Manatee

Manatees (family Trichechidae, genus Trichechus) are large, fully aquatic,

mostly herbivorous marine mammals sometimes known as sea cows. There are
Manatees
Temporal range: 2mya-recent [1]
three accepted living species of Trichechidae, representing three of the four living
species in the order Sirenia: the Amazonian manatee (Trichechus inunguis), the
West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus), and the West African manatee
(Trichechus senegalensis). They measure up to 4.0 metres (13.1 ft) long, weigh as
much as 590 kilograms (1,300 lb),[2] and have paddle-like flippers. The
etymology of the name is dubious, with connections having been made to Latin
"manus" (hand), and to a word sometimes cited as "manati" used by the Taíno, a
pre-Columbian people of the Caribbean, meaning "breast".[3] Manatees are
occasionally called sea cows, as they are slow plant-eaters, peaceful and similar to
[4]
cows on land. They often graze on water plants in tropical seas. Antillean manatee

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Contents
Phylum: Chordata
Taxonomy
Class: Mammalia
Description
Behavior Order: Sirenia
Locomotion
Family: Trichechidae
Intelligence and learning
Reproduction Gill, 1872
Communication
Genus: Trichechus
Diet
Linnaeus , 1758
Feeding behavior
Dentition Species
Ecology
Range and habitat Trichechus inunguis
West Indian Trichechus manatus
Amazonian Trichechus senegalensis
West African Trichechus "pygmaeus" (validity
Predation questionable)
Relation to humans
Threats
Ship strikes
Red tide
Additional threats
Conservation
Hunting
Captivity
Culture
See also
Notes
Further reading
External links
Taxonomy
Manatees are three of the four living species in the order Sirenia. The fourth is the Eastern Hemisphere's dugong. The Sirenia are
thought to have evolved from four-legged land mammals more than 60 million years ago, with the closest living relatives being the
Proboscidea (elephants) and Hyracoidea (hyraxes).[5]

The Amazonian's hair color is brownish gray, and it has thick wrinkled skin, often with coarse hair, or "whiskers". Photos are rare;
although very little is known about this species, scientists think it is similar to W
est Indian manatee.

Description
Manatees weigh 400 to 550 kilograms (880 to 1,210 lb), and average 2.8 to 3.0
metres (9.2 to 9.8 ft) in length, sometimes growing to 4.6 metres (15 ft) and 1,775
kilograms (3,913 lb) (the females tend to be larger and heavier). At birth, baby
manatees weigh about 30 kilograms (66 lb) each. The manatee has a large, flexible,
prehensile upper lip, used to gather food and eat and for social interaction and
communication. Manatees have shorter snouts than their fellow sirenians, the
dugongs. The lids of manatees' small, widely spaced eyes close in a circular manner. A skeleton of a manatee and calf, on
The adults have no incisor or canine teeth, just a set of cheek teeth, which are not display at The Museum of Osteology,
clearly differentiated into molars and premolars. These teeth are repeatedly replaced Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
throughout life, with new teeth growing at the rear as older teeth fall out from farther
forward in the mouth, somewhat as elephants' teeth do.[6][7] At any time, a manatee
typically has no more than six teeth in each jaw of its mouth.[7] Its tail is paddle-
shaped, and is the clearest visible difference between manatees and dugongs; a
dugong tail is fluked, similar in shape to a that of a whale. The female manatee has
two teats, one under each flipper,[8] a characteristic that was used to make early links
between the manatee and elephants.

The manatee is unusual among mammals in having just six cervical vertebrae,[9] a
number that may be due to mutations in the homeotic genes.[10] All other mammals
have seven cervical vertebrae,[11] other than the two-toed and three-toed sloths. Skull of a West Indian manatee on
display at The Museum of Osteology,
Like the horse, the manatee has a simple stomach, but a large cecum, in which it can Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.
digest tough plant matter. Generally, the intestines are about 45 meters, unusually
long for an animal of the manatee's size.[12]

Behavior
Apart from mothers with their young, or males following a receptive female,
manatees are generally solitary animals.[7] Manatees spend approximately 50% of
the day sleeping submerged, surfacing for air regularly at intervals of less than 20
minutes. The remainder of the time is mostly spent grazing in shallow waters at
depths of 1–2 metres (3.3–6.6 ft). The Florida subspecies (T. m. latirostris) has been
known to live up to 60 years.

Locomotion "Endangered Florida manatee

(Trichechus manatus)".
Generally, manatees swim at about 5 to 8 kilometres per hour (3 to 5 mph).
However, they have been known to swim at up to 30 kilometres per hour (20 mph)
in short bursts.[13]
Intelligence and learning
Manatees are capable of understanding discrimination tasks and show signs of
complex associative learning. They also have good long-term memory.[14] They
demonstrate discrimination and task-learning abilities similar to dolphins and
pinnipeds in acoustic and visual studies.[15]

Reproduction
Manatees typically breed once every two years; generally only a single calf is born.
Gestation lasts about 12 months and to wean the calf takes a further 12 to 18
months.[7] Manatee postures in captivity.

Communication
Manatees emit a wide range of sounds used in communication, especially between cows and their calves. Their ears are large
internally but the external openings are small, and they are located four inches behind each eye.[16] Adults communicate to maintain
contact and during sexual and play behaviors. Taste and smell, in addition to sight, sound, and touch, may also be forms of
communication.[17]

Diet
Manatees are herbivores and eat over 60 different freshwater ( e.g. floating hyacinth, pickerel weed, alligator weed, water lettuce,
hydrilla, water celery, musk grass, mangrove leaves) and saltwater plants (e.g. sea grasses, shoal grass, manatee grass, turtle grass,
widgeon grass, sea clover, and marine algae). Using their divided upper lip, an adult manatee will commonly eat up to 10%–15% of
their body weight (about 50 kg) per day. Consuming such an amount requires the manatee to graze for up to seven hours a day.[18] To
be able to cope with the high levels of cellulose in their plant based diet, manatees utilize hindgut fermentation to help with the
digestion process.[19] Manatees have been known to eat small numbers of fish from nets.
[20]

Feeding behavior
Manatees use their flippers to "walk" along the bottom whilst they dig for plants and
roots in the substrate. When plants are detected, the flippers are used to scoop the
vegetation toward the manatee's lips. The manatee has prehensile lips; the upper lip
pad is split into left and right sides which can move independently. The lips use
seven muscles to manipulate and tear at plants. Manatees use their lips and front
flippers to move the plants into the mouth. The manatee does not have front teeth,
however, behind the lips, on the roof of the mouth, there are dense, ridged pads.
These horny ridges, and the manatee's lower jaw, tear through ingested plant
material.[18]

Dentition
Manatees have four rows of teeth. There are 6 to 8 high-crowned, open-rooted
molars located along each side of the upper and lower jaw giving a total of 24 to 32
flat, rough-textured teeth. Eating gritty vegetation abrades the teeth, particularly the
Manatee plate
enamel crown; however, research indicates that the enamel structure in manatee
molars is weak. To compensate for this, manatee teeth are continually replaced.
When anterior molars wear down, they are shed. Posterior molars erupt at the back of the row and slowly move forward to replace
these like enamel crowns on a conveyor belt, similarly to elephants. This process continues throughout the manatee's lifetime. The
rate at which the teeth migrate forward depends on how quickly the anterior teeth abrade. Some studies indicate that the rate is about
[18]
1 cm/month although other studies indicate 0.1 cm/month.

Ecology

Range and habitat

Manatees inhabit the shallow, marshy coastal areas and rivers of the Caribbean Sea
and the Gulf of Mexico (T. manatus, West Indian manatee), the Amazon basin (T.
inunguis, Amazonian manatee), and West Africa (T. senegalensis, West African
manatee).[21]

West Indian manatees prefer warmer temperatures and are known to congregate in
shallow waters. They frequently migrate through brackish water estuaries to
freshwater springs. They cannot survive below 15 °C (60 °F). Their natural source
for warmth during winter is warm, spring-fed rivers. Approximate distribution of
Trichechus; T. manatus in green; T.
inunguis in red; T. senegalenis in
West Indian orange
The coast of the state of Georgia is
usually the northernmost range of
the West Indian manatees because their low metabolic rate does not protect them in
cold water. Prolonged exposure to water below 20 °C (68 °F) can cause "cold stress
syndrome" and death.[22]

Florida manatees can move freely between fresh water and salt water
.
A group of three manatees
Manatees have been seen as far north as Cape Cod, and in 1995[23] and again in
2006, one was seen in New York City[24] and Rhode Island's Narragansett Bay. A
manatee was spotted in theWolf River harbor near the Mississippi River in downtown Memphis in 2006, and was later found dead 10
miles downriver in McKellar Lake.[25]

The West Indian manatee migrates into Florida rivers—such as the Crystal, the Homosassa, and the Chassahowitzka rivers, whose
headsprings are 22 °C (72 °F) all year. In November to March, about 400 West Indian manatees (according to the National Wildlife
Refuge) gather in the rivers inCitrus County, Florida.

In winter, manatees often gather near the warm-water outflows of power plants along the Florida coast, instead of migrating south as
they once did. Some conservationists are concerned that these manatees have become too reliant on these artificially warmed
areas.[26] The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is trying to find a new way to heat the water for manatees that depended on plants that
have closed. The main water treatment plant in Guyana has four manatees that keep storage canals clear of weeds; there are also
some in the ponds of the national park inGeorgetown, Guyana.

Studies suggest that Florida manatees need access to fresh water for properregulation of water and salts in their bodies.

Accurate population estimates of the Florida manatee (T. manatus) are difficult. They have been called scientifically weak[27]
because they vary widely from year to year, some areas showing increases, others decreases, and little strong evidence of increases
except in two areas. Manatee counts are highly variable without an accurate way to estimate numbers: In Florida in 1996, a winter
survey found 2,639 manatees; in 1997, a January survey found 2,229, and a February survey found 1,706.[15] A statewide synoptic
[28]
survey in January 2010 found 5,067 manatees living in Florida, the highest number recorded to that time.
As of January 2016, the USFWS estimates the range-wide manatee population to be at least 13,000; as of January, 2018, at least
6,100 are estimated to be in Florida.[29][30]

Population viability studies conducted in 1997 found that decreasing adult survival and eventual extinction were a probable future
outcome for Florida manatees unless they got more protection.[31] The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed downgrading the
manatee's status from endangered to threatened in January 2016 after more than 40 years of the manatee's being classified as on the
endangered.[32]

Fossil remains of Florida manatee ancestors date back about 45 million years.

Amazonian
The freshwater Amazonian manatee T .[33]
( . inunguis) inhabits the Amazon River and its tributaries, and never ventures into salt water

West African
They are found in coastal marine and estuarine habitats, and in freshwater river systems along the west coast of Africa from the
Senegal River south to the Cuanza River in Angola. They live as far upriver on the Niger River as Koulikoro in Mali, 2,000 km from
the coast.[34]

Predation
Overall, predation does not present a significant threat to the survival of any manatee species.

Relation to humans

Threats
The main causes of death for manatees are human-related issues, such as habitat
destruction and human objects. Natural causes of death include adverse
temperatures, predation by crocodiles on young, and disease.

Ship strikes
Their slow-moving, curious nature, coupled with dense coastal development, has led Young manatees can be curious; this
to many violent collisions with propeller-driven boats and ships, leading frequently individual is inspecting akayak
to maiming, disfigurement, and even death. As a result, a large proportion of
manatees exhibit spiral cutting propeller scars on their backs, usually caused by
larger vessels that do not have skegs in front of the propellers like the smaller
outboard and inboard-outboard recreational boats have. They are now even
identified by humans based on their scar patterns. Many manatees have been cut in
two by large vessels like ships and tug boats, even in the highly populated lower St.
Johns River's narrow channels. Some are concerned that the current situation is
inhumane, with upwards of 50 scars and disfigurements from vessel strikes on a
single manatee.[35] Often, the lacerations lead to infections, which can prove fatal.
Internal injuries stemming from being trapped between hulls and docks and impacts
have also been fatal. Recent testing shows that manatees may be able to hear speed Antillean manatee
boats and other watercraft approaching, due to the frequency the boat makes.
However, a manatee may not be able to hear the approaching boats when they are
performing day-to-day activities or distractions. The manatee has a tested frequency range of 8 kilohertz to 32 kilohertz.
Manatees hear on a higher frequency than would be expected for such large marine mammals. Many large boats emit very low
frequencies, which confuse the manatee and explain their lack of awareness around boats. The Lloyd's mirror effect results in low
frequency propeller sounds not being discernible near the surface, where most accidents occur. Research indicates that when a boat
.[36]
has a higher frequency the manatees rapidly swim away from danger

In 2003, a population model was released by the United States Geological Survey that predicted an extremely grave situation
confronting the manatee in both the Southwest and Atlantic regions where the vast majority of manatees are found. It states,

In the absence of any new management action, that is, if boat mortality rates continue to increase at the rates observed
since 1992, the situation in the Atlantic and Southwest regions is dire, with no chance of meeting recovery criteria
within 100 years.[37]

"Hurricanes, cold stress, red tide poisoning and a variety of other maladies threaten manatees, but by far their greatest
danger is from watercraft strikes, which account for about a quarter of Florida manatee deaths," said study curator
John Jett.[38]

According to marine mammalveterinarians:

The severity of mutilations for some of these individuals can be

astounding – including long term survivors with completely severed
tails, major tail mutilations, and multiple disfiguring dorsal
lacerations. These injuries not only cause gruesome wounds, but
may also impact population processes by reducing calf production
(and survival) in wounded females – observations also speak to the
Manatee bearing scars on its back
likely pain and suffering endured.[15] In an example, they cited one
from a boat propeller.
case study of a small calf "with a severe dorsal mutilation trailing a
decomposing piece of dermis and muscle as it continued to
accompany and nurse from its mother ... by age 2 its dorsum was
grossly deformed and included a large protruding rib fragment
visible."[15]

These veterinarians go on to state:

[T]he overwhelming documentation of gruesome wounding of manatees leaves no room for denial. Minimization of
this injury is explicit in the Recovery Plan, several state statutes, and federal laws, and implicit in our society's ethical
and moral standards.[15]

In 2009, of the 429 Florida manatees recorded dead, 97 were killed by commercial and recreational vessels, which broke the earlier
record number of 95 set in 2002.[39][40]

Red tide
Another cause of manatee deaths are red tides, a term used for the proliferation, or "blooms", of the microscopic marine algae,
Karenia brevis. This dinoflagellate produces brevetoxins that can have toxic effects on the central nervous systemof animals.[41]

In 1996, a red tide was responsible for 151 manatee deaths.[42] The bloom was present from early March to the end of April and
killed approximately 15% of the known population of manatees along South Florida's western coast.[43] Other blooms in 1982 and
.[44]
2005 resulted in 37 and 44 deaths, respectively
Additional threats
Manatees can also be crushed and isolated in water control structures (navigation locks, floodgates, etc.) and are occasionally killed
by entanglement in fishing gear, such as crab pot float lines, box traps, and shark nets.[34]

While humans are allowed to swim with manatees in one area of Florida,[45] there have been numerous charges of people harassing
and disturbing the manatees.[46] According to the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, approximately 99 manatee deaths each
year are related to human activities.[47] In January 2016, there were 43 manatee deaths in Florida alone.
[48]

Conservation
All three species of manatee are listed by theWorld Conservation Unionas vulnerable to extinction.

It is illegal under federal and Florida law to injure or harm a manatee. They are classified as "endangered" by both the state and the
federal governments.

The MV Freedom Star and MV Liberty Star, ships used by NASA to tow space shuttle solid rocket boosters back to Kennedy Space
Center, are propelled only by water jets to protect the endangered manatee population that inhabits regions of the Banana River
where the ships are based.

Brazil outlawed hunting in 1973 in an effort to preserve the species. Deaths by boat strikes are still common.

In January 2016, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed that the West Indian manatee be reclassified from an "endangered"
status to "threatened" as improvements to habitat conditions, population growth and reductions of threats have all increased. The
proposal will not affect current federal protections.[29]

[49]
As of February 2016, 6,250 manatees were reported swimming in Florida's springs.

Hunting
Manatees were traditionally hunted by indigenous Caribbean people. When
Christopher Columbus arrived in the region, hunting was already an established
trade, although this is less common today.[50]

The primary hunting method was for the hunter to approach in a dugout canoe,
offering bait to attract it close enough to temporarily stun it with a blow near the
head from an oar-like pole. Many times the creature would flip over, leaving it
vulnerable to further attacks.

Trichechus sp.
From manatee hides, Native Americans made war shields, canoes, and shoes, though
manatees were predominantly hunted for their abundant meat.

Later, manatees were hunted for their bones, which were used to make "special potions". Until the 1800s, museums paid as much as
$100 for bones or hides. Though hunting was banned in 1893, poaching continues today
.

Captivity
The oldest manatee in captivity was Snooty,[51] at the South Florida Museum's Parker Manatee Aquarium in Bradenton, Florida.
Born at the Miami Aquarium and Tackle Company on July 21, 1948, Snooty was one of the first recorded captive manatee births.
Raised entirely in captivity, Snooty was never to be released into the wild. As such he was the only manatee at the aquarium, and one
of only a few captive manatees in the United States that was allowed to interact with human handlers. That made him uniquely
suitable for manatee research and education.[52]
 Snooty died suddenly two days after his 69th birthday, July 23, 2017, when he was
found in an underwater area only used to access plumbing for the exhibit life support
system. The South Florida Museum’s initial press release stated, “Early indications
are that an access panel door that is normally bolted shut had somehow been
knocked loose and that Snooty was able to swim in.”[53]

There are a number of manatee rehabilitation centers in the United States. These
include three government-run critical care facilities in Florida at Lowry Park Zoo,
A manatee at SeaWorld, Florida Miami Seaquarium, and SeaWorld Orlando. After initial treatment at these facilities,
the manatees are transferred to rehabilitation facilities before release. These include
the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden, Columbus Zoo and Aquarium, Epcot's
The Seas, South Florida Museum, and Homosassa Springs Wildlife State Park.[54]

The Columbus Zoo was a founding member of the Manatee Rehabilitation Partnership in 2001. Since 1999, the zoo's Manatee Bay
facility has helped rehabilitate 20 manatees.[55] The Cincinnati Zoo has rehabilitated and released more than a dozen manatees since
1999.[56]

Manatees can also be viewed in a number of European zoos, such as the Tierpark Berlin, the Nuremberg Zoo, in ZooParc de Beauval
in France and in the Aquarium of Genoa in Italy. The River Safari at Singapore features seven of them.[57] They are also included in
the plans of the Wild Place Project in Bristol, England, whose first exhibit is opened in summer 2013[58] with the manatees as an
addition as early as 2015.[59]

Culture
The manatee has been linked to folklore on mermaids. Native Americans ground the bones to treat asthma and earache. In West
African folklore, they were considered sacred and thought to have been once human. Killing one was taboo and required penance.[60]

Manatees were featured in the "Cartoon Wars Part II" episode of South Park, as the creative force behind the television show Family
Guy. The manatees were shown to be living in a tank at FOX Studios which was filled with "idea balls." The manatees randomly
selected the idea balls to make the jokes for the show. They are also revealed as being "the only animal unmoved by terrorist
threats."[61] The manatee is also pivotal in Lair of the Leviathan, the third episode of the game Tales of Monkey Island, by Telltale
Games and Lucasarts[62] .

See also
Dwarf manatee
Manatee of Helena

Notes
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 5. Domning, D.P., 1994, "Paleontology and evolution of sirenians: Status of knowledge and research needs", in
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Further reading
Hall, Alice J. (September 1984). "Man and Manatee: Can W
e Live Together?". National Geographic. Vol. 166 no. 3.
pp. 400–418. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454.

External links
Save the Manatee
Murie, James On the form and structure of the Manatee(Manatus americanus), (1872) London, Zoological Society
of London Year
Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission
Reuters: Florida manatees may lose endangered status
A website with many manatee photos
 USGS/SESC Sirenia Project
Bibliography and Index of the Sirenia and Desmostylia– Dr. Domning's authoritative manatee research bibliography

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