İngilizce Öğretmenliği Alan Bilgisi Için Hazırlanmış Bir Çalışma
İngilizce Öğretmenliği Alan Bilgisi Için Hazırlanmış Bir Çalışma
İngilizce Öğretmenliği Alan Bilgisi Için Hazırlanmış Bir Çalışma
©
HollyMonk2009
0-Introduction
1. Languages learned mainly through imitation.
Languages cannot be learned completely through imitation like parrot!
2. Parents usually correct young children when they make grammatical errors.
They usually correct vocabulary or pronunciation errors.
5. The earlier a second language is introduced in school programs, the greater the likelihood of
success in learning.+
Strogly agree
6. Most of the mistakes which second language learners make are due to interference from their first
language.
Negative transfer
8. It is essential for learners to be able to pronounce all the individual sounds in the second language.
It is hard and sometimes impossible
9. Once learners know roughly 1000 words and the basic structure of a language, they can easily
participate in conversation with the native speakers. Ø
Some people can be engaged in conversations easily with limited vocobulary knowledge, on the other hand others
can not participate in conversations despite their rich vocabulary knowledge.
10. Teachers should present grammatical rules one at a time, and learners should practice examples of each
one before going on to another.
Is is out of analatical thinking and not being used recently.
11. Teacher should teach simple language structures before complex ones.
Not anymore
12. Learners’ errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to prevent the formation of bad
habits.
It can be true for ALM (Audio Lingual Method) but not today’s curricula.
13. Teachers should use materials that expose students to only those language structures which they have
already been taught.
The imput should be slightly above the level of the learner (i+1).
14. When learners are allowed to interact freely (for example, in group or pair activities), they copy each
other’s mistakes. +
Group or pair activities are highly enjoyable and interesting. Learners even correct eachother’s errors.
16. Teacher should respond to students’ errors by correctly rephrasing what they have said rather than by
explicitly pointing out the error.
Explicit correction is not used anymore
17. Students can learn both language and academic content (for example science and history)
simultaneously in classes where the subject matter is thought in their second language.
Grammatical morpheme(p3)
Cross-sectional study: Short term, with the learners who are at “The cat played in the garden.”
different ages and stages) If the child produces the utterance above s/he is not expected to
Longitudinal study: Same type of learners, age, stage (by Roger produce ___________ .
Brown) a) Mummy’s book
iii
There is an order of acquisition; b) Daddy fell down
Present progressive –ing Mommy running c) Annie eats cake
Plural –s Two books d) Tom is fat
Irregular past forms Baby went e) Tom drank the milk
Possessive –s Daddy’s hat *A child who mastered grammatical morphemes at the bottom of
Copula (real verb) Annie’s happy the list is sure to have mastered those at the top, but the reverse is
Articles the & a not true.
Regular past -ed (may cause overgeneralization) She walked / goed *Though children follow the developmental sequences with the
rd
3 person singular (Simp. Pre.)-s She runs same order, they do not master a step at the same age.
Auxiliary be He is coming Metalinguistic Awareness : to be aware of language is composed of
v
The childern didn’t acquire the morphemes at the same age or rate.
iv structures far beyond the meaning.
Example: Example: Which one is a longer word? Caterpillar or Train?
Negation(p4) vi
Stage 1: Stage 3:
“no” as the first word of the utterance (also can be used More complex sentences. They use “no - don’t - can’t” but still
alone) cannnot aply to different persons or tenses
Example: Example:
No, No go, no cookie I can’t do it.
“any” with accompanying shake of head He don’t want it
Example: Stage4:
Any bath! Same forms of auxiliary be, modals
Stage 2: Example:
Placing “no” in front of a verb. I didn’t have supper.
Example: Daddy no comb hair. He doesn’t want it. BUT I don’t have no more candies.
rejection sentences with “don’t”
Example: Don’t touch that
Questions(p5)
nd
What where & who why (2 year) how & when Stage 2:
Stage 1:
Declerative senetences with rising intonation.
One, two, three word utterences & rising intonation. Example:
Example: You like this? I have some?
Cookie? Mommy book? Stage 3:
Some correct chunks can be seen. Noticing the question patterns. Pretty much fronting usage.
Example: Can I go? Are you happy? BUT
What’s that? Where’s daddy? Is teddy is tided? Do I can have a cookie?
Why you don’t have one? Why you catched it?
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Stage 4: Stage 5:
Subject-auxilary inversion. Resembles Stage 3 bt more Yes/No & WH question forms are OK!
complex Example:
Example: Are these your boots? Why did you do that?
Are you going to play with me? (Interchange between subject and Does daddy have a box?
auxilary) Problem with embeded or subordinated questions
Do dogs have tails (***Unpresent auxilary appears!) Example:
BUT there are still problems with Wh questions. Ask him why can’t he go out.
Example: Stage 5:
Why you are going?
No problem
Corrective feedback + + ± ±
(meaning, word choice, politeness)
xxv
Modified imput + +
Learning conditions(p32)
xxvi
Foreigner Talk : The modified or simplified talk language that some native speakers address to L2 learners. A special catagory of foreigner
talk is Teacher Talk
Behaviorism(p34)
Imitation, Positive Reinforcement, Practice, Habit formation
Connectionism(p41)xl
No need to asuume UG Focus on exposure.
What is innate is ability to learn Language is formulaic.
Learners make a network of connections between words, Concentrates on grammar.
structures. Much of the language we use in ordinary conversations is
Frequently heard strong connections predictable.
Less frequently heard weak connections Key phrases :
They do not accept innatism Learning in genaral
Role of enviroment emphasized Computer program
Throuh exposure (thousands of times) I say / he says / she Overgeneralisation errors
xli
Summary, li
Feedback is important for both behaviourism and interactionism.
Learning styles(p59)
Learning styles : individual’s habtual, natural & preferred way of Cognitively;
lix
absorbing, processing and retaining new information and skills a. Field-Independant : analitic learners (pick out details)
Perceptually; b. Field-Dependant : holistic learners
lvi
1. Visual Learners : Cannot learn until they have seen it There is a misunderstanding that only one type of method, textbook
lvii lx
2. Aural Learners : learn best by ear or activity suits learner.
lviii
3. Kinaesthetic Learners : learn by phisical action (role-
play, miming)
Personality(p60) lxi
Personality said to be more associated with communicative Anxiety was thought to be permenant feature of personality,
lxii lxiv
ability. but it can be temporary, context-specific and dynamic.
Extraversion Genarally thought to suit L2 learning. Not all typpes of anxiety is bad (tension = sort of good anxiety)
Successful learners are quiet learners. Tension facilitates learning.
Learning is not correlated with extraversion. Willingness to communicate when lack of anxiety, empathy,
lxiii
Inhibition discourages risk taking. dominance, talkativeness, etc.
This is a property of adolecents because they are more Personality variable may be important for communicative skills not
self-conscious for rule learning or language analising.
Learner Anxiety feeling of worry, stress, nervousness
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Qualitative Research : measuring learners’ scores on Quantitative Research : understanding and investigating
personality questioneres and relating these to language test personality variables is needed to adequately capture their depth of
performance. (detailed describtion) complexity. (numeric measurement)
Learner beliefs(p66)
All learners, particularly older ones, have some beliefs and actions In communicative enviromennts, learners complain about the
about how the instriction should be delivered (because of post- absence of form based teaching (corrctive feedback + teacher
lxxii
experience) and assumptions. corrected introduction)
Most learners desire corrective feedback. Whereas few
teachers think that it is desirable.
Developmental sequences(p82)
As in the first language acquisition there are predictable patterns in L2 learning.
Cognitive development Experience L1 influence
Grammatical morphemes(p83)
lxxx
Researchers find “Obligatory Contexts” for each morpheme. Krashen’s summary of L2 grammatical morpheme acquisition sequence
yesterday past simple Present progressive –ing Mommy running
two plural –s Plural –s Two books
(if we see “yesterday in a sentence that sentence should probably be Copula (real verb) Annie’s happy
in a past tense, and if we see “two” in a sentence there should be Auxiliary be He is coming
sme plurality there) Articles the & a
For analisis; Irregular past forms Baby went
they count obligatory contexts seperately, Regular past -ed (may cause overgeneralization) She walked / goed
count the correctly supplied morphemes rd
3 person singular (Simp. Pre.)-s She runs
divide the number of obligatory contexts to the number of Possessive –s Daddy’s hat
correctly supplied morphemes to find the persentage accuracy In higher boxes, higher accuracy than lower boxes, but within
for each morpheme. boxex, there is no clear pattern of difference.
Than the score of the morphemes ranked from high to low to Researchers reviewed this research and found some variables :
produce “Accuracy Order”. Salience (how easy to notice the morpheme)
The developmental sequences in L2 is not identical to the Linguistic complexity (how many elements you have to
sequence in L1. keep track of)
Semantic Transparancy (how clear the meaning is)
L1 influence
Frequency of input
Negation(p85)
Stage 1 - “no” or “not” She don’t use it.
Before the verb or before the element neglected Stage 3 - “Am, is, are, can + not”
I no ride it. No bicycle. I con not ride it.
Italian & Spanish learners may stay longer at this stage because He is not lazy.
of the similarity of their native languages. They come not home (German speakers transfer error)
Sometimes L1 influence may slow down learners’ progress. Stage 4 - All the auxilaries
Stage 2 - “don’t” (no person, no pluraality, no tense)
She doesn’t work
I don’t can sing. I didn’t want these
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Questions(p86)
Stage 1 - One word utterence, sentence fragments Stage 4 - Inversion in WH + copula ; Yes/No questions with
Dog? Four children? other auxilaries
Stage 2 - Declerative sentences Where are you?
What is it?
It’s a monster in the right corner?
Is there a fish in the water?
French speakers may assume that in English declerative
Stage 5 - Inversion in all cases
sentences are optional in spoken language
Stage 3 - “WH” fronting, “do” fronting What are you doing
Stage 6
Do you have a shoes on your picture?
Where the children are playing? Negative questions
Does in this picture there is 4 astronauts? Tag questions
Is the picture has two planets on top? Embedded questions
Possessive determiners(p88)
Stage 1 (Pre-emergence) - Using “deffinite article” or “your” The girl making hisself beautiful. She put the make-up on his hand,
for all persons, genders, and numbes on his head, and his father is surprise.
The little boy play with the bicycle (instead of “his”) Stage 3 (Post-emergence)
He have band-aid on the arm, the leg, the stomach. (instead of “his”) Differentiated “his/her” but not when the object possessed has
This boy cry in the arm of your mother. (instead of “his”) naturel gender.
lxxxi
There is one girl talk with your dad. (instead of “her”) The girl fell on her bicycle. She look his father and cry.
lxxxii lxxxiii
Stage 2 (Emergence) - Using “his” or “her” but only one of The dad put her little girl on his shoulder .
them. Stage 4
The mother is dressing her little boy, she put her clothes, her pants, Error free use of “his/her”
her coat.
Relative clauuses(p90),
lxxxiv
Accessibility Hierarchy
ExampleAsked in Exam:
Subject The girl who was sick went home. 2) Which one is hardest?
Direct object The story that I read was long. a) The man from whom i borrowed a book is a lawyer. (indirect object)
Indirect object The man who(m) Susan gave the present to was b) The man whose daughter gratuated from high school is a lawyer.(possessive) HARDEST
happy c) The man whom i met yesterday is a lawyer. (indirect object)
Object of proposition I found the book that John was talking about. d) The man who works in this firm is a lawyer. (subject)EASIEST
Possessivelxxxv I know the woman whose fater has just died. e) The man Mary danced with is a lawyer. (indirect object)
Object of comparison The person that Susan is taller than is Marry
Reference to past(p91)
1. At early stages, teachers don’t use past, instead they give the The verbs that can easily be determined by the learners called
events in order or give time/place. “accomplishment” and “achivement” verbs.
I come home. I washed hands.1988 highschool, Ankara very Example:
lxxxvi lxxxvii
cold. I ran three miles. My brother took an asprin and went to
lxxxviii
2. Than they begin to use grammatical morphemes, but probably bed.
not past. They have difficulty with “activity”(that may continue for some
Me working long time. Now stop. priod) or “state”(that may percieved as constants) verbs.
3. Irregular Past I bought food Example:
4. Regular Past *I buyed food I swam all afternoon.(activity verb difficult)
Learners are more likely to mark past tense on some verbs than He seemed happy to sit by the lake.(state verb difficult)
others.
Example: ExampleAsked in Exam2008:
I broke the vase. (easy to mark as past) 3) Which one is easier?
My sister fixed it with glue. (easy to mark as past) a) He bacame ill.
b) He used to travel a lot.
Easy because the end point of the verbs can easily be determined c) He always wanted to be a lawyer.
by the learner. d) He loved his mother.
She seemed happy last week. (difficult to mark as past) e) He cleaned the house
My father swam in the lake. (difficult to mark as past)
Vocabulary(p96)xc
untill 1980’s vocabulary was neclected aspect of learning. This provided by
Researchers focused on syntax and morphology to reveal the o seeing or hearing frequently
universals of language acquisition. o Borrowed words
xci
The most important thing “correct word” o Cognates (positive transfer)
In english there are 100.000-1.000.000 words (depends on how If cognate has a similar form but different meaning or If cognate
you count) is noticed easily in writing but not in pronunciation, this may
An adult educated english speaker is expected to know 20.000 cause problems in learning.
words (2000 for daily communication) Stephen Krashen leaning with little intentional effort (by
The first step is “recognition of words” (= making distinction reading for pleasure)
between a word adn a non-word) Some others reject learners generally read fiction and this is
not useful for academic vocobulary.
Pragmatics(p100)xcii
Studies the contextual meaning and how we use language in Use of imparatives.
different contexts. Eg : Let’s play the game. Let’s eat breakfast. Don’t look.
Learners need skills for interpreting, requests, responding, Stage 3 (Unpacking)
apologies or admires, recognising the humour in speech, Less use of formulaic patterns, mitigation(softening a negative input)
meaning, conversations and using speech acts. (warning, Eg : Can you pass the pencil please?
informing, requesting, apologising,…) Can you do another one for me?
A sentence may have different meanings : Stage 4 (Pragmatic expansion)
Is tahat your dog? (admire-request)
Interlanguagae Pragmatics : Increased use of mitigation, more complex syntax.
Tries to discover the relationship between proficiency level of Eg : Could I have another chocolate because my children – I have five
learners and comprehension-use of pragmatic features. children.
ALM, GTM no opportunities to learn pragmatic features. Can I see it so I can copy it.
CLT, Task Based, Content Based Methods - learning pragmatic Stage 5 (Fine tuning)
features is possible in classroom (role-plays, group & pairworks) Speech variation acording to goals, participants, contexts.
There are more opportunities to learn speach acts in Content- Eg : You could put some blue track down here.
xciii
Based Courses. Is there any more white?
xciv
Acquisition of Requests in English Another research ok “Rejecting Suggestions” showed that
Stage 1 (Pre-Basic) Non-native Native
Highly context-dependant, minimal language, no syntax. Passive Active
(didn’t innitiate conversation)
Eg : Me no blue. Sir. Rude Polite
Stage 2 (Formulaic) Inappropriate Appropriate
Relience on unanalysed formulas and imparatives. (before the progress)
Less mitigationxcv More mitigation
Chunk usage starts.
Formulaic and memorised routines.
Phonology(p104)
ALM : pronunciation is the centeral area instruction on “segmentals” (Spanish speakers) I e-speak
xcvi
(workig on minimal pair drills) (Turkish speakers) “t” for “th”
CLT : less importance to pronunciaton instruction on (better) perception by dictaton vs. (worse) production = complex
xcvii
“suprasegmentals” (rhythm , stress, intonation) relationship
Learners who receive instruction on suprasegmentals are better than accent ? does not neccessarily cause negative effects on
the others (recent work shows) pronunciation instruction, exposure, experience, motivation
xcviii
CAH L1 influence
Structure-Based
the classroom. Instruction
Acquisition
Instruction
Natural
Topics in Communicative and Task-Based intructions are often
Teacher-
Student-
Caracteristics
Student
Student
general interest to the learner (such as “how to reply an
advertisement from a newspaper”). But in Content-Based intructions
the focus on the subject matter (such as “history, maths, science”).
Learning one thing at a time - - -
Frequent feedback on errors -
Ample time for learning -
High ratio of native speakers to learners - - -
Variety of language and discourse types -
Pressure to speak - - -
Access to modified input
Observation schemes(p114)
They differs in: It has two parts :
c ci
a) The catagories they contain Part A Part B
b) Whether they are quantitive or qualitative Teaching practices in terms of Specific features of language
c) Throughout the lesson or audio recognition focus, content and organisation used by teacher or learners
of activity types How much language?
Question types?
COLT : Communicative Orientation of Language Teaching (a famoun
observation theme) Genue question : the questions that asked to get answer
Display question: the questions of which the answers are already
Aim : how differences in teaching practices are related to differences known by the teacher.
in L2 learning
Classroom comparisonscii
Corrective feedback in the classroom(p125)
ciii
Explicit Correction “Oh you mean…”, “You should say…” Private speech was obtained by microphones. Students noticed
S : The dog run fastly. recasts and reacted in their private speech when it was not
T : “Fastly” doesn’t exist. “fast” does not take –ly. That’s addressed to themselves, but addressed to other students.
why I picked “quickly” Study 3 – Recasts & Uptake (reaction)
civ
Recast teacher reformulation all parts of the error
Students noticed and reacted recasts and we may say that recasts
S1 : Why you don’t like Marc? positively contribute to L2 learning.
T : Why don’t you like Marc?
Study 4 – Corrective Feedback in Context
S2 : I don’t know. I don’t like him.
Clafication Request : Teacher-Student Interaction:
cvii
Metalinguistic Feedback : “can you find your error” kind. a) Context exchanges when the teacher imparts knowledge
S : We look at the people yesterday. or asks questions about the curriculum. = RECAST
T : What is the ending we put on verbs when we talk about b) Management exchanges when the teacher talks about an
the past. organisation of an activity or appropriate classroom
S : e-d. behaviours. = RECAST
cv c) Communication exchanges (meaningful) = RECAST
Elicitation : “It is a ……”, “How do we say …… n english?”
Repetition : pure repetition with intonation maybe. d) Form-focused exchanges (except grammar) = EXPLICIT
cvi CORRECTION
Study 1 – Recasts in Context-Based Classrooms
Errors most frequent in communication exchanges (c)
Most frequent feeedback recasts less student uptake Explicit correction most frequently noticed
not all context based teaching is good language teaching. Least frequently noticed activity is (b)
Study 2 – Recasts & Private Speech Feedbacks management exchanges
Ethnography(p133)
Ethnographies are detailed long-term (extensive) studies. They try to Learners in primary school.
analyse the impacts of social, cultural or political realities on There are 2 groups
learner’s cognitive, social and linguistic development. Native english & from ather languagges (sit in front of teacher desk)
There are no pre-determined catagories. There is a observer The interaction between the native group and others not allowed.
(participant or non-participant). (except for material exchange)
If a student comes from a culture where the sclience is a symbol of Copying the task of other or repeating the production not allowed.
respect, the teacher should know this (not to cause Research shows that children develope their language by repeating
misunderstanding) others or copying them.
cix
Study 9 – Language in the Home & School The children who are not native couldn’t learn anything.
Nine families in Solomon Islands. Study 11 – Socio-Political Change & Foreign Language
At home rich language use & good communication, different Classroom Discourse
types of discorse Hungar, secondary school
At school failed The teacher uses a political activity (Feléles). The students prepared
Because of formal language use at school and restrictions of L1 use material and resented to the class. The class successfully
The real reason parents questioned their children and express communicated with each other. They used complex structures and
their fears about children’s success. These behaviours cause negative lots of forms. This study shows that socio-political realities have
effects on their learning. effecst of L2 learning.
Study 10 – Separation of L2
Summary(p135)
GTM ALM
Based on teaching classical Latin & Greek Based on behavioursm and contrastive Research Findings:
Purpose : to read the literature analisis hypothesis GTM used successfully by adult learners
Grammar rules Primary emphasis pronunciation with good metalinguistic knowledge of L1
Vocabulary Repetition ALM used successfully by a government
Translation No permission to speak freely (errors may personel training program in the USA.
General thought about GTM : good mental become bad habit) We still don’t know wheather form-based
exercise to develop intellectual abilities
teaching or meaning-based teaching is
Reading passage, translation,
comprehension questions (in L1), drawing good.
attentionn to a grammar rule, fill in the These form-based instructions do not
blanks. guarantee high levels of accuracy on form.
Communicative Group
Study 12 – Audio-Lingual Pattern Drill
One-hour communicative task
Canada, 11-16 year-old children. This research showed that the
Culture Group
order of learning grammatical morphemes was different in ALM
instructions from that of natural setting. French Culture (film, music, art), one-hour
He is cooking he is want he want Control Group
Repetition decrease – accuracy failed Grammar & Pronunciation drills in language labratory.
Study13 – Grammar + Communicative Practice Interpreting the Research
Learners who receive ALM or GTM instruction are often unable to
48 collage students, learning French give their interactional messages or interact with others in L2
There was significent difference on linguistic competence. GTM or ALM does not mean high levels of competence
Higher scores of communicative group on communicative tsks.
In French there are two second person singular : “tous” and “vous” Form-focused instruction or explicit teaching may be benefical in
(formal / informal) short term but we dont know the long term effects.
Group 1 Group 2 Study 37 shows that teacher is not the only person to teach
Role play Usual Content-Based Study 38 shows that teacher may teach forms in task-based
Form-focused teaching instructions
Yazarın Notu :
Bu belgenin hazırlanmasında uzun zaman ve emek harcanmıştır. İşe yaradığını bilmek beni mutlu edecektir. Kulanımınıza sunduğum bu notları
beğendiyseniz bir “Allah razı olsun” ya da bi teşşekkür maili beni çok sevindirecektir.
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