CHEMICAL PROCESSING OF

TEXTILES - II

B.TECH (T. Y) - MMTT

UNIT 1: ELEMENTS OF DYEING
Definition & Principles of dyeing, Classification of dyes based on the
method of application, dye fibre interactions and concepts like
exhaustion, expression, percentage shade , affinity and substantivity.

UNIT 2: DYEING OF NATURAL FIBRES

Dyeing of cellulosic fibres with direct, vat, reactive and sulphur dyes,
Principle steps involved in dyeing, Dyeing of silk and wool with acid
and basic dyes. Factors affecting the dyeing process.

UNIT 3: DYEING OF SYNTHETIC FIBRE & BLENDS

Dyeing of Polyester and its blends like polyester-cotton, polyester-
viscose, polyester-wool, Dyeing of acrylic and nylon. Importance of
fastness, Evaluation of fastness properties like wash fastness, rubbing
fastness and light fastness.
UNIT 4: PRINTING
Concept of printing. Various ingredients used in preparation of printing
paste. Various styles of printing such as Direct, Resist and Discharge by
using direct, reactive and disperse dyes. Printing with pigments.
Concept of inkjet / digital printing.

UNIT 5: FINISHING
Objects of finishing, classification of finishes. Resin finishing,
mechanism of resin finishing. Heat setting and weight reduction of
polyester material. Concept of specialty finishes like soil release, water
repellent and flame retardant finishes.

UNIT 6: MACHINERY
Introduction to package dyeing machine. Jigger dyeing machines,
winch dyeing machine, padding mangles, jet dyeing and soft flow
dyeing machines. Introduction to various methods of printing such as
table, flat bed and rotary screen printing. Study of stenter, calendars and
sanforiser. .
 BASIC TERMINOLOGY
AFFINITY

Attraction between the dye and the fibre.

It is quantitative expressing of substantivity.
Generally, more substantivity dyes have low affinity
characteristic, it is due strike or rush of dye molecule.
 SUBSTANTIVITY
Tendency of a dye to move from a solution out of fibers in the
dye solution.
Without substantivity, most of dyes would simply remain in
solution or dispersion in the bath.
The substantivity of dyes depend upon,

 Molecular structure (shape)

Size of molecule dye
Dye bath conditions
 BASIC TERMINOLOGY
EXHAUSTION
 Transfer of dyestuff from the dye bath to the fiber or material is
known as exhaustion.

 % of Exhaustion: initial conc. – final conc.

---------------------------------
initial conc.
 Primary exhaustion is the phase where dye moves toward the
substrate from the solution under neutral conditions in the
presence of electrolyte.
 Secondary exhaustion is typical movement of dye molecule after
addition of suitable alkali for the completion of the dye fiber
bonding.
 BASIC TERMINOLOGY
• ADSORPTION

 Distribution of the dye stuff on to the surface of the fiber is known as

adsorption.
Dyes molecules from solution are taken up by certain textile substrates
which have porous surface.
 Adsorption is depend on Concentration
 Temperature
 Dye nature
 Pressure
 Surface area
 BASIC TERMINOLOGY
• ABSORPTION

 Penetration of dye stuff from fibre surface to fibre core.

The some factor are mentioned below which affects the rate of
absorption,
 Time
 Temperature.
 Alkalis
 Electrolytes
 Dyeing Auxiliaries
 Liquor ratio
Adsorption Absorption Diffusion
 DIRECT DYES
INTRODUCTION:
• Also called as Substantive Dyes.
• Good affinity towards Cotton, Viscose & Wool.

PROPERTIES:
 Water soluble dyes.

 Sodium salt of Sulphonic Acids.

 Poor washing fastness, Light fastness.

 After treatment need to be improve wet fastness.

 CLASSIFICATION
1. Self Leveling Dyes
2. Salt Controllable Dyes
3. Temperature Controllable Dyes
 MECHANISM OF DYEING
1. Fibre get swelling in water.

H2O

2. Adsorption of the dye at fibre surface.

3. Diffusion into the fibre core
 Parameter affecting Dyeing
1. Effect of Electrolyte: Zeta Potential

-
-
-
Fiber Surface

-
-
-
-

Dye molecule NaCl → Na+ Cl-

Salt
2. Effect of Temperature:
• Rate of dyeing ↑ when temperature ↑.
 Application Procedure

• Preparation of dye bath

• Recipe:
Dye –X%
Soda ash – 0.5%
Salt – 5-20%
Temperature – room to 70°C
Time - 45-60 min
 REACTIVE DYES

Stephen & Rottee

• Properties:
1. Sulphonic acid groups
2. Soluble in water
3. Less substantive , need salt
4. Make covalent bond to fibre
5. cold brand & hot brand dyes
6. Small molecule size – clarity & brightness, easy penetration
7. Maintain alkaline condition for fixation
8. By continuous, semi-continuous & batch process
 Classification of Reactive dyes
1. Alkali controllable dyes
2. Salt controllable dyes
3. Temperature controllable dyes
 Cold brand Reactive Dyes
• Exhaustion step
• Fixation step
• Washing off step

D-R-Cl + HO-Cell D-R-O-Cell + HCl

dye fibre bond

D-R- Cl + HO-H D-R-OH + HCl

Hydrolyzed dye
load the fabric

Add dyes (15 min dose time)

Salt dose ( 1st part, 5 min)

Salt dose ( 2nd part, 5 min)

15 – 20 min
Soda dose ( 1st part)
10 min
Soda dose (2nd part)
10 min
Continue dyeing for 30 – 45 min

Drain Washing off Unload fabric

 Dyeing Procedure

• Preparation of dye solution ( M – brand)

• Dyeing
• Washing off

% of shade Salt (gpl) Soda ash (gpl )& MLR

1:5 1:10 1:20 1:30
Upto 0.5% 30 5 5 3 2
0.5% to 2% 40 10 5 4 2
2 to 4% 50 15 10 8 4
Above 4% 60 20 15 10 5
 Hot brand ( H- brand) reactive dyes

salt 2 Alkali 1 Alkali 2

salt 1 80 ° C 15 min 5 min 45 – 60 min

wash off

Fabric 5 min Dyes 10 min 30 min

40 ° C
% of shade Salt in gpl Soda ash in gpl
Upto 0.5 % 30 10
0.5 – 1 % 45 15
1–2% 60 15
2–4% 70 20
Above 4 % 90 20
 VAT DYES
PROPERTIES:
• The oldest dyes from natural derivatives.
• Insoluble in water.
• Insoluble form soluble form ( leuco state) .
• Excellent fastness properties.
• Very expensive.
• Available in powder form, micro fine, ultra disperse, high
concentrated, etc.
 CLASSIFICATION

• By chemical structure
1. Anthraquinonoid vat dyes
2. Indigoid vat dyes
3. Sulphurised vat dyes
• By application method
1. Ease of dissolution
2. Ease of re-oxidation
3. Affinity in Leuco state
4. Rate of dyeing
5. Dye uptake
6. Requirement of electrolyte
 GROUP OF VAT DYES
• IK
• IW
• IN
• IN-Special

Group Vatting temp Dyeing temp Caustic Soda (gpl) Hydros (gpl) Salt (gpl)

IK 50 Room Temp 1-3 1-5 6-50

IW 50 40-50 1-5 1-6 3-25
IN 50-60 50-60 1.5-10 1-10 None
IN - Spl Dyes required special conditions
 DYEING PROCEDURE
1. Vatting
• Reduction of insoluble vat dye into weakly-acedic leuco form
• Neutralising with NaOH to give water soluble form (Leuco – Vat)
2. Dyeing
• Hydros – vat yellow paper turns blue
• Alkali – phonolphthalein paper turns from white to pink colour.
3. Oxidation
• Air oxidation
• Chemical oxidation
4. After – treatment
 DYEING PROCEDURE
• OXIDATION
• RECIPE • CHEMICAL OXIDATION:
• Vat dye :X% Peroxide – 2 gpl
Temp 50-60 º C
• Hydros : 2 X% • AIR OXIDATION:
• Caustic :1X% Open atmosphere air.
• temp : 50-60 º C • SOAPING
Soap – 2 gpl
Temp - 50-60 º C
Time – 20 min
• A - Fabric loading
• B - Dyes + Chemicals
• C - Draining
• D - Oxidation chemical
• E - Draining
• F - Soaping
PAD – BATCH PROCESS
PAD – DRY – PAD – STEAM METHOD
FASTNESS PROPERTIES
 SULPHUR DYES
• PROPERTIES:
1. Insoluble in water.
2. It is a good soluble in Na2S.
3. Amino group or Nitro group.
4. It has a good exhaustion.
5. Similar to Vat dyes.
6. Mainly used for cellulosic material.
7. They give good to Moderate light fastness.
8. Good wet fastness at Low cost and rapid processing.
9. Black is the most important shade, followed by blues, olives, and
browns
 CLASSIFICATION

1. Leuco sulphur dyes

2. Solubilized sulphur dyes
3. Conventional water soluble sulphur dyes
 DYEING
• PREPARATION OF DYE BATH:
Dyes pasted with Soda ash & Sodium Sulphide.
Soda ash – equal amount of dye.
Sodium sulphide
Dyeing Recipe:
Yellow – 1.5 times of wt of dyes
Dyes – 5-25%
Brown - 0.5 times of wt of dyes Soda ash – 5- 25%
Red – 0.75 times of wt of dyes Sodium Sulphide – 2.5- 50%
Dyeing NaCl – 20-50%
Oxidation Temp – boil
After treatment
Oxidation Recipe:
Sodium perborate – 5-25%
Temp – boil
Time - 30- 60 MIN
 BENEFITS

• Economical dyes for dark shades.

• Very good perspiration and wet fastness for black shades.
 DISPERSE DYES

• PROPERTIES
1. Insoluble in water. Solubility increases with increase temperature.
2. Particle sizes range from 0.5 – 1 µm.
3. Low molecule wt.
4. Light fastness : 4-5.
5. Wash fastness: 3-4.
6. Sublimation – transfer printing.
7. Available in power, liquid and micro-dispersed granules.
 CLASSIFICATION
• Excellent covering power - poor sublimation fastness

• Good covering power - moderate sublimation fastness

• Moderate covering power - good sublimation fastness

• Little covering power - excellent sublimation fastness

 THEORY OF DYEING

• STEP 1

• STEP 2

• STEP 3
 AUXILLIARIES
• Dispersing Agents:
i. Reducing the particle size of the dye.
ii. Increase solubility.
iii. Avoid agglomeration
• Levelling Agents:
i. Non-ionic levelling agents retard the rate of dyeing
ii. Carrier type used for HTHP
iii. Avoid the oligomers deposition.
• Anti-foam Agent
• Wetting Agent
• pH buffers
METHOD OF DYEING
PET SEM IMAGE
DYEING PRINCIPLE
 PRINCIPLE OF DYEING
• Thermosol Principle
i. Polymer chains are closely packed by make strong bonds each
other.
ii. Dye molecules can penetrate only when available of free space.
iii. Temperature – polymeric chain moving – create space

• Swelling Principle
1. Carriers – swelling the fibre – penetrate the dyes
 PRINCIPLE OF DYEING

• CARRER METHOD:

• Acts as swelling agents.

• Increase the polymeric chain moments.

i. O-phenylphenol
ii. P-phenylphenol
iii. Dichlorobenzene
iv. Trichlorobenzene
 SELECTION OF CARRIER
• Efficiency
• Low cast
• Non-toxicity
• No degradation of fibre & colour
• Compatibility
• Non volatile in steam
• Uniform absorption
 DYEING BY CARRIER METHOD
• RECIPE:
• Disperse dye -X% • REDUCTION CLEARING:
• Anionic wetting agent – 0.5% • Caustic soda - 1 gpl
• Dispersing agent - 0.5% • Hydrose – 1 gpl
• Carrier - Y% • Temperature - 60 º C
• Temperature - 90 - 100 º C
• Acetic acid - to get pH 5.5-6
• Advantages:
i. Dyeing carried out at atmospheric pressure.
ii. Dye penetration is good.
iii. No special equipment i.e HTHP machine.
iv. Act as levelling agents.

• Disadvantages :
1. High cost.
2. Lengthy dyeing process.
3. Complete removal is difficult.
4. Some carriers are toxic.
JIGGER MACHINE
 HTHP DYEING
• RECIPE:
• Disperse dye -X%
• Dispersing agent - 0.5%
• Acetic acid - to get pH 5.5-6
• Temp - 120 – 150° C
 HTHP DYEING
• Pressure Jigger
• Pressure winch
• Package dyeing machine
• Beam dyeing machine
 THERMOSOL PROCESS
• Continuous process.
• Du-Pont company.
• No carrier required.
• Excellent dye utilization (75-90%).
• High uniform shade achieved.
• Recipe:
i. Dye - X%
ii. Thickner - 0.2 – 0.5 %
iii. Wetting agent- 0.2 %
iv. Acetic acid - pH to get 5.5 – 6.0
 P/C BLEND DYEING
• Exhaust process
i. One bath dyeing method
ii. Two bath dyeing method

• Thermosol process
i. Continuous process
ii. Pad-batch-process
 ONE BATH PROCESS
All Vat dyes group can be used (IK group can’t be use).

• Dyeing Recipe:
• Disperse dye – X % Oxidation Recipe:
• Vat Dye - Y %
H2O2 – 1 gpl
pH - 8-9
• Dispersing agent – 1 %
Temperature - 50° C
• Wetting -1%
Time - 15 – 20 min
• pH - 4-5
ONE BATH PROCESS
 ONE BATH TWO STEP PROCESS
• Disperse + Vat dye
• Disperse + Reactive dye
• Disperse + Direct dye
• RECIPE FOR PET:
Disperse dye - X % RECIPE FOR Cotton:
Dispersing agent – 1 % Reactive Dye -X%
Wetting agent - 0.5% Wetting agent - 1 gpl
Levelling agent - 0.5 – 1%
NaCl - 60 gpl
Soda ash - 20 gpl
pH - 4.5 to 5.5
Levelling agent - 1 gpl
ONE BATH TWO STEP PROCESS
 DYEING OF SILK

• Silk being a natural polyamide or polypeptide fibre.

• Very fine fibrillar structure and high orientation of fibre
molecules.
• Easier to dye and is less sensitive to temperature.
• Slightly cationic character.
• Acid dyes are more suitable for silk and wool.
 ACID DYES
• Water soluble dyes.
• Anionic nature.
• Most suitable for Silk, Wool & Nylon fibres.
• Suitable for brilliant shades.
• 3 types of classification:
1.Level dyeing acid dyes.
2.Milling acid dyes.
3.Pre-metalized dyes.
 Making up Acid Dye Solutions

• Make 1% dye solution.

• Recipe:
• Acid dye - X%
• Levelling agent - 1-2 %
• Acetic acid - 0.5 – 1%
• Temperature - 80-90 ºC
• Time - 45 – 60 min
 BASIC DYES
• Known as cationic dyes.
• Soluble in water.
• They form a colored cationic salt, which can react with the anionic sites
on the surface of the substrate.
• Suitable for Wool, Silk and cationic dye able Acrylic fibre.
• Basic dyes produce bright shades with high tinctorial values.
• Moderate substantivity.
• Poor levelling properties.
• Relatively economical cost.
Limitations of Basic Dyes
 Poor shade stability
 High acid content
 Coloured backwaters
 Very poor lightfastness
 Preferential dyeing
• RECIPE:
• Dye -X%
• Acetic acid - 0.5 - 1 %
• Levelling agent -1–2%
• Temperature - 80 – 90 ºC
• Time - 45 – 60 min
 COLOUR FASTNESS

• That means characterizes a material's color's resistance to fading or

running.
• Importance of color fastness:
1) To determine product performance and evaluation.
2) It is a identity for fabric.
3) If fastness is good then fabric quality high and if poor fastness
property then fabric quality is bad.
 Different Types of Color Fastness

• Color Fastness to Washing

• Color Fastness to light
• Color Fastness to Rubbing
• Color Fastness to perspiration
• Color Fastness to Water
• Color fastness to sea water
• Color fastness to hot pressing
• Color fastness to chlorinated water
 COLOR FASTNESS TO WASHING
• A specimen of the textile to be tested, with the
adjacent fabric attached is subjected to washing
under specified conditions.
• To extent of any change in color and that of the
staining of the adjacent fabric are assessed and the
rating is expressed in fastness numbers.
• Rating: 1 to 5.
• 1 - very poor
• 5 - excellent
• There are two types of adjacent fabrics: single fiber
fabric and multiple fiber fabric.
• Depends on buyer requirements.
COLOR FASTNESS TO WASHING
 Fastness to Washing
• In the test, change in color of the textile and also staining of color on the
adjacent fabric are assessed.
• A 10 x 4 cm swatch of the coloured fabric is taken and is sandwiched
between two adjacent fabric and stitched.
• The sample and the adjacent fabric are washed together.
• Five different types of washing are specified as different washing methods.

S.NO METHOD WASHING TYPE SOAP + TIME TEMP NO OF

SOAD (gpl) STEEL
BALLS
1 Very mild like hand 5 30 min 40 NIL
IS:687:79
wash
2 5 times severe than 5 45 min 50 NIL
IS:3361:79
method 1
3 Mild washing 5+ 2 30 min 60 NIL
IS:764:79
4 IS:765:79 Severe washing 5+ 2 30 Min 95 10

5 Severe washing 5+ 2 4 hrs 95 10

IS:3417:79
 ASSESMANT
• The solution for washing should be prepared to the required
temperature of washing.
• The liquor material ratio is 1:50.
• After soaping treatment, remove the specimen, rinse twice in cold
water and then in running cold water under a tap.
• Squeeze it and air dry at a temperature not exceeding 60°C.
• The change in color and staining is evaluated with the help of grey
scales.
Grey Scale
 COLOR FASTNESS TO LIGHT
• Resistance to Light energy.
• Sun light spectrum consists of Gamma to Radio waves.
• Particularly UV rays are having high energy which accelerates the fading
of dye.
• UV rays can be divided into UV-A, UV-B and UV-C.
• MECHANISM OF FADING:
• Photolysis
• Photo oxidation
• Photo reduction
• Principle of Color Fastness to Light:
• Xenon arc lamp
• The test sample is exposed to light for a certain time which is about 24
hours to 72 hours
• Compare the change with original unexposed sample the changes are
assessed by Blue Scales.
ISO 105 B 02
BS EN 4892-2
ISO 12040.
 COLOR FASTNESS TO RUBBING
• Resistance to any crack or rubbing.
• ISO-105-X12
• AATCC-08
• Wet Rubbing
• Dry Rubbing

Rubbing Method Light Shade Medium Shade Dark Shade

Wet 3.5 - 4 3 2.5 - 3

Dry 4-5 4 3-4

 PRINTING

• Definition: Localized dyeing

• Applied in paste form.
• This is only surface attraction.
• The fixation of the colour in printing brought by suitable after
treatments.
• Washing fastness & rubbing fastness
 PRINTING PASTE INGREDIATNS
• Dyes & Pigments
• Thickeners
• Binders
• Solvents
• Hygroscopic agents
• Wetting agents
• Oxidizing agents
• Reducing agents
• Catalysts
• Defoaming agents
• Carriers
• Dyes & Pigments:
• Colour bearing groups.
Dyes – power form
Pigments – emulsion form
• Thickeners
• Used for make viscous solution.
• Reduce viscosity
• Prevent spreading of dyes or pigments.
• Eg- CMC, Starches, Gums, Sodium alginate.
• Binders
• Used for to bind with dyes on fabric surface.
• Form transparent film above design, so prevent damage of
design.
• Eg- PVA, Acrylic
• Solvents:
• Used for easy dissolving.
• Prevent agglomeration or precipitation.
• Eg- Ethylene Glycol, Diethylene Glycol, TRO.
• Hygroscopic agents
• Used for fixation of dyes at curing temperature.
• At high temperature it liberate water molecules.
• Eg- Urea, Glycerine
• Wetting agents
• Used for easy dissolution .
• Mainly used for water insoluble dyes.
• Eg- TRO
• Oxidizing agents
• Used for developing colour incase of Vat dyes, Sulpher dyes.
• Eg- Cholorates, Nitrates, Nitrites.
• Reducing agents
• Mainly used for discharge printing.
• Eg – Rangalite C, Hydrose.
• Catalysts
• Supporting agents for oxidizing agent or Reducing agents.
• It helps to increase colour developing process.
• Eg – copper sulphide, potassium ferrocyanide.
• Defoaming agents
• Avoid foam generation.
• Eg- emulsified pine oil, silicone oil
 STYLES OF PRINTING

• Direct Style
• Discharge Style
• Resist Style