PHY400 - Introduction

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS LABORATORY WORK

Faculty of Applied Science, UiTM

Course : Physics
Code : PHY400
Program : BSc

Aims

1. To know the physics concepts and relevance of experiments

2. To perform the given experiments
3. To make systematic observations, data collections and analysis.
4. To communicate and convinced others of the results of experiments.
5. To work effectively in groups.
6. To write a group report for each experiment.

Learning Outcomes

After completing the physics laboratory work, students would be able to

1. state and explain the underlying physics principles and the related physics concepts
as well the mathematical equations in the experiments done in the laboratory.
2. state some relevant everyday applications and phenomena of the related physics
concepts.
3. plan and perform experiments.
4. collect, tabulate and analyze data.
5. recognize and correctly use basic instruments in the lab.
6. present and defend the data, analysis and results of experiments.
7. state the significant figures of a given number and use the rules for stating the
significant figures at the end of a calculation (addition, subtraction, multiplication or
division.)
8. differentiate random and systematic uncertainties (errors).
9. differentiate the terms accuracy and precision.
10. linearize two physical quantities in a given equation.
11. draw a linear graph and determine its gradient, y-intercept and its respective
uncertainties
12. calculate basic combination (propagation) of uncertainties.
13. state the sources of uncertainty in the results of an experiment.
14. write a laboratory report.

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 PHY400 - Introduction

Ethics

1. Do not do something that is dangerous to one self and others.

2. Take care of the equipment and the laboratory.
3. Do the experiments honestly.
4. Participate actively in the group work and in performing, writing and presenting the
report.

Significant Figures (Cummings et al, 2004)

METHOD FOR COUNTING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Read the number from left to right, and count the first nonzero digit and all the digits
(zero or not) to the right of it as significant.

Example: 230 mm, 23.0 cm, 0.0230 m, 0.0000230 km each has three significant figures
even tough their number of decimal places are not the same. Do not confuse between
significant figures and decimal places.

Trailing zeros count as significant figures.

Example: 1200 m/s has four significant figures. If we would like to write it in three
significant figures
(i) change the unit, 1.20 km/s or
(ii) use scientific notation, 1.20  10 3 m/s

Rules for Calculations

1. Addition and subtraction of numbers having different decimal points will result in
an answer that has the smallest number of decimal point.

e.g. 421.5 + 0.153 + 35.09 + 12.6 = 469.3

2. The multiplication and division of numbers having different significant figures

will result in an answer that has the smaller number of significant figures.

e.g. 23.5  100.37 = 2.36  10 3

There are two situations in which the above rules should NOT be applied to a calculation.

1. Using Exact Data

Such as counting items, constants, conversion factors.

2. Significant Figures in Intermediate Results.

Only the final results at the end of your calculation should be rounded off using the
simple rule. Intermediate results should never be rounded.

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 PHY400 - Introduction

Systematic and Random Uncertainties (Errors)

Some characteristics of systematic errors are:

(a) It occurs according to certain rules that are rather difficult to detect.
(b) It is due to instruments, observer and environment that tend to give results that are
either consistently above the true value or consistently below the true value (Loyd,
2002). Eg. Due to an instrument that is not properly calibrated.
(c) It cannot be reduced by taking the average value of data taken repeatedly.
(d) Once the source of this error is found and corrected, then this error can be
eliminated.

Some characteristics of random errors are:

(e) It does not follow any rules and it produces unpredictable and unknown variations
in the data.
(b) It occurs due to instruments, observer and environment that produce unpredictable
data. Eg. Starting and stopping the stop watch inconsistently.
(c) This type of error can be reduced by taking the average value of data taken
repeatedly.
(d) Even though this type of error can be reduced by taking the average value of
data taken repeatedly, but it can never be eliminated.

Accuracy and Precision (Bevington & Robinson, 2003)

The accuracy of an experiment is a measure of how close the result of an experiment

comes to the true value. Therefore, it is the measure of the correctness of the results.

The precision of an experiment is a measure of how exactly the result is determined,

without reference to what that results means. It is also a measure of how reproducible the
result is.

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 PHY400 - Introduction

Table 1: If the centre of the target represents the “true value”, the distribution of the
experimental values represented by x, will determine the accuracy and precision of the
measurement.

Accurate and Precise Accurate but NOT Precise

Precise but NOT Accurate NOT Precise and NOT Accurate

Uncertainties (errors)

1. All measuring instruments have uncertainties because they can read up to a

certain smallest division only.
2. Uncertainties will combine and this is called the propagation of uncertainties
(error propagation) when the measured quantities are added, subtracted,
multiplied or divided.
3. Every final answer has an uncertainty which is the combination of all the
measurement uncertainties in the experiment and usually written up to 1 or 2
significant figures only.

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 PHY400 - Introduction

Reading Measurement Scales

Table 1: Single reading error from several basic typical measuring instruments

Smallest scale Uncertainty(Error) Sample Reading

Meter rule 0.1 cm  0.1 cm 9.3  0.1 cm

Stop watch (analog) 0.1 s  0.1 s 5.4  0.1 s
Stop watch (digital)* 0.01 s  0.01 s 15.43  0.01 s
Thermometer 0.1 oC  0.1 oC 28.6  0.1 oC
Beam balance 0.1 g  0.1 g 120.5  0.1 g
Vernier Caliper** 0.01 cm  0.01 cm 5.63  0.01 cm
Micrometer 0.01 mm  0.01 mm 3.47  0.01 mm
Ammeter (analog) 0.1 A  0.1A 1.2  0.1 A
Voltmeter (analog) 0.1 V  0.1V 3.2  0.1 V

*Some digital stop watches have the smallest scale smaller than 0.01 s.
** Some vernier calipers have different reading of smallest scales depending on the
length difference between the smallest divisions of the main and vernier scales (Bernard
& Epp, 1995)

Propagation of Uncertainties (Errors)

e.g Two Readings from a meter rule: a = 65.5  0.1 cm , b = 30.0  0.1 cm

Addition: a + b = (65.5 + 30.0)  (0.1 + 0.1) cm

= 95.5  0.2 cm

Subtraction: a–b = (65.5 – 30.0)  (0.1 + 0.1) cm

= 35.5  0.2 cm

Multiplication: ab = (65.5  30.0) = 1.97  103 cm2

 a b 
(ab)    ab
 a b 
 0.1 0.1 
  1965
 65.5 30.0 
 9.6
 ab = 1.97  103  10 cm2

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 PHY400 - Introduction

Division:
a 65.5
  2.183
b 30.0
 a   a b  a 
      
b  a b  b 
 0.1 0.1 
   (2.183)
 65.5 30.0 
 0.01
a
  2.18  0.01
b

Power y = a2 b

y = (65.5)2 (30.0) = 1.287  105 cm3

 2a b 
y    y
 a b 
 2(0.1) 0.1  5
    (1.287 10 )
 65.5 30.0 
 (6.3867  10 3 )(1.287  105 )
 800 cm3
 y = 1.29 x 105  8  102 cm3

Uncertainty from repeated reading

If N readings are taken x1 , x2, x3, … xN

N

x1  x 2  x 3  ...  x N
x
i
i
The mean value is x  
N N
(x i  x)2
The uncertainty in the x is the standard deviation 
N 1

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 PHY400 - Introduction

Percent Error (Wilson and Hernandez-Hall, 2010)

= × 100%

| − |
= × 100 %

E is the experimental value and A is the accepted or “true” value usually found in
textbooks or physics handbooks.

Percent Difference (Wilson and Hernandez-Hall, 2010)

When there is no known or excepted value sometimes it is instructive to compare the

results of two measurements. The comparison is expressed as percent difference.

= × 100%

If E1 and E2 are two experimental values, the percent difference is given by:

| − |
= × 100%
+
2
Dividing by the average or mean value of the experimental values make sense, since
there is no way to decide which of the two results is better.

Uncertainty from the gradient of a straight line graph

1. Draw the best graph passing through or nearest to most points and calculate
the gradient m of this graph.

2. Draw the maximum gradient mmax of the graph.

3. Draw the minimum gradient mmin of the graph.

4. Uncertainty of the gradient is given by the following equation:

m  mmin
m  max
2

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 PHY400 - Introduction

General Format of a Laboratory Report

1. Objective
In this manual, the objective of each experiment is given.

2. Apparatus
The equipments used in the experiments.

3 Theory
State the physics principles and the related equations underlying the experiment.

4. Procedures
Steps to perform the experiments.

5. Data
Organize data in tables if possible. Use consistent and correct significant figures.
State the units and uncertainty of each quantity.

6. Calculation and Results

Draw graph if necessary; calculate the values and the uncertainties involved.

7. Conclusions
State the final results, the uncertainty and the sources of uncertainty.

8. Post-Lab Questions
Answers to these questions should be submitted as part of the report.

References

Bevington, P.R. and Robinson, D.K. (2003). Data Reduction and Error Analysis for the
Physical Sciences. McGraw-Hill.
Bernard, C.H. and Epp, C.D. (1995). Laboratory Experiments in College Physics. 7th Ed.
John Wiley & Sons.
Cummings, K., Laws, P.W., Redish, E.F. and Cooney, P.J. (2004). Understanding
Physics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Kirkup, L. (1994). Experimental Methods: An Introduction to the Analysis and
Presentation of Data. John Wiley & Sons Australia.
Loyd, D.H. (2002). Physics Laboratory Manual. 2nd Ed. Thomson Learning.
Mohd Yusuf Othman, (1989). Analisis Ralat dan Ketakpastian dalam Amali. Dewan
Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Stumpf, F.B. (1979). Laboratory Experiments for General Physics 251, 252, 253. Ohio
University.
Wilson, J.D. and Hernandez-Hall, C.A. (2010). Physics Laboratory Experiments. 7th Ed.,
Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning.

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