Carbon-IonTM:

A NEW, SAFER & FASTER CHARGING CATEGORY OF RECHARGEABLE

ENERGY STORAGE DEVISES

CARBON-ION CELL

LI-ION BATTERY

Electrons Electrons
(discharging) (charging)

Nano-Carbon Ionic Nano-Carbon

Anode electrolyte Cathode

SUPERCAPACITOR

Carbon Electrolyte Metal oxide

Anode / Phosphate
Cathode

Activated Organic Activated

Carbon Electrolyte Carbon
Anode Cathode

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 Carbon-Ion: a new, safer and faster charging category
of rechargeable energy storage devices

ABSTRACT

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are widely used in mobile to Li-ion at typically just 1,000. However, supercapacitors have
phones, laptop computers, cordless appliances and electric low energy densities so have not been used to store energy
vehicles because they have a high energy density. However, over a long period of time.
they contain a highly flammable electrolyte and in addition
to depositing lithium, cathodes can become thermally and Commercially available supercapacitors are constructed using
structurally unsafe if overcharged. This resulted in the recent activated carbon with an organic electrolyte. They do not
high profile Samsung Galaxy Note 7 product recall. [6] contain lithium, but are still flammable because of the solvents
mixed with the electrolytes.
Much work is going on to improve the energy density of lithium-
ion batteries using different anode and cathode chemistries. There is a new category of energy storage that uses nano-
These include Si-based anodes, nickel rich cathodes (e.g. carbons and ionic electrolytes. This allows the device to work
NCA, NMC 811) and different cell fabrication formats, such as safely at higher voltages, which in turn offers the potential to
solid state batteries with lithium metal anodes. To combat the increase energy density and bring it closer to that of a lithium-
rate issue, lithium titanate and LFP have been used. But for ion battery. These nano-carbon systems could also meet or
every drawback that is addressed, there is another downside, exceed the energy density of other rechargeable batteries
for example higher costs, lower voltage, temperature of such as nickel cadmium and nickel metal hydride. This has the
operation, shorter lifetime and reduced safety. added advantage of retaining the rapid charging and long life
of commercially available supercapacitors, and with no fire risk.
Supercapacitors, also known as ultra-capacitors or
electrochemical capacitors or electrical double layer capacitors This paper presents a status report on C-Ion and the
(EDLCs) are used for storing and delivering electrical energy importance of incorporating advanced nano-carbons, new
orders of magnitude faster than batteries. They also have a very electrolytes and improved fabrication techniques for improved
long life, offering 100,000+ charge/discharge cycles compared energy density.

INTRODUCTION

Electrical energy storage devices such as lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, supercapacitors, and carbon-Ion (C-Ion)
differ from each other in terms of the amount of energy that can be stored (energy density), the time it would take
for storing and delivering energy, and the usable life of the devices. [1-5]

RELATIVE PERFORMANCE CRITERIA OF ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES

LITHIUM-ION SUPERCAPACITOR (EDLC) CARBON-ION

Energy Density High Low Medium

Charging Slow Fast Fast
Discharge rate Slow Fast Fast
Cycle life Low High High
Safety Flammable Flammable Non-flammable
Recycle Poor Fair Good

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 MARKET DEMAND THE ENERGY STORAGE ‘TRILEMMA’

Li-ion batteries are used extensively in mobile phones, laptop Designers of systems that require rechargeable batteries have
computers, cordless power tools, cordless cleaners and electric long faced the energy storage trilemma described by IDTechEx
vehicles; a market expected to be worth $140 billion by 2026 [1] in Figure 1, where it has been possible to achieve any two of
[5]. Used correctly they are perfectly safe, however if charged these goals but not all three.
incorrectly Li-ion batteries can go into thermal runaway. In
October 2016 Samsung [6] had to recall their Galaxy Note
7 mobile phone, at a cost of billions of dollars. The cause of
this failure has been attributed to a design in which the battery
was too thin and packed in too tightly to allow for pressure or
expansion. [6]
High
Energy
Much work is going on to improve the performance of lithium
batteries using different chemistries such as lithium titanate that
improve the rate of charge, and solid state lithium batteries
that can improve energy density. But for every drawback that
is addressed, there is another downside. For example, higher
cost, lower voltage, temperature of operation, shorter lifetime
of use or the fact the electrodes in the batteries expand and Fast Long
contract during charging and discharging. Charging Life
Supercapacitors, also known as ultra-capacitors or
electrochemical capacitors or electrical double layer capacitors Energy storage trilemma source: IDTechEx [1]
(EDLCs) are used for storing and delivering electrical energy
orders of magnitude faster than batteries. They also have a very
long life, offering 100,000+ charge/discharge cycles compared Ragone [2-3] describes lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries with a high
to Li-ion at ~1,000. However, supercapacitors have low energy energy density up to 200Wh/kg (Watt hours per kilogram) and
densities so have not been used to store energy over a long with low power density of less than 1 kW/kg (Kilo-Watt hour per
period of time. kilogram). Today, most commercially available supercapacitors
can deliver orders of magnitude higher power densities (10
Today, there are commercially available supercapacitors that kW/kg and above), but with lower energy densities of around
do not contain lithium. Most of these supercapacitors are 5Wh/kg when compared to Li-ion batteries [4].
constructed by winding a pair of carbon coated aluminum foils
with a polymeric separator sandwiched in between, and by filling
the cell with an organic electrolyte. Activated carbon is usually
used as the electrode material, and the operating voltage of
the cell is typically 2.7V (Volts). Despite high power capabilities,
these supercapacitors have less than 5% of the energy density
of a Li- ion battery [4].

Engineers are currently working on nano-carbons and ionic

electrolytes which permit a higher voltage system. This provides
higher energy densities than conventional supercapacitors, with
charging rates and cycle life that outstrip Li-ion batteries, in a
form that can be safely transported around the globe.

This means C-Ion cells can be used either on their own or

in combination with Li-ion batteries for a range applications
such as (a) cordless power tools or appliances that charge in
minutes, (b) mobile phones or laptop computers where the
charge time could be reduced from hours to minutes, (c) infra-
structure energy storage such as in building emergency lights
or solar panels (where the long life time of C-Ion means there is
no requirement to replace them every few years) and (d) to store
energy rapidly in hybrid and electric vehicles.

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 LI-ON BATTERIES Electrons Electrons
(discharging) (charging)
Li-ion batteries usually contain lithium containing oxide or
phosphate working as a cathode (+ electrode). The commonly
used cathode materials are LiCoO2, LiNi1-y-z MnyCozO2,
LiFePO4 and Li4Ti5O12. Graphite is the commonly used anode
(- electrode). Organic solvents containing lithium compounds
are used as electrolytes. During charging, lithium ions are de-
intercalated (removed) from the cathode and released into
the electrolyte. These lithium ions migrate to the anode and
intercalated (inserted) into the graphite anode. Figure on the
right is a schematic of a Li-ion cell.

The removal of lithium from the cathode induces a proportional Carbon Electrolyte Metal oxide
amount of, for example, Co4+ in the resultant Li1-xCo3+1-x Anode / Phosphate
Co4+xO2 to maintain charge neutrality. Cathode

When the battery is discharged, the lithium ions are released

(de-intercalated) from the graphite anode and shuttle back
to the cathode, where they are inserted (intercalated) into The figure below portrays the electrode reactions that occur
the crystal lattice. The de-intercalation of lithium ions from during charging and discharging It illustrates the reactions at the
the graphite anode is accompanied by concurrent release of cathode and anode, and depicts the ‘shuttling’ of lithium ions
electrons and these electrons flow through the external lead. back and forth during the charging and discharging process.

WORKING OF A RE-CHARGEABLE LI-ION BATTERY

CHARGING e- e+
V
separator

Cathode (+ Electrode) Anode (- Electrode)

LiCoO2 x Li+ + Li 1-x CoO2 + x e- x e- + xLi+ + x C6 x LiC6

DISCHARGING
separator

Li 1-x CoC2 + x Li+ + x e- LiCoO2 x LiC6 x e- + x C6 + x Li+

e- e-

The cathode and anode materials are capable of accommodating and releasing lithium ions. The layer structure of both cathode
and anode materials are flexible to reversibly intercalate lithium ions in the inter-layer space, without undergoing any major
structural change.

In Li-ion, the lithium ions are incorporated into the crystal structure of the electrode material. This process involves a chemical
reaction. The lithium-ions take time to diffuse into the bulk of electrodes. If the Li-ion battery is charged too quickly, this leads to
defects in the crystalline structure and the deposition of lithium metal on the electrode in the form of lithium dendrite crystals. These
lithium crystals can penetrate through the separator layer and cause a short circuit with the counter electrode, which could result in
a thermal run-away and fire. Over-charging and deep discharging of Li-ion battery may lead to deterioration of the components.

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 SUPERCAPACITORS SCHEMATIC OF ENERGY STORAGE
IN A SUPERCAPACITOR
Supercapacitors, also known as ultra-capacitors,
electrochemical capacitors or electrical double layer capacitors V
(EDLCs) are used for storing and delivering electrical energy
several times faster than batteries. Figure 4 is a schematic of + -
a supercapacitor.

Most commercially-available supercapacitors are constructed

by winding a pair of carbon coated aluminum foils with a
separator sandwiched in between, and by filling the cell with
Activated Carbon Organic Activated Carbon an electrolyte. Activated carbon is often the active material and
Anode Electrolyte Cathode either acetonitrile or propylene carbonate containing tetraethyl
ammonium tetrafluoroborate (TEA BF4) is the electrolyte. The
operating voltage of the cell is up to 2.7V. The energy stored
in a supercapacitor can be expressed as E=½CV2, where E
However, EDLC’s have had low energy densities so have not
is the energy stored (in Joules), C is the capacitance of the
been used to store energy over a long period. By contrast, Li-
cell (in Farads), and V is the operating voltage (in volts). The
ion batteries charge slowly but have higher energy densities.
operating voltage is limited by the electrochemical window
In supercapacitors, energy is stored at the surface of the
of the electrolyte. The electrochemical stability of TEABF4 in
electrodes electrostatically, by accumulation of charges. The
acetonitrile (CH3CN) or in propylene carbonate is limited to
ions from the electrolyte migrate to the electrodes, and
below 3.0V [9-13].
accumulate at oppositely charged electrode surfaces during
the charging process as shown in Figure 5.
Activated carbon electrodes have relatively large surface areas
(1500m2/g to 2000m2/g) and inter-connected pore-structure.
The ions at the electrode/electrolyte interface form an electrical
There are three types of pores:
double layer during the charging process. The amount of
energy that can be stored in a supercapacitor depends on
• Macropores (>50nm);
the surface area of the electrode, in particular the electrode/
• Mesopores (2-50nm); and
electrolyte interfacial area, concentration and size of the ions
• Micropores (<2nm)
and the operating voltage.
The micropores are important for electrical double layer
formation and hence for energy storage. However, the
presence of large diameter macropores and mesopores tends
to reduce the electrode/electrolyte interfacial area and the
specific capacitance of the electrodes.

To produce an electrode coating, the activated carbon is

blended with a conducting carbon and polymeric binders,
which further reduces the active surface to some extent.

The energy densities of commercial supercapacitors are

below 10Wh/kg as these cells are constructed using activated
carbon and organic electrolytes.

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 CARBON-ION CELL

Recent advances in producing and fabricating a range of There is much interest in the potential for the nano-carbon
nano-structured carbons and ionic liquid based electrolytes material Graphene for energy storage because of its high
have shown the feasibility of combining the power density surface area and high electrical conductivity. Graphene has a
of supercapacitors and the energy density of re-chargeable theoretical capacitance of 550F/g, and there has been progress
batteries. This cell is termed ‘Carbon-Ion cell’, or ‘C-Ion’, in in achieving part of this by addressing challenges such as
this article to distinguish it from commercial supercapacitors. stacking of layers [7]. The approaches include producing non-
A schematic of a Carbon-Ion cell is shown in Figure 6. stacking 3D-graphene, making curved graphene platelets,
using spacers such as carbon nano-tubes to preserve surface
area and electrical conductivity, minimising defects and doping
N, B and P to enhance the properties.

If the pore-size of nano-carbon is tuned to match the ion

size, the capacitance can be considerably increased [8].
Nano-carbon with a pore size of 0.7nm showed the highest
capacitance of 160F/g when 1-ethyl-3 methylimidazolium bis
(trifluoro-methyl) sulfonyl imide (EMIM TFSI) was used as an
electrolyte [8]. The size of the cation, EMIM+ and the anion,
TFSI- were comparable to the pore diameter. The carbon
electrode without matching the pore size to ion size showed
a capacitance of only 100F/g. By increasing the operating
voltage the energy density can be significantly improved. [8]

Some Ionic liquids exhibit wide electrochemical stability and

these are potential electrolytes to increase energy density
Nano Carbon Ionic Nano Carbon
of a C-Ion cell. They include EMIM TFSI, EMIM BF4, PYR14
Anode Electrolyte Cathode
TFSI, DEME BF4 etc.[8], Nano-carbons such as graphene,
carbon nanotubes, carbon onions, carbide derived carbons
and other forms of carbon have been used as active materials
These cells work in a very similar way to EDLC’s but use
in supercapacitors and C-Ion cells. These experiments have
different carbon and electrolyte materials that are not only
shown promise for devices operating at 3.5V and beyond.
safer and easier to recycle at the end of life, but also enable the
Progress has been reported in improving the energy density
devices to operate at higher voltages resulting in higher energy
by using nano-carbons and ionic liquids. [8,10]
densities. The energy storage in a C-Ion cell is schematically
shown in Figure 7.
Ionic liquids (IL) with a large electrochemical window tend to be
several times more viscous compared to organic electrolytes.
As a result, the ionic conductivity of an IL-based electrolyte
SCHEMATIC OF ENERGY STORAGE IN C-ION is often low and this contributes to higher internal resistance
in the cell as well as a compromise in power characteristics.
During a heavy power demand the cell or a stack of cells
V will struggle to deliver huge power in a quick spurt of a few
- + seconds.

The traditional supercapacitor design shown in Figure 3

envisages transport of charge carriers and ions in 2D geometry,
and an ion in one of the electrodes located closely to the
current collector has to migrate through the entire electrode
and separator material to reach the other electrode to form
the electrical double layer while being charged. The thickness
of the carbon electrode is ~150 microns and the separator is
~20 microns. It is a tortuous path for the ion to move from one
electrode to the other.

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 INCREASING THE ENERGY DENSITY OF C-ION

By using synthetic carbons and nano-carbons it is possible to NANO-CARBONS

fabricate electrodes with controlled porosity. The amount of
electrical energy that can be stored in a C-Ion cell is dependent Carbon materials have a high surface area and can be used
on the surface area and electrical conductivity of the electrode, as electrodes in electrochemical capacitors. Different types of
as well as the operating voltage of the electrolyte. nano-carbons in the form of powders, microspheres, fibres,
foils and monoliths are commercially available. The physical and
In recent years, advances in nano-structured carbons as chemical properties of synthetic and nano-structured carbon
electrodes and non-flammable ionic liquids as electrolytes have materials such as graphene, single walled carbon nanotubes
significantly enhanced the performance. (SWCNT), multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT), fullerene
and carbon onions are of interest as these materials have large
surface area, unique nano-structures and the pore size in some
of these materials is below one nanometer [7]. The specific
capacitance of C-Ion cells can be increased by using nano-
carbons with an optimum surface area and pore- structure.

DEPENDENCE OF NORMALISED CAPACITANCE WITH PORE-SIZE

IN SYNTHETIC NANO-CARBON ELECTRODES (reference 8)
14
EMI cation
13 H H
H Hydrogen
H
H
Normalized Capacitance (uF/cm2)

C Carbon
H C C
12 H + H
4.3 A
N
N C C
N Nitrogen
H
11 F Fluorine C C
S H
Sulfur H
10
O Oxygen 7.6 A
9
TFSI Anion
8 F
O - F
N C
7 S F
S
2.9 A F O
C O
6 F O
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 F 7.9 A
Pore Size (nm)

Published results are summarized in Table 2. Nanoporous carbon has been reported with specific capacitance value as high
as 284F/g (Farads per gram) [10] and 131Wh/kg. Activated carbon nanofibers [14] as electrode material exhibited a specific
capacitance of about 60F/g. Exfoliated graphite oxide upon chemical reduction produced reduced graphene oxide and exhibited
specific capacitance above 200F/g [11-12, 17-19]. Graphene based nanocomposites have also been explored as an active
material. They have shown significantly increased capacitances. Functionalized graphene sheets were synthesized by thermal
exfoliation method and achieved the specific capacitance value of 230F/g. [12]

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 RELATIVE PERFORMANCE OF NANO-CARBON MATERIALS

PUBLISHED SPECIFIC CAPACITANCE TEST

ELECTRODE MATERIAL REF
(F/g) & ENERGY DENSITY (Wh/kg) CONFIGURATION

Activated carbon (PICA CTIF) 125 Symmetrical cell [9]

Activated carbon PICA A 115 Symmetrical cell [9]
Carbide derived carbon 160 Symmetrical cell [8]
Reduced graphene oxide (rGO) 284.5 (131 Wh/kg) Symmetric cell [10]
Thermally expanded graphite oxide 264 Symmetric cell [17]
N-doped graphene 284 Symmetric cell [18]
N-doped graphene & thermally expanded 270 Half-cell [19]
Commercial RP-20 & steam activation 240 Half-cell [11]
Thermal exfoliation of graphite oxide 230 Symmetrical cell [12]
Curved graphene 154 (85.6 Wh/kg) Symmetrical cell [20]
Activated carbon fibre 60 [14]
Activated carbon & carbon nanotube 90 [15]
SiC-derived carbon 130 [16]

IONIC LIQUIDS AS HIGH-VOLTAGE ELECTROLYTES

ELECTROCHEMICAL WINDOW
The energy density of a supercapacitor and a C-Ion cell can be OF ION ELECTROLYTES
increased by raising the operating voltage: E=½CV2, where ‘E’
is the energy stored (Joules), ‘C’ is the capacitance (F) and ‘V’
is the operating voltage (V). Aqueous and organic electrolytes
ELECTROCHEMICAL
are stable up to ~1.2V and 3.0V respectively, and such lower IONIC LIQUIDS REF
operating voltage limits the amount of energy that can be stored
WINDOW (V)
in a supercapacitor.
EMIM BF4 4.6 [28]
Ionic liquids are a new class of electrolyte which are stable at EMIM TFSI 4.7 [28]
higher operating voltages beyond 3.0V [7-8, 19-27]. Ionic liquids,
PrMIM TFSI 4.7 [28]
having a wider electrochemical window, sufficient conductivity
and lower viscosity, can be used as electrolytes in C-Ion cells. Bu3NMeTFSI 6.0 [28]
The physical and chemical properties of ionic liquids depend on BuNMe3 5.3 [28]
the nature of cation, anion and the functional groups attached
to these ions. Selected IL electrolytes show electrochemical BuMePylTFSI 5.7 [28]
stabilities up to 6V, and it is possible to tune the stability window PrMePiTFSI 5.7 [28]
by changing the cation-anion combinations. For the ionic liquids
DEME BF4 6.0 [29]
used as electrolytes, the conductivity values range from 1.0mS/
cm to 10mS/cm [8]. Physical properties such as viscosity, DEME TFSI 6.0 [29]
conductivity and melting point can be varied by combining two
or more ionic liquids.

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 RELATIVE PERFORMANCE OF IONIC LIQUIDS

IONIC LIQUID CELL VOLTAGE (V) ENERGY DENSITY (Wh/kg) REF

EMIM BF4 4.0 85.6 [26]

EMIM BF4 4.0 136 [26]
EMIM BF4 4.0 131 [10]
EMIM TFSI 3.4 30 [27]
PYR14 TFSI 3.7 30 [27]
PYR12O1 4.0 40 [27]

RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES OTHER THAN LI-ION

As well as Li-ion, there are two types of rechargeable battery in common use: Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) and Nickel
Metal Hydride (NiMH).

NICKEL CADMIUM NICKEL METAL HYDRIDE

There are in fact two types of re-chargeable nickel cadmium The nickel metal hydride battery was developed in the 1970s
battery: one contains a ‘sintered’ electrode, the other type as an alternative to NiCd, removing the cadmium.
contains a ‘non-sintered’ electrode. The ‘sintered’ type suffers
from ‘memory effect’ whereas the ‘non-sintered’ does not. NiMH is similar to NiCd in both, the positive electrode is
The non-sintered electrode can increase the cell capacity by composed of nickel oxide (NiOOH) and a potassium or sodium
40% (Sanyo KR-3UU: AA). The positive electrode is nickel and hydroxide solution is used as the electrolyte.
negative electrode is cadmium and the electrolyte is aqueous
potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide. Energizer (Eveready The NiMH battery has a negative electrode which is a metal
Battery Company) introduced a ‘Pasted negative electrode’, hydride alloy. This is an alloy which can store hydrogen.
with reduced memory effect, and Motorola developed a foam
type nickel-cadmium battery to overcome this issue. Improved performance NiMH was introduced by Sanyo and
Matsushita in the 1990’s based on improved hydride alloys.
The nominal cell voltage is 1.2V, and the cycle life is from 500 to Cell voltage is typically 1.2V.
1000 charge/discharge cycles. The energy density ranges from
45 to 80 Wh/kg and the cells can operate from -20°C to 65°C Hydrogen gas dissociates to form absorbed hydrogen on the
[31]. NiCd has the advantage of relatively high rate discharge, surface of the alloy. This then diffuses into the alloy and forms
and the performance does not deteriorate at low- temperatures. metal hydride. This is reversed during de-sorption.

Nickel cadmium batteries are classified as ‘hazardous waste’:

the cadmium is highly toxic and makes recycling them very
difficult. [32-34] Anode: MH + OH- M + H2O + e-

Cathode: NiOOH + H2O + e- Ni (OH)2 + OH-

Anode: Cd + 2OH- Cd(OH)2 + 2e-

Overall: NiOOH + MH Ni (OH)2 + M

Cathode: NiOOH + H2O + e- Ni (OH)2 + OH-

Overall: NiOOH + Cd + 2H2O 2Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2

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 SUMMARY

Carbon-Ion cells are a new category of energy storage device that combine nano-carbons and ionic electrolytes to provide higher
energy densities. They can also provide the rapid charging and long cycle life of supercapacitors, without any of the fire risk.

This technology can be used either on its own or in combination with Li-ion batteries for a range of rapid-charge applications,
such as:

• Cordless power tools or domestic appliances

• In facilities such as emergency lights where its long life obviates the need to be replaced every few years
• ‘Peak Shaving’ in the solar energy infrastructure, mitigating the need for over-generation by generators
• In EV’s and hybrids for rapid energy capture through regenerative braking.

Ultimately it presents the opportunity for adoption in mobile phones, tablets, laptops and other portable devices.

RELATIVE PERFORMANCE OF ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES

SUPER- NICKEL CARBON-

LITHIUM NICKEL METAL
CAPACITORS CADMIUM ION
(Li-ion) HYDRIDE (NiMH)
(EDLC) (Ni-Cd) (C-Ion)

Energy Density 150-250 Wh/kg 5-10 Wh/kg 45-80 Wh/kg 60-120 Wh/kg 32-56 Wh/kg
Charging Hours Seconds Hours Hours Seconds
Discharge rate Slow Fast Medium Slow Fast
Cycle life 1,000 100,000 1,000 1,000 100,000
Safety Flammable Flammable Flammable Flammable Non-flammable
Recycle Poor Poor Poor Poor Good
Voltage 3.6V – 4.2V 2.7V – 3.0V 1.2V 1.2V 3V – 6V
Operating Temperature -10°C to 60°C -20°C to 60°C -20°C to 65°C -20°C to 65°C -40°C to 80°C
Shipping UN 38.3 UN 38.3 UN 38.3 UN 38.3 No restrictions

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 ABOUT ZAP&GO

Zap&Go was founded in 2013 in Oxford, UK with IP from the world leading University
of Oxford in advanced nano carbon materials. These materials are used to replace the
lithium commonly used in lithium-ion batteries with a safer, faster charging alternative.
This means none of the fire risk associated with lithium batteries, and devices that
charge much more quickly. Zap&Go has already developed a non-lithium powerbank
mobile phone charger that charges in under 5 minutes and is planning further consumer
and industrial product announcements that can reduce the charge time of everyday
products from hours to seconds.

Zap&Go was the only energy storage company to make the Red Herring Global 100
list in 2016.

www.zapgo.com

ZapGo Ltd
Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
Oxford OX11 0QX
United Kingdom

© ZapGo Ltd February 2017

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