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Controls on ore localization in tin-bearing veins: A review

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 Read at the Annual Conference of the Ussher Society, January 1997

CONTROLS ON ORE LOCALIZATION IN TIN-BEARING VEINS: A REVIEW

S.C. DOMINY AND G.S. CAMM

Dominy, S.C. and Camm, G.S. Controls on ore localization in tin-bearing veins: a review.
Geoscience in south-west England, 9, 241-249.

Controls on ore localization can be investigated through field observation, and historical and current production records. Integrated, these
data can yield an important insight into the processes of mineralization, orebody geometry and fracture genesis. South-west England is a
classic tin province with steeply-dipping, endo- and exo-granitic veins, which display diverse structure, paragenesis and ore distribution.
Payable grades within veins are often restricted to discrete oreshoots which contain between a few thousand to millions of tonnes of
mineralized rock. Mineralization is typified by cassiterite with a gangue of chlorite, quartz, fluorite, tourmaline and sulphides. Ore
localization is determined by a number of controls: (1) host fracture geometry; (2) lithology; and (3) physio-chemical conditions. One or
more controls are usually operative in any one shoot. The shapes of fractures influence deposition by determining the width of openings and
the surface area for fluid/rock interaction. Variations in strike and dip, and the intersection and branching of veins are common sites for
localization. Strike and dip variations result in dilatent zones along strike (strike-slip faults) or up dip (dip-slip faults). The hinge zones of
vein intersections and branches are often regions for grade and width enhancement. Lithology controls mechanical properties which affect
fracture shape, density and chemical reactivity. Contacts between different rock-types act as zones for vein break-up/deflection and are
sometimes related to ore localization. Physio-chemical conditions relate to temperature and pressure, fluid chemistry and wallrock reactivity.
The prediction of the geometry, location and persistence of veins and oreshoots is of importance during the modelling of mineral deposits for
both genetic and economic evaluations.

S.C. Dominy and G.S. Camm, Mining Geology Group, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences,
University of Greenwich, Medway Campus, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 47B.

INTRODUCTION
Tin-bearing vein systems with varying spatial, temporal,
mineralogical and structural features are a ubiquitous feature of south-
west England (Figure 1). They have been recognised for many years
(Carew, 1602; Borlase, 1758; Henwood, 1843; Cronshaw, 1921;
Hosking, 1988; Willis-Richards and Jackson, 1989; Alderton, 1993).
Three principal mineralizing stages are recognised within the orefield
(Jackson et al., 1989). A prebatholith stage of minor strata-bound and
syn-sedimentary mineralization (Fe-Mn-Cu) and a syn-batholith stage
characterised by early Sn-W stockwork mineralization followed by
the economic Sn-(Sn-Cu) vein mineralization. The post-batholith
stage of crosscourse activity bears Zn-Pb-Ag-Fe-Ba-F vein
mineralization. In this paper we address the main-stage Sn vein
mineralization.
The knowledge of ore localization in vein deposits is fundamental
to the understanding of fluid transport and depositional processes. It is
also of significant importance during the evaluation and exploitation
of this style of mineralization (Dominy et al., 1997). This paper
reports localization controls in south-west England and provides the
most comprehensive review since Collins (1912). The work is based
on field studies by the authors at Wheals Concord, Jane and Pendarves
and South Crofty and a county-wide investigation of historical mine Figure 1: Map showing the location of the case study examples.
data.
though lodes may reach 30 m. The extent of individual veins is
variable, with some traceable for up to 800 m along strike and a few
NATURE OF VEINS 100 m down-dip.
Isolated veins are rare with swarms more common. Over 35 sub- Many of the endogranitic systems can be described as lode zones
parallel veins are seen in the Camborne-Redruth area (Dines, 1956). which often contain multiple, inter-related veins rather than a single
The simplest structural type occupies a single in-filled fracture, but continuous vein structure (Figures 2 and 3; Dominy et al., 1996a;
composite systems are more typical (Henwood, 1843, Farmer and Dominy and Camm, 1996). A lode zone can range from 1-50 m in
Halls, 1992). In most cases veins can be described as lodes, since width, have a strike length of up to 6,000 m (e.g. Pryces-Tincroft
associated wallrock alteration is also mineralized and is often part of Lode, South Crofty mine) and a down-dip extent of up to 1,000 m
the orebody (Figure 2). Lode/vein dip is generally steep, in excess of (e.g. Main Lode, Dolcoath mine). They are characterized by a core
70°, though dips of less than 45° do exist (e.g. Great Flat Lode; Dines, region of vein(s), which display variable lateral and vertical
1956). Vein widths vary from a few centimetres to about 2-3 m, continuity. This is surrounded by variably altered wallrocks containing

241
S. C. DOMINY AND G.S. CAMM

low grade and/or barren zones. Even within the oreshoots, deposition
is not uniform and low grade areas may be present. These features are
compounded by structural complexities and make reserve estimation
and exploitation difficult (Dominy et al., 1997). The erratic nature of
tin grade distribution is well known and sample populations generally
display a log-normal form (Garnett, 1967; Kuscevic et al., 1972).
Clark and Garnett (1974) note that datasets are not always log-normal
and that more than one population may exist. This is explained by the
overprinting of two or more paragenetic stages- a feature they report
in Simms Lode of Geevor mine. Geostatistical studies of sample
populations are sparse for the south-west, generally because of the
inherent problems of applying the method to veins. Clark (1978) con-
structed semi-variograms for data from Geevor mine which revealed
the presence of two ranges (10 m and 45 m; the hole effect) and are
consistent with high grade oreshoots surrounded by low grade/barren
regions. Gribble (1992) noted a similar relationship from the South
Crofty No. 8 Lode. Both workers report a low degree of grade
variability (e.g. low nugget variance) which is a surprising result and
may be related to local geology. Tin veins typically display large
grade range from <0.1% to in excess of 40% Sn. The high-grade
outliers give the sample population a high standard deviation and
represent less than 5% of it. During reserve evaluation high-grade
values are usually cut to a pre-determined lower level to reduce their
influence. Cut values are variable, at Wheal Jane 3% Sn and South
Crofty between 4-10% Sn dependent upon lode were used.

Figure 2: Schematic showing the features of a vein and its relationship NATURE OF ORE LOCALIZATION
to the terms lode, lode zone and orebody. Stippled region shows
wallrock alteration either side of the vein and marks the extent of the P re vi o u s Wo r k
"true" lode. Vein parallel stringers/microfractures mark the full extent
of the wider lode zone. The orebody in this case is marked by a region Early studies world-wide recognised variations in strike and dip, and
including the footwall of the vein, droppers and wallrock alteration. vein intersections as sites for ore enrichment (Newhouse, 1942;
McKinstry, 1948). The mineralization in south-west England has been
abundant microfractures which become less abundant outwards from the subject of research over past years (Carne, 1822; Moissenet, 1877;
the core region. Veins within the lode zone display diverse structural Collins, 1912; Taylor, 1965, 1966; Garnett, 1961, 1962, 1966a/b,
variations which affect their overall geometry. Minor veins or 1967; Hosking, 1950, 1964; Rayment et al., 1971; Jackson et al.,
stringers emanating from the vein walls are common, typified by 1989). Several important factors have been recognised controlling
"feeders or uppers" from the hangingwall, and "droppers" from the localization, including (1) host lithology, (2) geometry of host
footwall (Figure 2). Vein stringer networks, sometimes termed fractures and (3) physio-chemical conditions. The most exhaustive
"hanging- or foot-wall stockworks" are also common. Exogranitic work by Collins (1912) reports controls related to steeper parts of
systems are more laterally restricted, though their complexity and veins, lithological contact zones, variations in dip/strike and
composite form often match the criteria for a lode zone, and display vein/fracture intersections. The studies of Garnett (1961, 1962,
the geometric features seen in the endogranitic veins. 1966a/b, 1967) at Geevor mine revealed that oreshoots were related to
high-angle intersections of veins and pre-mineralization crosscourses
and variations in dip. In South Crofty mine Taylor (1965, 1966)
Ti n D i s tr i b ut i o n a n d P a ya b il it y confirmed the importance of vein dip controls. More recently specific
Vein deposits, particularly tin, display an uneven distribution of
mineral/metal across and within the plane of the vein. Wallrock
disseminations (e.g. alteration) and stringers result in orebody margins
being defined as assay cut-offs rather than along geologic contacts. It
is possible that over 60% of an orebody may be distributed within the
wallrocks rather than within the vein (Dominy, 1994). Potentially
economic mineralization is generally restricted to a particular stage of
a vein's paragenesis, and to specific zones or oreshoots along its strike.
An oreshoot is part of a deposit (e.g. vein) in which the valuable
minerals are more richly concentrated (Amstutz, 1971). They are
characterized by height (up to 350 m), plunge lengths (up to 1,000 m)
and widths of up to 30 m (typically 1-3 m). Their geometry is variable
ranging from highly irregular masses through to horizontally or
vertically elongate tabular bodies. Contained ore may range from a
few thousand to over a million tonnes. In south-west England the
largest tin-bearing structure was undoubtedly the endogranitic
Dolcoath Main Lode, which the authors estimate contained at least 10
million tonnes of rock. It produced some 2.5-3 million tonnes of ore at
a grade of about 1.6% Sn (40,000 tonnes Sn metal), implying a
payability of about 25%. A study of the mine longitudinal section
shows that stoped areas account for 35% of the total. Dolcoath Main
Lode contained of a series of oreshoots along its lateral and vertical
extent.
Outside the oreshoots cassiterite deposition is sporadic producing Figure 3: Conceptual view of a lode zone (From Dominy et al. 1996a).
242
 Controls on ore localization in tin-bearing veins: a review

based on the projection of data onto a nominal reference plane drawn

at a fixed distance parallel to the vein (Connolly, 1936). Recent
advances in computer technology have lead to powerful three
dimensional modelling software into which modern and/or historical
data can be input. Throughout any study there must be an emphasis on
data cross-checking and re-interpretation to ensure that conclusions
are valid.

C o nt ro ls o n L o c al i zat i o n- O re s h o ot s
The location of oreshoots within a vein system is determined by a
number of interrelated controls, these are outlined below.

1) Host Fracture Geometry

The shapes of fractures influence mineralization deposition by
determining the width of openings and the surface area for fluid/rock
interaction. Openings provide loci for fluid flow and hydraulic
mechanisms produce wallrock spalling and brecciation. Variations in
strike and dip may result in fracture dilation and provide zones for
preferential mineralization and grade enhancement (Table 1).

Table 1
DIP-SLIP FAULTING STRIKE-SLIP FAULTING
NORMAL REVERSE DEXTRAL SINISTRAL
Deposition Deposition Deposition Deposition
on steep on flat on right on left
parts parts deflection deflection
Localization at dip variations is a common feature and has been
noted in numerous mines. In strike-slip regimes strike variations are
also important. In a description of Dolcoath mine Thomas (1882)
reported the importance of strike changes, a feature noted elsewhere.
In most cases fracture movement is related to a hybrid of both
Figure 4: Longitudinal section through workings showing form of
worked oreshoots. regimes, which may be oblique slip or sequential dip-slip then strike-
(A) Wheal Drea; horizontal elongation suggesting control by dip
slip (or vice versa).
variation, (B) Pryer Lode, Wheal Kitty; vertical elongation and ovoid While vein width is governed by fracture dilation, there is not
form suggesting control by strike variation, and always a strong correlation between vein width and high grades. In
(C) Savealls Lode, St.Just United Mines; narrow elongate oreshoot section, dip-related oreshoots are laterally elongate (Figure 4a),
between 62-100 Fm Levels reflects control by intersecting veins whereas strike-related oreshoots are vertically elongated in form
(Modified after Taylor, 1978). (Figure 4b).
Vein intersections and branches are important locations for
structural domains and intersecting fracture sets within a shear zone oreshoot development. A vein intersection is defined as a X-shape in
model at South Crofty mine have been recognised (Farmer and Halls, which both veins continue beyond it, in some cases the later vein will
1992; Dominy and Camm, 1996). displace the earlier one. The angle of intersection may vary from <5 to
90° and the fractures which host the veins may have formed at the
M e t h o ds of S t u dy a n d S o u rce s o f I n f or m at i o n same time or in two stages, in which case the vein infill processes may
Field investigation should be a component of any study into the be independent of, or related to, one another. As a general rule, veins
controls on ore localization. Work may include detailed surface and with small intersection angles are more likely to be genetically near-
underground geological mapping and must be integrated with synchronous than those with large intersection angles. In restricted
production sampling and drilling data if available. This is however not cases intersecting fracture sets have given rise to pipe-like "carbona"
always possible particularly in areas where workings are long since bodies typified by strong wallrock alteration/mineralization (Dominy
closed and inaccessible. Abandoned mine data provide an invaluable et al., 1996b). A branch is observed as a Y-shape where the mother
source of information often as longitudinal- or cross-sections and vein divides into two or more daughters either along strike or down
plans. Whilst useful, they should be approached with care as dip. In some cases a minor branch splits off either the foot- or
inaccuracies of survey pickup and/or data recording are often present. hanging-wall of the mother vein and may be termed foot- or hanging-
Longitudinal sections showing stoping extent give only an wall branch veins.
approximate shape of the oreshoot and unless assay data are available In three dimensions oreshoots related to down-clip intersec-
do not imply 100% payability. In many mining areas works published tions/branches usually display high vertical and low lateral continuity
during the period of operation provide an insight into the nature of the (Figure 4c) and along strike vice versa. Intersections of a series of
oreshoots. steeply dipping veins with the low dip (40-45°) Great Flat Lode
Raw data can be managed in a number of ways including the resulted in finger-like oreshoots. Grade enhancement within this style
production by hand or computer of plans and sections. Detailed of oreshoot is associated with any number of the following features:
examination by Garnett (1966a) of the grade variations at Geevor (1) no change in vein width,
mine provided a number of methods for analysing this variability and (2) an increase in vein width,
predicting grades. He used contours of grade and accumulation (grade (3) wallrock alteration/disseminated mineralization and/or
x width) to deduce controls on payability by comparing with contours (4) wallrock vein/stringer development.
of thickness, dip and distance of the vein from a fixed reference plane Vein branching at Rosevale (Dominy et al., 1995) resulted in no
(Connolly diagrams). The Connolly technique is a contouring method changes in the vein except grade enrichment. In Dolcoath Main lode
243
S. C. DOMINY AND G.S. CAMM

vein widening and extreme alteration/grade enrichment occurred heat and fluid flow conditions. A thermal gradient exists across the
within the block of ground between the two branches. contact where isotherms are parallel to it; the metasediment become
Blanchard (1931) investigated 140 examples world-wide of vein progressively cooler away from the granite. An example of contact
intersections and found that 74% were richer, 12% similar, 9% poorer control is the gently-dipping northwest economic zone seen in the
and 5% were barren with respect to the grade of rest of the vein. Our Geevor-Levant mines which passes through the contact at a shallow
studies of thirty-five county-wide abandoned mine plans revealed that angle. Other controls (e.g. dip/strike variations, intersections etc.)
70% of vein intersections and 66% of vein splits were substantially account for oreshoot localization within this larger "local" economic
sloped out, thus implying payable grades. zone (Mount, 1985).
Zonation is observed in two forms either as vertical zonation
2) Lithology within a single vein or by lateral zonation in groups of veins. Vertical
Host rocks control the development of vein mineralization in zonation may be observed where the upper levels of the vein are Cu-
three principal ways: a) mechanical properties which affect fracture rich and the lower levels Sn-rich (e.g. Dolcoath, Cooks Kitchen etc.;
shape and density, b) chemical reactivity which affects fluid/rock Dines, 1956). A mid-zone displays mixed Cu and Sn mineralization
interaction and c) pre-existing weaknesses. which was often characterised by specific mineralogical assemblages.
Dines (1956) reporting on the South Crofty Tincroft North Lode (195
Contrasts in rock strength produce varying features from
fm level) noted chalcopyrite-chlorite etc. on the hangingwall side of
reduction in vein width and payability to vein horse-tailing with strong
the vein and cassiterite-tourmaline on the footwall side. Vertical
mineralization. This is related to the mechanical nature of granite and
zonation is explained by upward changes in fluid characteristics, and
its ability to form well-defined structures. The most common scenario
decreasing temperature and pressure, during a single hydrothermal
in the region is where a vein cuts the granite/
event. Lateral zoning was described by Dewey (1925), who showed as
a general rule that tin-tungsten mineralization occurred within or close
to the granite, while lead and zinc was found further away in the
aureole rocks. These zonation features were expounded by Dines
(1956) in his concept of emanative centres. The classical pattern of
zoning around the Cornish granites can be interpreted in terms of the
interaction of two factors:
1) the pattern and formation of structural reactivation of fractures
with time and
2) the spatial distribution of areas of highest fluid flow, which is
the consequence of the different heat flow patterns around the
individual cooling granites.
Recent studies have shown that most of the veins are the product
of a number of complex superimposed hydrothermal events (Farmer
and Halls, 1992). Polyascendent (or overprinted) zoning and
telescoping are far more common (Hocking, 1965) and reflect the
multi-stage nature of the mineralization.
Figure 5. Plan of the mapped back of the South Crofty Dolcoath North Chemical reactivity is an important factor and is evidenced by the
Lode (380 Fm Level) showing the composite nature of the structure and diverse alteration assemblages observed (e.g. tourmalinitic, chloritic,
the effect of late chlorite mineralization on the earlier peach vein sericitic, hematitic, potassic and argillic). Wallrock alteration is
(Mapped by S.C. Dominy). particularly well developed in endogranitic veins, though alteration
halos in some exogranitic veins (e.g. Wheal Jane-Mount Wellington
metasediment contact, but ore mineralization is restricted to the mines) are extensive and have been used as exploration guides
granite (e.g. Tresavean mine). The reverse however, is observed at (Rayment et al., 1971). Cassiterite deposition is related to reactions
Wheal Vor (Main Lode) where the metasediment-hosted vein reduces involving the conversion of granite feldspar to muscovite
to stringers in the granite (Dines, 1956). The mechanical contrast (sericitization). Hydrogen metasomatism leads to the reduction of pH,
between the granite and hornfels contact rocks is markedly less than thus Sn complex destabilization and cassiterite deposition within open
that between the hornfelses and the killas country rocks. This feature spaces.
has not been widely reported, though Mount (1985) notes that some
veins become thin and impoverished away from the granite and out of CASE STUDIES
the contact hornfels at Geevor mine.
Pre-existing lines of weakness such as bedding and cleavage The following case studies report the broad controls on ore
within the exogranitic environment are important. Camm and Dominy localization in a number of mines, based on the experiences of the
(1997) discuss the formation of bedded ore in the Indian Queens area authors and published data.
which was controlled by both bedding and cleavage. High pressure
mineralizing fluids were able to prise apart these weak planes, S o u th C r of t, Mi n e, C a m b or n e
resulting in cassiterite-rich open space in-fill. At Wheal Vor, Dines South Crotty (Figure 1) annually produced 190,000 tonnes of ore
(1956) notes the presence of cassiterite veinlets in the wallrocks where at a grade of 1.2% Sn, it closed in March 1998. The mine worked a
the cleavage was sub-vertical. Within the endogranitic environment number of endogranitic, sub-parallel lode zones which are
lines of weakness are less common, though the role of joint characterised by quartz-tourmaline-cassiterite-bearing veins
reactivation has been noted (e.g. South Crofty). The localization of the overprinted by a variable chlorite-cassiterite and/or fluorite
Great Flat Lode has long been attributed to the presence and assemblage (Figure 5). For evaluation purposes the lodes were divided
reactivation of a pre-granite Variscan thrust plane (Dines, 1956). into two types based on mineral composition and observed tin
distribution. Those composed principally of tourmalinitic
3) Physiochemical Controls mineralization were considered Type I lodes, while those showing
These controls are related to temperature-pressure conditions, hematization, quartz-fluorite enrichment and intra-vein shearing were
fluid chemistry and wallrock reactivity. The dominant factor is that of defined as Type II lodes. Vein widths vary from <0.1 to 3 m, lode
temperature which is related to the cooling batholith and associated widths up to 10-15 m with dips from 70° to vertical.

244
 Controls on ore localization in tin-bearing veins: a review

Tin distribution at South Crofty displays a moderate to high These zones correspond to the line of intersection between Riedel
nugget variance. Payable values occur in oreshoots which may be fractures generated during lode zone reactivation.
large and extend over several levels and for hundreds of metres along Most high grade mineralization appears to be associated with the
strike, whilst others may be as little as 20-30 m2. Ore block grades blue tourmaline stage and observed in two styles; (1) where the blue
could reach as high as 4.5% down to 1% Sn which was the cut-off tourmaline vein is parallel to the main lode zone trend (e.g. sections of
grade. Roskear A Lode); and (2) in well developed quartz-cassiterite breccias
Recent studies (Farmer and Halls, 1992; Dominy, 1994; which are related to changes in vein strike (e.g. sections of Dolcoath
LeBoutillier, 1996; Dominy and Camm, 1996; Dominy et al., South Lode). These features are related to the formation of the blue
1996a) based on the lower mine levels (below 260 fm level) revealed tourmaline veins during sinistral lode zone reactivation, in the first
that lode zone development was initially characterized by black case D-shear formation and in the second to fracture dilation. Strong
tourmaline veining formed under a regime of dextral oblique-slip. cassiterite mineralization within the later chlorite veins is usually
Their dominant north-easterly trend was related to the orientation of related to open space filling and typified by a lack of post-deposition
post-granite joints which acted as "ground preparation" structures. reactivation. Early work noted the importance of dip-slip (normal)
This stage was followed by blue tourmaline (peach) vein formation movement, whereas recent studies stress the role of strike-slip faulting
which was related to a sinistral shear regime. The final stage is during vein formation. This difference may be explained by the fact
characterised by the deposition of variably cassiterite-bearing chlorite that the veins studied by Taylor were at higher levels (above 260 fm
veins formed under a dextral shear. There is evidence to suggest that level) than recent work (below 260 fm level). The veins were
at least some cassiterite associated with this stage resulted from the dominated by the fluorite-chlorite assemblage as opposed to the
remobilization of earlier material (LeBoutillier, 1996). Farmer and tourmalinitic assemblage, a feature also noted by Dines (1956). The
Halls (1992) describe the lode zone development in terms of the two sets of observations represent distinctly different stages of the
Reidel shear model where east-north-east-trending fractures represent paragenesis which formed under contrasting structural regimes. In
the D-shears and the others R- and P-shears which lie either side of reality the structural complexity of the veins testify to their prolonged,
the D-shears. This model accounts for the dilation of specific multi-stage development under differing stress regimes.
fractures during the superposition of dextral and sinistral regimes. Within South Crofty it is noticeable that the width of the fracture
Stope sections and plans reveal that in the upper levels oreshoots sets containing each stage of the paragenesis is related to depth. The
were generally related to vein intersections/branches (e.g. No.4/No.5 tourmaline vein on the Dolcoath South Lode 290 fm level is less than
Lodes, No.1/Main Lodes and No.9/Prospect A Lodes) and within 1 m wide, whereas 200 m below a similar vein in the No. 8 Lode 400
those oreshoots high grade correlated with greater width. Taylor fm level is sometimes over 3 m wide. The deepest stoped horizon near
(1966) reports that some oreshoots also show close correlation with South Crofty, and in the region, was on the 550 fm level of Dolcoath
changes in dip and/or strike. It is likely that the veins occupy normal Main Lode (Dines, 1956). At this level the tourmalinitic lode varied in
faults, which is consistent with high grades being associated with width from 5 to 30 m. Some spectacularly high grade oreshoots were
steeper dips. Taylor (1969) also noted that where a number of lodes encountered, but were both small and few in number.
intersected quartz-porphyry dykes they became impersistent and of The sulphide-rich chlorite veins are generally found at higher
low grade, elsewhere he found the reverse to be true. The intersection levels in the mine. On the 360 fm level the Roskear A Lode chloritic
of the Nos. 2 and 3 sub-vertical lodes with a zone of sub-horizontal vein is over 2 m wide, whereas 70 m below the same vein is less than
quartz-floors resulted in a 10-15 m wide belt of high grade stringers 0.5 m wide on the 400 fm level. These observations account for the
known as the 3ABC zone. In the North Pool Zone pervasive granite upper "copper-chlorite zone" and the lower "tin-tourmaline zone" in
replacement resulted in irregular orebodies located at the intersection the Dolcoath Main Lode (Dines, 1956). This zoning is attributed to
of main-stage lodes with quartz floor zones (Dominy, 1994). Within pressure-temperature regimes along the granite/killas contact, and is
these zones mineralization is characterized by numerous sub-parallel supported by fluid inclusion data which demonstrate that the deeper
tourmaline-cassiterite veins and pervasive granite tourmalinization tin zone is related to generally higher temperature fluids (Scrivener et
with disseminated cassiterite. al., 1986).
Inspection of stoping patterns shows that the distribution of
oreshoots are not sub-vertically oriented as previously considered. It W h e a l C o n c o rd B l ack w a te r
was also observed that stopes commencing in a zone of high grade Wheal Concord (Figure 1) produced some 10,000 tonnes (1.4%
rapidly become low grade or barren with height. Gribble (1992) Sn) of ore during an 18 month period (1981-83), closing finally in
explains this observation in terms of ellipsoidal oreshoots plunging at 1987. It worked a single exogranitic vein; Chynoweth Lode, though
40-45°. The Type I lodes showed ellipsoids which plunged to the five others were intersected. The Chynoweth Lode is a complex east-
south-west, whilst Type II lodes showed a south-easterly direction. north-east-trending, north dipping structure (30-

Figure 6: Plan of Wheal Concord Chynoweth Lode (2 Level East) showing "centre stope block raise "position and the pinch and swell nature of the
vein. At the eastern end the vein is attenuated and changes direction around two faults (A and B), beyond the second fault (B) the vein became narrow
and barren (Mapped by F. Rottenbury).
245
S. C. DOMINY AND G.S. CAMM

Figure 7: Cross-section through Wheal Jane from 5-11 Levels showing

the relationship between elvans and vein structures. Figure 8: Schematic section of the Wheal Pane B-Lode between Adit
and 3 Level showing the hinge of the B and Moor Lodes and the
45°) hosted within a 30 m wide pre- and syn-mineralization shear development of cassiterite-bearing droppers and feeders between 2 and
3 Levels. The footwall of the elvan dyke shows a faulted and irregular
zone. Mineralization varies from pervasively tourmalinized
surface (Mapped by G.S. Camm).
metasediment to a tourmaline-rich vein with well defined walls. Veins
comprise a breccia of tourmalinized metasediment with cement of
quartz, chlorite, cassiterite and sulphides. Cross-cutting relationships W h e a l J a ne , B al d h u
testify that the tourmaline-cassiterite assemblage was of an earlier
stage of vein development than the sulphide mineralization. Annual production at Wheal Jane amounted to about 190,000
tonnes at a grade of 0.8% Sn and 2.5% Zn prior to closure in 1991
Along 2 level east a strong vein was followed for 75-80 m prior to (Figure 1). The mine worked a series of exogranitic veins associated
intersecting two south-west-north-east-trending vertical pre-vein to the footwall zone of a complex quartz-porphyry (elvan) dyke
fractures (A and B, Figure 6). At fracture A the vein shows minor system (Figure 7). Within Wheal Jane two distinct vein systems are
variation in strike and width. However, at B the vein narrows identified and were related to separate mineralizing events. The gently
markedly, follows the pre-vein fracture for about, 1.5 m and dipping North 1 and 2 Lodes were formed in normal shear and acted
then regains its previous strike. East of this intersection the vein is as centres for early greisen-style mineralization (quartz-cassiterite-
narrow (<0.5 m) and shows a gradual change in strike until it cuts a muscovite-arsenopyrite) related to primary granite magmatism. They
major clay-filled fault zone. Within the fault zone the vein forms a later acted as guiding structures for the emplacement of the elvan
number of narrow en-echelon veinlets. dykes. The steeper dipping post-elvan South Lode (including B and
The 80 m section along 2 level east contained strong tin values Moor Shaft Lodes) formed as a result of combined tensile and shear
along its entirety, the highest reported being 15% Sn over 2 m. This stresses contemporaneously with the intrusion of a later granite. The
section was chosen for stoping which was preceded by the South Lode-type veins are characterized by altered and brecciated
development of a raise in the centre of the block. The raise followed metasediments with cement of cassiterite and variable amounts of
the vein up-dip for 30 m until it met the "Concord" fault which sulphides.
displaced the vein 8 m to the south. The raise continued on-vein B Lode is a zone of brecciated slate and vein quartz mineralized
further up-dip beyond the fault to the adit level above, however the by cassiterite and tourmaline with regions of massive pyrite and
grades in this section were patchy and the dip steeper (50°). The raise sphalerite. Breccia clasts are generally tourmalinized and wallrocks
revealed that the vein pinches and swells up-dip prior to being cut by sericitized and weakly tourmalinized. A number of different ore types
the fault. During stoping the high grades were encountered throughout were reported, but the main tin mineralization was restricted to: (1)
the initial 30 m zone. The wider sections of the vein and associated tourmalinized slate breccias; (2) quartz veined slate; and (3) highly
foot- and hanging-wall stringers were found to be cassiterite-rich, pyritic slate breccias. The tourmalinized slate breccias, so-called A-
overall the stope yielded a 1.4% Sn grade. zone ore, were the most productive, being 90% payable and with
Elsewhere in the mine the complex nature of the mineralization is grades up to 8% Sn. A region of particularly strong mineralization is
typified by strong but laterally and vertically impersistent veins, veins located where a flexure occurs in the footwall of the elvan and which
grading into narrow zones of alteration and/or vein networks and the hosts the hinge of the B and Moor Lodes (Figure 8). Within this zone
displacement by faulting. The controls on ore localization are complex mineralization to a thickness of 3-4 m occurs with the immediate
within the Chynoweth Lode, but a number of points become clear. elvan footwall contact marked by a 1 m thick sulphide horizon. Moor
High grades were related to a strong vein (e.g. >1 m wide), shallow Lode dips 65° north-west below B Lode, attains an average thickness
dip (30°), east-north-east strike and where droppers and feeders were of 1.8 m and contains grades up to 1% Sn. The B/Moor hinge zone
well developed. The dominant fault direction was reverse which plunges west and appears to repeatedly flatten and steepen. The flatter
accounts for ore localization on shallow dip sections. An interesting zones were associated with dropper zone formation and contain
fact is that mineralization was often accomplished in one stage of payable grades, the hinge zone was approximately 45% payable
brecciation, revealed by the presence of coarse cassiterite crystals (Figure 8). Between 2 and 3 Levels on B Lode, high grade
encrusting host rock clasts. In these areas grades of 5-15% Sn were mineralization was associated with chloritic shears as a series of
not uncommon. Despite localized high grades, the high discontinuity dropper veins which carried 3-4% Sn (Figure 8). These features were
of the system compounded the closure of the mine. almost certainly related to normal movement along the lode footwall.

246
 Controls on ore localization in tin-bearing veins: a review

South Lode commences just below 7 level, forming the ultimate 80°, flattens to about 60° and thins (<0.25 m), and then steepens (75°)
footwall, where the B/M Lode splits into the South and North (1 and and thickens (1 m) before reaching 5 level above. Elsewhere, the vein
2) Lode sections (Figure 7). These can be traced to the bottom of the flattens to 60° below 4 level west and steepens to 75° before reaching
workings 240 m vertically below. Between 7 and 9 levels the split 3 level west some 45 m above. On the 4 and 5 levels east the vein
hinge-zone shows an increase in thickness of up to 400% (2.5 to 10 divides into two separate structures with a series of en-echelon
m) and localized grade enrichment. The lode is hosted within slates, linkages running between the two. This region maintains strong
dips at 55° below the elvan dyke, strikes 055° and can be traced along grades principally because of the high density of mineralized fractures
strike for 1,300 m. Complex overprinting of minerals is present, between to two veins.
though a broad progression from tourmalinization, to massive In the western section of the mine on and above 3 level west a
sulphide deposition and quartz-sphalerite veining is observed. westerly dipping oreshoot is related to the granite contact. Stoping
Individual veins are steeper dipping, and terminate against the lode above 2 level west encountered the contact 10 m above the level, at
zone margins suggesting that mineralization developed as a series of which point the vein dip changed from 70°S to 45°N, narrowed and
en-echelon fractures within a normal shear zone. Below 9 level a became barren. However, after further up-dip development the vein
medium-high grade oreshoot with low lateral and high vertical was found to strengthen, increase in dip and contain high grade values
continuity plunges steeply down-dip. Some 75% of the oreshoot away from the contact zone. On the western drives the Tryphena Lode
contained a grade of above 0.6% Sn and 45% above 1% Sn. The intersects a north-northeast-trending, 20-30 m wide quartz-porphyry
oreshoot is likely to represent the central region of the en-echelon vein elvan dyke. On entering the dyke the structure maintains its overall
zone and the lower grade region the tip of these veins. width, but develops into a network of thinner veins, shows a small
The pre-elvan North 1 and 2 Lodes lie above South Lode from change in strike and contains strong cassiterite mineralization within
which they split on 8 level at a dip of about 45° (Figure 7). Within the wallrocks (e.g. dyke) and veins.
complex hinge zone wider mineralization is observed with some The north-east-trending Harriet Lode is a 50-60° south dipping
increase in grade. The North 1 Lode lies below the elvan dyke structure up to 2 m in width traceable for about 600 m. Mineralization
footwall at a dip of 20° and below North 2 Lode continues at a similar is characterised by a series of narrow veins in-filled with a cassiterite-
dip in the slates. Both structures are less well mineralized than South chlorite-tourmaline assemblage. A number of strike changes are
Lode and are characterised by massive greisen mineralization observed along the structure (e.g. 5 level east), the resulting short
overprinted with chlorite and cassiterite and minor sulphides. Tin north-north-east-trending sections are characterised by vein thinning
grades in both lodes are restricted to steeply-plunging oreshoots which (<0.5 m) and impoverished tin grades. Elsewhere the lode intersects a
are related to wider zones and localized strike/dip variations. Overall number of 1-3 m wide, shallow, south dipping (20°) elvans but
both lodes were less payable than South Lode. maintains its course and structure.
Early deformation related to the Variscan Orogeny resulted in the The strongest veins at Pendarves are observed within the granite,
formation of north-west dipping low-angle fractures. These acted as as the contact is approached the veins break up and eventually thin
"ground preparation structures" in which the North Lodes were and die out within the killas. Local effects of elvan dykes range from
deposited and later reactivated during elvan dyke emplacement. The minimal to extreme break up. The major oreshoot control in Tryphena
elvan dyke system has been an important control in ore localization at Lode appears to be the dip of the vein, where steeper regions correlate
Wheal Jane as it acted as a rigid barrier during later shear zone with high grades and widths, in accordance with normal fault
development of the South, B and Moor Lodes (Rayment et al., 1971). movement. Variations in strike along Harriet Lode result in vein and
Localized geometric variations in the footwall of the elvan resulted in grade reduction. The north-east lode zone parallel fractures are
orezone development during fault activity. Elsewhere the split of stronger in terms of both width and grade. Branching of Tryphena
B/Moor and North 1 and 2/ B Lodes resulted in wider fracture zones Lode results in the localized widening of the overall structure by the
and higher grade mineralization. The major South Lode displays a development of higher density well mineralized fractures. The
remarkably uniform distribution of tin values in its centre (75% above granite/contact exerts some control in the western section of the mine
0.6% Sn) which is attributed to mechanical re-mobilization (Holl, where a west plunging oreshoot is observed in Tryphena Lode.
1990). The North 1 and 2 Lodes display more restricted minerali-
zation and poorer grades, and is explained by narrower fractures and SUMMARY
the dominance of greisen-style mineralization.
Controls on ore localization are complex and related to the many
stages of structural reactivation that are present within a vein. The
W h e a l P e n d a rv e s, C am b o r ne work presented demonstrates localization involves a number of
Prior to closure in 1987 Wheal Pendarves had an annual variables including host fracture geometry, lithology and physio-
production of about 40,000 tonnes at a grade of about 0.6% Sn (Figure chemical conditions of wallrocks and fluids. The most effective way
1). Veins locally contained higher grades than 0.6% Sn, however the to study these controls is through careful field observation, however
stopes were prone to high additional dilution during mining. this is not always possible particularly where workings are
Production was based on two granite-hosted lode zones; Harriet and inaccessible. Historical production data including mine plans,
Tryphena Lodes. longitudinal- and cross-sections provide particularly valuable
The north-east-trending Tryphena lode zone dips steeply south-east information.
and is composed of a number of separate sub-parallel veins (Dominy et The endogranitic systems typified by South Crofty and Wheal
al., 1996a). The lode zone is dominated by the No. 1 vein, which was Pendarves represent lode zones in which mineralized fractures are
the principal economic structure associated with the smaller, less associated with pervasive wallrock alteration. Within South Crofty
continuous Nos. 3, 5 and 6 veins. Mineralization is characterised localization is related to spatial changes in strike and wide sections of
quartz-tourmaline-cassiterite vein fill and pervasive wallrock the vein that are oriented parallel to the lode zone trend. The lode zone
tourmalinization, chloritization and hematization. Strong tin grades are parallel sections represent specific structural domains which were
often contained within the wallrocks related to either disseminated or activated at different times within a shear regime. Moderately
veinlet bound cassiterite. The No. 1 vein is traceable for up to 800 m plunging oreshoots correspond to the line of intersection between
and varies in width from a few mm to about 3 m. Observation reveals Reidel fractures generated during vein reactivation. At Wheal
that the No. 1 vein, along strike, is flatter in the central portion and Pendarves variations in dip related to normal faulting exert a strong
steeper to the east and west, though local variations are common. The control where steeper/wider sections of the vein are most productive.
vein is inferred to be a normal fault since it displays steeply dipping Similarly localized changes in strike resulted in vein and grade
swells connected by flatter narrower zones. In a raise linking 5 and 6 diminution. Vein branches within the lode zone gave rise to some
level west drives (vertical distance of 32 m) the vein commences at orezones because of a higher density of mineralized fractures.

247
S. C. DOMINY AND G.S. CAMM

The exogranitic systems typified by Wheals Jane and Concord are CRONSHAW, H.G. 1921. Structure and genesis of some tin lodes occurring in
related to a proximal granite source from which ore fluids were the Camborne district of Cornwall. Transactions of the Institution of Mining
expelled. Ore localization at Wheal Jane is complex and in part and Metallurgy, 30, 408-467.
controlled by the development of an elvan dyke system. This dyke DEWEY, H. 1925. The mineral zones of Cornwall. Proceedings of the
post-dated the early greisen-style mineralization but exerted control on Geologists Association, 36, 107-133.
later mineralization along its footwall. Local controls are related to DINES, H.G. 1956. The Metalliferous Mining Region of Southwest England.
vein branching and variations in strike and dip. At Wheal Concord Memoir of the Geological Survey of Great Britain. Her Majesty's Stationery
vein formation was related to a series of syn- and post-mineralization Office, London. 795pp.
faulting events which resulted in oreshoots with limited lateral and DOMINY, S.C. 1994. Tin Mineralization at South Crofty Mine, Cornwall.
vertical extent. The dominant control on localization was reverse Unpublished Research Report (University of Greenwich, School of Earth
faulting where high grades were restricted to shallow dipping wider Sciences). 17pp.
zones. DOMINY, S.C., CAMM, G.S., BUSSELL, M.A. and BENNETT, T.S. 1995.
The structure and paragenetic evolution of cassiterite mineralized veins at
The concept of ground preparation, local changes which will later Rosevale mine, Zennor, west Cornwall. Proceedings of the Ussher Society, 8/4,
favour ore deposition, is uncommon in south-west England. Examples 374-378.
include alteration phenomena, faulting/fracturing and bedding and/or DOMINY, S.C. and CAMM, G.S. 1996. The nature and exploitation of narrow
cleavage. In the south-west ground preparation phenomena are noted tin-bearing veins: a case study from South Crofty mine, Cornwall. British
in both exo- and endo-granitic systems. Within South Crofty the lodes Mining, 57, 150-170.
zones were related to the reactivation of post-granite joint sets and in DOMINY, S.C., BUSSELL, M.A. and CAMM, G.S. 1996a. Development of
Wheal Jane the low angle lodes (e.g. North 1 and North 2 Lodes) were complex granite-hosted fracture systems in south-west England: applications of
hosted by pre-granite Variscan structures. Exogranitic mineralization fluid inclusion microfracture studies. Transactions of the Institution of Mining
in mid-Cornwall (e.g. Parka and Gaverigan) and Wheal Vor was in at and Metallurgy (Section B: Applied Earth Sciences), 105, 139-144.
least part controlled by bedding and/or cleavage planes. DOMINY, S.C., CAMM, G.S. and BUSSELL, MA. 1996b. Characteristics and
Geological understanding is essential in the exploration, development of carbona-style replacement tin mineralization in west Cornwall.
evaluation and development of any vein mine (Dominy et al., 1997; Proceedings of the Ussher Society, 9/1, 97-104.
Dominy et al., 1999). The controls defined in south-west England are DOMINY, S.C., PHELPS, R.F.G. and CAMM, G.S. 1996c. Geological
applicable to vein-type deposits world-wide. Research by the authors controls on gold grade distribution in the Chidlaw Link Zone, Gwynfynydd
note similar localization phenomena in gold and lead-zinc veins of mine, Dolgellau, north Wales. Transactions of the Institution of Mining and
Metallurgy (Section B: Applied Earth Sciences), 105, 151-208.
Scotland and Wales (e.g. Dominy et al., 1996c).
DOMINY, S.C., CAMM, G.S. and PHELPS, R.F.G. 1997. Narrow vein
mining - a challenge to the operator. In: Mine Planning and Equipment
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Selection '97, Eds: V. STRKOS, V. KEBO, R. FARANA and L. SMUTNY.
A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam. 125-132.
This paper stems from a long interest in the region by both authors
and from discussions with the late Prof. Ken Hosking. We would DOMINY, S.C., CAMM, G.S., WHEELER, P., ANNELS, A.E. and PHELPS,
R.F.G. 1999. Geology in the reserve evaluation of narrow vein deposits. In
particularly like to thank staff from the following companies for their press.
time and expertise over the past decade; Consolidated Goldfields Ltd,
FARMER, C.B. and HALLS, C. 1992. Paragenetic evolution of cassiterite-
Carnon Consolidated Ltd, Concord Tin Mines Ltd, Great Western
bearing lodes at South Crofty Mine, Cornwall, United Kingdom. In:
Ores and South Crofty plc. The staff of the County Records Office Proceedings of the Eighth Quadrennial IA GOD Symposium. E.
Truro are thanked for their assistance with the study of historical data. Schweizerbart'sche Verlag, Stuttgart. 365-381.
Dr Ian Platten (University of Greenwich) is thanked for his comments GARNETT, R.H.T. 1961. Structural control of mineralization in south-west
on the manuscript. England. Mining Magazine, 105, 329-337.
GARNETT, R.H.T. 1962. The geology and mineralization of Geevor Tin
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