Czestochowa University of Technology

Faculty of Management

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 Andrzej Skibiński, Ewa Staniewska,
Estera Sornat-Frei, Bożena Dziuk

SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION
AND PRODUCTION IN SOCIAL LIFE

Monograph

Publishing House of the Faculty of Management

of Czestochowa University of Technology

Częstochowa 2018

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Reviewer
Andrzej Rączaszek, PhD, Assistant Professor at UE in Katowice

Proofreading
Marta Kawalec

Technical editing
Marcin Pilarski

Cover design
Monika Górska

ISBN 978-83-65951-24-3

© Copyright by Wydawnictwo Wydziału Zarządzania

Politechniki Częstochowskiej
Częstochowa 2018

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The print was made in: Perfekt Gaul i Wspólnicy Spółka Jawna, Poznań, ul. Świerzawska
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Edition 120 copies

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CONTENTS
Introduction .................................................................................................... 5

Chapter 1
The idea and functions of consumption ............................................................. 7
1.1. The concept of consumption – terminology .................................................. 7
1.2. The phenomenon of consumption in the context of historical studies ............. 9
1.3. Attempt to classify and characterise determinants of the sphere
of consumption – interdisciplinary approach .............................................. 12
1.3.1. Theories of human needs – categorisation of needs ........................................ 22
Chapter 2
Concept of sustainable development and consumption in the context of scientific
studies ............................................................................................................. 26
2.1. Concept of sustainable consumption – sources of the concept
and its application ..................................................................................... 26
2.1.1. Concept of sustainable development – characteristics of sustainable production.. 31
2.2. Sustainable consumption vs consumerism – current trends in consumption ... 35
2.2.1. Promotion of sustainable consumption as counterweight to consumerism .......... 40
Chapter 3
Conceptual and methodological issues ............................................................... 44
3.1. Subject and issues of the research ............................................................... 44
3.2. Research methodology ............................................................................... 45
3.3. Sample selection ........................................................................................ 48
Chapter 4
Diagnosis of consumer behaviour of the research population .............................. 53
4.1. Organisation and implementation of the research ........................................ 53
4.2. Unsustainable consumption and its threats in the light
of the research findings ............................................................................. 54
4.3. Healthy lifestyle as a trend in consumers’ behaviour ..................................... 65
4.4. Assessment of the knowledge of the studied population on environmental
issues in the context of sustainable development .............................................. 76
4.5. Perception of the surveyed population regarding educational activities
undertaken in the project.................................................................................. 95
Summary ................................................................................................................... 110
Bibliography.............................................................................................................. 113
List of illustrations .................................................................................................... 119
List of tables .............................................................................................................. 122
Annexes ..................................................................................................................... 123

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4
Introduction
The interest in the subject of sustainable consumption and production as part of
sustainable development has been systematically increasing for years. The main
reason for the large number of publications dedicated to this subject is growing
imbalance between the use of resources and their availability on Earth and a gap in
living standards across areas with different development pace. The numerous
works addressing these issues, both those fragmentary and synthesising certain
themes, allow us to see a fuller picture of the phenomena they describe. Sustainable
consumption, along with sustainable production, are often treated as both the core
of sustainable development and a cross-cutting issue that should be embedded in
other objectives of sustainable development. It has been noted that the objective of
sustainable consumption and production is very closely linked to the achievement
of other objectives of sustainable development. For that reason, according to the
authors, it is important to address this subject and include its issues into educational
programmes already at an early stage of the development of a young man.
Sustainable development can be defined as a better quality of life for everybody
at present and for future generations in particular. It is a vision of progress that
combines economic development, environmental protection and social justice. It is
a concept of development on a global, regional and local scale. The need to
reinforce and popularise activities that promote sustainable consumption and
production is recognised by a growing number of people worldwide. However,
implementation of such principles requires change in social awareness. It should
affect all consumers regardless of their age and involve change in consumption
patterns and standards. Thus, it seems necessary to promote sustainable
development education so as to reorient consumer behaviour and encourage an
individual, regardless of their age, to change their life style, and to shape pro-
environmental habits and raise awareness of the risks of over consumption.
It should be stressed that young consumers, which are the object of research
interest in this monograph, constitute an important and interesting, from the
research perspective, category of consumers. Thus, the choice of the subject was
determined by the necessity to raise awareness of sustainable consumption and
production as well as risks of consumerism among the study population. The main
aim of this monograph, which was created as part of the international project
entitled: SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION AND PRODUCTION IN SOCIAL
LIFE2016-1-PL01-KA219-026190, 2016, is to systematise knowledge on
sustainable consumption and production, and an attempt to identify and explore the
determinants of consumer behaviour. The authors strived to address the most
important themes in this research area. However, due to the size limitations of this
work, it was impossible to elaborate on each issue in a broad and comprehensive
manner, as the issues in themselves can constitute separate research problems. As a
result, the work is theoretical and empirical in character. The basis for theoretical
discussion was analysis of Polish and international, mainly English-language,
literature in the field concerned. Apart from that, reports and materials,
unpublished and those available on the Internet, were used. Empirical materials
come mainly from primary sources (survey results). An international direct survey

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was conducted among populations of primary and secondary school students in
Poland, Romania, Turkey, Estonia and Italy. Purposive sampling was used to select
research units. When conducting empirical research, contact was established with
project coordinators from the different countries. Microsoft Office EXCEL was
used to process the empirical material.
The concept of this work is reflected in its structure. The monograph consists of
four chapters, conclusion, references and appendices. The first two chapters
constitute the main theoretical part of the work and cover analysis of the existing
scientific output.
The first chapter presents, among other things, the idea of consumption from the
contemporary and historical perspectives and attempts to classify and characterise
the determinants of the consumption sphere, focussing the research attention on
economic, demographic, socio-cultural and psychological factors. Moreover, it
presents contemporary theories of human needs.
The second chapter is dedicated to the concept of sustainable development. It
describes the characteristics of sustainable consumption and production and pays
special attention to the phenomenon of consumerism in today's world. Moreover, it
draws attention to promotion of sustainable consumption as a counterbalance to
consumerism by indicating good examples from OECD countries.
The third chapter is an introduction to the empirical part of the work and covers
methodological aspects of the survey conducted as part of the project. It contains,
among other things, description of its organisation and presents the research
sampling procedure.
The fourth chapter contains research findings concerning diagnosis of the
research population's knowledge of the subject of sustainable consumption and
production and the phenomenon of consumerism.
The most important conclusions based on the review of the literature and the
research conducted as part of the project are formulated in the conclusion. The
authors are aware that the material presented in this work does not exhaust the
subject it addresses, but the issues presented in this monograph may contribute to
enhancing the knowledge in the area of sustainable consumption and production
and inspire further research and search for innovative concepts so much needed in
times of "ubiquitous consumerism".
The authors of this monograph thank the reviewer for substantive comments to
the content of the study, which have inspired further research into the issue
of sustainable consumption and production in the modern world

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Chapter 1. The idea and functions of consumption
Studies of consumption are conducted by representatives of various scientific
disciplines that include medical, technical, economic and sociological sciences. As
a result, consumption is defined in numerous ways and can be approached in an
interdisciplinary way, which has a significant impact on the terminology. This
multidimensional and multifaceted character of consumption calls for precise and
clear definitions.

1.1. The concept of consumption – terminology

At this point, it is necessary to define the basic concepts, namely consumption
and the related term "eating". There is a prevalent view in the literature that
consumption and eating are synonyms, and as such they can be defined in the same
way, the difference between them being merely semantic and etymological in
character. Because of that, the term "consumption", or "eating", is relatively easy to
grasp at an intuitive level, but it causes problems when trying to define it more
precisely. From the individual perspective, it determines the development of an
individual, while from the social perspective, it determines living standards and life
styles.
Review of the literature allows us to distinguish three dimensions of
consumption1:
 consumption as a biological and psychical act,
 consumption as a social process,
 consumption as a sphere of reproduction.
As far as the first dimension is concerned, consumption means a direct act of
satisfying human needs by using a certain material good or service. The effects of
satisfying a need through the act of consumption are usually short-term, and after
some time the need arises again and must be satisfied again. This applies to most
human needs.
The second dimension of consumption was defined by Polish sociologist
J. Szczepański, who argued that consumption could be examined in terms of
consumer behaviour of individuals and groups that involve realisation and
assessment of own needs, acknowledgement of their importance and decisions to
satisfy such needs. Thus, from this perspective, consumption not only refers to
behaviour of a consumer as an individual, but it can also be considered as a process
involving whole groups satisfying their needs2.
The third dimension of consumption is considered in macroeconomic terms, i.e.
as a phase of social reproduction, a phase when a product finds a user and becomes
the object of his/her satisfaction of needs. This phase of the social reproduction
process is referred to as the phase of consumption, which encompasses everything
that it related to satisfaction of a society's needs.

1
C. Bywalec, Konsumpcja a rozwój gospodarczy i społeczny, C.H. Beck, Warszawa 2010, p. 12.
2
J. Szczepański, Konsumpcja a rozwój człowieka: wstęp do antropologicznej teorii konsumpcji, PWE,
Warszawa 1981, p. 146.

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 Consumption occupies a special place in economic sciences, as it can be
regarded as a sphere of management, if we assume that economics is a science that
studies how a society decides what, how, in what conditions and for whom to
produce3. The process of consuming goods and services can be perceived as
a behaviour pattern within a single household or the whole market, but it also refers
to behaviour that impacts the overall structure of the economy. In this case, the
results of consumption processes considered in microeconomic terms should
indicate the optimal use of money possessed by a consumer or a household.
At a macro level, the results of the acts of satisfying consumption needs can be
divided into economic and non-economic ones. Thus, the macroeconomic
perspective of consumption effects allows us to observe the impact of the process
of satisfying consumption needs on the economic development. If consumption
ensures a human being proper development, reflects his/her expectations and
preferences, and the act of consumption itself contributes to rational satisfaction of
the needs of an individual and society, then consumption can be treated as a lever
for social and economic development 4. In general terms, consumption is defined as
an act or process of satisfying human needs using goods and services. An act of
consumption takes place when a given need is homogeneous and can be satisfied
once (e.g. hunger). However, many needs are felt on a frequent basis, which
requires that acts of consumption are repeated. Repetition of consumption acts
turns into the process of consumption, and a process is defined as a set of
successive and causally connected changes that constitute phases or stages of
development5.
Thus, consumption can be considered in various aspects, as each scientific
discipline that is interested in the issues of consumption will modify its definition
to serve its purposes. From medical perspective, consumption is treated as
a process of metabolism and providing the body with specific nutrients, and
a process of transmission of various stimuli from certain organs to others as well as
the resulting states and behaviour of a human being. From the sociological and
cultural perspective, consumption is treated as a way of behaviour of individuals
and human populations, especially with respect to higher needs. A quite interesting
interpretation of consumption can be found, among other things, in the publication
by M. Bogunia-Borowska and M. Śleboda, where consumption is treated and
examined as ideology that, on the one hand, reflects the attitude to material and
immaterial products, while on the other hand, shapes micro and macro-structural
relations in the world; as a system element that organises social, economic,
political and cultural order; as a factor integrating the different elements of the
system, i.e. a system tool that contributes to and facilitates maintenance of social

3
J. Kramer, Konsumpcja w gospodarce rynkowej, Warszawa 1997, p. 9.
4
J. Senyszyn, Potrzeby konsumpcyjne, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego, Gdańsk 1995, pp.
100, 101.
5
See M. Janoś-Kresło, B. Mróz (ed.). Konsument i konsumpcja we współczesnej gospodarce,
Wydawnictwo SGH, Warszawa 2006.

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order 6. However, given the variety of approaches to consumption, it is important to
preserve its original sense, i.e. to think of it as a way to satisfy human needs.

1.2. The phenomenon of consumption in the context of historical studies

The level of interest in the role of the human being as a household member and
consumer has been changing over centuries due to historical and socio-economic
developments. Ancient times did not see huge interest in the phenomenon of
consumption, although texts by Herodotus, Plato and Aristotle contain few
mentions of using goods to meet basic human needs, such as a house, food
products and clothes, as well as services 7. In later periods, consumption was not,
until the turn of the 19th century, an important issue addressed in writings,
although the origins of a consumer society can be traced back to the 16th-century
England8. During the rule of Elisabeth I the royal court changed into "a kind of
parade, theatrical show". However, these changes were not accidental. Rather, they
were a form of Elisabeth I's policy, as one of her main goals was to centralise the
power. The court changed its face and became a place of ostentatious consumption
and wealth. Aristocrats, who were obliged to participate in that show of lavishness,
had to put a lot of effort, connected mainly with expenditures, to present
themselves decently at the court. In this way, Elisabeth I, by making aristocrats
engage in ostentatious consumption, made them dependent on her and her favour.
According to G. McCraken, it was a turning point that sparked the development of
consumption in the 16th century9. It should be stressed that an increase in the
interest in the issues of consumption in economics dates back to the turn of the
19th century. Issues related to consumption can be found in works by D. Ricardo
and J.C.L. Simonde de Sismondi10. D. Ricardo assumed in his works that every
human being strives to acquire material benefits and thereby to improve his/her
living conditions. Meanwhile, J.C.L. Simonde de Sismondi highlighted the issue of
welfare in his works. He pointed out that consuming power does not match
production capacity, and markets usually suffer from under consumption. To
prevent this phenomenon, the state should assume an active role not only in
production of consumer goods but also in their redistribution11. At this point, it is
worth mentioning works by J.B. Say, who argued that there is balance between
production and consumption, distinguishing reproductive consumption, which
destroys one utility to generate another, and unproductive consumption, where
destruction of a product's utility does not result in creation of other goods with

6
M. Bogunia-Borowska, M. Śleboda, Globalizacja i konsumpcja – dwa dylematy współczesności,
Universitas, Kraków 2003, p. 157.
7
W. Stankiewicz, Historia myśli ekonomicznej, PWE, Warszawa 2000, pp. 50-55.
8
See McCraken G. Culture and Consumption – New Approaches to the Symbolic Character of
Consumer Goods and Activities, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indianapolis 1988.
9
Ibidem.
10
See D. Ricardo, Zasady ekonomii politycznej i opodatkowania, PWE, Warszawa 1957; J.C.L.
Simonde de Sismondi, Nowe zasady ekonomii politycznej, czyli o bogactwie i jego stosunku do
ludności, PWN, Warszawa 1955.
11
C. Bywalec, L. Rudnicki, Podstawy teorii i metodyki badania konsumpcji, Akademia Ekonomiczna
w Krakowie, Kraków 1992, p. 29-31.

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a certain utility. This scholar also defined the terms of individual consumption and
public consumption, and is regarded by contemporary researchers as the forerunner
of consumption economics12. A significant contribution to the evolution of the
theory of consumption was made, among other things, by works by J. Bentham,
who claimed that human behaviour is governed by pain and pleasure13.
Analysis of the historic development of the phenomenon of consumption shows
that the 19th century did not bring consumer revolution. In that period, the above-
described changes became established as a structural feature of social life.
According to R.H. Williams (after McCraken) what was characteristic of
consumption in the 19th century was emergence of various groups and different
life styles. Available goods were attractive to consumers, as they meant that the
new cultural meanings were increasingly catching on, and allowed people to define
themselves and the world. That period saw emergence of a new, so-called
consumer life style, which showed the significance of interactions between people
and objects14. Thus, consumption became an important factor that distinguished
and shaped reality and allowed people to relate to certain social groups. The 19th
century combined consumption and society into a continuous process of change.
However, certain transformations that took place in that period gave insight into
the character of contemporary consumption15. The development of publications on
consumption started at the end of the 19th century. Most of them presented
subjective and marginalist views, which highlighted in particular the following
assumptions: people strive to maximise their gains, people take purchasing
decisions independently without taking into account the impact of social
conditions, consumption and market are the main economic sphere, every
individual can fulfil multiple social roles, single acts of consumption, purchase and
production can be studied without taking into account the impact of time and
environment16. The views propagated at that time reflected the Austrian School
(K. Menger, F. Wieser), Manchester School (W.S. Jevons) and Lausanne School
(L. Walras)17.
The theories of marginalism and elements of subjective economics had a major
influence on studies of consumption in the 20th century, leading to formulation
of the theory of social welfare. Among the representatives of this current are
A.C. Pigou and L. Robbins. In his works, A.C. Pigou argued that the choices
of consumers striving to maximise utility do not have to reflect the social value
of goods. Public interest is not always consistent with individual needs. For that
reason, the state should interfere in some market decisions, giving some goods the

12
See K. Włodarczyk-Śpiewak, Konsumpcja i zachowania konsumpcyjne w badaniach historycznych
i ocenie współczesnych, [in:] D. Kopcińska (ed.), Zachowania rynkowe podmiotów decyzyjnych,
Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Szczecińskiego, No. 382, Uniwersytet Szczeciński, Szczecin 2005,
pp. 5-21.
13
See J. Bentham, Wprowadzenie do zasad moralności i prawodawstwa, PWN, Warszawa 1958
14
McCraken G., Culture and Consumption… op.cit. p. 22.
15
U. Kluczyńska, Jak konsumpcja stała się osią naszej tożsamości, Przegląd Pedagogiczny,
pp. 20-31.
16
See O. Lange, Ekonomia polityczna, Vol. I, PWN, Warszawa 1978, pp. 198-228.
17
R. Bartkowiak, Historia myśli ekonomicznej, PWE, Warszawa 2003, p. 95.

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status of public goods18. In the 20th century, an important contribution to studies of
consumption was made by J. Keynes, who considered consumption in
macroeconomic terms and pointed out that globally consumption is a function of
income and that as production, employment and income increase, the marginal
propensity to consume declines. Moreover, according to Keynes, propensity to
consume was determined not only by objective factors, but also subjective ones,
such as caution, foresight, calculation, improvement of living conditions,
independence and pride and meanness19.
Among 20th-century figures who played an important part in the development
of the theory of consumption are T. Veblen, M. Friedman and G.S. Becker.
According to Veblen, an individual's optimal decisions result from tradition and
culture, upbringing, the system of values and morality. He also formulated laws of
rich people's behaviour. He noted that consumption of wealthy American social
strata (the lazy class as he called it) is not limited to practical needs or pursuit of
comfort. There is also an issue of prestige at play. Consumption of better, improved
products is evidence of wealth and brings respect. In contrast, inability to consume
a sufficient quantity of products of sufficiently good quality is evidence of
inferiority and brings discredit20. M. Friedman formulated permanent income
hypothesis, which states that a consumer takes purchasing decisions based on the
average income he/she is able to obtain in his/her lifetime21. G.S. Becker, in turn,
pointed out that all decisions taken by individuals, who may act as consumers or
play other social roles, are based on economic account of benefits and costs22.
U. Kulczyńska distinguished old and new type of consumption, i.e. "patina and
fashion", pointing out that the most important difference between patina and
fashion is the type of money a consumer possesses. In the mechanism of patina, the
"old" money was a model of differentiating the aristocracy; it was important as it
was a source of prestige and respect. On the other hand, fashion is characterised by
"new" money and short-lived fortunes. A characteristic feature of patina is material
goods such as furniture, plates, cutlery, jewellery and houses, which should be old
and part of family legacy. The copying of goods possessed by higher classes takes
place through fashion. Another, equally important difference is stagnation or
dynamism of the process of consumption through the above-mentioned
mechanisms. The patina phenomenon is connected with the view that new objects
are not necessary for prestige. They are in fact inappropriate, while it is important
to possess goods and objects handed down from generation to generation. As a
result, this mechanism causes stagnation of the process of consumption. Fashion, in
turn, requires constant changes. As an alternative to possession of old objects, it all

18
Ibidem, pp. 93-95.
19
J. M. Keynes, Ogólna teoria zatrudnienia, procentu i pieniądza, PWN, Warszawa 1985, pp. 27-29.
20
See T. Veblen, Teoria klasy próżniaczej, PWN, Warszawa 1971, p. 68.
21
See M. Friedman, R. Friedman, Free to Choose: A Personal Statement, Reprinted by Alabama
Policy Institiute Birmingham, Alabama 2012.
22
See G.S. Becker, Ekonomiczna teoria zachowań ludzkich, PWN, Warszawa 1990.

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into madness of constant novelty. To gain prestige, an individual needs to
continuously consume, purchase new objects that are a testimony of possession23.

1.3. Attempt to classify and characterise determinants of the sphere

of consumption – interdisciplinary approach
The changes in consumption and consumer behaviour, in particular those
observed at the beginning of the 21st century, are a result of numerous factors,
which often emerged as new and have not been so far taken into account in the
classifications. At this point, it is important to explain the term "consumer
behavior". The Polish and foreign literature provides numerous definitions of the
term "consumer behaviour" that stress the link between behaviour and needs and
means through which the needs are met. Thus, the issues of consumer behaviour
are studied by various scientific disciplines and are interdisciplinary in character. In
order to explain the term "consumer behaviour", Table 1 presents selected
definitions provided by authors specialising in this area.
The information included in Table 1 shows that the interdisciplinary character
of the subject of consumer behaviour is widely recognised. However, the literature
lacks a comprehensive approach to and classification of the disciplines that would
fully explain consumer behaviour. Naturally, attempts are made to develop such
classification, but they take the form of an open set to which, depending on the
needs and external conditions, new elements can be added without pre-defined
criteria 24.
From the perspective of the analysis conducted for the purpose of this work,
a transparent and reasonable classification of determinants seems to be one that
takes into account both internal and external factors with respect to consumption
subjects. A good example showing external and internal factors, in particular with
respect to consumer behaviour, is information presented in Table 2.

23
U. Kluczyńska, Jak konsumpcja stała się osią naszej tożsamości…..op.cit p. 29.
24
See W. Patrzałek, Zachowania konsumenckie, Oficyna Wydawnicza Arboretum, Wrocław 2002.

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Table 1. Defining the term "consumer behaviour"
Author The term "consumer behaviour"
F. Hansen All actions and perceptions of a consumer that include arriving at a
decision to choose a product, making a choice and consumption. It
involves purchasing, possessing and using means that allow one to
satisfy their needs.
J.C. Mowen A study of decision making agents and processes of acquiring goods,
services, experiences and ideas as well as consuming and managing
them.
M.R. Solomon An area of studying processes occurring when an individual or group
chooses, purchases, uses or rejects products, services, ideas and
experiences to satisfy own needs and desires.
G. Zaltman An interdisciplinary field that examines how individuals or groups
make decisions concerning processes of acquiring, using and disposing
of goods, services, experiences and ideas.
J. Szczepański Feeling and assessing one's own needs as well as their prioritisation, i.e.
establishing a subjective hierarchy of one's own needs, choosing the
means to satisfy the needs considered as the most important ones,
choosing the ways to gain these means and handling such means.
S. Gajewski A set of activities and actions designed to meet the needs of a human
being by acquiring goods and services according to an individual
system of preferences; decision making processes that precede and
determine these actions should also be regarded as an integral
characteristic of behaviour.
Source: L. Nowak, Uwarunkowania zachowań konsumenckich młodzieży akademickiej,
Wydawnictwo UE w Poznaniu, Poznań 2009, p. 15

The below-presented classification of factors that determine consumer

behaviour shows that the most important external and internal economic and non-
economic factors leading to changes in the structure of consumption include:
processes of the economic and cultural globalisation, increase in consumers'
income and wealth, and demographic, social, cultural and environmental factors.
An important group of factors includes subjective factors connected with an
individual's psychological sphere such as: motives, customs, perception, learning
process, habits, attitudes and tradition.
When analysing economic factors in the context of the level, structure and
differences in consumption, one should consider income in the first place, as it is
the most important factor shaping consumption. The significance of income results
from the fact that:
 it is a measurable category that makes it possible to look for correlations in the
sphere of real economic phenomena and processes,
 it indirectly expresses changes occurring within other factors such as prices or
demographic factors,
 it enables analysis of demand and consumption according to a number of
additional characteristics that distinguish groups of consumers,

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Table 2. Groups of factors determining consumer behaviour
Factors Factors
Economic Internal (micro factors):
 level and sources of income,
 credits,
 savings,
 level of natural consumption,
 possession of durable goods by households,
 the existing level and structure of consumption.
External (macro factors):
 supply,
 price level and relations,
 trade and services-related infrastructure,
 sales policy,
 systems of institutional information.
Non-economic Internal (micro factors):
 demographic – marital status, age, gender, the number of household
members,
 socio-professional – level and type of education, labour market
participation, type of job,
 social – family, reference group, opinion leaders.
External (macro factors):
 geographical and environmental – geographical position, place of
residence, climate, conditions of the natural environment, level of
environmental pollution,
 civilisation-related and cultural – culture and sub-culture.
Subjective ˗ motives, customs, perception, learning process, habits, personality,
attitudes, tradition, private information.
Source: A. Dąbrowska, Przemiany w strukturze konsumpcji i ich uwarunkowania, [in:] Konsument i
konsumpcja we współczesnej gospodarce, M. Janoś-Kresło, B. Mróz, (eds.), SGH, Warszawa
2006, p. 120

 is dynamic in character25.
In the context of the subject addressed in this monograph, it is worth indicating
psychological factors in consumer confidence. Based on the literature, consumer
confidence shows a significant correlation with changes in GDP, household
incomes, pay levels and a range of other variables that describe the economy.
However, it should be emphasised that the identification of such a relationship
alone, as stressed by M. Drozdowicz-Bieć among others, does not answer the
question whether the macroeconomic data describing the state of economy impacts
consumer confidence, or it is the other way round – consumer sentiment

25
A. Dąbrowska, Przemiany w strukturze konsumpcji i ich uwarunkowania, [in:] Konsument i
konsumpcja we współczesnej gospodarce, M. Janoś-Kresło, B. Mróz, (eds.), SGH, Warszawa 2006, p.
121.

14
determines changes in basic macroeconomic data26. Worsening consumer
sentiment as a result of households' refraining from shopping is usually connected
with a slower economic growth as expressed in the GDP growth rate. Or, a slower
pace of economic growth is accompanied by a fall or a slower increase in
households' income, which results in reduction in households' expenditures and, as
a consequence, a reduced growth of the whole economy. However, this relationship
is not always observed in practice. There are periods when trends in consumer
sentiment are opposite to the direction of GDP changes. GDP grows faster and
consumer sentiment deteriorates, or the other way round: GDP slows down and
consumer sentiment improves 27. Similar deviations from economic rules and
known correlations are observed in the direction of changes in consumer sentiment
indicators and unemployment and inflation rates. According to economic
knowledge, consumer sentiment should show an inverse relationship relative to
unemployment and inflation rates. When people lose jobs or creation of new jobs is
slower, consumer optimism should fall. As in the case of GDP, this relationship
does not always exist, as sometimes a lower consumer sentiment is recorded in the
period of improved situation on the labour market. Similar phenomena can be
observed in the case of inflation rate. Thus, in the psychological stream of research
into consumer sentiment and related states of happiness and well-being, the
determinants of such subjective feelings include determinants closely connected
with the economy such as the socio-economic system, unemployment rate and
living conditions as measured by per capita GDP28.
At this point, one should also mention demographic factors, such as gender or
age. In the case of age, it is important to know the present and future age structures
of the society to be able to forecast changes in the production sector and social
infrastructure depending on changes in the needs of population29. Given the process
of human aging, changes occur in the level and structure of consumption, because
the hierarchy of needs changes. It has been visible over the last years with the
distinction of two segments: the children and youth market and the senior citizen
market. Thus, age categories, due to shared needs and likings, are an important
factor determining consumption structure. An equally important demographic
factor impacting changes in consumption is gender, as it can impact decisions, and
thereby the level and structure of consumption. Publication by L. Grabiński
provides a description of purchasing behaviour differentiated according to gender.
There are certain products that are the domain of men or where the decision about
purchase lies with men, e.g. cars, electronic equipment, life insurance, men's
clothes or cosmetics for men, while other products are intended for women or

26
See M. Drozdowicz-Bieć., Psychologiczne uwarunkowania nastrojów konsumentów i propozycja
alternatywnego ich pomiaru, Prace i Materiały Instytutu Rozwoju Gospodarczego nr 87, Oficyna
Wydawnicza Szkoły Głównej Handlowej, Warszawa 2011.
27
See Wskaźnik Optymizmu Konsumentów i tempo wzrostu PKB dla Polski w okresach 1990–2016.
Data GUS.
28
M. Drozdowicz-Bieć, Psychologiczne uwarunkowania nastrojów konsumentów…op. cit., p. 99.
29
F. Bylok, Wpływ czynników demograficznych na przemiany konsumpcji w Polsce, [in:]
A. Rączaszek (ed.), Demograficzne uwarunkowania rozwoju gospodarczego, Studia Ekonomiczne nr
103, Wydawnictwo UE w Katowicach, pp. 17-31.

15
remain in their decision-making sphere, e.g. food, women's clothes, toiletries and
furnishings. At this point, it is worth stressing that in recent years as a result of
socio-cultural and economic changes as well as westernisation there has been
a shift to a partnership-based family model, which means that decisions are made
by both partners, leading to a change in segmentation by gender 30.
Considering the research subject and complexity of demographic processes in
consumption, of importance are also socio-cultural factors. This group of factors
includes phases of an individual's and family's life cycles, as depending on the
phase of a family's development, its income, needs, and consequently the level and
structure of consumption vary. Moreover, the literature emphasises the impact of
a family's life cycle on the directions and level of consumption expenditure, which
is reflected in the structure of family expenditure by family biological type31.
Throughout the life cycle of an individual or family, one can distinguish three basic
stages: expansion, stabilisation and regeneration, which have a significant impact
on the groups of products purchased by consumers. One can also distinguish
several phases of a human being's or family's life cycle that have a significant
impact on the sphere of consumption (Table 3).
The information contained in Table 3 shows that there are turning points in
a family's life cycle marked by adoption of new priorities. Such experiences cause
changes that also affect consumers' market behaviour. Moreover, in households run
by people in their 20s, spendings are significantly lower compared to those of older
people, as the incomes in the former group are usually lower.
Given the above-mentioned factors, which are a permanent element of today's
world, it is worth paying more attention to young consumers. A young consumer,
as an immature individual susceptible to changes, is influenced very often by
internal and external factors, sometimes unconsciously. It seems that the behaviour
of the young generation is most impacted by technological and social trends. The
widespread use of the Internet for work, play and communication with friends,
mobile technologies and virtualisation of consumption are a sign of modern times.
As a result, an important direction of changes observed in the behaviour of young
people is time pressure and an increased value of time, which can be dedicated to
various activities, leading to an increased demand for time-consuming products or
services. It can be thus concluded that the contemporary young consumer, despite
declaring caution and being critical of the world, relatively often engages in
consumption, deriving joy, satisfaction and pleasure from it, treating it as
entertainment, one of the forms of spending free time or an occasion to hang with
friends. As such, he/she becomes, often unconsciously, a hedonist, who indulges in
joys and pleasures he/she derives from consumption every day as if it was "the last
day of his/her life"32.

30
See L. Grabski, Zachowania nabywców, PWE, Warszawa 1998; K. Slany, Alternatywne formy
życia małżeńsko-rodzinnego w ponowoczesnym świecie, NOMOS, Kraków, 2008.
31
See A. Olejniczuk-Merta, Młodzi konsumenci w procesach transformacji rynkowej, Wydawnictwa
Akademickie i Profesjonalne, Warszawa 2009.
32
G. Adamczyk, Wybrane aspekty zachowań młodych konsumentów w nowych realiach rynkowych,
Handel Wewnętrzny, 2014, No. 1 (354), pp. 5-16.

16
Table 3. Phases of a life cycle of an individual/family in the sphere of consumption
An individual in the Characteristic features
life cycle phase
single young people –  independent individuals at the start of their professional
expansion; age of an career earning low income
individual – 18–30  play a leading role in fashion, which is a way of spending
free time, interested in purchasing manufactured goods,
clothes, cosmetics, electronic equipment or a car
young married couples ˗ characterised by high purchasing power and independence
without children – ˗ this group shows the highest frequency of purchasing durable
expansion age of an goods, an increasing interest in purchasing real property,
individual – 18–30 travel, etc.
young married couples ˗ combine their income, think about the future
with children – ˗ more likely to incur a debt
expansion age of an ˗ this group is interested in new products and articles for babies
individual – 18–30 ˗ more susceptible to advertising,
young married couples ˗ characterised by a better financial situation; strive after
with children aged improving their comfort of living, luxury
over 6 – stabilisation ˗ strive to possess better furnishings and equipment at home,
age of an individual – there is a growing interest among them in financial advisory
31–45 services and purchase of goods that fill their free time
˗ less susceptible to advertising,
older married couples ˗ characterised by a relatively good material situation, the
with children (full spouses have established professional positions
nest) – stabilisation ˗ have more savings, their children start to become independent
age of an individual – ˗ prefer high quality products, specific way of spending their
46–60 free time
˗ less susceptible to advertising,
older married couples ˗ high income group with savings and stable professional career
without children ˗ people thinking about the retirement
(empty nest) – ˗ people caring about health, interested in rest, travel, luxury
regression articles, likely to give presents to their children and
age of an individual – grandchildren
over 60 ˗ less susceptible to advertising,
mature single person considers selling his/her house, shows increased concern for
participating in the his/her health, likes spending his/her time with friends
labour market –
regression
age of an individual –
over 60
a mature retired single usually earns low income, this phase is characterised by a
person – regression significant increase in spendings on health, safety, package
age of an individual – holidays
over 60
Source: Own study based on: J.B. Carpentier, Konsument i konsumpcja w społeczeństwie
postmodernistycznym, Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły Zarządzania i Marketingu, Warszawa 1996, p.
107 & K. Żelazna, I. Kowalczuk, B. Mikuta, Ekonomika konsumpcji, elementy teorii, Szkoła Główna
Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego, Warszawa 2002, pp. 18, 19

17
 As mature, consumers usually earn higher income until they retire, and over
time they can afford to spend more on luxury goods, higher quality furnishings,
services and food, which is often connected with a different character of decisions
and decision making. These phenomena confirm that economic factors depend on
the phases of a family's life cycle. It has also been found out that demographic
factors have a significant impact on consumers' needs and preferences and their
market behaviour. It is worth adding that consumer’s age and gender, the number
of household members, way of spending free time and social position are a set of
variables that are closely connected not only with their needs and wishes but also
with other determinants of consumer behaviour. They are also crucial when
studying consumer behaviour by age and on analysed product markets.
Summing up this sub-chapter it can be concluded that apart from biological
identification of a consumer and his/her aspirations, studies of market participants'
behaviour usually take into account the psychological, social and economic aspects
of an individual and his/her activity. Psychology looks at a consumer in terms of
the model of personality, which, according to Freud, consists of "id", which
follows the principle of pleasure, "ego", which follows the principle of realism, and
"superego", which represents social and moral standards 33. Moreover, the internal
influences that determine consumer behaviour include an individual' s perception,
learning, memory, motives, personality, emotions and attitudes. According to
Hawkins and Mothersaugh, perception plays an important role in information
processing and decision making by a consumer 34. Figure 1 presents three stages of
the perception process. The figure shows that information processing is a process
in which stimuli are perceived and converted into relevant information, and then
stored. The process starts with exposure, when a stimulus, e.g. advertisement,
causes an instant reaction from receptors such as sight, smell, hearing or touch.
Thus, perception is a process of information processing that results in taking
a decision to purchase and consume a given product35.

33
A. Falkowski, T. Tyszka, Psychologia zachowań konsumenckich , GWP, Gdańsk 2006, p. 30.
34
See D. Hawkins, D. Mothersbaugh, Consumer Behaviour. Building Marketing Strategy, Eleventh
Edition, McGraw Hill Irwin, 2010, pp. 274-275.
35
See M. Solomon, G. Bamossy, S Askegaard, M. Hogg, Consumer Behaviour. A European
Perspective, Fourth Edition., Prentice Hall, 2010.

18
 EXPOSURE
Random ________ Deliberate
Perception

ATTENTION
Low-involvement ________ High-involvement

INTERPRETATION
Low-involvement ________ High-involvement

Short-term MEMORY Long-term

Active problem Stored experiences,

solving values, decision,
rules, etc.

PURCHUASE AND CONSUPTION DECISION

Fig. 1. Stages of a consumer's decision-making process according to Hawking and

Mothersaugh
Source: D. Hawkins, D. Mothersbaugh, Consumer Behaviour. Building Marketing Strategy, Eleventh
Edition. McGraw Hill Irwin, 2010, pp. 274, 275

Sociological sciences perceive a consumer as part of the individual–

environment system and study the impact of interpersonal relations (influence of
other people, fulfilled social roles) and intergroup relations (social and cultural
aspects)36. Economic sciences, in turn, usually treat a consumer as an individual
subject of consumption whose activity in the area of consumption aims to satisfy
consumption needs that are reported by himself/herself or other units such as
a household. In this context, it seems helpful to present a consumer from the
perspectives of micro and macro economic theories of consumption (Table 4).

36
W. Wosińska, Psychologia życia społecznego, GWP, Gdańsk 2004, p. 212.

19
Table 4. The image of a consumer as presented in selected theories of consumption
Name of the Assumptions and essential idea of the theory and concept
theory and
its authors
Microeconomic theories of consumption
Cardinal utility The initial assumption of the theory is that a consumer acts rationally,
theory; consciously and has unchanged preferences over the period analysed.
authors: According to this theory, a consumer is guided in his/her decisions by
W.S. Jevons, the principle of utility maximisation, i.e. pleasure and satisfaction
K. Menger, connected with consumption of purchased goods. The approach
L. Walras presented in this theory is consistent with H. Gossen's law of
saturation of needs, which states that a consumer's satisfaction with the
consumption of a given product decreases as the amount of
consumption of the product increases.
Ordinal utility The theory stresses that the utility of a certain product for the
theory consumer depends on the quantity of all the products he/she purchases.
also referred This theory is based on the assumption that the consumer acts
to as the theory rationally and has unchanged preferences in the period of analysis and
of preferences does not assign numerical values to alternative consumption choices,
and choice; but organises them in relation to himself/herself. In this theory,
authors: contrary to the cardinal theory, it is assumed that utility is not
I. Fisher, measurable. Moreover, one of important assumptions of this theory is
V.F.D. Pareto that utility is subjective in character. According to this theory, the
consumer, when choosing a number of products, strives to achieve
such a combination of consumed goods that will meet his/her
preferences to the largest extent. It should be stressed that the basis for
a consumer choice is an organised system of his/her preferences. This
theory does not take into account non-economic factors that shape
consumer behaviour and refers to the stage of the final choice omitting
its circumstances.
Theory This theory assumes that by observing decisions made by consumers,
of revealed the structure of their preferences can be established. The theory is
preferences based on assumptions that in the period of analysis consumers' tastes
P.A. Samuelsona do not change, and the consumer, when choosing a basket of
purchased goods, takes into account mainly economic factors,
including the level of his/her income and the level of the prices of
goods on the market. Moreover, according to this theory, consumer
behaviour can be described in the context of the principles of rational
management, and consumer choices meet the condition of transitivity.
This theory also highlights that a price that is sufficiently low can
always make a consumer purchase a certain product.
Concept According to this concept, consumer's market behaviour depends on
of selective a number of factors, including group behaviour capability, ability to
rationality learn from mistakes, value system. Behaviour of an individual is
H. Leibensteina a result of choosing an appropriate combination between the level of
the awareness of limitations and the level of internal or external
pressure, which imposes a certain level of calculation in taking
actions.

20
Table 4. cont. The image of consumer as presented in selected theories of consumption
Macroeconomic theories of consumption
Theory This theory assumes that households' consumption expenditure depend
of relative not only on the level of their absolute income, but also on incomes of
income other households. As a result, households' consumption expenditure
J.S. Duesenberry depend mainly on the result of comparing the level of their income
with incomes of other households. Thus, the level of consumption is
an effect of conscious or subconscious copying of the social group
whose incomes are most similar to the incomes of a given household.
This theory also stresses that there is competition in society to achieve
higher standard of living or to maintain the highest standard from the
past. When the income of a given household increases in relation to
the average income in its environment, then, according to the theory
by J.S. Duesenberry, the household saves a larger portion of its income
rather than spending it on consumption.
Hypothesis This hypothesis is distinguished by the assumption that consumers
of life cycle define their plans for their lifetime based on their own predictions of
by F. Modigliani the level of income. The hypothesis assumes that the savings from the
and A.K. Ando period of a consumer's professional activity secure his/her
consumption in later life. The key assumption in this hypothesis is that
the level and structure of consumption depend on the average level of
income in a long period of an individual's life, including estimated
future incomes. According to the hypothesis of life cycle, the level of
consumption is offset from the savings gathered in the period of high
income earned by a consumer.
Behavioural life In the behavioural life cycle hypothesis, actual consumer behaviour,
cycle rather than only the rational one, is analysed. This approach is based
hypothesis on the theory of self-control, system of mental accounting and the
by H.M. Shefrin assumption that how an alternative is presented impacts a consumer's
and R.H. Thaler decision. From the perspective of practical implications arising from
this hypothesis, it is important that it takes into account, in line with
the theory of self-control, the co-existence of hedonistic, egoistic and
long-term, rational parts in the psyche. This shows that a consumer is
torn and struggles internally because his/her preferences are
inconsistent in time. Inconsistency of preferences in the long term and
lack of full self-control can explain the low level of savings for the
later period of life in some consumers. The second pillar of this
hypothesis, i.e. system of mental accounting, assumes that households
assess their situation in the context of the current income, current
wealth and future income. The behavioural hypothesis of life cycle
assumes that the marginal propensity to consume is different for each
of these accounts, with current income being most likely to decrease.
Source: Own study based on: K. Mazurek-Łopacinska, M. Sobocińska, Nowe spojrzenie na
konsumenta jako uczestnika życia gospodarczego, Handel Wewnętrzny (4);351, 2014, pp. 189-201
after T. Zalega, Konsumpcja, determinanty, teorie, modele, PWN, Warszawa 2012, pp. 140-219.

21
1.3.1. Theories of human needs – categorisation of needs
Human needs are an important, basic category in the area of consumption,
because they are significant in terms of market phenomena surrounding the
contemporary consumer. Thus, knowledge of consumer needs, sources of their
manifestation and origins, the hierarchy and significance of the different desires, is
the basis for a successful activity of customer-oriented economic entities. At this
point, it should be stressed that the study of needs covers a very extensive area, and
the analysis is difficult due to the individuality of the human being, who has a wide
range of needs that vary in character. Thus, needs drive human activity and
stimulate the human being to behave in a certain way. Needs not only motivate the
human being to act, but they also determine the quality of his/her life, and, on the
one hand, become necessary for sustaining life (in the physiological sphere), while,
on the other hand, in the psychological sphere, they determine the possibilities of
his/her development.
The literature addresses human needs in different ways depending on a specific
scientific discipline that deals with this subject. T. Kocowski indicates four
approaches: bio-centric, psycho-centric, socio-centric and econo-centric37. Each of
these approaches highlights a different aspect of needs. In physiological or medical
studies, the approach to needs is bio-centric in character, as the existence of all
needs is determined by survival of an individual or a species (e.g. breathing,
eating).
In the psycho-centric approach, needs are treated as a permanent element of
personality characteristics, and satisfaction of the basic needs connected with
preservation of the species and functioning of the biological organism determines
the approach to satisfaction of higher needs in the socio-psychological sphere.
In the socio-centric approach, an individual is treated as a product of historically
defined social and cultural relationships. As such, an individual's needs are a result
of social needs and constitute an established reaction to ways of satisfying primary
needs, also called drives. The econo-centric approach, in turn, highlights an
individual's participation in the economic system and perceives the human being as
a producer of goods and services and their user. As a result, in economic theory,
human needs are often associated with market demand and with manifested needs
of the population38.
Defining the sources of needs is often the starting point for their categorisation.
Needs are usually classified into biological and social ones, but J. Szczepański
distinguishes actual, accompanying and apparent needs. Actual needs refer to
natural needs, i.e. the biological requirements of the human body. Accompanying
needs are needs that accompany or enrich actual needs. Certain actual and
accompanying needs can develop into apparent needs, manifested e.g. in gluttony,

37
See T. Kocowski, Potrzeby człowieka. Koncepcja Systemowa, Ossolineum, Wrocław 1982,
pp. 38-39.
38
M. Bombol, Potrzeby konsumenta [in:] B. Mróz , M. Janoś-Kresło (ed.), Konsument i konsumpcja
we współczesnej gospodarce, Wydawnictwo SGH, Warszawa 2006, p. 42.

22
drug addiction or nicotine addiction. Thus, these needs are not natural, but
artificial, man-generated, and their satisfaction is usually harmful for health39.
By determining factors that trigger certain human behaviour, needs can be
identified and classified. One can distinguish a few fundamental theories of needs
that motivate people to act. One of the best-known is Maslow's theory of needs,
which is based on the hypothesis that the human being strives to satisfy needs that
form a logical hierarchy and cover physiological aspects, safety, social aspects,
respect and self-actualisation. Maslow's hierarchy of needs includes 40:
 physiological needs – the most dominant of all needs, which means that they are
most likely the main motive behind human activity (food, water, sleep, physical
health),
 safety needs – they include confidence, sense of stability, having an anchor,
being looked after, being free of fear, anxiety, sense of chaos (shelter),
 belonging and love – they are categorized as social needs and result from the
desire to establish various interpersonal relationships (acceptance of others,
friendship, love),
 needs for respect (recognition) – they result from the desire to have a stable,
firmly-established, usually high self-esteem, self-respect and respect from
others (prestige, personal dignity, feeling that one's own objectives are valued),
 self-actualisation needs – constitute an important driver of the human being.
They are related to the human desire of self-fulfilment, i.e. tendency to realise
one's own potential to become the best possible version of oneself (self-
fulfilment, broadening of experiences, creativity).
The main assumptions of Maslow's theory of needs are presented in Table 5.
Another classification of needs, related to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, known
as ERG theory, was proposed by Cleyton Alderfer. He distinguished three groups
of needs, which are also organised hierarchically41:
 Existence (E) – material and physiological needs, concerned with, among other
things, satisfaction of hunger, thirst and the need for safety,
 Relatedness (R) – also referred to as integrating needs or needs to belong.
 Growth (G) – needs that are concerned with enriching the personality of the
human being, force him/her to make efforts to improve.
In accordance with this theory, contrary to Maslow's theory, an individual feels
several needs from different levels at the same time. Alderfer assumes that needs
are satisfied in a way that is more continuous than hierarchic. This is to say that an
individual can satisfy more than one need at the same time. ERG theory is mainly
applied in studies of human motivation in the workplace as a tool for increasing
"employees' productivity and morale," and enables identification of factors

39
J. Szczepański, Konsumpcja, a rozwój człowieka. Wstęp do antropologicznej teorii konsumpcji,
PWE, Warszawa 1981, p. 146.
40
See A. Maslow, Motywacja i osobowość, PWN, Warszawa 2009, pp. 62-76.
41
A. Miler-Zawodniak, Teorie potrzeb jako współczesne teorie motywacji, Obronność – Zeszyty
Naukowe Wydziału Zarządzania i Dowodzenia Akademii Obrony Narodowej, nr 4, Warszawa 2012,
p. 110.

23
indicating job satisfaction42. In Marshall Rosenberg's approach, in turn, human
needs are universal, and their satisfaction is necessary for human survival and
prosperity43.
Table 5. Assumptions of Maslow's theory
Item Assertion
1. The lower the need in the hierarchy, the stronger it is, as it dominates over the
higher need in the situation when both of them are not satisfied.
2. Higher needs appear later in the development of the human being.
3. The higher the need, the less necessary it is to satisfy it for life maintenance, the
longer it can remain unsatisfied and the easier it can disappear.
4. Satisfaction of higher needs creates better conditions for biological existence of
the human being.
5. Higher needs are subjectively less pressing, as one is less aware of them.
6. Satisfaction of higher needs brings more desirable subjective effects (happiness,
cheerfulness), while satisfaction of lower-order needs brings relief and
relaxation.
7. Satisfaction of higher needs is conducive to mental health.
8. Satisfaction of a higher need requires that more conditions are met, as it is more
complex and requires the use of a variety of measures and achievement
of a number of sub-objectives (e.g. gaining recognition).
9. For higher needs to appear, external conditions have to improve.
10. If both a higher need and a lower need are satisfied, the human being usually
appreciates the higher one more, which may lead to resignation from something
to achieve higher objectives.
Source: A. Miler-Zawodniak, Teorie potrzeb jako współczesne teorie motywacji, Obronność –
Zeszyty Naukowe Wydziału Zarządzania i Dowodzenia Akademii Obrony Narodowej, No. 4,
Warszawa 2012, p. 106

At this point, it is necessary to mention Manfred Max-Neff's approach to the

development of consumption needs, which takes into account the degree of
satisfaction derived from meeting fundamental human needs. This approach points
out the emergence of successive levels of needs, which are interrelated and
interdependent and refer not only to the functioning of an individual's organism but
also to the individual's links with the civilisation and technological environment.
The proposed approach uses a typology of needs that is based on their links with
four crucial spheres for a human being: quality of life, possessions, an individual's
activity and the environment in which he/she stays and functions 44. The presented
theories of needs seek to find answers to the questions about the motives of an

42
See C. Alderfer, Theories reflecting my personal experience and life dent, The Journal of Applied
Behavioral Science, 25(4) 1989, pp. 351-351; W. Chang, S. Yuan, A synthesized model of Markov
chain and ERG theory for behavior forecast in collaborative prototyping, Journal of Information
Technology Theory and Application, 9(2) 2008, pp. 45-63.
43
See M. Rosenberg, Nonviolent Communication. A Language of Life, Puddle Dancer Press,
California 2003, p. 213.
44
M. Max-Neef,. On Human Needs and Human Scale Development, available on
http://www.rainforestinfo.org.au/background/maxneef.htm.

24
individual who acts to achieve specific objectives. Table 6 presents needs defined
by A. Maslow, B. Rosenberg, Max Neef and C.Alderfeld.
Table 6. Human Needs, as presented by various theorists
A. Maslow C. Alderfer Rosenberg M. Max Neef

Food, water, shelter Need for personal Physical Nurturance Subsistence

(1) development
Safety and security Need for social Interdependence Protection
(2) contact
Belonging or love Need for existence Integrity Affection
(3)
Self – esteem Autonomy Understanding
(4)
Personal fulfilment Celebration Identity
(5) and mourning
Spiritual Leisure, Idleness
Communion
Freedom
Participation
Source: Own study

The data contained in Table 6 demonstrates the complexity of the approaches to

human needs. The concepts presented above show that only Maslow indicates the
process of hierarchisation of needs, while the other authors point out their
universality (all the needs are important).

25
Chapter 2. Concept of sustainable development and consumption
in the context of scientific studies

In the context of the research problem addressed in this work, the basis for the
idea of sustainable development is concern for the quality of life, which is
manifested in aiming at sustainable development of civilisation in the environment
with preserved resources and environmental values. Thus, sustainability of
development makes the actions aimed at achieving such development open and
subject to continuous improvement, with sustainability being dynamic in character.
The main reason for numerous publications dedicated to this subject is a growing
imbalance between the use of resources and their availability on Earth, as well as
a growing gap in living standards across areas with different growth pace. Further
sections of this chapter will present the concept of sustainable consumption and
sustainable development.

2.1. Concept of sustainable consumption – sources of the concept and its

application
Mass purchase and consumption of goods and services, especially in highly
developed countries, resulted in over consumption. In recent years, an increasing
role and significance of so-called sustainable consumption has been observed in
most countries across the world. It is a response to global environmental and social
problems. Consumers' focus on ecology, justice and intergenerational
responsibility is a phenomenon that is studied in numerous scientific disciplines,
such as sociology, economics, psychology and law. In the face of environmental
problems, such as air quality (e.g. particulate concentration, groundwater
contamination, greenhouse effect) among other things, there is a growing risk of
diseases, mainly respiratory ones. Such threats raised awareness of the public and
led to adoption of measures to ensure socio-economic development in harmony
with the natural environment, resulting in the emergence and development of the
concept of sustainable development.
This subject first appeared on the arena of international policy at UNO
conference on the environment and development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
Below (Fig. 2) are the most important events impacting the emergence of the
concept of sustainable development.
At the Rio conference, two important documents were adopted – "Declaration
on Environment and Development" and "Global action programme – Agenda 21"45,
which was dedicated to the issues of the natural environment and economic
development. The fundamental principles included necessity of limited use of
natural resources and increased concern for the state of the natural environment.

45
See Plan Agenda 21 M. Sebaldt [in:] Von den Zinsen leben, nicht von der Substanz:
Problemhintergrund und Entwicklung der Idee der Nachhaltigkeit, [in:] M. Sebaldt (ed.), Sustainable
Development – Utopie oder realistische Vision?, Verlag Kovac, Hamburg 2002, p. 42.

26
Thus, the main emphasis was placed in the declaration on the issue of sustainable
development, which should be achieved through46:
 sustainable production,
 sustainable consumption,
 creation of economic systems that take into account the value of the natural
environment,
 creation of new development models for developing countries and countries
with economies in transition.

Science Policy
1972 – Environmental conference
1972 report – growth limits in Stockholm (Human Enviroment)
1980 – World Conservation Strategy
report (IUCN) 13
1983 – Organization (WCED) 14
1987 – Brundtland report
1991 – ICE report "Caring for the Earth"
1992 – Environmental Conference in Rio
1992 report – new growth
limits

Sustainable Development

Fig. 2. Key events impacting the emergence of sustainable development

Source: Own study based on: Ewa Mazur-Wierzbicka, Koncepcja zrównoważonego rozwoju, jako
podstawa gospodarowania środowiskiem przyrodniczym, [in:] D. Kopycińska (ed.), Funkcjonowanie
gospodarki polskiej w warunkach integracji i globalizacji, Wydawnictwo US, Szczecin 2005, p. 36

Thus, the concept of sustainable development means:

 maintaining the capabilities to restore natural resources,
 using natural resources in an effective way,
 systematic elimination of toxic and dangerous substances from economic
processes and other applications,
 reducing the burden on the environmental and respecting the limits of its
resilience,
 constant protection and restoring of biodiversity at the level of landscape,
ecosystem, species and gene,

46
Ewa Mazur-Wierzbicka, Koncepcja zrównoważonego rozwoju, jako podstawa gospodarowania
środowiskiem przyrodniczym, [in:] D. Kopycińska (ed.), Funkcjonowanie gospodarki polskiej
w warunkach integracji i globalizacji, Wydawnictwo US, Szczecin 2005, p. 34.

27
 creating conditions for fair competition among companies for access to limited
resources,
 decision making at a community level, especially when the decisions concern
local environment,
 commitment to ensure the sense of ecological safety to people, understood as
creation of conditions that are conducive to physical, mental and social health47.
Given the above, the increasing awareness among the public in highly
developed countries resulted in the shift among consumers towards a more
conscious and rational consumption. So, how to define sustainable consumption?
In the literature, there is a lack of consistency in both definitions and terminology
of the type of consumption discussed in this work. Sustainable consumption is
usually defined in the literature as purchasing goods that contribute to an increased
balance between three elements: economy, ecology and people. According to the
definition of sustainable consumption, it is the use of goods and services which
satisfies basic needs and bring a better quality of life while reducing the use of
natural resources and toxic materials as well as emissions of waste and pollutants
over the life cycle (of a product) so as not to limit the capabilities of future
generations to satisfy their own needs 48. Another definition also includes the aspect
of intergenerational equity. Thus, sustainable consumption seeks to maximise
efficiency and effectiveness of products, services and investments so as to satisfy
today's needs of the population without jeopardising the capabilities of future
generations to satisfy their needs. This concept includes three pillars of
sustainability: economy, society and the environment 49. The social element is
closely connected with ensuring intergenerational and intragenerational equity and
consumer protection50. Defining sustainable consumption, F. Bylok points out that
such consumption should be based on three principles: economic rationality
(economic optimisation in the choice of goods); ecological rationality (choosing
such goods that cause the least damage to the natural environment); social
rationality (choosing goods that solve social problems or at least do not contribute
to their aggravation). Thus, sustainable consumption should mean resignation from
goods that are harmful to the natural environment 51. At this point, it is worth citing
a quite comprehensive definition of sustainable consumption as proposed by

47
See E. Lorek, Polska polityka energetyczna w warunkach z Unią Europejską, AE, Katowice 2007;
E. Lorek, Nowe kierunki badań w zrównoważonym rozwoju. Teraźniejszość i przyszłość [in:]
Ekonomia i finanse. Współczesne wyzwania i kierunki rozwoju, 4 Forum Naukowe, UE, Katowice
2010.
48
B. Jaros, Zrównoważona konsumpcja w praktyce. Raport z badań, Optimum, Studia Ekonomiczne
nr 3 (81) 2016, p. 149.
49
More on that can be found further in this monograph.
50
See State of the environment report No 1/2007, 2007, EEA (European Environment Agency),
OPOCE (Office for Official Publications of the European Communities), 10 October, p. 254.
51
See F. Bylok, Konsument, konsumpcja i społeczeństwo konsumpcyjne we współczesnym świecie,
Śląsk Katowice 2013.

28
Kiełczewski. Sustainable consumption is one that is sustainable in a few important
aspects52:
 economic – connected with defining appropriate proportions between the
consumption of the current generation and that of future generations,
 ecological – means choosing forms of consumption that have the least possible
burden on the environment and maximising consumption utility while
maintaining utility and quality of natural resources and the natural environment,
 social – acknowledges that all people have an equal access to goods, especially
goods that are desirable from a social point of view,
 psychological – states that consumption contributes to an increase in the quality
of life and balance between wealth and welfare,
 demographic – states that demographic factors do not constitute a permanent
barrier to the increase in consumption,
 spatial – assumes that society satisfies consumption needs without violating the
principles of spatial order,
 intertemporal – reflected in the fact that all the above-mentioned aspects of
sustainable consumption will also be able to be implemented in the future.
Sustainable consumption is also manifested as a range of purchasing
behaviours, which have been always seen on the market of goods and services, but
with different intensity and in different periods. Figure 3 presents types of
sustainable consumption.
The concept of sustainable consumption presented in Figure 3 is consistent with
an approach that distinguishes two dimensions of sustainable consumption. It
makes distinction between ecological and social dimensions, which are
interrelated, but constitute different factors affecting decision-making. This is to
say that the present shape of the idea of sustainable consumption involves two
currents. The first is a shift in the consumption towards ecological consumption.
Here, the key to achieving sustainable development is through changes in the
sphere of consumption, i.e. modifying it in such a way that will reduce its external
negative effects. The condition is the greening of consumption, i.e. eco-
consumption. It is worth stressing that sustainable consumption is not about
resignation from purchasing products, but purchasing them in a different way,
focusing on effectiveness in order to improve the quality of one's own life.
According to these postulates, sustainable consumption, like any other
consumption, should lead to maintaining and increasing the comfort of living.
Although Lorek and Fuchs point out that more consumption that is sustainable
indicates its primacy over traditional consumption, this concept is easier to be
adopted by manufacturers, politicians and consumers themselves than a radical
change of the life style and reduction of production and consumption of goods 53.

52
D. Kiełczewski, Konsumpcja a perspektywy zrównoważonego rozwoju, Wydawnictwo
Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku, Białystok 2008, p. 61.
53
See S. Lorek, D. Fuchs, Strong Sustainable Consumption Governance – precondition for
a degrowth path, Journal of Cleaner Production 38/2013, pp. 36-43.

29
 Sustainable consumption/ethical
consumption

eco-friendly green consumption socially responsible

oriented
oriented to purchase
towards philanthropic
climate and energy of products,
consumption
resource saving fair trade
protection

oriented towards political

recycling consumption

Fig. 3. Types of sustainable consumption

Source: Own study based on: A. Bruska, Sustainable consumption: facts, forms, buyers, Logistyka
Odzysku 4/2016, p. 28

The second current in sustainable consumption is based on the postulate of

overall reduction of consumption, change of the life style and appeal for creation of
ecological society that does not make decisions based on superficial materialistic
motives54. This current is based on changing the role of a consumer into the role of
a citizen. A citizen who appreciates non-material pleasures of life, maintains active
contacts with neighbours e.g. by exchanging, lending or other forms of maintaining
the sense of community55. At this point, it should be stressed that in the concept of
sustainable consumption of importance is an individual act, which is linked with
the principles of sustainable development, i.e. intergenerational and
intragenerational equity. As a result, there are at least two challenges in this
context. The first challenge is connected with the way of assessing the degree of
individual consumption sustainability, while the second is concerned with the
methods for propagation of appropriate patterns of consumption. According to
Defil at. al, analysis of the actual effects is about the impact of the individual acts
of consumption on the possibilities of satisfaction of needs by other people, but its
serious limitation is lack of the full picture of all the direct and indirect

54
A. Neale, Zrównoważona konsumpcja. Źródła koncepcji i jej zastosowanie, Prace Geograficzne
Zeszyt 141, 2015, p. 155.
55
See S. Lorek, D. Fuchs, Strong Sustainable Consumption Governance…op. cit.

30
consequences of purchasing and using goods and services. Assessment of the
degree of consumption sustainability from the angle of intentions carries the risk of
failure to achieve the intended effect "despite goods intentions", and may even
cause negative consequences for the natural environment and society56. The second
challenge, according to Mont and Plepys, requires defining the way to ensure
appropriate implementation of sustainable consumption at the social level
through57:
 the result of production operations, assuming (technological optimism) that
improving ecological efficiency of production processes will solve
environmental problems of the consumption sphere thanks to the operation of
market mechanism,
 the greening of markets, which suggests in the radical approach (technological
pessimism) that it is necessary to reduce the level of consumption in developed
countries and simplify life styles, which is possible through propagation of
social innovations.
Thus, the above-presented currents of sustainable consumption make distinction
between a weak sustainable consumption (the first current), which is based on
maintaining a high level of consumption but has regard to the values of
sustainability, and a strong sustainable consumption (the second current), which is
connected with a certain type of morality and people's attitude that takes into
account the good of others and future generations 58.

2.1.1. Concept of sustainable development – characteristics of sustainable

production
The concept of sustainable development is usually examined at the macro
economic level, but its implementation requires above all environmental-
orientation of the management of an enterprise. It is enterprises that have a direct
impact on components of the environment and the use its resources. The concept of
sustainable development at the level of an enterprise should mean reduction of
material and energy intensity of production, increasing productivity of the
environmental use and reduction of the level of pollution while achieving both
economic and environmental aims. Thus, it is connected with an effective use of
natural resources and environmental protection. In order to achieve this aim, it is
necessary to implement actions in three areas:
 economic, by ensuring growth of an enterprise, generation of profits and
effective use of resources making sure that this will not lead to degradation of
the natural environment,

56
See R. Defila, A. Di Giulio, R. Kaufmann-Hayoz, Sustainable Consumption – an Unwieldy. Object
of Research, GAIA, 23/S1, 2014, pp. 148-157.
57
O. Mont, A. Plepys, Sustainable consumption progress: should we be proud or alarmed?, Journal
of Cleaner Production, 16, 2008, pp. 531-537.
58
See G. Seyfang, The New Economics of Sustainable Consumption. Distribution, Vol. 112, 2008, pp.
106-156.

31
 ecological, which concentrates on protection of natural resources and the
environment, while implementing economically rational methods and solutions
in the use of resources,
 social, which in the broad sense guarantees access to labour, food, education,
energy, health care, water and sanitation59.
The concept of sustainable development is presented graphically in Figure 4.
The above-described approach contributed to the emergence of the concept of
sustainable production, which is inseparably connected with a broader idea of
sustainable development and can be analysed from an integrated and systemic
perspectives.
In the integrated approach, sustainable production is a sub-set of activity
referred to as sustainable development which involves human activity aimed at
satisfaction of needs through production of goods and provision of consumption
services. Meanwhile, in the systemic approach, the agents engaged in such activity
are entrepreneurs who implement sustainable production processes bearing in mind
the environmental protection and purposefulness as well as rationality in using
environmental resources, including especially raw materials.

Fig. 4. Sustainable development as a synthesis of three pillars

Source: https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-advantages-of-sustainable-development
[access: 1.07.2018]

A production process as part of sustainable production takes place if it respects

the need for safety and guarantees that the human being lives in possibly least
harmful environment60.

59
See K. Czaplicka-Kolarz, D. Burchart-Korol, Koncepcja ekoefektywności w zrównoważonym
zarządzaniu produkcją, Zeszyty Naukowe Politechniki Śląskiej, z 87, 2013, pp. 59-71.

32
 Another definition of sustainable production places emphasis on production
processes directly connected with generating goods and services that61:
 use processes and systems that do not contaminate the environment,
 save energy and raw materials,
 are realistic in economic terms,
 are safe and do not pose risk to human health,
 are society-oriented and creatively profitable for all working people.
At this point it is worth stressing that the term "sustainable production" is
usually part of "sustainable consumption and production", which is defined as "the
use of services and related products which respond to basic needs and bring
a better quality of life, while minimising the use of natural resources and toxic
materials as well as the emission of waste and pollutants over the life cycle of the
service or product so as not to jeopardise the needs of future generations"62.
Thus, such redefinition contains the two complementary elements of the
strategy for implementation of sustainable development. Figure 5 presents elements
that make up sustainable production and consumption.

Fig. 5. Sustainable consumption and production

Source: J. Sabapathy, A business primer. Sustainable consumption and production, University of
Cambridge. Programme for Industry, 2007, p. 4

60
See Prawo sprzyjające wdrażaniu wzorców zrównoważonej produkcji w MSP. Rekomendacje
zmian, PARP, Warszawa 2011, pp. 13, 14,
www.parp.gov.pl/images/PARP_publications/pdf/2011_prawo_sprzyjajace_wzp.pdf
[access: 2.07.2018].
61
See Sustainable consumption and production in South East Europe, Eastern Europe, Caucasus and
Central Asia. European Environmental Agency Report, No. 3, 2007, Copenhagen 2007.
62
See The Oslo Symposium in 1994. Rountable on Sustainable Production and Consumption,
http://enb.iisd.org/consume/oslo004.html [access: 2.07.2018].

33
 Focusing on the aspect of sustainable production alone, it should be noted that it
is increasingly stressed that pre-production and post-production phases have an
impact on the shape of a production system. Therefore, as Czapicka-Kolarz and
Kruczek emphasise, sustainable production also includes the following stages:
designing a product, preparing production, planning production and controlling its
processes, as well as the final result of the production process and its impact on the
environment. This is to say that each of these stages aims, in accordance with the
concept of sustainable production, to minimise the negative impact on the
environment63. Figure 6 provides a graphical presentation of the concept of
sustainable production.

Designing
– Design taking into
account environmental
conditions.
Re-use – Reduction of hazardous Acquiring raw
– Repeated use. substances.
– Possibility materials
– Rapid prototyping.
of disassembly. – Orientation for
– Uniformity Supply chain.
recycling. Eco-efficient
of materials.
– Low landfill delivery.
disposal costs.
SUSTAINABLE
PRODUCTION

Use by the final Production

customer – Efficient use
– Reliability. Distribution of resources
– Zero-emissive use. – Returns handling. and energy.
– Low operating – Reuse. – Zero-emissive.
costs. – Possibility – Lean and safe
of recycling.

Fig. 6. Concept of sustainable production

Source: Own study based on: K. Czaplicka-Kolarz, D. Burchart-Korol, Koncepcja ekoefektywności
w zrównoważonym zarządzaniu produkcją, Zeszyty Naukowe Politechniki Śląskiej, Vol. 87, 2013,
p. 66

63
K. Czaplicka-Kolarz, D. Burchart-Korol, Koncepcja ekoefektywności w zrównoważonym
zarządzaniu produkcją…op.cit. p. 65.

34
 Figure 6 shows that sustainable production is based on linking the production
process with the concept of limiting the use of resources and encompasses all
stages of a product life cycle, i.e. from the design to the end of its life. It is worth
stressing that sustainable production can also be associated with corporate social
responsibility (CSR), which requires that entrepreneurs look at their own activity
from a broader and long-term perspective. Corporate social responsibility as
defined in standard ISO 26000 should be understood as an organisation's
responsibility for the impact of its decisions and activities (products, service,
processes) on society and the environment through transparent and ethical
behaviour that: contributes to sustainable development of society's health and
prosperity, takes into account stakeholders' expectations, complies with the law, is
consistent with international standards of behaviour, is consistent with the
organisation and is practised in its relations 64. Thus, the concept of corporate social
responsibility is an important tool for implementation of the idea of sustainable
development across EU.
Summing up this sub-chapter, it should be concluded that methods of
sustainable production and consumption should meet the criteria of environmental
protection and equity and lead to an effective use of resources and reduction of
waste.

2.2. Sustainable consumption vs consumerism – current trends

in consumption
In recent years, researchers, representatives of economic practice and decision
makers, have given a lot of attention to both sustainable consumption and
consumerism, i.e. excessive satisfaction of needs. The term "consumerism" derives
from consumption, i.e. satisfaction of needs of individuals, social groups and
society. As B. Mróz stresses, in consumerism consumption is understood as a
determinant of the life of the contemporary human being who feels a constant
desire to purchase new products and use new services 65. According to Szczepański,
consumerism means overconsumption of material goods and services, which does
not result from actual human needs but from apparent ones. These are needs that
are connected with possession of power, influences, prestige, a higher position in
society and domination over others. The needs are apparent, unlimited in terms of
the quantity, variety and degree of saturation. Irrational attempts to satisfy them
bring negative ecological, social and individual consequences66.
Such attitude is characterised by attaching excessive attention to material goods
and belief that they can improve our life. At present, consumerism is becoming
characteristic of all social groups, although a few decades back it was only
observed among the rich social stratum. So, what are the threats in the context of
consumerism? According to Staraś-Romanowska, the cult of individualism without
64
Ł. Makuch, Normy i standardy społecznej odpowiedzialności biznesu. CSR, Warszawa 2011, p. 20.
65
See B. Mróz, Consumo ergo sum? Rola konsumpcjonizmu we współczesnych społeczeństwach,
[in:] Oblicza konsumpcjonizmu, Szkoła Główna Handlowa, Warszawa 2009, p. 13.
66
See J. Szczepański, Konsumpcja, a rozwój człowieka. Wstęp do antropologicznej teorii konsumpcji,
PWE, Warszawa 1981, p. 146.

35
axiological counterbalance, pursuit of success and an efficient management of
one's own life make the "self" the only point of reference and value criterion for the
contemporary human being. Pursuit of undefined happiness, concentration on one's
own needs, maximisation of sensual impressions and possibility of self-
actualisation become the most important for an individual67. Today, people
purchase an excessive quantity of goods, which they often do not need and which
are only gadgets on display. We can also see shortening of the life cycle of
purchased products. A changing fashion and desire to follow lead people to
purchasing new goods although those they possess can still be used. According to
Bauman, individuals in a consumer society perceive consumption as the solution to
all problems according to the motto: "you only have to go to the right place and
purchase the right object or service, and it is not coincidental that pursuit of
happiness concentrates not on production or appropriation of things, but on
throwing them away; after all, this is what is needed for the growth of gross
GDP"68. Bauman, while attempting to show the meaning of the concept of
consumerism, argued that it is not about satisfaction of (justified) needs, but rather
about a continuous process of purchasing and throwing away things in order to buy
new ones, which he considers to be the essence of this phenomenon. Moreover, he
pointed to the coexistence of consumer culture and consumer syndrome, which
both control the actions of individuals 69. That is to say that consumption can
manifest in various domains and various areas of life, including those connected
with professional life. There is also another important aspect of consumerism
pointed out by Bauman. Namely, being poor in a consumer society. Poverty is not
limited to lack of material goods and to physical discomforts. Poverty is also a type
of social and psychological condition: as the quality of human existence is
measured by standards of a decent life in a given society, inability to meet such
standards is in itself a source of stresses, suffering and humiliation. As such,
poverty means being excluded from what is referred to as "normal life". It means
inability to keep up with others. It leads to decrease in self-esteem, to shame or
feeling of guilt. Poverty also means being cut off from chances for what a given
society considers to be "a happy life", inability to enjoy "what life can offer". The
result is dissatisfaction and anger, which turn into various forms of violence, self-
condemnation or both. Thus, in a consumer society, "a normal life" is a life of
consumers absorbed by choosing from among a great number of available pleasant
sensations and great experiences. "A happy life" is defined as taking advantage of
multiple opportunities without missing even a single one, seizing chances that are
much talked about, i.e. are most sought-after, and seizing them not later than others
will, or best before others will70. So, pursuit of post-material values is becoming
67
See M. Straś-Romanowska, Rozwój człowieka a rozwój osobowy, Studia Psychologica, UKSW, 3,
2002, pp. 91-104.
68
See Z. Bauman, Socjologia, Wydawnictwo Zysk i S-ka, Poznań 2004, p. 221; Z. Bauman, Praca,
konsumpcjonizm i nowi ubodzy, Wydawnictwo WAM, Kraków 2006.
69
See Z. Bauman, Konsumenci w społeczeństwie konsumentów, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu
Łódzkieg, Łódz 2007.
70
Z. Bauman, Praca, konsumpcjonizm i nowi ubodzy...op.cit. p. 77.

36
a determinant of "a happy life" today, and the changes in the system of values
result in emergence of new patterns of consumer behaviour in which it is
increasingly important to seek to satisfy social needs, especially self-actualisation.
A good illustration of that can be presentation of different types of consumers
proposed by Opaschowski:
 Consumers permanently adapting to a new situation are people who seek to
constantly adapt to new conditions. This type of consumer is characterised by
fascination with consumption and focus on "here and now" – "no matter how
much it costs, I must have it". Spending money is more important than earning
it. Such a consumer tends to be a spontaneous purchaser – he/she often buys
things without paying attention to their utility.
 A displaying consumer often purchases luxury consumer goods in order to show
them to others just like a model does when presenting clothes at a fashion show.
Material and social independence comes from possessed money and a social
position. Consumer behaviour is characterised by parading, which is
manifestation of narcissism, extroversion. Consumption becomes a means of
expressing success in life.
 A pleasure consumer is a person whose consumer behaviour is dictated by the
novelty, i.e. he/she strives to possess the latest models of sought-after
commodities. A pleasure consumer is focused on consumption of leisure time,
when he/she practices a prestigious sports hobby and travels. He/she practices
various sports, wants to have a perfect body (feels pressure to have a slim
figure). Other attributes of such a consumer include: latest technology – the best
equipment and accessories, which are at the same time the most expensive.
Such goods help to create an individual identity of a pleasure consumer.
 A demanding consumer is characterised by focus on consumption of luxury
goods. Such people link consumption with culture and life style, which is
manifested in an active participation in cultural life – going to exhibitions,
participating in musical festivals, ballet shows or opening nights. A consumer
from this group has high demands as to the quality of consumer goods.
 A culture consumer has numerous cultural interests, tries to develop ideas and is
open to new suggestions and proposals. He/she attaches special importance to
developing the spiritual, cultural and social aspects of his/her life. A culture
consumer attends courses organised by universities, decides to travel to another
city or country to improve his/her qualifications. He/she usually needs to spend
a lot of time with himself/herself, and prefers a reading that stimulates him/her
intellectually. For a culture consumer, consumption allows him/her to lead "a
beautiful life" and is one of important determinants of a cultural life style.
 A consumer of basic consumer goods uses consumption of leisure time as part
of ongoing consumption. His/her daytime is filled with household chores and
providing his/her family with the basic goods. Every day consumption takes
place between the household and house work, supermarket and special

37
 promotions at shops. Leisure consumption is only possible on non-working days
or during holidays, if the family can afford it.
 A saving consumer is a person who due to a small budget has to calculate
before every purchase whether he/she can afford the purchase of a given
product. On the one hand, their personal budget for consumption is carefully
calculated, on the other hand he/she is willing to spend money on other things
than basic goods (especially in the case of students). Due to the confrontation
between a tight household budget and the wealth of world of consumption,
a new pragmatics emerges: awareness of the price becomes self-awareness of
the consumer, i.e. consumers use their free time to watch, inform and compare
sought consumer goods 71.
Paradoxically, as C. Bywalec points out, our choices often do not reflect our
actual needs, but instead they satisfy the needs that are socially desirable at a given
time. Purchase of a product is motivated by a need that arouse as a result of
possession of a given product by other consumers. Thus, as it has already been
mentioned, the sources of human needs can be biological and psychological as well
as socio-cultural in character72. Excessive and unsustainable consumption is a
result of a fast economic growth, which started in the second half of the 20th
century as a result of industrialisation and urbanisation of different regions and
countries and increased wealth of society. In addition, improved quality of life and
technical progress in production processes led to consumption that significantly
exceeded the actual needs of the consumer. Unlimited consumption leads to
degradation of the environment through excessive exploitation of renewable and
non-renewable natural resources, is it responsible for wastage of goods and labour,
and causes significant economic disproportions among people73. At this point, it is
worth stressing that the culture of consumption is inseparably connected with the
new instant life style, which refers to the habit and necessity of living in
instantaneity and constant change. As Melosik points out, it has a particularly huge
impact on the identity and life style of the young generation, who expects
instantaneity, who does not want or is unable to wait; indeed, the prevailing
message of the ideology of consumerism is "don't put off your life until later"74.
Given the above, the scale of the threat from over consumption led to the

71
H.W. Opaschowski, Konsum 2000 – Szenarien Uber die Zukunft von Konsum und Freizeit, [in:]
G. Rosenberger (ed.), Konsum 2000. Yeranderung im Verbraucheralltag, Frankfurt a. M. 1992. pp.
211-213 after K. Prendecki, K, Rejman, Konsumpcjonizm w społeczeństwie postindustrialnym –
wymiar społeczny i ekonomiczny zjawiska, Humanitas and Social Science , Vol. XVIII, 20 (1/2013),
pp.
69-78.
72
See C. Bywalec, Konsumpcja a rozwój gospodarczy i społeczny, Wydawnictwo C.H. Beck,
Warszawa 2010, p. 17.
73
Zob. Wasik K. (2014). Trends in behaviour of contemporary consumers – consumerism vs
sustainable consumption. Konsumpcja i Rozwój 2014; 1(6) p. 66-74.
74
See Melosik Z. (2002), Kultura instant: paradoksy pop-tożsamości, [in:] W. Burszta, A. de
Tchrzewski, Edukacja w czasach popkultury, Wydawnictwo Akademii Bydgoskiej im Kazimierza
Wielkiego, Bydgoszcz.

38
emergence of its opposite face. Namely, conscious, permanent and sustainable
consumption. Figure 7 presents trends of contemporary consumption.

Trends of contemporary consumption

conscious, permanent
excessive, unsustainable and sustainable
consumption, causing leading to consumption, which
damage to the improves the quality of
environment and society life of present and future
generations

 Consumerism,
 Postmodern consumption (fast, for show,  Deconsumption (limited
unstable), consumption)
 Consumption on credit  Dematerialization (consumption
 Massification consumption (production of intangible assets)
standardization, big series)  Conscious consumption
 Ephemerization (chase for a new one)  Eco-consumption
 Ritualization  Sovereign consumption

Fig. 7. Trends in contemporary consumption

Source: K. Wasik, Trendy w zachowaniach współczesnych konsumentów – konsumpcjonizm a
konsumpcja zrównoważona, Konsumpcja i Rozwój 1(6), 2014, p. 71

Numerous international reports on consumerism published, among other things,

by EU institutions or independent institutions such as Life Squared Limited,
contain information on a significant impact of advertisements and mass media on
consumption. They point out that "an individual is manipulated into taking a
specific view of how he/she should live instead of taking his/her own and
independent decisions as to consumption". Thus, it should be concluded that
advertising and mass media go far beyond the function they fulfil. A Life Squared
Limited report pointed out that: "Exposure to one advertisement can be powerful
enough to influence someone. Otherwise, why would Coca Cola alone spend $2
billion per year on advertising? But when we are exposed to thousands of
advertisements a day (and have been from childhood), and consumerism is
promoted in most of the mental inputs we receive, this can trap us within a
consumerist bubble and can mould our entire worldviews – our aspirations, views,
lifestyles and many other things. And this trap is very difficult to escape from.

39
Indeed, such is its power, we may not even realise we are caught in a trap. So, the
real power of consumerism comes from its cumulative effect – the fact that it has
seeped into every aspect of our lives, and that these elements of our culture
continually reinforce each other"75.

2.2.1. Promotion of sustainable consumption as counterweight to consumerism

Representatives of numerous scientific disciplines as well as politicians and
governments of many countries know how important it is to promote sustainable
consumption. The main objective of such promotion, which is carried out by
various entities taking up the challenge of changing the existing consumer
behaviour, is to propagate the culture of rational and responsible consumption,
based on the paradigm of people- and environment-friendly quality rather than the
quantity of consumed goods and services, often purchased at the lowest prices 76.
As pointed by Szymoniuk after Mazurek-Łopacińska and Sobocińska, the sub-
objectives of such promotion vary significantly and may include the following:
 encouraging consumers to make purchasing decisions according to the criterion
of quality maximisation and long-term utility (e.g. with the possibility of
repairing goods) taking into account their financial capabilities;
 propagating a healthy life style, purchasing and consuming ecological and
traditional products, preferably those produced locally; promoting environment-
friendly products and services;
 encouraging people to respect the nature and the nearest environment: concern
for cleanliness and aesthetics of the environment, minimisation of emitted
noise;
 eliminating wastage, using used products and handing them to other
purchasers, managing goods in an efficient way, encouraging people to limit
consumption of goods and services that are produced with high consumption of
non-renewable natural resources and/or harmful to the natural environment,
avoiding products containing toxic substances and constituting hazardous waste
after use;
 prompting people to save energy and water in a daily life through: choosing
appropriate energy and water suppliers, choosing energy from renewable
sources, using lighting systems that are energy efficient and safe for the natural
environment (e.g. LED light sources), thermal modernisation (installation of
energy efficient heating system, proper use of heaters, optimisation of the
temperature in rooms, insulation of buildings, energy efficient window panes,
window and door sealing, etc.), building environment-friendly houses (so called
passive and active that feed the excess generated energy back to distribution
systems), etc.; raising awareness of the futility of using high quality water to

75
See R. Docwra. The problem with consumerism, Published by Life Squared Limited, 2009, p. 14,
http://www.lifesquared.org.uk/system/files/Consumerism%20download_1.pdf.
76
See S. Skowron, B. Szymoniuk, Marketing and sustainable development, Problemy Ekorozwoju
(Problems of Sustainable Development), vol. 9, nr 2/2014, pp. 39-46.

40
 flash toilets, wash or water a garden, demanding creation of separate
installations for "clean" and "dirty" water;
 encouraging people to separate waste according to type, avoid excessive
packaging or choose packaging that is least harmful to the environment
(recyclable);
 disseminating knowledge on the natural environment, encouraging people to be
involved in ecological initiatives and make the right, environment-friendly
choices when shopping; honest labelling of products and packaging and
dissemination of knowledge about labels77.
It should be stressed that sustainable consumption should already be promoted
at the stage of primary education. An important role is played by government
institutions, as many governmental initiatives aimed at sustainable consumption
highlight the need for more integrated programmes and solutions in the areas of
education, environmental protection, production processes, fiscal and monetary
policy and communication forms. Below are examples of good practices in
promotion of sustainable consumption and production in selected OECD countries,
taking into account78:
 Standards and Mandatory Labels – good practice examples; Australia and New
Zealand: Mandatory energy efficiency rating labels, now recognised by more
than 95% of consumers, complement Minimum Energy Performance Standards
for a comprehensive range of household electrical products. United States: The
US Nutrition Labeling and Education Act requires labelling on all prepackaged
foods in the form of a "nutrition facts panel" including nutrients associated with
diet-related disease.
 Taxes and Charges – good practice examples; Denmark: Household water
consumption was greatly reduced by a 150% increase in the price of water
through a combination of taxes – water supply tax (41%), VAT (20%), variable
water taxes (12%), green taxes (14%), variable taxes (9%), fixed wastewater
charge (2%), and State wastewater tax (2%). Ireland: A 15 cent (€0.15) levy on
plastic bags reduced consumption of these bags by 92% and promoted the use
of reusable bags by the majority of shoppers, with receipts going to a fund used
to support waste management and other environmental initiatives.
 Subsidies and Incentives – good practice examples; Canada: Homeowners are
encouraged to improve the energy efficiency of their homes through the
ecoEnergy Retrofit scheme, introduced in 2007, which grants a maximum of C$
5000 for this purpose. France: The Velib (free bike) programme launched in
2007 placed 20 000 bicycles at more than 1 000 stations around Paris in the
attempt to reduce car traffic and pollution.

77
See B. Szymoniuk, Promocja zrównoważonej konsumpcji w wybranych państwach europejskich,
Polityki europejskie, finanse i marketing 13(62), 2015, pp. 123-124 after K. Mazurek-Łopacińska, M.
Sobocińska, Marketing wobec wyzwań wynikających ze zrównoważonego rozwoju [in:] Marketing –
ujęcie terytorialne, Wydawnictwo Politechniki Gdańskiej, Gdańsk 2010, p. 35.
78
Own study based on: Promoting Sustainable Consumption. Good Practices in OECD Countries.
Corrigenda to OECD publications 2008, http://www.oecd.org/about/publishing/corrigenda.htm
[access 7.07.2018].

41
 Communications Campaigns – good practice examples; Austria: From
a successful beginning in 2004, Das bringt’s Nachhaltig has become a yearly
Sustainability Weeks event when thousands of retailers throughout the country
promote and have special offers on organic, fair trade, and locally made
products. United Kingdom: The Climate Change Communication Initiative uses
the latest multimedia techniques, including interactive websites, champion
blogs, and films, to promote individual involvement in action against climate
change under the theme Tomorrow’s Climate: Today’s Challenge.
 Education – good practice examples; Australia: The National Youth Affairs
Research Scheme (NYARS) sponsored Sustainable Consumption: Young
Australians as Agents of Change which enumerated techniques to empower
students to change their consumption patterns and act as catalysts for more
sustainable lifestyles in the wider community. European Union: In a multi-
country project entitled Persuasive Power of Children Towards Energy
Consumption, students measured energy savings from different sources,
received lessons on renewable energy, and participated in audits of school and
household energy consumption. Italy: Italy, which chairs the Marrakech Task
Force on Education for Sustainable Consumption, has set up a network of
"Schole Futuro" or schools of the future which teach and practice environmental
and social sustainabilit.
 Corporate Reporting – good practice examples; Austria: The government
introduced mandatory sustainability reporting for corporate pension schemes in
2005, runs an ethical and ecological investment platform aimed at increasing
the market for sustainable investments, and is developing an eco-label for green
funds. France: With the Nouvelles Regulations Economiques of May 2001,
France became the first country to mandate triple bottom line reporting for
publicly-listed companies, including labour standards and the environmental
consequences of their activities.
 Advertising – good practice examples; Nordic countries: In 2005, the Nordic
Consumer Ombudsmen (Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden) adopted
a joint guideline on Ethical and Environmental Marketing Claims, which
extended the previous rules on environmental advertising to include social and
ethical issues such as child labour, working conditions and relations with third
world countries.
 Understanding Consumer Behaviour – good practice examples; Australia: The
report More with Less: Initiatives to Prompt Sustainable Consumption presents
a three-stage framework for policy initiatives based on consumer behaviour in
terms of attitude (communications), intent (labelling) and action (incentives).
Sweden: Sweden, which leads the Marrakech Task Force on Sustainable
Lifestyles, has pioneered research on the effects of gender on sustainable
consumption, showing that women tend to leave a smaller ecological footprint
than men. Switzerland: Sustainable consumption scenarios for housing,
transport, food, consumer goods and public utilities were developed based on
key factors, actors and decisions to help develop effective policy approaches.
United Kingdom: The Behaviour Change Forum was established across

42
 government departments to promote better policy-making through
understanding human behaviour including a review of evidence on "Motivating
Sustainable Consumption".
Summing up this sub-chapter, it can be concluded that a good and skilful
promotion of sustainable consumption and production is and will be of
fundamental importance for the quality of life both at the level of a local
community and on a global scale. The above-described examples of good practices
show that the development of sustainable consumption and production requires
actions aimed at raising public awareness of the problems resulting from over
consumption and their consequences for the present and future generations.

43
Chapter 3. Conceptual and methodological issues
The aim of the chapter is to present methodological aspects of the research
conducted as part of the international project under programme Erasmus + entitled:
SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION AND PRODUCTION IN SOCIAL LIFE
2016-1-PL01-KA219-026190, 2016. It will be achieved, among other things, by
describing how the research was conducted and characterising the research
population.

3.1. Subject and issues of the research

The main aim of the research conducted as part of the project was to raise
awareness among the young generation of Europeans of sustainable consumption
in the face of increasing consumerism. In addition, the project was intended to
develop the competencies of students using ICT tools, allowing them to develop
their teamwork abilities and broaden the cross-cultural dialogue between students
and teachers from different European countries such as Turkey, Poland, Romania,
Italy and Estonia. Moreover, the project aimed to achieve the following sub-
objectives:
 raising awareness among students of the threats from unsustainable
consumption,
 deepening knowledge on sustainable consumption,
 promoting a healthy diet and sport,
 improving ICT competencies,
 developing English language skills with the aim of improving cross-cultural
competencies,
 raising environmental awareness,
 developing creative and critical thinking,
 implementing curricula connected with the research subject into the schools
participating in the project.
Given the significance and topicality of the research issues, it should be stressed
that the project is innovative in many ways, as problems arising from over
consumption and its negative impact on the natural environment and human health
are often not included in curricula of most primary and secondary schools.
Therefore, appropriate adjustments and supplements were made and added to
curricula for the early stage education of young people to broaden their knowledge
on the consequences of over consumption. The project was developed by a team of
experts from Poland, Italy, Romania, Estonia and Turkey. Thus, the authors of this
monograph not only aimed to carry out a review of the literature around published
research findings, but they also, focusing on the segment of the young generation
of students, contacted the project coordinators from the above-listed countries in
order to plan and conduct quantitative and qualitative research. For the purpose of
conducting the research, appropriate research methods, techniques and tools were
selected and used to gather relevant information and figures characterising the
research population.

44
3.2. Research methodology
The literature includes a lot of publications dedicated to methods and techniques
of social research. Among them are publications by M. Balcerowicz-Szkutnik,
K. Lutyńska, S. Gostkowski, W. Szkutnik, J. Szczepański, J. Sztumski, S. Nowak,
R.A. Podgórski and F.J. Fowler 79. Methodology of social sciences, according to
R.A. Podgórski, is the basis for predictions, i.e. finding regular cause-and-effect
relationships and correlations of phenomena that, when discovered, allow one to
believe that with a certain cause an identical effect will occur. Events occurring in
social life cannot be predicted with the accuracy possible in natural sciences 80. That
is to say that human behaviour in social and individual life does not always have
identical effects despite the same causes. It is worth stressing that the behaviour of
human society in a given population is affected by a great number of factors that
are not subject to observation or control. Therefore, social research, in order to
meet the criteria of science, is conducted in accordance with established, repeatable
rules and procedures the set of which is called methodology. The term
methodology has Greek origin from the word Methodos, which meant a way and
later a skilful way of doing something, especially using thoughts 81. According to
Z. Gostkowski, a method in the classical, historically earliest, sense is understood
as a set of general directives saying how to manage the cognitive process.
Meanwhile, in the basic and popular definition from Traktat o dobrej robocie
(Treaty on good work) by T. Kotarbiński, a method is a way of performing a
complex action that involves selection and organisation of its sub-actions, and that
is planned and able to be used repeatedly82. Thus, one can say that scientific
methods involve sets of means and actions expressed by principles and are used to
formulate problems, design research and gather data necessary to solve such
problems, analyse and theoretically interpret data as well as present and use in
practice findings and theoretical knowledge. The main division within
methodology is into qualitative and quantitative character of research. According to
T. Tomaszewski, qualitative research is concerned with analysing the phenomena
of interest and identifying their elementary components as well as finding
relationships and dependencies in them. Qualitative description of facts,
phenomena, processes and their analysis takes mostly a narrative or essayistic
form, and usually does not include any figures or statistical calculations. Such

79
See M. Balcerowicz Szkutnik, W. Szkutnik, Podstawy statystyki w przykładach i zadaniach.
Statystyka opisowa, Wydawnictwo ŚWSZ, Katowice, 2006; L. Lutyńska (ed.), Z metodologii
i metodyki socjologicznych badań terenowych, PAN, Warszawa 1985; S. Nowak, Metody badań
socjologicznych, PWN, Warszawa 1985, J. Sztumski, Wstęp do metod i technik badań społecznych,
Wydawnictwo UŚ, Katowice 1979; J. Szczepański, Dyskusyjne zagadnienia metodologiczne
współczesnej socjologii polskiej, Studia Socjologiczne, 1964 nr 2; F.J. Fowler, Survey research
methods, Applied Social Research Methods Series ,Vol .1. 1988.
80
R.A. Podgórski, Metodologia badań socjologicznych, Oficyna Wydawnicza Branta, Bydgoszcz
2007, p. 13.
81
A. Sułek, Ogród metodologii socjologicznej, Wydawnictwo Scholar, Warszawa 2002, p. 13.
82
See Z. Gostkowski (ed.), Analizy i próby technik badawczych w socjologii, PAN, 1966;
T. Kotarbiński, Traktat o dobrej robocie, PWN, Łódź 1957.

45
research is often referred to as ethnographic research, field work83. Quantitative
research, in turn, according to M. Balcerowicz-Szkutnik and M. Łobicki, is
concerned with description and analysis of facts, phenomena and processes. They
are presented in the form of various comparisons and calculations, often relying on
the methods of descriptive and mathematical statistics84. In very simple terms,
qualitative research results in obtaining non-numerical information, whereas the
result of quantitative research is numerical data.
The literature presents division of research methods by the degree of generality,
their purpose, structure and object of exploration. Research methods that are most
often applied in social sciences include: observation, interview and conversation,
experiment, biographical method, statistical analysis, pedagogical tests,
psychological tests, individual case method, analysis, assessment and interpretation
of the results of activity, e.g. documents (qualitative analysis), diagnostic survey85.
Qualitative methods are mainly used to achieve various research objectives. They
usually have the status of independent research, but they may also constitute an
introduction or complement to quantitative research. This group includes interview
and conversation, observation, individual case method, analysis, assessment and
interpretation of the results of activity, e.g. documents (qualitative analysis),
biographical method. Among quantitative methods there are experiment, statistical
method, diagnostic survey, pedagogical and psychological tests. A lack of clear
division of social research methods leads to the conclusion that there is a need for
a comprehensive application of different methods that complement each other.
According to J. Sztumski, an appropriate method must fulfil the following
expectations:
 clarity, i.e. it has to be generally understood and recognised;
 unambiguity, i.e. relevant regulatory principles cannot be applied freely;
direction, i.e. it should serve a specific purpose;
 effectiveness, i.e. it has to ensure implementation of the intended objective;
 fruitfulness, i.e. it should be able to provide, apart from relevant findings, also
other, secondary but equally important findings for the same or a different
scientific discipline;
 reliability, i.e. it should allow intended results to be achieved with a maximally
high degree of probability,
 cost-efficiency, i.e. it should allow intended results to be achieved with the
lowest consumption of appropriate resources and time86.
Given the above and after studying the issues of methodology in social research,
the method of a diagnostic survey was chosen to be used for the implementation of

83
T. Tomaszewski, Wstęp do psychologii, PWN, Warszawa 1963, p. 29.
84
See M. Balcerowicz -Szkutnik, Prognozy ludnościowe dla potrzeb rynku pracy i zabezpieczenia
społecznego, Zeszyt Naukowy nr 10/ 2005; M. Łobocki, Wprowadzenie do metodologii badań
pedagogicznych, Wydawnictwo Impuls, Karków 1999, p. 55.
85
S. Juszczyk, Metodologia badań empirycznych w naukach społecznych, Wydawnictwo AWF,
Katowice 2001, p. 67.
86
J. Sztumski, Wstęp do metod i technik badań społecznych, Wydawnictwo Śląsk, Katowice 1995,
pp. 63-64.

46
the project. According to T. Pilch, a diagnostic survey is a way to gather
knowledge about structural and functional attributes and the dynamics of social
phenomena, opinions and views of selected populations, intensification and
directions of development of certain phenomena as well as all other phenomena
that are not located institutionally, based on a specially chosen group representing
general population in which the phenomenon under analysis occurs87.
Thus, a survey is concerned with exploring opinions. It is recommended to use
the method of a survey when one wants to find out respondents' opinions about the
issues of interest. It is also useful when examining research population's attitudes,
motives and interests in a certain area.
Thus, it seems reasonable to choose this method to carry out a diagnosis of
students' state of knowledge and awareness of unsustainable consumption and its
consequences for health, economy and the environmental protection. As part of his
method, there are several techniques of gathering information about the research
population, which include: interview, questionnaire and analysis of documents. For
the purpose of the research, the technique of auditorium questionnaire was chosen.
Auditorium questionnaires have been successfully used by numerous scientific
and educational institutions as well as researchers all over the world. The selection
of this technique was determined by its advantages, which allowed the research to
be carried out relatively quickly and on a quite a large sample with the respondents
completing the questionnaire simultaneously. It also made it possible to minimise
problems connected with access to respondents. Unlike with the other survey
techniques, the rate of returns was almost 100 per cent. When conducting the
research in partner schools in a selected group of countries, it was observed that the
use of auditorium questionnaire is conducive to a relatively small number of
missing answers. During the diagnostic survey, a standardised questionnaire was
used (Appendix 1 and 2). It contained 25 questions in the first stage of the research
and 30 questions in the final stage covering five thematic sections:
 unsustainable consumption and threats to civilization,
 healthy lifestyle,
 employment and the economy,
 protection of the environment and climate change,
 education and innovation.
The questions were close-ended with disjunctive characteristics. Analyses were
conducted on the data obtained from the survey questionnaire completed by
respondents. The results obtained from the research were analysed quantitatively
and qualitatively. In order to identify the differences in how the research
population perceives the problem connected with over consumption, the research
results were subjected to comparative analysis. The source of the data used in the
comparative analysis was research results from other educational institutions across
the examined group of countries. The next stage was processing of the results. The
gathered research material was subjected to quantitative and qualitative analysis
with statistical tools using the programme Microsoft Office Excel that involved:

87
See T. Pilch, Zasady badań pedagogicznych, Wydawnictwo Żak, Warszawa 1995.

47
organising and presenting the research results in the form of tables and figures. The
use of quantitative and qualitative analyses resulted from the assumption that
quantitative and qualitative methods are complementary. Statistical analysis, as
a quantitative method, enabled conversion of survey results into percentages 88. The
use of qualitatively-oriented analysis when interpreting the responses to the
questions in the questionnaire aimed to identify the opinions of the research
population and enrich the facts described by numbers by individual, subjective
understanding of the subject among the examined population of students and
teachers.

3.3. Sample selection

Choosing the way of selecting the sample is one of key issues when designing
and carrying out survey research. The process of sample selection usually starts
with defining the population from which the sample will be selected and to which
research findings will be generalised. In other words, it is a group of individuals
who represent the population of interest to the researcher. In this case, the research
population was school students. The selection of the population of students
participating in the research conducted for the purpose of the project was based,
among other things, on the the fact of adjustment and modification of curricula to
include and highlight the issues of sustainable consumption and production. When
choosing the way of selecting a sample, special attention should be paid to the
variety of ways.
According to J. Sztumski, there are two methods for selecting a representative
sample. The first is based on the rules adopted freely by the researcher according to
his/her convictions due to the specific characteristics of a given population or
research objectives. The second, in turn, is based on probability89. The method of
sample selection adopted according to the researcher's convictions is non-random
and includes purposive sampling and quota sampling. In purposive sampling, the
researcher, based on his/her knowledge of the research population, attempts to
conjecture what the typical components of this population are and in this way
he/she creates a kind of its model. It can be said that purposive sampling is based
on the researcher's knowledge about the research population taking into account
research objectives. Quota sampling is based on objective components of a given
population and starts with the description of significant characteristics of the
population and its structure in terms of these characteristics. Next, appropriate
quotas, i.e. shares of specific categories in the sample are defined, and the sample
is selected according to such quotas90.
Non-random sample selection is used when the aim of the research is not
statistical inference about the whole population based on the sample and in specific

88
When computing the data obtained from the survey by means of Excel 2010 spreadsheet, the
following operators applied in formulas were used: reference operators, text operators, arithmetic
operators and mathematical functions.
89
J. Sztumski, Wstęp do metod i technik badań……, op. cit., p. 80.
90
Ibidem

48
research situations, especially such as difficult access to research participants and
lack of reliable sampling frame91.
Probability-based sampling methods are generally divided into:
 random sampling (probabilistic, according to lottery rules, based on a list of
names or random number tables),
 stratified sampling (heterogeneous population is divided into sub-groups treated
as strata),
 proportionate sampling (used in studying large populations, the size of the
sample is proportional to the size of the population),
 multidimensional, knows also as territorial sampling (used when there is too
little data about the research population; in such case, representation of a city,
region is selected).
This category also includes:
 systematic sampling (occurs when e.g. every 5th unit is included in the research
population or units whose numbers are divided by a number selected in
advance),
 cluster sampling (is used when the researcher is interested in random selection
of whole groups e.g. schools, classes, communities rather than single units. The
research sample is made up of all the units from randomly selected clusters),
 two-stage cluster sampling (consists of two stages: the first stage involves
random selection of a specific number of clusters, while in the second stage
from every cluster selected for the sample a certain number of units is randomly
selected. This procedure may be multi-stage)92.
It is also important to mention, as stressed by P. Rydzewski, that sampling
methods require an appropriate sampling frame, which should accurately reflect the
population, i.e. it should not contain elements that do not belong to the population
and eliminate situations when certain elements belonging to the population are
outside of the frame and thus do not have a chance of being included in the
sample93. The above sampling method allows survey results to be generalised to the
whole population despite finding out opinions of a selected part of the population.
After examining the basic sampling methods and taking into account:
 the international character of the research,
 the degree of variety of the research population,
 the level of accuracy and reliability of obtained results,
 economic factor,
 the objective and scope of the research,
 the possibility of conducting a survey using auditorium questionnaire in
a selected group of countries,
the method of purposive (non-probabilistic) sampling was chosen.

91
L.M. Given (ed.), The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods, Sage, Thousand Oaks,
CA, Vol.2, 2008.
92
S. Juszczyk, Metodologia badań empirycznych w naukach społecznych, op.cit. p. 99.
93
P. Rydzewski, Metody doboru próby w badaniach nad rozwodami, Studia Demograficzne 1(145),
2004.

49
 The characteristics taken into account in sample selection were the type and
profile of education at the level of a primary and secondary school and the
respondents' knowledge of a foreign language.
The sample frame was the list of schools joining the project in the selected
group of countries:

 MTU Tartu Selts Erahariduse Edendamise Selts, Estonia

 IPSSAR ‘’P.pi Grimaldi”, Italy

50
 Zespół Szkół i Przedszkola w Kaletach Miotku, Poland

 Scoala Gimnaziala Miron Cristea, Romania

 Toki Sehit Yuzbasi Erhan Kindir Ilkokulu, Turky

51
 The next step was determining the sample size based on the expected level of
detail of cross tabulation in tabular analysis of data. In this case, the final sample
size mainly depends on the territorial scope of the research, type of the subjects
participating in the research and the number of analysed sub-groups (segments)94,
which is presented in Table 7.
Table 7. Examples of research sample sizes depending on the type of cross tabulation
Number Units or households Institutions
of analysed
subgroups
Research scale National Regional National Regional
or special or special
Small (1–9) 1000–1500 200–500 200–500 50–200
Average 1500–2500 500–1000 500–1000 200–500
(10–30)
Many (over 30) 2500 > 1000> 1000> 500>
Source: A. Skibiński, Ekonomiczno-społeczne konsekwencje reprodukcji ludności w kontekście teorii
przejścia demograficznego na przykładzie województwa śląskiego, Praca doktorska, Uniwersytet
Ekonomiczny w Katowicach, Katowice 2010J after Bazarnik, T. Grabiński, E. Kąciak, S. Mynarski,
A. Sagan, Badania Marketingowe. Metody i Oprogramowanie Komputerowe, Canadian Consortium
of Management Schools, Akademia Ekonomiczna w Krakowie, Warszawa–Kraków 1992.

Table 8 presents the size of research sample using non-probability sampling.

Table 8. Characteristics of the research sample
Institution Country Number of respondents

I stage II stage
of the research of the research
Zespół Szkół i Przedszkola w Kaletach Miotku Poland 55 45
IPSSAR ‘’P.pi Grimaldi” Italy 81 40
Scoala Gimnaziala Miron Cristea Romania 13 13
MTU Tartu Selts Erahariduse Edendamise Estonia 34 40
Selts
Toki Sehit Yuzbasi Erhan Kindir Ilkokulu Turkey 158 71
Total 341 209
Source: Own study

The research sample shows that its size N=550 meets the requirements specified
in Table 7 for regional scale research samples.

94
J. Bazarnik, T. Grabiński, E. Kąciak, S. Mynarski, A.Sagan, Badania Marketingowe. Metody
i Oprogramowanie Komputerowe, Canadian Consortium of Management Schools, Akademia
Ekonomiczna w Krakowie, Warszawa–Kraków 1992, p.16.

52
Chapter IV Diagnosis of consumer behaviour of the research population

This chapter will present the results of a direct survey conducted in partner
schools to assess the respondents' state of knowledge about their consumer
behaviour and awareness of the issues of unsustainable consumption. The results
demonstrated the level of knowledge of those surveyed and showed possibilities of
implementation into educational processes of those thematic areas that will be most
important in terms of the issues addressed in the research and may raise awareness
of ecological and health issues among the young generation of Europeans.
4.1. Organisation and implementation of the research
The project was conducted in the period 2016–2018 and consisted of three
stages: In the first stage, threats from unsustainable consumption were analysed by
diagnosing the state of knowledge of the students covered by the research. The
second stage used special futuristic scenarios in which the respondents had to cope
with problems resulting from over consumption in thematic areas related to health,
food, sport, economy and environmental protection. At this stage, the task of the
respondents was to create a vision of a World functioning in accordance with the
concept of sustainable consumption and production. In this way, the respondents
were encouraged to search for creative solutions in this area with the aim of raising
their awareness of ecological and health issues. The third stage involved
procedures for disseminating the research findings at the local, national and
international levels, whose aim was, among other things, to promote equality and
international integration of students in educational processes. For the above-
mentioned stages, tasks related to sustainable consumption and production were
defined for each of the schools participating in the project and assigned as follows:
 Poland – Unsustainable consumption and its threats,
 Italy – Healthy diet, healthy lifestyle,
 Romania – Employment and economy,
 Estonia – Environmental protection and climate changes,
 Turkey – Innovation in the process of education.
The experts participating in the project and representing state schools and
scientific institutions from the above-mentioned group of countries were
responsible for creating a list of survey questions that thematically reflected the
distribution of the tasks. The students participating in the research declared
willingness to take part in the international school exchange and demonstrated
a good knowledge of the English language. Moreover, as part of the project,
numerous meetings between respondents and teachers and experts in economics
and management, medicine and environmental protection were organised. The
direct survey research was divided into two stages – initial and final – and was
monitored. In the final survey, the survey questionnaire contained a few additional
questions.

53
4.2. Unsustainable consumption and its threats in the light of the research
findings

In contemporary societies, special importance is attached to goods and services.

Demand for goods and serviced determines the development of production, which
can minimise unemployment, and possession of goods is a determinant of social
status and increases prestige. It can be concluded that currently societies have been
manipulated into consuming an increasing variety of goods and services. As
a result, the level, manner and structure of consumption have an impact on the
natural environment, carrying noticeable ecological consequences in the form of
greenhouse effect, contamination of surface and ground waters and air. Thus, the
widespread model of unsustainable consumption is a source of an increasing
environmental degradation and depletion of its resources, and a cause of disturbed
ecological balance on Earth.
Acquisition of an increasing number of material goods, over consumption and
the need to earn the highest possible profit significantly hinder the development of
pro-ecological values in a society, especially among the young generation. There is
no doubt that introduction to a consumer society is through the process of
socialisation, as the child is introduced to the role of a consumer. Young people not
only communicate to their parents which games and toys they want to have, but
they also make purchases on their own from their pocket money and often co-
decide about daily shopping. From the perspective of producers, it is important to
take into account such consumers. As a result, children and youth are encouraged
to purchase various goods through advertisements in the press, on TV or the
Internet. 95 Apart from the media, a source of information about the market and the
importance of possession of goods and the value of brands is school.
A consequence of unsustainable consumption is lower ecological awareness.
According to B. Ryszawska-Grzeszczak, it can be helpful to follow, among other
things, simple principles of ecological consumption such as96:
 balance, i.e. the ability of the human being to build homeostasis within his/her
body and create a dynamic balance between himself/herself and the natural
environment,
 indigenousness – the human being is connected with his/her specific, local
environment to which he/she adjusts his/her diet, taking into account seasons,
climate and local tradition,
 ecology – respect for the nature, preferring food originating from local organic
farming without the use of chemicals, ecological awareness during shopping,
segregation of rubbish by type,
 holistic approach – comprehensive, systemic approach to the human being and
the world,

95
M. Zahorska, Szpan czy obciach. Gimnazjaliści jako konsumenci, Psychologia Wychowawcza, No.
6/2014, pp. 66-81.
96
B. Ryszawska-Grzeszczak, Ekologiczny wymiar konsumpcji żywności, Ekonomia i Środowisko,
No. 1 (31) 2007, p. 138.

54
 cost-efficiency, which includes not throwing away any food, avoiding refined,
highly processed products, energy and water efficiency,
 responsibility – for the world, natural environment and one's own health,
 using pubic communication,
 using recycled paper.
The above-principles are closely connected with the concept of sustainable
consumption and pro-ecological life styles 97. Thus, it seems important to promote
these principles already at an early stage of the development of a young man, as
unsustainable consumption poses a threat to further existence of human beings. For
that reason, it is necessary to develop in them the willingness and ability to act in
such a way that respects the requirements of a harmonious co-existence between
the human being and the nature based on knowledge, known and accepted values
and principles of conduct. Unfortunately, campaigns that promote the
environmental protection and principles of sustainable development fail to address
the youngest who are often thought to be too immature to take part in the fight for
clean environment. Therefore, it is argued that by developing ecological awareness
in people from the youngest age we may create a generation that will not have
a thoughtless and consumerist approach to the nature. Ecological education has
never been more important than today, when we often see various environmental
disasters, frequently affecting the nearest environment. It allows both the young
and older generations to become more conscious users of the natural environment.
In order to find out the research population's state of knowledge in this area,
five test questions were prepared in which the respondents were asked to indicate
the correct answers (for individual questions in the further part of the study, the
correct answers have been written in italics).
The first question from the initial survey concerned the World Food Day.
Therefore, the following question was asked:
 World Food Day, established it in 1979 by Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO), is celebrated every year: 16 October, 22 April, 22 March, 2 September.
The distribution of correct answers is shown in Figure 8.
The distribution of responses presented in Figure 8 shows that most correct
answers were indicated by respondents from Italy 73% and Romania 69%.
Subsequently, from Turkey 47% and Estonia 41%. The least correct answers were
given by respondents from Poland – 31%. It can therefore be concluded that
environmental education at an early stage of education in Italy may be more
effective and aimed at creating such situations for young people so that they can
independently come to certain truths and principles of sustainable development.

97
See B. Kryk, Konsumpcja zrównoważona a proekologiczne style życia, Studies & Proceedings of
Polish Association for Knowledge Management Nr 51, 2011, pp. 206-218.

55
 80 73
69
70
the correct answer, %

60 52
47
50 41
40 31
30
20
10
0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 8. The share of correct answers to the question: World Food Day, established it
in 1979 by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), is celebrated:?
Source: own study based on survey

The next question was related to the first one (Fig. 8) and concerned the
knowledge about the amount of food wastage in Europe. Therefore, in the
preliminary study the respondents were asked the following question:
 How much food is wasted every year in Europe: 1 000 tons, 10 000 tons,
50 000 tons, 100 000 tons?
The results of the correct answers are shown in Figure 9.

70 65
56
60
the correct answer, %

50 44 43
40 35

30
20 15

10
0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 9. The share of correct answers to the question: How much food is wasted every year
in Europe:?
Source: as above

56
 In the case of this question, highest number of correct answers were given as
before by respondents from Italy 65%. Less correctly answered respondents from
Estonia 56%, Poland 44% and Turkey 35%. The least correct answers were
indicated by respondents from Romania 15%. This question is important because
wasting food is a global problem that has gained political and social significance in
recent years. It will play an increasingly important role, especially in the context of
the need to feed the growing world population.
It should be remembered that food is a valuable commodity and its production
can consume many resources98. Such a low indication of the correct answers of
respondents from Romania may signal that despite public awareness that thousands
of people die of hunger in the world, tons of food are still being thrown out in
developed countries. It is worth noting that the Government in Romania has
already decided to start the fight with food waste by deciding to implement the UN
recommendation on handling expired food.
In Denmark over recent years food waste has been reduced by 25 percentage
points due to introducing restrictive laws and high penalties for throwing food and
thereby Denmark set, a good example for other countries 99.
Another notable problem raised more often in the media and public debates
concerns air pollution (commonly referred to as smog). It seems that in the
societies of Central and Eastern European countries the awareness of the existence
and importance of this problem is still low.
An effective solution to the problem of air pollution requires determined action
from all sectors contributing to the emission of pollutants (households, transport,
energy production, industry) but also the general public whose attitude and
awareness is essential for the success of these activities 100. Hence, growing
attention is paid to this problem in educational programs. In view of the above, the
respondents were asked the following question:
 Smog occurs most often as: low residual mixture of fog and pollution in
industrialized urban areas during windless weather, cloud of pollution in rural
areas formed during field work and carried by the wind, thick fog free from
impurities, which appears in the morning and making difficult to drive,
a mixture of ozone, oxides of sulfur and nitrogen present in the ozone layer?
The distribution of correct answers is shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10 indicates that in those countries where air pollution is a major
environmental and health problem and in which information campaigns on air
quality are widely available, the awareness of the younger generation about air
quality is definitely higher. Thus, the highest number of correct answers was

98
See: Sprawozdanie specjalne: Zwalczanie marnotrawienia żywności – szansa dla UE na poprawę
efektywności gospodarowania zasobami w łańcuchu dostaw żywności.,[access:10.08.2018],
https://www.eca.europa.eu/Lists/ECADocuments/SR16_34/SR_FOOD_WASTE_PL.pdf.
99
See: Niezależny portal informacyjny o UE i Europie. Rumunia: będą kary za marnowanie
żywności. http://uniaeuropejska.org/rumunia-beda-kary-za-marnowanie-zywnosci/.
100
See: Wpływ zanieczyszczeń powietrza na zdrowie. Krakowski Alarm Smogowy.
https://www.krakowskialarmsmogowy.pl/files/images/ck/14882713101616070935.pdf.

57
indicated by respondents from Poland – 65%. In sequence, Italy 41%, Estonia 32%,
Turkey 29% and Romania 23.

65
70
60
the correct answer, %

50 41 38
40 32 29
30 23
20
10
0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 10. The share of correct answers to the question: Smog occurs most often as:?
Source: as above

One of the watchwords of the concept of sustainable development is, as

K. Prandecki emphasizes, the demand for the dematerialisation of consumption, the
basic assumption of which is to reduce the pressure on the natural environment
resulting from the growing number of goods and thus the growing demand for
natural resources101. It is worth emphasizing that this problem is visible in modern
energy, where one of the most important challenges is the issue of security of
supply of non-renewable energy resources. This issue is a matter of concern not
only for economists but also for politicians. The lack of the possibility of
widespread use of inexhaustible and environmentally friendly energy generation
technologies means that it is necessary to look for other ways to reduce pressure on
the environment. According to E. Lorek, one of the pillars of this action is to
reduce the demand for primary energy by increasing the efficiency of energy
consuming devices102. This initiative and the accompanying emphasis on
increasing public awareness to save energy provide the basis of energy efficiency.
Taking all the above into consideration initiative of raising public awareness of
the identified energy problem must be directed at younger generations to "instill"
pro-ecological standards and attitudes. The following question was asked:
 One of the ways to save electricity is: buying devices with thermostats, setting
the refrigerator close to a heat exchanger for example radiator, using light bulbs
with the lowest brightness, setting supreme washing program in your washing
machine?
101
K. Prandecki, Człowiek i społeczeństwo w koncepcji zrównoważonego rozwoju, [in:]
Uwarunkowania rozwoju zrównoważonej gospodarki opartej na wiedzy, B. Poskrobko (ed.), Wyższa
Szkoła Ekonomiczna w Białymstoku, Białystok 2011, pp. 186-187
102
See: Lorek E. Rozwój zrównoważonej energetyki w wymiarze międzynarodowym, europejskim
i krajowym, [in:] A. Graczyk (ed.), Teoria i praktyka zrównoważonego rozwoju, Katedra Ekonomii
Ekologicznej Akademii Ekonomicznej im. O. Langego we Wrocławiu, Białystok-Wrocław 2007.

58
 The results obtained are presented in Figure 11.
100
100
the correct answer, %

80

60 53
44 45
36 38
40

20

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 11. The share of correct answers to the question: One of the ways to save electricity
is:?
Source: as above

The distribution of correct answers presented in Figure 11 indicates that all

respondents from Estonia have marked the correct answer. Subsequently,
respondents from Turkey 45%, Poland 44%, Romania 38%, and the worst results,
this time were achieved by the respondents from Italy (36% of correct answers).
The received answers are not a surprise, because social awareness regarding energy
security in the Baltic States is quite high. This is due to the fact that these countries
have been energy dependent for many years from the Russian Federation. Thus,
these countries are exposed to the constant risk of a lack of energy supplies, such as
a conflict with Russia or technical infrastructure failures. Ensuring energy security
is inherently related to the energy resources of a given country and the degree of
diversification of energy or energy supplies. Therefore, individual countries or
associations of countries, such as the European Union, strive to diversify the
sources of purchase energy carries, including also their own resources of energy103.
A large number of correct answers among Turkish respondents may also have
some justification. Although Turkey alone is not rich in energy resources, thanks to
the transmission infrastructure located on its territory, it can be a link between
regions where more than 70% of the world's oil and gas reserves are concentrated.
However, the energy danger of Turkey may result from its geopolitical position
(proximity to armed conflicts and repeated terrorist attacks, etc.), which increases
public awareness of the country's energy security.
Recognizing the need to support educational institutions in shaping pro-
ecological attitudes among children and young people, educational and information
activities in the field of environmental education with particular emphasis on
103
See: E. Cziomera (ed.), Międzynarodowe bezpieczeństwo energetyczne w XXI wieku, Krakowska
Szkoła Wyższa im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego, Kraków 2008, pp. 199-201.

59
municipal waste management and segregation of municipal waste are increasingly
undertaken. Therefore, in the preliminary study the following question was asked
to the respondents:
 Before throwing the glass jar you need to: wash the jar and then smash it, do not
remove the labels for easy identification, spin the jar, so that water does not get
into it, remove the metal or plastic nut?
Figure 12 shows the results obtained.
78
80
70 59 62
the correct answer, %

56
60
46
50
36
40
30
20
10
0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 12. The share of correct answers to the question: Before throwing the glass jar you
need to:?
Source: as above

Obtained results from Figure 12 indicate that respondents from Poland 78% and
Turkey 62% responded the most correctly. Respondents from Estonia obtained
59%, Romania 46% and Italy 36%. It seems that the way to promote proper
behaviour and the right attitude towards the natural environment on which we are
dependent is an important element of life. Having knowledge about protecting the
natural environment will help prevent its degradation and allow for the least
possible change for future generations. It seems that organized promotional
campaigns, eg "Segregation – nothing difficult, do something good for the
world"104 can bring the expected results in this area.
In the last stage of the project, a final survey was conducted to check whether,
in the period since the last survey, the awareness of the surveyed community on
sustainable consumption and production has increased. This time, the first question
from the final survey concerned the goals of sustainable development:
 How many Sustainable Development goals have been agreed to, by all the
world nations, as a part of 2030 Agenda: 17, 8, 10, 16?
Figure 13 shows the results obtained.

104
More information: Edukacja ekologiczna w przedszkolach i szkołach. Międzygminny Związek
Celowy,
http://mzcwlodawa.pl/edukacja-ekologiczna-w-przedszkolach-i-szkolach-srednich/

60
 98
100
the correct answer, %

80
63 62 63
54
60
40
40

20

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 13. The share of correct answers to the question: How many Sustainable
Development goals have been agreed to, by all the world nations, as a part of
2030 Agenda:?
Source: as above

The distribution of received answers indicates a clear improvement in this area.

This is particularly true for respondents from Poland (98% of correct answers) and
Estonia 41%. Italian respondents obtained 40% and Turkey 24% of correct answers
what means their results were slightly weaker.
The second question in the final study was as follows:
 Which of the following is not part of the Sustainable Development Goals:
access to sustainable energy for all, availability to water and sanitation for all,
provision of internet services, promotion of decent jobs for all?
The results obtained are shown in Figure 14.
100 100
100
the correct answer, %

73
80 68

60 48 51

40

20

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 14. The share of correct answers to the question: Which of the following is not part
of the Sustainable Development Goals:?
Source: as above

61
 Numerous meetings with representatives of economic sciences and management
within the project as well as dissemination of knowledge about sustainable
development among the respondents brought the expected effect in the form of
correct answers to the given question. All respondents from Poland and Romania
indicated a correct answer.
Another question in the final survey concerned actions to help in the
implementation of sustainable development:
 What can individuals do to help realize the achievement of the Sustainable
Development: support reputable civil society organizations helping poor people,
create projects and partnerships of their own and participate in existing
initiatives to help to achieve more of the goals, use their position in society – as
teachers, decision-makers, consumers, and ordinary citizen in order to make
them aware of the importance of, all of the above … and many more?
The results are shown in Figure 15.

100 89 92
the correct answer, %

80 65
60 56
60

40 28

20

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average
Fig. 15. The share of correct answers to the question: What can individuals do to help
realize the achievement of the Sustainable Development:?

Source: as above

Figure 15 clearly shows that the largest number of correct answers were
indicated by respondents from Romania 92% and from Poland 89%. Subsequently,
Estonia 60%, Turkey 33% and Italy 28%. And in this case, an increase in correct
answers was recorded by 22 percentage points. It should be remembered that the
questions in the final study cover issues strictly related to the concept of
sustainable development, the aim of which is to diagnose the level of the
respondents’ knowledge.
In the final study, the respondents were asked an additional question:
 How can we contribute to the conscious consumption: save energy, avoid
wasting food, reduce, reuse, recycle, all of them?
The results are shown in Figure 16.

62
 96 100
100
83
75
the correct answer, %

80
58
60
40
40

20

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 16. The share of correct answers to the question: How can we contribute to the
conscious consumption:?
Source: as above

Data from Figure 16 indicate that the most correct answers were chosen by the
respondents from Romania 100%, Poland 96% and Estonia 83%. Respondents
from Turkey obtained 41% and Italy 40%. In this case, the average distribution of
correct answers was relatively high, which may indicate a good methodical
orientation and growing awareness of sustainable development among the surveyed
population.
Taking the importance and complexity of energy issues into account, the final
study could not omit a question in this field, addressed to the surveyed population:
 Which of the following does not save energy: decrease the temperature in your
freezer for 1 degree, choose energy-saving lighting, use sunlight to your
advantage, turn off the devices you no longer use, put a lid on a pot when you
cook, install and set a programmable thermostat?
The results are shown in Figure 17.
In this case, the respondents from Estonia and Turkey indicated the smallest
number of correct answers. The largest number of proper answers was indicated by
respondents from Poland 93% and Romania 54% and Italy 45%. Obtained research
results may be a clue to modify the content of promoting sustainable consumption
and production in the field of energy management.
The obtained results regarding sustainable consumption indicate an increase in
the awareness of respondents in the studied area, as shown in the comparison to the
results obtained in the initial survey (Figure 18) with the results of the final survey
(Figure 19).

63
 100 93
the correct answer, %

80
59
54 53
60 45 48

40

20

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 17. The share of correct answers to the question: Which of the following does not
save energy:?
Source: as above

5. Before throwing the glass jar you need 56

to:
53
4. One of the ways to save electricity is:

38
3. Smog occurs most often as:

2. How much food is wasted every year in 43

Europe?
1. World Food Day, established it in 1979 52
by Food and Agriculture Organization…
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
the correct answer, %

Fig. 18. Share of correct answers to questions about unsustainable consumption and its
threats (initial results)
Source: as above

64
 5. Which of the following does not save 59
energy:
4. How can we contribute to the 75
conscious consumption?
3. What can individuals do to help 65
realize the achievement of the…
2. Which of the following is not part of 73
the Sustainable Development Goals?
1. How many Sustainable Development 63
goals have been agreed to, by all the…

0 20 40 60 80
the correct answer, %

Fig. 19. Share of correct answers to questions about unsustainable consumption and its
threats (final results)
Source: as above

The obtained results in the final study showed an increase in the competences of
the surveyed population in the field of unsustainable consumption and its threats.
This is evidenced by the increase in the number of correct answers to questions in
the final survey (average of 5 questions for I examined area 67%) compared with
the results of the initial survey (average of correct answers – 48%).
Summarizing this subsection, one can conclude that education, especially
considering ecological aspects for sustainable development, is a very complex
process that undoubtedly applies to all social and professional groups in every
country. It should take place not only with approval but also with the active
participation of the whole society. It should mean continuous acquisition of
knowledge from various fields of science and life, and also cover the whole of
knowledge about the natural environment and socio-economic development of the
country and the world. One of the key elements of this education is to put special
emphasis on educating future generations in respect for the natural environment
and demonstrating a special understanding for sustainable development. It should
therefore include interdisciplinary education.

4.3. Healthy lifestyle as a trend in consumers’ behaviour

Health is the supreme value for a human being. Media and advertising messages
are increasingly convincing to a healthy lifestyle. Hence, in recent years, changes
in consumer behaviour have become important and popular object of research.
They are not only interested in representatives of various scientific disciplines,

65
including economics, management, medicine or sociology, but also economic
practice.
Currently, health and physical fitness are becoming more and more important.
Sport and recreation as well as proper nutrition play a very important role because
of the strong relationship between health and recreation, sport and nutrition. Such
connection is evident and extensive. It is worth emphasizing that recreation and
sport analyzed in the context of health participate in the process of building human
capital. Promoting a healthy lifestyle depends not only on the level of consumer
awareness. It is the role of local authorities to implement new behaviour patterns
from an early age.
It is worth noting that young people are very susceptible to environmental
influences. In the early period of education a teacher play a very important role,
they have significant impact on shaping the attitudes of their students, and
teacher’s actions can effectively encourage a healthy lifestyle. At this point, the
definition of a pro-health lifestyle proposed by B. Woynarowska it is worth
quoting. A healthy lifestyle is conscious behaviour conducive to improving,
maintaining and protecting health. It consists primarily of: caring for body hygiene
and sanitary hygiene, proper physical activity, rational nutrition, maintaining
safety, subjecting periodic health checks, non-smoking, non-use of drugs, limited
alcohol consumption105. According to this definition, two types of behaviour can be
distinguished:
 pro-health – health-promoting including physical activity, rational nutrition,
maintenance of body and environment cleanliness, handle stress, maintaining
safety, maintaining appropriate interpersonal relations, preventive examinations,
 anti-health, ie. it can be hazardous to one’s health – smoking, alcohol and other
psychoactive substances abuse, or risky sexual behavior106.
Therefore, health education is an important element of prevention programs
offered by educational institutions in every country. In this context, the test
questions included in the initial and final questionnaire regarding a healthy lifestyle
could not be missing. The preliminary study included five test questions covering
this subject. The first question concerned a healthy diet:
 A healthy diet: eliminates all use of sugars and salt, is low in fat, provides
a variety of different foods, both b and c?
The results obtained are shown in Figure 20.
The distribution of correct answers shows that the respondents from Poland –
55%, Estonia 47% and Turkey – 46% were the most aware of the healthy diet. The
least correct answers were provided by the respondents from Romania 31% and
Italy 21%. Considering the above, it can be concluded that the overall result of the
indications was not entirely satisfactory (40% of correct total answers).

105
See B. Woynarowska, Podstawowe pojęcia, [in:] Szkoła promująca zdrowie. Doświadczenia
dziesięciu lat, B. Woynarowska, M. Sokołowska (ed.), KOWEZ, Warszawa 2000, p. 15.
106
See P. Mazur, Zdrowy styl życia uczniów w młodszym wieku szkolnym na Białorusi – raport
z badań, Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Zawodowa w Chełmie, Chełm 2016, p. 25.

66
 60 55
47 46
50
the correct answer, %

40
40 31
30 21
20
10
0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 20. The share of correct answers to the question: A healthy diet:?
Source: as above

Therefore, it seems important to promote healthy nutrition teaching at an early

stage of education of a young man. The aims of such training are:
 getting the right knowledge and the ability to search for it,
 shaping pro-health eating behaviours,
 shaping consumer skills and efficient food management107.
The next question was to check the respondents’ knowledge in the field of
calorific value of products:
 The majority of daily calories should come from: breads, cereals, rice and
pasta products, fruits and vegetables, milk, yogurt and cheese, meat, poultry,
beans or eggs?
The results obtained are shown in Figure 21.
In the case of this question, the most correct answers were given by respondents
from Italy 65% and Estonia, 47%. An alarmingly low percentage of correct
answers was visible among respondents from Turkey 22%, Poland 20% and
Romania 8%. The results from the preliminary study were below expectations
(32.4% of correct answers). Therefore, it seems important to determine the types of
negative habits currently observed among the younger generation in the diet and to
recognize the scale of this phenomenon in educational institutions. It is not without
significance that the modern fast pace of life, overloading with learning, tiring
commuting to school, harmful dietary suggestions propagated in advertisements,
the Internet or youth magazines are very important obstacles in propagating the
principles of rational nutrition108.

107
B. Woynarowska, Edukacja zdrowotna, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2012, pp. 299-
300.
108
More information: B. Kołątaj, W. Kołątaj, I.D. Karwat, The improper dietary habits in teenagers –
preliminary study, Probl. Hig Epidemiol 89(3), 2008, pp. 395-400.

67
 65
70
60
the correct answer, %

47
50
40 32
30 20 22
20
8
10
0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 21. The share of correct answers to the question: The majority of daily calories
should come from:?
Source: as above

The next question asked in the initial questionnaire was about protein sources in
the diet.
 Sources of protein include: chicken and fish, beans and peas, eggs, all of the
above?
Figure 22 shows the results regarding the number of correct answers.

58
60 54

50
the correct answer, %

38 40
40
29
30
20
20
10
0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 22. The share of correct answers to the question: Sources of protein include:?
Source: as above

The results presented in Figure 22 show that the respondents from Turkey 58%
and Romania 54% gave the highest number of correct answers to the question.
Subsequently, respondents from Estonia 38%, Poland 29% and Italy 20%. In the
case of this question, the average share of correct answers fluctuate at 40%.

68
 The penultimate question in the initial questionnaire concerns the role of
nutrients for proper functioning of the human body.
 A precompetition meal should: allow for the stomach to be relatively full at the
start of competition, minimize gastrointestinal distress, provide protein fuel for
the muscles, provide carbohydrate fuel for muscles?
The results on the proportion of correct answers are shown in Figure 23.

29 29
30
25 21 21
the correct answer, %

18
20
15
8
10
5
0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 23. The share of correct answers to the question: A precompetition meal should:?
Source: as above

Figure 23 shows that the share of correct answers the given question is far too
low in the analyzed group of countries, which may suggest that incorrect lifestyle
of modern societies brings negative health effects, the consequences of which are
particularly dangerous in the adolescence. Therefore, it can be concluded that the
state of respondents’ consciousness in terms of broadly understood health at the
preliminary research stage is diverse, and the level of health behaviours often
seems unsatisfactory.
The results of correct answers to the following question are slightly better:
 In general, a solid meal should be eaten __ prior to competition: the day, 3-4
hours, 1 hour, none of the above?
The results of the correct answers are shown in Figure 24.
The distribution of answers to the question indicates that the most correct
answers were given by respondents from Italy 86% and Romania 62%.
Subsequently, Estonia 56%, Poland 49% and Turkey 28%.
It is worth emphasizing that nutritional behaviours shaped in childhood and
adolescence of an individual largely determine the way of feeding in later years of
life and are difficult to modify. Therefore, it is important at the early stage of
education to promote and shape proper nutritional attitudes and physical activity
among children and adolescents, because it is the only way to prevent them from

69
that obesity problems and chronic diseases which are increasingly frequent in this
population group.

100 86

80
the correct answer, %

62
56 56
60 49

40 28

20

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 24. The share of correct answers to the question: In general, a solid meal should be
eaten ___prior to competition:?
Source: as above

Considering the fact that the results of the preliminary survey were far below
expectations and also the importance of a healthy lifestyle for a young person, eight
test questions covering the knowledge in this field were prepared in the final
survey. The first question, as in the initial questionnaire, concerned a healthy diet:
 A healthy diet: is low in fat, eliminates all use of sugars and salt, provides a
variety of different foods, is low in fat and provides a variety of different food?
The results obtained are shown in Figure 25.

93
100
the correct answer, %

80
80 69 71
55 56
60

40

20

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 25. The share of correct answers to the question: A healthy diet:?
Source: as above

70
 Numerous educational meetings with the experts in the field of dietetics have
brought the expected results. When comparing the results of preliminary tests with
those obtained in the final study, a clear increase in the awareness and knowledge
of the studied population about healthy eating is noticeable. The distribution of
correct answers to the question is at least satisfactory (increase of correct total
answers by 31%).
The next test question concerned the Mediterranean diet:
 The Mediterranean diet includes high consumption of: dairy products and meat,
wine, sugar and fats, olive oil, legumes, fruit and vegetables?
The results of the correct answers are shown in Figure 26.

100
100
the correct answer, %

78 80 76
80 68
53
60
40
20
0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 26. The share of correct answers to the question: The Mediterranean diet includes
high consumption of:?
Source: as above

The obtained results of the study indicate that the largest number of correct
answers were given by respondents from Poland 100% and Romania 80%.
Subsequently, Estonia 78%, Italy 68% and Turkey 53%, and the average of correct
answers is above 75%.
The next question was to test the respondents' knowledge about calorific value
of products, as a basis of a healthy diet:
 The majority of daily calories should come from: milk, yogurt and cheese,
cereals, breads, rice and pasta products, meat, poultry, beans or eggs, fruits and
vegetables?
Figure 27 shows the proportion of correct answers.
Figure 27 shows that once again the most correct answers were given by
respondents from Poland 98% and Romania 82. Subsequently, Italy 70%, Turkey
525 and Estonia 45%. The average of correct answers fluctuates around 70%,
which can be considered as a satisfactory result.

71
 98
100
82
the correct answer, %

80 70 69

60 52
45
40

20

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 27. The share of correct answers to the question: The majority of daily calories
should come from:?
Source: as above

The next test question concerned the knowledge about nutrients found in fruits:
 Major nutrients found in fruits include: fat, vitamin C, iron, protein?
The results obtained are shown in Figure 28.

98
100 88
74 77
the correct answer, %

80
63 62
60

40

20

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 28. The share of correct answers to the question: Major nutrients found in fruits
include:?
Source: as above

As in the previous question, 98% of respondents from Poland responded

correctly. The rest of the results were as follows: Estonia 88%, Turkey 74%, Italy
63% and Romania 62%.
The next question concerned the knowledge about a diet rich in protein:

72
 What type of food is very rich in proteins: fruit and vegetables, beans and peas,
eggs, chicken and fish?
The results obtained are shown in Figure 29.

96 100
100

71
the correct answer, %

80
55 58
60 45
40

20

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 29. The share of correct answers to the question: What type of food is very rich
in proteins:?
Source: as above

The results obtained seem to confirm the increase in the effectiveness of

activities promoting healthy eating. The highest number of correct answers was
given by respondents from Romania 100% and Poland 96%. The subsequent
results are: Italy, 58%, Estonia 55% and Turkey 45%. The average of correct
answers this time is satisfactory and exceeds 71%.
The penultimate question concerned the proper intake of drinking water per
day.
 How much water should you drink per day: 1 glass, about 2 litres, 2 glasses,
about 10 litres?
Figure 30 presents the obtained results of correct answers. The distribution of
correct answers should also be considered satisfactory because the average of their
indications fluctuates around 80%.
The last question concerned directly on a healthy lifestyle:
 For a healthy lifestyle you should: eat a lot of fast food, drink a lot of fizzy
drinks, spend time outside and do sports, spend a lot of time on line?
The share of correct answers is shown in Figure 31.

73
 100
100
the correct answer, %

90 80 78
80 73 70 68
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 30. The share of correct answers to the question: How much water should you drink
per day:?
Source: as above

100
93
100
the correct answer, %

86 82
78
80
54
60

40

20

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 31. The share of correct answers to the question: For a healthy lifestyle you
should:?
Source: as above

The results seem to confirm the fact of consolidating knowledge about a healthy
lifestyle. The average indication of correct answers exceeds 80%, which is a very
satisfactory result and confirm the assumptions of the authors that knowledge about
health determinants was effectively transferred and reinforced during the project
implementation. It seems to be confirmed by the information in Figure 32 showing
the results obtained in the preliminary study and results of final tests presented in
Figure 33.

74
 10. In general, a solid meal should be 56
eaten _____ prior to competition.
9. A precompetition meal should: 21

8. Sources of protein include: 40

7. The majority of daily calories 32

should come from:
6. A healthy diet: 40

0 20 40 60
the correct answer, %

Fig. 32. Share of correct answers to questions about healthy lifestyle (initial results)
Source: as above

13. For a healthy lifestyle you should: 82

12. How much water should you drink 78

per day?
11. What type of food can be considered 76
unhealthy?
10. What type of food is very rich in 71
proteins?
9. Major nutrients found in fruits 77
include:
8. The majority of daily calories should 69
come from:
7. The Mediterranean Diet includes high 76
consumption of:
6. A healthy diet: 71

60 65 70 75 80 85
the correct answer, %

Fig. 33. Share of correct answers to questions about healthy lifestyle (final results)
Source: as above

75
 It can be concluded that the collected material illustrates the effectiveness of
promotional activities on a healthy lifestyle among the surveyed population,
because the level of their knowledge in the final study is at least satisfying. It is
worth noting that the way of eating and physical activity are conditioned by the
way of life in the youngest years. Hence, the most important role is played by the
educational environment.

4.4. State of knowledge of the studied population on economic issues

The beginnings of young people's interest in economic knowledge date back to
the 50s of the last century, and its boom took place in the eighties in the United
States and Italy. In Poland, the trend of research in behavioral economics and
economic psychology appeared later. The first studies were conducted in the
eighties and are continued to this day109.
There are important indications that economic knowledge should be
disseminated from the youngest age of the individual. The first premise is that the
efficient functioning of an individual in society and the economy requires from
them the knowledge of the basics of economic issues, such as the value of money
and skilful use of it. The second premise is important because the child's
understanding of the complexity of many economic phenomena is the basis for
shaping their opinions, attitudes and behaviours that will allow them to avoid
wrong decisions and their negative effects in adult life, such as indebtedness,
irrational management of household budgets110.
It is also important at the early stage of education to promote knowledge about
the labour market, as it is one of the basic recipients of the effects of the education
system. Educational paths and learning opportunities offered by the educational
institution have an impact on the chance of employment, the possibility of starting
a professional activity or wages. Thus, education shapes both general competences
and allows to obtain specific qualifications, including vocational ones, sought by
employers. What is more, when shaping the directions of changes in the education
system, both formal and non-formal, the changes in labour demand should be
remembered, because adequate matching of labour demand and supply limits the
scale of mismatch in the labour market, in particular in terms of sought
competences and qualifications.
As W. Sobieraj points out the identification of factors influencing the economic
knowledge of the young generation is helpful in the process of promoting
economic knowledge at an early stage of education,
They are:
 family and significant people. It is the family where that the individual learns
from an early age and absorbs the first knowledge about economics. Parents
'behaviour, the style of economic education, parents' education and their

109
Sobieraj W., Socjalizacja ekonomiczna dzieci jako czynnik rozwoju kapitału ludzkiego, Nauki
Społeczne Social Science 2(8) 2013, pp. 183-193.
110
See Goszczyńska M., Kołodziej S., Trzcińska A. Uwikłani w świat pieniądza i konsumpcji.
O socjalizacji ekonomicznej dzieci i młodzieży, Difin, Warszawa 2012, p. 235.

76
 occupations have a great influence on the level of economic knowledge.
Encouraging saving, common home budget planning, making shopping lists
together, shopping together – these are factors that influence the process of
economic socialization;
 influence of peers. The peer group inspires young consumers to shop and is the
most reliable source of information about trends in the youth market for them;
 advertising messages. Children and young people are increasingly becoming
a very important consumer, and particularly to these groups, the marketers and
producers try to reach out and attach them, the young consumers, to their
products;
 institutional forms of economic education. Recently, there is a growing interest
in various financial and educational institutions, such as the Central Bank,
commercial banks, and universities educating young people in the field of
economics111. Considering the above, the main aim of this subsection is to
examine the level of economic knowledge among students in the field of
selected economic issues, but also to shape entrepreneurial attitudes and skills
necessary for efficient functioning in the world of economics.
In the initial survey, the questionnaire included five test questions about the
Employment and Economy. The first question concerned labor resources:
 The workforce in the country is represented by: all the people from this
country, all the people in a country who are over 18 years old, all the people
who are capable of working, who have physical and intellectual potential, all
the people who are provided with unemployment benefits/compensation?
The results of the correct answers are shown in Figure 34.

67
70 62
59
60 52
the correct answer, %

50 42
40
29
30
20
10
0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 34. The share of correct answers to the question: The workforce in the country is
represented by:?
Source: own study based on survey

111
W. Sobieraj, Socjalizacja ekonomiczna ……op.cit. pp. 187-188.

77
 The results indicate that the most correct answers were given by respondents
from Poland – 67% and Romania – 62%. Subsequently,, Estonia, 59%, Italy 42%
and Turkey 29%. In the case of this question, the average of correct answers was
slightly above 52%.
The next test question was aimed to define what unemployment is:
 The word `unemployment` refers to the: lack of a job abroad, lack of a job in
a country, lack of a well-paid job, lack of a paid job?
The distribution of correct answers is shown in Figure 35.

50 45
42
38
the correct answer, %

40 32
30 23

20 15

10

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 35. The share of correct answers to the question: The word `unemployment` refers
to the:?
Source: as above

In the case of this question, the obtained results are definitely far below
expectations, the average of correct answers is just 32%. It can therefore be
concluded that knowledge of the labour market at this stage of education is
insufficient among the surveyed population. Knowledge about labour market is
very important for the future of a young person, and may limit the possible
difficulties in finding work. On the other hand, it is worth considering what
individual consequences may bring the lack of job. Unemployment can contribute
to112:
 declining the standard of living and even poverty,
 problem with the management of free time,
 feeling of declining the status,

112
See A. Bańka, Bezrobocie, Podręcznik Pomocy Psychologicznej, Wydawnictwo Print-B, Poznań
1992, T. Borkowski, A. Marcinkowski, Socjologia bezrobocia, Biblioteka Pracownika Socjalnego,
Katowice 1999.

78
 depressive symptoms (sadness, depression, discouragement, indifference),
 mental health disorders,
 emotional relations,
 cognitive disorders.
The next question concerned macroeconomic knowledge:
 The gross domestic product (GDP) consists of: all the goods and services
produced in an economy over a period of time, all the goods produced in
a country, all the services provided/fulfilled in a given territory, all the goods
consumed by population?
The results obtained are shown in Figure 36

70 62
60
the correct answers, %

50 40
35 37
40 31
30
20 15

10
0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 36. The share of correct answers to the question: The gross domestic product (GDP)
consists of:?
Source: as above

Figure 36 shows that the highest number of correct answers were given by
respondents from Italy 62% and Turkey 40%. The least amount of correct answers
were from: Estonia 35%, Poland 31% and Romania 15%. In the case of this
question, the average of the correct answers was below expectations.
The fourth question in the area of employment and economics concerned the
definition of the product:
 Products` are: all the objects or goods obtained in the production process,
designed for the customers, all the activities performed for customers at request,
at a certain time, the entire amount of tourism activities in Romania, only
products that can be found in the grocery stores, which are intended for
immediate consumption?
The distribution of correct answers is shown in Figure 37. The data presented
indicate a definitely better result compared to the answers previously given by the
respondents, because the average of correct indications was above 57%. The most
appropriate answers were given by respondents from Romania – 69% and Poland –
65%. Subsequently, respondents from Italy 57%, Estonia 50% and Turkey 47%.

79
 69
65
70
57 58
60 50
the correct answers, %

47
50
40
30
20
10
0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 37. The share of correct answers to the question: Products` are:?
Source: as above

In the last question, respondents were supposed to choose the proper answer
about salary:
 The salary received by the working people is: the amount of money an employee
receives in return for the service/work he/she has performed at a work place,
the amount of money that one person receives from another person without
having to work, the amount of money that a student receives from the
Government, the amount of money a person needs to live decently?
The results regarding the correct answers are shown in Figure 38.
80
80 68
the correct answers, %

70 59
60 53 54
50 40
40
30
20
10
0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 38. The share of correct answers to the question: The salary received by the working
people is:?
Source: as above

80
 The distribution of responses obtained (Figure 38) indicates that the level of
respondents’ knowledge regarding the issue of salary is satisfactory. The average
of correct answers is nearly 60%. Analyzing the obtained answers in the initial
study about basic economic concepts, it can be concluded that in each area there
are terms of concepts that some of the respondents can explain more or less in their
subjective assessment.
Recognizing the deficits in the knowledge and skills of students, it was decided
to organize numerous meetings of with representatives of economic sciences.
In order to evaluate the effectiveness of activities promoting economic
knowledge among the respondents, it was decided not to modify the test questions
in the final questionnaire, leaving them unchanged. As in the initial study, the first
question concerned labour resources:
 Workforce in a country is represented by:?
The distribution of correct answers is shown in Figure 39.

98
100
80
the correct answer, %

80
65
57
60 50
40
40

20

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average
Fig. 39. The share of correct answers to the question: Workforce in a country is
represented by:? (final results)
Source: as above

The distribution of answers shows that the average of the correct indications for
a given question is 7 percentage points higher than in the previous study. The most
of correct answers was given by respondents from Poland 98% and Romania 80%.
In the initial survey respondents from those countries obtained the best results.
A slightly better result was recorded among respondents from Turkey (increase in
correct answers by 20%). It can therefore be concluded that the respondents in
general declared a better knowledge of terms related to the labor market. The
progress was also observed in the case of answers to the second question in the
final questionnaire:
 What does ‘unemployment’ mean:?
The results obtained are shown in Figure 40.

81
 100
100
the correct answer, %

80
59 56
60 48
40
35
40

20

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 40. The share of correct answers to the question: What does ‘unemployment’ mean?
(final results)
Source: as above

The most noticeable increase in the effectiveness of promotional activities in the

field of economic knowledge was observed among respondents from Romania
100%, and Italy 48%. The average indication of correct answers, although it could
be higher, increased of 24 percentage points and can be considered satisfactory. At
this point, it should be emphasized that the level of economic competences largely
depends on the age of the respondents and factors both those related to the
environment in which they live and the characteristics of the respondents
themselves. Regardless of the respondents’ age, numerous reports and expert 113
opinions indicate that the level of economic competences is also related to the
advancement in the use of finance – students with their own money and those who
use financial services have greater skills and economic knowledge. Not without
significance are school achievements of the respondents who participated in
additional classes and programs related to the economy, as well as a number of
factors concerning the environment of the respondents in which they reside, in
particular families. That is why activities that promote economic knowledge from
an early age are so important.
The next question concerned the basic measure of the economy which is the
Gross Domestic Product:
 What does the gross domestic product (GDP) refer to:?
The distribution of correct answers is shown in Figure 41.

113
For example: Diagnoza wiedzy i świadomości ekonomicznej dzieci i młodzieży w Polsce,
Konsorcjum Pracowni Badań i Innowacji Społecznych „Stocznia” i Grupy IQS dla Departamentu
Edukacji i Wydawnictw NBP, 2014,
https://www.nbportal.pl/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/47696/Kompetencje_ekonomiczno-
finansowe_dzieci_i_mlodziezy_w_Polsce.pdf

82
 100 91
the correct answer, %

80 70
60
60 53 49
38
40

20

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 41. The share of correct answers to the question: What does the gross domestic
product (GDP) refer to:? (final results)

Source: as above

Visible improvement is particularly evident in the case of respondents from

Poland 91% and Romania, 70% of correct answers. The indications of respondents
from Italy, where the share of correct answers is much lower compared to the
previous survey (a drop by 24 percentage points) may be a surprise, despite the
indications of respondents from Italy below expectations, the average of correct
answers is relatively good in relation to the preliminary survey (increase by 23
percentage points).
The fourth question in the final study refers to the product definition:
 Products` are:?
The results of the final survey are presented in Figure 42.

93
the correct answer, %

100
80
80 70 72
60
55
60

40

20

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average
Fig. 42. The share of correct answers to the question: Products` are:? (final results)
Source: as above

83
 The obtained results confirm the increase of correct answers to the question in
relation to the previous study. The highest number of correct answers was indicated
by respondents from Poland 93% and Romania 80%. Subsequently, from Estonia
70%, Turkey 60% and Italy 55% . In addition, the average share of correct answers
also showed an upward trend (by 14 percentage points).
The last test question asked to the respondents concerned the possibility of
obtaining income:
 The salary received by the working people is:?
The results regarding the correct answers are shown in Figure 43.
100
the correct answer, %

100 83 85
79 78
80

60 45
40

20

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 43. The share of correct answers to the question: The salary received by the working
people is:? (final results)
Source: as above

The data contained in Figure 43 confirm the effectiveness of promoting

economic knowledge among the surveyed population, because the average share of
correct answers was 18 percentage points higher than in the previous study. The
obtained results in the final study showed an increase in the competences of the
studied population in the field of economic knowledge. The participation of
respondents in programs and educational meetings with specialists in economic
sciences played an important role.
Therefore, participation in additional meetings or educational programs
confirms the effectiveness of these activities, and thus the surveyed population can
have greater competences and skills compared to peers who do not participate in
such activities. Data presented in Figure 44 showing the results of correct answers
to the question in the area of employment and economics is the evidence of the
effectiveness of promotional activities in the field of economic knowledge.

84
 The salary received by the working 78
people is:? 59

72
Products` are:? 58

What does the gross domestic product 60

(GDP) refer to:? 57

56
What does ‘unemployment’ mean:? 33

Workforce in a country is represented 65

by:? 52

0 20 40 60 80
correct answers, %
final results initial results

Fig. 44. Share of correct answers to questions about employment and the economy
(initial and final results)
Source: as above

Summing up, in the tests verifying economic knowledge, the respondents

obtained worse results when it comes to questions about labour market issues, and
definitely better in terms of economy. It can be assumed that economic
competences are treated by the respondents rather as a tool for better management
of their own finances than as a key to understanding the surrounding economic
processes. Therefore, economic education should be treated as a significant factor
affecting the development of human capital, in addition, which may ultimately
contribute to economic growth in the future.

4.5. Assessment of the knowledge of the studied population on environmental

issues in the context of sustainable development
Due to the increasing degradation of the natural environment caused by
anthropogenic factors, the meaning of the term ecology has been extended to
include actions taken to protect the environment related to the human-nature
relationship. The growing interest in environmental problems and numerous
discussions on environmental and ecological threats have resulted in the
assimilation of these issues by various scientific disciplines 114.

114
See: S. Dziekoński, Znaczenie katechezy w edukacji ekologicznej, Pedagogia Christiana, 2011,
No. 2.

85
 According to M. Perlak, the degree of the natural environment degradation,
which occurred in recent decades, drew the attention of public opinion of many
societies of the world to problems related to the effects of uncontrolled
development of civilization. Thus, the deteriorating condition of the environment
requires the broadly understood ecological education of all social and professional
groups115.
So what is environmental education? In the opinion of L. Tuszyńska or
M. Pawłowski, it means the concept of education, the subject of teaching as well as
educational and educational activity, the system of shaping attitudes and views
towards the surrounding world based on respect for the natural environment. In
addition, the multiperspective and interdisciplinary approach makes it sensitive to
environmental problems and threats, makes them aware of their causes and effects,
teaches them how to solve them and responsibility for the natural environment, and
encourages active action to protect the environment 116.
Nowadays, the importance and legitimacy of implementing education in the
context of sustainable development and preparation of the young generation in
particular to recognize existing ecological threats that result from over-exploitation
of natural resources, health threats related to social consequences of economic
growth and civilization threats caused by modern technologies. Therefore, shaping
pro-ecological attitudes especially among the younger generation through
education should start from the first moment they start organized teaching and
institutionalized education117.
Accordingly, he purpose of the survey in this task was to broaden ecological
awareness among the surveyed population. As in previous tasks, both preliminary
and final surveys were carried out with the same set of test questions.
In the first question, the respondents were to indicate what is called the
degradation of the natural environment with substances of chemical origin:
 What do you call for substance that pollutes the air, water or soil: pollutant,
pesticides, acid, sulfur?
Figure 45 shows the results obtained and most of correct answers were given by
respondents from Romania – 69% and Estonia – 56%. The number of correct
answers to the question given by the respondents from the remaining group of
countries reached results below expectations, which was reflected in the total
indications below 50 percentage points.

115
M. Parlak, Edukacja ekologiczna w procesie kształcenia wczesnoszkolnego – założenia, program,
propozycje metodyczne, Wydawnictwo Pedagogiczne ZNP, Kielce 2005, p. 9.
116
See: L. Tuszyńska, Edukacja ekologiczna dla nauczycieli i studentów, Wyższa Szkoła
Pedagogiczna Towarzystwa Wiedzy Powszechnej, Warszawa 2006; A. Pawłowski, Rozwój
zrównoważony, idea, filozofia, praktyka, Monografie Komitetu Inżynierii Środowiska PAN, vol. 51,
Lublin 2008, p. 381.
117
E. Kopeć, Znaczenie i rola edukacji ekologicznej w nauczaniu początkowym, [in:] Edukacja
ekologiczna. Wybrane problemy, M.K. Terlceka (ed.), Wydawnictwo Armagraf, Krosno 2014, pp. 19-
28.

86
 69
70
56
60 51
the correct answer, %

48
50
36
40
27
30
20
10
0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 45. The share of correct answers to the question: What do you call a substance that
pollutes the air, water or soil:?
Source: own study based on survey

The next test question included in the questionnaire related to climate changes
caused by the greenhouse effect:
 Global Warming will cause increase in: heat waves, hurricanes, both, none of
them?
The distribution of correct answers is shown in Figure 46.

50
50
42
the correct answer, %

40 35
32
27
30

20
8
10

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 46. The share of correct answers to the question: Global Warming will cause
increase of:?
Source: as above

87
 Figure 46 shows that the highest number of correct answers in question 2 were
given by respondents from Estonia 505 and Poland 42%. Subsequently, from
Turkey, 35%, Italy 27% and Romania 8%. Such a low indication of correct
answers is confirmed by their overall number – below 33 percentage points.
Therefore, promotional activities in this area should include education taking the
growing interest of the young generation into account and bringing them closer to
the consequences of global warming such as:
 extreme weather phenomena,
 changes in the quality and efficiency of plant and animal production,
 creation of new viruses and bacteria that cause human and animal diseases,
 UV radiation.
Confirmation of the importance of the problem related to the global warming of
the climate and its consequences is another test question asked to the respondents:
 Which of these human activities contributes the most for global warming: using
fossil fuels, cutting down trees, riding bicycles, none of them?
The results showing the number of correct answers are shown in Figure 47.

70 65

60
the correct answer, %

49
46 45
50 40
40
27
30
20
10
0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 47. The share of correct answers to the question: Which of these human activities
contributes the most for global warming:?
Source: as above

The obtained results in Figure 47 show that the share of correct answers to
a given question is below expectations. Only in the case of respondents from
Estonia, the result should be considered satisfactory.
It should be noted that the probability of severe consequences of climate change
will increase with the increase of their rate and amplitude. Therefore, limiting the
growth of concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide in the
atmosphere, seems to be a necessary measure to mitigate the pace of climate

88
change and its effects118. Therefore, educational activities aimed at increasing the
awareness of all social groups on the problem of climate change and its
consequences are truly necessary.
The penultimate question asked to respondents concerned the protection of the
Earth against UV radiation:
 Which layer protects the Earth from UV rays: oxygen, nitrogen, ozone,
hydrogen?
The results obtained are shown in Figure 48.

85
90
80
the correct answer, %

70 59 62
56 56
60 52
50
40
30
20
10
0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 48. The share of correct answers to the question: Which layer protects the Earth
from UV rays:?
Source: as above

In the case of this question, the average of correct answers in total was slightly
higher (over 50%). The highest number of correct answers to the question asked
was given by respondents from Romania 85% and Italy 62%. Subsequently, from
Estonia, 59%, Turkey and Poland, 56%.
The last test question was prepared to diagnose the state of knowledge of the
studied population on renewable energy sources:
 What do you call renewable safe sources of energy: Alternative energies, Bio-
energies, Solar energies, Wind energy?
The distribution of correct answers is shown in Figure 49.
Obtained results are not satisfactory. The average of the correct indications in
total did not exceed 30 percentage points.

118
See: Z.W. Kundzewicz, Climate changes, their reasons and effects – observations and projections,
Landform Analysis, Vol. 15/2011, pp. 39-49.

89
 40 36
33
35
29
the correct answer, %

30 25
25 20
20
15
8
10
5
0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 49. The share of correct answers to the question: What do you call renewable safe
sources of energy:?
Source: as above

Therefore, ecological education should enable, especially young people, to

develop their skills to make decisions and the right choices related to the state of
the environment and contributing to its improvement, in such a way that they can
be expected to be active in the area of environmental issues. Education at an early
stage of a young person’s life is crucial, its aims are119:
 providing a situation to experience direct or indirect contact with objects and
natural phenomena,
 providing basic and essential information about ecosystems, objects and
phenomena occurring in the close living environment,
 help in getting a basic orientation in the meaning of objects and phenomena for
their lives,
 to lead noticing the relationship between the state of the environment and the
well-being and health of people,
 shaping the habit of economical use of natural resources and their maximum
protection,
 creating the possibility to shape the ability to segregate and re-use certain
wastes in the immediate environment,
 creating the possibility to shape ecological and health habits in a place of fun,
recreation or learning,
 providing conditions for shaping proper attitudes towards people, animals and
plants.

119
See: I. Żeber-Dzikowska, Opinie nauczycieli dotyczące edukacji ekologicznej prowadzonej przez
regionalne centrum edukacji ekologicznej w Płocku, Forum Pedagogiczne 2016/2, part 2, pp. 124,
125.

90
 Relatively low indications of correct answers to the test questions included in
the preliminary questionnaire were taken into account. Numerous educational
meetings with experts specializing in environmental protection were organized.
Also within the framework of didactic classes, the educational program in the field
of ecological education was modified to cover the thematic scope of the project. In
connection with the above, the final examination included the same set of test
questions to enable evaluation of the effectiveness of promotional activities and
"promotion" of pro-ecological attitudes among the surveyed population. The first
question, as in the preliminary study, concerned the degradation of the natural
environment.
 What do you call for air pollutants, water or soil:?
The final results obtained are shown in Figure 50.
80
80 74
65 67
70 63
the correct answer, %

60 54
50
40
30
20
10
0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 50. The share of correct answers to the question: What do you call a substance that
pollutes the air, water or soil:? (final results)
Source: as above

The presented distribution of answers confirms the stability of promotional

activities in the field of environmental education. This is evidenced by a clear
increase in the average number of correct answers given by the respondents in
comparison to the previous survey by 19 percentage points. The highest number of
correct answers was indicated by respondents from Estonia 80% and Poland 74%.
Subsequently, from Italy, 65%, Turkey 63%, and slightly below expectations,
respondents from Romania (a 15% decrease compared to the preliminary survey).
Another test question, as in the preliminary study, included issues related to the
greenhouse effect:
 Global Warming will cause increase of:?
The distribution of correct answers is shown in Figure 51.

91
 100
100
80
the correct answer, %

80 67
60
55
60
38
40

20

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 51. The share of correct answers to the question: Global Warming will cause
increase of:? (final results)
Source: as above

In the case of this question, one can observe the most visible increase in the
effectiveness of promotion activities of ecological knowledge, because this
question very difficult for respondents in the previous study (increase in the share
of correct total answers by nearly 35 percentage points). This time, the highest
number of correct answers were given by respondents from Poland 100% and
Romania 80%. Subsequently, from Estonia 60% Italian Italy 55% and Turkey 38%.
In the next question, respondents had to answer the question:
 Witch of these human activities contributes to the global warming:?
The results obtained are shown in Figure 52.
80 80
80
64 65
54
the correct answer, %

60 48

40

20

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 52. The share of correct answers to the question: Which of these human activities
contributes the most for global warming:? (final results)
Source: as above

92
 Taking the obtained results into account, it can be concluded that the period
between the first and the second study allowed to create better conditions for
developing the practical skills of the respondents and making decisions and
choices.
The answers to the next question confirmed again the why the role of
educational institutions in the field of environmental education is so important. It
seems that beliefs about the primacy of ecological values over ecological ones still
persist. As in the preliminary study, the respondents were to answer the following
question:
 Which layer protects the Earth from UV rays:?
The results of the correct answers are shown in Figure 53.

98
93
100 85
the correct answer, %

78
80
60
54
60

40

20

0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 53. The share of correct answers to the question: Which layer protects the Earth
from UV rays:? (final results)
Source: as above

The results obtained indicate that respondents from Poland 98%, Estonia 93%
and Romania 85% gave the highest number of correct answers. Subsequently, from
Italy 60% and Turkey 54%. In this case the result obtained can be considered
satisfactory.
The result from the final test was slightly below expectations.
 What do you call for renewable sources of energy:?
The results obtained are shown in Figure 54. The data shows that the most
correct answers to the test question were given by respondents from Romania 54%
and Italy 53%. From the remaining group of countries, the result of the surveyed
was below 50% of correct indications, which directly reflected in the overall result
at the level of 46%.
Although the results obtained are somewhat disappointing, the actions taken
within the framework of environmental education have confirmed their
effectiveness.

93
 60 53 54
48 49 46
the correct answer, %

50
40
28
30
20
10
0
Estonia Italy Poland Romania Turkey average

Fig. 54. The share of correct answers to the question: What do you call renewable safe
sources of energy:? (final results)
Source: as above

Experts participating in the project realize that this education requires the use of
diverse methods, forms and content adapted to their age. Hence, the creation of
positive attitudes is a specific feature of environmental education and is just as
important as learning all the scientific details related to this subject. In order to
confirm the effectiveness of promotional activities, a summary of the obtained
correct answers from all questions was presented – from the preliminary and final
test (Figure 55).

What do you call renewable safe 46

sources of energy? 25

Which layer protects the Earth from 78

UV rays? 67

Which of these human activities 65

contributes the most for global… 45

Global Warming will cause 67

increase of? 32

What do you call a substance that 67

pollutes the air, water or soil? 48

0 20 40 60 80
correct answers, %
final results initial results
Fig. 55. Share of correct answers to questions about protection of the environment and
climate change (initial and final results)
Source: as above

94
 The test results obtained seem to confirm the increase of ecological awareness
of the respondents, which is extremely important, because ecological education
fulfills a very important role in the life of every human being.
Summarizing the results of the research, it can be concluded that knowledge is
the basis for shaping new social awareness, extended with ecological awareness as
an integral part of sustainable development. In order to educate for sustainable
development, according to A. Hłobił, there is a need for continuous education not
only for children and young people, but also for adults. These activities should be
carried out by appropriately prepared groups of educators and cooperation with
schools and non-governmental organizations should be provided120. Therefore,
ecological education will fulfil the tasks to cover every scope and all levels of
education, both formal and informal.
4.5. Perception of the surveyed population regarding educational activities
undertaken in the project
Education is a key element preparing a young man for living in the surrounding
reality. Currently growing globalization processes, rapid technological and IT
progress or a huge pace of change give rise to a question about today's education
and the direction of its changes, in order to adapt children and young people to an
unstable reality. Therefore, every person in the society is directly or indirectly
interested in the quality of the educational process, and in particular its
effectiveness and efficiency. Quality in educational processes is of great
importance because errors in education can have negative consequences.
Therefore, the need to evaluate education should be important, which should affect
its level, and in particular to increase the effectiveness and efficiency at every level
of education. The tendency of societies to innovate depends just from the level of
human capital
It is worth noting that the size of human capital and its structure plays a huge
role in the development of societies. Particular attention is paid to the positive
impact of human capital on the innovativeness of economies and societies,
absorption capacities in the field of world scientific achievements, and encouraging
the promotion and dissemination of modern patterns of consumption and quality of
life121.
Until quite recently, education was aimed at training knowledge, skills and
attitudes. Currently, the hierarchy of its goals is not encyclopedic transferring
knowledge, but the shaping of attitudes. It shapes such features as activity,
imagination, the ability to intellectual autonomy and to constant education122..

120
A. Hłobił, Ecological education for sustainable development. Theory and practice, Problems of
Sustainable Development, Vol. 5, 2010, No. 2, pp. 87-94,
http://yadda.icm.edu.pl/baztech/element/bwmeta1.element.baztech-article-BPL2-0017-
0020/c/Hlobil.pdf [access: 20.08.2018].
121
See H. Król, A. Ludwiczyński (ed.), Zarządzanie zasobami ludzkimi. Tworzenie kapitału ludzkiego
organizacji, PWN, Warszawa 2007, p. 111.
122
See B. Kołaczek, Dostęp młodzieży do edukacji Zróżnicowania. Uwarunkowania. Wyrównanie
szans, IPiSS, Warszawa 2004, p. 16.

95
According to Z. Frączek, the following are distinguished among the main
directions of educational activities for contemporary societies 123:
 encouraging people to expand and acquire new knowledge,
 creating conditions for the assessment and verification of own qualifications,
 the struggle for mobility of learning, the possibility of penetrating from one
level of education to another,
 introduction of multimedia computer programs,
 broader connections between schools and the enterprise sector through
internships, internships, etc.,
 equal rights in material investment and expenditure on education,
 encouraging language learning.
Thus, in the building of the quality of school education, the standards relating to
the student's school achievements (educational) and school (organizational)
standards play a huge role. The standards mentioned first describe the students'
educational achievements. These are lists of skills and attitudes that can be
acquired at a given level of education. Whereas organizational standards describe
the work of the school, they serve as a model for all activities undertaken in this
type of institution, with particular emphasis on didactic, educational and caring
activities. The very definition of standards, and even their implementation, is not
a guarantee of achieving and improving quality at school, but it is definitely
a necessary starting condition for them124.
Considering the importance of the education process, several test questions
were prepared as part of two research stages (initial and final). Test questions and
respondents' answers are presented below. The content of the first question in the
field of education & innovation was:
 Can every student be creative: some of them, most of them, all of them, none of
them?
The results obtained are shown in Figure 56.

123
See Z. Frączak, Oświata polska wobec perspektyw globalizacji oświatowej, [in:] Reforma
oświatowa wobec wiedzy pedagogicznej, A. Śniegulska (ed.), Uniwersytet Rzeszowski, Rzeszów
2004, pp. 42, 43.
124
See M. Koszmider, Szkolne standardy jakości procesu kształcenia, Wydawnictwo Impuls, Kraków
2008.

96
 a)
21
37
average 22
20

9
15
Turkey 27
49

0
54
Romania 31
15 none of them
67 all of them
27
Poland 4 most of them
2
some of them
17
41
Italy 22
20

10
51
Estonia 27
12

0 20 40 60 80
answer, %
b)

21 20
some of them
most of them
all of them
22 none of them
37

Fig. 56. The share of answers to the question: Can every student be creative:? a) detailed
results, b) average (initial results)
Source: own study based on survey

The second question in the field of education & innovation was as follows:
 In your opinion what is the most effective for enhancing creative learning:
allowing students to make mistakes, using technologies, experiences such as
work and play or risk taking, discipline?
The results of the preliminary test obtained are presented in Figure 57.

97
 a)
19
32
average 23
25

26
35
Turkey 15
23

31 discipline
23
Romania 23
23
experiences such as work
16 and play or risk taking
40
Poland 25
18 using technologies
20
31 allowing students to
Italy 26
23 make mistakes
4
30
Estonia 27
39

0 10 20 30 40
answer, %

b)
allowing students to make
19 mistakes
25
using technologies

experiences such as work and

32 23 play or risk taking

discipline

Fig. 57. The share of answers to the question: In your opinion what is the most effective
for enhancing creative learning:? a) detailed results, b) average (initial
results)
Source: as above

The third question was:

 Which certain technologies are the most important for learning: educational
software, interactive white boards, social media, virtual learning environments?
The obtained preliminary test results are shown in Figure 58.

98
 a)

22
22
average 25
31

27
24
Turkey 19
30

15
31
Romania 31 virtual learning environments
23

27 social media
13
Poland 20
40
interactive white boards
16
27
Italy 28
28 educational software

25
17
Estonia 26
32

0 10 20 30 40
answer, %
b)

educational software
22 31
interactive white
boards
social media

22 virtual learning
25
environments

Fig. 58. The share of answers to the question: Which certain technologies are the most
important for learning? a) detailed results, b) average (initial results)
Source: as above

The next question was related to student preferences:

 I like: preparing additional materials from different sources for my favorite
classes, updating my own knowledge, doing nothing extra, preparing myself
before every lesson?
The distribution of responses is shown in Figure 59.

99
 a)

35
19
average 27
20
preparing myself before
67 every lesson
7
Turkey 18
8
doing nothing extra
62
0
Romania 23
15

15 updating my own
33 knowledge
Poland 20
33

25 preparing additional
23 materials from different
Italy 22
30 sources for my favourite
classes
6
31
Estonia 50
13

0 20 40 60 80
answer, %
b)

preparing additional
materials from different
20 sources for my favourite
35 classes
updating my own
knowledge

doing nothing extra

19 27

preparing myself before

every lesson

Fig. 59. The share of answers to the question: I like:? a) detailed results, b) average
(initial results)
Source: as above

100
 The last question in the preliminary study in the field of education & innovation
was as follows:
 Do you like when a teacher: demonstrates and presents material using
technologies, prepares handouts and additional materials, uses teaching
software that my school has a license, uses the computer room for classes?
The obtained answers are shown in Figure 60.
a)

23
15
average 32
31

30
9
Turkey 40
22

31 uses the computer room

8 for classes
Romania 38
23
uses teaching software
18 that my school has a
20 license
Poland 24
38 prepares handouts and
additional materials
6
12
Italy 36 demonstrates and presents
46 material using
technologies
30
25
Estonia 20
25

0 10 20 30 40 50
answer, %
b)
demonstrates and presents
23 material using technologies
31
prepares handouts and
additional materials

uses teaching software that my

school has a license
15
uses the computer room for
32 classes

Fig. 60. The share of answers to the question: Do you like when a teacher:? a) detailed
result, b) average (initial results)
Source: as above

101
 The last part of final survey aimed at learning opinions and preferences of
students in the field of education & innovation included seven questions. The first
one concerned:
 In your opinion, what was the most effective way to enhance creative learning:
allowing students to make mistakes, using technologies, experiences such as
work and play or risk taking, discipline?
The results obtained are shown in Figure 61.
a)

19 discipline
43
Turkey 24
14
8
38 experiences such as
Romania 38
16 work and play or risk
taking
48
20
Poland 28 using technologies
4
10
32
Italy 28
30 allowing students to
make mistakes
5
33
Estonia 27
35

0 20 40 60
answer, %

b)

18 20 allowing students to make

mistakes
using technologies

experiences such as work and

play or risk taking
33 29 discipline

Fig. 61. The share of answers to the question: In your opinion what was the most
effective way for enhancing creative learning:? a) detailed results b) average
(final results)
Source: as above

102
 The second question in the final study was:
 Did you like when a teacher: demonstrated and presents material using
technologies, prepared handouts and additional materials, used teaching
software that my school has a license, used the computer room for classes?
The results are presented in Figure 62.
a)

9
19
Turkey 51
21
23 used the computer room
31 for classes
Romania 8
38
43 used teaching software
11 that my school has a
Poland 2
44 license
prepared handouts and
15 additional materials
33
Italy 17
35
demonstrated and presents
37 material using
13 technologies
Estonia 12
38

0 20 40 60
answer, %

b)

25 35 demonstrated and presents

material using technologies
prepared handouts and
additional materials
used teaching software that
my school has a license
21 used the computer room for
classes
18

Fig. 62. The share of answers to the question: Did you like when a teacher:?
a) detailed results, b) average (final results)
Source: as above

103
 The next question was:
 In which areas your has knowledge significantly increased: sustainable
consumption, protecting natural environment, economy & employment and the
importance of education, healthy living & sport, in all of them?
The results are shown in Figure 63.
a)

35
17
Turkey 34
14

100
0
Romania 0
0 in all of them

57
26
Poland 13 healthy living & sport
4

27
38 economy & employment and
Italy 17 the importance of education
18
sustainable consumption,
17
50 protecting natural
Estonia 23 environment
10

0 20 40 60 80 100
answer, %

b)
9 sustainable consumption,
protecting natural
17
environment
economy & employment and
the importance of education

healthy living & sport

47
26
in all of them

Fig. 63. The share of answers to the question: In which areas your has knowledge
significantly increased:? a) detailed results, b) average (final results)
Source: as above

104
 The next question was:
 Have lessons become more creative due to the implementation of project tasks:
definitely yes, rather yes, rather no, no?
The results obtained are presented in Figure 64.
a)

11
11
Turkey 23
55

Romania 15
85

76 no
20
Poland 2 rather no
2
rather yes
7 definitely yes
10
Italy 35
48

4
10
Estonia 60
26

0 20 40 60 80 100
answer, %

b)

20
43
10 definitely yes
rather yes
rather no
no

27

Fig. 64. The share of answers to the question: Have lessons become more creative due to
the implementation of project tasks:? a) detailed results, b) average (final
results)
Source: as above

105
 The next question in the final study concerned:
 Have you willingly participated in design tasks: definitely yes, rather yes, rather
no, no?
The results obtained are shown in Figure 65.
a)

9
1
Turkey 27
63

0
0
Romania 0
100
no
54
20 rather no
Poland 24
2 rather yes
0 definitely yes
25
Italy 25
50

5
7
Estonia 63
25

0 20 40 60 80 100
answer, %
b)
14
11
48
definitely yes
rather yes
rather no
no

28

Fig. 65. The share of answers to the question: Have you willingly participated in design
tasks:? a) detailed results, b) average (final results)
Source: as above

The penultimate question was:

 Have you become more tolerant to other cultures, religions and nationalities:
definitely yes, rather yes, rather no, no?
The results are shown in Figure 66.

106
a)

12
6
Turkey 30
52

0
0
Romania 0
100

48 no
26
Poland 24
rather no
2 rather yes

2 definitely yes
15
Italy 40
43

4
4
Estonia 50
42

0 20 40 60 80 100
answer, %
b)
13
10
48 definitely yes
rather yes
rather no
no
29

Fig. 66. The share of answers to the question: Have you become more tolerant to other
cultures, religions and nationalities:? a) detailed results, b) average (final
results)
Source: as above

The last question in the final questionnaire concerned the students' opinion
about the continuation of participation in the Erasmus+ project:
 Should your school continue international cooperation within Erasmus +
projects: definitely yes, rather yes, rather no, no?

107
 The obtained answers are shown in Figure 67.

a)

6
10
Turkey 21
63

17
9
Romania 33
41

20 d) no
15
Poland 13 c) rather no
52
b) rather yes
0
7 a) definitely yes
Italy 38
55

7
10
Estonia 40
43

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

answer, %

b)
10
10

definitely yes
rather yes
rather no
no
29
51

Fig. 67. The share of answers to the question: Should your school continue international
cooperation within Erasmus+ projects:..? a) detailed results, b) average (final
results)
Source: as above

To sum up, the opinions of the surveyed population on the effective methods of
education, the most frequently indicated were: the use of modern teaching methods

108
using multimedia techniques, experiments and tasks that allow them to develop
their independence and creativity in their activities.
It can also be concluded that the actions taken to increase the awareness of the
respondents on sustainable consumption and production proved to be effective.
Particularly when the obtained research results as part of the "Education &
Innovation" task are considered,. Transformations in the political, economic and
cultural spheres increase the need to implement modern didactic methods. This is
crucial because the assessment of the work of each educational institution will
depend on the choice of solutions that are compatible with the principle of
economic efficiency, effectiveness and social justice.
International cooperation allows for the exchange of experience and the increase
of didactic competences, which leads directly to an increase in the effectiveness of
teaching which increasingly important in the implementation of these activities.

109
Summary

Sustainable consumption and production is closely linked to the concept of

sustainable development, which in its essence means a better quality of life not
only for present but above all for future generations. It results from the need to
promote such economic development including social and environmental aspects
both on a global and local scale. The multidimensionality and multifaceted nature
of sustainable development is connected with the necessity to involve the assumed
goals of both producers and consumers. This in turn requires the shaping of social
awareness, changes in behavioral patterns or consumption standards in accordance
with the criteria of environmental protection, social justice, effective use of
resources and reduction of waste.
The need to raise social awareness in the field of sustainable development
among the young generation of Europeans and, above all, the increase in
knowledge about the threats of consumerism was the basis for the implementation
of this project. In addition to raising awareness of the threats caused by excessive
consumption, it is also important to promote education for sustainable
development, reorganization of consumer behaviour by encouraging lifestyle
changes and shaping pro-environmental habits.
An important role in achieving the goals of sustainable development and
limiting the phenomenon of consumerism can be played by education. This can be
done by including issues that are the subject of this monograph, in school curricula
from early stage of education of a young person. These issues include: knowledge
about sustainable consumption, threats resulting from unsustainable consumption,
promotion of a healthy lifestyle, nutrition and sport, environmental awareness as
well as proper use of resources.
The multidimensional nature of sustainable production and consumption closely
correlates with the five thematic sections included in the project:
 unsustainable consumption and threats to civilization,
 healthy lifestyle,
 employment and the economy,
 protection of the environment and climate change,
 education and innovation.
The indicated issues were research areas allowing to determine the level of
knowledge in the research and determining the possibilities of their implementation
in educational processes.
The obtained results of research on sustainable consumption and production
indicate an increase in the awareness of respondents in each of the above
mentioned research areas, as evidenced by the obtained results of preliminary and
final tests (Table 9).

110
Table 9. List of survey results carried out during implementation of the project
Research area Initial results, % Final results, %

Unsustainable 48 68
consumption and threats to
civilization
Healthy lifestyle 37 75
Employment and the 51 66
economy
Protection of the 43 65
environment and climate
change
average 44 69
Source: Own study

The results obtained in the final study showed an increase in the competences of
the surveyed population in the scope of unsustainable consumption and its threats,
as evidenced by the results presented in Table 9.
Education in the areas of sustainable consumption and production has taken
a particular role, including ecological and social, economic and didactic aspects, as
evidenced by the increase in the share of correct total answers to test questions in
the final study. The increase in the share of correct answers from 44% obtained in
the preliminary study to 69% of correct indications in the final study can be
considered satisfactory and at the same time confirming the effectiveness of
didactic activities undertaken as part of the project.
Considering the above, it can be concluded that the applied didactic approach
within the project allowed developing communication and intercultural skills,
analytical skills and critical thinking, increasing motivation to acquire knowledge,
independent thinking and shaping attitudes among the respondents, which relate to
the principles of sustainable development.
International cooperation that allows for the exchange of experience and the
increase of didactic competences, which translate into an increase in the
effectiveness of teaching, is increasingly important in the implementation of these
activities.
Hence, as it has been proved in this study Erasmus Plus Projects are
a qualitative, strong tool that supports both formal and non-formal education while
assisting teachers in acquiring advanced, highly standardized and qualitative
delivery of education to learners of all ages. Implementing Erasmus Plus Projects
in lower secondary schools and primary schools meant ensuring the promotion of
European values which helped achieving European learning standards through
direct contact to countless European resources, exchange of ideas and open access
to unmediated experiencing opportunities. Moreover, Erasmus Plus Projects
brought essential contribution to the overall development of the participants:
learner as well as the teaching staff which manifested in terms of knowledge,

111
attitudes and skills required for living in a modern world, in need of highly and
suitable trained young human resources as future workforce. Moreover,
international cooperation helps teachers to progress in their career and acquire
professional development by making them more compatible teachers with the
reality of this contemporary society. They are more qualified to educate and form
capable students developing their social and communicative skills.
Summarizing the results of the research, it can be concluded that knowledge is
the basis for shaping new social awareness, extended with ecological awareness as
an integral part of sustainable development. It is important to put special emphasis
on educating future generations to protect natural environment having the
knowledge about sustainable development. This is believed to be a key role of
education.
The implementation of promotional activities in the field of sustainable
consumption and production among the surveyed population was carried out on the
basis of specially adapted curricula covering topics of the project (see Chapter 3).
On the project website, the reader can find a set of lesson plans prepared by partner
schools participating in the project. In Annex No. 3 selected lesson plans are
presented.

112
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podmiotów decyzyjnych, Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Szczecińskiego, No. 382,

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124. Wosińska W. (2004), Psychologia życia społecznego, GWP, Gdańsk.
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Doświadczenia dziesięciu lat, B. Woynarowska, M. Sokołowska (ed.), KOWEZ,
Warszawa.
126. Woynarowska B. (2012), Edukacja zdrowotna, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa.
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129. Zahorska M. (2014), Szpan czy obciach. Gimnazjaliści jako konsumenci, Psychologia
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130. Zalega T. (2012), Konsumpcja, determinanty, teorie, modele, PWN, Warszawa.
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List of illustrations

Fig. 1. Stages of a consumer's decision-making process according to Hawking

and Mothersaugh .............................................................................................. 19
Fig. 2. Key events impacting the emergence of sustainable development ..................... 27
Fig. 3. Types of sustainable consumption .................................................................... 30
Fig. 4. Sustainable development as a synthesis of three pillars ...................................... 32
Fig. 5. Sustainable consumption and production........................................................... 33
Fig. 6. Concept of sustainable production ................................................................... 34
Fig. 7. Trends in contemporary consumption .............................................................. 39
Fig. 8. The share of correct answers to the question: World Food Day, established it
in 1979 by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), is celebrated:? .............. 56
Fig. 9. The share of correct answers to the question: How much food is wasted
every year in Europe:? ..................................................................................... 56
Fig. 10. The share of correct answers to the question: Smog occurs most often as:? ..... 58
Fig. 11. The share of correct answers to the question: One of the ways to save
electricity is:? ............................................................................................... 59
Fig. 12. The share of correct answers to the question: Before throwing the glass jar
you need to:? ................................................................................................ 60
Fig. 13. The share of correct answers to the question: How many Sustainable
Development goals have been agreed to, by all the world nations,
as a part of 2030 Agenda:? ........................................................................... 61
Fig. 14. The share of correct answers to the question: Which of the following
is not part of the Sustainable Development Goals:? ........................................ 61
Fig. 15. The share of correct answers to the question: What can individuals
do to help realize the achievement of the Sustainable Development:? ............. 62
Fig. 16. The share of correct answers to the question: How can we contribute
to the conscious consumption:? ..................................................................... 63
Fig. 17. The share of correct answers to the question: Which of the following
does not save energy:? .................................................................................. 64
Fig. 18. Share of correct answers to questions about unsustainable consumption
and its threats (initial results) ......................................................................... 64
Fig. 19. Share of correct answers to questions about unsustainable consumption
and its threats (final results) .......................................................................... 65
Fig. 20. The share of correct answers to the question: A healthy diet:? ......................... 67
Fig. 21. The share of correct answers to the question: The majority of daily calories
should come from:? ...................................................................................... 68
Fig. 22. The share of correct answers to the question: Sources of protein include:? ...... 68
Fig. 23. The share of correct answers to the question: A precompetition
meal should:? ............................................................................................... 69
Fig. 24. The share of correct answers to the question: In general, a solid
meal should be eaten__prior to competition:? ................................................. 70
Fig. 25. The share of correct answers to the question: A healthy diet:? ......................... 70
Fig. 26. The share of correct answers to the question: The Mediterranean diet
includes high consumption of:? ..................................................................... 71
Fig. 27. The share of correct answers to te question: The majority of daily calories
should come from:? ...................................................................................... 72
Fig. 28. The share of correct answers to the question: Major nutrients found
in fruits include:? .......................................................................................... 72

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Fig. 29. The share of correct answers to the question: What type of food is very
rich in proteins:? ........................................................................................... 73
Fig. 30. The share of correct answers to the question: How much water should
you drink per day? ........................................................................................ 74
Fig. 31. The share of correct answers to the question: For a healthy lifestyle
you should:? ................................................................................................. 74
Fig. 32. Share of correct answers to questions about healthy lifestyle (initial results) ... 75
Fig. 33. Share of correct answers to questions about healthy lifestyle (final results) ..... 75
Fig. 34. The share of correct answers to the question: The workforce in the country
is represented by:? ........................................................................................ 77
Fig. 35. The share of correct answers to the question: The word `unemployment`
refers to the:? ................................................................................................ 78
Fig. 36. The share of correct answers to the question: The gross domestic
product (GDP) consists of:? .......................................................................... 79
Fig. 37. The share of correct answers to the question: Products` are:? .......................... 80
Fig. 38. The share of correct answers to the question: The salary received
by the working people is:? ............................................................................. 80
Fig. 39. The share of correct answers to the question: Workforce in a country
is represented by:? (final results) ................................................................... 81
Fig. 40. The share of correct answers to the question: What does ‘unemployment’ mean?
(final results) ................................................................................................ 82
Fig. 41. The share of correct answers to the question: What does the gross domestic
product (GDP) refer to:? (final results) .......................................................... 83
Fig. 42. The share of correct answers to the question: Products` are:? (final results) ..... 83
Fig. 43. The share of correct answers to the question: The salary received
by the working people is:? (final results) ....................................................... 84
Fig. 44. Share of correct answers to questions about employment and the economy
(initial and final results) ................................................................................ 85
Fig. 45. The share of correct answers to the question: What do you call a substance
that pollutes the air, water or soil? ................................................................. 87
Fig. 46. The share of correct answers to the question: Global Warming will cause
increase of:? ................................................................................................. 87
Fig. 47. The share of correct answers to the question: Which of these human activities
contributes the most for global warming:? ..................................................... 88
Fig. 48. The share of correct answers to the question: Which layer protects
the Earth from UV rays:? .............................................................................. 89
Fig. 49. The share of correct answers to the question: What do you call
renewable safe sources of energy:? ................................................................ 90
Fig. 50. The share of correct answers to the question: What do you call a substance
that pollutes the air, water or soil:? (final results) ........................................... 91
Fig. 51. The share of correct answers to the question: Global Warming will cause
increase of:? (final results) ............................................................................ 92
Fig. 52. The share of correct answers to the question: Which of these human activities
contributes the most for global warming:? (final results) ................................ 92
Fig. 53. The share of correct answers to the question: Which layer protects
the Earth from UV rays:? (final results) ......................................................... 93
Fig. 54. The share of correct answers to the question: What do you call renewable
safe sources of energy:? (final results) ........................................................... 94
Fig. 55. Share of correct answers to questions about protection of the environment
and climate change (initial and final results) .................................................. 94

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Fig. 56. The share of answers to the question: Can every student be creative:?
a) detailed results, b) average (initial results) ................................................. 97
Fig. 57. The share of answers to the question: In your opinion what is the most
effective for enhancing creative learning:? a) detailed results,
b) average (initial results) .............................................................................. 98
Fig. 58. The share of answers to the question: Which certain technologies are the most
important for learning? a) detailed results, b) average (initial results) ............. 99
Fig. 59. The share of answers to the question: I like:? a) detailed results,
b) average (initial results) .............................................................................. 100
Fig. 60. The share of answers to the question: Do you like when a teacher:?
a) detailed result, b) average (initial results) .................................................. 101
Fig. 61. The share of answers to the question: In your opinion what was the most
effective way for enhancing creative learning:?a) detailed results
b) average (final results) ................................................................................ 102
Fig. 62. The share of answers to the question: Did you like when a teacher:?
a) detailed results, b) average (final results) ................................................... 103
Fig. 63. The share of answers to the question: In which areas your has knowledge
significantly increased:? a) detailed results, b) average (final results) ............. 104
Fig. 64. The share of answers to the question: Have lessons become more creative
due to the implementation of project tasks:? a) detailed results,
b) average (final results) ................................................................................ 105
Fig. 65. The share of answers to the question: Have you willingly participated
in design tasks:? a) detailed results, b) average (final results) ......................... 106
Fig. 66. The share of answers to the question: Have you become more tolerant
to other cultures, religions and nationalities:? a) detailed results,
b) average (final results) ................................................................................ 107
Fig. 67. The share of answers to the question: Should your school continue
international cooperation within Erasmus+ projects:? a) detailed
results, b) average (final results) .................................................................... 108

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List of tables

Table 1. Defining the term "consumer behaviour" ........................................................ 13

Table 2. Groups of factors determining consumer behaviour ........................................ 14
Table 3. Phases of a life cycle of an individual/family in the sphere
of consumption ............................................................................................. 17
Table 4. The image of a consumer as presented in selected theories
of consumption .............................................................................................. 20
Table 5. Assumptions of Maslow's theory .................................................................... 24
Table 6. Human Needs, as presented by various theorists ............................................. 25
Table 7. Examples of research sample sizes depending
on the type of cross tabulation ........................................................................ 52
Table 8. Characteristics of the research sample ............................................................ 52
Table 9. List of survey results carried out during implementation
of the project ................................................................................................. 111

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ANNEX 1. INITIAL QUESTIONNAIRE
I. Unsustainable consumption and threats to civilization
1. World Food Day, established it in 1979 by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),
is celebrated every year:?
 16 October
 22 April
 22 March
 2 September
2. How much food is wasted every year in Europe:?
 1 000 tons
 10 000 tons
 50 000 tons
 100 000 tons
3. Smog occurs most often as:?
 low residual mixture of fog and pollution in industrialized urban areas during
windless weather
 cloud of pollution in rural areas formed during field work and carried by the wind
 thick fog free from impurities, which appears in the morning and making difficult to
drive
 a mixture of ozone, oxides of sulfur and nitrogen present in the ozone layer
4. One of the ways to save electricity is:?
 buying devices with thermostats
 setting the refrigerator close to a heat exchanger for example radiator
 using light bulbs with the lowest brightness
 setting supreme washing program in your washing machine
5. Before throwing the glass jar you need to:?
 wash the jar and then smash it
 do not remove the labels for easy identification
 spin the jar, so that water does not get into it
 remove the metal or plastic nut

II. Healthy living & Food & Sport

6. A healthy diet:?
 eliminates all use of sugars and salt
 is low in fat
 provides a variety of different foods
 both b and c
7. The majority of daily calories should come from:?
 breads, cereals, rice and pasta products
 fruits and vegetables
 milk, yogurt and cheese
 meat, poultry, beans or eggs
8. Sources of protein include:?
 chicken and fish
 beans and peas
 eggs
 all of the above

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9. A precompetition meal should:?
 allow for the stomach to be relatively full at the start of competition
 minimize gastrointestinal distress
 provide protein fuel for the muscles
 provide carbohydrate fuel for muscles
10. In general, a solid meal should be eaten _____ prior to competition:?
 the day
 3–4 hours
 1 hour
 none of the above

III. Employment and economy

11. The workforce in the country is represented by:?
 all the people from this country
 all the people in a country who are over 18 years old
 all the people who are capable of working, who have physical and intellectual
potential
 all the people who are provided with unemployment benefits/compensation
12. The word `unemployment` refers to the:?
 lack of a job abroad
 lack of a job in a country
 lack of a well-paid job
 lack of a paid job
13. The gross domestic product (GDP) consists of:?
 all the goods and services produced in an economy over a period of time
 all the goods produced in a country
 all the services provided/fulfilled in a given territory
 all the goods consumed by population
14. The products are defined as:?
 all the objects or goods obtained in the production process, designed for the
customers
 all the activities performed for customers at request, at a certain time
 the entire amount of tourism activities in Romania
 only products that can be found in the grocery stores, which are intended for
immediate consumption
15. The salary received by the working people is:?
 the amount of money an employee receives in return for the service/work he/she has
performed at a work place
 the amount of money that one person receives from another person without having
to work
 the amount of money that a student receives from the Government
 the amount of money a person needs to live decently

IV. Environment & Climate change & Environmental protection

16. What do you call a substance that pollutes the air, water or soil:?
 pollutant
 pesticides
 acid

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  sulfur
17. Global Warming will cause increase of:?
 heat waves
 hurricanes
 both
 none of them
18. Which of these human activities contributes the most for global warming:?
 using fossil fuels
 cutting down trees
 riding bicycles
 none of them
19. Which layer protects the Earth from UV rays?
 oxygen
 nitrogen
 ozone
 hydrogen
20. What do you call renewable safe sources of energy:?
 alternative energies
 bio-energies
 solar energies
 wind energy

V. Education & innovation

21. Can every student be creative:?
 some of them
 most of them
 all of them
 none of them
22. In your opinion what is the most effective for enhancing creative learning:?
 allowing students to make mistakes
 using technologies
 experiences such as work and play or risk taking
 discipline
23. Which certain technologies are the most important for learning:?
 educational software
 interactive white boards
 social media
 virtual learning environments
24. I like:?
 preparing additional materials from different sources for my favorite classes
 updating my own knowledge
 doing nothing extra
 preparing myself before every lesson
25. Do you like when a teacher:?
 demonstrates and presents material using technologies
 prepares handouts and additional materials
 uses teaching software that my school has a license
 uses the computer room for classes

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ANNEX 2. FINAL QUESTIONNAIRE

I. Unsustainable consumption and threats to civilization

1. How many Sustainable Development goals have been agreed to, by all the world nations,
as a part of 2030 Agenda:?
 17
 8
 10
 16
2. Which of the following is not part of the Sustainable Development Goals:?
 access to sustainable energy for all
 availability to water and sanitation for all
 provision of internet services
 promotion of decent jobs for all
3. What can individuals do to help realize the achievement of the Sustainable
Development:?
 support reputable civil society organizations helping poor people
 create projects and partnerships of their own and participate in existing initiatives to
help to achieve more of the goals
 use their position in society – as teachers, decision-makers, consumers, and ordinary
citizen in order to make them aware of the importance of
 all of the above and many more
4. How can we contribute to the conscious consumption:?
 save energy
 avoid wasting food
 reduce, reuse, recycle
 all of them
5. Which of the following does not save energy:?
 decrease the temperature in your freezer for 1 degree
 choose energy-saving lighting
 use sunlight to your advantage
 turn off the devices you no longer use
 put a lid on a pot when you cook
 install and set a programmable thermostat

II. Healthy living & Food & Sport

6. A healthy diet:?
 is low in fat
 eliminates all use of sugars and salt
 provides a variety of different foods
 is low in fat and provides a variety of different food
7. The Mediterranean diet includes high consumption of:?
 dairy products and meat
 wine
 sugar and fats
 olive oil, legumes, fruit and vegetables
8. The majority of daily calories should come from:?
 milk, yogurt and cheese

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  cereals, breads, rice and pasta products
 meat, poultry, beans or eggs
 fruits and vegetables
9. Major nutrients found in fruits include:?
 fat
 vitamin C
 iron
 protein
10. What type of food is very rich in proteins:?
 fruit and vegetables
 beans and peas
 eggs
 chicken and fish
11. What type of food can be considered unhealthy:?
 homemade pasta
 nuts
 crisps
 fruit juices
12. How much water should you drink per day:?
 1 glass
 about 2 litres
 2 glasses
 about 10 litres
13. For a healthy lifestyle you should:?
 eat a lot of fast food
 drink a lot of fizzy drinks
 spend time outside and do sports
 spend a lot of time online

III. Employment & economy

14. Workforce in a country is represented by:?
 all the people from this country
 all the people in a country who are over 18 years old
 all the people who are capable of working, who have physical and intellectual
potential
 all the people who are provided with unemployment benefits/compensation
15. What does ‘unemployment’ mean:?
 lack of a job abroad
 lack of a job in your country
 lack of a well-paid job
 lack of a paid job
16. What does the gross domestic product (GDP) refer to:?
 all the goods and services produced in an economy over a period of time
 all the goods produced in a country
 all the services provided/fulfilled in a given territory
 all the goods consumed by population

127
17. Products` are:?
 all the objects or goods obtained in the production process, designed for the
customers
 all the activities performed for customers at request, at a certain time
 the entire amount of tourism activities in Romania
 only products that can be found in the grocery stores, which are intended for
immediate consumption
18. The salary received by the working people is:?
 the amount of money an employee receives in return for the service/work he/she has
performed at a work place
 the amount of money that one person receives from another person without having
to work
 the amount of money that a student receives from the Government
 the amount of money a person needs to live decently

IV. Environment & Climate change & Environmental protection

19. What do you call a substance that pollutes the air, water or soil:?
 pollutant
 pesticides
 acid
 sulfur
20. Global Warming will cause increase of:?
 heat waves
 hurricanes
 both
 none of them
21. Which of these human activities contributes the most for global warming:?
 using fossil fuels.
 cutting down trees.
 riding bicycles.
 none of them
22. Which layer protects the Earth from UV rays:?
 oxygen
 nitrogen
 ozone
 hydrogen
23. What do you call renewable safe sources of energy:?
 alternative energies
 bio-energies
 solar energies
 wind energy

V. Education & innovation

24. In your opinion what was the most effective way for enhancing creative learning:?
 allowing students to make mistakes
 using technologies
 experiences such as work and play or risk taking
 discipline

128
25. Did you like when a teacher:?
 demonstrated and presents material using technologies
 prepared handouts and additional materials
 used teaching software that my school has a license
 used the computer room for classes
26. In which areas your has knowledge significantly increased:?
 sustainable consumption, protecting natural environment
 economy & employment and the importance of education
 healthy living & sport
 in all of them
27. Have lessons become more creative due to the implementation of project tasks:?
 definitely yes
 rather yes
 rather no
 no
28. Have you willingly participated in design tasks:?
 definitely yes
 rather yes
 rather no
 no
29. Have you become more tolerant to other cultures, religions and nationalities:?
 definitely yes
 rather yes
 rather no
 no
30. Should your school continue international cooperation within Erasmus+ projects:?
 definitely yes
 rather yes
 rather no
 no

129
ANNEX 3. LESSON PLANS

1. Lesson Plan: The threats of unsustainable consumption and production

TIME: three lessons (3×45 minutes)

DESCRIPTION: A Lesson plan for grades 1-3 middle school (students’ age – 13-
16 years old) about sustainable consumption and risks of unsustainable
consumption and production.
The lesson plan can be used for geography, biology, science, general educational
classes.

AIMS OF THE COURSE:

Overall objective:
A student is aware of what is sustainable and unsustainable consumption and
production and also becomes aware what are the consequences of each.
Detail objectives:
Pupil:
 Knows the basic concepts of the sustainable and unsustainable consumption and
saving the natural resources.
 Understands the relationship between producing, consuming and generating
waste and devastation of the environment.
 Can replace the selected risks that arise as a result of unsustainable
consumption.
 Knows the basic principles of sustainable consumption.
 can work effectively in a group.
 analyzes their own needs and ways to meet them in terms of their impact on the
environment.
 is aware of how significant impact on the environment is made by daily
consumer choices .

METHODS AND FORMS OF WORK

 Working in groups, presentation, interpretation, elements of lecture, survey
methods:
 Methods of assimilation of knowledge: description, show, talk, discussion,
explanation,
 Methods of independent investigation to knowledge: exchange of ideas
(brainstorming)
 Practical methods: Learner, tasks of production

TOOLS NECESSARY FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ACTIVITIES:

Computer / laptop with Internet access and software for playing videos / photos
connected to the projector; projection screen; blackboard and chalk or flipchart
(large sheets of paper) and markers, and surveys.

130
The course of activities:
Lesson 1
1. Students will learn the definitions and principles of sustainable development and
realize that the environment, the economy and are integral parts of a man and affect
one another.
2. The teacher gives a definition of unsustainable consumption and risks, and
sustainable consumption and students discuss what means to be self-centered and
ecocentric in everyday behavior – eg. daily consumption of water and electricity,
buying goods.
3. Students watch the film developed earlier by a group of students about
Unsustainable consumption and threats
4. Summing up – short discussion

Lesson 2
5. Teacher starts the lessons reminding the topic of previous classes
6. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs – exercises 1 -group work
7. Exercise 2 – discussion
8. exercise 3 – what do I spend the money on?
9. exercises 4 – how long do you use the things you buy?
10. Exercise 5 – FuturEU
11. Conclusions – summing up the lesson

Lesson 3
12. Teacher divides the students into groups and each group thinks and gives the
(developing) the rules to be made on a new planet, they want to avoid the pollution
and degradation of the planet (examples of everyday ecological behavior eg. how
to save water, and use less energy at home or why segregation of waste is a good
idea, where and how often should we go shopping, and does it really matter).
13. The groups present their results. Teacher helps you analyze received
examples of behavior in economic, social and environmental context.
14. Students choose five the most interesting and the most important rules to be
introduced on a new planet.
15. Students prepare a poster with 5 rules of life on FuturEU

QUESTIONS for the CLASSES:

1. What things are necessary for a human to live?
2. Consider and answer, what do you think helps your daily life or makes it more
fun? What products make your life easier and how often do you buy them?
3. What products do you think are unnecessary or unimportant?
4. What should I do to be a conscious consumer?
5. Does our daily consumer choices impact on environment? If so, what’s the
impact?

131
2. Lesson Plan: Global warming and carbon diet

TOPIC: Food choices to reduce climate change

AIMS: students will become more aware about global warming and the impact of
the greenhouse effect. They will become more familiar with the terms of global
warming, greenhouse effect and greenhouse gases (they will be able to identify
what gases contribute to global warming). Students will also develop reading and
speaking skills to talk about the environment and making predictions using future
simple and to be going to.
LEVEL: intermediate
RELATED SUBJECTS: science, geography.
MATERIAL: internet access for research and viewing videos.

INTRODUCTION
The main aim of this lesson is to make students think about the strong effects of
climate change on our planet and what could be their most suitable attitude towards
environment. In particular students will learn how to reduce their carbon footprint
through a long-term, sustained way of living: the Low Carbon Lifestyle.

Part 1. What is the greenhouse effect?

Teacher asks students what do they know about the term and to give a definition of
it. Students formulate their answers, share their definitions and start a
discussion./kids/global.warming_version2.html)
At this point teacher divides students in small groups and show them the video
“Global warming and the greenhouse effect”
 What are the greenhouse gases, and where does each come from?
 Why is the production of greenhouse gases on the rise?
 Why is global warming linked to the greenhouse effect? How does it work?
 Is the greenhouse effect always a bad thing?
After watching the video each group of students will answer to one question.

Part 2. Your Carbon Diet

Teacher introduces the concept of carbon diet and gives students some important
numbers:
 A kilowatt hour of energy produces ½ pounds of carbon;
 The average toaster uses 39 kilowatt hours of energy per year;
 The average person in the United States produces 20.000 tons of carbon dioxide per
year.
Teacher explains students that how we eat is affecting the planet. Greenhouse
gases created by the food system, including production, distribution, and waste, are
responsible for one-third of global emissions.
Teacher shows students the site eatlowcarbon.org through which students learn
how to reduce their carbon “footprint”. They can also calculate the grams of CO2
produced by what they eat. Teacher helps them to think about how their food
choices affect the future of our planet.

132
Students will learn five easy tips to
After exploring the site students take a quiz to test their knowledge of which foods
are planet friendlier

Part 3. Making predictions about the effects of Global warming

At this point students can make predictions about the impact of global warming,
how the world’s climate could change if humans do nothing to limit the levels of
their gas emissions, what could be the effects on humans.
Teacher divides students in small groups. Students make a list of their ideas.

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3. Lesson Plan: Healthy living & food & sports

TIME: 80 min
Teaching level: Grades 3-4

DESCRIPTION:
In this lesson, students will discuss balanced diets and learn how to interpret
nutritional information labels on food packaging. Students learn how to separate
a group of mixed food into proper food groups. As a result, students will be more
able to make healthier food choices when shopping for food.

OBJECTIVE IN DETAIL:
Students
 Learn the importance of nutrition in keeping them healthy.
 Learn that there is a balance between eating healthily and physical activities to
stay fit.
 Define and give an example of each food group.
 Learn about the benefits of physical activities through discussion.
 Create a poster about healthy living.
METHODS:
 Discussion
 Group work
 Pair work
Materials/tools
Ipads, internet access, projector, projection screen , pictures of different foods from
all the food groups, food labels
ACTIVITIES:
 Students will categorize pictures of different foods (e.g. dairy products, grain
products, vegetables and fruits etc.).
 Students will draw their own food pyramids using pictures of food that they like
for each group.
 Students will create a poster about healthy living.
 Students will compile a word cloud about the benefits of physical activities.
 Students will look at the amount of sugar in different food products and divide
them into healthy and unhealthy ones.

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4. Lesson Plan

TOPIC – Climate change& Environmental protection – the world is in your hands

INTRODUCTION
This two lessons are about climate change and ways encourages students to think
about their attitudes towards the environment
Level – Intermediate and above
Timing – 2 lessons per 45 mins

AIMS
To develop reading, listening and speaking skills
To introduce language to talk about the environment
To raise awareness of the need to protect natural environment and our personal
responsibility

MATERIALS
Worksheets: exercises which can be printed out for use in class. The worksheet
contains:
Song ‘The Earth’ by Michael Jackson

INTRODUCTION
This lesson is about climate change – and encourages students to think about
their attitudes towards the environment

PROCEDURE

Lesson 1
1. Warm-up - Presenting the topic of the lesson
Tells students that the lesson will be in the form of group co-operation (5 min)
2. Watch the video of Michael Jackson ‘The Earth’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XAi3VTSdTxU (10 minutes)
3. Teachers asks given questions:
 How did you feel after listening to it? Maybe it angered you, saddened you or
brought you grief.
 Did it impact you in any way?
 Did it inspire you to make a change for a better world?
 Did you think about man's selfish motives and their consequences to the natural
environment?
4. Vocabulary work – matching words with their definitions Worksheeet A
(10 minutes).
Answers 1. L, 2. H, 3. G, 4. A, 5. F, 6. K, 7. B, 8. E, 9. J, 10. C, 11. I, 12. D
5. Climate change – the evidence (15 minutes)
This task is to help provide higher levels with the language they will need
to discuss climate change effectively. Students are given a copy of Worksheet.

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They should first read the questions and see if they know the answers. Then read
the answers and match them to the appropriate questions.
Answers: 1. C, 2. B, 3. A, 4. E, 5. D
6. Summary of the lesson
Teacher the teacher sums up the lesson and announces another topic of the lesson

Lesson 2
1. Warm-up - Reminder of the previous topic of the lesson (5 minutes)
2. What can we do prevent climate changes? – writing principles that will be
presented during the Earth Day for all school community
The teachers divides students into groups of 3 or 4 and asks them to write 10
principles everyone should follow in order to protect the nature. They have 10
minutes to prepare the task and make posters then (20 minutes
3. The results are presented. A representative from each group to come up to the
front of the board and record their conclusions (10 minutes)
4. Summary of the lesson - a teacher emphasises what each of us can do to protect
the environment and prevent climate change (5mniutes)

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5. Lesson Plan

MOTTO : “A înţelege natura înseamnă a înţelege viitorul, dar a face ceva pentru
salvarea naturii atât de ameninţată astăzi, înseamnă a contribui la fericirea
omenirii.”
acad. Eugen Pora
TOPIC: Sustainable development
PURPOSE: To educate and inform pupils about the key issues in the current field
of ecology, society so that everyone feels responsible and committed to the
environment through their actions.

SPECIFIC SKILLS:
Demonstrating an ecological way of thinking in making decisions;
Demonstration of the understanding of the consequences of their behavior in
relation to the environment;
Forming attitudes and skills regarding the impact of biology on nature and society;
Elaboration and implementation of ecological actions.

OPERATIONAL OBJECTIVES:
O1: Engage responsibly in environmental actions.
O2: Understand regional and global implications in addressing environmental
issues.
O3: Apply human rights principles to environmental protection.
O4: Understand and act in a concerted effort to save what is "alive" to promote
healthy eating behavior appropriate to physical and mental health.
Lesson type: communication, acquiring knowledge, reviewing
Time: 60 minutes

DIDACTIC APPROACH:
Procedural resources: heuristic conversation, observation, explanation,
brainstorming, problem-solving, demonstration, learning by discovery;
Material resources: worksheets, evaluation sheets, video and power-point
materials, video-projectors, floorboards;
Form of organization: frontal, individual, pairs, by groups;
Assessment methods: formative through oral questionnaire and evaluation sheet.

137
 Development of activities
Lesson steps Time Teacher’s role Students’ tasks Methods Laern-
min ing tools

1. 5 It creates the working Prepare for the Heuristic

Warm-up atmosphere lesson, open conversa-tion
Check the presence books and
Prepares the necessary notebooks.
materials
Tells students that the lesson
will be in the form of group
co-operation

2. 10 Addresses the following Students are Heuristic flipchart,

Review questions: given the conversation, marker
How do we define the opportunity to observation,
notions: pollution, pollutant, answer questions explanation,
greenhouse effect, smog, based on brainstorming
recycling, reduction, previously
environmental protection, assimilated
economy, product and knowledge
production, production Answer the
faction, labor, health, questions
education. Note the answers
on the flipchart

3. 7 The teacher writes on the Participate in Heuristic

Introduction to blackboard the words ‘man’ discussions. conversation,
a new lesson and ‘environment’ and asks Students will observation, Handout
them to make a comparison then work explanation,
between what man receives individually and brainstorming,
from the living environment in pairs. problem-
and what he gives back Write down the solving,
(APPENDIX 1). answers on the demonstration,
worksheet. learning by
Their opinions discovery;
an answers will
be discussed.

4. 2 The title of the DURABLE SS are listening. Conversation

Introduction DEVELOPMENT lesson is They jot down Explanation
announced. the title of the
Announce the skills that lesson.
students will acquire at the
end.
Write the title of the lesson
on the blackboard

5. 25 To study the main theme Conversation

Practice "Sustainable Development" I Handout
will use the "Mosaic" Explication
method. This is based on
team learning. Students will
be divided into groups, each

138
group having a number. Demonstration
I propose 4 sub-topics for
study, I draw up an expert Each team reads
record (APPENDIX 2) for the task received Problem
each; distributes the solving
workload to each team: Solves and notes
the answers on
Group I the worksheet
Learning Task: Healthy Life,
Food, Sport
How it works: What is it?
What are the elements that
shape lifestyle?
What is its importance /
role?
What are the effects of an
unbalanced style?
Measures to reduce an
unbalanced style.

Group II
Learning task: Employment
and economy
How it works: What is it?
What are the production
factors?
After what criteria do we
choose a job?
What is the gross domestic
product?
What does unemployment
mean?
What does the salary
received by the working
people represent?
Who respects the
workforce?

Group III
Learning task:
Environmental protection,
climatic changes
How to work: What is global
warming?
What are the causes of
global warming?
What are the effects / impact
of global warming?
How can global warming be
prevented?
How can the environment be
protected?

Based on the lessons learned

139
 from previous lessons,
students will write down all Conversația
of their ideas on a sheet of Explicaţia
paper.

After 10‘ one representative Expunerea

from each group will present Observarea
those marked in the order in
which they are finished. If Prezen-
one of the groups has these tare ppt
completions, they will be
done both verbally and with
another color on the same Tabla,
sheet of paper. caiete,
Extra information will be pixuri
provided about: healthy
lifestyle, food and sport,
economy, protection, climate
change, using ppt material
with suggestive images and
key notions specific to these
subtopics.
Complete the lesson scheme
on the board.

6. 10 Students are advised to write I propose Exercise

Review and messages to children or positive Conversation
follow up adults in order to make them messages;
adopt a sustainable lifestyle. Presents the
These will be presented and messages.
discussed.

7. 2 Teacher makes verbal Jot down Conversation

Evaluarea assessments of the homework
performance of students in
each group
Students' attendance at the
lesson is appreciated
Homework is indicated:
"Write an essay on what you
propose to do in the near
future to protect the
environment."

140
APPENDIX 1

HUMANS ENVIRONMENT

APPENDIX 2

HANDOUTS
Group I
Learning Task: Healthy Life, Food, Sport
How it works: What is it?
What does it consist of?
What is its importance / role?
What are the effects of an unbalanced style?
Measures to reduce an unbalanced style.
Group II
Learning task: Employment and the economy
How it works: What is it?
What are the production faces?
After what criteria do we choose a job?
What is the gross domestic product?
What does unemployment mean?
What is the salary received by the working people?
Who respects the workforce?
Group III
Learning task: Environmental protection, climate change
How to work: What is global warming?
What are the causes of global warming?
What are the effects / impact of global warming?
How can global warming be prevented?
How can the environment be protected?

141
Lesson sketch
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Environmental Respect Measures
Adopt a street, park or river and keep it clean and healthy!
Enjoy your way: go to green grass, make excursions, but be careful what you leave
behind!
Buy solid items that you can use for a long time!
Donate the clothes that remain to a poorer little child!
Save space by flattening cans and empty cans!
Create teams to collect glass, plastic and various metal containers together!
Find labels that indicate if the product you buy has negative consequences on the
environment!
Paper can be saved using both sides of a sheet!
Insist on looking for and buying those products packed in recyclable materials!
Limit your prefabricated consumption. Amuse yourself by creating the things you
need!
Play outdoors and less in front of your computer that consume electricity!
Walk by foot or by public transport or, even better, go for a walk or skate or bike!
Do not throw garbage at random. Use garbage containers and places specially
designed to collect recyclable products!
Get used to closing water while you wash your teeth. Leave it open only to moisten
your toothbrush and to rinse it!
Plant a tree to prevent soil erosion, to have shade and to give birds a shelter!
Reduce the amount of water you use!
Turn off the light when you exit the room! Close household appliances if you do
not use it!
Transform yourself into a person who cares about her future and the planet!
Use products without additional packaging, dyes or harmful chemicals!
Earn each purchased product by using it several times or finding it as many uses as
possible!
Smile! You helped reduce pollution!

142
6. Lesson plan: Employment and economy

TOPIC: Employment and economy

TIME: 50’

AIMS: raising awareness towards the importance of work in a person`s life as

a mean of raising country`s economy
Students` age: 10-14

OPERATIONAL OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson students have to be able:

O1 to explain the connection between employment and economy;
O2 to be able to say who represents the workforce of a country
O3 to be able to say what `unemployment` refers to;
O4 to be able to say what the gross domestic product (GDP) consists of;
O5 to define `products`;
O6 to be able to explain what `salary` means.
LESSON TYPE: Communication and acquisition of new knowledge

DIDACTICAL ENDEAVOR:
a.) Teaching techniques/methods: heuristic conversation, observation,
explanation, exercise, brainstorming, questioning, jigsaw
b.) Materials: handouts, evaluation papers, video and power point
presentations, computers connected to the internet, video projector
Class organization: individual work, pair work, group work, lockstep

143
 PROCEDURE
STAGES TIME/ TEACHER`S STUDENT`S METHODS INTERAC- EVALUA-
OF THE OBJEC- ACTIVITY ACTIVITY MATERIALS TION TION
LESSON TIVES
Warm – up 2` T checks if Ss get ready for Conversation Lockstep
everything and the lesson; they
everybody is prepare their
prepared for the materials (book,
lesson; jots notebook, pencil
down the case etc)
absents;
prepares the
didactical
material needed
for the teaching
activity.
Review 5` Orally Ss answer T supervises
of past addressed T`s questions: Conversation Lockstep /supplies
material O1 questions: -Employment is error
a relationship
correction,
1.What does between two
`Employment` parties, usually makes
mean? based on a appreciations,
contract where checks the
2.What does work is paid for, appropriate
`Economy` where one party, answers,
mean? which may be a praises the Ss
corporation, for
who get
3.What is the profit, not-for-
connection profit actively
between organization, co- involved in
employment operative or other the activity,
and economy? entity is the encourages
employer and the all Ss to
4. What`s the other is the participate
definition of employee.
with opinions
`work`? Employees work
in return for
payment, which
may be in the
form of an hourly
wage, by
piecework or an
annual salary,
depending on the
type of work an
employee does or
which sector she
or he is working
in. Employees in
some fields or
sectors may
receive gratuities,
bonus payment or
stock options. In
some types of
employment,
employees may
receive benefits in
addition to

144
 payment. Benefits
can include health
insurance,
housing, disability
insurance or use
of a gym.
Employment is
typically governed
by employment
laws or
regulations or
legal contracts.
Economy: the
state of a country
or region in terms
of the production
and consumption
of goods and
services and the
supply of money.
Work: activity
involving mental
or physical effort
done in order to
achieve a result`;

Catching 5’ T writes the title Ss solve the given Conversation Lockstep T supervises
Ss` on the board tasks /supplies
attention O1 and askes Ss to Brain- error
O2 elicit as many storming correction,
Lead in words related to makes
the topic as Questioning appreciations,
possible checks the
(Employment appropriate
and economy: answers,
work, work praises the Ss
force, money, who get
goods, rich, actively
poor, holidays, involved in
Introdu- travel, capital, the activity,
cing the production, encourages
new lesson business etc) all Ss to
T divides the participate
class in two and Ss jot down the with opinions.
asks the first title of the lesson
half of Ss to and listen
write questions carefully to the T.
related to the
given topic
(work, jobs,
money,
economy,
employment)
and the other
half to try and
answer those
questions.
Conduct- 25’ T presents the T asks Ss for
ing material meant The Ss solve the Group work questions,
learning O1 to inform Ss tasks helps them
O2 about the topic understand
O3 (a PPT new

145
 O4 presentation) word/concept
O5 s
The Ss are T supervises
grouped, each /supplies
group has to error
solve a correction,
questionnaire makes
containing appreciations,
questions from checks the
theppt appropriate
presentation, answers,
related to the praises the Ss
topic of the who get
lesson. actively
involved in
the activity,
encourages
all Ss to
participate
with opinions.
Reinforce- 10’ The T gives Each S solves the Exercise Individual T supervises
ment each S the task task received from Enouncement /supplies
activity O1 to come up with the T. error
O2 a rule needed in Handout correction,
O3 order to have a makes
O4 healthy appreciations,
O5 economy in the checks the
country (a rich appropriate
country). answers,
The T asks the praises the Ss
Ss to group who get
again and each actively
group has to involved in
choose the most the activity,
powerful laws encourages
related to the all Ss to
topic. participate
They display with opinions.
the laws on the
flipchart and at
the end they
read them
aloud.
Evaluation 3’ Homework: Ss solve the task Conversation Paper sheets Possible pair
activity In pairs role work or
play `My Exhibition individual
favourite job`. work – the Ss
T praises the can choose
most active Ss
and jots down
appropriate
marks

146
ANNEX:
Questionnaire:
1. The workforce in the country is represented by:
a) all the people from this country
b) all the people in a country who are over 18 years old
c) all the people who are capable of working, who have physical and
intellectual potential
d) all the people who are provided with unemployment benefits/compensation

2. The word `unemployment` refers to the:

a) lack of a job abroad
b) lack of a job in a country
c) lack of a well paid job
d) lack of a paid job

3. The gross domestic product (GDP) consists of:

a) all the goods and services produced in an economy over a period of time
b) all the goods produced in a country
c) all the services provided/fulfilled in a given territory
d) all the goods consumed by population

4. `Products` are defined as:

a) all the objects or goods obtained in the production process, designed for the
customers
b) all the activities performed for customers at request, at a certain time
c) the entire amount of tourism activities in Romania
d) only products that can be found in the grocery stores, which are intended for
immediate consumption

5. The salary received by the working people is:

a) the amount of money an employee receives in return for the service/work
he/she has performed at a work place
b) the amount of money that one person receives from another person without
having to work
c) the amount of money that a student receives from the Government
d) the amount of money a person needs to live decently

147
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