an isotropic medium, the energy carried by waves is transmitted equally
in all directions.
236 PHYSICS
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z If the initial shape, position, the direction of motion and the speed of the Instruments
wavefront is known, its position at a later instant can be ascertained by
geometrical construction. Note that the wavefront does not travel in the
backward direction.
To visualise Huygens’ construction, you may imagine a point source at the centre
of a hollow sphere. The outer surface of this sphere acts as a primary wavefront.
If this sphere is enclosed by another hollow sphere of larger radius, the outer Notes
surface of the second hollow sphere will act as a secondary wavefront. (The
nearest mechanical analogue of such an arrangement is a football.) If the second
sphere is further enclosed by another sphere of still bigger radius, the surface of
the outermost (third) sphere becomes secondary wavefront and the middle
(second) sphere acts as the primary wavefront. In two dimensions, the primary
and secondary wavefronts appear as concentric circles.
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ACTIVITY 22.2
Prepare a soap solution by adding some detergent powder to water. Dip a wire
loop into the soap solution and shake it. When you take out the wire loop, you
will find a thin film on it. Bring this soap film near a light bulb and position
yourself along the direction of the reflected light from the film. You will observe
beautiful colours. Do you know the reason? To answer this question, we have to
understand the phenomenon of interference of light. In simple terms, interference
of light refers to redistribution of energy due to superposition of light waves
from two coherent sources. The phenomenon of interference of light was first
observed experimentally by Thomas Young in 1802 in his famous two-slit
experiment. This experimental observation played a significant role in establishing
the wave theory of light. The basic theoretical principle involved in the phenomenon
of interference as well as diffraction of light is the superposition principle.
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According to Huygens’ wave theory of light, spherical wavefronts would spread Instruments
out from the pin hole S which get divided into two wavefronts by S1 and S2. If S
is illuminated by a monocromatic source of light, such as sodium, these act as
coherent sources and in-phase waves of equal amplitude from these sources
superpose as they move beyond S1S2. As a consequence of superposition (of the
two sets of identical waves from S1 and S2), redistribution of energy takes place
and a pattern consisting of alternate bright and dark fringes is produced on the
Notes
screen such as placed at C. Let us now learn the explanation of the observed
fringe pattern in the Young’s interference experiment.
S2
S0
S1
C
A B
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MODULE - 6 Wave phenomena and Light
y1 = a sin ωt
and y2 = a sin (ωt + δ)
where δ signifies the phase difference between these waves. Note that we have
not included the spatial term because we are considering a fixed point in space.
According to the principle of superposition of waves, the resultant displacement
is given by
y = y1 + y2
= a sin ωt + a sin (ωt + δ)
= a [sin ωt + sin (ωt + δ)]
δ ⎛ δ⎞
= 2a sin (ωt + ) cos ⎜ – ⎟
2 ⎝ ⎠2
δ
= A sin (ωt + )
2
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where amplitude of the resultant wave is given by Instruments
A = 2a cos (δ/2).
The intensity of the resultant wave at point P can be expressed as
I ∝ A2
∝ 4a2 cos2 (δ/2 ) (22.1)
Notes
To see the dependence of intensity on the phase difference between the two waves,
let us consider the following two cases.
Case 1: When the phase difference, δ = 0, 2π, 4π, …, 2nπ
I = 4a2 cos2 0
= 4a2
Case 2: When, δ = π, 3π, 5π, ……, (2n +1)π
I = 4a2 cos2 (δ/2)
=0
From these results we can conclude that when phase difference between
superposing waves is an integral multiple of 2π, the two waves arrive at the
screen ‘in-phase’ and the resultant intensity (or the brightness) at those points is
more than that due to individual waves (which is equal to 4a2). On the other
hand, when phase difference between the two superposing waves is an odd multiple
of π, the two superposing waves arrive at the screen ‘out of phase’. Such points
have zero intensity and appear to be dark on the screen.
(d) Phase Difference and Path Difference
It is obvious from the above discussion that to know whether a point on the
screen will be bright or dark, we need to know the phase difference between the
waves arriving at that point. The phase difference can be expressed in terms of
the path difference between the waves during their journey from the sources to a
point on the observation screen. You may recall that waves starting from S1 and
S2 are in phase. Thus, whatever phase difference arises between them at the point
P is because of the different paths travelled by them upto observation point from
S1 and S2. From Fig. 22.5, we can write the path difference as
Δ = S2P – S1P
We know that path difference of one wavelength is equivalent to a phase difference
of 2π. Thus, the relation between the phase difference δ and the path difference Δ
is
⎛ λ ⎞
Δ = ⎜ ⎟δ (22.2)
⎝ 2π ⎠
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Having obtained expressions for the bright and dark fringes in terms of the path
difference and the wavelength of the light used, let us now relate path difference
with the geometry of the experiment, i.e., relate Δ with the distance D between
the source and the screen, separation between the pin holes (d) and the location
of the point P on the screen. From Fig. 22.5 we note that
Δ = S2 P – S1 P = S2 A = d sin θ
Assuming θ to be small, we can write
sin θ ≈ tan θ ≈ θ
and sin θ = x / D
Therefore, the expression for path difference can be rewritten as
d
Δ = d sinθ = x (22.5)
D
On substituting Eqn. (22.5) in Eqns. (22.2) and (22.3), we get
d
(x ) = nλ
D n bright
nλD
or (xn) bright = ; n = 0, 1, 2, ... (22.6)
d
d 1
and (xn)dark = (n + )λ
D 2
1 λD
or (xn)dark = (n + ) ; n = 0, 1, 2, ... (22.7)
2 d
Eqns. (22.6) and (22.7) specify the positions of the bright and dark fringes on the
screen.
(e) Fringe width
You may now ask: How wide is a bright or a dark fringe? To answer this question,
we first determine the location of two consecutive bright (or dark) fringes. Let us
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first do it for bright fringes. For third and second bright fringes, from Eqn. (22.6), Instruments
we can write
λD
(x3)bright = 3
d
λD
and (x2)bright = 2
d
Therefore, fringe width, β is given by Notes
λD
β = (x3)bright – (x2)bright = (22.8)
d
You should convince yourself that the fringe width of an interference pattern
remains the same for any two consecutive value of n. Note that fringe width is
directly proportional to linear power of wavelength and distance between the
source plane and screen and inversely proportional to the distance between the
slits. In actual practice, fringes are so fine that we use a magnifying glass to see
them.
Next let us learn about the intensity of bright and dark fringes in the interference
pattern. We know that when two light waves arrive at a point on the screen out of
phase, we get dark fringes. You may ask : Does this phenomenon not violate the
law of conservation of energy because energy carried by two light waves seem to
be destroyed? It is not so; the energy conservation principle is not violated in the
interference pattern. Actually, the energy which disappears at the dark fringes
reappears at the bright fringes. You may note from Eqn. (22.1) that the intensity
of the bright fringes is four times the intensity due to an individual wave. Therefore,
in an interference fringe pattern, shown in Fig. (22.6), the energy is redistributed
and it varies between 4a2 and zero. Each beam, acting independently, will
contribute a2 and hence, in the absence of interference, the screen will be uniformly
illuminated with intensity 2a2 due to the light coming from two identical sources.
This is the average intensity shown by the broken line in Fig. 22.6.
You have seen that the observed interference pattern in the Young’s experiment
can be understood qualitatively as well as quantitatively with the help of wave
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b) The separation between the obstacle or aperture and the screen should be Instruments
considerably larger (a few thousand times) than the size of the obstacle or
aperture.
On the basis of the above observations, it is easy to understand why we normally
do not observe diffraction of light and why light appears to travel in a straight
line. You know that the wavelength of light is of the order of 10–6 m. Therefore,
to observe diffraction of light, we need to have obstacles or aperture having Notes
dimensions of this order!
The salient features of the actual diffraction pattern produced by a single vertical
slit from a point source as shown in Fig. 22.8 are :
z A horizontal streak of light along a line normal to the length of the slit.
z The horizontal pattern is a series of bright spots.
–3π –2π –π 0 π 2π 3π
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Q
P
R
Q
Barrier
{
containing
the slit
{
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equal parts. Each of these can be considered as a sources of secondary wavelets. Instruments
The wavelets emanating from these points spread out into the region to the right
of the slit. Since the plane wavefront is incident on the slit, initially all points on it
are in phase. Therefore, the wavelets emitted by these points are all in phase at
the time of leaving the slit. Now let us consider the effect of the superposition of
these wavelets at point O on the screen. The symmetry of the Fig. 22.10 suggests
that the wavelets emitted from source of 1 and 100 will reach O in phase. It is so
Notes
because both the wavelets travel equal path length. When they started their journey
from the respective points on the slit, they were in phase. Hence they arrive at O
in phase and superpose in such a manner as to give resultant amplitude much
more than that due to the individual wavelets from the source 1 and 100. Similarly,
for each wavelet from source 2 to 50, we have a corresponding wavelet from the
source 99 to 51 which will produce constructive interference causing enhancement
in intensity at the center O. Thus the point O will appear bright on the screen.
Now let us consider an off-axis point P on the observation screen. Suppose that
point P is such that the path difference between the extreme points i.e. sources 1
and 100 is equal to λ. Thus the path difference between the wavelets from source
1 and 51 will be nearly equal to (λ/2).
You may recall from the interference of light that the waves coming from the
sources 1 and 51 will arrive at P out of phase and give rise to destructive
interference. Similarly, wavelets from the sources 2 and 52 and all such pair of
wavelets will give rise to destructive interference at the point P. Therefore, we
will have minimum intensity at point P. Similarly, we will get minimum intensity
for other points for which the path difference between the source edges is equal
to 2λ. We can imagine that the slit is divided into four equal points and we can, by
similar pairing of 1 and 26, 2 and 27, ... show that first and second quarters have
a path difference of λ/2 and cancel each other. Third and fourth quarters cancel
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Let us now find intensity at a point P ′ which lies between the points P and P1 and
Notes the path difference between waves diffracted from extreme points is 3λ/2. We
divide the wavefront at the slit into 3 equal parts. In such a situation, secondary
wavelets from the corresponding sources of two parts will have a path difference
of λ/2 when they reach the point P and cancel each other. However, wavelets
from the third portion of the wavefront will all contribute constructively (presuming
that practically the path difference for wavelets from this part is zero) and produce
brightness at P ′ . Since only one third of the wavefront contributes towards the
intensity at P ′ as compared to O, where the whole wavefront contributes, the
intensity at P ′ is considerably less than that of the intensity at O. The point P ′
and all other similar points constitute secondary maxima.
However, you must note here that this is only a qualitative and simplified
explanation of the diffraction at a single slit. You will study more rigorous analysis
of this phenomena when you pursue higher studies in physics.
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Instruments
(b) Notes
(a)
Fig. 22.11 : Transverse wave on a rope passing through a) two vertical slits, and b) one vertical
Activity
and one22.3
horizontal slit
Take two card boards having narrow vertical slits S1 and S2 and hold them parallel
to each other. Pass a length of a string through the two slits, fix its one end and
hold the other in your hand. Now move your hand up and down and sideways to
generate waves in all directions. You will see that the waves passing through the
vertical slit S1 will also pass through S2 , as shown in Fig. 22.11(a). Repeat the
experiment by making the slit S2 horizontal. You will see no waves beyond S2. It
means that waves passing through S1 cannot pass through the horizontal slit S2.
This is because the vibrations in the wave are in a plane at right angles to the slits
S2, as shown in Fig. 22.11(b).
This activity can be repeated for light by placing a source of light at O and replacing
the slits by two polaroids. You will see light in case(a) only. This shows that light
has vibrations confined to a plane. It is said to be linearly polarised or plane
polarised after passing through the first polaroid (Fig. 22.12).
When an unpolarised light falls on glass, water or any other transparent material,
the reflected light is, in general, partially plane polarised. Fig. 22.13 shows
unpolarised light AO incident on a glass plate. The reflected light is shown by OR
and the transmitted wave by OT. When the light is incident at polarising angle,
the polarisation is complete. At this angle, the reflected and transmitted rays are
at right angles to each other.
The polarising angle depends on the refractive index of the material of glass plate
on which the (unpolarised) beam of light is incident. The relation between r and
PHYSICS 249
MODULE - 6 Wave phenomena and Light
sin i p sin i p
μ = =
sin r sin(90 − i p )
sin i p
= == tan ip.
cos i p
Notes
This is known as Brewster’s law. It implies that polarising angle ip depends on the
refractive index of the material. For air water interface, ip = 53°. It means that
when the sun is 37° above the horizontal, the light reflected from a calm pond or
lake will be completely linearly polarised. Brewster’s law has many applications
in daily life. Glare caused by the light reflected from a smooth surface can be
reduced by using polarising materials called polaroids, which are made from tiny
crystals of quinine iodosulphate; all lined up in the same direction in a sheet of
nitro cellulose. Such crystals (called dichoric) transmit light in one specific plane
and absorb those in a perpendicular plan. Thus, polaroid coatings on sunglasses
reduce glare by absorbing a component of the polarized light. Polaroid discs are
used in photography as ‘filters’ in front of camera lens and facilitate details which
would otherwise be hidden by glare. Polarimeters are used in sugar industry for
quality control.
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Instruments
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Explain in brief the theories describing the nature of light.
2. What is a wavefront? What is the direction of a beam of light with respect to
the associated wavefront? State the Huygens’ principle and explain the
propagation of light waves.
3. Obtain the laws of reflection on the basis of Huygens’ wave theory.
4. What is the principle of superposition of waves? Explain the interference of
light.
5. Describe Young’s double slit experiment to produce interference. Deduce an
expression for the width of the interference fringes.
6. What would happen to the interference pattern obtained in the Young’s double
slit experiment when
(i) one of the slits is closed;
(ii) the experiment is performed in water instead of air;
(iii) the source of yellow light is used in place of the green light source;
(iv) the separation between the two slits is gradually increased;
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22.1
1. Perpendicular to each other (θ = π/2) 2. ½
22.2
1. On the amplitude of the waves and the phase difference between them.
2. When the phase difference between the two superposing beams is an integral
multiple of 2π, we obtain constructive interference.
3. No, it is so because two independent sources of light will emit light waves
with different wavelengths, amplitudes and the two set of waves will not have
constant phase relationship. Such sources of light are called incoherent sources.
For observing interference of light, the sources of light must be coherent.
When the light waves are coming from two incoherent sources, the points on
the screen where two crests or two trough superpose at one instant to produce
brightness may receive, at the other instant, the crest of the wave from one
source and trough from the other and produce darkness. Thus, the whole
screen will appear uniformly illuminated if the pinholes S1 and S2 are replaced
by two incandescent light bulbs.
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4. Coherent sources should emit waves Instruments
(a) of same frequency and wavelength,
(b) in phase or having constant phase difference, and
(c) same amplitude and period.
Moreover, these should be close. Our eyes may not meet this criterion.
Notes
22.3
1. Yes
2. Interference is the superposition of secondary waves emanating from two
different secondary sources whereas diffraction is the superposition of
secondary waves emanating from different portions of the same wavefronts.
3. Due to the increasing path difference between wavelets.
22.4
1. No. Because, in a longitudinal wave, the direction of vibrations is the same as
the direction of motion of the wave.
2. No. 3. 90° or 270° 4. No.
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23
Notes
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
We get most of the information about the surrounding world through our eyes.
But as you know, an unaided eye has limitations; objects which are too far like
stars, planets etc. appear so small that we are unable to see their details. Similarly,
objects which are too small, e.g. pollen grains, bacteria, viruses etc. remain invisible
to the unaided eyes. Moreover, our eyes do not keep a permanent record of what
they see, except what is retained by our memory. You may therefore ask the
question: How can we see very minute and very distant objects? The special
devices meant for this purpose are called optical instruments.
In this lesson you will study about two important optical instruments, namely, a
microscope and a telescope. As you must be knowing, a microscope magnifies
small objects while a telescope is used to see distant objects. The design of these
appliances depends on the requirement. (The knowledge of image formation by
the mirrors and lenses, which you have acquired in Lesson 20, will help you
understand the working of these optical instruments.) The utility of a microscope
is determined by its magnifying power and resolving power. For a telescope, the
keyword is resolving power. You must have read about Hubble’s space telescope,
which is being used by scientists to get details of far off galaxies and search for a
life-sustaining planet beyond our solar system.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z explain the working principle of simple and compound microscopes;
z derive an expression for the magnifying power of a microscope;
z distinguish between linear and angular magnifications;
z explain the working principle of refracting and reflecting telescopes; and
z calculate the resolving powers of an eye, a telescope and a microscope.
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23.1 MICROSCOPE Instruments
In Lesson 20 you have learnt about image formation by mirrors and lenses. If you
take a convex lens and hold it above this page, you will see images of the alphabets/
words. If you move the lens and bring it closer and closer to the page, the alphabets
printed on it will start looking enlarged. This is because their enlarged, virtual
and errect image is being formed by the lens. That is, it is essentially acting as a
magnifying glass or simple microscope. You may have seen a doctor, examining Notes
measels on the body of a child. Watch makers and jewellers use it to magnify
small components of watches and fine jewellery work. You can take a convex
lens and try to focus sunlight on a small piece of paper. You will see that after
some time, the piece of paper start burning. A convex lens can, therefore start a
fire. That is why it is dangerous to leave empty glass bottles in the woods. The
sunlight falling on the glass bottles may get focused on dry leaves in the woods
and set them on fire. Sometimes, these result in wild fires, which destroy large
parts of a forest and/or habitation. Such fires are quite common in Australia,
Indonesia and U.S.
As a simple microscope, a convex lens is satisfactory for magnifying small nearby
objects upto about twenty times their original size. For large magnification, a
compound microscope is used, which is a combination of basically two lenses. In
a physics laboratory, a magnifying glass is used to read vernier scales attached to
a travelling microscope and a spectrometer.
While studying simple and compound microscopes, we come across scientific
terms like (i) near point, (ii) least distance of distinct vision, (iii) angular
magnification or magnifying power, (iv) normal adjustment etc. Let us first define
these.
(i) Near point is the distance from the eye for which the image of an object
placed there is formed (by eye lens) on the retina. The near point varies from
person to person and with the age of an individual. At a young age (say
below 10 years), the near point may be as close as 7-8 cm. In the old age, the
near point shifts to larger values, say 100-200 cm or even more. That is why
young children tend to keep their books so close whereas the aged persons
keep a book or newspaper far away from the eye.
(ii) Least distance of distinct vision is the distance upto which the human eye
can see the object clearly without any strain on it. For a normal human eye,
this distance is generally taken to be 25 cm.
(iii) Angular magnification is the ratio of the angle subtended by the image at
the eye (when the microscope is used) to the angle subtended by the object
at the unaided eye when the object is placed at the least distance of distinct
vision. It is also called the magnifying power of the microscope.
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(a)
(b)
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∠A′OB′ β Instruments
microscope is given by M = = . In practice, the angles α and β are
AO′B α
small. Therefore, you can replace these by their tangents, i.e. write
tan β
M = (23.1)
tan α
A 'B ' A′B′ Notes
From Δs A'OB' and AOB, we can write tan β = = and
A 'O D
′ ′′ AB
AB
tanα = = . On putting these values of tanβ and tanα in Eqn. (23.1), we
AO′ D
get
A′B′ AB A′B′
M = =
D D AB
Since Δs AOB and A′OB′ in Fig 23.1(b) are similar, we can write
A′B′ A′O
= (23.2)
AB AO
Following the standard sign convention, we note that
A′O = –D
and AO = –u
Hence, from Eqn. (23.2), we obtain
A′B′ D
= (23.3)
AB u
If f is the focal length of the lens acting as a simple microscope, then using the
⎛1 1 1⎞
lens formula ⎜ v − u = f ⎟ and noting that v = – D, u = – u and f = f, we get
⎝ ⎠
1 1 1
– = f
–D –u
1 1 1
or – + =
D u f
Multiplying both the sides by D, and rearranging term, you can write
D D
=1+ f (23.4)
u
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MODULE - 6 Optical Instruments
D
or M =1+ f (23.5)
Notes From this result we note that lesser the focal length of the convex lens, greater is
the value of the angular magnification or magnifying power of the simple
microscope.
Normal Adjustment : In this case, the image is formed at infinity. The magnifying
power of the microscope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by the
image at the eye to the angle subtended by the object at the unaided eye when the
object is placed at D. Fig 23.2(a) shows that the object is placed at the least
distance of distinct vision D.
(a)
(b)
The angles subtended by the object and the image at the unaided eye are α and β,
respectively. The magnifying power is defined as
β
M =
α
In practice, the angles α and β are small, and, as before, replacing these by their
tangents, we get
tan β
M =
tan α
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AB AB Instruments
i.e. = AO AO1
AO1 D
= = f
AO
D Notes
or M = f (23.6)
You may note that in the normal adjustment, the viewing of the image is more
comfortable. To help you fix your ideas, we now give a solved example. Read it
carefully.
Example 23.1: Calculate the magnifying power of a simple microscope having a
focal length of 2.5 cm.
Solution : For a simple microscope, the magnifying power is given by
[Eqn. (23.5)] :
D
M =1+ f
Notes
(a)
Fig.23.3 : Image formation by a compound microscope when the final image is formed at
the least distance of distinct vision.
A′′B′′ AB
M =
D D
A′′B ′′
Note that me = defines magnification produced by eye lens and mo =
A′B ′
A′B ′
denotes magnification produced by the objective lens. Hence
AB
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D vo Instruments
M = u . u = me × mo (23.7)
e o
From Lesson 20, you may recall the lens formula. For eye lens, we can write
1 1 1
– =
ve ue fe
Notes
Multiply on both sides by ve to get
ve ve v
- = e
ve ue fe
ve ve
⇒ ue = 1 – fe
ve D
me = u = 1 + (23.8)
e fe
Since the focal length of the eye lens is also small, the distance of the image A′B′
from the object lens is nearly equal to the length of the microscope tube i.e.
vo ≈ L
Hence, the relation for the magnifying power in terms of parameters related to
the microscope may be written as
L ⎛ D⎞
M = f ⎜1+ f ⎟ (23.10)
0 ⎝ e ⎠
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Notes
1 1 1
– =
ve ue fe
30
On solving, you will easily obtain ue = – cm
7
110
= cm
7
Using the formula
1 1 1
– =
vo uo fo
we have
1 1 1
– =
110/7 uo 2
110
or uo = – cm
48
262 PHYSICS
Optical Instruments MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
The magnifying power of the objective Instruments
vo 110 / 7 48
mo = = =–
uo −110 / 48 7
M = (mo) (me )
⎛ 48 ⎞
= ⎜ − ⎟ (7) = – 48
⎝ 7 ⎠
23.2 TELESCOPES
Telescopes are used to see distant objects such as celestial and terrestrial bodies.
Some of these objects may not be visible to the unaided eye. The visual angle
subtended by the distant objects at the eye is so small that the object cannot be
perceived. The use of a telescope increases the visual angle and brings the image
nearer to the eye. Mainly two types of telescopes are in common use : refracting
telescope and reflecting telescope. We now discuss these.
PHYSICS 263
MODULE - 6 Optical Instruments
β
M =
α
264 PHYSICS
Optical Instruments MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
Since α and β are small, they can be replaced by their tangents. Therefore, Instruments
tan β
M =
tan α
AB/AO2 AO1
= AB/AO = AO
1 2
Notes
fo
= f (23.11)
e
Magnifying power: It is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended at the eye by
the image formed at D to the angle subtended by the object lying at infinity:
β
M =
α
tan β
≈
tan α
AB/AO2 AO1
= AB/AO = AO
1 2
fo
= (23.12)
ue
PHYSICS 265
MODULE - 6 Optical Instruments
1 1 1
= –
ue ve fe
Notes 1 ⎛ fe ⎞
=– ⎜1– ⎟
fe ⎝ ve ⎠
fo f ⎛ fe ⎞
or M = = – o ⎜1 – ⎟ (23.13)
ue f e ⎝ ve ⎠
fo ⎛ f e ⎞
M = – ⎜1+ ⎟ (23.14)
fe ⎝ D ⎠
The negative sign of magnifying power of the telescope suggests that the final
image is inverted and real. The above expression tells that the magnifying power
of a telescope is larger when adjusted at the least distance of distinct vision to the
telescope when focused for normal adjustment.
Example 23.3: The focal length of the objective of an astronomical telescope is
75 cm and that of the eyepiece is 5 cm. If the final image is formed at the least
distance of distinct vision from the eye, calculate the magnifying power of the
telescope.
Solution:
Here fo= 75 cm, fe = 5 cm, D = 25 cm
fo ⎛ fe ⎞ –75 ⎛ 5 ⎞
M = – ⎜1+ ⎟ = ⎜1+ ⎟ = – 18
fe ⎝ D⎠ 5 ⎝ 25 ⎠
266 PHYSICS
Optical Instruments MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
axis of the concave mirror. This plane mirror Instruments
deviates the rays and the real image is formed in
front of the eye piece, which is at right angle to
the principal axis of concave mirror. The function
of the eye- piece is to form a magnified, virtual
image of the star enabling eye to see it distinctly.
If fo is the focal length of the concave mirror and Notes
fe is the focal length of eye piece, the magnifying
power of the reflecting telescope is given by
Further, if D is the diameter of the objective and d is the diameter of the pupil of
the eye, the brightness ratio is given by
B = D2/d2
The other form of the reflecting
telescope is shown in Fig 23.9. It
was designed by Cassegrain. In
this case the objective has a small
opening at its center. The rays from
the distant star, after striking the
concave mirror, are made to
intercept at A2 and the final image
Fig 23.9 : Cassegrain reflector
is viewed through the eyepiece.
There are several advantages of a reflecting telescope over a refracting telescope.
z Since the objective is not a lens, the reflecting telescopes are free from
chromatic aberration. Thus rays of different colours reaching the objective
from distant stars are focussed at the same point.
z Since the spherical mirrors are parabolic mirrors, free from spherical aberration,
they produce a very sharp and distinct image.
z Even a very faint star can be seen through the reflecting telescope because
they have large aperture and have large light-gathering power. The brightness
of the image is directly proportional to the area of the objective :
πD 2
B α
4
PHYSICS 267
MODULE - 6 Optical Instruments
πD 2 / 4 D2
B = = 2
πd 2 / 4 d
268 PHYSICS
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Optics and Optical
If we assume that the pupil of our eye is about 2 mm in diameter, two points can Instruments
be seen distinctly separate if they subtend an angle equal to about one minute of
arc at the eye. The reciprocal of this angle is known as the resolving power of
the eye.
Now let us calculate the resolving power of common optical instruments. We
begin our discussion with a telescope.
Notes
23.3.1 Resolving Power of a Telescope
Fig. 23.10 : Rayleigh’s criterion for resolution a) when the angular separation is less than θ,
the two points are seen as one, and b) when the angular seperation is more than
θ, the two points are distinctly visible.
The resolving power of a telescope is its ability to form separate images of two
distant point objects situated close to each other. It is measured in terms of the
angle subtended at its objective by two close but distinct objects whose images
are just seen in the telescope as separate. This angle is called the limit of resolution
of the telescope. If the angle subtended by two distinct objects is less than this
angle, the images of the objects can not be resolved by the telescope. The smaller
the value of this angle, higher will be the resolving power of the telescope. Thus,
the reciprocal of the limit of resolution gives the resolving power of the telescope.
If λ is the wavelength of light, D the diameter of the telescope objective, and θ
the angle subtended by the point object at the objective, the limit of resolution of
the telescope is given by (Rayleigh’s criterion)
1.22λ
θ =
D
Hence, the resolving power of the telescope.
1 D
(R.P)T = = (23.15)
θ 1.22λ
From Eqn. (23.15) it is clear that to get a high resolving power, a telescope with
large aperture objective or light of lower wavelength has to be used.
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MODULE - 6 Optical Instruments
The telescope will be able to resolve the wiremesh, if the angle subtended by it
on the objective is equal to or greater than θ, the limit of resolution. The angle
subtended by the wiremesh on the objective
spacing of wiremesh
α =
distance of the objective from the wiremesh
2 mm 2 × 10
-3
As the angle 2.5 × 10–5 radian exceeds the limit of a resolution ( = 2.236 × 10-5
radian), the telescope will be able to observe the wire mesh.
270 PHYSICS
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Optics and Optical
23.3.2 Resolving Power of a Microscope Instruments
The resolving power of a microscope represents its ability to form separate images
of two objects situated very close to each other. The resolving power of a
microscope is measured in terms of the smallest linear separation between the
two objects which can just be seen through the microscope as separate. This
smallest linear separation between two objects is called the limit of resolution
of the microscope. Notes
The smaller the value of linear separation, the higher will be the resolving power
of the microscope. Thus, the reciprocal of the limit of resolution gives the
resolving power of the microscope.
If λ is the wavelength of light used to illuminate the object, θ is the half angle of
the cone of light from the point object at the eye and n is the refractive index of
the medium between the object and the objective, the limit of resolution of the
microscope is given by
λ
d = (23.16)
2n sin θ
2n sin θ
(R.P)m =
λ
(23.17)The expression 2n sinθ is called numerical aperture (N.A) The highest
value of N.A of the objective obtainable in practice is 1.6, and for the eye, N.A is
0.004.
It is clear from Eqn. (23.17) that the resolving power of a microscope can be
increased by increasing the numerical aperture and decreasing the wavelength of
the light used to illuminate the object. That is why ultraviolet microscopes and an
electron microscope have a very high resolving power.
Applications in Astronomy
The astronomical (or optical) telescope can be used for observing stars,
planets and other astronomical objects. For better resolving power, the optical
telescopes are made of objectives having a large aperture (objective diameter).
However, such big lenses are difficult to be made and support. Therefore,
most astronomical telescopes use reflecting mirrors instead of lenses. These
can be easily supported as a mirror weighs less as compared to a lens of
equivalent optical quality.
The astronomical telescopes, which are ground-based, suffer from blurring
of images. Also, ultraviolet, x-ray, gamma-ray etc. are absorbed by the earth’s
PHYSICS 271
MODULE - 6 Optical Instruments
Notes
INTEXT QUESTIONS 23.3
1. How can the resolving power of a telescope be improved?
2. What is the relationship between the limit of resolution and the resolving
power of the eye?
3. If the wavelength of the light used to illuminate the object is increased, what
will be the effect on the limit of resolution of the microscope?
4. If in a telescope objective is made of larger diameter and light of shorter
wavelength is used, how would the resolving power change?
D
z The magnifying power of a simple microscope is M = 1+ , where D is least
f
distance of distinct vision and f is focal length of the lens.
z In a compound microscope, unlike the simple microscope, magnification takes
place at two stages. There is an eye piece and an objective both having short
focal lengths. But the focal length of the objective is comparatively shorter
than that of the eye piece.
z The magnifying power of a compound microscope is given as
M = m0 × me
D
But me = 1+ . Therefore
f
272 PHYSICS
Optical Instruments MODULE - 6
Optics and Optical
vo ⎛ D⎞ Instruments
M = u ⎜1+ ⎟
o ⎝ fe ⎠
where v0 is distance between the image and the objective, u0 is object distance
from the objective, D is the least distance of distinct vision (= 25cm) and fe is
focal length of the eye-piece.
z Telescope is used to see the distant objects which subtend very small visual Notes
angle at the eye. The use of a telescope increases the visual angle at the eye.
The far-off object appears to be closer to the eye and can be seen easily.
z Two types of telescopes are used (i) Refracting (ii) Reflecting.
z The objective of the refracting telescope is a converging lens. But the objective
in a reflecting telescope is a spherical mirror of large focal length. There are
several advantages of reflecting telescope over a refracting telescope.
The magnifying power of a telescope is
M = fo/fe
where f0 is focal length of the objective and fe is focal length of the eyepiece.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What is the difference between simple and compound microscopes? Derive
an expression for the magnification of a compound microscope.
2. Distinguish between the refracting and reflecting telescope. Draw a ray diagram
for the Newton’s telescope.
3. Derive an equation for the magnifying power of a refracting telescope.
4. What do you mean by the least distance of distinct vision? What is its value
for a normal eye?
5. Can we photograph the image formed by a compound microscope? Explain
your answer.
6. Define the resolving power of an optical instrument. What is the value of
limit of resolution for a normal eye?
7. What are the main differences in the design of a compound microscope and a
terrestrial telescope?
8. The eyepiece of a telescope has a focal length of 10 cm. The distance between
the objective and eye piece is 2.1 m. What is the angular magnification of the
telescope?
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MODULE - 6 Optical Instruments
23.1
1. Image formed by a simple microscope is virtual erect and magnified. whereas
the image formed by a compound microscope is real, inverted and magnified.
2. Magnifying power is the ratio of the angle subtended by the image at eye
piece to the angle subtended by the object placed at the near point.
Magnification is the ratio of the size of image to the size of object.
4. If you choose the lens with 4 cm focal length, the magnifying power will be
fo
high because m =
fe
-L ⎛ D⎞
5. The magnifying power of a compound microscope is given by M = f ⎜1+ f ⎟
o ⎝ e ⎠
23.2
1. (a) Objective of large focal length increases the magnifying power of the
telescope.
(b) Magnification is reduced by increasing the focal length of eyepiece.
fo 50 cm
2. Magnification m = = = 25
fe 2 cm
D
3. Since resolving power of telescope is given by R.P = , it would increase.
1.22λ Notes
PHYSICS 275
SENIOR SECONDARY COURSE
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT
STUDENT’S ASSIGNMENT – 6
INSTRUCTIONS
z Answer All the questions on a seperate sheet of paper
z Give the following information on your answer sheet:
z Name
z Enrolment Number
z Subject
z Assignment Number
z Address
z Get your assignment checked by the subject teacher at your study centre so that you get positive
feedback about your performance.
276 PHYSICS
11. When a ray of light is incident air glass interface making an angle 30° from the surface of
seperation the reflected light is found to be 100% plane polarized. Find the refractive index of
glass with respect to air. (2)
12. Draw a labelled ray diagram showing image formation by a compund microscope. (2)
⎛ 4⎞
13. A cylindrical container is 20 cm deep. Water ⎜ v = 3 ⎟ is filled in the container upto the brim. By
⎝ ⎠
how many centimeters will its bottom appear as raised up. (4)
14. Distinguish clearly between interference and diffraction of light. (4)
15. Explain the chromotic aberration in lenses? Describe a method of minimizing this defect. (4)
16. What is meant by the resoluing power of an optical instrument? Drawing suitable diagrams
explain Rayhigh’s criterian for the limit of resolution of two very close spectral lines. Write
formula for the resolving power of (i) microscope (ii) telescope.
⎛ sin( A + δ) / 2 ⎞
17. For an equiangular prism show that refractive index ⎜ n = ⎟ where δ is the angle of
⎝ sin A / 2 ⎠
minimum deviation. (4)
18. State huygens principle for the propagation of wave front. Draw (i) incident and reflected wave
front for light incident on a concove minor from a very distant source. (ii) incident and refracted
wave fronts for light incident on a convex lens from a point object situated at 2f.
19. Draw a neat diagram showing image formation of a point object by a convex lens. Derive lens
maker’s formula. (5)
20. Describe young’s double slit experiment. Derive expression for fringewidth of interference pattern
formed. (5)
PHYSICS 277
MODULE - VII
ATOMS AND NUCLEI
24 Structure of Atom
25 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
26 Nuclei and Radioactivity
27 Nuclear Fission and Fusion
Structure of Atom MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
24
Notes
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
So far you have studied about mechanical, thermal, electrical and magnetic
properties of matter. Have you ever thought as to why do different materials have
different properties? That is, why does chalk break so easily but a piece of
aluminium flattens on impact? Why do some metals start conducting current when
light falls on them? And so on. To understand such properties of materials, we
recall that atoms are building blocks of all forms of matter. That is, despite its
appearance being continuous, matter has definite structure on microscopic level
which is beyond the reach of our sense of seeing. This suggests that to discover
answers to above said questions, you need to know the structure of the atom.
Our understanding of the structure of atom has evolved over a period of time. In
this lesson, we have discussed different atomic models. Starting with Rutherford’s
model based on his classic scattering experiment, in this lesson we have discussed
Bohr’s model of atom that explains the electronic structure. Bohr’s theory also
helps us to explain the atomic spectrum of hydrogen atom.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z describe Rutherford’s scattering experiment and its findings;
z explain Rutherford’s atomic model and state its shortcomings.
z calculate the radius of Bohr’s first orbit and velocity of an electron in it;
z derive an expression for the energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom; and
z draw the energy level diagram of a hydrogen atom and explain its spectrum.
z describe about the production,properties, types and uses of x-rays; and
z define Mosley law and Duane-Hunt law.
PHYSICS 281
MODULE - 7 Structure of Atom
282 PHYSICS
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Atoms and Nuclei
A well collimated fine pencil of α-particles from a source S was made to fall on a
thin gold foil (T). The scattered α-particles were received on a ZnS fluorescent
screen, which produced a visible flash of light when struck by an α-particles (and
acted as detector), backed by a low power microscope (M). The detector was
capable of rotation on a circular scale with T at the centre. The whole apparatus
was enclosed in an evacuated chamber to avoid collisions of α-particles with air
molecules. It was expected that if Thomson model was correct, most of the Notes
particles world go straight through the foil, with only minor deviation from the
original path.
Geiger and Marsden observed that
most of the α-particles suffered only
According to Thomson
small deflections, as expected. But
model, α-particles
a few got deflected at large angles should experience weak
(90º or more). Some of them (1 in force due to electrons.
8000) even got deflected at 180º. However, since α-
Fig. 24.3 presents the experimental particles are about 7000
results. The large angle scattering of times heavier than
electrons and travelled at
α-particles could not be explained
Fig. 24. 3 : Experimental result of high speed, large angle
on the basis of Thomson model of
Rutherford’s experiment scattering strong
atom. repulsive force was
To explain large angle scattering, Lord required to be exerted.
PHYSICS 283
MODULE - 7 Structure of Atom
284 PHYSICS
Structure of Atom MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
Nucleus
Electronm
Notes
(i) Stability of the atom : We know that electrons are negatively charged. These
are attracted by the nucleus and get accelerated. An accelerated charged particle,
according to clasical wave theory, emits elecromagnetic radiations. Hence, the
revolving electrons should lose energy eventually and spiral into the nucleus (Fig.
24.5). This would have made the atom short-lived and contradicted the observed
stability of matter.
(ii) Frequency of electromagnetic radiation : The electron spiralling towards
the nucleus will emit electromagnetic radiations of all frequencies giving rise to a
continuous spectrum. But experiments show that atoms emit radiations of certain
well defined frequencies only (line spectra).
From the above discussion, you may be tempted to conclude that nuclear model
of atom could not explain the experimental facts. Nevertheless, it contributed
significantly to our understanding and was the first landmark in the right direction.
PHYSICS 285
MODULE - 7 Structure of Atom
nh
L = mvr = (24.2)
2π
where L is the orbital angular momentum, equal to mvr for a circular orbit.
Here h is Planck’s constant and n is an integer.
(iii) An electron moving in an allowed orbit does not radiate any energy. In
these allowed orbits, the energy of the electron is constant. These orbits are
called stationary states.
Note that an electron can move in a stationary state but its energy is constant.
(iv) Energy is emitted by an atom only when its electron “falls” from an allowed
higher energy level Ef to another allowed lower level Ei. The change in
energy is the energy of the emitted photon. Similarly, an electron only
absorbs radiation when it “jumps” to a higher energy level from a lower
energy level. The change in energy of an electron can be related to the
frequency or wavelength of the emitted or absorbed photon:
286 PHYSICS
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Atoms and Nuclei
For emission
ΔE = Ei - Ef = hv (24.3a)
For absorption
ΔE = Ef – Ei = hv (24.3b)
where v is the frequency of the emitted photon.
PHYSICS 287
MODULE - 7 Structure of Atom
n2 h2
rn = 4πε o
4π 2 mZe2
n 2 h 2 ε0
= n = 1, 2, 3, ... (24.5)
Ze 2 mπ
Notes
Note that radius of an orbit is directly proportional to second power of the number
of orbit. It means that radius is more for higher orbits. Moreover, the relative
values of the radii of permitted orbits are in the ratio 12, 22, 32, 42, .. , ie. in the
ratio 1 : 4 : 9 : 16 and so on. For hydrogen atom (Z = 1), the radius of its inner
most orbit is called Bohr radius. It is denoted by a0 and its magnitude is 5.3 × 10–
11
m. In terms of a0, the radii of other orbits are given by the relation
rn = n2a0
In shows that the spacing between consecutive orbits increases progressively. On
inserting the value of rn from Eqn. (24.5) in Eqn. (24.2), we get an expression for
the speed of the electron in the nth orbit :
nh nh Ze 2 mπ
vn = = .
2πmrn 2πm n 2 h 2 ε 0
1 Ze 2
= 2 ε nh (24.6)
0
From Lesson 16 you will recall that potential energy of a negative charge (electron
in this case) in bringing it from infinity to a point at a distance r in a field of
positive charge (nucleus in this case) is obtained by summing (integrating) the
product of Coulomb force and distance :
1 ∞ Ze 2
4πε0 ∫ rn r2
U=– dr
∞
1 Ze2 ⎤
= ⎥
4 π ε0 r ⎦r
n
1 Ze 2
= – 4πε 0 rn
(24.7)
288 PHYSICS
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Atoms and Nuclei
1 Ze2
= mv n2
4πε 0 rn
U = –mvn2 (24.8)
Since kinetic energy
1 2 Notes
K.E = mv n (24.9)
2
the total energy of the electron in nth orbit is given by
E = K.E + U
1 2
= mv n – mv n2
2
12
= – mv n
2
Combining this result with Eqn. (24.6), we get
2
m ⎛ 2πZe 2 ⎞
E = 2 ⎜ 4πε nh ⎟
–
⎝ 0 ⎠
m Z 2e4
=– (24.10)
8 ε 02 n 2 h 2
RZ 2
= ; n = 1, 2, 3... (24.11)
n2
where
me 4
R = 8ε 2 h 2 (24.12)
0
13.6
En = − (24.13)
n2
PHYSICS 289
MODULE - 7 Structure of Atom
According to Bohr’s fourth postulate, the frequency vmn of the emitted (absorbed)
radiation when the electron falls (jumps) from the nth state to the mth state is
given by
RZ 2 ⎛ 1 1⎞
vmn = ⎜ 2 – 2⎟ (24.14)
h ⎝m n ⎠
Fraunhoffer Lines
The spectrum of sunlight, when examined carefully by a high power
spectroscope, is found to be crossed by a large number of dark lines spread
over the length of the continuous spectrum. Wollaston observed these lines
in the year 1802. But their existence was studied by Fraunhoffer on the basis
of Kirchoff’s laws and named these as Fraunhoffer lines. The main body of
the sun emits continuous spectrum but the atomosphere of comparatively
much cooler vapours and gases in the Sun’s atmosphere, called the
chromosphere (~6000º C), absorb light corresponding to certain wavelengths.
These appear as dark lines in the continuous spectrum of the sun.
Kirchhoff compared the absorbed wavelengths with the wavelengths emitted
by various elements present on the earth and identified 60 terrestrial (existing
on earth) elements present in the outer atomsphere of sun, e.g. oxygen,
hydrogen, sodium, iron, calcium etc.
290 PHYSICS
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Atoms and Nuclei
4. Write the energy of the first three orbits of hydrogen atom on the basis of
Bohr’s model.
5. An atom is excited to an energy level E1 from its ground state energy level
E0. What will be the wavelength of the radiation emitted?
6. In case of hydrogen atom, the radius of the electron in its nth orbit is
proportional to
7. The total energy En of the electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom is
proportional to
R ⎛1 1 ⎞
v1n = ⎜ − ⎟
h ⎝ 12 n2 ⎠
PHYSICS 291
MODULE - 7 Structure of Atom
Paschen series
Balmer series
Notes
Lyman series
Fig. 24.7 : Energy Level diagram showing emission of various spectral series
in hydrogen atom
Balmer series was discovered in 1885 in the visible region. According to Bohr, in
this series, electron jumps to the second orbit (m = 2) from higher orbits (n = 3,
4, 5...). The frequencies of various spectral lines of the series are given by
R ⎛ 1 1⎞
v2n = ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟; n > 2
h ⎝2 n ⎠
Paschen series was discovered in 1908 in the near infra-red region. The existence
of this series can be explained by assuming that electrons jump to third orbit (m =
3) from higher orbits (n = 4, 5, 6...). The frequencies of various spectral lines in
the region are given by
R ⎛1 1⎞
v3n = ⎜ − ⎟; n > 3
h ⎝ 32 n2 ⎠ 2
Brackett series was discovered in mid infra-red region. In this series, electrons
jump to fourth orbit (n = 4) from higher orbits (n = 5, 6...). Therefore, the
frequencies of various spectral lines in the region are given by
⎛1 1⎞
v4n = R ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ ; n > 4
h ⎝4 n ⎠
Pfund series was discovered in far infra-red region. According to Bohr, this
series is obtained when electron jumps to fifth orbit (n1 = 5) from any higher orbit
(n = 6, 7,...). The frequencies of various spectral lines of the series are given by
R ⎛1 1⎞
v5n = ⎜ − ⎟; n > 5
h ⎝ 52 n2 ⎠
292 PHYSICS
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Atoms and Nuclei
The ingenuity of Bohr’s model lies in the fact that it not only explained the already
known spectrum but also predicted the existence of a number of series, which
were observed later on. In fact, a new physics was born! Transition of the electrons
from higher orbits to lower orbits showing emission of different series of spectral
lines is shown in Fig. 24.8.
Notes
Lyman series
(uv radiations)
Balmer series
(Visible
Radiations)
Paschen series
(Infra-red
Radiations)
Brackett
series
Pfu
ser nd
ie s
Fig. 24.8 : Permitted orbits in an atom of hydrogen and transitions leading to spectral lines
of various series.
1. The negative total energy of an orbital electron means that it a) has emitted
a photon, b) is bound to the nucleus, c) is in stable equilibrium, d) satisfies
Bohr’s postulate
nh
L= .
2π
2. An electron jumps to the fourth orbit. When the electron jumps back to the
lower energy level, the number of spectral lines emitted will be a) 6, b) 8, c)
5, d) 3.
3. Lymann series of spectral lines are emitted when electron jump from higher
orbits to the ............. orbit
a) first, b) second, c) third, d) fourth.
4. Which physical property of electron was quantized by Bohr?
5. An electron jumps from third orbit to first orbit. Calculate the change in
angular momentum of an electron?
PHYSICS 293
MODULE - 7 Structure of Atom
Notes X–rays
Evacuated
tube
–
F
–
Electrons
Target
Cathode
Source of
high potential
Fig. 24.4
When the electrons approach the target, 5% of their energy gets converted into
X–rays and rest of the energy gets converted into heat, which is kept under
control by the circulating cold water. The tube has extremely low pressure so
that the electrons emitted from the hot filament (F) may directly hit the target
without suffering collisions in between.
The intensity of the X–rays is controlled by adjusting the filament current and
the quality is controlled by the accelerating voltage applied between the filament
and target. This voltage usually ranges between 10 kV and 1 MV.
Properties of X–rays
X–rays show the following properties:
(i) They affect the photographic plate
(ii) They cause fluorescence in certain chemical compounds.
(iii) They ionize the gases.
(iv) They show no reflection in mirrors, no refraction in glass, no diffraction
with the conventional gratings but when refined techniques are used with
atomic layers of crystals, they show all these familiar phenomena of light.
(v) They do not get deviated by electric or magnetic field.
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Atoms and Nuclei
X– Rays Spectra: The element whose X–ray spectra is studied is placed at the
place of target of the X–rays tube. The X–ray wavelengths are determined by
the Bragg’s spectrometer.
20kV
15kV
10kV
wavelangth
(For aluminium)
Fig. 24.5
PHYSICS 295
MODULE - 7 Structure of Atom
Mosley’s law k2
Intensity
Notes characteristic X–rays of a large
kB
number of elements. He found that
25kV
some specific characteristic lines
20kV
appeared in the spectra of all
elements but at slightly differing 10kV
wavelengths (Fig. 24.6). Each wavelangth
(For molybdenum)
characteristic line obeyed a specific
equation. For example, K2 lines Fig. 24.6
obey the following relation
⎡1 1 ⎤
ν = R ⎢ 2 − 2 ⎥ ( Z –1) 2
⎣1 2 ⎦
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z The energy of the electron in the nth orbit of the hydrogen atom is given by
e4 m
En = – 8h 2 ε 02 n 2
The negative sign of total energy indicates that the electron is bound to the
nucleus.
z The frequency of the photon emitted when the electron moves from the energy Notes
level Ei to Ef is given by :
R ⎡ 1 1⎤
−
h ⎢⎣ m2 n2 ⎥⎦
vmn =
z x-rays are produced when fast moving electrons are suddenly stopped by a
heavy metal.
z x-rays are of two types (i) continuous and (ii) characteristic.
hc
z Duane-Hunt law eV = hν max =
λ min
⎛1 1 ⎞
Mosley law ν = R ⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ ( z − 1)
2
z
⎝1 2 ⎠
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. In Rutherford’s scattering experiment why do most of the α-particles pass
straight through the target foil?
2. In Rutherford’s α-particle scattering experiment, what observation led him
to predict the existance of nucleus?
3. Why did Rutherford assume that electrons revolve in circular orbits around
the nucleus?
4. What is the ratio of the energies of the hydrogen atom in its first excited state
to that its second excited state?
5. What is the SI unit of Rydberg’s constant?
6. The Rydberg constant for hydrogen is 1096700 m–1. Calculate the short and
long wavelength limits of Lyman series.
7. How many times does the electron of H-atom go round the first orbit in 1s?
8. Describe Rutherford’s scattering experiment and discuss its findings and
limitations.
9. State the postulates of Bohr’s model of atom.
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24.1
1. a (iii), b (ii), c (i)
2. It could not explain the large angle scattering of particles from the gold foils
as observed by Rutherford.
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24.2
1. Bohr’s first postulate is from classical physics; remaining three are from
quantum physics.
2. Because the orbits are stationary.
3. (i) Electron falls from higher to lower energy state.
(ii) Electron is excited to some higher energy state. Notes
hc
5. λ = E − E
i 0
6. (iv)
24.3
1. (b)
1 1
2. (a) Number of spectral lines emitted = n (n – 1) = × 4 (4 – 1) = 6
2 2
3. (a)
4. Angular momentum of revolving electron.
5. From the nth states with principal quantum number n calculate the number of
wavelengths observed in the spectrum from a hydrogen sample.
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25
Notes
You must have seen films in cinema halls. The picture on the screen is produced
by passing light through films which have the scenes shot on them. But have
you ever thought as to how the sound is reproduced in the cinema? The sound
is also recorded on the side of the film as a sound track. The light beam passing
through this sound track falls on a photocell, which converts it into electrical
pulses. These electrical pulses are converted into sound. In this lesson you will
study the effect which governs the working of a photocell. It is called the
photoelectric effect. It is also used in burglar alarm to detect intruders. Einstein’s
explanation of photoelectric effect led de Broglie (read as de Broy) to the
wave-particle duality, i.e. matter exhibits wave as well as particle properties.
You now know that a particle is characterized by properties such as definite
position, size, mass, velocity, momentum, etc. Its motion is described by
Newton’s laws of motion. On the other hand, a wave is characterized by
properties such as periodicity in space-time, wavelength, amplitude, frequency,
wavevelocity, etc. It transports energy, but no matter. That is, it extends in space
unlike a particle, which is localised. The term wave-particle duality refers to the
behaviour where both wave-like and particle-like properties are exhibited under
different conditions by the same entity. His arguments were simple: Nature likes
simplicity and loves symmetry. So if wave-particle duality can be exhibited by
light, it should be exhibited by matter as well.You will learn about his explanation
of matter waves in sec. 25.4.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z explain photoelectric effect;
z describe the experimental arrangement to study photoelectric effect;
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z state the laws of photoelectric emission;
z interpret the graphs between frequency of radiation and retarding potential;
z write deBroglie wavelength of matter waves associated with a particle of
momentum p; and
z describe the experimental arrangement for the verification of matter waves.
Notes
25.1 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
In 1887, while working on propagation of electromagnetic waves, Hertz
discovered that air in a spark gap became a better conductor when it was
illuminated by ultraviolet rays. Further experiments by him showed that zinc
The emission of electrons
became positively charged on irradiation by ultraviolet rays. In 1900, Leonard
from metals can also take
showed that electrons were emitted from a metal surface when light of
place when they are
sufficiently high frequency falls on it. This phenomenon is known as photoelectric heated. This is known as
effect and the electrons so emitted are called photoelectrons. thermionic emission.
Note that electrons gain
The emission of electrons from metals irradiated by light of a frequency greater
energy from thermal
than a certain characteristic frequency is called photoelectric effect.
energy in thermionic
emission.
25.1.1 Experimental Arrangement to Study Photoelectric Effect
Refer to Fig. 25.1. It shows a schematic diagram of the apparatus that can be
used to study this phenomenon.
Quartz
window S
Evacuated
Photosensitive glass tube
plate
Electrons
A
Commutator
µA
+ –
Fig. 25.1: Experimental arrangement for observing the photoelectric effect
A metallic cup C called photo cathode is sealed inside an evacuated tube along
with another metal plate A, which is used to collect photoelectrons emitted by
C.These electrodes are connected to a battery and microammeter circuit, as shown
in Fig.25.1. The battery is so connected that the voltage on plate A is positive
with respect to C. If the battery terminals are reversed, the voltage of the plate A
will become negative relative to C.
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The minimum retarding potential for which the photoelectric current becomes
zero for a particular frequency of incident light is called the stopping potential,V0
for that frequency.
The work done by an electron W against the stopping potential V0 is eV0 where e
is electronic charge. This work is done by the electron at the expense of its
kinetic energy. So, we can write
1 Notes
2
eV0 = m v max (25.1)
2
The stopping potential V0, was found by Millikan to depend on the frequency of
the incident light. A plot of the stopping potential (V0) versus the frequency of the
incident light (v) is shown in Fig. 25.3. You will note that there is a minimum cut-
off frequency v0 below which ejection of electrons is not possible. It is called
threshold frequency.
To study the effect of frequency
of incident light on stopping
potential, Millikan adjusted the
intensity of light at a fixed value
for various frequencies and
studied the variation of
photoelectric current with anode
potential. He obtained different
φ0
values of stopping potential for
Fig. 25.3 : Stopping potential versus frequency
different frequencies of incident of incident light.
light. Moreover, the stopping
potential is more negative for
higher frequencies, as shown in
Fig. 25.4. This implies that if the
frequency of the incident light
increases, the maximum kinetic
energy of the photoelectrons also
increases. Therefore, with
increasing frequency, greater
retarding potential is required to
completely stop the movement of Fig. 25.4 : Photo electric current
photoelectrons towards the anode.
This experiment also established that there exists a minimum cut-off frequency v0
for which stopping potential is zero. Moreover, photo emission begins as soon as
light is incident on the material, i.e. photo emission is instantaneous, even if the
incident light is dim. Now it is known that time lag between incident light and
emission of photoelectrons from the emitter is of the order of 10–9s.
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Robert A. Millikan
(1868-1953)
Robert Andrews Millikan was born on March 22, 1868 in
U.S.A. During his undergraduate course, his favourite
subjects were Greek and Mathematics. But after his
graduation in 1891, he took, for two years, a teaching post
Notes
in elementary physics. In this period, he developed interest
in the subject. He received his Ph.D. (1895) for research on
polarization of light emitted by incandescent surfaces.
Millikan spent a year (1895-1896) in Germany, at the Universities of Berlin and
Göttingen. He returned at the invitation of A.A. Michelson to take appointment
as his assistant at the newly established Ryerson Laboratory at the University
of Chicago (1896). He became Professor at that University in 1910, a post
which he retained till 1921. As a scientist, Millikan made numerous momentous
discoveries in the fields of electricity, optics, and molecular physics. His earliest
major success was the accurate determination of the charge carried by an
electron, using the elegant ”falling-drop method”. He also proved that this
quantity was a constant for all electrons demonstrating the quantised nature of
charge.
He also verified experimentally Einstein’s photoelectric equation, and made
the first direct photoelectric determination of Planck’s constant h. Throughout
his life, Millikan remained a prolific author, making numerous contributions to
scientific journals. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1923.
where v is the frequency of the incident light and h is Planck’s constant. Let us
now assume that a photon of energy hv is incident on the metal surface. Suppose
φ0 is the energy needed for an electron to come out of the metal surface. As you
have studied earlier, this energy is also called the work function of the conductor.
The work function of a conductor is the minimum energy required by an electron
to come out of the conductor surface. Table 25.1: Work function
and threshold frequencies of
The typical values of work function for a few metals are given (in eV.) in Table some typical metals
25.1, along with the corresponding threshold frequency (v0).
Metal φ0(eV) v (Hz)
What do you think would happen when a photon of energy E ( > φ0) strikes the
Sodium 2.5 6.07 × 1014
metal surface? We expect that out of the total energy E, an amount φ0 would be
used up by the electron to come out of the metal surface. The difference in energy, Potassium 2.3 5.58 × 1014
i.e. (E – φ0), would then be imparted to the emitted electron in the form of kinetic Zinc 3.4 8.25 × 1014
energy. (The electron may lose some energy in internal collisions before it escapes
Iron 4.8 11.65 × 1014
from the metal surface.) Mathematically, we can write
Nickel 5.9 14.32 × 1014
hv = φ0 + Kmax (25.3)
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Let us now see how observed results can be explained on the basis of this theory.
Let us take
φ0 = hv0.
Then Eqn. (25.3) takes the form
1
Kmax = mv 2 = h(v – vo) (25.4)
2
This equation implies that
z For vmax to be positive, no emission can take place for v < vo. That is, the
incident light must have frequency above the threshold frequency.
z Kmax is linearly proportional to (v – vo)
z An increase in the intensity of incident light of frequency v corresponds to
an increase in the number of photons. Each and every photon has same
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energy; there is no increase in the energy of photoelectrons. However, the
no. of emitted electrons and hence photocurrent will increase with increase
in intensity.
z Since photoelectric effect is produced by collisions between photons and
electrons, the energy transfer from photons is instantaneous, i.e. there is
almost no time lag.
Notes
z Since work function is a characteristic property of a material, vo is independent
of the intensity of incident light.
We see that Einstein’s theory of the photoelectric effect successfully explains its
physical origin.
To understand these concepts and get an idea about the values of physical
parameters, go through the following examples carefully.
Example 25.1: Sodium has a work function of 2.3 eV. Calculate (i) its threshold
frequency, (ii) the maximum velocity of photoelectrons produced when sodium
is illuminated by light of wavelength 5 × 10–7 m, (iii) the stopping potential for
light of this wavelength. Given h = 6.6 × 10–34 J s, c = 3 × 108 m s–1, 1eV = 1.6 ×
10–19 J, and mass of electron m = 9.1 × 10–31 kg.
Solution: (i) The threshold frequency is given as hv0 = φ0. Here, h = 6.6 × 10–34
Js and φ0 = 2.3 eV = 2.3 × 1.6 × 10–19 J.
φ0
∴ v0 =
h
2.3×1.6×10–19 J
= 6.6×10–34 J s
= 5.6 × 1014 Hz
c
Since v = , we can write
λ
c
= φ0 + ( mvmax )
1 2
E = h×
λ 2
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= 3.96 × 10–19 J
1
⇒ 3.96 × 10–19 = 2.3 × 1.6 × 10–19 + m v max
2
2
Notes
1
= 3.68 × 10–19 + m v max
2
2
0.56 × 10 –19 J
∴ v max = = 2.5 × 105 m s–1
9.1×10 –31 kg
1 2
eV0 = m v max
2
0.28×10 –19 J
∴ V0 = = 0.18 V
1.6×10 –19 JV –1
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A photoelectric tube consists of an Incident
evacuated glass vessel which contains a light
C
semi-cylindrical cathode and an anode in
Anode
the form of a straight wire. The cathode Cathod
is coated with a metal of low work
function to ensure emission of
photoelectrons when light of a pre- Notes
decided frequency is incident on it. The
threshold frequency above which a P2 P1
phototube responds determines the
choice of this coating. – B + µA
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In the previous section, you have studied Einstein’s theory of photoelectric effect
and learnt that light consists of photons. You have also learnt that the phenomena
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of interference and diffraction can be explained on the basis of wave theory of
light. This duality in the nature of light came to be accepted by the physicists in
the early 20th century. Thinking about the wave-particle duality of light, de Broglie
asked himself the question : If light exhibits dual nature, will particles of matter
also not act like waves? Successful resolution of this question led to de Broglie
hypothesis.
Notes
25.4 THE DE BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS
As a young graduate student, de Broglie argued with a great amount of insight
that since nature loves symmetry and simplicity in physical phenomena, ordinary
“particles” such as electrons, and protons should also exhibit wave characteristics
under certain circumstances. His argument runs as follows : Light is an
electromagnetic radiation and exhibits wave-particle duality. Therefore, Einstein’s
mass-energy equivalence relation (E = mc2), which essentially treats light as
quantum of photon, a particle, can hold only if matter also exhibits wave character.
He therefore proposed that the wavelength and frequency of matter waves should
be determined by the momentum and energy of the particle in exactly the same
way as for photons : E = pc and the associated wavelength λ of a particle having
momentum p is given by
h
λ = p (25.5)
h
λ = (25.6)
mv
λ is called deBroglie wavelength. Eqn. (25.5) is a complete statement of wave-
particle duality. It implies that a particle with a momentum p can exhibit wave-
like properties and the wavelength of the associated matter waves is h/p. The
converse is also true, i.e., a wave of wavelength λ can exhibit particle-like
properties and the momentum of the wave-matter is h/λ
This hypothesis, submitted as Ph.D Thesis was initially rejected by the examiners.
However, soon, experimental evidence proved de Broglie’s argument. This has a
very important inspirational lesson for us : We must keenly analyse every statement
and try to seek experimental evidence.
The actual wavelength of anything macroscopic is incomprehensively small, as
you can see by calculating it for a cricket ball. The case is quite different for
elementary particles such as the electron. An electron has energy E when
accelerated through potential difference V. Hence, we can write
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2qV
or v =
m
so that
Notes
mv = p = 2qmV (25.8)
h h
λ = p = 2qmV
(25.9)
The constants appearing in Eqn. (25.9) have the values: h = 6.625 × 10–34 Js, q =
1.602 × 10–19 C and m = 9.11 × 10–31 kg. On substituting these values in Eqn.(25.9),
we obtain
6.625×10–34Js
λ = 2×(1.602×10–19C)×(9.11×10–31kg)× V
12.3
= × 10 –10 m
V
12.3
= Å (25.10)
V
12.3 o
λ = A
100
= 1.23 Ao
This is also the wavelength of an electron of energy 100eV. You can easily verify
this using the relation
h
λ =
(2meE )½
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The wavelength of matter waves associated with 100eV electrons lies in the X-
ray region and is of the same order as the interatomic seperation in a solid. We
therefore expect these to undergo diffraction by a crystal lattice.
The first experimental evidence of matter waves came from the work of Davisson
and Germer, who were studying scattering of electrons by crystals. Let us learn
about it now.
Notes
Louis Victor de Broglie
(1892-1987)
Louis de Broglie was born at Dieppe, France on 15th August,
1892. He first studied the arts and took his degree in history
in 1910. Then, as his liking for science prevailed, he studied
for a science degree, which he gained in 1913. In 1924 at
the Faculty of Sciences at Paris University, he submitted a thesis Recherches
sur la Théorie des Quanta (Researches on the quantum theory), which gained
him his doctor’s degree. This thesis contained a series of important findings,
which he had obtained in the course of about two years. The ideas set out in
that work served the basis for developing wave mechanics, a theory which
has transformed our knowledge of physical phenomena on the atomic scale.
In 1929 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for his discovery of the
wave nature of electrons.
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6.62×10 –34 Js
λ=
[2× (9.1×10 –31 kg)×54×1.6×10 –19 J]1/2
= 1.67 Å
θ = 50
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Electron Source
Light source
Condenser
magnetic lens
Condenser lens
Object
Objective Object
magnetic lens Objective lens
Notes
Image
Projecting Image
magnetic
lens Projector
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Electron Microscope
Electron microscopes are scientific instruments that use a beam of highly energetic
electrons to examine objects on a very fine scale. This examination can yield the
following information:
The surface features of an object or “how it looks”, its texture; direct relation
between these features and material properties (hardness, reflectivity, etc.), the
shape and size of the particles making up the object; direct relation between these
structures and materials properties (ductility, strength, reactivity, etc.), the elements
and compounds that the object is composed of and the relative amounts of them;
direct relationship between composition and material properties (melting point,
reactivity, hardness, etc.). How are the atoms arranged in the object?
Electron microscopes were developed due to the limitations of optical
microscopes, which are limited to 500× or 1000× magnification and a resolution
of 0.2 micrometers. In the early 1930’s, this theoretical limit had been reached
and there was a scientific desire to see the finer details of the interior structures of
organic cells (nucleus, mitochondria,etc.). This required 10,000× plus
magnification which was just not possible using the microscopes available at that
time.
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The Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) was the first Electron Microscope
to be developed and is patterned exactly on the Light Transmission Microscope,
except that a focused beam of electrons is used instead of light to image the
specimen and gain information about its structure and composition. It was
developed by Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska in Germany in 1931.
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
Notes
A TEM works much like a slide projector. A projector throws a beam of light on
the slide. As the light passes through the side, it is affected by the structures and
objects on the slide. As a result, only certain parts of the light beam are transmitted
through certain parts of the slide. This transmitted beam is then projected onto
the viewing screen, forming an enlarged image of the slide.
TEMs works in the same way, except that they shine a beam of electrons through
the specimen. Whatever part is transmitted is projected onto a phosphor screen
for the user to see.
The electron gun, produces a stream of monochromatic electrons. This stream is
focused to a small, thin, coherent beam by the use of condenser lenses 1 and 2.
The first lens (usually controlled by the “spot size knob”) largely determines the
“spot size”; the general size range of the fm spot that strikes the sample. The
second lens usually controlled by the “intensity or brightness knob” actually
changes the size of the spot on the sample; changing it from a wide dispersed
spot to a pinpoint beam. The beam is restricted by the condenser aperture,
knocking out high angle electrons (those far from the optic axis. The beam strikes
the sample specimen and parts of it are transmitted.
This transmitted portion is focused by the objective lens into an image Optional
Objective and Selected Area metal apertures can restrict the beam; the Objective
aperture enhances contrast by blocking out high-angle diffracted electrons, the
Selected Area aperture enables the user to examine the periodic diffraction of
electrons by ordered arrangements of atoms in the sample.
The image is passed down the column through the intermediate and projector
lenses, being enlarged all the way.
The image strikes the phosphor image screen and light is generated, allowing the
user to see the image. The darker areas of the image represent those areas of the
sample that fewer electrons were transmitted through (they are thicker or denser).
The lighter areas of the image represent those areas of the sample that more
electrons were transmitted through (they are thinner or less dense).
Example 25.2: An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 182
V. Calculate its associated wavelength.
h 12.3
Solutions: We know that deBroglie wavelength, λ = p = Å. Here V = 182V.
V
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z The number of photoelectrons emitted from each square centimeter of the
emitting surface for any particular frequency is proportional to the intensity
of incident light.
z Einstein assumed light to consist of photons, each having energy hv, where v
is frequency and h is Planck’s constant.
z Photoemissive type of phototube is based on the photoelectric effect.
Notes
z The saturation current of a phototube increases with increasing intensity of
the incident light.
z Particles in motion have waves associated with them. The wavelength is given
by h/p, where, p is the momentum.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. In photoelectric emission, what happens to the incident photons?
2. What is the difference between a photon and a matter particle?
3. Why is the wave nature of matter not apparent in daily life?
4. How is velocity of photoelectrons affected if the wavelength of incident light
is increased?
5. The threshold frequency of a metal is 5 × 1014 Hz. Can a photon of wavelength
6000Å emit an energetic photoelectron?
6. Does the threshold frequency for a metal depend on the incident radiations?
7. What are the various uses of photocell?
8. What was the aim of Davisson and Germer’s experiment? On what principle
does it depend?
9. Describe the experiment used for studying the photoelectric effect.
10. Explain the terms (a) Saturation voltage and (b)Stopping potential.
11. State the laws of photoelectric emission.
12. Describe the salient features of Einstein’s theory of photoelectric effect.
13. Explain Einstein’s relation: hv = Ε0 + Kmax
14. Calculate the wavelength associated with electrons moving with a velocity
v = 1 × 108 ms–1. Take mass of electron = 9.1 × 10–31 kg and h = 6.6 × 10–34 J.s.
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12.3
λ= Å
V
Notes
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
25.1
1. (a) False (b) False (c) True
2. x – intercept gives the threshold frequency
y – intercept gives e × work function (φ0)
h h h
V0 = v– v0. slope of graph gives
e e e
V0
25.2
h h h hv
1. λ = p ⇒ p= = =
λ c/v c
2. E = hc/λ
If λ is doubled, E will become half
3. It is unchanged.
25.3
1. (a) False (b) False (c) True
2. (i) Reproduction of sound in films,
(ii) Transmistting pictures over great distances.
(iii) Thiefe detecting system.
3. Number of photo electrons will increase by a factor of 4.
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25.4
1. (a) false, (b) True (c) True
h
2. P = mvand λ =
P
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26
Notes
So far you have learnt that atom is the smallest entity that acts as the building
block of all matter. It consists of an extremely small central core, called the
nucleus, around which electrons revolve in certain specified orbits. Though nucleus
is very tiny, it is amazingly complex and you may like to know more about it. The
march towards our understanding the physics of nuclei began towards the end of
nineteenth century with the chance discovery of the natural phenomenon of
radioactivity; disintegration of atomic nuclei to attain stability. This discovery
provided us tools to probe the structure of nucleus : What is its size and mass?
What does it contain? What forces make its costituent particles cling together
and why?
In fact, the α-particles used by Geiger and Marsden to ‘see’ what was inside an
atom were obtained from naturally occuring radioactive element 214Bi. These
inverstigations opened up very fertile and new avenues of research. A lot of good
new physics of the atom began to emerge out and changed the course of
developments in a short span of time. You will learn about these now.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z determine the number of neutrons and protons in nuclei of different atoms;
z calculate the sizes of atomic nuclei;
z explain the nature of forces between nucleons;
z explain the terms ‘mass defect’ and ‘binding energy’;
z draw binding energy per nucleon curve and discuss the stability of atomic
nuclei;
z discuss the phenomenon of radioactivity, and identify the three types of
radioactive radiations;
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z explain the growth and decay of radioactivity in a sample;
z calculate the half-life, and decay constant of a radioactive substance; and
z explain the uses of radioactivity in various fields.
26.1.2 Size
The sizes of atomic nuclei are usually quoted in terms of their radii. Many nuclei
are nearly spherical in shape and the radius R is given approximately by the formula
R = r0 A1/3
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MH 1.673 × 10 –27 kg
dH = = 4π = 2.3 × 1017 kg m –3 .
4π 3
( )
3
RH × 1.2 × 10 –15 m
3 3
26.1.3 Notation
The nucleus of an atom is represented by the chemical symbol of the element,
with the A value as its superscript and Z value as its subscript; both on the left
hand side of the chemical symbol. Thus if the chemical symbol of an element is,
say, X, its nucleus is represented by AZ X. For example, for the nucleus of chlorine,
which has 17 protons and 18 neutrons, we write 35
17 Cl . Note that 35 here is mass
number.
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The atoms of different elements can have the same mass number, though they
may have different number of protons. Atoms having the same A value but different
Z values are called Isobars. Thus argon with A = 40 and Z = 18 is an isobar of
calcium which has A = 40 and Z = 20. Note that isobars have different chemical
properties since these are determined by Z. Atoms of the same element having
the same Z value but different A values are called isotopes. Thus, chlorine with
Z =17 and A = 35, and chlorine with Z = 17 and A = 37, are isotopes of some
Notes
element, chlorine. Since isotopes have same Z value, they show identical chemical
properties. Note that isotopes differ in the number of neutrons in their nuclei.
Atoms having the same number of neutrons in their nuclei are called the isotones.
Thus, sodium with A = 23 and Z = 11 is an isotone of magnesium with A = 24 and
Z =12.
Example 26.1 : Calculate the number of electrons, protons, neutrons and nucleons
in an atom of 238
92 U.
Solution : 92
238
U symbolises uranium, which has 92 protons and 238 nucleus. Hence
Atomic number Z = 92 = number of protons
Mass number A = 238 = number of (protons + neutrons) = Number of
nucleons
Number of neutrons = A – Z
= 238 – 92
= 146.
Example 26.2 : Select the pairs of Isotopes, Isobars and Isotones in the following
list.
12 27 39 22 76 40 76
6 C, 13 Al, 19 K, 14 Si, 32 Ge, 20 Ca, 34 Se, 14
6 C
12
Solution : Isotopes – (Same Z - value) : 6 C and 14
6 C
76 76
Isobars – (Same A values) : 32 Ge and 39 Se
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14 235 206
6 C, 92 U, 82 Pb, 18 239 1 23 27 27 28 37 35
8 O, 92 U, 1H, 11 Na, 13 Al, 12 Mg, 14 Si, 17 Cl, 17 Cl
= 1.660565 × 10–27kg
= 1.66 × 10–27 kg
Since mass of a proton (mp) is 1.6723 × 10–27kg, and mass of a neutron (mn) is
1.6747 × 10–27kg, we can express these in terms of u :
1.6723 × 10 –27
mp = u = 1.00727 u
1.6606 × 10 –27
326 PHYSICS
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Atoms and Nuclei
1.6747 × 10 –27
and mn = u = 1.00865 u
1.6606 × 10 –27
Can you now express the mass of an electron (me = 9.1 × 10–31 kg) in terms of u?
Since we will use nuclear masses in u, it is quite useful to know its energy –
equivalent. To do so, we use Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence relation, viz
Notes
Energy = mass × c2
where c is velocity of light in vacuum. Thus
1u = (1.66 × 10–27kg) (2.9979×108ms–1)2
= 14.92×10–11J
14.92 × 10 –11
= MeV
1.60 × 10 –13
= 931.3MeV
Note that joule (J) is too big a unit for use in nuclear physics. That is why we have
expressed u in MeV (million electron volts). 1MeV is the energy gained by an
electron when accelerated through a potential difference of one million volts. It is
equal to 1.6 × 10–13J.
PHYSICS 327
MODULE - 7 Nuclei and Radioactivity
[ Zmp + ( A – Z )mn – M ] c 2
or B = (26.3)
A
328 PHYSICS
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Atoms and Nuclei
9 238
92 U
8 82 kr
118pd
Binding energy per nucleon, B
4 He 36 196
7 Pt
2 78
6
5
Notes
4
1
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 240
Mass Number ®
Fig. 26.2 : The variation of binding energy per nucleon with mass number
Note that binding energy curve shows sharp peaks for 42 He, 126 C, 16 20
8 O and 9 Ne
.
Moreover, B is small indicating that light nuclei with A < 20 are less stable. For
example, the value of B for heavy hydrogen ( 12 He ) is only 1.1 MeV per nucleon.
The subsidiary peaks occurring at 12 He, 126 C, 168 O (even-even nuclei i.e. nuclei having
even number of protons and even number of neutrons) indicate that these nuclei
are more stable than their immediate neighbours.
The binding energy per nucleon curve is very useful in explaining the phenomena
of nuclear fission and nucleon fusion.
Example 26.3 : Mass of a Boron ( 105 B ) atom is 10.811 u. Calculate its mass in
kg.
Solution : Since u = 1.660565 × 10–27kg,
10.811u = 10.811 × 1.660565 × 10–27kg
= 17.952368 × 10–27kg
PHYSICS 329
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330 PHYSICS
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Atoms and Nuclei
The nuclear force shows the property of saturation, which means that nucleons
show only limited attraction. That is, each nucleon in a nucleus interacts with
only neighbouring nucleons instead of all nucleons from one end of the nucleus
to the other.
If nuclear forces had only attractive character, nucleons should have coalesced
under their influence. But we all know that the average separation between
nucleons is constant, resulting in a nuclear volume proportional to the total number Notes
of nucleons. The possible explanation is that nuclear forces exhibit attractive
character only so long as nucleons are separated through a certain critical distance.
For distances less than this critical value, the character of nuclear forces changes
abruptly; attraction should change to repulsion. (You should not confuse this
repulsion with electrostatic repulsion.) These qualitative aspects of nuclear forces
are shown in Fig. 26.3
Strength of the nuclear force
(no force)
Attraction
r
>4.2f
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(attraction)
Distance between two nucleons
Repulsion
1f
(repulsion)
<0.4f
(a) (b)
Fig. 26.3 : a) Typical variation of nuclear forces with distance, and b) effect of inter-nuclear
distance on the force between nucleons.
26.3 RADIOACTIVITY
What is the age of our earth? How do geologists estimate the age of rocks and
fossils found during excavations? What is radio-therapy which is used to treat
malignant cells? The answers to all these interesting and useful questions are
inherent in the study of radioactivity; a natural phenomenon in which atoms emit
radiations to attain stability. Though it was discovered by chance, it opened flood
gates for new physics. It finds wide use in industry, agriculture and medical care.
Let us learn about it now.
26.3.1 Discovery
The story of discovery of radioactivity is very interesting. In 1896, French physicist
A.H. Becquerel was working on the phenomenon of fluorescence (in which some
PHYSICS 331
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332 PHYSICS
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Atoms and Nuclei
The emitted radiation is called the radioactive radiation and the process of
disintegration (break-up) of atomic nuclei (by emitting α, β and γ-rays) is called
radioactive decay. Sometimes, the break-up can be induced by bombarding stable
nuclei with other light particles (like neutron and protons). It is then called artificial
radio-activity.
The characteristic features of this phenomenon are that it is spontaneous and in
the case of α or β emission, a new nucleus belonging to a new element is formed. Notes
That is, one element gets converted into another element. This is thus a nuclear
disintegration phenomenon and suggests the posibility of mutation of new nuclei.
Let us first study the characteristic properties of α, β, and γ radiations.
(i) α-particles
Alpha particles are helium nuclei ( 42 He ) and consist of two protons and two
neutrons. Detailed studies of these particles revealed the following properties :
z Being charged particles, they get deflected in electric and magnetic fields.
z They produce fluorescence in substances like zinc sulphide and barium platino
cyanide, affect a photographic plate, can induce radioactivity in certain
elements and produce nuclear reactions.
z They have great ionizing power. A single particle in its journey through a gas
can ionize thousands of gas atoms before being absorbed.
z They have little penetration power through solid substances, and get scattered
by thin foils of metals. They can be stopped by 0.02 mm thick aluminum
sheet.
z The energies of α particles emitted from a radioactive substance is a
characteristic of the emitting nucleus. This corresponds to a variation in their
velocity from 1.4 × 107m s–1 to 2.05 × 107m s–1.
(ii) β-particles
β-Particles can be both positively and negatively charged. They originate in the
nucleus in the process of conversion of a neutron into a proton, and vice versa.
Further studies of β-particles have revealed the following properties.
z Being charged particles, they get deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
z They produce fluorescence in materials like zinc-sulphide and barium
plationcynide; and affect photographic plates.
z They can ionize gas atoms but to a much smaller extent than the α-particles.
z Negatively charged β-particles can pass through a few mm of aluminium
sheets. They are about 100 times more penetrating than α-particles.
PHYSICS 333
MODULE - 7 Nuclei and Radioactivity
Marie Curie
(1867–1934)
Marie Curie shared the 1903 Nobel prize in physics with
A. Henri Becquerel and her husband Pierre Curie for her
studies in the field of radioactivity. She was the first person
in the world to receive two Nobel prizes; the other Nobel
prize she received was in chemistry in 1911. Later her
daughter Joliot also won the Nobel prize in chemistry for
her discovery of artificial radioactivity.
334 PHYSICS
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Atoms and Nuclei
A
X α−decay 4
He + A –4
Y
Z 2 Z–2
(α-particle)
A
X β−decay 0
Z
–1 e + AZ–1 Y
(β-particle)
( AZ X )* γ−decay A
X +γ
Z Notes
The asterisk over the symbol of element implies that it is in an excited state.
PHYSICS 335
MODULE - 7 Nuclei and Radioactivity
Units of Disintegration
The decay constant is measured in units of per second. The activity of a
radioactive substance at any instant of time is measured by its rate of
disintegration. Its SI unit has been named becquerel :
1 becquerel = 1 disintegration per second.
Another unit of the decay constant is curie.
1 curie = 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second.
which is the rate of disintegration of radium (Ra) measured per second per
gram.
Yet another unit is ‘rutherford’ (rd) :
1 rd = 106 disintegrations per second.
log e 2
or T1/2 =
λ 1
2 No
2.303 × log10 2 1
=
λ 4 No
1
8 No
2.303 × 0.3010
=
λ O T1/2 2T1/2 3T1/2 4T1/2
0.693 Fig. 26.5 : Radioactive decay
=
λ curve
336 PHYSICS
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Atoms and Nuclei
Thus, half-life of any radioactive substance is inversely proportional to its decay
constant and is a characteristic property of the radioactive nucleus. The half-life
of 146 C (radioactive carbon) is 5730 years. This means that one gram of 146 C will
0.5
be reduced to 0.5 g in 5730 years. This number will be further reduced to = 0.25
2
g in another 5730 years. i.e. in a total period of 11460 years. Refer to Fig. 26.5 to Notes
see how a radioactive sample decays with time.
⎛ 15 ⎞
or loge ⎜ ⎟ = λt
⎝9⎠
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MODULE - 7 Nuclei and Radioactivity
(i) AZ X = 42 He + ab Y + γ
(ii) 4Z X = 0
−1 e + ab Y + γ
Notes 4. The half-life of a radioactive substance is 5 years. In how much time, 10g of
this substance will reduce to 2.5g?
Applications of Radioactivity
Radioactivity finds many applications in our every day life. Some of these
are given below.
(i) In medicine : In the treatment of cancer (radiotherapy), a radio-active
cobalt source which emits x-rays is used to destroy cancerous cells.
The decay of a single radioactive atom can be registered by an instrument
placed at a remote location outside a container wall. This high sensitivity
is utilized in tracer technique as an important tool in medical diagnostics,
like the detection of ulcer in any part of the body. A few radioactive
atoms of some harmless element ( 24
11 Na ) are injected into the body of a
patient. Their movement can then be recorded. The affected part absorbs
the radioactive atoms whose flow is, therefore, stopped and the diseased
part of the body is easily located.
(ii) In agriculture : By exposing the seeds to controlled γ radiation, we are
able to improve the quality and yield of crops, fruits and vegetables.
Radiating these before their storage helps in saving from decay.
(iii) In geology : In estimating the age of old fossils. The normal activity of
living carbon containing matter is found to be about 15 decays per minute
for every gram of carbon. This activity arises from the small proportion
of radioactive carbon –14 present in the atmosphere with the ordinary
carbon –12. This isotope (14C) is taken by plants from the atmosphere
and is present in animals that eat plants. Thus, about one part in 108
radioactive carbon is present in all living beings (all animals and plants).
When the organism is dead, its interaction with the atmosphere (i.e.
absorption, which maintains the above equilibrium) ceases and its activity
begins to fall. From this, the age of the specimen can be approximately
estimated. This is called carbon-dating and is the principle of determining
the age of old fossils by archeologists.
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Atoms and Nuclei
The same technique has been used in estimating the age of earth from
the measurements of relative amounts of 238U and 206Pb in geological
specimens containing uranium ore. Assume that the specimen of ore
contained only uranium and no lead at the time of birth of the earth.
With the passage of time, uranium decayed into lead. The amount of
lead present in any specimen will therefore indicate its age. The present
age of the earth, using this method, has been estimated to be about 4 Notes
billion years.
(iv) In industry : γ-radiations are used to find the flaws (or imperfections)
in the inner structure of heavy machinery. For example, if there is an air
bubble inside, the penetration of γ-rays will be more at that point.
z The number of protons inside the nucleus of an atom of any element gives the
atomic number of the element.
z The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is
called its mass number.
z The atoms having same atomic number but different mass numbers are called
isotopes.
z The atoms with same mass number but different atomic numbers are called
isobars.
z The nucleons inside the nucleus of every atom are bound together by strong
attractive nuclear forces which are short-range and charge-independent.
z The mass of a nucleus is found to be less than the sum of the masses of its
nucleons. This difference in mass is called mass-defect. It is a measure of the
binding energy.
PHYSICS 339
MODULE - 7 Nuclei and Radioactivity
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. When does a radioactive sample disintegrate?
2. Differentiate between isotopes and isobars.
3. Explain the characteristics of binding energy per nucleon versus mass number
curve.
4. What is the nature of nuclear force? Give its characteristics.
5. Explain how decay constant is related to half-life of a radioactive substance.
6. Define the following terms:
238
(i) 1123 Na ; (ii) 12 H ; (iii) 92 U; (iv) 1735 Cl ;
10. Calculate the mass defect and binding energy of nucleons for the following
nuclei.
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Atoms and Nuclei
Given, 1 u = 1.660566 × 10–27kg = 931 MeV, Mass of a proton = 1.007276 u.
Mass of a neutron = 1.008665 u, Mass of 2He4 atom = 4.00260 u, Mass of
14
7
3 Li atom = 7.01601 u, Mass of 7 N atom = 14.00307 u.
11. Using the present day abundance of the two main uranium isotopes and
assuming that the abundance ratio could never have been greater than unity,
estimate the maximum possible age of the earth’s crust. Given that the present
Notes
day ratio of 238U and 235U is 137.8 : 1; Half life of 238U is = 4.5 × 109 year; and
that of 235U is 7.13 × 108 years.
1
12. If the activity of a redioactive sample drops to th of its initial value in 1
16
hour and 20 minutes, Calculate the half-life.
26.1
1.
Isotopes Isobars Isotones
76
12
6 C and 14
6 C 32
76
Ge & 34 Se
2
1 H & 32 He
40
1
1 H and 12 H & 13 H 18 A & 40
20 Ca 14
6
18
C & 8O
76 76 24
16
8 O & 18
8 O 32 Ge & 34 Se 23
11 Na & 12 Mg
35 3 27 28
17 Cl & 37
17 Cl 1 H & 32 He 13 Al & 14 Si
206 207 7 7 27 28
82 Pb & 82 Pb 3 Li & 4 Be 13 Al & 14 Si
238 239
92 U& 92 U
2. (i) heavier; (ii) mass; (iii) nucleons; (iv) 14; (v) 14 (vi) atomic.
3. Atomic number.
26.2
1. Δm = 1.041358 u; 969.5 MeV. 2. 2.4 × 10–15m.
26.3
1. Nuclear disintegration usually involves α or β emission which results in change
of atomic and mass numbers of the parent element. With the emission of α
PHYSICS 341
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Atoms and Nuclei
27
Notes
We all know that the sun supports life on the earth by continuously providing
energy. It has been doing so for the last several billion years and will continue to
do so for billions of years to come. What is the source of this huge amount of
energy emitted by the sun? This question fascinated human mind always. But
now we reliably know that the energy in the core of sun is produced by fusion of
hydrogen nucli into helium at very high temperatures. This is also true of other
stars. Imitation of these conditions in a fusion reactor is being highlighted as the
ultimate source of all our energy requirements in coming years.
Similarly, you most have read about energy security and the role of nuclear energy
to produce electricity in our nuclear reactors at Tarapore, Kota, Kaiga, Narora,
Kalpakkam and Kakrapara. Similarly, you may have read in newspapers that on
August 6, 1945, an atom bomb dropped over Hiroshima, a large city of Japan,
destroyed the entire city almost completely in a span of a few seconds and lacs of
lives were lost. It released an energy equivalent to that released by the explosion
of a 20,000 ton TNT (tri-nitro toluene) bomb and was completely new in human
history. Since then, more powerful (atomic, hydrogen and neutron) bombs have
been made whose destructive power is equivalent to several Mega tons of TNT.
The super powers are said to have stockpiled a large number of such bombs. The
destructive power of their stock is so enormous that they can destroy the entire
earth several times over. The physical process responsible for such colossal amount
of energy is nuclear fission. You will now learn about these processes.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to
z state conservation laws for nuclear reactions;
PHYSICS 343
MODULE - 7 Nuclear Fission and Fusion
4.08×1.602×10 –19
Δm = = 7.26 × 10–36 kg (27.3)
9×1016
Such a small change in mass cannot be detected and we say that the mass is
conserved in chemical reactions, though slight change of mass does occur.
344 PHYSICS
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Atoms and Nuclei
The important points to be noted in chemical reactions are
z Energies of the order of 10 eV are involved.
z Change of mass is of the order of 10–35 kg, which is extremely small and we
say that the mass is conserved.
z The total number of atoms of each type on the right hand side of the chemical
equation is always equal to the total number of atoms of each type on the left Notes
hand side.
PHYSICS 345
MODULE - 7 Nuclear Fission and Fusion
4 He + 14 N → 17 O + 1H (27.5)
2 17 8 1
The oxygen nuclei and protons carry away 6.5 MeV. Clearly this reaction can
occur if
Notes 1.2 MeV energy is supplied from outside. Therefore, it is an endothermic nuclear
reaction. When aluminium is bombarded by 7.7 M eV alpha particles from
polonium, the following nuclear reaction takes place and 10.7 MeV energy is
released:
27 4 30 1 (27.6)
13 Al + 2 He → 14 Si + 1H
Here we see that more energy is released than the input energy; it is an exothermic
reaction. Note that there is a gain of nearly 3 MeV energy per reaction, which is
approximately 700,000 times the energy released in burning of one carbon atom.
But this reaction can’t be used for production of energy because out of 125,000
incident alpha particles only one succeeds in producing the reaction. Hence on
the whole, there is much more energy spent than produced.
Nuclear reactions can also be produced by protons, deuterons, neutrons and other
light nuclei. Of these, neutrons are the best projectiles for producing nuclear
reactions; being neutral particles, they do not experience Coulomb repulsion..
Thus even thermal neutrons (i.e. neutrons having energy 0.0253 eV) can penetrate
the target nucleus and produce a nuclear reaction.
Some typical examples of nuclear reactions produced by protons, deutrons and
neutrons are:
6 1
→ 32 He + 42 He (27.7)
3 Li + 1H
10 2
→ 3 42 He (27.8)
5 B+ 1H
10
→ 37 Li + 42 He (27.9)
5 B+n
Like chemical reactions, nuclear reactions also follow conservation laws.We state
these now.
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Atoms and Nuclei
z The sum of atomic numbers of the reactants is equal to the sum of atomic
numbers of the products. In Eqn. (27.7), atomic number 4 = 3 + 1 = 2 + 2 is
conserved.
z Nuclear reactions follow the law of conservation of energy. We know that
mass is concentrated form of energy. Therefore the sum of input kinetic energy
plus the mass of the reactants is equal to the output kinetic energy plus the
mass of the products. Notes
z Nuclear reactions follow the law of conservation of momentum, which results
in distribution of kinetic energy among various product nuclei.
Now, answer the following questions.
(a) 19
+ 11H → 16
9 F 8 O +?
(b) 27 Al + 1 n → ? + 4 He
13 0 2
(d) 63 Cu + 2 D → 64 Zn + ?
29 1 30
2. Calculate the energy released in the nuclear reaction given below
10 2
5 B +1 D → 342 He + Q
2
( )
Given that m(10B) = 10.01294 u; m 1 D = 2.014103 u, and m(42 He) =
4.002604 u.
Given that: m 14 ( ) 17
( )
7 N = 14.003014 u; m 8 O = 16.999138 u; (
m 4 He
2 ) =
1
( )
4.002604 u; m 1 H = 1.007825 u and energy of α particle = 7.7MeV.
PHYSICS 347
MODULE - 7 Nuclear Fission and Fusion
Enrico Fermi
(1901 – 1954)
Enrico Fermi, the Italy born physicist, was responsible for
peaceful uses of nuclear energy for mankind. He
demonstrated that nuclear transformations may occur in
any element exposed to stream of neutrons. He achieved self-sustained
nuclear fission chain reaction in 1942.
Fermi was only 25 years old when he formulated the Fermi–Dirac statistics,
applicable to particles having half integral spin values (called fermions). At
the time of his premature death, he was engrossed in theoretical studies of
cosmic radiations.
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Atoms and Nuclei
27.2.1 Mechanism of Nuclear Fission
In the year 1939, Bohr and Wheeler developed the theory of fission using the
analogy between nuclear forces and the forces which bind molecules in a liquid.
235 235
They predicted that 92 U was more fissile than 92 U . Refer to Fig. 27.2. If shows
235
the schematics of nuclear fission of 92 U by thermal neutrons according to the
equation.
Notes
+ 10 n → 141 (27.11)
36 Ba + 36 Kr + 30 n + Q
235 92 1
92 U
time ®
Fig. 27.2 : Nuclear-fission of a nucleus according to the liquid drop model
The emitted neutrons have energy of the order of a few MeV, and Q 200MeV.
Note that a fission event occurs within 10–17 s of neutron capture and fission
neutrons are emitted within about 10–14 s of the event. Moreover, the fission
fragments are of unequal mass; one being 1.5 to 2 times heavier than the other.
Also, Eqn. (27.11) gives only one of the more than 40 different modes in which a
235
92 U nucleus can fission. It means that about 80 different nuclei of intermediate
235
masses are produced in the fission of 92 U . The heavier fragments lie in the mass
range 125–150 with the a maximum around 140, whereas the lighter fragments
lie in the range 80 – 110 with a maximum around 95. The number of neutrons
emitted is either two or three and the average number of neutrons produced per
fission of 235U is 2.54
Fission
Fragement
Fission of n
236
U
n
n
g-ra
235
U 236
U y
Fission
Fragement
PHYSICS 349
MODULE - 7 Nuclear Fission and Fusion
235 141
U 235.0439 u 56 Ba 140.9139 u
1 92
n 1.008665 u 36 Kr 91.8973 u
3 × Vn 3.025995 u
Total mass 236.052565 u Total mass 235.837195 u
Mass defect 0.21537u
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Atoms and Nuclei
the rate of production of neutrons equals the rate of loss of neutrons, the reaction
is said to be self-sustained. The device designed to maintain a self-sustained and
controlled chain reaction is called a nuclear reactor.
Nuclear reactors are usually classified according to the purpose for which they
are used. So a nuclear power reactor is used to produce electricity and a research
reactor is used to produce radioisotopes for medical purposes, carrying out
experiments for refinements or applied research. We also categorise nuclear Notes
reactors as fast and thermal, depending on the energy of neutrons causing fission.
In India, we have thermal power reactors at Tarapore, Narora, Kota, Kaiga, etc.
At Kalpakkam, we are developing a fast breeder research reactor.
You will now learn about a nuclear reactor in brief.
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MODULE - 7 Nuclear Fission and Fusion
Notes Pump
z A reflector is put next to the core to stop neutron leakage from the core.
z The whole assembly is placed inside a vessel, called pressure vessel. Usually,
a few inches thick stainless steel is used for this purpose.
z A thick shield is provided to protect the scientists and other personnel working
around the reactor from radiations coming from the reactor core. It is usually
in the form of a thick concrete wall.
z The entire structure is placed inside a reactor building. It is air tight and is
maintained at a pressure slightly less than the atomospheric pressure so that
no air leaks out of the building.
The heat generated inside the reactor core of a reactor due to fision is removed
by circulating a coolant. The heated coolant is made to give up its heat to a
secondary fluid, usually water in a heat exchanger. This generates steam, which is
used to drive turbine-generator system to produce electricity in a power plant
and discharged into a river/lake/sea in a research reactor.
352 PHYSICS
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Atoms and Nuclei
27.4 NUCLEAR FUSION
You now know that uranium nucleus can be made to split into lighter nuclei
resulting in release of huge amount of energy. You may now ask: Can we combine
lighter nuclei to produce energy? To discover answer to this question, refer to the
binding energy per nucleon (BE/A) curve (Fig.26.2). You will note that binding
energy per nucleon increases as we go from hydrogen to helium . It means that
helium is more stable than hydrogen. Consider the following reaction: Notes
1
D2 + 1D2 → 2He4 + Q
You can easily calculate the B.E of reactants and products:
Total B.E of reactants, BE1 = 2 × 2.22 = 4.44 MeV
Table 27.2 : Binding Energy
Total B.E of products, BE2 = 28.295 MeV per nucleon (BE/A) of some
light nuclei
Q = (BE2 – BE1) ~ 24 MeV
Nucleon BE/A(in MeV)
∴ Note that the energy released per nucleon in this reaction is 24/4=6 MeV, 2
D 1.11
which is nearly seven times the energy released per nucleon (200/238 = 0.83
3
T 2.827
MeV) in a nuclear fission event.
3
He 2.573
The process in which two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus is
4
called nuclear fusion. He 7.074
6
Li 5.332
Fusion process presents itself as a more viable energy option. However, the process
7
of fusion is more difficult to achieve than nuclear fission because both the deuterons Li 6.541
are positively charged. When we try to bring them together to fuse into one
nucleus, they repel each other very strongly and the reaction is ordinarily
impossible.
To achieve this reaction, the deuterons have to be heated to nearly 10 million
kelvin so that they acquire sufficient kinetic energy to overcome repulsion before
they collide to fuse into helium nucleus. But the problems associated with
maintaining such high temperatures continuously and containing the reactants
together has not yet been solved fully. The controlled thermonuclear reaction
necessary for harnessing this source of energy is however not far now.
Almost inexhaustible amount of deuterium (heavy hydrogen) is present in the
ocean. Once we begin to harness this source, our energy problem should be solved
for ever. We will get an endless supply of cheap electricity without any pollution.
This is because one gram of deuterium (heavy hydrogen) yields about 100,000
kW h of energy.
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MODULE - 7 Nuclear Fission and Fusion
o
4 11 H → 4
2
He + 2 +1e +Q
The overall result here is: four hydrogen nuclei fuse into a helium nucleus with
the release of two positrons (electron-like microscope particles of the same mass
but positive charge) and 26.8 MeV energy. The tremendous amount of energy
released in a thermo-nuclear reaction is the source of energy in stars. The
quantity of hydrogen in the sun is sufficient to keep it shining for nearly 8 billion
years more.
(a) 11 H + 7
3
Li → 4
2
He + Q .
(b) 12 H + 12 H → 13 H + 11 H + 4MeV.
Calculate Q in the first reaction and mass of tritium in the second reaction.
m ( 37 Li ) = 7.015982u.
354 PHYSICS
Nuclear Fission and Fusion MODULE - 7
Atoms and Nuclei
27.5 NUCLEAR ENERGY
We need energy for all economic activities in life. The amount of energy consumed
per capita is a measure of advancement of a nation. According to a recent UNESCO
report (2007), we are consuming about 40% more than what mother earth can
generate in the form of food, water and energy. In fact, the human society has
been continuously striving for energy security and looking for newer sources of
energy. Due to over use, conventional sources of energy are depleting very fast Notes
and may exhaust completely in the next one hundred years. The nuclear energy is
perhaps an important option for meeting our future energy needs through peaceful
applications. Let us discuss these now.
PHYSICS 355
MODULE - 7 Nuclear Fission and Fusion
Thermal neutrons 2 to 5
The damage caused by nuclear radiations depends on the exposed part of the
body, as well as on the energy, intensity and the nature of the radiation. Different
Fast neutrons 10
parts of human body show different sensitivities to radiation. The α-particles are,
α-particles, high
energy ions of
as a rule, quite harmful because of their high ionising power. The damaging effects
O, N, etc. 10 to 20 of different radiations are generally compared in terms of their ‘relative biological
effectiveness’, called the RBE factors. These factors for different particles/rays
are given in Table 27.3.
356 PHYSICS
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Atoms and Nuclei
There is no control on natural sources of radiation. However, efforts can certainly
be made to lower down radiation from man-made sources. Some of these are to:
z Avoid nuclear explosions.
z Minimise production of radio-isotopes.
z Extreme care should be exercised in the disposal of industrial wastes containing
traces of radio-nuclides.
z Nuclear medicines and radiation therapy should be used only when absolutely Notes
necessary, and with well considered doses.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. How does a nuclear reaction differ from a chemical reaction?
2. What is the use of moderator and absorber in a fission reactor?
PHYSICS 357
MODULE - 7 Nuclear Fission and Fusion
2
1
D + 2
1
D → 4
2 He + 24 MeV
Calculate the amount of heavy hydrogen used in producing the same energy
as above. Compare the two results.
8. What is nuclear fusion? Write an equation of nuclear fusion to support your
answer.
9. What is the source of energy in the sun? How is it generated? Illustrate with
an example.
10. Describe the construction of an atomic reactor.
11. Calculate the energy released in a fusion reaction
3 ( 42 He) → 126 C
27.1
1. a. 19
9 F + 11 H → 16
8
O + 4
2
He;
b. 27
13 AI + 1
0
n → 24
11 Na + 4
2
He;
c. 234
90
Th → 234
90
Pa + 0
−1
e;
d. 63
29
Cu + 2
1
D → 64
30
Zn + 1
0
n
2. 17.9MeV
3. 14
7 N + 4
2
He → 17
8
O + 1
1 H + 6.5MeV.
358 PHYSICS
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Atoms and Nuclei
27.2
1. Due to increase of n/p ratio above the natural ratio, its stability decreases. To
decrease the ratio to attain more stability, it emits a β-particle.
2. 239Pu
3. 200 MeV.
Notes
27.3
1. (1) In fission the energy released is 0.84 MeV/u where as in fusion. It is
6.7 MeV/u. Thus energy released per unit mass is more in the later case.
2. (a) 17.3 MeV, (b) 2.69 MeV.
27.4
1. Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor 2. nearly 1 kg.
PHYSICS 359
SENIOR SECONDARY COURSE
ATOMS AND NUCLEI
STUDENT’S ASSIGNMENT – 7
Maximum Marks: 50 Time : 1½ Hours
INSTRUCTIONS
z Answer All the questions on a seperate sheet of paper
z Give the following information on your answer sheet:
z Name
z Enrolment Number
z Subject
z Assignment Number
z Address
z Get your assignment checked by the subject teacher at your study centre so that you get positive
feedback about your performance.
PHYSICS 361
15. Write nuclear equations for :
16. Obtain the binding energy per nucleon of 117 N nucleus. Give
mp = 1.00783 u
mn = 1.00867u
mN = 14.00307 u.
17. For scattering of α-particles by an atom of atomic number π , the relation between impact parameter b
and the scattering angle θ is given by
Ze 2 cot θ / 2
b = 4 πε (mv 2 / 2) .
o
362 PHYSICS
MODULE - VIII
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES AND COMMUNICATION
28
Notes
SEMICONDUCTORS AND
SEMICONDUCTING DEVICES
Ever since man moved out of the cave and settled into a civil society, his quest for
comfort has increased continuously. The invention of fire and wheel proved turning
points in human history. Probably, the next big development was the grey
revolution, which transformed the way of communication, transportation and
living. Sitting in our living rooms, we can connect to our loved ones face-to-face
across oceans and continents using computer mediated video-conferencing.
To make all this possible solid state electronic devices have played a significant
role. Electronics is a branch of science and technology in which electrons are
manipulated to do some specific tasks. Scientists have studied the electrical nature
of materials and developed a concept of energy bands in terms of which solids
can be classified as conductors, semiconductors and insulators. Semiconductors
are mostly used for developing electronic devices. Silicon and germanium are the
most familiar semiconductor materials. Normally, the conductivity of a
semiconductor lies in–between the conductivities of metals and insulators.
However, at absolute zero, the semiconductor also acts like a perfect insulator.
The conductivity of a semiconductor is influenced by adding some impurity element
called dopant.
In this lesson you will learn about various types of semiconductors, their behaviour
and how they are combined to form useful devices such as Zener diode, solar
cell, photodiode, light emitting diode and transistor, etc. You will also learn to
draw the I-V characteristics of Zener diode, LED, photo diode and solar cell.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z explain what energy bands are and how they are used to classify materials as
conductors, insulators and semiconductors;
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and Communication z differentiate between (i) intrinsic and extrinsic and (ii) n-type and p-type
semiconductors;
z explain formation of depletion region and barrier potential in a p-n junction
diode;
z describe I-V characteristics of a p-n junction diode in the forward and reverse
biases;
Notes
z describe different type of diodes, viz. zener, LED, photo diode and solar cell
and their I-V characteristics;
z explain the action of a transistor;
z describe the effect of doping, size and function of different regions in a
transistor;
z list the differences between p-n-p and n-p-n transistors;
z list different configurations in which a transistor can be connected and
describe their input and output characteristics; and
z compare different configurations of a transistor in terms of their input/output
resistance, gain and applications.
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these bands, at equilibrium separation, determines the conduction characteristics and Communication
of a solid.
CB CB
CB
DE = 0 DE £ 3 eV DE > 3 eV
VB VB VB
Fig. 28.1 Energy band in (a) Conductors (b) Semiconductors (c) Insulators
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Semiconductors Devices
and Communication Note that in an intrinsic semiconductor, electrons and holes are always generated
in pairs and the negative charge of free electrons is exactly balanced by the positive
charge of holes. However, a hole only shifts its position due to the motion of an
electron from one place to another. So we can say that when a free electron
moves in a crystal because of thermal energy; its path deviates whenever it
collides with a nucleus or other free electrons. This gives rise to a zig-zag or
random motion, which is similar to that of a molecule in a gas.
Notes
B B
A A
C
B
(d) (e)
Now refer to Fig. 28.2(a) and consider the electron- hole pair generated at point
A. The free electron drifts in the crystal leaving behind a hole. The broken bond
now has only one electron and this unpaired electron has tendency to acquire an
electron and complete its pair by forming a covalent bond. Due to thermal energy,
the electron from neighbouring bond, say at point B, may get excited to break its
own bond and jump into the hole at A. As a result, the hole at A vanishes and a
new hole appears at B (Fig. 28.2(c)). Thus motion of electron from point B to
point A causes the hole to move from A to B.
You may now like to ask: What will happen when hole at B attracts and captures
a valence electron from neighbouring bond at C? The movement of electron from
C to B causes movement of hole from B to C [see Fig. 28.2(d) and (e)].
Conventionally, the flow of electric current through the semiconductor is taken
in the same direction in which holes move.
At absolute zero temperature, all valence electrons are tightly bound to their
parent atoms and intrinsic semiconductor behaves as an insulator. At room
temperature, the thermal energy makes a valence electron in an atom to move
away from the influence of its nucleus. Therefore, a covalent bond is broken and
electron becomes free to move in the crystal, resulting in the formation of a
vacancy, called hole. Thus, due to thermal energy, some electron-hole pairs
are generated and semiconductor exhibits small conductivity. For example, at
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Semiconductors Devices
room temperature (300 K), Ge has intrinsic carrier concentration and Communication
of about 2.5× 1019 m–3 electron-hole pair. As temperature increases, more electron-
hole pairs are generated and conductivity increases. Alternatively, we can say
that resistivity decreases as temperature increases. It means that semiconductors
have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
Fig. 28.3 : A part of the Periodic Table. Group III and V elements are used
for doping an intrinsic semiconductor of group IV.
Normally we add a very small amount of impurity atoms to the pure simiconductor.
It is of the order of one atom per 108 atoms of intrinsic semiconductor. These
atoms change the balance of charge carriers; either they add free electrons or create
holes. Either of these additions makes the material more conducting. Thus, most of
the charge carriers in extrinsic semiconductors originate from the impurity atoms.
28.2.3 n-and p-type Semiconductors
From the electronic configuration of Si (1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p2), you will recall that
ten electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus and four electrons revolve around
the nucleus in the outermost orbit. In an intrinsic silicon semiconductor, the Si
PHYSICS 369
MODULE - 8 Semiconductors and Semiconducting Devices
Semiconductors Devices
and Communication atom attains stability by sharing one electron each with four neighbouring Si
atoms. (This is called covalent bonding). The same holds true for germanium; its
electronic configuration is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s2, 4p2. When silicon (or
germanium) is doped with a pentavalent (five electrons in the outermost orbit)
atom like phosphorus, arsenic or antiomony, four electrons form covalent bonds
with the four neighbouring silicon atoms, but the fifth (valence) electron remains
unbound and is available for conduction, as shown in Fig. 28.4. Thus, when a
Notes silicon (or germanium) crystal is doped with a pentavalent element, it develops
excess free electrons and is said to be an n-type semiconductor. Such impurities
are known as donor impurities.
Si Si Si Si
Si Si P Si
Si Si Si Si
If silicon (or germanium) is doped with a trivalent (three electrons in the outermost
shell) atom like boron, aluminium, gallium or indium, three valence electrons
form covalent bonds with three silicon atoms and deficiency of one electron is
created. This deficienty of electron is referred to as hole. It is shown in Fig. 28.5.
Such a semiconductor is said to be a p-type semiconductor and the impurities are
known as acceptor impurities.
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In fact, the number of free electrons is exactly equal to the total number of holes and Communication
and positively charged ions and a semiconductor, whether intrinsic or doped, is
electricially neutral.
Note that in a p-type semiconductor, more holes are created due to addition of
acceptor impurity than by breaking covalent bonds due to thermal energy at room
temperature. Hence, the net concentration of holes is significantly greater than
that of electrons. That is, in a p-type semiconductor, the holes are the majority Notes
charge carriers. Similarly we can say that electrons are the majority charge carriers
in n-type semiconductors.
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and Communication
Notes
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an anode. Similarly, K indicates n-region and corresponds to a cathode. Fig 28.8 and Communication
(b) shows a picture of p-n junction diode available in market.
Notes
Fig. 28.8: (a) Symbol of a p-n junction (diode). The arrow gives the direction of
conventional current. It is from p to n region (b) A p-n junction diode
available in the market.
You may have noted that semiconductor diodes are designated by two letters
followed by a serial number. The first letter indicates the material: A is used for
material with a band gap of 0.6 eV to 1.0eV such as germanium. B is used for
material with a band gap of 1.0eV to 1.3eV, such as silicon. The second letter
indicates the main application: A signifies detection diode, B denotes a variable
capacitance diode, E for tunnel diode, Y for rectifying diode and Z denotes Zener
diode. The serial numbers specify power rating, peak reverse voltage, maximum
current rating, etc. (We have to refer to manufacturer’s catelogue to know exact
details.) For example, BY127 denotes a silicon rectifier diode and BZ148 represents
a silicon Zener diode.
To make visual identification of anode and cathode, the manufacturers employ
one of the following ways :
z the symbol is painted on the body of the diode;
z red and blue marks are used on the body of the diode. Red mark denotes
anode, whereas blue indicates the cathode;
z a small ring is printed at one end of the body of the diode that corresponds to
the cathode. The band in Fig. 28.8(b) indicates the n-side of the p-n junction.
Note that we have to work within the specified ranges of diode ratings to avoid
damage to the device.
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MODULE - 8 Semiconductors and Semiconducting Devices
Semiconductors Devices
and Communication (c) The barrier potential in silicon is .................. V and in germanium, it is
.................. V.
(d) In a p-n junction with no applied electric field, the electrons diffuse from
n-region to p-type region as there is .................. concentration of
.................. in n-region as compared to p- region.
2. Choose the correct option:
Notes
(a) The potential barrier at the p-n junction is due to the charges on the either
side of the junction. These charges are
(i) majority carriers
(ii) minority carriers
(iii) fixed donor and acceptor ions.
(iv) none of above
(b) In a p-n junction without any external voltage, the junction current at
equillibrium is
(i) due to diffusion of minority carriers only
(ii) due to diffusion of majority carriers only
(iii) zero, as no charges are crossing the junction
(iv) zero, as equal and opposite charges are crossing the junction
(c) In a semiconductor diode, the barrier potential repels
(i) minority carriers in both the regions
(ii) majority carriers in both the regions
(iii) both the majority and the minority carriers
(iv) none of the above
3. Why is depletion region named so? What is depletion region made of?
374 PHYSICS
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Semiconductors Devices
n-region. Similarly, electrons cross the junction in the reverse direction. This sets and Communication
in forward current in the diode. The current increases with voltage and is of the
order of a few milliampere. Under the forward bias condition, the junction offers
low resistance to flow of current. Can you guess its magnitude? The value of
junction resistance, called forward resistance, is in the range 10Ω to 30Ω.
Notes
Fig. 28.9 : (a) Forward biased, and (b) reverse biased p-n junction
When the p-n junction is reverse biased, holes in the p-region and electrons in
the n-region move away from the junction. Does it mean that no current shall
flow in the circuit? No, a small current does flow even now because of the fewer
number of electron-hole pairs generated due to thermal excitations. This small
current caused by minority carriers is called reverse saturation current or leakage
current. In most of the commercially available diodes, the reverse current is
almost constant and independent of the applied reverse bias. Its magnitude is of
the order of a few microamperes for Ge diodes and nanoamperes in Si diodes.
A p-n junction offers low resistance when forward biased, and high resistance
when reverse biased. This property of p-n junction is used for ac rectification.
When the reverse bias voltage is of the order of a few hundred volt, the current
through the p-n junction increases rapidly and damages it due to excessive power
dissipation. The voltage at which a diode breaks down is termed as breakdown
voltage. Physically, it can be explained as follows: When a reverse bias is applied,
a large electric field is established across the junction. This field (i) accelerates
the available minority carriers, which, in turn, collide with the atoms of the
semiconductor material and eject more electrons through energy transfer
(avalanche effect), and (ii) breaks covalent bonds by exerting large force on
electrons bound by the bonds. This results in creation of additional electron-hole
pairs in the junction region (Zener effect). Both these processes give rise to large
reverse current even for a small increment in reverse bias voltage. This process is
termed as Zener breakdown.
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MODULE - 8 Semiconductors and Semiconducting Devices
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and Communication
INTEXT QUESTION 28.3
1. Define forward bias.
2. Define reverse bias.
3. Fill in the blanks:
Notes (a) When forward bias is applied on a p-n junction diode, the width of the
depletion region ..................
(b) When a p-n junction diode is reverse biased, the width of depletion region
(c) When the reverse bias voltage is made too high, the current through the
p-n junction .................. abruptly. This voltage is called.
4. Choose the correct option:
(a) In a forward biased junction
(i) the holes in the n-region move towards the p-region
(ii) there is movement of minority carriers
(iii) charge carriers do not move
(iv) majority carriers in both the regions (n and p-regions) move into other
regions.
(b) In a reverse biased junction
(i) there is no of potential barrier
(ii) there is movement of majority carriers only
(iii) there is movement of minority carriers only
(iv) none of the above
5. State two types of reverse breakdowns which can occur in a p-n junction
diode and differentiate between them.
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the diode through the rheostat. (Alternative by we can use a variable battery.) and Communication
The voltage applied to the diode can be varied with the help of the rheostat. The
milliammeter (mA) measures the current in the circuit and voltmeter (V) measures
the voltage across the diode. The direction of conventional current is the same as
the direction of the diode arrow. Since current experiences little opposition to its
flow through a forward biased diode and it increases rapidly as the voltage is
increased, a resistance (R) is added in the circuit to limit the value of current. If
Notes
this resistance is not included, the diode may get permanently damaged due to
flow of excessive current through it.
The I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias is shown in Fig.
28.10(b).
+ V – I
(mA)
+ –
mA
B Rh D
R
0.7V V
Knee voltage
(a) (b)
Fig. 28.10 : (a) Circuit diagram I-V characteristics of a p-n junction diode
in forward bias, and (b) typical characterstics curve.
Note that the characteristic curve does not pass through origin; instead it meets
the V-axis at around 0.7V. It means that the p-n junction does not conduct until a
definite external voltage is applied to overcome the barrier potential. The forward
voltage required to get the junction in conduction mode is called knee voltage. It
is about 0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge p-n junction.
This voltage is needed to start the hole-electron combination process at the
junction. As the applied voltage is increased beyond knee voltage, the current
through the diode increases linearly. For voltage of around 1V, the current may
attain a value of 30-80 mA.
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MODULE - 8 Semiconductors and Semiconducting Devices
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and Communication
Notes
Fig.28.11 : a) Circuit diagram to obtain I-V characteristics of a p-n junction in reverse bias,
and b) reverse bias characteristic curve
Note that the junction current is comparatively much less in reverse bias for all
voltages below the breakdown voltage. And at breakdown voltage, the current
increases rapidly for a small increase in voltage. Moreover, comparison of Fig.
28.10(b) and 28.11(b) reveals that a p-n junction diode offers low resistance
when it is forward biased and high resistance when reverse biased. At the
breakdown voltage in reverse biased p-n junction diode, the sharp increase in
reverse current is due to sudden decrease in resistance offered by the junction.
From this we may conclude that a p-n junction diode conducts in only one direction,
i.e. has unidirectional conduction of current, with electrons flowing from the n-
type region to p-type end in forward bias.
You may have seen turnstiles at a metro subway station that let people go through
in only one direction. A diode is a one-way turnstile for electrons.
p-n junction diodes find wide applictions. These include :
1. The unidirectional conducting property of a diode is used to convert ac voltage
into dc voltage as a rectifier. Diodes are also used in adaptors to recharge
batteries of cell phones, CDplayers, laptops, etc. You will study about it in
detail in the next lesson.
2. A device that uses batteries often contains a diode as it simply blocks any
current from leaving the battery, if it is reverse biased. This protects the sensitive
electronics in the device.
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3. Choose the correct option : and Communication
(a) The I-V characteristics of a p-n junction diode in forward bias show
(i) a non-linear curve
(ii) linear curve
(iii)linear as well as non-linear portions
(iv)none of above Notes
(b) When a p-n junction is forward biased and the voltage is increased, the
rapid increase in current for relatively small increase in voltage occurs
(i) almost immediately
(ii) only when the forward bias exceeds the potential barrier
(iii)when there is breakdown of the junction
(iv)none of the above
You can use the following table to make a comparison between different diodes:
Name Symbol Construction Principle Main Main use
mechanism function
Zener p-n junction diode Zener Provides Voltage
diode with heavily doped breakdown continuous stabilization
p- & n- regions. Very mechanism current in or regulation
narrow depletion layer reverse
(< 10 nm). breakdown
voltage region
without being
damaged.
Photo- p-n junction diode. Photovoltaic Converts an Receivers for
diode Uses light (or photo) effect optical input remote
emitting semicon- into electrical controls in
ductor materials, with current in VCR & TV
very thin p-region, reverse bias.
whose thickness
is determined by
wavelength of radi-
ation to be detected
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MODULE - 8 Semiconductors and Semiconducting Devices
Semiconductors Devices
and Communication LED p-n junction diode with Electrolu Changes an Used in
materials having band minous electrical multimeters,
energies correspoding inputto a light digital
to near infrared region output in watches,
or visible light region forward bias. instrument
(GaAsP or InP) displays,
calculators,
switch
Notes boards,
burglar alarm
and remote
control
devices
Solar p-n junction diode in Photovoltaic Conversion 1. In satellites
cell which either p or effect of solar to power
n region is made very energy into systems.
thin to avoid significant electrical 2. To charge
absorption of light energy batteries.
before reaching 3. Calculators
the junction
I (m A)
Vz Forward bias
Reverse V (volt)
bias
I (m A)
Fig. 28.12
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28.6.2 I-V Characteristics of light-emitting diode and Communication
In light-emitting diode (LED) when the forward current of diode is small the
intensity of light emitted is small. As the forward current increases, the intensity
of the emitted light increases and reaches a maximum value. Further increase
in the forward current results in a decrease of light intensity. LEDs are biased
such that the light emitting efficiency is maximum.
Notes
The I-V characteristics of a LED is similar to that of a Si junction diode as shown
in Fig. 28.13. But the threshold voltages are much higher and slightly different
for each colour. The reverse breakdown voltage of LEDs are very low, typically
around 5V.
I (m A)
Forward biased
Reverse V (volt)
biased
I (m A)
Fig. 28.13
I (m A)
Reverse bias
V (volts)
I1
I2
I3
I1 > I2 > I3
Fig. 28.14
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and Communication 28.6.4 I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell
The generation of emf, when the light falls on a solar cell is due to the following
three basic processes: generation, separation and collection. Generation of
electron – hole pairs is due to the light
(with hν> Eg) close to the junction.
Separation of electrons and holes is due I
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2. Fill in the blanks and Communication
a) The zener diode is based on the .................. breakdown mechanism.
b) A photodiode is operated in .................. bias.
c) In a photodiode, the p-n junction is made from .................. semiconductor
material.
d) LED’s are made up of the conductor material from .................. of the Notes
periodic table.
e) The light emitting diodes operate in .................. bias.
f) The .................. arrow in the symbol of LED symbolizes .................. of
light.
g) In an LED light is emitted due to .................. of electrons and holes.
h) LED is based on the principle of ...................
i) Solar cells are based on .................. effect.
j) When sunlight having energy .................. than the band gap energy falls
on the solar cell, it is .................. and frees electron-hole pairs.
3. How does the separation of electrons and holes take place in a solar cell?
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MODULE - 8 Semiconductors and Semiconducting Devices
Semiconductors Devices
E B C E B C
and Communication
n p n p n p
(a) (b)
Fig. 28.16 : (a) n-p-n, and (b) p-n-p transistor
Notes The names of the terminals of a transistor give clear indication of their functions.
In case of a n-p-n transistor, the majority carriers (electrons) from the emitter are
injected into base region. Since base is a very lightly doped thin layer, it allows
most of the electrons injected by the emitter to pass into the collector. Being the
largest of three regions, the collector dissipates more heat compared to the other
two regions.
E E
C C
B (a) B (b)
Figs 28.17 : Symbols of a) n-p-n, and b) p-n-p transistors
The symbolic representations of n-p-n and p-n-p transistors are shown in Fig.
28.17. The arrow head indicates the direction of flow of conventional current.
You may now like to ask : Why does the arrow head point outward in case of n-
p-n transistor and inward in case of p-n-p transistor?
In a n-p-n, transistor, the emitter current is due to flow of electrons from emitter
to base, and the conventional current flows from base to emitter and hence the
arrow head points out from the base. In case of p-n-p transistor, the emitter
current comprises flow of holes from emitter to base. Thus the conventional
current flows from emitter to base.
Since transistors are bipolar devices, their operation depends on both the majority
and minority carriers.
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28.7.1 Working Principle and Communication
You are familiar with the working of a p-n junction. We now discuss the working
principle of a transistor and consider an n-p-n transistor first because it is more
commonly used.
When no voltage is applied across the transistor, diffusion of free electrons across
the junctions produces two depletion layers, as shown in Fig. 28.18. For each
Notes
depletion layer, the barrier potential is about 0.7V at 25°C for a silicon transistor
and 0.3V for a germanium transistor. As you may be aware, silicon transistors are
more widely used than germanium transistors because of higher voltage rating,
greater current ratings, and low temperature sensitivity. For our discussion, we
refer to silicon transistors, unless otherwise indicated.
Since the three regions in a transistor have different doping levels, the depletion
layers have different widths. If a region is heavily
doped, the concentration of ions near the junction
will be more, resulting in thin depletion layer and vice
versa. Since the base is lightly doped as compared to
emitter and collector, the depletion layers extend well
into it, whereas penetration in emitter/collector
regions is to a lesser extent (Fig. 28.18). Moreover,
the emitter depletion layer is narrower compared to
collector depletion layer. Figs 28.18: Depletion layers
in a transistor
In order to made a transistor funciton properly, it is when no voltage
necessary to apply suitable voltages to its terminals. is applied
This is called biasing of the transistor.
A n-p-n Transistor
A typical biasing scheme of a n-p-n transistor is shown in Fig. 28.19(a). Note that
the emitter-base junction is forward biased while the collector-base junction is
reverse biased. We therefore expect a large emitter current and low collector
current. But in practice, we observe that the collector current is almost as large
as the emitter current. Let us understand the reason. When forward bias is applied
to the emitter, free electrons in the emitter have to overcome the barrier potential
to enter the base region [see Fig. 28.19(b)]. When VBE exceeds barrier potential
(0.6 to 0.7V for silicon transistor), these electrons enter the base region, as shown
in Fig. 28.19(c). Once inside the base, these electrons can flow either through the
thin base into the external base lead or across the collector junction into the
collector region. The downward component of base current is called recombination
current. It is small because the base is lightly doped and only a few holes are
available. Since the base region is very thin and it receives a large number of
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and Communication electrons, for VBE> 0.7V, most of these electrons diffuse into the collector depletion
layer. The free electrons in this layer are pushed (by the depletion layer field) into
the collector region [(Fig. 28.19(d)] and flow into the external collector lead. So,
we can say that a steady stream of electrons leaves the negative source terminal
and enters the emitter
Notes
Fig. 28.19 : A n-p-n transistor when (a) emitter is forward-biased and collector is
reverse-biased, (b) free electrons in an emitter, (c) free electrons injected into
base; and (d) free electrons pass through the base to the collector.
region. The forward bias forces these electrons to enter the base region. Almost
all these electrons diffuse into the collector depletion layer through the base. The
depletion layer field then pushes a steady stream of electrons into the collector
region. In most transistors, more than 95 percent emitter-injected electrons flow
to the collector; less than 5 percent flow to the external base lead.
From this you should not conclude that you can connect two discrete diodes
back to back to get a transistor. This is because in such a circuit, each diode has
two doped regions and the overall circuit would have four doped regions and the
base region would not be the same as in a transistor. The key to transistor action,
therefore, is the lightly doped thin base between the heavily doped emitter and
the intermediately doped collector. Free electrons passing through the base stay
in base for a short time and reach the collector.
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The relation between collector current (IC) and emitter current (IE) is expressed and Communication
in terms of signal current gain, α, of a transistor. It is defined as
IC
α=
IE . (28.1)
You should note that the value of α is nearly equal to but always less than one.
Notes
Similarly, we can relate the collector current to the base current in a transistor. It
is denoted by greek letter beta:
IC
β= (28.2)
IB
Beta signifies the current gain of the transistor in common-emitter configuration.
The value of β is significantly greater than one.
Since emitter current equals the sum of collector current and base current, we
can write
IE = IC + IB
On dividing throughout by IC, we get
IE I
= 1+ B . (28.3)
IC IC
In terms of α and β, we can rewrite it as
1 1
= 1+ β
α
α
or β= (28.4)
1– α
Let us now consider how a p-n-p transistor differs from a n-p-n transistor in its
details.
A p-n-p Transistor
A p-n-p transistor biased for operation in the active region is shown in Fig 28.20.
Note that we reverse the battery terminals when n-p-n transistor is substituted by
p-n-p transistor.
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and Communication As before, the emitter - base junction is forward biased by battery of voltage VEB
and the collector base junction is reverse biased by a battery of voltage VCB. The
resistance of the emitter-base junction is very small due to its forward bias as
compared to the collector-base junction (which is reverse biased). Therefore, we
apply small forward bias voltage (0.6V) to the emitter-base junction, whereas the
reverse bias voltage applied to the collector-base junction is of much higher value
(9V).
Notes
The forward bias of emitter-base junction makes the majority carriers, that is the
holes, in emitter (p-region), to diffuse to the base (n-region), on being repelled
by the positive terminal of the battery. As width of the base is extremely thin and
it is lightly doped, very few (two to five percent) of total holes that enter the base
recombine with electrons and 95% to 98% reach the collector region. Due to
reverse bias of the collector- base region, the holes reaching this region are attracted
by the negative potential applied to the collector, thereby increasing the collector
current (IC). Therefore, increase in emitter current (IE) increases collector current.
And Eqns. (28.1) – (28.4) hold in this case as well.
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(e) The transistor is said to be in active region when .................. junction and Communication
is forward biased and .................. junction is reverse biased.
(f) The two types of transistors are .................. and ..................
You now know the working principle of a transistor. Let us learn the various
ways in which a transistor is biased.
Notes
28.7.2 Transistor Configurations
A transistor is a two-port device; it can take an input and deliever an output. For
both input and output, two terminals are needed. This can be done in a transistor
by making one of the three terminals common. The configurations of a transistor
in which one of the terminals is common to both input and output are shown in
Fig. 28.21.
z When emitter is common to both input and output circuits, we obtain common
emitter (CE) configuration (Fig. 28.21a);
z When base is common to both input and output circuits, we obtain common
base (CB) configuration (Fig. 28.21b); and
z When collector is common to both input and output circuits, we have common
collector (CC) configuration (Fig.28.21c).
In each of these configurations, the transistor characteristics are unique. The CE
configuration is used most widely because it provides voltage, current and power
gains. In the CB configuration, the transistor can be used as a constant current
source while the CC configuration is usually used for impedance matching.
IC IE
C RL V 0 E C E
VCE + VCE
+ B
VBE E VCC VBE B VCB RL V C
IE 0 VBC
– RL V 0
–
VCC
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and Communication Table 28.2: Physical quantities of interest in different characteristics of a
transistor
Configuration Input Output Transfer Important
Characteristic characteristic characteristic transistor
constant
CE VBE and IB VCE and IC with IB and IC Current gain, β
Notes
with VCE as IB as parameter
parameter
CB VBE and IE VCB and IC with IE and IC Large signal
with VCB as IE as parameter current gain, α
parameter
CC VCB and IB VCE and IE with IB and IE
with VCE as IB as parameter
parameter
To work with a transistor, you will be required to identify its base, emitter and
collector leads. To do so, you can follow the following steps.
B Look for the a small notch provided on the metallic
C cap. The terminal close to the notch is emitter. To
identify other two terminals, turn the transistor up-side-
down. You can easily identify the base and the collector
as shown in Fig. 28.22.
E
Like a p-n junction diode, transistors are also
Fig. 28.22 : Identifying
designated with two letters followed by a serial number.
transistor leads.
The first letter gives an indication of the material. A is
for germanium and B is for silicon. The second letter indicates the main application:
C is used for audio frequency transistors, D for power transistors and F for radio-
frequency transistors. The serial number consists of digits assigned by the
manufacturer for identification. For example, AC 125 represents germanium
transistor for AF applications.
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characteristics of a n-p-n transistor is shown in Fig. 28.23. VBB is a variable dc and Communication
supply of 0-3V and VCC is a variable dc supply of 0-15V. R1 and R2 are
potentiometers and R is a variable resistor. It is used to control base to emitter
voltage, VBE.
– +
R + – C
B RL
mA + Notes
E V–
V
Input characteristics
In CE configuration, the input characteristics show the variation of IB with VBE
when VCE is held constant. To draw this characteristic, VCE is kept at a suitable
value with the help of R and R1. Then VBE is changed in steps and corresponding
values of IB are measured with the help of microammeter, connected to base. Fig.
28.24. shows typical input characteristics of a n–
p-n transistor in CE configuration.
Note that for a given value of VCE , the curve is as
obtained for forward biased p-n junction diode.
For VBE< 0.5V, there is no measurable base current
(IB = 0). However, IB rises steeply for VBE > 0.6V.
From the reciprocal of the slope of input
characteristic, we get input resistance of the
transistor defined as the ratio of small change in Fig. 28.24 : Input characteristics of
a typical npn transistor
base - emitter voltage to the small change
in CE configuration
produced in the base current at constant collector
- emitter voltage:
ΔVBE
Rie =
ΔI B (28.5)
VCE
Usually, the value of Rie is in the range 20-100Ω. You should note that since the
curve is not linear, the value of input resistance varies with the point of
measurement. As VCE increases, the curve tends to become more vertical and the
value of Rie decreases.
Output characteristics
The output characteristic curves depict the variation of collector current IC with
VCE, when base current IB is kept constant. To draw output characteristics, IB is
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and Communication fixed, say at 10 μA, by adjusting R1 and R. VCE is then increased from 0 to 10 V in
steps of 0.5V by varrying R2 and the corresponding value of IC is noted. Similarly,
the output characteristics can be obtained at IC
IB = 40μA, 60μA, 80μA. However, in no case, (mA)
the maximum base current rating of the IB = 80 mA
transistor should be exceeded.
IB = 60 mA
Notes The output characteristics of this IB = 40 mA
configuration are shown in Fig. 28.25. IB = 20 mA
ΔI C
hoe = (28.6)
ΔVCE
ic
mA + –
–E mA
– +
VEE – –
+
V2 VEB VCE V1
R2 E VCC
– + R1 +
Fig. 28.26 : Circuit diagram for obtaining input and output characteristics of
a p-n-p transistor in CE configuration
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Input Characteristics and Communication
Input characteristics are graphs between VBE and IB at different constant values of
VCE.
To plot input characteristics, the potentiometer R1 in the emitter- collector circuit
is adjusted till the voltmeter shows constant value. Then potentiometer in the
emitter-base circuit is adjusted in such a way that base-emitter voltage is zero. Notes
For this value, base current is also observed to be zero. Keeping the VCE constant,
VBE is increased gradually and change in base current is noted with the help of
microammeter. To plot input characteristics at VCE = –2V, say, the potentiometer
in emitter-collector circuit is adjusted
till the voltmeter in the same circuit
reads 2V. Then potentiometer in the
emitter -base circuit is adjusted to make
V BE zero. Then V BE is increased
gradually, keeping V CE constant.
Similarly the input characteristics of the
transistor in the CE configuration can
be drawn for different values of VCE =
– 6V, 1V and so on. Fig. 28.27 shows
typical input characteristics of CE
configuration. As may be noted, the
nature of input characteristics is Fig. 28.27 : Input characteristics of a
typical p-n-p transistor in CE
similar to the forward characteristics configuration.
of p-n junction diode. The base current
remains zero as long as the base voltage is less than the barrier voltage (for
silicon transistor, it is ~0.7V). As the base voltage exceeds barrier voltage, current
begins to increase slowly and then rises abruptly.
You may also recall that these curves are similar to the ones obtained for the CE
configuration for n-p-n transistor.
From the reciprocal of the slope of the curve of input characteristic, the a.c input
resistance of the transistor can be calculated.
z a.c input resistance (Rin) of the transistor in CE configuration is expressed
as:
ΔVBC
Rin = = constant (28.7)
ΔI B VCE
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and Communication Output Characteristics IC
mA
These are graphs between
IB = –60 mA
collector-emitter voltage (VCE)
and the collector current (IC) at –6 –50 mA
different constant values of base –5 –40 mA
current (IB). –4 –30 mA
Notes –3
To draw these characteristics, –20 mA
VCE is made zero and VBE is –2 –10 mA
adjusted till the microammeter –1 IB = 0
in the base-emitter circuit is set
–1 –2 –3 –4 –5 –6 –7 –8 –9 VCC (V)
to read a constant value. Thus
V CE is adjusted to make I B Fig 28.28 : Output characteristics of a typical
constant at a particular value. pnp transistor in CB configuration
Now keeping IB constant, VCE
is increased from zero in a number of steps and the corresponding collector current
IC is noted with the help of milliammeter connected in series with collector.
How can we plot the output characteristics at IB = 50 μA? To do so, VBE is
adjusted till milliammeter reads 50 μA. Increase VCE gradually and note
correspoding values of IC. The graph betweent VCE and IC gives the output
characteristics at IB = 50 μA. Similarly, the output characteristics can be obtained
at IB = 100 μA, 200 μA and so on. Fig. 28.28 shows output characteristics of p-
n-p transistor for CE configuration.
Example 28.1 : Calculate the current gain β of a transistor if the current gain α
= 0.98
α 0.98
Solution: β = = = 49
1 − α 1 − 0.98
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(b) The .................. curve relates the output current with the output voltage and Communication
for a given input current.
(c) In common emitter configuration of a transistor, the .................. and
.................. are the output terminals
(d) The .................. and .................. are the input terminals, whereas
.................. and .................. are the output terminals of a transistor in
common base configuration. Notes
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and Communication
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Describe the most important characteristic of a p-n junction diodes.
2. Explain the formation of depletion region in a p-n junction diode.
3. Which charge carriers conduct forward current in a p-n junction diode?
Notes
4. Differentiate between
(i) Forward bias and reverse bias
(ii) Avalancehe and zener breakdown
5. Explain the working of p-n-p and n-p-n transistors.
6. Define current gains α and β of a transistor.
7. For α = 0.998, calculate change in IC if change in IE is 4 mA.
8. What are energy bands in solids? How are they formed? How do we classify
solids as conductor semiconductors and insulators on the basis of energy
bands?
28.1
1. 1.5 × 1015 each 2. (ii)
3. impurity, doping 4. majority 5. lower
28.2
1. (a) majority carriers (b) depletion region
(c) 0.7, 0.3 (d) higher, electrons
2. (a) (iii), (b) (iii), (c) (ii)
28.3
3. (a) decreases (b) increases (c) increases, breakdown voltage
4. (a) (iv); (b) (iii)
28.4
2. (a) 0.7 V, 0.3 V; (b) one (c) micro ampere
3. (a) (iii) ; (b) (ii)
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28.5 and Communication
1. (ii), (i), (iv)
2. (a) Zener (b) reverse (c) light sensitive
(d) group III-V (e) forward (f) emission
(g) recombination (h) electroluminiscence
(i) photovoltaic (j) more, absorbed Notes
3. Separation of electrons and holes takes palce due to the electric field of the
depletion layer.
28.6
1. (a) (i); (b) (ii)
2. (a) Three, two; (b) Base (c) Most heavily, base
(d) largest size, moderate (e) Emitter-base, collector-base
(f) npn, pnp
28.7
1. (a) input characteristic (b) output characteristics
(c) collector, emitter (d) base and emitter, base and collector
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and Communication
29
Notes
APPLICATIONS OF
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
In the last lesson, you learnt the working principle of semiconductor devices like
p-n junction diode, Zener diode, LED, solar cells and transistors. Due to their
miniature size and special electrical properties, these devices find applications in
almost every household appliances and gadgets like gas lighter, security alarm,
radio, TV, telephone, tape recorder, CD player, computer, fan regulator, emergency
lights etc. All control mechanisms in big industries and flight control equipments
in an aeroplane and power systems in satellites use semiconductor devices. In a
way, it is now difficult to imagine life without these.
In this lesson you will learn some simple applications of diodes and transistors.
This discussion is followed by an introduction to elements of digital electronics.
This branch of electronics handles special types of signals/waveforms, which can
assume only two values, 0 and 1. Digital electronics is based on the concept of
logic gates. These gates accept input in digital form and give output according to
the logic operation it is supposed to perform. You will learn about logic gates,
their symbols and circuit implementation in this lesson.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z explain the use of diode as a half-wave and a full-wave rectifier;
z explain the use of Zener diode as voltage regulator;
z describe the uses of a transistor as an amplifier, a switch and an oscillator;
z explain the logic gates with their Truth Tables; and
z realize logic gates using simple circuit elements.
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29.1 APPLICATIONS OF p-n JUNCTION DIODES and Communication
You now know that a p–n junction exhibits asymmetric electrical conduction,
i.e., its resistance in forward bias is different from that in reverse bias. This property
of a diode is used in rectification, i.e., conversion of an ac signal into a dc signal
(of constant magnitude). In every day life, we may need it to charge a cell phone,
laptop etc. Let us now learn about it.
Notes
Refer to Fig. 29.1. The signal from ac mains is fed into a step down transformer
T which makes it available at the terminals X and Y. The load resistance RL is
connected to these terminals through a p-n junction diode D. You may now like
to ask : Why have we used a step down transformer? This is done due to the fact
that most devices require voltage levels lower than 220V. The stepped down ac
signal is obtained at the output of stepdown transformer. The potential at terminal
X with respect to Y will vary as a sine function with time, as shown in Fig. 29.2(a).
In the positive half cycle, during the time interval 0 to T/2, diode D will be forward
biased and conduct, i.e., current flows through RL from A to B. However, during
the negative half cycle, i.e., in the interval T/2 to T, D is reverse biased and the
junction will not conduct, i.e. no current flows through RL. This is shown in Fig.
29.2(b). Since the p-n junction conducts only in one-half cycle of the sine wave,
it acts as a half-wave rectifier.
During the non-conducting half cycle, the maximum reverse voltage appearing
across the diode is equal to the peak ac voltage Vm. The maximum reverse voltage
that a diode can oppose without breakdown is called its Peak Inverse
Voltage(PIV). For rectification, we must choose a diode having PIV greater
than the peak ac voltage to be rectified by it; otherwise it will get damaged. The
dc voltage, Vdc across RL, as measured by voltmeter in case of half-wave rectifier,
is given by
Vdc = Vm/π (29.1)
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and Communication
Notes
Fig. 29.1: Half wave rectifier circuit
(a) 0 t
T T 3T
2 2
(b)
t
Fig. 29.2: (a) Input ac voltage, and b) half-wave rectified output
where Vm is the peak ac voltage. The dc current Idc through the load resistance RL
is given by
Vdc Vm
Idc = R = πR (29.2)
L L
Note that in this case, we are utilizing only half of the input power and obviously
it is not an efficient way of obtaining dc. You may logically think that instead of
one, we should use two diodes in such a way that they conduct in alternate cycles.
This is known as full-wave rectification. Let us learn about it now.
(b) Full-Wave Rectification
For full-wave rectification, we feed the input signal in a centre tapped step down
transformer. (It has two identical secondary windings connected in series.) D1
and D2 are two p-n junction diodes, as shown in Fig. 29.3. One end of the load
resistance RL is connected to the central point Y of the secondary windings and
the other end is connected to the cathode terminals of the diodes D1 and D2. The
anodes of these diodes are connected respectively to the ends X and Z of the
secondary windings. The potentials at the ends X and Z are in opposite phase
with respect to Y, i.e., when potential of X is positive, Z will be negative and vice
versa. It is shown graphically in Fig. 29.4 (a) and (b).
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and Communication
Notes
Fig. 29.4 : (a) Potential at point X is positive with respect to Y, and (b) potential of
point Z is negative with resptect to Y
Suppose that to start with, terminal X is positive and Z is negative with respect to
Y. In this condition, diode D1 will conduct but D2 will not conduct. The current
will flow through the load from B to Y and the output voltage across RL is as
shown in Fig 29.5(a). During the next half cycle, terminal X will be negative and
Z will be positive. Under this condition, diode D2 conducts and current will again
pass through the load resistance in the same direction, that is from B to Y . The
corresponding waveform is shown in Fig. 29.5(b).And the net output across RL is
pulsating , as shown in Fig. 29.5(c).
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and Communication
Notes
Fig. 29.5 : Voltage across RL a) when D1 conducts, b) D2 conducts, c) net output of full
wave rectifier
Since current through the load now flows over the entire cycle of the sine wave,
this is called full-wave rectification. The dc voltage Vdc and dc current Idc are
given by
Vdc = 2 × Vm/π (29.3)
Vdc 2Vm
and Idc = R = πR (29.4)
L L
Note that the unidirectional current flowing through the load resistance after full-
wave rectification pulsates from maximum to minimum (zero) and is not useful
for any practical application. To reduce the fluctuating component and obtain
more steady current, we filter the pulsating part. You may be eager to know as to
how do we achieve this. Let us now discover answer to this important question.
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Filtering and Communication
We recall that impedance offered by a capacitor to the flow of ac depends on its
freqeuncy. Therefore, a capacitor C connected across the load resistance, as shown
in Fig. 29.6, filters out high frequency component.
Notes
Fig. 29.6 : Circuit diagram for capcitor-filter in full-wave rectification In high quality power
supplies combination of
The capacitor gets charged to nearly maximum potential Vm when diode D1
inductors and capacitor L
conducts for period t = T/4. When the current tends to decrease for T/4 < t < T/ – C – L or C – L – C is
2, the capacitor discharges itself and tries to maintain current through the load, used. Depending on the
reducing fluctuations considerably, as shown in Fig. 29.7. The larger the value of way, these components are
connected these filters are
capacitor and the load resistance, the lower will be the fluctuations in the rectified
called ‘T’ or ‘Π’.
dc. The capacitor C connected across the load to reduce fluctuations is called a
filter capacitor. In a power supply, we use LC and C-L-C (or π ) filters to reduce
the rippling effect. You will learn about these in detail in your higher classes.
Special p-n junction, called Zener diode, acts as voltage regulator in reverse
bias. You will now study about it.
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and Communication To remove this deficiency, a Zener diode is used with simple power supplies
which gives constant dc voltage. Such a circuit is called regulated power supply.
The Zener regulated voltage supply circuit is shown in Fig. 29.8. It consists of a
Zener diode with breakdown voltage Vz. This will be equal to the stabilized output
voltage VO A suitable series resistance Rs is included to control circuit current and
dissipate excess voltage. The anode of Zener diode is connected to the negative
Notes terminal of input supply, and the cathode is connected in series with Rs to positive
terminal of input supply, that is, the Zener is connected in reverse bias condition.
The load resistance is connected across the Zener diode. The Zener regulator
will only operate if the input supply voltage to the regulator, Vi is greater than Vz
. After breakdown, the voltage across it remains nearly constant and is independent
of the current passing through it. The current Is flowing passing through Rs is
given by the equation
Is = (Vi – Vz)/Rs (29.5)
This current divides in two parts: the Zener current Iz and load current IL. Applying
Kirchoff’s law, we can write
Is = Iz + IL
or Iz = Is – IL (29.6)
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The power dissipation in Zener diode is given by the relation and Communication
P d = V z × Iz (29.7)
This dissipation should not exceed the maximum power dissipation rating
recommended by the manufacturer for Zener diode. Let us now understand the
design of a Zener regulated power supply with one example.
Example 29.1: The load current varies from 0 to 100 mA and input supply voltage Notes
varies from 16.5 V to 21 V in a circuit. Design a circuit for stabilized dc supply of
6 V.
Vz min – Vz 16.5V − 6V
Rs = = = 100 Ω
I max 105mA
The current through the Zener diode will be maximum when the input voltage is
maximum, that is 21 V and IL = 0. Therefore, the maximum Zener current Imax =
(21V– 6V)/100 Ω 0.15 Α.
The maximum power dissipation in the diode is 6V × 0.15A= 0.9W.
It means that we should use a Zener diode of 6 V, 1 W and resistance Rs. of
100Ω. It should be connected in the circuit as shown above. It will give a stable
output of 6 V for the specified ranges of load and input variation.
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and Communication 29.2 TRANSISTOR APPLICATIONS
You learnt the working principle of transistor in detail in the last lesson. Normally,
the collector is reverse biased and no current flows in collector-emitter circuit. If
we pass a very small current in the base circuit, a very large current starts flowing
in the collector circuit. This property has made a transistor indispensable for vast
electronic applications. But here we have discussed its applications as an amplifier,
Notes as a switch, and as an oscillator (frequency generator).
VO
i.e., AV = V (29.8)
i
PO
Ap = P (29.11)
i
iC + Δic
IB + Δib
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The circuit for transistor as an amplifier is shown in Fig. 29.9. Here an n-p-n and Communication
transistor is used in CE mode. Its collector is reverse biased through the load
resistance RL by the battery VCE. When a base current IB flows, some collector
current IC will start flowing. On decreasing IB, a stage will be reached when IC
becomes almost zero. This is the lower limit of variation of IB. Similarly, on
increasing IB again, a stage of saturation is reached and IC stops increasing. This
corresponds to the upper limit of variation of IB. For faithful amplification of
Notes
input signal, a base current equal to the mean of these two limiting values of IB is
passed through the base by forward biasing it with battery VBB. We can choose
the operating point in the centre of linear operating range of the transistor. This is
called biasing of the base. A signal source providing an input signal υ S is connected
in series with υ BB.
Due to addition of oscillating signal voltage υ S to υ BB , the base current changes
by an amount Δib around the dc biasing current IB. The signal voltage is kept low
so that the signal current Δib if added and subtracted from IB does not cross the
upper and lower limits of the base current variation. Otherwise, the transistor
will go into cut off or saturation region and the amplified output will be highly
distorted and noisy. Note that signal current
Δ ib = υ S/ri (29.12)
where ri is the input impedance. This change in base current Δib results in a large
change in collector current, say Δic given by
Δic= βΔib = β υ s/ri (29.13)
where β is the ac current amplification factor, equal to Δic / Δib. From (Eqn.
29.13) we get
υ s = Δ ic × ri / β (29.14)
By applying Kirchhoff’s law to the output circuit in Fig. 29.9, we have
VCC = VCE + ICRL (29.15)
On differentiating Eqn. (29.15), we get
dVCC = dVCE + dIC× RL (29.16)
Since VCC is constant, dVCC= 0. Therefore, we get
dVCE = – dIC× RL
But dVCE is the change in output Δ υ 0 and dIC in ic. Therefore,
Δ υ 0 = – Δic× RL
The voltage gain Av of the amplifier is given by
AV = υ 0/ υ S = – (Δic× RL)/(Δic×ri/β)
= –β × RL / ri (29.17)
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and Communication The ratio β/ri is called transconductance of transistor and is denoted by gm.
Hence Eqn. (29.17) can be written as
AV = – gm × RL (29.18)
The negative sign indicates that input and output are in opposite phase, i.e. they
differ in phase by 180°. The power gain is given by
AP= AI × AV = β × AV (29.19)
Notes
Note that power gain does not mean that the law of conservation of energy is
violated in an amplifier. The ac power output of the amplifier is more than the ac
input signal power but this gain is achieved at the cost of dc power supplied by
the voltage source.
John Bardeen
(1908 – 1991)
John Bardeen is the only researcher in history of science
who received two Nobel Prizes in Physics. He was born
in Madison, Wisconcin USA, in a highly educated family.
He was so bright a kid that his parents moved him from
third grade to Junior high school. He did his graduation
in Electrical Engineering. But, he also had to struggle
for his career. After spending three years as geophysicist
with Gulf Oil Company, he went to Princeton for his Ph.D. in Mathematical
Physics. After a brief stint at Harvard and Minnesota and in Naval Ordnance
Labs, he joined William Shockley’s research group at Bell Laboratories. With
Walter Brattain, he devloped the first transistor for which Bardeen, Brattain
and Shockley were conferred the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Bardeen shared his second Nobel in 1972 with Leon C Cooper and R Schieffer
for their theoretical work on superconductivity.
When the base current IB is greater than its saturation value, the transistor conductor
fully and collector-emitter voltage VCE is almost zero. In such a case, the output
voltage obtained between collector and ground is zero and entire voltage drop
VCC
appears across RL. That is , the collector current IC = .
RL
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and Communication Fig 29.11 shows a typical circuit of transistor as a switch. The control signal for
switching the transistor on or off is given in the form of VBB. For the input loop,
we can write
IB RB + VBE – VBB = 0
5V − 0.7V
∴ IB = = 43 μΑ
100kΩ
For normal transistors, this value of base current is enough to drive the transistor
to full saturation. In this case, VO = VCE sat = 0 and the collector current
V 12V
IC = R = 1K Ω = 12mA.
CC
This kind of switch can also be used as an indicator in displays. For example, if
we connect an LED is series with the collector resistor, as shown in Fig 29.12,
the collector current drives the LED on for high (+5V) input, and it lights up.
Whenever input is zero, the LED is off because no collector current flows through
the circuit.
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Another major application of transistors is to generate an oscillating signal of and Communication
desired frequency. This is done by a special circuit called an oscillator. The
oscillators find many applications, particularly in radio transmitters to generate
the carrier wave frequency. These are also used in clock generators, electronic
watches and computers etc. There are various types of oscillators. We here discuss
a typical oscillator circuit using a transistor.
Notes
29.2.3 Transistor as an Oscillator
An electronic oscillator is a device which generates continuous electrical
oscillations. In a simple oscillator circuit, a parallel LC circuit is used as resonant
circuit and an amplifier is used to feed energy to the resonant circuit. It can
generate frequencies from audio to radio range depending on the choice of L and
C.
We know that when a charged capacitor is connected across an inductor, the
charge oscillates. But due to loss of energy by radiation and heating of wires, the
energy is lost and the amplitude of oscillations decays with time. To build a
sinusoidal oscillator, where the oscillations are sustained (i.e. they do not decay),
we need an amplifier with positive feedback. The basic idea is to feed a part of
output signal in input signal. By adjusting the gain of the circuit and the phase of
the feedback signal, energy dissipated in each cycle is replenished to get sustained
oscillations of desired frequency.
Schematically, we can depict an oscillator to be made up of two main blocks: an
amplifier with gain A, and a feedback circuit with feedback factor β, as shown in
Fig 29.13.
Vi = βVO
AVi = ΑβVO
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and Communication Now, we consider a CE amplifier, like the one discussed in Sec. 29.2.1. It has
180o phase difference between the input and output, i.e. it has negative gain (–A).
To keep the total feedback gain Aβ = 1, we require that β is also negative; equal
to –A–1. That is, it is necessary to introduce a phase shift of 180o in the feedback
circuit as well.
In Fig. 29.14, we have shown a circuit diagram of an oscillator using LC tank
Notes circuit and a transistor amplifier in CE mode. This is called Colpitt’s Oscillator.
In this circuit C1, C2 and L form the tank circuit. The oscillating current is generated
in this circuit, which is at its resonant frequency. The output is obtained across
C1, the feedback is provided across C2 connected to the base of the transistor
amplifier in CE mode. In this case 180° is introduced by the amplifier and another
180° phase shift is provided by the capacitor C2 which is connected between
ground and other end of the inductor coil. Hence, the total loop gain is positive.
When the gain of transistor amplifier is sufficiently large at the resonant frequency,
we obtain sustained oscillations at the output.
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coded in the form of digital signals by a series of bits arranged in different order. and Communication
Each bit is a pulse of fixed time duration.
Notes
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and Communication
Notes
Fig 29.16: a) Symbol of AND gate, b) switch implementation of AND gate, c) Truth Table of
AND Gate, and d) diode implementation of AND gate.
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Notes
3 NOT Gate
Another important gate used in digital signal handling is the NOT gate, which
inverts the signal, i.e., if input is ‘1’ then output of NOT gate is ‘0’ and for ‘0’
input, the output is ‘1’.
The symbol for NOT gate is shown in Fig. 29.18(a). The Truth Table of NOT
gate is shown in fig. 29.18(b).
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and Communication
Notes
Fig. 29 18: (a) Symbol of NOT gate, (b) Truth Table of NOT gate, and
(c) circuit implementation of NOT gate
The circuit to implement a NOT gate is identical to that used for a transistor as a
switch. This is shown in Fig. 29.18(c). When input A is at ‘ 0’ level, transistor is
off and the entire VCC voltage (5V) appears at the output Y. When input A is ‘1’
(5V), the transistor conducts and output voltage Y is ‘0’.
The inversion operation is indicated by a bar on the top of the symbol of the input
e.g. in the Truth Table we can write, Y = NOT (A) = A
So far we have discussed basic logic gates. You may now ask: Can we combine
these to develop other logic gates? You will discover answer to this question in
the following section.
Y = A.B = A×B = AB
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A B Y ′ = AB Y = AB
0 0 0 1
Notes
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
(c)
Fig. 29.19 : a) NAND as combination logic gate, b) symbol of NAND GATE,
and c) Truth Table of a NAND gate
2. NOR Gate
The NOR gate, obtained by combining an OR gate and NOT gate, is shown in
Fig. 29.20(a) Here the output of OR gate, Y ′ , is inverted by the NOT gate to get
the final output Y. The logic symbol of a NOR gate is given in Fig. 29.20(b). The
Truth Table of a NOR gate given in Fig. 29.20(c), can be arrived at by inverting
the output of an OR gate. The Truth Table of a NOR gate shows that it gives
output ‘1’ only when both the inputs are ‘0’
A B Y ′ = A+B Y = A+ B
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
Fig. 29.20 : a) NOR as combination logic gate, b) symbol of NOR gate, and
c) Truth Table of NOR gate
As mentioned earlier, the NAND and NOR gates are basic building blocks of all
the logic gates. Let us now see, how we can obtain the three basic gates AND,
OR and NOT by using NAND gates.
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and Communication 29.3.3 Realization of Basic Gates from NAND Gate
The NAND gate is considered to be the universal gate because all other gates can
be realized by using this gate.
(a) Realization of a NOT gate : If two input leads of a NAND gate are shorted
together, as shown in Fig. 29.21, the resulting gate is a NOT gate. You can convince
yourself about this by writing its truth table.
Notes
Here we have A = B
(b) Realization of an AND gate : The AND gate can be realized by using two
NAND gates. The output of one NAND gate is inverted by the second NAND
gate used as NOT gate as shown in Fig 29.22(a). The combination acts as an
AND gate, as is clear from the Truth Table given in Fig. 29.22(b).
Fig. 29. 22: a) NAND gates connected to implement AND gate and
b) Truth Table of AND gate using NAND gate
c) Realization of an OR gate : The OR gate can be realized by using three
NAND gates. Two NAND gates are connected as inverters and their outputs are
fed to the two inputs of a NAND gate, as shown in Fig. 29.23. The combination
acts as an OR gate.
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and Communication
A B A′ B′ Y
0 0 – – – Notes
0 1 – – –
1 0 – – –
1 1 – – –
TERMINAL QUESTION
1. Why the Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) of a p-n junction diode in half-wave
rectifier with filter capacitor is double of that without the capacitor?
2. Explain how a Zener diode helps to stabilize dc against load variation.
3. What should be the range of variation of amplitude of input signal for proper
working of an amplifier?
4. Draw a circuit using diodes and transistors to implement a NOR gate.
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and Communication
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS
29.1
1. See Fig.29.6
Notes 2. In case of full wave rectifier, both diodes D1 and D2 charge C to maximum
voltage of Vmax in alternate half cycles. Hence, the PIV of the diodes should be
2 × Vmax.
3. Rz = 100 Ω , Rs = 100 Ω and R = Rz + Rs = 200 Ω
Hence,
21
I= = 0.105A
200
and V = IR = 0.105 × 100
= 10.5V
29.2
V 1V P
1. Av = V = 20 mV = 50. 2. Ap = P = 200.
0 0
i i
β × RL 50 × 2000 Ω
3. Av = = = 200
ri 500 Ω
Ap = β Av = 50 × 200 = 10000.
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30
Notes
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
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OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
z list the elements of a long distance communication system;
z explain the terms analogue and digital signals;
Notes
z describe how electromagnetic waves act as carriers of information;
z Specify the bandwidth of signals (speech, TV and digital data);
z list variouis transmission media and state bandwidths specific to them;
z explain importance of ground, sky and space wave propagation;
z state need for modulation; and
z explain production and detection of amplitude modulation wave.
Medium
For Receiver
Transmitter
Transmission
Sensor
Transducer Actuator
Signal
Source Transducer
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z a source of signal, a sensor transducer and a transmitter, which launches the and Communication
signal carrying information,
z an intervening medium/channel to guide and carry the signal over long
distances, and
z a signal receiver and an actuator transducer to intercept the signal and retrieve
the information.
Notes
Fig. 30. 2 : Examples of (a) continuous (sinusoidal) and (b) discrete signals.
In the digital format, signals are in the form of a string of bits (abbreviated from
binary digits), each bit being either ‘ON’ or ‘OFF’ (1 or 0). The binary system
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and Communication refers to a number system which uses only two digits, 1 and 0 (as compared to
the decimal system which uses ten digits from 0 to 9). We can convert all
information-bearing signals into discrete-time, amplitude-quantised digital signals.
In a compact disc (CD), the audio is stored in the form of digital signals, just as a
digital video disc (DVD) stores the video digitally.
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30.3.1 Electromagnetic Waves in Communication and Communication
x-z plane
E E
Ex0
B
k z
(direction of
By0 propagation)
Exo B
Exc
By
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and Communication Visible
log scale
10–17 10–15 10–12 10–9 10–6 10–3 1 103 106 Wavelength in meters
3×10 20 3×1017 3×1014 3×1011 3×108 3×105 3×102 Frequencies in Hz)
Fig. 30.4: The electromagnetic spectrum: The wave values of length correspond to
Notes
vacuum (or air) The boundaries between successive regions of the spectrum
are not sharply defined.
Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) < 3 kHz > 100 km Mains electricity
Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3 - 30 kHz 100 – 10 km SONAR
Low Frequency (LF) 30 - 300 kHz 10 – 1 km Marine navigater
Medium Frequency (MF) 300 kHz - 3 MHz 1 km – 100 m Medium wave radio
High Frequency (HF) 3 - 30 MHz 100 – 1 m short wave radio
Very High Frequency (VHF) 30 – 300 MHz 10 – 1 m FM radio
Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300 MHz – 3 GHz 1 m – 10 cm commercial, TV,
Radio, Radar
Super High Frequency (SHF) 3 – 30 GHz 10 – 1 cm Satellite
communiction,
cellular mobile,
commercial TV
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AM radio is broadcast on bands, popularly known as the Long wave: 144 - 351 and Communication
kHz (in the LF), the Medium wave: 530 - 1,700 kHz (in the MF), and the Short
wave: 3 – 30 MHz (HF). Medium wave has been most commonly used for
commercial AM radio broadcasting. Long wave is used everywhere except in
North and South Americas, where this band is reserved for aeronautical navigation.
For long- and medium-wave bands, the wavelength is long enough that the wave
diffracts around the curve of the earth by ground wave propagation, giving AM
Notes
radio a long range, particularly at night. Short wave is used by radio services
intended to be heard at great distances away from the transmitting station; the far
range of short wave broadcasts comes at the expense of lower audio fidelity. The
mode of propagation for short wave is ionospheric.
Table 30. 3 : Frequency ranges for commercial FM-radio and TV broadcast
Frequency Band Nature of Broadcast
41 – 68 MHz VHF TV
88 – 104 MHz FM Radio
104 – 174 MHz S Band
(Sond-erkanal meaning Special Channel) for cable TV
networks
174 – 230 MHz VHF TV
230 – 470 MHz H (Hyper) Band for cable TV networks
470 – 960 MHz UHF TV
Frequencies between the broadcast bands are used for other forms of radio
communication, such as walkie talkies, cordless telephones, radio control, amateur
radio, etc.
You must have read about Internet enabled mobile phones and Internet Protocol
Television. Have you ever thought as to which technology is enabling such
empowerment? Is it fibre optic communication? Does laser play any role? You
will learn answers to all such questions in the next unit.
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and Communication
Jagadis Chandra Bose
(1858 – 1937)
Jagadis Chandra Bose, after completing his school
education in India, went to England in 1880 to study
medicine at the University of London. Within a year, he
took up a scholarship in Cambridge to study Natural Science
Notes at Christ’s College – one of his lecturers at Cambridge,
Professor Rayleigh had a profound influence on him. In
1884 Bose was awarded B.A degree by Cambridge
university and B.Sc degree by London University. Bose then returned to
India and took teaching assignment as officiating professor of physics at the
Presidency College in Calcutta (now Kolkata). Many of his students at the
Presidency College were destined to become famous in their own right.
Satyendra Nath Bose who became well known for his pioneering work on
Bose-Einstein statistics and M.N. Saha who gave revolutionary theory of
thermal ionisation, which enabled physists to classify the stars into a few
groups.
In 1894, J.C. Bose converted a small enclosure adjoining a bathroom in the
Presidency College into a laboratory. He carried out experiments involving
refraction, diffraction and polarization. To receive the radiation, he used a
variety of junctions connected to a highly sensitive galvanometer. He
developed the use of galena crystals for making receivers, both for short
wavelength radio waves and for white and ultraviolet light. In 1895, Bose
gave his first public demonstration of radio transmission, using these
electromagnetic waves to ring a bell remotely and to explode some
gunpowder. He invited by Lord Rayleigh, to give a lecture in 1897. Bose
reported on his microwave (2.5 cm to 5 mm) experiments to the Royal
Institution and other societies in England. But Nobel prize alluded him
probably for want of vivid practical appliction of this work by him. By the
end of the 19th century, the interests of Bose turned to response phenomena
in plants. He retired from the Presidency College in 1915, and was appointed
Professor Emeritus. Two years later the Bose Institute was founded in
Kolkata. Bose was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1920.
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receiver, i.e., it is a point-to-point connection. This is most commonly observed and Communication
in the telephone network, where a guided medium in the form of cable carry the
signal from the telephone exchange to our telephone set. Some wireline channels
operate in the broadcast mode, i.e., one or more transmitters are connected to
several receivers, as in the cable television network.
Wireless channels are much more public, with a transmitter antenna radiating a
signal that can be received by any antenna tuned close by. In radio transmission, Notes
the wireless or unguided propagation of radio waves from the transmitter to the
receiver depends on the frequency of the electromagnetic waves. As you will
learn in this lesson, the waves are transmitted as ground (or surface) waves, sky
waves, or space waves by direct line-of-sight using tall towers, or by beaming to
artificial satellites and broadcasting from there. Wireless transmission is flexible
endowed with the advantage that a receiver can take in transmission from any
source. As a result, desired signals can be selected by the tuner of the receiver
electronics, and avoid unwanted signals. The only disadvantage is that the
interference and noise are more prevalent in this case.
For transmitting em signals, we use microwave frequencies, you may recall that
it varies from 1GHz to 300GHz. This frequency range is further divided into
various bands. Indian satellite INSAT – 4C operates in the C band (4 – 8 GHz),
whereas Edusat operates in Ku bond (12–18 GHz).
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and Communication with frequency. As a result, even coaxial cables are useful in a limited range (upto
a maximum of 40GHz when special dielectric materials are used). Beyond 40GHz,
we use waveguides. However, for frequencies greater than 300GHz, their
dimensions become too small (is 4mm or so) and it presents practical problems.
Above this frequency, we use optical fibres for guided wave transmission.
Outer Core
Notes
E
Inner Core H
(a)
The most extensively used optical waveguide is the step-index optical fibre that
has a cylindrical central glass or plastic core (of refractive index n1) and a cladding
of the same material but slightly (about 1%) lower refractive index (n2). There is
usually an outer coating of a plastic material to protect the fibre from the physical
environment (Fig. 30.6)
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Buffer coating and Communication
Refractive
index, n2
Core Cladding
Refractive Notes
index, n1
Buffer coating
Fig. 30.6: A typical optical fibre with a doped silica core and a pure silica cladding.
When light from the core (n1) is incident on the interface of the cladding (n2< n1),
the critical angle of incidence for total internal reflection is given by θc = sin−
1
(n2/n1). Thus in an optical fibre, the light ray is made to enter the core such that
it hits the core-cladding interface at an angle θ1 > θc. The ray then gets guided
through the core by repeated total internal reflections at the upper and lower
core-cladding interfaces. You may recall from wave optics that when a plane
wave undergoes total internal reflection, a wave propagates in the cladding (rarer
medium) along the interface, with its amplitude decreasing exponentially away
from the interface. The entire energy of the wave in the core is reflected back, but
there is a power flow along the interface in the cladding. Such a wave is called an
evanescent wave, and is extensively used in integrated optics for the coupling the
energy of a laser beam into a thin film waveguide (Fig. 30.7)
Cladding
Light in Core
Light
Reflected out
Incident
(b)
Fig. 30.7: (a) Total internal reflection (b) Ray confinement in actual optical fibre
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and Communication earth’s atmosphere plays a very interesting role the propagation of e.m. waves
from one place to another due to change in air temperature, air density, electrical
conductivity and absorption characteristics with height. For example, most of the
radiations in infarred region are absorbed by the atmosphere. The ultaviolet
radiations are absorbed by the ozone layer.
Five layers are considered to play main role in communicaiton:
Notes z C layer at about 60km above the surface of earth reflects e.m. waves in the
frequency range 3kHz – 300kHz. It is therefore used for direct long range
communication.
z D layer at a height of about 80km reflects e.m. waves in the low frequency
range (3kHz – 300kHz) but absorbs waves in the medium frequency range
(300 kHz – 3MHz) and high frequency range (3 – 30MHz).
z E layer ata height of about 110km helps in propagation of waves in the
medium frequency range but reflects waves in the high frequency range in
the day time.
z F1 layer at a height of about 180 km lets most of the high frequency waves
to pass through.
z F2 layer (at a height of 300 km in daytime and 350 km at night) reflects e.m.
waves upto 30MHz and allows waves of higher frequencies to pass through.
You may recall from your easlier classes that, based on the variation of temperature,
air density and electrical conductivity with altitude, the atmosphere is thought to
be made up of several layers. The atmospheric layer close to the earth called the
troposphere extends up to about 12 km above the sea level. The temperature in
troposphere vary between 290K (at the equator) to 220K (at tropopause). The
air density is maximum but electrical conductivity is the least compared to other
layers. The next layer up to about 50 km is called the stratosphere. An ozone
layer is in the lower stratosphere extends from about 15 km to about 30 km. The
layer above the stratosphere and up to about 90 km is called the mesosphere. The
minimum temperature in mesosphere in about 180K. Beyond mesosphere upto
350km, there is a zone of ionised molecules and electrons called the ionosphere.
In ionosphere, temperature increases with height to about 1000k. The ionosphere
affects the propagation of radio waves. It is divided into D, E, F and F2 regions
based on the number density of electrons, which increases with height from about
109m–3 in Dregion to 1011m–3 in region and 1012m–3 in F2 layer1. These variations in
temperature, density and conductivity arise due to different absorption of solar
radiations at different heights and changes in composition etc.
The essential feature of space communication is that a signal emitted from an
antenna of the transmitter has to reach the antenna of the receives. Depending on
the frequency fo radio wave, it can occur as ground wave, space wave, sky wave
and via satellite communication. Let us now learn about these.
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30.5.1 Ground Wave Propagation and Communication
In ground wave propagation, the electromagnetic waves travel along the surface
of the earth. These can bend around the corners of the objects but are affectd by
terrain. A vertical antenna is used to transmit electromagnetic waves. If electric
field E is vertical, and the magnetic field B is horizontal, the direction of propagation
k is horizontal but perpendicular to both E and B vectors. The material properties
of the ground, such as its conductivity refractive index and dielectric constant, Notes
are seen to control propagation of such waves. That is why ground waves
propagation is much better over sea than desert. In practice, ground waves are
rapidly attenuated due to scattering by the curved surface of the the earth. A
larger wavelength results in smaller attenuation. That is, ground waves are more
useful as lower frequencies & constitute the only way to communicate into the
ocean with submarines. Moreover, this mode of propagation is suitable for short
range communication. For these reasons, ground wave propagation is used for
radio wave (300kHz – 3MHz) transmission.
iver Ground wave Transmitter
Rece
Skip area
Earth
Sky Wave
Receiver Transmitter
Earth
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and Communication The maximum distance along the surface of the earth that can be reached by a
single ionospheric reflection ranges between 2010 and 3000 km depending on
the altitude of the reflecting layer. The communication delay encountered with a
single reflection ranges between 6.8 and 10 ms, a small time interval. This mode
of propagation is used for long-distance (short wave) communication in the
frequency range approximately between 5 and 10 MHz. Above 10 MHz, the
waves pass through the ionosphere and do not reflect back to the earth. It is,
Notes however, subject to erratic daily and seasonal changes due to variations in the
number density and height of the ionized layers in the ionosphere. The composition
of the ionosphere at night is different than during the day because of the presence
or absence of the sun. That is why international broadcast is done at night because
the reflection characteristics of the ionosphere are better at that time.
Earth
So far you have learnt that ground waves suffer conduction losses, space waves
have limitations due to line of sight and sky waves penetrate the ionisalion beyond
a certain frequency. Some of these difficulties were circumvented with the launch
of communication satellities in the 1950s. Satellite communication has brought
about revolutionary changes in the form and format of transmission and
communication. We can now talk is real time at a distance. Let us now learn
about it.
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The satellite receiver amplifies the received signal and retransmits it to earth at a and Communication
different frequency to avoid interference.
These stages are called uplinking and down-linking.
As we have seen already in connection with communication with light waves, the
capacity of a communication channel can be increased by increasing the frequency
of communication. How high up can we go in frequency? You now know that the Notes
ionosphere does not reflect waves of frequencies above 10 MHz, and for such
high frequencies we prefer space wave propagation with direct transmission from
tall towers. But this line-of-sight transmission also has a limited range or reach.
Hence for long-range wireless communication with frequencies above 30 MHz,
such as for TV transmission in the range of 50-1000 MHz, communication through
a satellite is used.
The gravitational force between the earth and the satellite serves as the centripetal
force needed to make the satellite circle the earth in a freefall motion at a height
of about 36,000 km. An orbit in which the time of one revolution about the
equator exactly matches the earth’s rotation time of one day is called a
geostationary orbit, i.e., the satellite appears to be stationary relative to the earth.
Ground stations transmit to orbiting satellites that amplify the signal and retransmit
it back to the earth. If the satellites were not in geostationary orbits, their motion
across the sky would have required us to adjust receiver antenna continually.
Two other orbits are also currently being used for communication satellites:
(i) polar circular orbit at a height of about 1000 km almost passing over the
poles (i.e., with an inclination of 900), and (ii) highly elliptical inclined orbit
(with an inclination of 63°) for communications in regions of high altitudes.
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EDUSAT
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), Department of Space,
Government of India, launched an exclusive education satellite EDUSAT in
Sept. 2004. The satellite has its footprints all over the country and operates in
KU band. It is designed to provide services for seven years. This satellite has
capability for radio and TV broadcast, Internet-based education, data
broadcasting, talk-back option, audio-video interaction, voice chat on Internet
and video conferencing. It has opened up numerous possibilities: a teacher of
a leading educational institution in a city may video-conference with students
of a remote school, or school drop-outs in villages may receive Internet-based
education support and get back into mainstream education system. EDUSAT
has the capability of telecasting 72 channels. A large number of networks have
been created by state governments and national institutions including NIOS.
Such networks are being successfully used to impart education even in regional
languages.
436 PHYSICS
Communication Systems MODULE - 8
Semiconductors Devices
z The signal should have an antenna or aerial of size comparable to the and Communication
wavelength of the signal so that the time variation of the signal is properly
sensed by the antenna. It means that for low-frequency or long-wavelength
signals, the antenna size has to be very large.
z The power carried by low frequency signals is small and can not go far. It is
because of cantinuous docline or attemation due to absorption/radiation loss.
It means that for long distance transmission high frequencies should be used. Notes
But these can not carry useful information. We are therefore confronted with
a situation analogous to the following:
On a front port, Indian army spots advancing enemy forces. To minimise loss of
life and save the post from falling to enemy, they need reinforcement from the
base camp. But by the time an army jawan goes, conveys the message and the
reinforcement reaches, the port would have fallen. Therefore, it wants a carrier,
say a horse, which can run fast. But the horse can not deliver the message. The
way out is: Put the jawan on the horseback; let the horse run and jawan convey
the message.
PHYSICS 437
MODULE - 8 Communication Systems
Semiconductors Devices
and Communication This is known as analog modulation. There are different types of analog
modulation: Amplitude Modulation (AM); Frequency Modulation (FM); and
Phase Modulation (PM), respectively For pulsed carrier waves, Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM) is the preferred scheme.
In Amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a high-frequency carrier wave (Fig.
30.12a) is modified in accordance with the strength of a low-frequency audio or
Notes video modulating signal (Fig.30.12.b). When the amplitude of the modulating
wave increases, the amplitude of the modulated carrier also increases and vice-
versa — the envelope of the modulated wave takes the form depending on the
amplitude and frequency of modulating signal (Fig. 30.12.c) .
To understand this, we write expressions for instantaneous amplitudes of audio
signal and carrier wave:
va(t) = vao sinωat (30.1a)
and vc(t) = vco sinωct (30.1b)
where wa and wc are the angular frequencies and vao and vco denote of audio and
carrier waves, respectively. denote the amplitudes. In amplitude modulation the
modulationg (audio) signal is superimposed on the carrier wave, so that the
amplitude of the resultant modulated wave can be expressed as
A (t) = vco + va(t) = vco + vao sinωat
⎡ v ⎤
= v co ⎢1 + v sin ωa t ⎥
ao
(30.2)
⎣ co ⎦
⎡ v ⎤
v cmod (t ) = A sin ωc t = v co ⎢1 + ao sin ωa t ⎥ sinw t (30.3)
⎣ v co ⎦
c
From Eqn. (30.3) we note that the instantaneous amplitude of the modulated
wave is determined by the amplitude and frequency of the analog audio signal.
The ratio vao/vco gives us a measure of the extent to which carrier amplitude is
varied by the analog modulating signal and is known as amplitude modulation
index. We will denote it by ma. In terms of modulation index, we can rewrite Eqn.
(30.3) as
v co ma v m
= vcosinωct + cos(ωc – ωa )t – co a cos(ωc + ωa )t (30.4)
2 2
438 PHYSICS
Communication Systems MODULE - 8
Semiconductors Devices
From Eqn. (30.4) we note that and Communication
z the modulated wave shown in Fig. 30.12(c) has three components. The first
term represents carrier wave the second term whose frequency is lower than
that of the carrier wave, constitutes the lower side band, and the third term
with frequency higher than the carrier wave is the upper side band; and
z the frequency of the modulating signal is not directly contained in the amplitude
Notes
modulated wave.
If the modulating signal in an AM system is given by
va= 4sin6283t and frequency of the lower side band is 3.5 × 105Hz, the angular
frequency of the carrier wave is given by
ωC = ωa + 2π × (3.5) × 105
= 6283 + 22 × 105
= (2200 + 6.283) × 103rad
= 2.206 × 106rad
It is important to appreciate that the most efficient information transfer takes
place when maximum power transmitted by the comunication system is
contained in the side bands.
The block diagram of a basic analog AM transmitter is shown in Fig. 30.13
(a). The oscillator provides a fixed frequency and the power amplifier
modulates the signal.
~ Modulator
(a)
(b)
~ Modulator
Fig. 30.13 Block diagram of (a) a basic and (b) practical AM transmitter
PHYSICS 439
MODULE - 8 Communication Systems
Semiconductors Devices
and Communication For any broadcast, the maximum power that can be radiated is controlled by the
GOI. It is in the range 500W to 50kW for radio transmitters. Every broadcaster
is allocated a definite frequency, which has to be observed strictly to avoid
interfrence with other signals. To ensure this, undesirable frequencies are filtered
out by using coupling circuits. We will not go into these details further.
The most popular form of radio communiction in India over the past 50 years had
Notes been medium wave (520 – 1700kHz) and short wave (4.39 – 5.18MHz; 5.72 –
6.33MHz) analog AM broadcast. It continues to have the widest spread, though
analog FM broadcast is now being preferred because of better quantity. Moveover,
radio waves are now comparatively free and private broadcasters are also entering
the field in a big way. FM radio stations are also being created by educational
institutions for education as well as empowerment of rural youth and homemakers.
In TV transmission, audio is frequency modulated whereas the video (picture) is
amplitude modulated.
In frequency modulation, the amplitude of the carrier wave remains constant,
but its frequency is continuously varied in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the audio or video signal. When the amplitude of the modulating
signal voltage is large, the carrier frequency goes up, and when the amplitude of
the modulating signal is low, the carrier frequency goes down, i.e., the frequency
of the FM wave will vary from a minimum to a maximum, corresponding to the
minimum and maximum values of the modulating signal (Fig. 30.14).
440 PHYSICS
Communication Systems MODULE - 8
Semiconductors Devices
In pulse code modulation, the modulating signal is first sampled, and the and Communication
magnitude (with respect to a fixed reference) of each sample is quantised. (It is a
digital representation of an analog signal where the magnitude of the signal is
sampled regularly at uniform intervals of duration Ts. The binary code is transmitted
usually by modulating an analog current in a transmission medium such as a
landline whereas pulse code modulation is used in digital telephone systems and
for digital audio recording on compact discs.
Notes
30.7 DEMODULATION
The modulated signal carrying the information, once radiated by the antenna,
travels in space. Since there are so many transmitting stations, thousands of signals
reach our antenna.
AM Envelope m(t)
Rectifier Output
Wave Detector
(a)
(b)
Fig. 30.15: (a) Block diagram of a detector for AM signal. (b) (i) AM modulated input
wave (ii) Rectified wave (iii) output demodulated wave
We have to choose the desired signal and decouple the carrier wave and the
modulating signal. This process is known as demodulation. The modulated signal
of the form shown in Fig. is passed through 30.15(a) a rectifier to produce the
output shown in Fig. 30.15(b). This envelop of the signal (b) is the message
signal. In order to rereavel the message signal, the signal is passed through a
envelop detectors (demodulator) which may consists of a simple RC circuit.
PHYSICS 441
MODULE - 8 Communication Systems
Semiconductors Devices
and Communication (ii) separate the transmissions of different users
(iii) ensure that information may be transmitted to long distances
(iv) allow the use of practical antennas.
(b) AM is used for broadcasting because
(i) it is more noise immune than other modulation systems
Notes (ii) it requires less transmitting power compared to other systems
(iii) it avoids receiver complexity
(iv) no other modulation system can provide the necessary bandwidth
for faithful transmission.
2. What is the optimum size of a radio antena.
COMMUNICATION APPLICATIONS
In recent years, the world of communication has advanced rapidly from printed
texts to the telegraph, the telephone, the radio, the television, mobiles, Internet
and computer conferencing (Audio and video). Countries all over the world
are striving to achieve high standards of national and international
communications. Radio and TV broadcasting through communication satellites
is routinely achieved to reach out to the majority of the population even in
remote corners of the globe. The domestic system of automatic telephone
exchanges is usually connected by modern networks of fibre-optic cable, coaxial
cable, microwave radio relay, and a satellite system.
Cellular or mobile telephone services are now widely available and include
roaming service, even to many foreign countries. The cellular system works
as a radio network of base stations and antennas. (The area of a city covered
by one base station is called a cell, whose size ranges from 1 km to 50 km in
radius.) A cell phone contains both a low-power transmitter and a receiver. It
can use both of them simultaneously, understand different frequencies, and
can automatically switch between frequencies. The base stations also transmit
at low power. Each base station uses carefully chosen frequencies to reduce
interference with neighbouring cells.
In a situation where multiple personal computers are used, as perhaps in your
local study centre, it helps to get all the computers connected in a network so
that they can “talk” to each other, and we can
z share a single printer between computers;
z share a single Internet connection among all the computers;
z access shared files and documents on any computer;
z play games that allow multiple users at different computers; and
z send the output of a device like a DVD player to other computer(s).
442 PHYSICS
Communication Systems MODULE - 8
Semiconductors Devices
and Communication
To install such a network of personal computers, there are three steps:
z Choose the technology for the network. The main technologies to choose
between are standard Ethernet, phone-line-based, power-line-based and
wireless.
z Buy and install the hardware.
z Configure the system and get everything talking together correctly. Notes
PHYSICS 443
MODULE - 8 Communication Systems
Semiconductors Devices
and Communication
444 PHYSICS
Communication Systems MODULE - 8
Semiconductors Devices
by direct line-of-sight using tall towers (space wave or tropospheric and Communication
propagation), or by beaming to artificial satellites and broadcasting from there.
z The cellular or mobile telephone system works as a radio network in which a
city is divided into ‘cells’ of 1 km to 50 km in radius, and each cell is covered
by one base station. A cellular phone contains a low-power transmitter and a
low-power receiver.
z An analogue signal is completely described by its samples, taken at equal Notes
time intervals Ts, if and only if the sampling frequency fs = 1/Ts is at least twice
the maximum frequency component of the analogue signal.
z Low frequencies can not be transmitted to long distances using aerials or
antennas of practical dimensions. Low-frequency messages are loaded on a
high frequency carrier signal by a process called modulation. In amplitude
modulation (AM), the amplitude of a high-frequency carrier wave are modified
in accordance with the strength of a low-frequency information signal. In
frequency modulation (FM), the amplitude of the carrier wave remains
constant, but its frequency is continuously varied in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the information signal, i.e., the frequency of the
modulated carrier wave varies from a minimum to a maximum corresponding
to the minimum and maximum values of the modulating signal.
z In the digital pulse code modulation (PCM) technique, the modulating signal
is first sampled, the magnitude (with respect to a fixed reference) of each
sample is quantised, and then the binary code is usually transmitted modulating
an analogue current in a landline.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What are the essential elements of a communication system?
2. What is an antenna?
3. What are the important characteristics of a receiver in a communication
system?
4. Distinguish between the terms analogue and digital signals. Define a ‘bit’.
5. The VHF band covers the radio frequency range of 30 – 300 MHz. Using the
known relationship of speed to frequency and wavelength of an
electromagnetic wave, determine the VHF wavelength range in vacuum. Take
the speed of light in vacuum to be 3 × 108 ms–1
6. Long distance radio broadcasts use shortwave bands. Explain.
7. Satellites are used for long distance TV transmission. Justify.
8. The core of an optical fibre is made of glass with a refractive index of 1.51
and the cladding has a refractive index of 1.49. Calculate the critical angle for
total internal reflection.
PHYSICS 445
MODULE - 8 Communication Systems
Semiconductors Devices
and Communication 9. List some advantages of creating a local network of personal computers.
10. What do you understand by modulation. Explain its need.
11. Explain the role of modulation and demodulation in communication system.
30.1
1. E.M. waves are time varying electrical and magnetic field travelling in space
with a speed of 3×108 ms–1 at right angles to each other.
C 3 × 108 ms –1
2. λ = = = 10 m
ν 30 × 106 s –1
3. (i) frequency range of visible light is 1014 Hz–1015 Hz
(ii) frequency range of radio waves is 30 kHz–300 MHz
30.2
1. Co-axial cable is a pair of point to point connector where in one conductor
is in the form of hollow cylinder and the other a solid wire at the axis of
the first conductor the two being separated by an insulator. The one used
for frequency range 3.0 GHz-40 GHz.
2. The basic principle used in optical fibre is total internal reflecion due to which
light beam may move along an optical fibre without any loss in energy.
30.3
1. Sky wave communication is normally better during night, because in absence
of sun ionosphere’s composition is settled so that it acts as a better reflector.
2. (a) iv, (b) (iii)
30.4
1. (a) (iii), (b) (iii)
2. The minimum size of a transmitting antenna is comparable to wavelength
of signal to be transmitted. For maximum power transmission size of antenna
should be at least λ 4 .
446 PHYSICS
SENIOR SECONDARY COURSE
SEMICONDUCTORS AND SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
STUDENT’S ASSIGNMENT – 8
INSTRUCTIONS
z Answer All the questions on a seperate sheet of paper
z Give the following information on your answer sheet:
z Name
z Enrolment Number
z Subject
z Assignment Number
z Address
z Get your assignment checked by the subject teacher at your study centre so that you get positive
feedback about your performance.
PHYSICS 447
12. Two amplifiers are connected one after the other in series. The first amplifier has a voltage gain of 10
and the second has a voltage gain of 20. If the input signal is 0.01v, calculate the output ac signal. 2
13. How can you realize an AND gate with the help of p-n junction diodes? Draw the circuit and explain to
truth table. 4
14. For a common emitter amplifier, the audio signal voltage across a 5 k Ω collector resistance is 5v.
Suppose the current amplification factor of the transter is 100, find the input signal voltage and base
current, if the base resistance is 1 k Ω . 4
15. Define current gain in common base configuration and common emitter configuration. Establish a relation
between the two. 4
16. With the help fo suitable diagrams explain 4
(a) how does a capacitor convert functuating ac steady dc.
(b) how a zener diode stabilizes dc output against load variations.
17. Explain : 4
(i) Why a transistorhas to be biased for using it as an amplifer,
(ii) How the range of variation of amplitude of input signal is decided for the proper working of a
transistor,
(iii) Why the voltage gain of an amplifier can not be increased beyond a limit by increasing load resistance.
18. Identity the logic gates indicates by circuits given below.
A
Y
Y B
(a) (b)
Corresponding to the input signal at A and B as shown below draw output waveform for each ats.
A t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 C
t1
t
B
19. With the help of a circuit diagram explain how a transistor can be used as an amplifier? 5
20. Draw a circuit diagram for studying the charactertics. Draw the input and output charactertics and
explain the current gain obtained. 5
448 PHYSICS
QUESTIONS PAPER DESIGN
Subject: Physics Class: Senior Secondary
Paper Marks: 80 Duration: 03 Hrs.
1. Weightage by Objectives
Objective Marks % of the Total Marks
Knowledge 20 25
Understanding 40 50
Application and Skill 20 25
Total 80 100
2. Weightage by Types of Question
Type of Questions Marks × No. of Questions Marks Allotted
Essay (E) 6×4 24
Short Answers I (SA1) 4×7 28
Short Answers II (SA2) 2×9 18
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) 1 × 10 10
Total 30 Questions 80 Marks
3. Weightage as per the Content
Sr. No. Module Marks
1 Motion, Force and Energy 14
2 Mechanics of Solids and Fluids 06
3 Thermal Physics 06
4 Oscillations and Waves 06
5 Electricity and Magnetism 16
6 Optics and Optical Instruments 14
7 Atoms and Nuclei 08
8 Semiconductor Devices and Communication 10
Total Marks 80
4. Difficulty Level
Easy Average Difficult Total
Percent Weightage 25 % 50 % 25 % 100 %
Marks Allotted 20 40 20
No. of Questions 08 15 07
Note : Some internal choices is given in application questions.
5. Time Management
Type of Questions Total Time 180 minutes
Essay (E) 60
Short Answers I (SA1) 50
Short Answers II (SA2) 35
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) 15
Reading and Revision 20
Sample Questions Paper
1. Which of the following diagrams best represents electric field lines between two equal and
opposite charges?
+ – + –
A. B.
+ – + –
C. D. 1
2. A rectangular current carrying loop of wire is placed near a long current carrying
straight conductor with one of its sides parallel to the counductor as shown in
figure. The loops will be
A. atracted towards the conductor whatever be the direction of current in the
loop.
B. repelled by the conductor whatever be the direction of current in the loop.
C. attracted towards to conductor when the current in the loop flows anticlockwise.
D. repelled by the conductor when the current in the loop flows anticlockwise. 1
3. The energy required to cause a transition of an electron from n = 1 to n = 2 orbit of hydrogen
atom is ................
A. 10.2 eV B. 13.6 eV
C. 12.09 eV D. 1.51 eV
4. The number of electrons emitted by cathods in a photo tube is 3.0 × 104 when it is illuminated
by a small bright source placed 50 cm away. If the source is carried to a distance of 100 cm,
the number of electrons emitted by photocathode would be
A. 3.0 × 104 B. 7.5 × 103
C. 1.5 × 104 D. 6.0 × 104 1
5. In a forward biased p-n junciton diode
A. charge carriers do not move at all.
B. only the holes in the p-region move towards the n-region
450 PHYSICS
Sample Questions Paper
C. only the minority charge carriers move due to thermal energies
D. majority charge carrier deffuse from either side towards the junction 1
6. A n-type extrinsic semiconducting material is
A. negatively charged
B. positively charged
C. electrically neutral
D. negatively or positively charged depending on the dopant 1
7. For a CE mode amplifier, vi is 10 mV and vo is one volt. The voltage gain of the amplifier
would be
A. 50 B. 20
C. 100 D. 10 1
8. In a n-type semiconductor
A. electrons are majority charge carriers and dopants are trivalent atom.
B. electrons are minority carriers and dopants are pentavalent atoms
C. holes are the minority carrier and dopants are pentavalent atoms
D. holes are the majority charge carriers and dopants are trivalent atoms 1
9. A secondary rainbow occurs when a ray of light undergoes
A. one refraction and one internal refleciton in a rain drop
B. two refreactions and two internal reflections is a rain drop
C. two refreactions and one internal refelction in a rain drop
D. one refraction and two internal reflections in a rain drop 1
10. Which of the following represents the refraction of a ray of light through a glass slab correctly
Air Air
A. Glass B. Glass
Air Air
Air
Glass Glass
C. D. 1
Air
11. State second law of motion. Show that for an object of constant mass, acceleraiton of the
object is directly proportional to the force applied on it. 2
PHYSICS 451
Sample Questions Paper
12. A body of mass m is placed on a rough plane inclined at an angle θ. Draw a diagram showing
forces acting on the body and write expression for frictional force if the block stays stationary
on the inclined plane. 2
13. State stoke's law for the viscous force acting on a sphere of radius r, moving in a fluid of
viscosity η with velocity v. Obtain the unit of coefficient of viscosity in terms of kg, metre
and second. 2
14. Figures below show the p-v diagrams of two carnot engines. Which of the two engines is
more efficient. (It is given that both engines draw equal heat from the source). 2
P A P
A¢
B B¢
D D¢
C
C¢
V V
15. A spectral line in thelight from a star shows a shift towards the red end of the spectrum. If
the shift is 0.03%, calculate the velocity of recession of the star. 2
16. How will you convert a galvanometer into (i) an ammeter (ii) a voltmeter? 2
17. Draw a diagram showing refraction of a ray of light through a glass prism. Mark angle of
deviation and angle of emergence inthe diagram. 2
236
18. In fission of a 92 U
nucleus 200 MeV energy is released whereas in fusion of 4 protons 26.8
Mev energy is released. Whichof these processes gives more energy per unit atomic mass?
Explain. 2
19. The axis of a 100 turn circular coil (area of cross-seciton 3.85 × 10–3 m2) is parallel to a
uniform magnetic field. The magnitude of the field changes at a constant range from 25 mT
to 50 mT. in 250 ms. Calculate the magnitude of induced emf across the coil. 2
20. Explain (i) Isothermal (ii) Adiabatic (iii) isobaric and (iv) isochoric processes. 4
21. A ball of mass 50g strikes a rigid wall at an angle 30° with a speeed of 10 ms–1 and gets
reflected without any change in speed as shown in figure. Find the magnitude and direciton
of the impulse imprted to the ball by the wall. 4
452 PHYSICS
Sample Questions Paper
30°
22. Explain why is a small drop of liquid always spherical. Obtain an expression for pressure
difference between inside and outside a spherical liquid drop. 4
23. A transverse harmonic wave on a string is given by
PHYSICS 453
Sample Questions Paper
30. A bob of mass m, tied to a string of length L is rotated in a vertical circle in such a manner
that the string has zero tension at point C, as shwon in figure. Find the ratio of the kinetic
energies at points B and C. 6
vo
A
or
A body of mass 20 kg is initially moving with a speed of 5 ms–1. A force of 40 N is applied
on the body for 3 seconds.
(i) find the final speed of the body after 3 seonds.
(ii) What is the distance covered during this period?
(iii) How much work has been done during this period?
(iv) Find the initial K.E. of the body.
(v) Find the final K.E. of the body.
(vi) Show that the work done is equal to the change in K.E. for the body.
454 PHYSICS
Marking Scheme
MARKING SCHEME
1. A
2. D
3. A
4. B
5. D
6. C
7. C
8. C
9. B
10. B
11. Statement of the law (module 1 p 65) 1
Direction according to the law (module 1 p 65) 1
Fr
12. 1
mg
Fr = mg sinθ
or Fr ≤ μmg cos θ 1
13. According to stoke's law 1
F = 6πηrv
F kgms −2
η= = −
= kg m −1s −1 1
6πrv m ⋅ ms 1
1
14. Engine (ii) is more efficient
2
W 1
∵ η=
Q 2
PHYSICS 455
Marking Scheme
1
Q is same for both
2
1
and w = area enclosed in p-v diagram which is more in case of II
2
Δλ v
15. = 1
λ c
Δλ 0.03
v=c = 3 × 108 × = 9 × 104 ms −1 1
λ 100
16. (a) By connecting a suitable low resistance in parallel to the galvanometer coil 1
(b) By connecting a suitable high resistance in serices with the galvanometer coil. 1
A
D
e
17. 1+1
B C
18. More energy per unit amu is released in fusion. 1
1
In fission it is less than 1 MeV/amu
2
1
In fusion it is more than 6.7 MeV/amu
2
19. N = 100, A = 3.85 × 10–3 m2, B = (50 – 25) = 25 mT
⎛ B − B1 ⎞
e = NA ⎜ 2 ⎟ 1
⎝ t ⎠
−3 20 ×10−1 1
= 100 × 3.85 ×10 × −3
250 ×10 2
= 3.85 × 10–2 V
1
= 38.5 mV
2
20. Explanation of
(i) Isothermal process (p302) 1
(ii) Adiabatic process (p302) 1
(iii) Isobaric process (p303) 1
(iv) Isochoric process (p303) 1
456 PHYSICS
Marking Scheme
21. pi = 0.05 × 10 = 0.5 kg ms–1 = pf
(
x y
) (
Impulse = pf – pi = p x i + pf − pi + pi j
x y
) 1
(
= p f − pi i
x x
)
= – 0.866 kg ms–1 1
1
Impulse = 0.866 kg ms–1
2
22. Explanation 1
Derivation 3
w 36
23. (a) v = = = 2000 cm s −1 = 20 ms −1 1
k 0.018
The wave is travelling towards negative 1
x direction
1 1
(b) a = 3.0 cm φo = TA +
2 2
1
(c) Least distance between two succesion crests
2
2π 1
= λ= = 3.5 m
0.018 2
1
24. Connection diagram
2
1
Phase diagram
2
Derivation of expression for z 2
Derivation of expression for tan θ 1
25. The diference between the angles of deviation for any two wavelengths (colours)
is known as the angular dispersion for those wavelength 1
PHYSICS 457
Marking Scheme
The ratio of the angular dispersion to the mean deviation is known as the
1
dispersive power (w) of the material of the prism
2
s v − δr 1
w=
sy 2
⎛ A + sin ⎞
sin ⎜ ⎟
= ⎝ 2 ⎠
A 1
sin
2
sin 60° 1
=
sin 30° 2
1
= 3 2
26. The mass of the nucleus of an atom of any element is always found to be less
than the sum of the masses of its constituent nucleon. The difference between the
sum of masses of nucleon and the mass of the nucleus is called mass defeact. 1
h 1
26. λ =
P 2
1 m2 v2 p2 1
K.E.; E = mv 2 = =
2 2m 2m 2
458 PHYSICS
Marking Scheme
h 1
⇒ λ=
2mE 2
1 1
⇒ λ∝
m 2
of the 3 particles given α-particle is the heaviest and electron is the lightest particle. 1
1 1
∴ λe will be greatest and λα will be shortest. +
2 2
27. Resistance of a conductor is the ratio of P.D applied across it and the
current flouring through it
V 1
i.e. R =
I 2
Resistance of a conductor depends on
Nature of material, length, area of cross section and temperature of the counductor 1
1
(i) resistors connected end to end such that same current flows
2
through each of them
(ii) resistors connected in such a way that one end of all the conductors is
connected to positive terminal of the battery and the other end of negative
terminal. In this case same P.D. is applied accross all the resistors. 1
r1
r2
In series combination V = V1 + V2
= Ir1 + Ir2
PHYSICS 459
Marking Scheme
= I(r1 + r2)
V
= R = r 1 + r2 1
I
In parallel combination I = I1 + I2
V V ⎛r +r ⎞
= + = V⎜ 1 2 ⎟ 2
r1 r2 ⎝ r1r2 ⎠
V r1r2
R = I = r +r
1 2
X D V
a
t Input wave form
RL V
V
Y b t Output waveform
2+2
29. The phenomenon of redistribution of energy in space due to super
position of light waves from two coherent sources. 1
P
S1 y
S O
S2
D
⎛δ⎞ 1
Derivation of A = 2a cos ⎜ ⎟ 1
⎝2⎠ 2
460 PHYSICS
Marking Scheme
I ∝ A2
⎛δ⎞ 1
∝ 4A 2 cos 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ 2
Constructive interference
Imax = 4a2
when cos2δ/2 = 1
cos δ/2 = 1
1
δ = 0, 2π, 4π ... 2nπ
2
Destructive interference
Imin = 0
when cos2 δ/2 = 0
1
δ = π, 3π, 5π ... (2n + 1)π
C 2
mvo2 mg 1
30. T − mg =
L 2
B
T1
mvc2 T1
mg
0 − mg = ⇒ vc = gL 1
L vo
A
mg
mv 2B 1
T1 − 0 =
L 2
1 1
mvo2 − mv 2B = mgL 1
2 2
1
⇒ v 2B = 3gL
2
1
mv 2B
kε at B 2 v 2 3gL 3
= = B2 = = 1
1
kε at c 1 mv 2 vc gL 1 2
c
2
=3:1
PHYSICS 461
Marking Scheme
or
F 40 1
(i) a= = = 2ms −2
m 20 2
v = u + at
1
= 5 + 2 × 3 = 11 ms–1
2
1 2
(ii) s = ut + at
2
1
× 2 × ( 3)
2
= 5× 3 +
2
= 15 + 9 = 24 1
(iii) W = FS
= 40 × 24
= 960 J 1
1
(iv) Initial K.E. = mu 2
2
1 10
= × 20 × ( 5 )
2
2
= 250 J 1
1
(v) Final K.E. = mv 2
2
1 10
= × 20 × (11)
2
2
=1210 J 1
(vi) Change in K.E. = 1210 – 250 = 960J
Also work done = 960 J
So work done = change in K.E. of the body 1
462 PHYSICS
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