Chapter 1.

1
HISTORY OF MINING
WILLARD C. L ACY AND J OHN C. L A C Y

1.1.1 A CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS ing elements. It was also found that by blending of ores from
different localities, the metal product could be improved and
History is much more than dates of political events; it is controlled, and that ores containing iron-rich minerals, sea
written in civilization’s tools, weapons, workshops and factories, shells, or silicate minerals fluxed and aided the smelting process.
roads, bridges, canals, railways, laboratories, churches, housing Thus they were added if not already present in the ores.
and schools, laws, organizations, books, art and music, and medi- Iron came into use as a byproduct of the smelting process
cal and dental care. It is shaped by scientists, engineers, farmers, for other metals in Anatolia where gossans were used as fluxes
industrialists, and entrepreneurs. It is driven by economic con- and iron formed as a part of the slag. China, however, was the
cerns, fixed and circulating capital, supply and demand, wages site of great improvement in iron smelting and casting technol-
and prices, expansion and contraction of markets, competition ogy during 475 BC to 220 BC where pig iron was produced
and monopolies, shortages, gluts, substitutions, trade cycles, cri- containing 3.5 to 4.5% carbon at a melting point of approxi-
ses, restrictions, diplomacy, and war. It has also been critically mately 2282ºF (1250ºC). The Chinese also at this time developed
influenced by the availability to mankind of industrial minerals, new innovations in gilding bronze and inlaying of bronze and
metals, and fuels. iron implements with gold and silver.
Table 1.1.1 attempts to list chronologically and geographi-
cally many historical developments, both those that have influ- 1.1.1.2 Mining Methods
enced the growth of mining and the mineral industries, and those
that mining has influenced. The silver-lead mines of Laurium, near Athens, Greece, were
Viewing developments of mining technology purely on the first worked and abandoned by the Myceneans in the 2nd millen-
basis of chronology, however, is misleading because technology nium BC, but opened again by the Athenians beginning about
advanced and declined in irregular geographic patterns through- 600 BC. The earliest workings were open cast with short adits.
out the world. For example, while Greek mining technology was Later, more than 2000 shafts were sunk and connected by drifts.
well advanced by 500 BC, Britain remained in a primitive stage Shafts were sunk in pairs with parallel drifts driven from them
until Roman civilization arrived at the end of the 1st century with frequent connecting crosscuts to aid ventilation. Stoping of
AD, and Australia remained in a Paleolithic state until British ore bodies was either by overhand or underhand methods, and
colonization. Gunpowder, though in use by the 8th century in room and pillar methods were used for the larger stopes. Progress
China, was not introduced in Europe until the 13th century, and was slow, and it has been calculated that in shaft sinking a miner
still was not recorded as being used in mining until the 18th averaged about 5 ft/month (1.5 m/month).
century. Steam as a source of power for pumping, first harnessed It was in water-pumping devices that Roman mining showed
in the 17th century, was not effectively used in mining until a the greatest advance. They drained the copper mines of Rio
century later. Tinto, Spain, and others as far away as Britain. The most impor-
tant of these dewatering devices was the water wheel and the
Archimedean screw.
1.1.1.1 The Progress of Metallurgy The migrations of the Celts, originally from south-central
The earliest miners, dated back to perhaps 300,000 BC, were Europe, was probably the single most important factor in the
concerned with chert and flint for tools and weapons. Their dissemination of mining technology throughout Europe. These
quarries and pits led first to adits and shafts and finally to migrations and general nomadic tendencies of the Celts not only
underground mining during the Neolithic Period (8000 BC to spread knowledge of mining techniques, but many legal concepts
2000 BC). Using crude stone picks and hammers, these early can be traced to their tribal customs. The Celts, who permanently
miners surprisingly reached depths of 300 ft (90 m) in the soft settled in the metal-rich areas of central Germany, became the
chalk of northern France and southern England. With this tech- Saxons and led the way to advances in mining during the Middle
nology, mankind also directed its attention to metallic ores. Ages, not only in their own country, but throughout Europe.
Metals were first appreciated only as stones, and from 7000 They began mining at Schemnitz, Czechoslovakia, as early as
BC to 4000 BC, metallurgy centered on copper and gradually AD 745; at Rammelsberg, Saxony, by 970; at Freiberg, Saxony,
evolved from simple hammering to hammering and annealing, by 1170; and Joachimsthal, Bohemia, in 1515. Thereafter, when
to melting and casting, and finally to alloying to produce desired mines were opened in Spain and the famous silver mines at
characteristics of melt, hardness and flexibility. The pyrometal- Konigsberg, Norway, Saxons skilled in mining and metallurgy
lurgical technology of the West had its origin in the Near Eastern were sent from Germany. By the 16th century the terms “miner”
zone of ancient Anatolia (Turkey), Syria, Egypt, Iraq, and Iran. and “Saxon” had become almost synonymous.
By the 6th millennium BC, these craftsmen were able to produce Knowledge of mining technology was essentially a closely
furnace temperatures of more than 198 l°F (1083ºC) using forced held craft that was dispersed by the mobility of miners. For
draft, a technological breakthrough that launched the Metal example, the Celts that settled in Cornwall were the early tin
Eras. miners. In 1240 a “tinner” fleeing England after having commit-
Ancient metallurgy entailed selection of compatible ores and ted murder is reported to have taught the Germans to prospect
fluxes and avoidance of incompatible ones. By the 2nd millen- for, mine, and concentrate metal ores; in 1562 the technology
nium BC, the eastern Mediterranean people were able to engage returned as Queen Elizabeth of England sent back to Germany
in mass production of copper, lead, and silver from oxide and for miners to introduce better mining and metallurgical practices
sulfide ores and improve physical properties by addition of alloy- in Devon and Cornwall. During the gold rushes of the 19th

5
6 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining
Near EastÑ Central and Northern
PeriodÑ MediterraneanÑ Europe
Stage Africa and Great Britain North and South America Australasia
BC c.500,000 Use of fire (China)
300,000-100,000 Surface
mining of flint (N. France,
Paleolithic S. England)
c.40,000 Hematite mined for c.30,000 Use of fire, lamps,
ritual painting (Africa) cave art, hunting with pro-
jectiles
c.20,000
End of Ice Age

Late
Paleolithic c. 10,000 Gold ornaments
c.9500 Copper pendant. (Iraq)
c.9000
c.8000 Development of agri- c.8000 Development of agri-
culture (Egypt, Mesopo- culture (China)
tamia)
c.7000 Burning of lime
c.6500 Farming introduced c.6500 Farming introduced
(Greece)
ÑCopper tools (Anatolia)
Mesolithic c.6000 First pottery (Catal
(Human Huyuk)
Power) c.5000 Meteoric iron beads
(Egypt)
ÑLead in use (Egypt)
ÑTurquoise mining (Sinai)
ÑGold mining (Nubia)
ÑEmerald mining (Red Sea)
shafts to 300 m
c.4000
c.4000 Bronze casting c.4000 Introduction of plow c.4000 Technology migration
(Egypt) along trade routes
ÑCopper smelting (Timna)
NeolithicÑ c.3500 Wheel and plow in- c.3500 Flint mines with shafts
Chalcolithic vented (Mesopotamia) and galleries (France,
ÑGold vessels (Iraq) Britain)
ÑStone quarrying (Egypt)
c.3000 Bitumen mortar (Ur)
c.3000
c.3000 Copper and stone c.3000 Bronze weapons in c.3000 First pottery (Equador, c.3000 Bronze casting (Ban
artwork use Colombia) Chiang, Thailand)
ÑLost wax casting ÑSpread of copper mining ÑOld Copper Culture, Lake
ÑPhoenician traders bring tin ÑGold from Ireland Superior (US) c.2800 Emperor Shen Nung
Metal Age I from Cornwall ÑHammering, annealing, discovers smelting (China)
Bronze c.2700 Copper mined in grinding of copper (US)
Cyprus
c.2600 Tin bronzes in use
c.2500 Lead in use (Troy)
c.2000
c.2000 Pre-Hittites use iron c.2000 First metalworking of c.2000 Gold and silver acu-
ÑSilver separated from lead gold (Peru) puncture needles (China)
by cupellation (Anatolia) ÑCompound casting (China)
Metal Age II ÑLaurium Mine worked by ÑCoal dug and used as fuel
Bronze Mycenians ÑMiner lowest stratum of so-
1750 HammurabiÕs code of ciety (China)
laws (Babylonia)
ÑCu,Ag,Pb,Fe mined and
smelted by Hittites 1600-1400 Iron smelting and
c.1400 Gold mines of Nubia forging (Ban Chiang,
exploited Thailand)
ÑUse of bronze chisels
1280 Hebrew flight from
Egypt taking metal tech-
nology
 HISTORY OF MINING 7
Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued)
Near East— Central and Northern
Period— Mediterranean— Europe
Stage Africa and Great Britain North and South America Australasia
c.1200 Jason uses fleece to
recover fine gold
c.950 Rio Tinto Mine oper-
ated by Phoenicians for c.800 Iron and bronze coins
silver c.700 Iron tools used in salt introduced (China)
Early Iron c.670 Introduction of iron- mining (Hallstatt, Austria) —Iron chains used for sus-
working (Egypt) pension bridges (China)
650 First coins of silver and
gold (Lydia, Turkey)
c.600 Hanging Gardens of c.600 Discovery of oil and
Babylon floored with lead gas while drilling for salt
600-500 Bitumen mined (China)
(Baku)
510 Private leases granted at
Laurium, royalties to citi-
zens of Athens
c.500
c.500 Wootz steel made in c.500 Tombs contain gold
India (China)
—Iron-making techniques
spread to sub-Sahara
490 Athenian senate uses
royalties from Laurium to fi- c.400 Celts mine placer tin in c.400 Steel weapons (China)
nance naval construction Cornwall using horn picks
334 Alexander invades Asia and wooden shovels with
Minor, conquers Egypt free miners
c.330 Aristotle writes Meteor-
ologica, on how stones
Late Iron originate
(Water c.300 Theophrasus writes
Power) Concerning Stones
(Greece)
—Alchemy begins (Alex-
andria) 267 Platinum worked at Es-
265 Punic wars begin for meraldas, Equador
control of silver deposits of 214 Great Wall commenced
Iberia, Spain (China)
c.100 Water wheels in use— c.200 Blowing of iron used
horizontal by Greeks, verti- 112 Opening of Silk Road
cal by Romans
c.50
AD c.0 Gold technology, lost wax
c.20 Romans use brass coins method reaches Colombia

23-79 Pliny writes books on 105 First use of paper

earths, metals, stones, 43 Roman invasion of Britain (China)
gems 112 Coal used by Romans in
117-138 Hadrian introduces Britain, surface mines
Greco- strict regulations for treat-
Rom an ment of miners
—Lex Metalli Vespacensis
recognizes miners rights,
half to Crown
—Villeinage introduced
—Use of skilled artisans as
miners c.200 Iron casting a well de-
c.220 Roman currency de- veloped art Han Dynasty,
based (China)
320 Theodosian Code intro- 200-600 Gold and silver min-
duced (Roman Empire) ing in China

500
528-533 Justinian compiles c.500 American Indians use c.500—Roman coins abun-
Corpus Juris Civilis in E. cinnabar and carnotite as dant (China)
Roman Empire decoration
8 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued)
Near East— Central and Northern
Period— Mediterranean— Europe
Stage Africa and Great Britain North and South America Australasia
c.600 Use of windmills
(Persia) c.700 Gold working reaches
—Gold and silver mines of 745 Mining begins at Schem- Mexico c.710 Printing begins (China)
Dark Ages Spain reopened by Moors nitz (Czechoslovakia)
c.800 Charlemagne reno- c.800 Bergbaufreiheit, right of
vates Roman mines in Italy free miner (Saxony)
938 Rammelsberg mine dis- c.900 Hopi Indians mine coal
covered (Saxony) c.900 Porcelain made (China)
965 Gold strike in Harz
Mountains (Saxony)
c.990 Danelaw Courts of Ae-
thelred II (England)
c.1000 First Iron Age settle- c.1000 Great age of Chinese
ment in Zimbabwe ceramics and painting
c.1045 First movable type
(China)
c.1050
Ram-
1150 First adit in Ram
melsberg
1170 Erzgeberge silver dis-
1185 Treaty of Bishop of covered
Trent frees miners (Italy), 1195 Charter of Rights of
expands miner’s rights Sovereign Princes recog-
nizes discovery rights
(Germany)
1198 Tin mines of Devon
placed under supervision of
warden (England)
1201 John I decree permits
1208 Mining customs an- entry of unoccupied land
nounced in Trent (Italy) for mining (England)
1210 “Sea coal” grant to
monks of Holyrood Abbey
c.1215 Mining regulations of by Wm. the Lion (Scotland)
Massa (Italy) 1217 Forest Law of Henry Ill
gave people right to use
coal (England)
1219 Harz silver mining char-
ter (Germany)
1238 First colleries estab-
lished in Newcastle
(England)
1240 Monks of Newminster
Abbey granted rights to
use “sea coal” for forge
Middle 1249 Iglau code (Moravia)
Ages 1250 Forerunner of stock 1250-1350 Energy crisis in
company in Genoa (Italy) Great Britain
c.1250 Active coal mining at
Liege, Belgium
1267 First recorded refer-
ence to steel (England)
1277 Oldest English brass
1288 Inquisition at Ashbourne
defining miners’ rights 1275 Marco Polo arrives in
(England) China
1298 Marco Polo writes De-
scription of the World, in- c.1300 Philip IV frees serfs 1300 Indians in N. America c.1300 Waterwheels used to
cludes formula for black ending forced labor learn to burn “black rock” power bellows (China)
powder (Italy) (France)
—Coal diggings as trenches,
irregular diggings, “bell
pits;” coal raised in corves
and windlass or backs of
women (Britain)
 HISTORY OF MINING 9
Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued)
Near EastÑ Central and Northern
PeriodÑ MediterraneanÑ Europe
Stage Africa and Great Britain North and South America Australasia
ÑCoal used by brewers and
dryers
1305 Edward II issues stan-
nary charters for Cornwall
and Devon (England)
1306 Edward II prohibits arti-
ficers from using coal (Eng-
land)
1307 Commission of Oyer
and Terminer appointed to
enforce proclamation of
Edward II
c.1340 Mining by pit and adit,
vertical shaft and horizontal
gallery, manual windlass or
jackroll (Britain)
1344 Publication of Las Siete 14th century Code of Frei-
Partidas (Spain) berg (Saxony)
1356 ÒGolden BullÓ of
Charles IV recognizes free
prospecting and working of
discovery (German Empire)
1370 Human-powered water
lifting devices used at
Rammelsberg mine
(Saxony)
1379 First tax on coal (Eng-
land)
1387 Decree of Juan I per-
mits mineral exploitation on
land of others, ²⁄₃ to Crown
(Spain)
c.1400
Rennais- 1413 Charles IV claims sov-
sance ereignty over all mines,
tithe to Crown, damages to
landlord (France)
1415 Great Barmote Court
(England)
1450 GutenbergÕs printing
press (Germany)
1451 Funken separates cop-
per and silver (Germany)
1454 Rag and chain pump in-
1463 Water-powered blast stalled at Rammelsberg
furnace in use at Ferriere c.1475 Mining tools: pick,
(Italy) hammer, wedge, wooden
shovel
ÑTwo opposing water
wheels used for driving
1492 Columbus sails west hoist (Hungary) 1492 Americas discovered
(Spain) c.1500 Windlass used for
hoisting buckets or baskets
ÑSurface haulage by pan-
niers on horseback
ÑMiners form guilds for mu-
tual aid and benefit (Eng-
land)
1509 Portugese defeat Sara- 1509 Watch invented by Pe-
cen fleet closing Indian ter Henle (Germany)
Ocean 1516 Silver strike at Joachim-
stal (Czechoslovakia) 1521 Cortes enters Mexico
1550 First lift pump, Joachim- 1524 Mining of copper in
stal (Czechoslovakia) Cuba
10 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued)
Near EastÑ Central and Northern
PeriodÑ MediterraneanÑ Europe
Stage Africa and Great Britain North and South America Australasia
1553 Railroads introduced in ÑCopper, tin, silver mined at
mining (Czechoslovakia) Tazco, Mexico, by Span-
1556 1st edition De Re Met- iards
alica, Agricola (Germany) 1545 Discovery of silver at
1558 English law prohibits Potosi (Bolivia)
cutting of trees for iron 1550 MendozaÕs Mining Code
smelting (Mexico)
1563 Scottish parliament pro- 1554 ÒPatioÓ method devel-
hibits transport of coal out- oped at Pachuca (Mexico)
side of realm
1565 Hemp ropes replace
iron chains at Rammels-
berg (Saxony)
1568 Justices and barons of
Exchequer rule ownership 1574 Francisco ToledoÕs Min-
1584 Philip II of Spain issues of gold and silver extends ing Code (Peru, Bolivia,
code of laws to govern to privately owned land Chile, Argentina)
overseas mining (England)
1590 Patent issued Dean of
York for coking Òpit coalÓ
c.1600 Energy Crisis (Eng-
land)
ÑSir Wm. Gilbert recognizes
earthÕs magnetic field (Eng-
land)
1600
1600 Founding of English
and Dutch East India Trad- 1603 Philip II of Portugal is-
ing Co sues code of laws to gov-
1605 Furnace with covered ern mining (Brazil)
crucibles to protect from 1606 Charter granted to Lon-
noxious coal fumes intro- don and Plymouth Co. by
duced for production of James I specified royalties
sheet glass (England) ¹⁄₅ precious metals, ¹⁄₁₅
copper
Rise of 1609 Barba invents Òkettle
Science 1610 Scientific Revolution in and cookingÓ process for
Europe begins: Kepler, silver ores (Bolivia)
Bacon, Galileo, Descartes,
etc.
ÑPatent to Wm. Wright for
furnace to melt Òbell
Coal Age metalÓ with coal (Germany)
1612 First use of reverbatory
furnace (England)
1613 Bore rods in use in ex-
ploration for coal
ÑUse of gunpowder in min-
ing (Germany)
1614 Napier discovers loga-
rithms (France)
ÑRobert Mansell granted a
monopoly for use of coal in
glass manufacture (Eng-
land)
1615 Salomon de Caus sug-
gests raising water by ex-
pansive power of steam
(France)
1619 Patent to ÒDudÓ Dudley
for smelting iron with Òpit
coalÓ (England)
1627 First use of drilling and
blasting at Oberbeiberstol-
len mine, Schemnitz
(Hungary)
 HISTORY OF MINING 11
Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued)
Near East— Central and Northern
Period— Mediterranean— Europe
Stage Africa and Great Britain North and South America Australasia
1630 First use of railway,
Beaumont mine, Schemnitz 1636 Founding of Harvard
1640 Chimney tax imposed College
(England), repealed by 1646 First successful use of
Wm. III blast furnace in N. America
c.1650 Longwall mining intro- at Saugus, MA
duced at Shropshire colle-
ries, bord and pillar in N.
England
1659 Papin’s steam engine
(France)
1660 Founding of Royal Soci-
ety, chartered 1662 by
Charles II (England)
1665 John Woodward writes
“An Essay Toward a Natu-
1669 Steno writes De Solium ral History of the Earth and
Naturalitar Contento (Italy) Terrestrial Bodies, Espe-
cially Minerals” (England)
1671 Railway and wagons
used to convey coal from
Ravensworth to Team
Staith (England)
c. 1675 Methane explosions
in English coal mines 1679 Coal discovered in
1689 Drilling and blasting in- Illinois
troduced at Cornwall
1692 Lead smelted with coal 1692 Lead discovered in Mis-
1694 British patent to extract sissippi Valley by Nicholas
tar and oil from stone Perot
1693 Gold discovered at Mi-
1698 Sir Humphery Mack- nas Gerais (Brazil)
worth employs coal in
smelting copper (England)
1699 Thomas Savery reads
paper to Royal Society on
vacuum principle engine
used at Grentwork mine,
Cornwall
1700
1709 Abraham Darby uses
coke to smelt iron (Eng-
land)
—Kaolin mines established
near Meissen, Germany
1712 Newcomen engine in-
stalled at Wolverhampton,
Shropshire (England)
1713 Coke used at Coal-
brookdale foundry (Eng-
land)
1714 Henry II prohibits found-
ries from using coal
(France)
1716 Mining school estab-
lished at Joachinstal,
Czechoslovakia
1718 Cornish tin mines dewa- 1718 SW Missouri lead mines
ter by pumping commence work at La
1720 Zinc smelting at Motte mine
Swansea, Wales
—“Bubble Act” limits stock- 1727 Diamonds identified
holders to eight (England) (Brazil)
c.1730 Cast iron used for 1730 Brazilian diamonds de-
mine pumps, pipes, and clared property of Crown of
steam engine cylinders Portugal
(England)
12 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued)
Near East— Central and Northern
Period— Mediterranean— Europe
Stage Africa and Great Britain North and South America Australasia
1740 Crucible steel method
rediscovered by Huntsman
(England)
—Zinc produced on commer-
cial scale (Wales)
1743 Marggraf publishes
method to produce zinc
(Germany)
1744 Gold mining in Russia
1747 Hutton writes Theory of
the Earth (Scotland)
1749 Roebuck introduces
lead chamber process for
sulfuric acid manufacture
(Britain)
1750
1751 Crucible steel commer-
1752 Large-scale copper cially established (Britain)
leaching at Rio Tinto 1759 Lebon’s coal-gas patent
(Spain) (France)
1767 Cast iron rails for rail-
roads introduced (England)
1769 Watt patents steam en-
gine (England)
1770 Reverbatory furnace in- 1770 Artur de Sa Mining
troduced (England) Code for working mines at
c.1770 Period of great ad- Minas Gerais (Brazil)
vance in science: Priestley, 1771 Diamond Code (Brazil)
Lavoisier, Volta, Watt, Har-
Industrial rison (Britain, France, Italy)
Revolution 1774 Emancipation Act abol-
(Britain) ishing villeinage (Scotland)
1775 Abraham Werner inau-
gurates “Neptunist” school
of geology at Freiberg
(Germany)
—Underhand cut and fill
stoping used at Cornwall
1768-82 Watt and Boulton
introduce double-acting
condensing steam engine
for dewatering Cornish tin
mines
(Steam 1781 Cornish pump intro-
Power) duced
1783 Tungsten discovered in 1783 Henry Cort patents roll- 1783 Charles Ill (Spain) ap-
Spain ing mill (England) proves mining ordinances
1784 Henry Cort introduces for “New Spain”
puddling process for mal- 1785 Land Ordinance re-
leable wrought iron serves 1/3 gold, silver, lead,
(England) and copper mines to Con-
federation (US)
1788 Benjamin Waterhouse
1789 Wheeled trams on light begins course in geology
rails used underground and mineralogy at Harvard
(England) (US)
—Uranium discovered in
pitchblende by Martin Kla-
proth (Germany)
c. 1790 “Friendly Societies,”
forerunners of union, orga- 1792 Royal Seminary of Min-
nize (England) ing established in Mexico
 HISTORY OF MINING 13
Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued)
Near East— Central and Northern
Period— Mediterranean— Europe
Stage Africa and Great Britain North and South America Australasia

1800
c.1800 Underhand cut and fill
replaced by overhand cut
and fill at Cornwall and
Saxony
1800 Trevithick introduces
high-pressure steam en-
gine at Cornwall
1802 Trevithick builds loco-
motive for travel on roads 1803 Alvaria implements new
(England) mining code (Brazil)
1804 Trevithick builds railway 1804 Evan’s high-pressure
locomotive at Cornwall steam engine (US)
1807 France codifies partner- 1807–1846 Leasing of lead
ships and commercial com- mines in Illinois, Iowa, and
panies Missouri (US)
Industrial 1809 Davy names and at-
Revolution tempts to isolate aluminum 1811 New York allows corpo-
(United 1812 George Stephenson al- rations with limited liability
States) ters pumping engine to
make it haul coal (England)
—First locomotive and first
successful steamboat in
Europe
—Cylinder printing press in-
vented (England)
—Trevithick applies plunger
pump with Cornish pump at
Prince Henry mine (Corn-
wall)
1813 Trevithick introduces
boring machine
1815 Davy and Geo Ste-
phenson invent first suc-
cessful mine safety lamp
(Britain)
—R. W. Fox utilizes earth
electrical currents to locate
sulfide ore body (Cornwall)
1820 Coal gas used for light-
ing conveyed through iron
pipes (England)
1821 Faraday invents electric
motor and generator (Eng-
land)
—Berthier discovers bauxite
at Les Beaux, France
1825 First passenger railway
(England)
—Oersted obtains aluminum
powder (France)
—Labor unions given legal
status (Britain)
1827 Robert Stephenson de-
signs the “Rocket” loco- 1828 Gold discovered in
motive (England) Georgia (US)
1829 Jigs introduced in
Britain
1831 Bickford develops
safety blasting fuse at
Cornwall
1833 Pattison’s process for
silver extraction (Britain)
—“Man-lift” invented at
Clausthal (Saxony)
—Wire rope used for hoisting
at Clausthal
14 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued)
Near East— Central and Northern
Period— Mediterranean— Europe
Stage Africa and Great Britain North and South America Australasia
—British regulations for in-
dustrial working conditions
1834 Introduction of guided
cage hoisting of coal car-
riages and flanged wheels
on carriages (England)
1835 Mining Journal begins
publication (England)
1836 Sorel’s galvanized iron
(France) 1837 First edition System of
1838 First electric telegraph Mineralogy by Dana (US)
in Britain —Otis invents steam shovel
1843 Brunley launches iron “Yankee Geologist” (US) 1842 Treaty of Nanking
ship, “Great Britain” (Eng- 1840 Copper discovered on opens ports in China and
land) Keweenaw Peninsula, Ml, allows exit of low-cost
—Legislation against employ- by Douglas Houghton (US) labor
ment of women and boys 1842 Geological Survey of 1843 Copper mining com-
under 10 underground in Canada established mences at Burra Mine
mines (Britain) (Australia)
1844 Rittinger invents shak- 1844 Cliff mine begins opera-
ing table (Britain) tion (Lake Superior)
1845–49 Irish potato famine 1845 Chief Manjekijik showed
1846 Standard railway gage S. Carr iron deposit in
introduced in Britain Michigan (US)
1847 Elie de Beaumont —Sault Ste Marie Canal
writes “Sur les Emanations begun
Volcaniques et Metaliferes” 1848 Gold discovered by
(France) James Marshall at Sutter’s
Mill, California
—Patent granted on percus-
sion drill capable of op-
erating other than vertical
(US)
1849
1850 Act for safety inspec- 1850 Gold rush mining dis-
tion of coal mines (Eng- trict regulations for Califor- 1851 Gold discovered in New
land) nia gold placer deposits South Wales by Har-
—London School of Mines (US) greaves (Australia)
established
Rush for —First mechanized rock drill
Gold (France)
1851-52 Derbyshire lead 1852 Extralateral right estab-
mining laws become a part lished, Nevada County, CA
of common law (England)
—Longwall mining of coal in 1853 Polytech College of
general use in Europe Pennsylvania founded; first
—First Mining Institute at institution in the US to offer
Newcastle on Tyne degree in mining
1854 Deville’s aluminum dis- 1854 Gadsden Purchase 1854 Mathew Perry opens
played at Paris Exposition from Mexico by US Japan to foreign trade
1855 Luigi Palmieri invents 1855 Roebling’s wire rope —Victoria Gold Regulations
seismograph (Italy) bridge over Niagara (US) and Eureka Stockade riot
1856 Bessemer process in- (Australia)
troduced for mass produc-
tion of steel (England)
—Siemens patents open
hearth furnace for steel
(England)
1857
1855-62 Limited Liabilities 1857 Wm. Kelly granted pa-
Act made public financing tent in US for air-blown iron
possible (England) converter process in steel
1859 Von Cotta publishes production
Treatise on Ore Deposits 1859 Discovery of oil at Ti-
(Germany) tusville, PA
 HISTORY OF MINING 15
Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued)
Near East— Central and Northern
Period— Mediterranean— Europe
Stage Africa and Great Britain North and South America Australasia
Age of 1860 Exploitation of Stassfurt 1860 Discovery of Comstock 1860s Discovery of gold in
Steel potassium deposit Lode, NV Queensland (Australia)
1862 Introduction of steel —Development of Pittsburgh
rails in England coal seam (US)
1863 T. Harrison and Wm.
Baird & Co. design chain
Petroleum cutter for use in Gartsher-
Age rie Collieries (England)
1864 Leschot invents dia- 1864 Gold discovered at
mond drill (France) Butte, MT
1865 Electrolytic refining of
copper in Britain
—Nobel invents dynamite
(Sweden)
1866 Siemens-Martin open 1866 Lode Mining Act (US)
hearth steel (Germany) —First packaged powder
—Prussian Mining Law used, New Almaden mine,
(Germany) CA
—First issue American Jour-
nal of Mining (Later E&MJ)
(US)
1867 Mendeleev’s classifica- 1867 Purchase of Alaska by
tion of elements (Russia) US from Russia
—J. H. Rae patents cyanide
extraction of gold from
ores (US)
1868 Siemens suggests gasi- 1868 First dynamite produced
fying slack and waste coal in the US by Giant Powder
in situ (Britain) Co.
1869 First diamond drill in US
at Bonne Terre mine, MO
1870 Germany permits lim- 1870 Standard Oil Co. incor-
ited liability companies porated with J. D. Rocke-
feller as president (US)
—Copper discovered (Chile)
—AIME founded
—First manufacture of Port-
land cement in US at Allen-
town, PA
—S. Ingersoll patents rock
drill with universal tripod
(Petroleum mounting (US)
Power) 1872 Mining Act of 1872
(US), discovery and devel-
opment required for pos-
session
1874 First electric train (NY)
1876 Pneumatic drill intro- 1876 Bell patents telephone
duced at Rammelsberg (US)
mine (Germany) —Homestake mine discov-
ered (SD)
1877 Hodges and Armil in-
1878 First oil tanker (Russia) augerate mechanical strip
mining with Otis steam
shovel (KS)
—E. Schieffelin discovers
Tombstone mine (AZ)
1879 USGS established
—Edison demonstrates light-
ing system (US)
1880
1880 Ball mill and jaw 1880 G. Eastman makes
crusher introduced at popular photography possi-
Age of Cornwall ble (US)
Electricity —Steel structure used in 1883 20-mule team hauls bo- 1883 Discovery of Broken Hill
buildings (England) rax to Mohave Junction, silver (Australia)
CA
16 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued)
Near East— Central and Northern
Period— Mediterranean— Europe
Stage Africa and Great Britain North and South America Australasia
1884 Codigo National Minera
(Mexico)
1886 Gold discovered near 1886 P. Heroult codiscovers 1886 C. Hall codiscovers di-
Johannesburg, S. Africa direct electrolysis of alumi- rect electrolysis of alumi-
num in molten cryolite num in cryolite (US)
(France) 1885 Wooden dredge on
1887 Mining Yearbook estab- wheels used to strip over-
lished (England) burden by Consol Coal Co.
—McArthur & Forrest patent (IL)
cyanide leaching and zinc —First profitable gold discov-
precipitation of gold ery in Yukon
(Scotland)
1888 Formation of DeBeers 1888 Karl Bayer develops 1888 First electric hoist at
Consol Mining Ltd. (S. process for production of Aspen, CO
Africa) alumina (Germany) —Homestake mine intro-
duces amalgamation (SD)
—Discovery of Florida phos-
Aluminum phate
Age —Geol. Soc. Am. established
1889 Eiffel Tower con- 1889 Mining Record began 1889 Charles Potter, brewer,
structed (France) publication, Denver, CO devises flotation process at
—Fougue & Levy establish 1890 H. Frasch patents sulfur Broken Hill (Australia)
time/distance seismic plots extraction technique (US)
(France) —Brunton compass intro-
1890 R. von Etvos develops duced (US)
torsion balance to measure —Sherman antitrust legisla-
gravity (Hungary) tion (US)
1892 Ley Minera (Mexico) 1892 Gold discovered at Kal-
goorlie, W. Australia
1893 Aus. Inst. Mining and
(Electric 1895 Sullivan mine discov- Met. founded (Australia)
Power) ered (Canada)
1896 G. Carmack makes gold
discovery on Bonanza
Creek (Klondike)
1897 J. K. Leyner introduces
new drill (US)
—American Mining Congress
founded
—Wilfley table invented (US)
1898 Pierre and Marie Curie 1898 D. C. Jackling issues
observe radioactivity feasibility study on Bing-
(France) ham Canyon deposit (UT)
1899 Heroult produces first 1899 “Cyanide Charlie” Mer-
commercial steel with elec- rill awarded contract to in-
tric arc furnace (France) stall cyanide processing at
Homestake mine (SD)
—Amer. Smelting & Refining
organized (US)
1900
1900 Copper mining begins c. 1900 Acetylene lamps intro- 1900 First mine geological
at Katanga (Zaire) duced (Britain) department organized at 1901 C. V. Potter and G. V.
Butte by R. Sales and H. Delprat patent flotation pro-
Winchell cess (Australia)
1902 Coal-face conveyor in- —Great Mexican oil boom 1902 First commercial use of
troduced by W. C. Blackett —Discovery of Gulf Coast flotation at Broken Hill to
at Durham, England salt dome sulphur deposits recover sphalerite from tail-
1903 First flight of petroleum ings (Australia)
powered aircraft by Wright
brothers, Dayton, OH
—Discovery of Cobalt mine
(Canada)
1904 First electric locomotive 1904 First Dorr classifier (US)
introduced (Britain) 1905 Mining commences at
1905 Electric winder intro- Bingham Canyon, UT
duced to England from —Soc. Econ. Geol. founded
Europe (US)
 HISTORY OF MINING 17
Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued)
Near East— Central and Northern
Period— Mediterranean— Europe
Stage Africa and Great Britain North and South America Australasia
—A. Einstein proposes rela-
tion between energy and
matter (US)
1907 E. L. Oliver introduces
1908 Oil discovered, Zagros 1908 H. Geiger and E. Ruth- continuous vacuum filter
Mts. (Iran) erford invent geiger (US)
counter (Britain) 1909 Ley Minera (Mexico)
1910 Synthetic cryolite pat- 1910 USBM founded
ented (France) —Mining commences at El
Teniente mine (Chile)
—Sudbury mine discovered
(Canada)
1911 Marion 250 stripping
1912–13 C. & M. Schlum- shovel introduced (US)
berger demonstrate use of —Breakup of Standard Oil
conductivity in locating ore
bodies (France) 1913 Henry Ford develops
1913 Schilowsky demon- conveyor assembly of
strates use of electromag- Model-T (US)
netic effect (Russia) 1915 Electric coal-cutting ma-
chine introduced by West-
inghouse Air Brake Co.
(US)
—Mining commences at Chu-
quicamata (Chile)
1916 Shrinkage stoping
evolves into block caving,
El Teniente mine (Chile)
1917 WAAIME founded (US)
—AAPG founded (US)
1920 Mineral Leasing Act
(US)
1923 LeTourneau introduces 1923 Mount Isa mine discov-
self-propelled scraper (US) ered (Australia)
Atomic 1925 First off-shore oil drilling 1925 Turbine drill introduced 1925 Codigo Saavedra (Bo-
Age in Caspian Sea (Baku) (Russia) livia)
1926 Ley de lndustras Miner-
alas (Mexico)
1928 C. & M. Schlumberger —Potash discovered (NM)
Uranium develop electrical logging 1929 Wall Street crash (US)
Age of formations (France) 1930 Thermal blasthole drill-
ing introduced at Mesabi
(MN)
—Potash fields in E. NM de-
veloped
—Ley Minera (Mexico)
1932 Eimco introduces
rocker shovel using com-
pressed air (US)
1933 Euclid produces its first
rubber-tired truck (US)
1936 Hydraulic coal mining 1936 Wilhelm Kroll produces
used successfully (Russia) pure ductile titanium (US) 1937 Mount Isa’s first divi-
1937 Jet engine first tested 1938 Nationalization of oil in dend (Australia)
(Britain) Mexico
1939 Beginning of World War 1939 Dart introduces
II electric-drive off-highway
truck (US)
1940 Continuous coal mining
1941 First electromechanical introduced in US 1941 Japan attacks Pearl
digital computer (Germany) 1942 Gold mining restricted Harbor
(US)
1945 Atomic bomb exploded 1945 Atomic bomb dropped
(NM) on Japan
1946 A. Brant and E. A. Gil-
bert patent IP method of
ore search (US)
18 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued)
Near East— Central and Northern
Period— Mediterranean— Europe
Stage Africa and Great Britain North and South America Australasia
—Cerro Bolivar iron deposit
discovered (Venezuela)
1946 First electric computer
1947 Marshall Plan for eco- (US)
1948 Birth of ARAMCo nomic reconstruction of 1948 Transistor invented
Europe (US)
(Atom 1950 Uranium production be- 1950 First nuclear power sta- 1950 Codigo Minera (Peru) 1950 Discovery of iron ore in
Power) gins at Witwatersrand (S. tion in Britain —General use of rock bolt W. Australia
Africa) support (US)
—ANFO used in surface
mining
1951 UNIVAC-1 installed at
US Bureau of Census
1952 Oxygen steel process 1952 Patent filed for solution
developed (Austria) mining of uranium (US)
—British computer LEO intro- —Nationalization of tin mines
duced (Bolivia)
1952 Paley Commission
Report
1953 First taconite concen-
tration and pelletizing plant
at Hoyte Lake (MN)
—J. S. Robbins & Assoc. in-
troduces tunneling machine
(US)
1955 Successful synthesis of 1955 AuslMM chartered
diamonds by General Elec- (Australia)
tric (US)
1957
1957 First space satellite 1957 AEC “Plowshare” pro-
1958 Bucket excavators in- launched (Russia) gram established (US)
stalled by N’Changa Cons. 1959 J. L. Mero’s thesis on
Space Copper Mines Ltd. “Economic Analysis of
Age (Zambia) Mining Deepsea Phos-
phate” (US)
1960 OPEC organized 1960 H. S. Hess & R. S.
Dietz propose ocean floor
spreading (US)
—Regular use of ANFO un-
derground at Stanrock Ura-
nium mine (US)
1961 Carlin gold discovered
(NV) 1966 China’s “Cultural Revo-
1968 220-yd walking dragline lution”
excavator built by
Bucyrus-Erie for coal strip-
ping (US)
—National Wilderness Pres-
ervation Act (US)
Age of 1970 National Environmental
Computers Policy Act (US)
—Mining and Mineral Policy
Act (US)
1971 US abandons gold
standard
1972 Clean Water Act (US)
—First LANDSAT spacecraft
launched by NASA for re-
mote sensing of earth re-
sources
1973 Arab oil embargo 1973 Endangered Species
Act (US) 1975 Lake Argyle diamonds
1976 Toxic Substance Con- discovered (Australia)
trol Act (US)
—Federal Land Policy and
Management Act (US)
 HISTORY OF MINING 19
Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued)
Near East— Central and Northern
Period— Mediterranean— Europe
Stage Africa and Great Britain North and South America Australasia
1977 Surface Mining and
Control Reclamation Act
(US)
1979 Three-Mile Island acci-
dent in nuclear power plant
(US)
1982 Commercial production
of electricity by solar en-
1986 Chernobyl nuclear reac- ergy (US)
tor disaster (Russia)

Sources: See references.

century, the Cornish and German miners supplied mining tech- separation was the second ore-concentration method to be devel-
nology throughout the world. oped in the 19th century.
The first comprehensive record of mining and metallurgical Chemically induced concentrating began with amalgamation
methods was published in 1556 in Agricola’s De Re Metallica, of gold on mercury-coated copper plates and dates back to the
which describes mining and metallurgical technology as it had 4th century BC. Solution extraction on a large scale probably
developed in the Ore Mountains of central and eastern Germany began with heap leaching and precipitation of copper at Rio
by the mid-16th century. Agricola’s work was disseminated Tinto, Spain, about AD 1752; solution of gold in cyanide solu-
wherever there were miners, and its compendium of recorded tions was known in Germany as early as 1805, but it was not
knowledge provided a strong foundation for a rapid advance of developed as an ore treatment technique until 1887. It was this
mining education and technological advancement. development that made the fine-grained gold of the Witwaters-
During Agricola’s time, ground was broken by hammer and rand an economic source of gold.
chisel (then and now the universal symbol for mining opera- Finally, the greatest breakthrough in the history of mineral
tions); fire setting was used in stoping rather than in driving, beneficiation occurred at the turn of the 19th century when
and then only when timber support was not required. Other nearly simultaneously in Britain, Australia, and Italy, the tech-
notable advances were the first use of drilling and blasting at nique of froth flotation evolved.
Schemnitz in 1727; the introduction of the pneumatic drill at The mineral industry in the 20th century has been character-
Rammelsberg in 1876; and the replacement in hoisting of “kib- ized by the recognition of economics of scale and development
bles” of wood bound with iron by hemp ropes first with wagons of technology for large-scale mining, bolstered by development
riding in cages hoisted by iron chains, then by wire rope in 1833 of mineral flotation and hydrometallurgical techniques.
at Clausthal, Germany. Illumination evolved from tallow or
oil-dip lamps used by the early Saxon miners, candles fixed in
clay on helmets, ladders, or on rock faces by l8th-century Cor- 1.1.2 THE MINER’S CONTRIBUTION TO SOCIETY
nish miners, to 20th-century illumination provided by acetylene
lamps and electric cap lights. The contribution of mining has played a bigger part in the
development of civilization than is usually conceded by the histo-
rian or recognized by the ordinary citizen. In fact, products of
1.1.1.3 Milling and Smelting the mineral industry pervade the lives of all members of our
The early miners and metallurgists were fortunate in having industrialized society.
rich oxidized ores near the surface from which they could achieve Early man relied upon wood, bone, stone, and ceramics to
adequate concentration by hand picking or simple washing. fashion tools, weapons, and utensils. Civilization was advanced
However, as grades declined and mineralogy became more com- by the discovery of abundant supplies of high-quality flint in
plex with mineral grains finely interlocked, hand breaking and northern France and in the chalk beds of southern England.
sorting were no longer possible. The most primitive mechanical Culture after culture occupied the sites around the Acheuleum
grinding device used throughout Asia and the Near East was the communities over a span of 200,000 years. Clay deposits supplied
Korean mill, a boulder rotating in a cupped stone. The arrastra, material for storage vessels as agriculture was introduced, and
dating back to the Roman Empire, consisted of “drag stones” the metallic residues from pigments in the potters’ kiln may have
pulled over a circular paved area; the Chilean mill was similar provided the first clue to these ancient peoples of the secrets
except circular stone wheels were used in place of drag stone. of extraction of metals through smelting. Likewise, salt was
Stamps came into use for primary crushing. All these devices recognized as essential in the human diet and, along with flint,
were largely replaced by jaw and cone crushers and rod and ball became a prime medium of exchange that dictated early trade
mills about the turn of the 19th century. routes. During the initial development, the use of metallic miner-
The oldest method of concentration was by washing with als was in the form of pigments, decorative beads, and native
water to remove light minerals and collect the heavy ones. This metals that could be shaped into simple objects by hammering.
was accomplished by hand panning, rockers, or sluices with Most discoveries of these useful minerals were made by acci-
riffles or by passing the materials over a special cloth, as was the dent along trade routes. However, Egypt, which was not well
case with the fleece used by Jason and his Argonauts. The jig was endowed with mineral resources, sent out expeditions exploring
the earliest mechanized gravity concentration device, developed for turquoise and gold as early as 4500 BC, resulting in an era
about AD 1830, followed by the shaking riffled table. Magnetic of warfare for the acquisition of metals. The Mycenaeans fol-
20 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
lowed by the Phoenicians broke this cycle of war and became miners by the various princes in the Germanic empire in 1209;
wealthy, exchanging minerals for goods. These traders/prospec- and the results of the inquisition ordered by Edward II of Eng-
tors sought deposits of silver, tin, lead, copper, and gold, acquir- land in 1288 to memorialize the ancient customs and practices
ing them by barter rather than by conquest. By 1200 BC they of the miners within his realm. Thus the right of ownership based
had sea trade routes throughout the Mediterranean world, ac- on discovery by a free miner became the foundation for mining
quiring lead and silver from Spain, copper from Cyprus, and tin laws carried by individual miners throughout Europe, then to
from Cornwall. the Americas, Australia, and South Africa.
By 100 BC trade routes between China and the West, primar- Discoveries lured hordes of prospectors and miners, followed
ily for silk and spices, were well established. The roads passed by farmers and merchants, eastward into Saxony and beyond to
through many countries and disseminated knowledge of “seric” become settlers and developers of the land. Expansion east of
iron (steel) and metallurgical technology to the known world. the Rhine into the rich metalliferous province of Saxony resulted
By 620, during the T’ang Dynasty, China had become the most in discovery and development of mines at Schemnitz, Kremnitz,
advanced society in the world culturally and technologically. and Rammelsberg, and marked an awakening of metal mining,
The fact that mining technology never fully developed in China the revival of industry and trade, and the end of the Dark Ages
can probably be attributed to Guatarma (563-483 BC), who in Europe. The metal from central Europe moved directly south
taught that “suffering is caused by the craving for that which to Venice and was largely responsible for the conversion of this
one has not,” resulting in governmental policies that alternately poverty-stricken village of the 9th century into the richest port
discouraged and encouraged mining. in southern Europe.
The discovery of copper on Cyprus c. 2700 BC resulted in The affluence created by this industry had ultimate conse-
the fabrication of tools, weapons, and household utensils made quences in the arts, as Emperor Frederick II, supported by the
of metal and turned the island into an important trading center. wealth of Rammelsberg, became a noted patron of literature and
Wealth poured into the island allowing for luxuries and artistic science and contributed substantially to the Renaissance.
and religious development. As mining extended underground, the free miner found that
Work in the mines by the Greeks and Romans was first he could do little by himself, so he formed a partnership. As the
done by slaves, either prisoners of war, criminals, or political operation grew, other men were required, and self-governing
prisoners. Easily exploitable deposits were eventually exhausted associations were born whose ownership and financial stake were
and mine economics demanded mining skills. As a result, begin- supported by contributions memorialized in a “cost-book.” The
ning with the reign of Hadrian (AD 138), the Roman Empire cost-book association formed the model for company organiza-
began to recognize a degree of individual ownership and permit- tion before the practice of issuing stock as evidence of proprietor-
ted mining by freedmen in increasing numbers. There was grad- ship. In the 13th century, the German cost-book association
ual improvement of mining technology through the Roman Em- usually consisted of 16 able-bodied men. As the scale of operation
pire that accompanied replacement of slaves by skilled artisans, increased, it was necessary to add additional participating shares,
though villeinage was still practiced. and Agricola notes in his time that the number of shares at
One legacy largely the result of Phoenician trading was to Achneeberg was 128, of which 126 were private owners in the
create a system whereby power and prosperity could thereafter mine, one to the state, and one to the church.
be measured in terms of actual, exchangeable wealth. In this Initially, production was divided among the shareholders,
capacity, gold and silver throughout history have been univer- but as treatment and marketing became more complex, the sale
sally accepted coinage. Thus debasement of the Roman denarius became centralized. When a profit was made, it was divided
resulted in its loss of creditability as the standard of exchange, among the “adventurers,” but when losses were experienced the
contributing to the fall of the Roman Empire, and by the end of adventurers were required to contribute in proportion to their
the 6th century, the Latin West reverted to an agrarian economy holdings or risk loss of their ownership. Rarely was any money
and abandoned coinage and trade. The center of culture and set aside as a reserve, and consequently, a decline in metal prices
technology shifted to the Byzantine and Islamic empires. or grade generally resulted in mine closure.
Charlemagne (768-814) recognized the need for metals and Growing demands for capital forced a search for outside
began the mining of lead, silver, and gold at Rothansberg, Krem- capital, and gradually operators lost control to investors. The
nitz, and Schemnitz by enslaved captives. Charlemagne also re- miners became contract workers. Guilds, originally organized
formed the coinage of his Holy Roman Empire, and these actions by miners for charity and insurance, assumed objectives of indus-
set in motion the establishment of new mints during the 10th trial aggression.
century in Eichstadt (908), Cologne (960), Hildesheim (977), When public financing in Britain was made possible through
and Saxony (990), creating new and geographically dispersed the enactment of the Limited Liabilities Acts of 1855-1862 and
demand for metals. Thus as Charlemagne’s Empire gave way to repeal of the Bubble Act that had limited stockholders to eight,
more local kingdoms, a demand for precious metals had been British capitalists came to the forefront in financing mineral
created that aroused the spirit of enterprise and awakened inter- development worldwide. Goldsmiths assumed a banking func-
est in the development and use of metals; Europe saw a birth (or tion and issued printed receipts (or notes) payable to any
rebirth) of the traditions originally carried by the Celts of no- bearer—the forerunner of present paper currency.
madic mining expertise. This rebirth was characterized as “berg- During the 18th century, iron metallurgy made great strides
baufreiheit,” or the rights of the free miner, whereby the poorest and made possible the Industrial Revolution in Britain. Village
villein could become his own master merely by marking his craftsmen evolved into the factory system and the “Friendly
own mining claim and registering its boundaries after making a Societies” legally took on the function of the trade unions after
discovery— subject to a tribute or royalty paid to the royal land 1825.
owner. The miner thus ceased to be a serf and became a free An industrial revolution is a period during which the econ-
man. The evidence of the foundation of this concept of self- omy of an underdeveloped country is transformed into an indus-
initiation of rights to develop mineral ground includes a treaty trial economy, stimulated by availability of energy sources and
initiated by the Bishop of Trent in 1185, where miners were metal resources. This change took place in Britain during the
invited to explore and mine that region of northern Italy as free 18th and early 19th centuries and spread to France, the United
men with rights of discovery; the charter of rights granted to States, Germany, Japan, Russia, Sweden, Canada, Taiwan, and
 HISTORY OF MINING 21
Korea in approximately that order. The developing technology The depression years of the 1930s resulted in economic na-
was accompanied by a revolution in science and engineering, tionalism and protective tariffs, and many markets were effec-
with empirical contributions from alert and observant workmen. tively closed. Since Germany and Japan were both dependent
The machine age introduced by the Industrial Revolution of upon international trade, their standard of living plunged, and
the late eighteenth century also required minerals as raw materi- hunger, bitterness, and resentment flared. The Nazis came to
als and as a source of energy. Industrial power thus became a power in Germany with promises of work, food, and prestige;
measure of political and military power, and exploration for the rearmament began in 1933, and Japan followed suit shortly
acquisition of minerals resources extended to nearly all parts of thereafter, leading the world into World War II (Lovering,
the world. Nations’ economies became interdependent. In an 1943).
attempt to control the large-scale international flow of mineral The world’s mineral resources since the latter part of the
resources, various commercial and political measures have been 19th century have been primarily developed by Britain, the
tried: monopolies, cartels, tariffs, subsidies, and quotas to name United States, the Soviet Union, Japan, West Germany, and
a few. The final result was that political and commercial control France. These countries have furnished the necessary science,
over mineral resources and their distribution played a leading technology, and capital and have supplied the markets.
role in both the maintenance and destruction of world peace Local mineral wealth throughout history and social develop-
(Leith et al., 1943). ment has made first one nation rich and powerful, then another.
No mention of coal mining appears in the historical record The Phoenicians established worldwide trade and gained great
of the West until late in the thirteenth century. Early references wealth by developing and exchanging minerals for all manner of
are either to “quarries” or “drift” material. Development of coal goods. Athens financed its ancient wars and “Golden Age” with
mines in Britain, Europe, and the United States supplied energy silver from Laurium, Alexander funded his early conquests with
that powered the industrial revolutions. gold from Macedon, the Romans expanded their Empire to
The structure of the coal industry traditionally was one of acquire the silver of Carthage and the copper of Spain, and the
many small, low-capital, independent operators who supplied Catholic crown of Spain became a world power by the exploita-
the retail and industrial markets, and a certain percentage of tion of gold and silver from the New World. During the Middle
captive mines that supplied railroads, steel and electrical power Ages, Germany became the center of lead, zinc, and silver pro-
requirements— all operating within their national boundaries. duction and the leader in mining technology. Britain moved
Depressed coal prices resulting from competition from oil and into the forefront during the Industrial Revolution of the 19th
gas forced reorganization of the industry through aggregation century and was successively the world’s leading producer of tin,
by mergers and acquisition of small operations, mechanization, copper, lead, and then coal. Her resources were bolstered by
and a move to surface mining operations by larger companies those of a vast empire, and she became the wealthiest nation in
able to afford this capital-intensive approach. This first occurred the world. The greater resources of the United States subse-
in the United States during the late 1950s and early 1960s, and quently supported its advance to become the richest nation;
internationally during the late 1960s and 1970s as coal markets however, the future is already foreshadowed. Most of the Greek,
were likewise expanded. German, and British high-grade mines are exhausted, and the
The petroleum industry not only shared in the technological United States is fast becoming dependent upon imports and
developments, but along with coal was in a large part responsible preservation of peaceful world trade. Near East countries have
for supplying abundant, cheap, and flexible energy and chemical experienced a rapid rise to great wealth based upon petroleum
raw materials. It created demand as well as responding to resources. This has been important in technological develop-
demand. ments, but historically is of short duration. New discoveries of
The story of aluminum is one of human ingenuity in the high-grade metal deposits are very likely in the Soviet Union and
creation of a new metal, a new way of life, and a spate of new in China but less likely in the United States.
industries and technologies, as well as combined chemical, tech-
nological, and geological cooperation and discovery. Aluminum 1.1.2.2 Future Contributions of the Minerals
was not isolated as a metal until 1825 and has been in commercial
production for only 100 years. Its discovery was made possible Industry
through development of the dynamo by Faraday and Edison. With few exceptions, no nation can achieve a high level of
Uranium, consistent with the history of copper and iron, was prosperity without a reliable source of minerals to supply its
first used as a weapon. Its technology began in 1896 as a curious manufacturing industry. Through mining, emergent (Third-
clouding of a photographic plate and evolved into a weapon, less World) countries can finance growth progressively by the export
than a half century later, of horrible destructive dimensions, first of raw mineral resources, then by processing these raw materials
witnessed on the New Mexico desert in 1945 with the man-made prior to export, and finally by achieving progressive industrial
thunder and lightning that was the atomic bomb. development (Fig. 1.1.1).
Finally, fascination for gold has lured explorers, invaders, Mineral reserves, upon which the future of the human race
investors, settlers, and “con men” to all parts of the world. It depends, occupy less than 0.1% of the continental areas. Unfor-
has served, and continues to serve, as an international medium tunately, we are not at present sufficiently skilled to determine
of exchange and a measure of a nation’s wealth and financial exactly where they occur or how large they may be. They remain
stability. elusive targets.
Research in mining and metallurgical technology is essential.
1.1.2.1 Minerals and National Policy A new discovery may locate a mine, but a technological break-
through can open up mines all around the world.
With the final peace settlement after World War I, Germany The economic evolution of society that began in Neolithic
lost 68% of its territory, all of its gold, silver, and mercury prehistory was based then, as it is now, on minerals, and has led
deposits, 80% of its coal mines and iron-producing capacity, and man into modern times. The 104 elements of the periodic table,
entered into a period of depression and starvation. The German all but a few of which are recovered from widely spaced, often
economy managed to recover with imported ores and a high remote, mineral deposits using a variety of complex mining and
degree of technical skill and efficient labor. metallurgical techniques, form the foundation of modern society.
 Fig. 1.1.1. Stages of mineral and metal production of an industrial country. (Modified from Lovering, 1943, p. 18.)

Fig. 1.1.2. The role of fuel and nonfuel minerals in the US economy (estimated values for 1990). (Modified from annual publications of the US
Bureau of Mines.)

They provide its heat, light, shelter, transportation, communica- present state without them (Tables 1.1.2 and 1.1.3 and Fig.
tion, and food. The standards of living of the industrialized 1.1.2).
nations—which developing nations are striving to attain—are Mineral deposits within the border of any country represent
based upon minerals, and societies could not continue in their potential national wealth: they can be transformed into actual
 HISTORY OF MINING 23
Table 1.1.2. Per Capita Consumption of Minerals in the levels by in-service training, attraction of overseas investment
United States (1970) capital, and creation of national wealth (Gregory, 1980).
Commodity Quantity Major Uses
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Steel 1400 lb Transportation
Aluminium 44 lb Kitchenware, buildings Anon., 1979, “History of Mining and Minerals,” John Myers Marketing,
Copper 20 lb Electrical appliances Engineering and Mining Journal, NY, 1 p.
Tin 1 lb Cans Agricola, G., 1556, De Re Metallica, H.C. and L.H. Hoover translation,
Petroleum 3.4 tons Transport, heating, industrial 1912, The Mining Magazine, London, 638 pp.
Natural gas 2.5 tons Heating, industrial Brandon, S.G.F., ed., 1971, Milestones of History, Norton, NY, 396 pp.
Coal 2.3 tons Electricity generation, steel pro- Collins, W.F., 1918, Mineral Enterprises in China, Heinemann, London,
duction 308 pp.
Salt 440 lb Chemicals Derry, T.K. and Williams, T.I., 1961, A Short History of Technology,
Sulfur 70 lb Fertilizer Oxford, New York, 782 pp.
Sand and gravel 4 tons Roads, buildings Dorr, A., 1987, Minerals—Foundations of Society, 2nd ed., American
Geological Institute, Alexandria, VA, 96 pp.
Modified from McDivitt and Manners. Fitzgerald, C.P., 1966, A Concise History of East Asia, Heinemann, Mel-
Conversion units: 1 lb = 0.4536 kg bourne.
1 ton = 0.9072 t Flawn, P.T., 1966, Mineral Resources: Geology, Engineering, Economics,
Politics, Law, Rand McNally, New York.
Gregory, C.E., 1980, A Concise History of Mining, Pergamon, Oxford,
259 pp.
Knox, B.E., Griffiths, J.C., and Matson, F.R., 1986, A Study Guide to:
Table 1.1.3. Source of Power (1987). United States Out of the Fiery Furnace, Penn State University Press, University
Utility Companies Generated 2.5 Trillion Kw-Hr of Park, PA, 124 pp.
electricity in 1987 Leith, C.K., Furness, J.W., and Lewis, C., 1943, World Minerals and
kWh in World Peace, Brookings Inst., Washington, DC, 253 pp.
Source of Power Billions Lovering, T.S., 1943, Minerals in World Affairs, Prentice Hall, NY, 394
pp.
Coal 1464 Madigan, R.T., 1 9 8 1 , Of Minerals and Man, Australasian Institute of
Nuclear power 455 Mining and Metallurgy, Parkville, Victoria, 138 pp.
Natural gas 273 Morrison, T.A., 1976, “Some Historical Notes on Mining in the Harz
Hydroelectric 250 Mountains, Germany,” Transactions, Institution of Mining and
Petroleum 118 Metallurgy, Vol. 85, pp. A5l-56.
Geothermal, others 12 Parker, G., ed., 1986, The World: An Illustrated History, Harper and
Row, NY, 480 pp.
Source: Energy Information Administration, U.S.A. Today. Poss, J.R., 1975, Stones of Destiny, Michigan Tech. Press, Houghton,
MI.
Raymond, R., 1984, Out of the Fiery Furnace, Macmillan, Melbourne,
274 pp.
Rickard, T.A., 1932, Man and Metals, Vols. 1 and 2, McGraw-Hill,
material wealth (and contribute to the gross national product) New York, 1068 pp.
Singer, C., Holmyard, E.J., Hall, A.R., and Williams, T.I., 1954-1978,
only by being mined. Among the benefits to the state are an A History of Technology, Vols. l-6, Clarenden, Oxford, 5541 pp.
increase in employment levels (one mining job carries approxi- Viljoen, D.A., 1979, “Minerals from the Dawn of Mankind to the Twen-
mately a 5:1 multiplier effect), an enhanced level of self-suffi- ty-First Century,” Journal South African Institute Mining and Met-
ciency, and improved balance of trade. The latter results from allurgy, Sep., pp. 410-420.
fewer imports and greater exports of commodities mined, a spir- Williams, T.I., 1982, A Short History of Twentieth Century Technology,
ited search for more minerals, a build-up of technical manpower Clarenden, Oxford, 411 pp.